prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What organization does Sandra Pizzarello and Doctorate have in common?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
John C  Sigler
John C  Sigler  (born 1945) is an American lawyer, gun rights activist, former chair of the Republican State Committee of Delaware and former president of the National Rifle Association (NRA) 
Sigler graduated from Milford High School in 1964 and attended Appalachian State Teacher's College  He earned a bachelors degree in criminal justice administration from Wilmington College in 1981, a Master of Business Administration from Central Michigan University, and a Juris Doctor from Widener University School of Law in 1987  He served in the United States Navy from 1967 to 1971 on the USS George Bancroft (SSBN-643) and USS Hardhead (SS-365), and worked for the police department in Dover, Delaware from 1972 to 1991  He retired as a captain and subsequently worked as a lawyer 
Sigler joined the NRA in 1970 and was elected to the board of directors in 1996  He was named president at the 2007 annual meeting in St  Louis, succeeding Sandra Froman to become the 59th president of the organization  He served two terms and was succeeded by Ron Schmeits in 2009 
In 2013, Sigler abruptly resigned as chair of the Delaware Republican Party 
Passage 2:
Jubilee doctor
A jubilee doctor (Swedish: jubeldoktor, Finnish: riemutohtori, Latin: doctor jubilaris) or golden doctor (German: Goldene Doktor) is in some countries a person who has held a doctorate for 50 years or more  When 50 years have passed, the doctor is invited again by his or her university to the ceremony where the doctorates are conferred and is made jubilee/golden doctor and celebrated as a guest of honour  This custom is common in Germany, Sweden and Finland  In Germany, this ceremony is referred to as the "Golden Promotion" (Goldene Promotion)  In Sweden, a person so honoured who holds, for instance, a doctorate of philosophy, may use the academic title fil jubeldr instead of the regular fil dr 
Passage 3:
Doctorate
A doctorate (from Latin docere, "to teach"), doctor's degree (from Latin doctor, "teacher"), or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi ("licence to teach")  In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific profession  There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to scientific disciplines 
In the United States and some other countries, there are also professional degrees that include "doctor" in their name and are classified as doctorates  
Many universities also award honorary doctorates to individuals deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or  other contributions to the university or society 

History
Middle Ages
The term doctor derives from Latin, meaning "teacher" or "instructor"  The doctorate (Latin: doctoratus) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin (licentia docendi) at a university  Its roots can be traced to the early church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers, and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible The right to grant a licentia docendi (i e  the doctorate) was originally reserved to the Catholic Church, which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance, and pay a fee  The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed access—at that time essentially free of charge—to all able applicants  Applicants were tested for aptitude  This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the universities, slowly distancing themselves from the Church  In 1213 the right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris, where it became a universal license to teach (licentia ubique docendi)  However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (baccalaureus), the latter was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the master's degree (magister) and doctorate, both of which now became the accepted teaching qualifications  According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150 by the University of Paris George Makdisi theorizes that the ijazah issued in early Islamic madrasahs was the origin of the doctorate later issued in medieval European universities  Alfred Guillaume and Syed Farid al-Attas agree that there is a resemblance between the ijazah and the licentia docendi  However, Toby Huff and others reject Makdisi's theory  Devin J  Stewart notes a difference in the granting authority (individual professor for the ijzazah and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate) 

17th and 18th centuries
The doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century (likely c  1652)  The term "philosophy" does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy  Still, it is used in a broader sense under its original Greek meaning: "love of wisdom"  In most of Europe, all fields (history, philosophy, social sciences, mathematics, and natural philosophy/natural sciences) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as the "faculty of philosophy"  The Doctorate of Philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though most degrees are not for the study of philosophy  Chris Park explains that it was not until formal education and degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the Doctorate of Philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree, abbreviated as Dr  phil  (similar to Ph D  in Anglo-American countries)  Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in philosophy and doctorates in the natural sciences, abbreviated as Dr  rer  nat  and also doctorates in the social/political sciences, abbreviated as Dr  rer  pol , similar to the other traditional doctorates in medicine (Dr  med ) and law (Dr  jur ) 
University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild  The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations  Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree 
University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men  The first women to be granted doctorates were Juliana Morell in 1608 at Lyons or maybe Avignon (she "defended theses" in 1606 or 1607, although claims that she received a doctorate in canon law in 1608 have been discredited), Elena Cornaro Piscopia in 1678 at the University of Padua, Laura Bassi in 1732 at Bologna University, Dorothea Erxleben in 1754 at Halle University and  María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda in 1785 at Complutense University, Madrid 

Modern times
The use and meaning of the doctorate have changed over time and are subject to regional variations  For instance, until the early 20th century, few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders  After that time, the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread  Universities' shift to research-oriented education (based upon the scientific method, inquiry, and observation) increased the doctorate's importance  Today, a research doctorate (PhD) or its equivalent (as defined in the US by the NSF) is generally a prerequisite for an academic career  However, many recipients do not work in academia 

Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward  The first professional doctorate offered in the United States was the M D  at Kings College (now Columbia University) after the medical school's founding in 1767  However, this was not a professional doctorate in the modern American sense  It was awarded for further study after the qualifying Bachelor of Medicine (M B ) rather than a qualifying degree  The MD became the standard first degree in medicine in the US during the 19th century, but as a three-year undergraduate degree  It did not become established as a graduate degree until 1930  As the standard qualifying degree in medicine, the MD gave that profession the ability (through the American Medical Association, established in 1847 for this purpose) to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice In the shape of the German-style PhD, the modern research degree was first awarded in the US in 1861, at Yale University  This differed from the MD in that the latter was a vocational "professional degree" that trained students to apply or practice knowledge rather than generate it, similar to other students in vocational schools or institutes  In the UK, research doctorates initially took higher doctorates in Science and Letters, first introduced at Durham University in 1882  The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada and was instituted at all British universities from 1917  The first (titled a DPhil) was awarded at the University of Oxford Following the MD, the next professional doctorate in the US, the Juris Doctor (JD), was established by the University of Chicago in 1902  However, it took a long time to be accepted, not replacing the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) until the 1960s, by which time the LLB was generally taken as a graduate degree  Notably, the JD and LLB curriculum were identical, with the degree being renamed as a doctorate, and it (like the MD) was not equivalent to the PhD, raising criticism that it was "not a 'true Doctorate'"  When professional doctorates were established in the UK in the late 1980s and early 1990s, they did not follow the US model  Still, they were set up as research degrees at the same level as PhDs but with some taught components and a professional focus for research work Now usually called higher doctorates in the United Kingdom, the older-style doctorates take much longer to complete since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects  These doctorates are less common than the PhD in some countries and are often awarded honoris causa  The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU   It involves either a long new thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications  The habilitation (highest available degree) demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate supportive funding  The habilitation follows the research doctorate, and in Germany, it can be a requirement for appointment as a Privatdozent or professor 

Types
Since the Middle Ages, the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities have proliferated throughout the world  Practice varies from one country to another  While a doctorate usually entitles a person to be addressed as "doctor", the use of the title varies widely depending on the type and the associated occupation 

Research doctorate
Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of publishable academic research, at least in principle, in a peer-reviewed academic journal  The best-known research degree title in the English-speaking world, is Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated Ph D , PhD or, at some British universities, DPhil) awarded in many countries throughout the world  In the U S , for instance, although the most typical research doctorate is the PhD, accounting for about 98% of the research doctorates awarded, there are more than 15 other names for research doctorates  Other research-oriented doctorates (some having a professional practice focus) include the Doctor of Education (Ed D  or EdD), the Doctor of Science (D Sc  or Sc D ),
Doctor of Arts (D A ), Doctor of Juridical Science (J S D  or S J D ), Doctor of Musical Arts (D M A ), Doctor of Professional Studies/Professional Doctorate (ProfDoc or DProf), Doctor of Public Health (Dr P H ), Doctor of Social Science (D S Sc  or DSocSci), Doctor of Management (D M  or D Mgt ), Doctor of Business Administration (D B A   or DBA), the UK Doctor of Management (DMan), various doctorates in engineering, such as the US Doctor of Engineering (D Eng , D E Sc  or D E S , also awarded in Japan and South Korea), the UK Engineering Doctorate (EngD), the German engineering doctorate Doktoringenieur (Dr -Ing ) the German natural science doctorate Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr  rer  nat ) and the economics and social science doctorate Doctor rerum politicarum (Dr  rer  pol )  The UK Doctor of Medicine (MD or MD (Res)) and Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) are research doctorates  The Doctor of Theology (Th D , D Th  or ThD), Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT) and the Doctor of Sacred Theology (S T D , or D S Th ) are research doctorates in theology Criteria for research doctorates vary but typically require completion of a substantial body of original research, which may be presented as a single thesis or dissertation, or as a portfolio of shorter project reports (thesis by publication)  The submitted dissertation is assessed by a committee of, typically, internal, and external examiners  It is then typically defended by the candidate during an oral examination (called viva (voce) in the UK and India) by the committee, which then awards the degree unconditionally, awards the degree conditionally (ranging from corrections in grammar to additional research), or denies the degree  Candidates may also be required to complete graduate-level courses in their field and study research methodology 
Criteria for admission to doctoral programs vary  Students may be admitted with a bachelor's degree in the U S  and the U K   However, elsewhere, e g  in Finland and many other European countries, a master's degree is required  The time required to complete a research doctorate varies from three years, excluding undergraduate study, to six years or more 

Licentiate
Licentiate degrees vary widely in their meaning, and in a few countries are doctoral-level qualifications  Sweden awards the licentiate degree as a two-year qualification at the doctoral level and the doctoral degree (PhD) as a four-year qualification  Sweden originally abolished the Licentiate in 1969 but reintroduced it in response to demands from business  Finland also has a two-year doctoral level licentiate degree, similar to Sweden's  Outside of Scandinavia, the licentiate is usually a lower-level qualification  In Belgium, the licentiate was the basic university degree prior to the Bologna Process and was equivalent to a bachelor's degree  In France and other countries, it is the bachelor's-level qualification in the Bologna process  In the Pontifical system, the Licentiate in Sacred Theology (STL) is equivalent to an advanced master's degree, or the post-master's coursework required in preparation for a doctorate (i e  similar in level to the Swedish/Finnish licentiate degree)  While other licences (such as the Licence in Canon Law) are at the level of master's degrees 

Higher doctorate and post-doctoral degrees
A higher tier of research doctorates may be awarded based on a formally submitted portfolio of published research of an exceptionally high standard  Examples include the Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD), Doctor of Divinity (DD), Doctor of Letters (DLitt or LittD), Doctor of Law or Laws (LLD), and Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the traditional doctorates in Scandinavia 
The habilitation teaching qualification (facultas docendi or "faculty to teach") under a university procedure with a thesis and an exam is commonly regarded as belonging to this category in Germany, Austria, France, Liechtenstein, Switzerland, Poland, etc  The degree developed in Germany in the 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation"  In many federal states of Germany, the habilitation results in an award of a formal "Dr  habil " degree or the holder of the degree may add "habil " to their research doctorate such as "Dr  phil  habil " or "Dr  rer  nat  habil " In some European universities, especially in German-speaking countries, the degree is insufficient to have teaching duties without professor supervision (or teaching and supervising PhD students independently) without an additional teaching title such as Privatdozent   In Austria, the habilitation bestows the graduate with the facultas docendi, venia legendi  Since 2004, the honorary title of "Privatdozent" (before this, completing the habilitation resulted in appointment as a civil servant)  In many Central and Eastern Europe countries, the degree gives venia legendi, Latin for "the permission to lecture", or ius docendi, "the right to teach", a specific academic subject at universities for a lifetime  The French academic system used to have a higher doctorate, called the "state doctorate" (doctorat d'État), but, in 1984, it was superseded by the habilitation (Habilitation à diriger des recherches, "habilitation to supervise (doctoral and post-doctoral) research", abbreviated HDR) which is the prerequisite to supervise PhDs and to apply to Full Professorships 
While this section has focused on earned qualifications conferred in virtue of published work or the equivalent, a higher doctorate may also be presented on an honorary basis by a university — at its own initiative or after a nomination — in recognition of public prestige, institutional service, philanthropy, or professional achievement  In a formal listing of qualifications, and often in other contexts, an honorary higher doctorate will be identified using language like "DCL, honoris causa", "HonLLD", or "LittD h c " 

Professional doctorate
Depending on the country, professional doctorates may also be research degrees at the same level as PhDs  The relationship between research and practice is considered important and professional degrees with little or no research content are typically aimed at professional performance  Many professional doctorates are named "Doctor of [subject name] and abbreviated using the form "D[subject abbreviation]" or "[subject abbreviation]D", or may use the more generic titles "Professional Doctorate", abbreviated "ProfDoc" or "DProf", "Doctor of Professional Studies" (DPS)  or "Doctor of Professional Practice" (DPP) In the US, professional doctorates (formally "doctor's degree – professional practice" in government classifications) are defined by the US Department of Education's National Center for Educational Statistics as degrees that require a minimum of six years of university-level study (including any pre-professional bachelor's or associate degree) and meet the academic requirements for professional licensure in the discipline  The definition for a professional doctorate does not include a requirement for either a dissertation or study beyond master's level, in contrast to the definition for research doctorates ("doctor's degree – research/scholarship")  However, individual programs may have different requirements  There is also a category of "doctor's degree – other" for doctorates that do not fall into either the "professional practice" or "research/scholarship" categories  All of these are considered doctoral degrees In contrast to the US, many countries reserve the term "doctorate" for research degrees  If, as in Canada and Australia, professional degrees bear the name "Doctor of    ", etc , it is made clear that these are not doctorates  Examples of this include Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD), Doctor of Medicine (MD), Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP), and Juris Doctor (JD)  Contrariwise, for example, research doctorates like Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Education (EdD) and Doctor of Social Science (DSS) qualify as full academic doctorates in Canada though they normally incorporate aspects of professional practice in addition to a full dissertation  In the Philippines, the University of the Philippines Open University offers a Doctor of Communication (DComm) professional doctorate All doctorates in the UK and Ireland are third cycle qualifications in the Bologna Process, comparable to US research doctorates  Although all doctorates are research degrees, professional doctorates normally include taught components, while the name PhD/DPhil is normally used for doctorates purely by thesis  Professional, practitioner, or practice-based doctorates such as the DClinPsy, MD, DHSc, EdD, DBA, EngD and DAg are full academic doctorates  They are at the same level as the PhD in the national qualifications frameworks; they are not first professional degrees but are "often post-experience qualifications" in which practice is considered important in the research context  In 2009 there were 308 professional doctorate programs in the UK, up from 109 in 1998, with the most popular being the EdD (38 institutions), DBA (33), EngD/DEng (22), MD/DM (21), and DClinPsy/DClinPsych/ClinPsyD (17)  Similarly, in Australia, the term "professional doctorate" is sometimes applied to the Scientiae Juridicae Doctor (SJD), which, like the UK professional doctorates, is a research degree 

Honorary doctorate
When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or philanthropic efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree honoris causa ('for the sake of the honor'), waiving the usual requirements for granting the degree  Some universities do not award honorary degrees, for example, Cornell University, the University of Virginia, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

National variations
Argentina
In Argentina the doctorate (doctorado) is the highest academic degree  The intention is that candidates produce original contributions in their field knowledge within a frame of academic excellence  A dissertation or thesis is prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director  It is reviewed by a Doctoral Committee composed of examiners external to the program and at least one examiner external to the institution  The degree is conferred after a successful dissertation defence  In 2006, there were approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees  Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation, an agency in Argentina's Ministry of Education, Science and Technology 

Brazil
Doctoral candidates are normally required to have a master's degree in a related field  Exceptions are based on their individual academic merit  A second and a third foreign language are other common requirements, although the requirements regarding proficiency commonly are not strict  The admissions process varies by institution  Some require candidates to take tests while others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview only  In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant 
Requirements usually include satisfactory performance in advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam and submitting a thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge  The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external  After completion, which normally consumes 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of Doutor (Doctor) followed by the main area of specialization, e g  Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Ciências da Computação (Doctor of Computer Sciences), Doutor em Filosofia (Doctor of Philosophy), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering) or Doutor em Medicina (Doctor of Medicine)  The generic title of Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences) is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i e  Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc )
All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free (mandated by the Brazilian constitution)  Some graduate students are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico) and CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior)  Personal scholarships are provided by the various FAP's (Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa) at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of São Paulo, FAPERJ in the state of Rio de Janeiro and FAPEMIG in the state of Minas Gerais  Competition for graduate financial aid is intense and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies  The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil is between US$500 and $1000 
A degree of Doutor usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to a US assistant professor  Progression to full professorship, known as Professor Titular requires that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes additional years  In the federal university system, doctors who are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to the rank of associate professor, then become eligible to take the competitive exam for vacant full professorships  In São Paulo state universities, associate professorships and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship are conditioned on the qualification of Livre-docente and requires, in addition to a doctorate, a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications, a public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and a written exam 
In recent years some initiatives as jointly supervised doctorates (e g  "cotutelles") have become increasingly common in the country, as part of the country's efforts to open its universities to international students 

Denmark
Denmark offers four levels of degrees:

A three-year bachelor's degree program (e g  Bachelor of Arts)
A subsequent, two-year master's degree program (e g  Master of Arts) – in Danish traditionally referred to as a "kandidatgrad", i e  a candidate's degree (e g  cand mag : Candidatus/Candidata Magisterii); usually, both titles appear on the diplomas issued 
A three-year ph d  degree program, which replaced the equivalent licentiat in 1992, and does not grant the holder the right to the title dr  or doktor  At the same time, a minor, two-year research training program, leading to a title of "magister", was phased out to meet the international standards of the Bologna Process 
A 'full' doctor's degree (e g  dr phil , Doctor Philosophiae, for humanistic and STEM subjects) – the higher doctorate – introduced in 1479  The second part of the title communicates the field of study – e g  dr scient (in the sciences), dr jur (in law), dr theol (in theology) For the ph d  degree, the candidates (ph d  students or fellows) – who are required to have a master's degree – enroll at a ph d  school at a university and participate in a research training program, at the end of which they each submit a thesis and defend it orally at a formal disputation  In the disputation, the candidates defend their theses against three official opponents, and may take opponents or questions from those present in the auditorium (ex auditorio) 
For the higher doctorate, the candidate (referred to as præses) is required to submit a thesis of major scientific significance, and to proceed to defend it orally against two official opponents, as well as against any and all opponents from the auditorium (ex auditorio) – no matter how long the proceedings take  The official opponents are required to be full professors  The candidate is required to have a master's degree, but not necessarily a ph d 
The ph d  was introduced as a separate title from the higher doctorate in 1992 as part of the transition to a new degree structure, since the changes in the degree system would otherwise leave a significant amount of academics without immediately recognizable qualifications in international settings  The original vision was purported to be to phase out the higher doctorate in favor of the ph d  (or merge the two), but so far, there are no signs of this happening  Many Danish academics with permanent positions wrote ph d  dissertations in the 90s when the system was new, since at that time, a ph d  degree or equivalent qualifications began to be required for certain academic positions in Denmark  Until the late 20th century, the higher doctorate was a condition for attaining full professorship; it is no longer required per se for any positions, but is considered amply equivalent to the ph d  when applying for academic positions 

Egypt
In Egypt, the highest degree doctorate is awarded by Al-Azhar University est  970, which grants ( العالمية Ālimiyya\ Habilitation) 
The Medical doctorate (abbreviated as M D ) is equivalent to the Ph D  degree  To earn an M D  in a science specialty, one must have a master's degree (M Sc ) (or two diplomas before the introduction of M Sc  degree in Egypt) before applying  The M D  degree involves courses in the field and defending a dissertation  It takes on average three to five years 
Many postgraduate medical and surgical specialties students earn a doctorate  After finishing a 6-year medical school and one-year internship (house officer), physicians and surgeons earn the M B  B Ch  degree, which is equivalent to a US MD degree  They can then apply to earn a master's degree or a speciality diploma, then an MD degree in a specialty 
The Egyptian M D  degree is written using the name of one's specialty  For example, M D  (Geriatrics) means a doctorate in Geriatrics, which is equivalent to a Ph D  in Geriatrics 

Finland
The Finnish requirement for the entrance into doctoral studies is a master's degree or equivalent  All universities have the right to award doctorates  The ammattikorkeakoulu institutes (institutes of higher vocational education that are not universities but often called "Universities of Applied Sciences" in English) do not award doctoral or other academic degrees  The student must:

Demonstrate understanding of their field and its meaning, while preparing to use scientific or scholarly study in their field, creating new knowledge 
Obtain a good understanding of development, basic problems and research methods
Obtain such understanding of the general theory of science and letters and such knowledge of neighbouring research fields that they are able to follow the development of these fields The way to show that these general requirements have been met is:

Complete graduate coursework 
Demonstrate critical and independent thought
Prepare and publicly defend a dissertation (a monograph or a compilation thesis of peer-reviewed articles)  In fine arts, the dissertation may be substituted by works and/or performances as accepted by the faculty Entrance to a doctoral program is available only for holders of a master's degree; there is no honors procedure for recruiting Bachelors  Entrance is not as controlled as in undergraduate studies, where a strict numerus clausus is applied  Usually, a prospective student discusses their plans with a professor  If the professor agrees to accept the student, the student applies for admission  The professor may recruit students to their group  Formal acceptance does not imply funding  The student must obtain funding either by working in a research unit or through private scholarships  Funding is more available for natural and engineering sciences than in letters  Sometimes, normal work and research activity are combined Prior to introduction of the Bologna process, Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1,800 hours) of formal coursework  The requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision to individual universities, which may delegate the authority to faculties or individual professors  In Engineering and Science, required coursework varies between 40 and 70 ECTS 
The duration of graduate studies varies  It is possible to graduate three years after the master's degree, while much longer periods are not uncommon  The study ends with a dissertation, which must present substantial new scientific/scholarly knowledge  The dissertation can either be a monograph or it an edited collection of 3 to 7 journal articles  Students unable or unwilling to write a dissertation may qualify for a licentiate degree by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually summarizing one year of research 
When the dissertation is ready, the faculty names two expert pre-examiners with doctoral degrees from the outside the university  During the pre-examination process, the student may receive comments on the work and respond with modifications  After the pre-examiners approve, the doctoral candidate applies the faculty for permission to print the thesis  When granting this permission, the faculty names the opponent for the thesis defence, who must also be an outside expert, with at least a doctorate  In all Finnish universities, long tradition requires that the printed dissertation hang on a cord by a public university noticeboard for at least ten days prior to for the dissertation defence The doctoral dissertation takes place in public  The opponent and the candidate conduct a formal debate, usually wearing white tie, under the supervision of the thesis supervisor  Family, friends, colleagues and the members of the research community customarily attend the defence  After a formal entrance, the candidate begins with an approximately 20-minute popular lecture (lectio praecursoria), that is meant to introduce laymen to the thesis topic  The opponent follows with a short talk on the topic, after which the pair critically discuss the dissertation  The proceedings take two to three hours  At the end the opponent presents their final statement and reveals whether he/she will recommend that the faculty accept it  Any member of the public then has an opportunity to raise questions, although this is rare  Immediately after the defence, the supervisor, the opponent and the candidate drink coffee with the public  Usually, the attendees of the defence are given the printed dissertation  In the evening, the passed candidate hosts a dinner (Finnish: karonkka) in honour of the opponent  Usually, the candidate invites their family, colleagues and collaborators Doctoral graduates are often Doctors of Philosophy (filosofian tohtori), but many fields retain their traditional titles: Doctor of Medicine (lääketieteen tohtori), Doctor of Science in Technology (tekniikan tohtori), Doctor of Science in Arts (Art and Design), etc 
The doctorate is a formal requirement for a docenture or professor's position, although these in practice require postdoctoral research and further experience  Exceptions may be granted by the university governing board, but this is uncommon, and usually due to other work and expertise considered equivalent 

France
HistoryBefore 1984 three research doctorates existed in France: the State doctorate (doctorat d'État, "DrE", the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (Doctorat de troisième cycle, also called doctorate of specialty, Doctorat de spécialité, created in 1954 and shorter than the State doctorate) and the diploma of doctor-engineer (diplôme de docteur-ingénieur created in 1923), for technical research 
During the first half of the 20th century, following the submission of two theses (primary thesis, thèse principale, and secondary thesis, thèse complémentaire) to the Faculty of Letters (in France, "letters" is equivalent to "humanities") at the University of Paris, the doctoral candidate was awarded the Doctorat ès lettres  There was also the less prestigious "university doctorate" Doctorat d'université which could be received for the submission of a single thesis 
In the 1950s, the Doctorat ès lettres was renamed to Doctorat d'État  In 1954 (for the sciences) and 1958 (for letters and human sciences), the less demanding Doctorat de troisième cycle degree was created on the model of the American Ph D  with the purpose to lessen what had become an increasingly long period of time between the typical students' completion of their Diplôme d'études supérieures, roughly equivalent to a Master of Arts) and their Doctorat d'État After 1984, only one type of doctoral degree remained: the "doctorate" (Doctorat)  A special diploma was created called the "accreditation to supervise research" (Habilitation à diriger des recherches), a professional qualification to supervise doctoral work  (This diploma is similar in spirit to the older State doctorate, and the requirements for obtaining it are similar to those necessary to obtain tenure in other systems ) Before only professors or senior full researchers of similar rank were normally authorized to supervise a doctoral candidate's work  Now habilitation is a prerequisite to the title of professor in university (Professeur des universités) and to the title of Research Director (Directeur de recherche) in national public research agency such as CNRS, INRIA, or INRAE 

AdmissionToday, the doctorate (doctorat) is a research-only degree  It is a national degree and its requirements are fixed by the minister of higher education and research  Only public institutions award the doctorate  It can be awarded in any field of study  The master's degree is a prerequisite  The normal duration is three years  The writing of a comprehensive thesis constitutes the bulk of the doctoral work  While the length of the thesis varies according to the discipline, it is rarely less than 150 pages, and often substantially more  Some 15,000 new doctoral matriculations occur every year and ~10,000 doctorates are awarded Doctoral candidates can apply for a three-year fellowship  The most well known is the Contrat Doctoral (4,000 granted every year with a gross salary of 1758 euros per month as of September 2016) 
Since 2002 candidates follow in-service training, but there is no written examination for the doctorate  The candidate has to write a thesis that is read by two external reviewers  The head of the institution decides whether the candidate can defend the thesis, after considering the external reviews  The jury members are designated by the head of the institution  The candidate's supervisor and the external reviewers are generally jury members  The maximum number of jury members is 8  The defense generally lasts 45 minutes in scientific fields, followed by 1 – 2 and a half hours of questions from the jury or other doctors present  The defense and questions are public  The jury then deliberates in private and then declares the candidate admitted or "postponed"  The latter is rare  New regulations were set in 2016 and do not award distinctions 
The title of doctor (docteur) can also be used by medical and pharmaceutical practitioners who hold a doctor's State diploma (diplôme d'État de docteur, distinct from the doctorat d'État mentioned above)  The diploma is a first-degree 
A guidelines with good practices and legal analysis has been published in 2018 by Association nationale des docteurs (ANDès) & Confédération des Jeunes Chercheurs (CJC) with funding of french Ministry of research 

Germany
Doctoral degrees in Germany are research doctorates and are awarded by a process called Promotion  The concept of a US-style professional doctorate as an entry-level professional qualification does not exist  Most doctorates are awarded with specific Latin designations for the field of research (except for engineering, where the designation is German), instead of a general name for all fields (such as the Ph D )  The most important degrees are:

Dr  rer  nat  (rerum naturalium; natural and formal sciences, i e  physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, computer science and information technology, or psychology);
Dr  phil  (philosophiae; humanities such as philosophy, philology, history, and social sciences such as sociology, political science, or psychology as well);
Dr  iur  (iuris; law);
Dr  oec  (oeconomiae; economics);
Dr  rer  pol  (rerum politicarum; economics, business administration, political science);
Dr  theol  (theologiae; theology);
Dr  med  (medicinae; medicine);
Dr  med  dent  (medicinae dentariae; dentistry);
Dr  med  vet  (medicinae veterinariae; veterinary medicine);
Dr -Ing  (engineering) In medicine, "doctoral" dissertations are often written alongside undergraduate study therefore, European Research Council decided in 2010 that such Dr  med  degrees do not meet the international standards of a Ph D  research degree  The duration of the doctorate depends on the field: a doctorate in medicine may take less than a full-time year to complete; those in other fields, two to six years 
Over fifty doctoral designations exist, many of them rare or no longer in use  As a title, the degree is commonly written in front of the name in abbreviated form, e g , Dr  rer  nat  Max Mustermann or Dr  Max Mustermann, dropping the designation entirely  However, leaving out the designation is only allowed when the doctorate degree is not an honorary doctorate, which must be indicated by Dr  h c  (from Latin honoris causa)  Although the honorific does not become part of the name, holders can demand that the title appear in official documents  The title is not mandatory  The honorific is commonly used in formal letters  For holders of other titles, only the highest title is mentioned  Multiple holders of doctorate degrees can be addressed as Dres  (from Latin doctores)  Professional doctorates obtained in other countries, not requiring a thesis or not being third cycle qualifications under the Bologna process, can only be used postnominally, e g , "Max Mustermann, MD", and do not allow the use of the title Dr  In contrast to English, in which a person's name is preceded by at most one title (except in very ceremonious usage), the formal German mode of address permits several titles in addition to "Herr" or "Frau" (which, unlike "Mr" or "Ms", is not considered a title at all, but an Anrede or "address"), including repetitions in the case of multiple degrees, as in "Frau Prof  Dr  Dr  Schmidt", for a person who would be addressed as "Prof  Schmidt" in English 
In the German university system it is common to write two doctoral theses, the inaugural thesis (Inauguraldissertation), completing a course of study, and the habilitation thesis (Habilitationsschrift), which opens the road to a professorship  Upon completion of the habilitation thesis, a Habilitation is awarded, which is indicated by appending habil  (habilitata/habilitatus) to the doctorate, e g , Dr  rer  nat  habil  Max Mustermann  It is considered as an additional academic qualification rather than an academic degree formally  It qualifies the owner to teach at German universities (facultas docendi)  The holder of a Habilitation receives the authorization to teach a certain subject (venia legendi)  This has been the traditional prerequisite for attaining Privatdozent (PD) and employment as a full university professor  With the introduction of Juniorprofessuren—around 2005—as an alternative track towards becoming a professor at universities (with tenure), Habilitation is no longer the only university career track 

India
In India, doctorates are offered by universities  Entry requirements include master's degree  Some universities consider undergraduate degrees in professional areas such as engineering, medicine or law as qualifications for pursuing doctorate level degrees  Entrance examinations are held for almost all programs  In most universities, coursework duration and thesis is 5–6 years  The most common doctoral degree is Ph D 

Italy
Until the introduction of the dottorato di ricerca in the mid-1980s, the laurea generally constituted the highest academic degree obtainable in Italy  The first institution in Italy to create a doctoral program was Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1927 under the historic name "Diploma di Perfezionamento"  Further, the dottorato di ricerca was introduced by law and presidential decree in 1980, in a reform of academic teaching, training and experimentation in organisation and teaching methods Italy uses a three-level degree system following the Bologna Process  The first-level degree, called a laurea (Bachelor's degree), requires three years and a short thesis  The second-level degree, called a laurea magistrale (Master's degree), is obtained after two additional years, specializing in a branch of the field  This degree requires more advanced thesis work, usually involving academic research or an internship  The final degree is called a dottorato di ricerca (Ph D ) and is obtained after three years of academic research on the subject and a thesis 
Alternatively, after obtaining the laurea or the laurea magistrale, one can complete a "Master's" (first-level Master's after the laurea; second-level Master's after the laurea magistrale) of one or two years, usually including an internship  An Italian "Master's" is not the same as a master's degree; it is intended to be more focused on professional training and practical experience 
Regardless of the field of study, the title for Bachelors Graduate students is Dottore/Dottoressa (abbrev  Dott /Dott ssa, or as Dr ), not to be confused with the title for the Ph D , which is instead Dottore/Dottoressa di Ricerca  A laurea magistrale grants instead the title of Dottore/Dottoressa magistrale  Graduates in the fields of Education, Art and Music are also called Dr  Prof  (or simply Professore) or Maestro  Many professional titles, such as ingegnere (engineer) are awarded only upon passing a post-graduation examination (esame di stato), and registration in the relevant professional association 
The Superior Graduate Schools in Italy (Italian: Scuola Superiore Universitaria), also called Schools of Excellence (Italian: Scuole di Eccellenza) such as Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa and Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies keep their historical "Diploma di Perfezionamento" title by law and MIUR Decree 

Japan
Dissertation-only
Until the 1990s, most natural science and engineering doctorates in Japan were earned by industrial researchers in Japanese companies  These degrees were awarded by the employees' former university, usually after years of research in industrial laboratories  The only requirement is submission of a dissertation, along with articles published in well-known journals  This program is called ronbun hakase (論文博士)  It produced the majority of engineering doctoral degrees from national universities  University-based doctoral programs called katei hakase (課程博士), are gradually replacing these degrees  By 1994, more doctoral engineering degrees were earned for research within university laboratories (53%) than industrial research laboratories (47%)  Since 1978, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) has provided tutorial and financial support for promising researchers in Asia and Africa  The program is called JSPS RONPAKU 

Professional degree
The only professional doctorate in Japan is the Juris Doctor, known as Hōmu Hakushi (法務博士) The program generally lasts two or three years  This curriculum is professionally oriented, but unlike in the US the program does not provide education sufficient for a law license  All candidates for a bar license must pass the bar exam (Shihou shiken), attend the Legal Training and Research Institute and pass the practical exam (Nikai Shiken or Shihou Shushusei koushi) 

Netherlands and Flanders
The traditional academic system of the Netherlands provided basic academic diploma: propaedeuse and three academic degrees: kandidaat (the lowest degree), depending on gender doctorandus or doctoranda (drs ) (with equivalent degrees in engineering – ir  and law – mr ) and doctor (dr )  After successful completion of the first year of university, the student was awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree)  In some fields, this diploma was abolished in the 1980s  In physics and mathematics, the student could directly obtain a kandidaats (candidate) diploma in two years  The candidate diploma was all but abolished by 1989  It used to be attained after completion of the majority of courses of the academic study (usually after completion of course requirements of the third year in the program), after which the student was allowed to begin work on their doctorandus thesis  The successful completion of this thesis conveyed the doctoranda/us title, implying that the student's initial studies were finished  In addition to these 'general' degrees, specific titles equivalent to the doctorandus degree were awarded for law: meester (master) (mr ), and for engineering: ingenieur (engineer)(ir )  Following the Bologna protocol the Dutch adopted the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees  The old candidate's degree was revived to become the bachelor's degree and the doctorandus' (mr and ir degree) were replaced by master's degrees 
Students can only enroll in a doctorate system after completing a research university level master's degree; although dispensation can be granted on a case-by-case basis after scrutiny of the individual's portfolio  The most common way to conduct doctoral studies is to work as promovendus/assistent in opleiding (aio)/onderzoeker in opleiding (oio) (research assistant with additional courses and supervision), perform extensive research and write a dissertation consisting of published articles (over a period of four or more years, averaging about 5 5 to 6)  Research can also be conducted without official research assistant status, for example through a business-sponsored research laboratory 
Every Ph D  thesis has to be promoted by a full university professor or an associate professor  who has the role of principal advisor and holds the right to do so (ius promovendi)  The promotor (professor) determines whether the thesis quality suffices and can be submitted to the committee of experts  A committee of experts in the field review the thesis  Failures at this stage are rare because supervisors withhold inadequate work  The supervisors and promotor lose prestige among their colleagues should they allow a substandard thesis to be submitted 
After reviewer approval, the candidate publishes the thesis (generally more than 100 copies) and sends it to colleagues, friends and family with an invitation to the public defense  The degree is awarded in a formal, public, defense session, in which the thesis is defended against critical questions of the "opposition" (the review committee)  Failure during this session is possible, but rare  Before the defense there may or may not be a public presentation, lasting 10 minutes (e g  Eindhoven University of Technology) to exactly half hour (e g  Delft University of Technology)  The actual defense lasts exactly the assigned time slot (45 minutes to 1 hour exactly depending on the university) after which the defense is stopped by the bedel who closes the process 
The doctor's title is the highest academic title in the Netherlands  In research doctorates the degree is always Ph D  or dr  with no distinction between disciplines  Three Dutch universities of technology (Eindhoven University of Technology, Delft University of Technology, and University of Twente) also award a 2-year (industry oriented) Professional Doctorate in Engineering (PDEng), named EngD from September 2022 onwards  Those who obtained a degree in a foreign country can only use one of the Dutch titles drs , mr , ir , or dr if approved by the Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs though according to the opportunity principle, little effort monitors such frauds  Dutch doctors may use PhD behind their name instead of the uncapitalized shortcut dr  before their name Those who have multiple doctor (dr ) titles may use the title dr mult  Those who have received honoris causa doctorates may use dr h c  before their own name In Belgium's Flemish Community the doctorandus title was only used by those who actually started their doctoral work  Doctorandus is still used as a synonym for a Ph D  student  The licentiaat (licensee) title was in use for a regular graduate until the Bologna reform changed the licentiaat degree to the master's degree (the Bologna reform abolished the two-year kandidaat degree and introduced a three-year academic bachelor's degree instead) 

Russia
In the Russian Empire the academic degree "doctor of the sciences" (doktor nauk) marked the highest academic degree that can be achieved by an examination  (The "doctor nauk" degree was introduced in Russia in 1819, abolished in 1917, and revived in the USSR in 1934 ) This system was generally adopted by the USSR/Russia and many post-Soviet countries  A lower degree, "candidate [doctor] of the sciences" (kandidat nauk; first introduced in the USSR on January 13, 1934, by a decision of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR), is, roughly, the Russian equivalent to the research doctorate in other countries 

Spain
Doctoral degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R D  778/1998), Real Decreto (in Spanish)  They are granted by the university on behalf of the king  Its diploma has the force of a public document  The Ministry of Science keeps a national registry of theses called TESEO  According to the National Institute of Statistics (INE), fewer than 5% of M Sc  degree holders are admitted to Ph D  programmes 

All doctoral programs are research-oriented  A minimum of 4 years of study is required, divided into 2 stages:

A 2-year (or longer) period of studies concludes with a public dissertation presented to a panel of 3 Professors  Upon approval from the university, the candidate receives a Diploma de Estudios Avanzados (part qualified doctor, equivalent to M Sc )  From 2008 it is possible to substitute the former diploma by a recognized master program 
A 2-year (or longer) research period includes extensions for up to 10 years  The student must present a thesis describing a discovery or original contribution  If approved by their thesis director, the study is presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars  Any Doctor attending the public defense is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions  If approved, the candidate receives the doctorate  Four marks used to be granted: Unsatisfactory (Suspenso), Pass (Aprobado), Remarkable (Notable), "Cum laude" (Sobresaliente), and "Summa cum laude" (Sobresaliente Cum Laude)  Those Doctors granted their degree "Summa Cum Laude" were allowed to apply for an "Extraordinary Award" Since September 2012 and regulated by Royal Decree (R D  99/2011) (in Spanish), three marks can be granted: Unsatisfactory (No apto), Pass (Apto) and "Cum laude" (Apto Cum Laude) as maximum mark  In the public defense the doctor is notified if the thesis has passed or not passed  The Apto Cum Laude mark is awarded after the public defense as the result of a private, anonymous vote  Votes are verified by the university  A unanimous vote of the reviewers nominates Doctors granted Apto Cum Laude for an "Extraordinary Award" (Premio Extraordinario de Doctorado) 
In the same Royal Decree the initial 3-year study period was replaced by a Research master's degree (one or two years; Professional master's degrees do not grant direct access to Ph D  Programs) that concludes with a public dissertation called Trabajo de Fin de Máster or Proyecto de Fin de Máster  An approved project earns a master's degree that grants access to a Ph D  program and initiates the period of research 
A doctorate is required in order to teach at the university Only Ph D  holders, Grandees and Dukes can sit and cover their heads in the presence of the King From 1857, Complutense University was the only one in Spain authorised to confer the doctorate  This law remained in effect until 1954, when the University of Salamanca joined in commemoration of its septcentenary  In 1970, the right was extended to all Spanish universities All doctorate holders are reciprocally recognised as equivalent in Germany and Spain (according to the "Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994") 

United Kingdom
History of the UK doctorate
The doctorate has long existed in the UK as, originally, the second degree in divinity, law, medicine and music  But it was not until the late 19th century that the research doctorate, now known as the higher doctorate, was introduced  The first higher doctorate was the Doctor of Science at Durham University, introduced in 1882  This was soon followed by other universities, including the University of Cambridge establishing its ScD in the same year, the University of London transforming its DSc from an advanced study course to a research degree in 1885, and the University of Oxford establishing its Doctor of Letters (DLitt) in 1900 

The PhD was adopted in the UK following a joint decision in 1917 by British universities, although it took much longer for it to become established  Oxford became the first university to institute the new degree, although naming it the DPhil  The PhD was often distinguished from the earlier higher doctorates by distinctive academic dress  At Cambridge, for example, PhDs wear a master's gown with scarlet facings rather than the full scarlet gown of the higher doctors, while the University of Wales gave PhDs crimson gowns rather than scarlet  Professional doctorates were introduced in Britain in the 1980s and 1990s  The earliest professional doctorates were in the social sciences, including the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Education (EdD) and Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy) 

British doctorates today
Today, except for those awarded honoris causa (honorary degrees), all doctorates granted by British universities are research doctorates, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of an extensive and substantial thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university   UK doctorates are categorised as:
Junior doctorates

Subject specialist doctorates – normally PhD/DPhil; the most common form of doctorate
Integrated subject specialist doctorates – integrated PhDs including teaching at master's level
Doctorates by publication – PhD by Published Works; only awarded infrequently
Professional / practice-based / practitioner doctorates – e g  EdD, ProfDoc/DProf, EngD, etc ; usually include taught elements and have an orientation that combines professional and academic aspectsHigher doctorates
e g  DD, LLD, DSc, DLitt; higher level than junior doctorates, usually awarded either for a substantial body of work over an extended period or as honorary degrees The Quality Assurance Agency states in the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies (which covers junior doctorates but not higher doctorates) that:
Doctoral degrees are awarded to students who have demonstrated:
the creation and interpretation of new knowledge, through original research or other advanced scholarship, of a quality to satisfy peer review, extend the forefront of the discipline, and merit publication
a systematic acquisition and understanding of a substantial body of knowledge which is at the forefront of an academic discipline or area of professional practice
the general ability to conceptualise, design and implement a project for the generation of new knowledge, applications or understanding at the forefront of the discipline, and to adjust the project design in the light of unforeseen problems
a detailed understanding of applicable techniques for research and advanced academic enquiry
In the UK, the (junior) doctorate is a qualification awarded at FHEQ level 8/level 12 of the FQHEIS on the national qualifications frameworks  The higher doctorates are stated to be "A higher level of award", which is not covered by the qualifications frameworks 

Subject specialist doctorates
These are the most common doctorates in the UK and are normally awarded as PhDs  While the master/apprentice model was traditionally used for British PhDs, since 2003 courses have become more structured, with students taking courses in research skills and receiving training for professional and personal development  However, the assessment of the PhD remains based on the production of a thesis or equivalent and its defence at a viva voce oral examination, normally held in front of at least two examiners, one internal and one external  Access to PhDs normally requires an upper second class or first class bachelor's degree, or a master's degree  Courses normally last three years, although it is common for students to be initially registered for MPhil degrees and then formally transferred onto the PhD after a year or two  Students who are not considered likely to complete a PhD may be offered the opportunity to complete an MPhil instead Integrated doctorates, originally known as 'New Route PhDs', were introduced from 2000 onwards  These integrate teaching at master's level during the first one or two years of the degree, either alongside research or as a preliminary to starting research  These courses usually offer a master's-level exit degree after the taught courses are completed  While passing the taught elements is often required, examination of the final doctorate is still by thesis (or equivalent) alone  The duration of integrated doctorates is a minimum of four years, with three years spent on the research component In 2013, Research Councils UK issued a 'Statement of Expectations for Postgraduate Training', which lays out the expectations for training in PhDs funded by the research councils  In the latest version (2016), issued together with Cancer Research UK, the Wellcome Trust and the British Heart Foundation, these include the provision of careers advice, in-depth advanced training in the subject area, provision of transferable skills, training in experimental design and statistics, training in good research conduct, and training for compliance with legal, ethical and professional frameworks  The statement also encourages peer-group development through cohort training and/or Graduate schools 

Higher doctorates
Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body of original research undertaken over the course of many years  Typically the candidate submits a collection of previously published, peer-refereed work, which is reviewed by a committee of internal and external academics who decide whether the candidate deserves the doctorate  The higher doctorate is similar in some respects to the habilitation in some European countries  However, the purpose of the award is significantly different  While the habilitation formally determines whether an academic is suitably qualified to be a university professor, the higher doctorate does not qualify the holder for a position but rather recognises their contribution to research Higher doctorates were defined by the UK Council for Graduate Education (UKCGE) in 2013 as:
an award that is at a level above the PhD (or equivalent professional doctorate in the discipline), and that is typically gained not through a defined programme of study but rather by submission of a substantial body of research-based work 
In terms of number of institutions offering the awards, the most common doctorates of this type in UKCGE surveys carried out in 2008 and 2013 were the Doctor of Science (DSc), Doctor of Letters (DLitt), Doctor of Law (LLD), Doctor of Music (DMus) and Doctor of Divinity (DD); in the 2008 survey the Doctor of Technology (DTech) tied with the DD  The DSc was offered by all 49 responding institutions in 2008 and 15 out of 16 in 2013 and the DLitt by only one less in each case, while the DD was offered in 10 responding institutions in 2008 and 3 in 2013  In terms of number of higher doctorates awarded (not including honorary doctorates) the DSc was most popular, but the number of awards was very low: the responding institutions had averaged an award of at most one earned higher doctorate per year over the period 2003–2013 

Honorary degrees
Most British universities award degrees honoris causa to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field  Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending on the candidate's achievements  However, some universities differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates, using the degree of Doctor of the University (D Univ ) for these purposes, and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research 

United States
U S  research doctorates are awarded for advanced study followed by successfully completing and defending independent research presented in the form of a dissertation  Professional degrees may use the term "doctor" in their titles, such as Juris Doctor and Doctor of Medicine, but these degrees rarely contain an independent research component and are not research doctorates  Law school graduates, although awarded the J D  degree, are not normally addressed as "doctor"  In legal studies, the  Doctor of Juridical Science is considered the equivalent to a Ph D 
Many universities offer Ph D /D Phil  followed by a professional doctorate or joint Ph D /D Phil  with a professional degree  Often, Ph D  work is sequential to the professional degree, e g , Ph D /D Phil  in law after a J D  or equivalent in physical therapy after DPT, in pharmacy after Pharm D  Such professional degrees are referred to as an entry level doctorate program and Ph D  as a post-professional doctorate 

Research degrees
The most common research doctorate is the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph D  or D Phil )  This degree was first awarded in the U S  at the 1861 Yale University commencement  The University of Pennsylvania followed in 1871, with Cornell (1872), Harvard (1873), Michigan (1876)   and Princeton (1879) following suit  Controversy and opposition followed the introduction of the Ph D  into the U S  educational system, lasting into the 1950s, as it was seen as an unnecessary artificial transplant from a foreign (Germany) educational system, which corrupted a system based on England's Oxbridge model Ph D s and other research doctorates in the U S  typically entail successful completion of coursework, passing a comprehensive examination, and defending a dissertation The median number of years for completion of U S  doctoral degrees is seven  Doctoral applicants were previously required to have a master's degree, but many programs accept students immediately following undergraduate studies  Many programs gauge the potential of applicants to their program and grant a master's degree upon completion of the necessary course work  When so admitted, the student is expected to have mastered the material covered in the master's degree despite not holding one, though this tradition is under heavy criticism  Successfully finishing Ph D  qualifying exams confers Ph D  candidate status, allowing dissertation work to begin 
The International Affairs Office of the U S  Department of Education has listed 18 frequently awarded research doctorate titles identified by the National Science Foundation (NSF) as representing degrees equivalent in research content to the Ph D 

Professional degrees
Many fields offer professional doctorates (or professional master's) such as engineering, pharmacy, medicine, public health, dentistry, optometry, psychology, speech–language pathology,  physical therapy, occupational therapy, health science, advanced practice registered nurse, chiropractic, naturopathic medicine, law, architecture, education, teaching, business, management, and others that require such degrees for professional practice or licensure  Some of these degrees are also termed "first professional degrees", since they are the first field-specific master's or doctoral degrees 
A Doctor of Engineering (DEng) is a professional degree  In contrast to a PhD in Engineering where students usually conduct original theory-based research, DEng degrees are built around applied coursework and a practice-led project and thus designed for working engineers in the industry  DEng students defend their thesis at the end of their study before a thesis committee in order to be conferred a degree 
A Doctor of Pharmacy is awarded as the professional degree in pharmacy replacing a bachelor's degree  It is the only professional pharmacy degree awarded in the US  Pharmacy programs vary in length between 4 years for matriculants with a B S /B A  to 6 years for others 
In the twenty-first century professional doctorates appeared in other fields, such as the Doctor of Audiology in 2007  Advanced Practice Registered Nurses were expected to completely transition to the Doctor of Nursing Practice by 2015, and physical therapists to the Doctor of Physical Therapy by 2020  Professional associations play a central role in this transformation amid criticisms on the lack of proper criteria to assure appropriate rigor  In many cases Masters level programs were relabeled as doctoral programs 

Revocation
A doctoral degree can be revoked or rescinded by the university that awarded it  Possible reasons include plagiarism, criminal or unethical activities of the holder, or malfunction or manipulation of academic evaluation processes 

See also
Postdoctoral researcher
Compilation thesis
Habilitation thesis
Doctor (title)
Eurodoctorate
List of fields of doctoral studies
Passage 4:
Sandra Pizzarello
Sandra Pizzarello, D Bi Sc  was a Venetian biochemist known for her co-discovery of amino acid enantiomeric excess in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites  Her research interests concerned the characterization of meteoritic organic compounds in elucidating the evolution of planetary homochirality  Pizzarello was a project collaborator and co-investigator for the NASA Astrobiology Institute (NAI), the president of the International Society for the Study of the Origin of Life (2014-2017), and an emerita professor at Arizona State University (ASU) 

Early life and education
Sandra Pizzarello was born in Venice, Italy in 1933  In 1955, she graduated summa cum laude from the University of Padua earning her Doctor of Biological Sciences degree under her adviser Professor Roncato  Pizzarello went on to work as a research associate developing tranquilizers for Farmitalia Research Laboratories in the Department of Neuropharmacology  Over the course of several years, Pizzarello transitioned from research to raising a family  Following a career opportunity for her husband, an aeronautical engineer and computer scientist, she moved her family to Phoenix, Arizona in 1970 
Once Pizzarello's youngest of four children finished primary school, her focus returned to her career after a decade away from scientific research  She audited a graduate biochemistry seminar course at ASU where she met Professor John Cronin, future co-discoverer of amino acid enantiomeric excess in meteorites  Due to her outstanding performance in the course, she was offered a job to work with Cronin at the university as a research professor in analyzing the recently recovered Murchison meteorite 
Sandra Pizzarello died on October 24, 2021 

Research
Sandra Pizzarello's research over the last forty years involved the analysis of organic compounds in several carbonaceous chondrites, particularly molecular, chiral, and isotopic characterization of amino acids  Because the formation of these organic-rich meteorites pre-date the origin of life, they had been under investigation as potential sites of primal organic compounds which could shed light on abiogenesis, specifically the origin of biological homochirality  Such studies, however, had been inconclusive until 1997 when Cronin and Pizzarello detected 7-9% L-enantiomeric excesses of three abiological amino acids while analyzing the Murchison meteorite Given Earth's history of meteoric impacts and the observation that meteors contain an excess of the biologically relevant L-stereoisomer of certain amino acids, Pizzarello studied the effect of meteoritic amino acids in enantiomeric excess on the formation of other biological molecules  In one study, Pizzarello found that nonracemic solutions of abiological isovaline and proteinogenic alanine can direct the condensation of  glycolaldehyde to produce nonracemic solutions of threose and erythrose via an aldol reaction concluding that amino acids can act as asymmetric catalysts in carbohydrate synthesis  These findings support the origin of life hypothesis that homochirality originated prior to life and from extraterrestrial origins  However, Pizzarello's theoretical inquiries into cosmochemical evolution remain debated based on suspect analytical evidence of meteoritic enantiomeric excesses 

External links
# https://nai nasa gov/directory/pizzarello-sandra/ NASA gov
https://webapp4 asu edu/directory/person/274781
Passage 5:
Sandra Eades
Sandra Eades  (born 1967) is a Noongar physician, researcher and professor, and the first Aboriginal medical practitioner to be awarded a Doctorate of Philosophy in 2003  As of March 2020 she is Dean of Medicine at Curtin University 

Early life and education
Sandra Eades was born in Mount Barker, Western Australia and at the age of 12 moved to Perth with her family  In primary school she wanted to be a doctor but thought she would not have that opportunity as an Aboriginal girl  In 1985, at the age of 17, she arrived at University of Newcastle as one of four Aboriginal students selected for a special program to study medicine  She graduated from the University of Western Australia with a PhD in 2003 

Career
Eades worked in the public hospital system after graduating from medical school, and was a general practitioner with the Aboriginal Medical Service for seven years  She began her career researching the epidemiology of Indigenous child health in Australia at the Telethon Institute for Child Health Research  Her first research opportunity into causes of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) in Aboriginal infants in Western Australia, was introduced to her by 2003 Australian of the Year, Fiona Stanley  She has been recognised for "identifying links between social factors such as housing and infant health" As Head of Indigenous Maternal and Child Health, and Associate Head of Preventative Health Research at Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Eades won a number of grants for research in Indigenous health studies  She was senior research fellow at The Sax Institute in Sydney from 2004 to 2008, and an Adjunct Senior Lecturer in the School of Public Health at the University of Sydney from 2012 to 2013  Moving to Melbourne in mid-2008 she joined the Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute and in 2018 she became Associate Dean Indigenous at the University of Melbourne Eades was appointed Dean of the Curtin Medical School in March 2020 

Awards and honours
Eades's work in pediatric and perinatal epidemiology has improved the lives of Aboriginal women and children 
2005: Deadly award for Outstanding Achievement in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health, which she dedicated to her three-year-old child 
2006: NSW Woman of the Year  Nominated by Frank Sartor, the Minister for Science and Medical Research 
2014: Elected Fellow of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences (FAHMS) 
2015: Inaugural winner, Lowitja Institute Cranlana Award
2020: Elected Fellow of the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia (FASSA) 
2022: Officer of the Order of Australia for "distinguished service to medical research, to Indigenous health, and to professional organisations"
Passage 6:
Herbert A  Shepard
Herbert Allen Shepard (1919–1985) was a Canadian-born American organization behaviorist and economist who made a significant contribution to Organization Development He held faculty posts at several universities including M I T , where he received his doctorate in Industrial Economics  He founded and directed the first doctoral program in Organization Development at Case Western Reserve; developed a residency in administrative psychiatry at Yale University School of Medicine, and was also President of The Gestalt Institute of Cleveland and The Professional Development Institute 
Shepard conducted the first large-scale experiments in Organization Development, while at Esso in the late fifties, and served as principal consultant to TRW Systems in the applications of behavioral science to organizations and teams  He has published widely and was chairman of the Douglas Memorial Award Committee of the Journal of Applied Behavioral Science  His research advanced our understanding of human behavior and social systems from dyads (doctor-patient or consultant-client) to organizations (synergy, alternative dispute resolution, structure, building consensus and caring about the powerless)  It opened the way for further developments in the psychology of teams, leadership and  interpersonal compatibility; cognitive behavior therapy, social cognitive theory (educational psychology); choice theory;"Principled Negotiation"  26 September 2022 , positive psychology and organization development 
In management consulting, Shepard's clients included Bell-Northern Research, Syncrude, Esso, TRW, Connecticut General Life Insurance Company, Union Carbide, USAID and most of the departments of the federal governments of the U S A  and Canada 
Context 2: Passage 1:
Frank Lloyd
Frank William George Lloyd (2 February 1886 – 10 August 1960) was a British-born American film director, actor, scriptwriter, and producer  He was among the founders of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, and was its president from 1934 to 1935 
He is Scotland's first Academy Award winner and is unique in film history, having received three Oscar nominations in 1929 for his work on a silent film (The Divine Lady), a part-talkie (Weary River) and a full talkie (Drag)  He won for The Divine Lady  He was nominated and won again in 1933 for his adaptation of Noël Coward's Cavalcade and received a further Best Director nomination in 1935 for perhaps his most successful film, Mutiny on the Bounty  Lloyd is credited with being a founder of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences 
In 1957, he was awarded the George Eastman Award, given by George Eastman House for distinguished contribution to the art of film On 8 February 1960, Lloyd received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to the motion pictures industry, at 6667 Hollywood Boulevard 

Early life and career
Lloyd was born in Cambuslang, on the outskirts of Glasgow, the youngest of seven children  His mother Jane was Scottish and his father Edmund was Welsh, a mechanical engineer  The family travelled the country until his father was injured and gave up engineering  They settled in Shepherd's Bush, London, where the family ran a pub  Lloyd worked in a shoe shop, sang in choral groups and joined a vaudeville group 
In 1909 he emigrated to Canada where he worked on a ranch in Alberta for a year  He also erected poles and writes for a telephone company, then joined a travelling show as an actor and singer  The show wound up in Los Angeles in 1913 and Lloyd decided to stay there and act in Hollywood films 

Film director
Paramount
He began directing shorts for Paramount and moved to longer running films: The Gentleman from Indiana (1915), Jane (1915), The Reform Candidate (1916), The Tongues of Men (1916), The Call of the Cumberlands (1916), Madame la Presidente (1916) with Anna Held, The Code of Marcia Gray (1916), David Garrick (1916 film) (1916), The Making of Maddalena (1916), An International Marriage (1916), and The Stronger Love (1916)  The Intrigue (1916) was produced through Pallas Films and released through Paramount   Lloyd's biographer argued his early films "are not 'masterpieces,' but they are on a par with films from other secondary directors of the period  In other words, they are not comparable to those directed by D W  Griffith, but are as good as those directed by Allan Dwan "

Fox
Lloyd directed Sins of Her Parent (1916) at Fox, and The World and the Woman (1916) with Jeanne Eagles for Tranhouser  Back at Fox he did The Kingdom of Love (1917), and a series of films starring William Farnum" The Price of Silence (1917), A Tale of Two Cities (1917) from the novel by Charles Dickens, American Methods (1917), When a Man Sees Red (1917), Les Misérables (1917), The Heart of a Lion (1917), True Blue (1918), Riders of the Purple Sage (1918) from the novel by Zane Grey and its sequel The Rainbow Trail (1918), For Freedom (1918), and The Man Hunter (1919)  Without Farnum, Lloyd directed The Blindness of Divorce (1918) 

Goldwyn
At Goldwyn he made Pitfalls of a Big City (1919),The World and Its Woman (1919), The Loves of Letty (1919), The Woman in Room 13 (1920), The Silver Horde (1920 film) (1920), Madame X  (1920) with Pauline Frederick, The Great Lover (1920), A Tale of Two Worlds (1921), Roads of Destiny (1921) with Frederick, A Voice in the Dark (1921), The Invisible Power (1921), The Grim Comedian (1921), and The Man from Lost River (1921) plus The Sin Flood (1922) with Richard Dix 

First National
Lloyd directed some films for First National with Norma Talmadge: The Eternal Flame (1921), The Voice from the Minaret (1922), Within the Law (1923) and Ashes of Vengeance (1923) 
Also for that studio was Oliver Twist (1922) with Lon Chaney and Jackie Coogan, and Black Oxen (1924) 
He had his own company at First National, Frank Lloyd Productions  They made The Sea Hawk (1924), a swashbuckler with Milton Sills, then The Silent Watcher (1924), Her Husband's Secret (1925), Winds of Chance (1925), The Splendid Road (1926), and The Wise Guy (1926) 

Paramount
At Paramount Lloyd made The Eagle of the Sea (1926), Children of Divorce (1927 film) (1927), Adoration (1928) with Billie Dove, The Divine Lady (1929) with Corinne Griffith, and Dark Streets (1929)  Lloyd won the Academy Award for Best director for The Divine Lady 
There were several films starring Richard Barthemless: Weary River (1929), Drag (1929), Young Nowheres (1930), Son of the Gods (1930), and The Lash (1930)  He was Oscar nominated for Best Director for Drag and Weary River 
There was also The Way of All Men (1930), a remake of Lloyds' own The Sin Flood, The Right of Way (1931), and East Lynne (1931) For Howard Hughes, Lloyd did The Age for Love (1931)  Back at Fox he made A Passport to Hell (1932) then Cavalcade (1933), which won Lloyd the Oscar for Best Director 
Lloyd then made what was his favourite film, Berkeley Square (1933), starring Leslie Howard, followed by Hoop-La (1933) the final film of Clara Bow and Servants' Entrance (1934) with Janet Gaynor 

Mutiny on the Bounty and later career
Lloyd had a huge hit with Mutiny on the Bounty (1935) at MGM which earned him another Oscar nomination for Best Director  
He followed it with Under Two Flags (1936) at Fox, a French Foreign Legion tale with Ronald Colman 

Paramount
At Paramount Lloyd made more historical films: Maid of Salem (1937) with Claudette Colbert, Wells Fargo (1937) with Joel McCrea, If I Were King (1938) with Colman and Rulers of the Sea (1938) with Douglas Fairbanks Jnr, which was a commercial disappointment 

Universal
Lloyd made The Howards of Virginia (1940) at Columbia with Cary Grant  At Universal he set up his own company  He directed This Woman Is Mine (1941), and The Lady from Cheyenne (1941), and his company produced Saboteur (1942) from Alfred Hitchcock, The Spoilers (1942) with John Wayne and Randolph Scott, and Invisible Agent (1942) 
He was one of several directors on RKO's Forever and a Day (1943)  Lloyd had a big hit with James Cagney's Blood on the Sun (1945)  He was Oscar nominated for Best Director of a Documentary with The Last Bomb  (1945)  Lloyf also served in the air force  He retired from filmmaking in 1946, intending to live on a ranch 

Final films
Lloyd's wife died in 1952 and he came out of retirement to make two films at Republic, The Shanghai Story (1954) and The Last Command (1955) a film about Jim Bowie  When he remarried in 1955 he retired again 

Personal life
Frank Lloyd was married to actress Alma Haller from 11 July 1913, until her death on 16 March 1952  By 1955, Lloyd married Virginia Kellogg, and remained married until Lloyd's death on 10 August 1960 at age 74  Lloyd was buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California 

Reputation
Frank Lloyd does not have a significant reputation  His biographer puts this down partly to the dismissal of Lloyd's work by Andrew Sarris (who compared the director unfavorably with Cecil B  de Mille) and "because he was what is best described as a studio director  His style is as much the style of the studio as it is his own  He did not make waves; he did not overly publicize and promote himself  What he did was for the good of the studio – not for his own ego "

Selected filmography
Passage 2:
Zeitgeist Films
Zeitgeist Films is a New York-based distribution company founded in 1988 which acquires and distributes films from the U S  and around the world  In 2017, Zeitgeist entered into a multi-year strategic alliance with film distributor Kino Lorber 
Zeitgeist has distributed early films by directors such as Todd Haynes, Christopher Nolan, Francois Ozon, Laura Poitras, Atom Egoyan, and the Quay Brothers  Their catalog also includes filmmakers such as Marguerite von Trotta, Ken Loach, Guy Maddin, Derek Jarman, Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Peter Greenaway, Yvonne Rainer, Andrei Zyvagintsev, Astra Taylor, and Raoul Peck  Previous Zeitgeist Films releases in association with Kino Lorber include Ken Loach's Sorry We Missed You, Ric Burns’ Oliver Sacks: His Own Life, and M C  Escher: Journey to Infinity 
Zeitgeist films have been nominated for Academy Awards several times  Nowhere in Africa (2001), won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film  Their films have been featured in various film festivals including Cannes, Berlin, Sundance, Tribeca, and IDFA in Amsterdam  The Museum of Modern Art honored Zeitgeist with a month-long, 20th anniversary retrospective of their films in 2008  Founders Russo and Gerstman received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Art House Convergence in 2020 

Upcoming films
Selected films
Awards
Trouble the Water – 2008 Academy Award Nominee for Best Documentary Feature
Tulpan – Kazakhstan's 2009 Academy Award submission for Best Foreign Language Film
Three Monkeys – Turkey's 2009 Academy Award submission for Best Foreign Language Film
Into Great Silence – 2006 Sundance Special Jury Prize
Nowhere in Africa – 2002 Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
Sophie Scholl – The Final Days – 2005 Academy Award nominee for Best Foreign Language Film
Taste of Cherry – 1997 Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival
Poison – 1991 Sundance Grand Jury Prize winner
The Umbrellas of Cherbourg (1996 re-release) – Academy Award nominee, Palme d'Or winner (1964)
Passage 3:
Graduation (2016 film)
Graduation (Romanian: Bacalaureat) is a 2016 Romanian-language tragedy film produced, written, and directed by Cristian Mungiu and starring Adrian Titieni and Maria-Victoria Dragus  Set in Transylvania, the film focuses on a doctor's quest to fix his daughter's exam results by underhanded means 

Plot
Romeo is a middle-aged doctor employed at a local hospital in the Romanian region of Transylvania  He lives with his wife, Magda, and their 18-year-old daughter, Eliza, who has got a scholarship to Cambridge University  She is preparing to sit her final exams and needs to maintain a grade of at least 90% to take up her scholarship  Romeo is a doting father and drives Eliza to school regularly  
Romeo's girlfriend, Sandra, is a teacher at Eliza's school  One day while visiting Sandra he receives a message: Eliza has been assaulted near her school  She has a sprained wrist and is emotionally shaken up but is not seriously injured  She reveals that the assailant tried to rape her but did not succeed  
The next day Eliza must sit for her first examination  The headmaster tries to exclude her because she is wearing a cast on her wrist - notes can be hidden in a cast  Sandra intervenes and the headmaster backs down  The cast slows her writing and time runs out before she is finished - she will need nearly perfect results on the remaining exams to claim her scholarship  
At the police station the chief inspector suggests to Romeo that Eliza's exam results can be fixed in exchange for expediting a liver transplant for a corrupt official, a Mr  Bulai  
That evening Romeo discusses the plan with Magda and she immediately rejects it - she fears the corruption in Romania will affect Eliza's fresh start at Cambridge  Romeo argues that the exams are a mere formality, otherwise meaningless  She is unmoved  Romeo presents the plan to Eliza and implores her to accept a little help now to ensure a brighter future  She listens to him but doesn't make any committed responses, and Romeo tells her to do what she thinks is best before he leaves to let her rest 
The next day Romeo goes to the police station to see the CCTV from Eliza's attack  As he waits at the school for Eliza to complete her second exam, he speaks to her boyfriend, Marius  Romeo listens to what Marius has to say about what happened on the morning of the attack and is put off by Marius' aloofness of the whole incident  Because he was late, Eliza was left on her own  He also assumed Eliza went off to class and did not seek her out  Eliza and Marius go off together on his motorbike 
Eliza comes to fetch Romeo from Sandra's place after Romeo's mother collapses  No longer able to ignore the affair, Eliza threatens to skip her exams if he doesn't tell Magda about it immediately  She wonders aloud whether her other grades were also "fixed"  At home that evening Magda and Romeo talk  Magda already knew about Sandra and will try to get Eliza to take her last exam, but she also asks Romeo to move out 
The next day Romeo arrives for work at the hospital and is confronted by a pair of prosecutors  They want to interview Romeo's patient, Mr  Bulai, about corruption allegations against him  Romeo resists because Bulai is waiting for an operation and is quite unwell  The prosecutors caution Romeo they are aware of the quid-pro-quo arrangement for his daughter's exams - both he and Eliza could be facing charges   
Romeo visits the chief inspector again, who assures him that his daughter's assailant will soon be identified in a police line-up  Later that day he sees Marius and invites him to view the lineup, as he believes he saw Marius witness the attack on the CCTV footage  Marius refuses, saying he did not witness the attack, that it is not him in CCTV picture  Romeo accuses him of cowardice for not intervening, and for only calling the cops much later after witnessing the assault  Romeo orders Marius to stay away from Eliza, and Marius pushes him to the ground and leaves  Romeo visits the headmaster at home to warn him the prosecutors know of the plan  The headmaster tells him that he couldn't find Eliza's paper, and that he shouldn't come to his house again 
That evening at the police station Eliza fails to identify her attacker from a line-up  Later, Romeo is on a bus and sees one of the men from the line-up outside  He leaves the bus and follows him, but gets lost in a bad area  He ends up at Sandra's place and agrees to babysit her son the next morning 
The next day Mr  Bulai has died of a heart attack  The prosecutors are waiting and assure Romeo that the investigation into Mr  Bulai's crimes will continue  Romeo asks the prosecutors to come next Monday and he will co-operate with them for any of their questions  Romeo gets Sandra's son Matei into a speech therapy program  Romeo sees Eliza at her graduation and she tells him that she may not go to England  Romeo responds that it would be a shame but it's her decision  Eliza then says that the teachers gave her extra time to complete her exam, so she did not need to follow Romeo's plan for fixing her paper  She asks Romeo to take a photo of her with her graduating class 

Cast
Adrian Titieni - Romeo Aldea, a 49 year old physician living in a Transylvanian town with his daughter
Maria Drăguș - Eliza Aldea, an 18-year-old high school student planning to study psychology abroad in the United Kingdom after graduating
Lia Bugnar - Magda
Mălina Manovici - Sandra
Vlad Ivanov - Chief Inspector
Gelu Colceag - Exam committee president
Rareș Andrici - Marius

Production
According to Cristian Mungiu, the film was inspired by his own life at the time, while he was focusing on being a father  The film was produced through the director's company Mobra Films and co-produced with Why Not Productions, Wild Bunch, Les Films du Fleuve, France 3 Cinéma and Mandragora Movies  It received 1 91 million leu from the National Film Center  It was shot in the town Victoria from 11 June to 24 July 2015 

Release
Critical reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, Graduation has a rating of 95%, based on 138 critics, with an average rating of 8 2/10  The website's critical consensus reads, "Graduation marks yet another well-written and powerfully acted look at morality and societal decay from writer-director Cristian Mungiu " On Metacritic, Graduation holds a score of 84/100, based on 30 critics, indicating "universal acclaim" Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian lauded it as an "intricate, deeply intelligent film" 

Accolades
Graduation was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival  At Cannes, Mungiu shared the Best Director Award with Olivier Assayas for his film Personal Shopper  At the 8th Magritte Awards, it received a nomination in the category of Best Foreign Film in Coproduction 
Passage 4:
Olivier Assayas
Olivier Assayas (born 25 January 1955) is a French film director, screenwriter and film critic  Assayas is known for his slow-burning period pieces, psychological thrillers, neo-noirs and French comedies  He has frequently collaborated with Juliette Binoche and Kristen Stewart  The son of filmmaker Jacques Rémy, Assayas began his career as a critic for Cahiers du Cinéma  There he wrote about world cinema and its film auteurs, who later influenced his work  Assayas made several shorts, and then made the leap from writer to screenwriter 
He made his directorial film debut with Disorder in 1986  He continued directing films, with Cold Water (1994) a breakthrough film in his career  It was his first film to screen at the Cannes Film Festival in the Un Certain Regard section  His followup film, Irma Vep (1996), also screened at Cannes, while Sentimental Destinies (2000), Demonlover (2002), and Clean (2004) all officially competed for the Palme d'Or  In 2006, he contributed a short film to the anthology film Paris, je t'aime (2006)  He gained acclaim with his dramas Summer Hours (2008), Clouds of Sils Maria (2014) and Personal Shopper (2016); the latter won him the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director  He also directed the comedy Non-Fiction (2018) and the spy thriller Wasp Network (2019) 

Life and career
Assayas was born in Paris, France, the son of French director/screenwriter Raymond Assayas, alias Jacques Rémy (1911–1981)  His father was of Turkish-Jewish origin and had settled in Italy, while his mother, Catherine de Károlyi, was a fashion designer of Protestant Hungarian origin  Assayas started his career in the industry by helping his father  He ghostwrote episodes for TV shows his father was working on when his health failed  In a 2010 interview, Assayas said his main political influences when growing up were Guy Debord and George Orwell  Of the 1968 May uprising to overthrow Charles de Gaulle, Assayas said: "I was defined by the politics of May '68, but for me May '68 was an anti-totalitarian uprising  People seemed to forget that at the occupied Odéon theater, you had crossed flags-black and red, and I was on the side of the black element "Assayas's biggest hit to date is Irma Vep, starring Maggie Cheung, a tribute both to French director Louis Feuillade and to Hong Kong cinema 
While working at Cahiers du cinéma, Assayas wrote lovingly about European film directors he admires but also about Asian directors  One of his films, HHH: A Portrait of Hou Hsiao-hsien, is a documentary about Taiwanese filmmaker Hou Hsiao-hsien 
Assayas married Cheung in 1998  They divorced in 2001, but their relationship remained amicable, and in 2004 Assayas made his film Clean with her 
He met actress-director Mia Hansen-Løve when Hansen-Løve, 17 at the time, starred in Assayas's 1998 feature Late August, Early September, but they "didn't get together until [she] was 20"  They separated in 2017 
In 2009 and 2010, Assayas signed two petitions in support of director Roman Polanski, who had been detained while traveling to a film festival in relation to his 1977 sexual abuse charges, which the first petition argued would undermine the tradition of film festivals as a place for works to be shown "freely and safely", and that arresting filmmakers traveling to neutral countries could open the door "for actions of which no-one can know the effects" Assayas directed and co-wrote the 2010 French television miniseries Carlos, about the life of the terrorist Ilich Ramírez Sánchez  Venezuelan actor Édgar Ramírez won the César Award for Most Promising Actor in 2011 for his performance as Carlos 
In April 2011, it was announced that Assayas would be a member of the jury for the main competition at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival Assayas's 2012 film Something in the Air was selected to compete for the Golden Lion at the 69th Venice International Film Festival  Assayas won the Osella for Best Screenplay at Venice  His 2014 film Clouds of Sils Maria was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or in the main competition section at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival  Sils Maria won the Louis Delluc Prize and garnered six César Award nominations, including Best Film, Best Director, and Best Original Screenplay  The film won a César Award for Best Supporting Actress for Kristen Stewart  In 2016, Assayas won Best Director Award (Cannes Film Festival) for Personal Shopper, which also starred Stewart In June 2017, it was announced that Assayas would preside over the 2017 Locarno Film Festival 

Style and influences
In an interview with Nick Pinkerton of Reverse Shot, Assayas talked about his influences:That radicality in cinema involved just being outside of the world of modern images, and the key to it was the work of Robert Bresson, who has been by far the most important influence in my work, and intellectually it's been the influence of Guy Debord—basically, you know, it's been Debord-Bresson, Bresson-Debord, the things that've always defined my framework, the way I look at the world 
Assayas participated in the 2012 Sight & Sound directors' poll, listing his ten favorite films as follows: 2001: A Space Odyssey, The Gospel According to St  Matthew, Ludwig, A Man Escaped, Mirror, Napoléon, Playtime, The Rules of the Game, The Tree of Life, and Van Gogh 

Filmography
Film
As a writer only

Passage secret (1985)
Rendez-vous (1985)
L'Unique (1986)
Scene of the Crime (1986)
Avril brisé (1987)
Filha da Mãe (1990)
Alice and Martin (1998)
Based on a True Story (2017) - Co-written with Roman Polanski

Television
Short films
Awards and nominations
Passage 5:
Jorge Arriagada
Jorge Arriagada (born 1943) is a Chilean film composer  He is perhaps best known for his long-term collaboration with director Raúl Ruiz  He has also worked with directors Patricio Guzman, Barbet Schroeder and Olivier Assayas 

Biography
Jorge Arriagada was born on August 20, 1943, in Santiago  He studied composition and orchestral conduction at the National Conservatory of Music in Santiago  He then obtained a scholarship from the French government that enabled him to study expressionism with Max Deutsch, who was Austrian composer Arnold Schoenberg's friend and student  He also studied composition with Olivier Messiaen and orchestral conduction with Pierre Boulez  In 1972, the Guggenheim Foundation in New York awarded him a fellowship for his contribution in the field of electronic music 
Arriagada has been living in France since 1966, working with experienced as well as promising directors while composing the scores of 44 of Raúl Ruiz's films  Over the years he has explored many different genres, including classical, contemporary and folk music as well as jazz 
He has been a jury in several film festivals, including San Sebastian, São Paulo, Valencia, among others 
Sacem Grand Prize for Music for the Image 2020 

Filmography
Discography
Three original soundtracks composed by Arriagada can be found on the CD compilation Les Musiques de Jorge Arriagada pour les films de Philippe Le Guay, released by Canadian label Disques Cinémusique, in 2013 : Alceste à Bicyclette, Les Femmes du 6e étage et Les Deux Fragonard  French and English liner notes  More information here 
The same label also released the same year Arriagada's complete original soundtrack from Les Lignes de Wellington  More information here 

External links
Jorge Arriagada at IMDb
Passage 6:
Irma Vep
Irma Vep is a 1996 French comedy-drama film written and directed by Olivier Assayas  Hong Kong actress Maggie Cheung plays a fictionalised version of herself, as disasters result when an unstable French film director (played by Jean-Pierre Léaud) attempts to remake Louis Feuillade's classic silent film serial Les Vampires (1915–16)  (Irma Vep is an anagram for the word "vampire" ) Taking place largely through the eyes of a foreigner (Cheung), it is also a meditation on the state of the French film industry
Context 3: Passage 1:
Simon Woods
Simon Woods (born 7 January 1980) is an English actor and playwright best known for his role as Octavian in Season 2 of the British-American television series Rome and the 2005 Pride & Prejudice as Charles Bingley 

Personal life
Woods attended Eton College, then read English at Magdalen College, Oxford  While at Oxford, he became friends with Chelsea Clinton  After graduating from Oxford, Woods worked briefly at The Guardian before becoming an actor While at Oxford in 2000, he was in a relationship with Rosamund Pike that lasted two years  The two later played lovers Jane Bennet and Charles Bingley in Pride & Prejudice 
Since 2009, Woods has been in a relationship with Christopher Bailey, the former chief executive of the British fashion house, Burberry  They married in 2012  They have two daughters, Iris and Nell 

Filmography
Playwright
Woods's stage play Hansard was presented at the Lyttelton Theatre, London, in September 2019  The work, named after the official record of proceedings in the British parliament, was directed by Simon Godwin 
Passage 2:
Claire Fraser (character)
Claire Beauchamp (who adopts the surnames Randall, Fraser, and Grey at various times) is a fictional character in the Outlander series of multi-genre novels by American author Diana Gabaldon, and its television adaptation  In the series, Claire is a married World War II nurse visiting Scotland who finds herself transported from 1945 back to 1743  There she finds adventure, war and romance with the dashing Highland warrior Jamie Fraser  Smart, stubborn and willful, Claire uses her wits, practical medical skills and knowledge of the future to survive in the 18th century 
Claire is portrayed by Irish actress Caitríona Balfe in the Starz television series Outlander  Balfe won a Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television in 2015 and 2016, and a People's Choice Award for Favorite Sci-Fi/Fantasy TV Actress in 2016  She also received nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama in 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018 

Character
When visiting Scotland, married World War II nurse Claire Randall is transported through time from 1945 back to 1743  There she finds adventure, war and romance with the dashing Highland warrior Jamie Fraser  In the following novels, after the Jacobite defeat at the Battle of Culloden, Claire travels back to her time where she spends 20 years with her former husband Frank Randall, becoming a medical doctor and a surgeon, and raising her and Jamie's daughter Brianna  Finally, having discovered that Jamie survived the Battle of Culloden, she returns to 18th century Scotland and reunites with Jamie  The couple settles in North Carolina, and is soon joined by their daughter Brianna as well as many Scottish settlers 
Gabaldon originally intended Outlander to be straight historical fiction, but after a few days of writing Claire she realized that the character did not behave like an 18th century woman  Gabaldon eventually leaned into the modern approach to Claire, which prompted the introduction of time travel  Claire is often described as stubborn and impatient, and she refuses to conform to the 18th century societal expectations of women  Practicing medicine and putting to use her 20th century medical knowledge leads to numerous accusations of witchcraft, including a witch trial 

Outlander novels
Outlander (1991)
Dragonfly in Amber (1992)
Voyager (1994)
Drums of Autumn (1997)
The Fiery Cross (2001)
A Breath of Snow and Ashes (2005)
An Echo in the Bone (2009)
Written in My Own Heart's Blood (2014)
Go Tell the Bees That I Am Gone (2021)

Television series
Claire is portrayed by Irish actress Caitríona Balfe in the Starz television series Outlander 

Awards and nominations
Balfe won a Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television in 2015 and 2016, and a People's Choice Award for Favorite Sci-Fi/Fantasy TV Actress in 2016  She also received nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama in 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019 
Passage 3:
The Flashman Papers
The Flashman Papers is a series of novels and short stories written by George MacDonald Fraser, the first of which was published in 1969  The books centre on the exploits of the fictional protagonist Harry Flashman  He is a cowardly British soldier, rake and cad who is placed in a series of real historical incidents between 1839 and 1894  While the incidents and much of the detail in the novels have a factual background, Flashman's actions in the stories are either fictional, or Fraser uses the actions of unidentified individuals and assigns them to Flashman  Flashman is a character in the 1857 novel by Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown's School Days; Hughes' version of the character is a bully at Rugby School who is expelled for drunkenness  The character was then developed by Fraser, and appeared in the 1969 novel Flashman  Fraser went on to write a total of eleven novels and one collection of short stories featuring the character 
During the course of Fraser's novels, Flashman goes from his expulsion from school into the army  Although he is a coward who tries to run away from any danger, he is involved in many famous military episodes from the 19th century, often taking actions that cause or affect subsequent events, such as his flatulence affecting the Charge of the Light Brigade, or being the person who probably shot George Armstrong Custer  When circumstances run against him and he is forced to fight, he often does so relatively capably  Despite his cowardice and his attempts to flee, he becomes a decorated war hero and rises to the rank of brigadier-general  He also meets people who either were notable at the time—such as Benjamin Disraeli and the Duke of Wellington—or who became well known after Flashman met them—such as Abraham Lincoln  Flashman either has, or tries to have, sex with most of the female characters: by the end of the ninth book he estimates that he has had sex with 480 women 
The publication sequence of the books differs from the fictional chronology, with the time frame of some books overlapping  One of the novels, Flashman and the Redskins, is in two parts: part one takes place in 1849–50, while the second covers 1875–76  Although the main series of stories finishes in 1894, Flashman lives on until 1915 and appears in his late 80s in another Fraser novel, Mr American 

Context
The series consists of twelve historical fiction books written by the journalist, author and screenwriter George MacDonald Fraser, that were published between 1969 and 2005  The series consists of eleven novels and one collection of short stories, spanning from 1839 to 1894; they are the memoirs of the fictional character General Sir Harry Paget Flashman, VC, KCB, KCIE  Although Flashman is fictional, the settings and history of the events, and the people with whom he interacts are all largely based around historical events and individuals, although three contain elements of other novels  Flashman first appeared in the 1857 semi-autobiographical novel Tom Brown's School Days by Thomas Hughes as a bully at Rugby School, who persecutes Tom Brown, and who is expelled for drunkenness: Fraser's series of novels starts with Flashman's expulsion from school  Based on a literary conceit, an explanatory note—itself also fictional—at the start of Flashman sets the context and explains that the memoirs had been found in an auction house in Ashby, Leicestershire, and had subsequently come into the possession of Fraser, who has acted in the role of editor  Fraser also included pages of notes and appendices at the end of each volume, providing the factual background for Flashman's endeavours Fraser was working as a journalist on The Glasgow Herald when he wrote the first novel, Flashman; writing in the evenings, after work, he took 90 hours in total to write the story  After the book was published, he left journalism and took up writing novels  When a break from writing was forced upon him by a broken arm, he abandoned the book until his wife read the manuscript and urged him to finish  He did not find a publisher for the novel for two years, until Barrie & Jenkins published it in 1969  When the novel was published in the US the same year, of the 34 reviews read by Alden Whitman of The New York Times, ten of them considered the book to be a genuine autobiography  Fraser researched each novel at Trinity College Dublin  From their first publication, the books were a commercial success, and new editions appeared on the best-sellers' lists 

Flashman
Flashman is from a semi-aristocratic background; he recounted that his great-grandfather "made a fortune in America out of slaves and rum, and piracy, too, I shouldn't wonder"  His father was "a dissolute former MP, living beyond the bounds of respectable society, and     his mother [was] born of the self-promoting Paget family"  Despite joining the army after expulsion from school, Flashman is a self-confessed coward with a false reputation for bravery, earned at the expense of others, and despite him trying to avoid danger at all costs  He is also "a scoundrel, a drunk, a liar, a cheat [and] a braggart", who was described by Fraser as "an unrepentant old cad" whose only positive features are "humour and shameless honesty as a memorialist" Flashman is 6 feet 2 inches (1 88 m) tall, weighs 13 stone (180 lb; 83 kg) (12½ stone in the first book, fourteen stone in the last), has broad shoulders and is attractive to women  He was forced into marriage in the first book, after he "caddishly deflowered" Elspeth Morrison, the daughter of a wealthy Scottish textile manufacturer with whom he had been billeted  Despite being married—and the fact he deeply loves his wife—Flashman is "a compulsive womaniser" who has bedded 480 women by the tenth book in the series, which was set in 1859  Elspeth is also probably unfaithful to him on several occasions  Flashman notes that he has three "prime talents, for horses, languages, and fornication"; he was also described by the master-at-arms of the 11th Hussars as a strong swordsman and was skilled with a lance, particularly at tent pegging  When it is necessary for him to control his fear, he will perform bravely, although is more adept at saving his own skin at the expense of others In the course of the series, Flashman is promoted to the rank of brigadier-general, and decorated numerous times by different countries  While the books cover some of the awards—such as being given the Victoria Cross for his actions during the sieges of Cawnpore and Lucknow—some stories are not known, such as how and why he served on both sides of the American Civil War and how he won the Medal of Honor During his travels Flashman meets people who took part in 19th-century events, including Queen Victoria, Abraham Lincoln, Otto von Bismarck, Oscar Wilde and Florence Nightingale, and he is involved as a participant in some of the century's most notable events, including the Indian Rebellion, the Taiping Rebellion, the charge of the Light Brigade, the Siege of Khartoum, John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry and the Battle of the Little Bighorn Flashman died in 1915, although the details are unknown 

Publication sequence
Fictional chronology
Other references
Flashman also appears in another book by Fraser, Mr American, age 88, while his father was one of the financial backers of the bare-knuckle boxer Tom Molineaux in Black Ajax 

Notes and references
Notes
Passage 4:
Claire Bennet
Claire Bennet is a fictional character in the NBC psychological thriller superhero drama series Heroes  She is portrayed by Hayden Panettiere and first appeared on television in the pilot episode of the series, "Genesis", on September 25, 2006  She is a high school cheerleader with the power of rapid cellular regeneration  Claire appears in more episodes than any other character (72, plus a 73rd through stock footage)  In Heroes Reborn, she dies while giving birth to Malina and Tommy 
Thanks to her power, she has an incredibly high pain tolerance; Claire states in "The Butterfly Effect" that, when injured, she feels pain just as severe as anyone else who was injured in such a way, but her power quickly deadens pain  When asked about this, series writers Joe Pokaski and Aron Coleite would only comment that she "feels pain, but not the way most of us do " Claire, describing her response to pain to West, says "I feel pain; I just get over it quickly "
Between her tolerance for pain and seemingly unlimited healing potential, Hayden Panettiere compares her character to the X-Men character Wolverine, although she is "less hairy and without claws " Since having her brain examined by Sylar, Claire has stated that she no longer feels physical pain of any kind 

Casting
Marc Hirschfeld, executive vice president of casting for NBC Universal Television stated, "When they were trying to decide who the cheerleader should be, I literally picked up the phone and said to the producers, 'You've got to meet Hayden Panettiere  '"In an interview with Vanity Fair, Emma Stone revealed that she had auditioned for the role of Claire Bennet  She said it was her rock bottom Hollywood moment; She overheard "You are our pick     On a scale of 1 to 10 you’re an 11" and then she realised the role had gone to Hayden Panettiere 

Reception and analysis
Panettiere received positive reviews for her work on the show throughout the series run, constantly being referred to as a "breakout star"  Claire is also arguably one of the most popular characters on the show  UGO Networks listed Claire as one of their best heroes of all time Professor of audiovisual arts Olvido Andújar Molina saw the character of Claire Bennet as a metaphor for the United States of America, as her role as a cheerleader functioned as one of the basic American cultural archetypes  Claire Bennet's special ability was regeneration from any kind of accident, which in this reading symbolizes the idea of the United States being invincible in the long term  Andújar Molina expands the idea to the character of Nathan Petrelli: As he is discovered as Claire's biological father, he represents the father figure and protector of the country as a whole  Andújar Molina thought that this identification of the characters, together with their presentation as heroes trying to save the world, contributed to their positive reception and identification with the audience Sarah Godfrey and Hannah Hamad saw in the character a resurgence of the trope of the helpless girl in postfeminist, post-9/11 television: "Notwithstanding Claire Bennet's physical indestructibility, she remains contained by a narrative position that necessitates protection from a range of male characters "
Passage 5:
On a Claire Day
On a Claire Day was an American internationally syndicated gag-a-day comic strip by Creators Syndicate, created by Henry Beckett and Carla Ventresca and launched in 2006  The strip ended its run in print and online on June 14, 2014, to continue on the mobile device service Comikka  According to its creators, there was discussion on it being developed into a television show The strip follows the life of fictional character Claire Bennett, an insecure and naive young woman, who has left her parents' home to live on her own   She is visited frequently by Sammi, her elegant, financially savvy, and impatient best friend; Jeff, her guy's guy neighbor, who's happy working construction and doesn't understand Claire's ambition or life issues; her "out there" Oprah-fanatic mom and her "work hard or you're worth nothing" dad; and the perfect neighbors, Pasha and James, who seem to do everything with an ease and flair Claire can't achieve or imagine possessing herself  But she managed to settle down in with a life with medical researcher Paul along with their dog Bradley and cat Lulu and at the end of the series were engaged 
Passage 6:
Temptation of Wife (2012 TV series)
Temptation of Wife is a Philippine television drama revenge series broadcast by GMA Network  The series is based on a 2008 South Korean drama series of the same title  Directed by Dominic Zapata and Gina Alajar, it stars Marian Rivera in the title role, Dennis Trillo, Glaiza de Castro and Rafael Rosell  It premiered on October 29, 2012, on the network's Telebabad line up replacing Luna Blanca  The series concluded on April 5, 2013, with a total of 113 episodes  It was replaced by Love & Lies in its timeslot 

Cast and characters
Lead castMarian Rivera as Angeline Santos-Salcedo / Chantal Gonzales / Angeline Santos-Armada 
Dennis Trillo as Marcelito "Marcel" Salcedo
Glaiza de Castro as Heidi Fernandez-Montreal
Rafael Rosell as Nigel ArmadaSupporting castRez Cortez as Abner Santos
Rio Locsin as Minda Santos
Antonio Aquitania as Leo Santos
Raymond Bagatsing as Romeo Salcedo
Cherie Gil as Stella Salcedo
Bettina Carlos as Madel Salcedo
Ayen Munji-Laurel as Yolanda Gonzales-Armada
Michelle Madrigal as Chantal Gonzales ArmadaRecurring castJC Tiuseco as Bernard
Bubbles Paraiso as Leslie
Mel Martinez as PatGuest castSheena Halili as young Yolanda
Jay Aquitania as young Romeo
Mel Kimura as Josefina Fernandez
Patricia Ysmael as Scarlet
John Nite as an event host
Robert Seña as Robert Montreal

Background
Temptation of Wife is a 2008 South Korean television drama series broadcast by Seoul Broadcasting System from November 3, 2008, to May 1, 2009  It was written by Soon-ok Kim and directed by Se-kang Oh  The series starred Seo Hee Jang, Jae Hwang Lee, Woo Min Byun and Seo Hyung Kim in the lead roles The series also had a huge success in the Philippines during its run  GMA Network aired the series (dubbed in Tagalog) in an early primetime slot from October 4, 2010,  and concluded on May 27, 2011 

Production and development
In 2011, GMA Network's senior vice president for entertainment, Wilma Galvante stated that they would be adapting the Korean series, Temptation of Wife  Pre-production started in earlier 2012  The head writer, Dode Cruz stated that he would develop "a bit serious, sexier and edgier version" than the original  The producer assigned Dominic Zapata to direct the series 
Originally planned for a December 2012 premiere, it was later moved to an earlier date  following the cancellation of the drama series, Haram 

Casting
The cast was announced on September 11, 2012, during the series' story conference, with the main cast being, Marian Rivera, Dennis Trillo, Alessandra De Rossi and Rafael Rosell  As for Rivera's preparation, she stated that "Whenever I have a new soap, I make sure to ask some tips about the role  Then I talk to my director how he wants me to approach my role  I'd like to have an idea of the character that I am going to portray and how I would give life to it onscreen"  She added that she wants every role she does to be different from the previous one in terms of how she going to approach it  Trillo described his character as a "not-so-typical-leading-man" role De Rossi was hired to play Heidi Fernandez  However, the role was eventually given to Glaiza de Castro due to de Rossi's issues with the role The series served as Rosell's first major project for GMA Network  Zapata, required the cast to watch the original series before filming began to familiarize their characters 

Filming
The series' plug, teasers and opening title sequence were filmed on September 11, 2012, in a studio at GMA Network Center in Quezon City  Filming for the series began on October 9, 2012  Many of the series’ scenes were shot on location in Quezon City 

Reception
Ratings
According to AGB Nielsen Philippines' Mega Manila household television ratings, the pilot episode of Temptation of Wife earned a 23 5% rating  While the final episode scored a 27 9% rating  The series had its highest rating with a 41 3% rating 

Critical response
Vincent Anthon Garcia of gulfnews com said that "Marian Rivera has proved why she is truly the Queen of Primetime TV  Her current series, Temptation of Wife, has zoomed to the top of the ratings"  Mario Bautista of Journal praised the show's main villain, Glaiza de Castro, said that "One reason why Temptation of Wife clicks with viewers is the fact that de Castro is so effective as the villainous Heidi  We know she didn't want to play kontrabida (villainess) again after she did lead roles in Grazilda and Biritera  But Glaiza made the right decision in accepting the Heidi role as it's really so "mark" and she can show her versatility as an actress who can do both lead and villain roles "

Accolades
Passage 7:
Jamie Fraser (character)
James "Jamie" Fraser is a fictional character in the Outlander series of multi-genre novels by American author Diana Gabaldon, and its television adaptation  In the series, married World War II nurse Claire Randall is visiting Scotland when she is transported through time from 1945 back to 1743  There she finds adventure, war and romance with the dashing Highland warrior Jamie Fraser, a member of Gabaldon's fictionalized Clan Fraser of Lovat  Jamie also appears in two novels in the Lord John series of historical mysteries, and in the 2013 novella Virgins 
Jamie is portrayed by Sam Heughan in the Starz television series Outlander 

Concept and creation
Gabaldon took the name "Jamie" from the Doctor Who character Jamie McCrimmon, portrayed in the television series by Frazer Hines  Gabaldon had seen the Doctor Who serial The War Games, which inspired her to set her novel in Scotland  Gabaldon developed Jamie from an account in the Eric Linklater book Prince in the Heather, in which a single Jacobite named Fraser survives the mass execution of his fellows  Jamie's looks and character are based on Gabaldon's husband, Doug Watkins, as the author has herself confirmed on her Twitter account Hines guest starred in the May 2015 episode "Wentworth Prison" of Outlander, the television series adaptation of Gabaldon's novels 

Character
When married World War II nurse Claire Randall is transported through time from 1945 back to 1743, she meets dashing Highland warrior Jamie Fraser Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly wrote, "The stories the show told during the second half of the first season deepened [Claire and Jamie's] bond and their need for each other  Jamie in particular was made to confront his personal and cultural attitudes about gender roles, understand how they impact Claire, and recognize the value to him of having a wife that was his equal in every way "Gabaldon describes Jamie as handsome and unusually tall, with distinctive red hair, deep blue eyes, and fair skin  The character uses many aliases throughout the series, including Jamie MacTavish, The Dunbonnet, Red Jamie/Seumas Ruadh, Mac Dubh, Alex MacKenzie, and Alexander Malcolm 

Appearances
Jamie is a main character of Gabaldon's Outlander series  He also appears in two novels in the Lord John series of historical mysteries, and in the 2013 novella Virgins 

Outlander novels
Outlander (1991)
Dragonfly in Amber (1992)
Voyager (1994)
Drums of Autumn (1997)
The Fiery Cross (2001)
A Breath of Snow and Ashes (2005)
An Echo in the Bone (2009)
Written in My Own Heart's Blood (2014)
Virgins, prequel novella in the anthology Dangerous Women (2013)
Go Tell the Bees That I Am Gone (2021)

Lord John novels
Lord John and the Brotherhood of the Blade (2007)
The Scottish Prisoner (2011)

Television series
Jamie is portrayed by Sam Heughan in the Starz television series Outlander 

Awards and nominations
Heughan was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor on Television in 2015, and Best Actor on Television in 2016  Heughan was also nominated for a People's Choice Award for Favorite Sci-Fi/Fantasy TV Actor in 2016 and 2017, a 2016 BAFTA Scotland Award for Best Actor in Television, and a 2016 Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Drama Series 
Passage 8:
Caitriona Balfe
Caitríona Mary Balfe (; born 4 October 1979) is an Irish actress  She is best known for her starring role as Claire Fraser in the Starz historical drama series Outlander (2014–present), for which she received nominations for four Golden Globe Awards for Best Actress in a Television Series – Drama 
At age eighteen, while studying drama at the Dublin Institute of Technology, Balfe began working as a fashion model in Paris  Ten years later, she refocused on acting  She had leading roles in the series The Beauty Inside (2012) and H+: The Digital Series (2012–2013), and appeared in the films Super 8 (2011), Now You See Me (2013), Escape Plan (2013), Money Monster (2016), and Ford v Ferrari (2019)  Her performance in Belfast (2021) earned her nominations for the Golden Globe and British Academy Film Awards 

Early life
Balfe was born in Dublin and grew up outside the village of Tydavnet, near Monaghan Town, in a family of seven  She is the fourth of five children  Her father was a retired Garda Sergeant  She went to Dublin Institute of Technology to study drama, before being spotted by a model scout 

Career
Modelling
Balfe started modelling after she was scouted by an agent while she was collecting money for charity at a local shopping centre



ground_truth: University

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Are both Frank Lloyd and Olivier Assayas American film directors?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: 
Irma Vep was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival  It was released in France on 13 November 1996  
In 2022, the film was reimagined as a miniseries for HBO, created by Assayas 

Plot
The plot mirrors the disorientation felt by director René Vidal during a troubled production of a film-within-a-film  Maggie Cheung has been cast to play the film's heroine, Irma Vep, a burglar and a spy, who dresses in a tight, black, latex rubber catsuit  Irma Vep, it is explained, is an anagram for vampire, but she is not a literal vampire  Rather, she is the inspiration for a criminal gang named The Vampires, as in Feuillade's original serial 
René, the cast and crew view the film's dailies and he angrily declares the footage terrible and soulless  After he storms out, everyone else quickly departs the facility, leaving Maggie stranded  She accepts an invitation from the costume designer, Zoé, to a group dinner with other crew members  There, Zoé confides to another woman that she is romantically interested in Maggie, which the woman then tells Maggie, embarrassing her 
After the dinner with the other crew members, Maggie visits René at a hotel in the aftermath of a violent episode with his wife  René admits that he had mainly wanted to make the film because he desired to see her in it  Later that evening, Maggie, apparently possessed by her character, dons the catsuit and steals jewelry from a hotel suite while a nude woman argues on the phone with her boyfriend  She then throws away the jewelry 
The next morning, Zoé picks an exhausted Maggie up from her hotel room  René is a no-show on the set, and the crew attempt to film without him  At the end of the day, imperious film director José Mirano meets Maggie's costar Laure at a bar and tells her René has had a breakdown and that he has been hired to complete the film  He firmly contends that a Chinese actress should not be playing Irma Vep, who he sees as an icon within French culture  José tells her he intends to replace Maggie with Laure 
Zoé and Maggie take a taxi to a rave, but Maggie declines to go at the last minute and departs in the taxi  Zoé, looking disappointed, walks through the crowd at the rave 
José and the cast and crew gather at the screening facility to view the rushes that René has personally edited  Maggie is not there, however, and it is said that she has left for America to work on a film with Ridley Scott  The film ends with the rushes, which have been cut into a hallucinatory montage with numerous scratches and other modifications being done to the film itself  The future of the production is not revealed 

Cast
Allusions to French film history
The film refers to iconic figures in French film history: Louis Feuillade, Musidora, Arletty, François Truffaut, the Groupe SLON, Alain Delon, and Catherine Deneuve  Thematically, the film questions the place of French cinema today  According to Chris Darke, it is not a "mourning for cinema with the romantic nostalgia" but "more like the Mexican Day of the Dead: remembrance as an act of celebration"  Furthermore, Dale Hudson of Screen wrote, "It is less a film about re-presenting the past, than it is a film about addressing the present, specifically the place of France within the global economy "

Production
The idea for the film was born out of an attempted collaboration among Assayas, Claire Denis, and Atom Egoyan, who wanted to experiment with the situation of a foreigner in Paris  In the 1915 original serial, written and directed by Louis Feuillade, Irma Vep was played by French silent film actress Musidora (1889–1957)  Much of the film depicts set-related incidents that echo scenes in Truffaut's 1973 film Day for Night, to which Irma Vep owes a large thematic debt 
However, Assayas publicly stated that although he considers La nuit americaine a great film, it is more about the fantasy of filmmaking than the reality  Assayas credits as a greater inspiration Rainer Werner Fassbinder's Beware of a Holy Whore, in which Lou Castel, who plays the replacement director José Mirano in this film, plays a film director 
Assayas wrote the script in ten weeks, and the film was shot in a month, with no retakes  "Its hasty production circumstances seem perilously close to the ones that cause everyone such grief in the film "Assayas married Cheung in 1998  They divorced in 2001  They again collaborated in 2004 on the film Clean 

Reception
Irma Vep received a positive critical response  On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 94% based on 47 reviews with an average rating of 7 4/10  The website's critics consensus reads, "Starring a bewitching Maggie Cheung, Irma Vep is an evocative and reflexive satire of the filmmaking process that is bursting at the seams with an affection for cinema " On Metacritic, it has a metascore of 80 out of 100 based on 21 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews" 

References in other media
Lettrist footage from the film, along with shots from the original Les Vampires, are used in White Ring's video for their single "IxC999" 
A character in the five-comic series "Anno Dracula – 1895: Seven Days in Mayhem" by Kim Newman and Paul McCaffrey is based on Irma Vep 

Home media
Irma Vep was released on Blu-ray and DVD through The Criterion Collection on 27 April 2021 

Television adaptation
HBO produced a limited television series adaptation of the film that premiered at the Cannes Film Festival on 22 May 2022, and was released on 6 June 2022 on HBO  It stars Alicia Vikander, Vincent Macaigne, Adria Arjona, Byron Bowers, Devon Ross, Carrie Brownstein, Tom Sturridge and Fala Chen and was written and directed by Assayas 

See also
The Mystery of Irma Vep, a 1984 play for two characters by Charles Ludlam
Lettrism, inspiration for some sequences of the film
Passage 7:
Something in the Air (2012 film)
Something in the Air (French: Après mai; lit  'After May') is a 2012 French drama film written and directed by Olivier Assayas  The film was selected to compete for the Golden Lion at the 69th Venice International Film Festival, where Assayas won the Best Screenplay Award 

Plot
In 1971, French student Gilles gets entangled in contemporary political turmoils although he would rather just be a creative artist  While torn between his solidarity to his friends and his personal ambitions he falls in love with Christine 

Cast
Clément Métayer as Gilles
Lola Créton as Christine
Félix Armand as Alain
Carole Combes as Laure
India Menuez as Leslie
Hugo Conzelmann as Jean-Pierre
Martin Loizillon as Rackam le Rouge
André Marcon as Gilles' Father
Passage 8:
Clouds of Sils Maria
Clouds of Sils Maria (known simply as Sils Maria in some territories) is a 2014 psychological drama film written and directed by Olivier Assayas, and starring Juliette Binoche, Kristen Stewart, and Chloë Grace Moretz  The film is a French-German-Swiss co-production  Principal photography took place from August to October 2013, with most of the filming taking place in Sils Maria, Switzerland  The film follows an established middle-aged actress (Binoche) who is cast as the older lover in a romantic lesbian drama opposite an upstart young starlet (Moretz)  She is overcome with personal insecurities and professional jealousies—all while sexual tension simmers between her and her personal assistant (Stewart)  The screenplay was written with Binoche in mind and incorporates elements from her life into the plot Clouds of Sils Maria was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or in the main competition section at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival on 23 May 2014, and also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival and New York Film Festival  The film received positive reviews, with critics lauding the work as psychologically complex and praising the lead actresses' performances  It won the Louis Delluc Prize for Best Film in December 2014, and received six César Award nominations  Stewart received the César Award for Best Supporting Actress in February 2015, the first time an American won the award 

Plot
Maria Enders is an international film and stage actress  She travels with a loyal and young American assistant, Valentine  Twenty years earlier, Maria got her big break when she was cast and successfully performed as a young girl Sigrid in both the play and film version of Maloja Snake by Wilhelm Melchior, a Swiss playwright who is now elderly  The play centers on the tempestuous relationship between Sigrid and Helena, a vulnerable older woman  Helena commits suicide after Sigrid takes advantage of her and dumps her 
While traveling to Zürich to accept an award on behalf of Wilhelm, and planning to visit him at home the following day at his house in Sils Maria—a remote settlement in the Alps—Maria learns of his death  His widow Rosa later confides that Wilhelm had ended his life and had been terminally ill  During the awards ceremony, Maria is approached by Klaus Diesterweg, a popular theater director  He wants to persuade her to appear onstage in a revival of Maloja Snake, but this time in the role of Helena 
Maria is torn and reluctantly accepts  To prepare for the role, she accepts Rosa's offer to stay at the Melchiors' house in Sils Maria  Rosa is leaving to escape her memories of Wilhelm  Maria's discussions with Valentine and their read-throughs of the play's scenes evoke uncertainty about the nature of their relationship  A young American actress, 19-year-old Jo-Ann Ellis, has been chosen to portray the role of Sigrid  Researching her on Google and the Internet, Valentine tells Maria, who is out of touch with social media, that Ellis has been involved in numerous scandals 
Questions soon multiply regarding aging, time, culture and the blurring line between the Sigrid/Helena and the Valentine/Maria relationships  Maria and Jo-Ann finally meet, but their relationship is complicated  Jo-Ann appears to be implicated in the attempted suicide of the ex-wife of her new boyfriend 
During their time at Sils Maria, Maria and Valentine spend much of their days hiking in the Alps  On one such final outing, they hike to the Maloja Pass to observe the Maloja Snake (both the "Maloja Snake" of the play's title and the "Clouds of Sils Maria" in the film's title)  When discussing the play’s ending, in which Helena walks into the mountains never to return, Valentine suggests that Helena can still be alive and walk away to start a new life  Maria protests that Helena must be dead because she doesn’t return  After suggesting that their approaches to the play are too different for her (Valentine) to be a useful assistant, Valentine disappears without explanation 
A few weeks later, a young filmmaker who has previously sent a script to Maria visits her by appointment five minutes before the curtain rises on the opening night of Maloja Snake in London  Maria seems preoccupied, being so close to the start of the performance, and dismisses his suggested ideas about the proposed film role he is offering her as "too abstract for me"  When she says the role he has written is too young for her and would suit Jo-Ann better, he suggests that the character is ageless and that he does not relate to his era with its Internet scandals and trashy values  Maria does not give him a reply as to whether she will take part in the film  She then appears onstage, smoking and waiting for Sigrid 

Cast
Production
Principal photography of Clouds of Sils Maria began on 22 August 2013 and ended on 4 October  The film was shot on location in the titular village of Sils Maria, Switzerland as well as Zürich; Leipzig, Germany; and South Tyrol, Italy 
In an interview, Assayas said that all the film's interiors were shot in Germany  The production moved to Sils Maria to film the hiking scenes, and moved again to film the scenes in and around the chalet in South Tyrol The Chanel company debuted in film financing with this production  In addition it supplied the actresses with clothes, jewelry, accessories, and makeup, and the brand was scripted in as a provider of the same to Maria   Chanel provided some of the budget to allow Olivier Assayas to fulfill his dream of shooting a film on 35-mm film instead of digitally Assayas has described the fictional play Maloja Snake as a "condensed, brutalized version" of The Bitter Tears of Petra von Kant, a play by Rainer Werner Fassbinder (it was later adapted as a film of the same name) The American title of the film is Clouds of Sils Maria  In France the film was released as Sils Maria, Assayas' original name 

Release
Marketing
The first trailer for the film was released on 22 May 2014  Another international trailer followed on 7 July 

Film festivals
The film was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or in the main competition section at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival on 23 May 2014  It also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival and New York Film Festival 

Reception
Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 91% of 179 critics have given the film a positive review, with an average rating of 7 6/10  The website's critics consensus reads: "Bolstered by a trio of powerful performances from its talented leads, Clouds of Sils Maria is an absorbing, richly detailed drama with impressive depth and intelligence " On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 79 out of 100, based on 41 reviews from critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews" Clouds of Sils Maria premiered at the Cannes Film Festival to positive reviews  Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph stated, "This is a complex, bewitching and melancholy drama, another fearlessly intelligent film from Assayas " He said, "Binoche plays the role with elegance and melancholic wit – her character slips between fiction and fact in a way that recalls her role in Abbas Kiarostami's Certified Copy  But it's Stewart who really shines here  Valentine is probably her best role to date: she's sharp and subtle, knowable and then suddenly distant, and a late, surprising twist is handled with a brilliant lightness of touch "Peter Debruge of Variety said it was Assayas' "daring rejoinder, a multi-layered, femme-driven meta-fiction that pushes all involved—including next-gen starlets Kristen Stewart and Chloë Grace Moretz — to new heights " Matt Risley of Total Film called it "an elegant, intelligent drama, enlivened by strong performances by Binoche, Moretz and especially Stewart, for whom this will surely usher in a new dawn "Stephanie Zacharek of The Village Voice wrote: "But the movie's true center, the meteorological phenomenon that makes it so pleasurable to watch, is the half-prickly, half-affectionate interplay between Binoche and Stewart " Ben Sachs of Chicago Reader wrote: "This recalls Ingmar Bergman's chamber dramas in the intensity and psychological complexity of the central relationship, yet the filmmaking is breathtakingly fluid, evoking a sense of romantic abandon "However, Kyle Smith of the New York Post writes: "A backstage drama that has all the sizzle of a glass of water resting on the windowsill, [   ] Clouds of Sils Maria mistakes lack of dramatic imagination for smoldering subtlety " Richard Brody from The New Yorker writes: "Clouds of Sils Maria, as the title suggests, is a sort of travelogue, a commercial for European cultural tourism, and, as such, it's the perfect image of the very system that created it  There's almost no independent filmmaking in France, and there isn't supposed to be  If there were, it would stand as a threat to the system that, by way of training, enticements, and restrictions, is the source of the comforts that the movie depicts and that the movie reflects  The mediocrity is stifling "

Box office
Clouds of Sils Maria opened in France on 20 August 2014 in 150 theaters for a $3,663 per theater average and a box office total of $549,426 as of 24 August 2014  The film expanded to 195 theaters in its second week of release, and the box office increased to an estimated $1,150,090 
Clouds of Sils Maria opened in the United States on 10 April 2015 in three theaters and grossed $69,729 on its opening weekend for an average of $23,243 per  As of 4 June 2015, the film has grossed an estimated $1,743,577 after expanding theaters 

Awards and nominations
The film won the Louis Delluc Prize for Best Film in December 2014  The film received six César Award nominations including best film, best director, best actress, best original screenplay, and best cinematography, while Stewart won for best supporting actress, becoming the first American actress to win a César and the third  American actor to win after Adrien Brody in 2003 and Christopher Lambert in 1985 

Soundtrack
"Kowalski" by Primal Scream
"Largo de Xerxes" – Georg Friedrich Handel
"Canon and Gigue in D Major for 3 Violins and Basso Continuo" – Johann Pachelbel
"Paavin of Albarti (Alberti)" – Innocentio Alberti (performed by Hesperion XXI)
"Sonata No  2 in D Minor" – Georg Friedrich Handel
"Sonata No  2 in B-Flat Major for Violin and Harp, Op  16: II  Adagio" - Louis Spohr
"Trio for Violin, Cello and Harp in E minor: III  Rondo" - Louis Spohr

Home media
The film was released on DVD and Digital HD by Paramount Home Media on July 14, 2015; the company also handles the digital entertainment sales, with IFC handling the video on demand sales The Criterion Collection released a DVD and Blu-ray edition on 28 June 2016 
Passage 9:
Eddie's House
Eddie's House was a doghouse designed by Frank Lloyd Wright for the Berger family of San Anselmo, California, to be used by their dog Eddie  Wright designed Eddie's House to be in keeping with the family's home, known as the Robert Berger House, which he had previously designed  The plans for the doghouse were completed by Wright in 1957, and the 4 sq ft (0 37 m2) triangular house was built in 1963  In 1973 Eddie's House was removed and thrown away, but in 2010 Jim and Eric Berger, sons of Robert Berger, rebuilt Eddie's House from the original plans for a segment in Romanza, a documentary film by Michael Miner about Frank Lloyd Wright's architectural works in California  The doghouse remains the smallest structure Frank Lloyd Wright ever designed 

History
Eddie's House was a doghouse designed by Frank Lloyd Wright as an addition to the Robert Berger House   The Robert Berger House is a dwelling designed by Frank Lloyd Wright for the Berger family   Wright gave the plans to trained engineer and College of Marin professor Robert Berger to build the house on his own on Redwood Road in San Anselmo, California  It took 20 years to finish the US$15,000 house In 1956, Robert's 12-year-old son Jim Berger became concerned about his black Labrador Retriever Eddie staying outside in the winter, and decided he needed a doghouse to stay warm  Jim subsequently wrote a letter to Frank Lloyd Wright stating, "I would appreciate it if you would design me a doghouse which would be easy to build but would go with our house " Jim continued to explain Eddie's dimensions ("two and a half feet high and three feet long"), his dog's age ("four years old or in dog life 28 years"), and his ability to pay for the plans and materials of the doghouse with earned money from delivering newspapers along a bicycle paper route he had  Wright responded to the letter with a typed and signed note on Taliesin West stationery  The note stated that "A house for Eddie is an opportunity   but just now I am too busy to concentrate on it " Wright implored the boy to write again a year later to see if he was a little less busy Jim followed the suggestion laid out by Wright and a year later wrote again asking for a Frank Lloyd Wright-designed doghouse  Not long after sending out this second letter a full set of working drawings arrived in the mail for a four square foot triangular doghouse designed by Wright himself  The doghouse was to be built of scrap Philippine mahogany and cedar left over from the construction of the human-sized house it was to be situated next to  Looking back at the situation a 68-year-old Jim Berger stated:
My dog had a lot of class, and a Frank Lloyd Wright doghouse was perfect for him  I was very excited for my dog 
Jim Berger never built the doghouse and in 1963, at the age of 19, Jim joined the U S  Army  That same year, after Jim's departure, his younger brother Eric and his father completed the doghouse  Eddie did not particularly like the new house and took to sleeping by the front door of the Robert Berger House instead, presumably because it was warmer there  "That was kind of depressing," stated Jim Berger when reflecting on the incident Robert Berger died in 1973 and Mrs  Berger, not seeing any value in a triangular doghouse that Eddie and the subsequent dogs they owned would not sleep in, had it hauled to the dump the same year In 2010, while filming a documentary about buildings designed by Wright in California, Michael Miner stumbled across the doghouse story  Miner asked Jim Berger if rebuilding Eddie's House was an option  Jim, at this point a retired woodshop teacher, said that he had wanted to rebuild the doghouse for years and this was the opportunity to do so  Over the next three months Jim and his brother Eric, a skilled cabinetmaker, were filmed by Miner rebuilding the doghouse to Wright's specification in Eric's Petaluma, California garage  Jim Berger said, in relation to the construction process, "In the letter, I said I wanted something easy to build, but this doghouse was not easy to build  It was very complicated "The construction process is featured in Miner's documentary, Romanza, and the rebuilt doghouse also went on a publicity tour for the film  During filming, the rebuilt doghouse was placed on the side of the Robert Berger House where the original once sat  On that day it happened to be raining and Miner noticed something peculiar about the doghouse which it had in common with other Wright-designed structures:  "It leaks "

Design
Eddie's House is the smallest structure ever known to be designed by Frank Lloyd Wright and fits in well with the Robert Berger House  Eddie's House was constructed of the same materials as the larger house and the "small triangular hut    bowed to the hexagonal geometry of the house's hexagonal plan " The doghouse also displays many signature design elements that have come to represent Frank Lloyd Wright's architectural style  These include an entrance hidden on the rear of the house, and a large overhang on a roof with a low pitch When Eddie's House was actually constructed, the Berger family did not follow Wright's plans strictly  They changed the location of the door as well as not including a concrete base planned by Wright to make the doghouse portable 

See also
List of Frank Lloyd Wright works
 Architecture portal
 Dogs portal
Passage 10:
Cold Water (film)
Cold Water (French: L'eau froide) is a 1994 French film written and directed by Olivier Assayas about two troubled teenagers in France during the 1970s  The film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1994 Cannes Film Festival In October, 2007, it was screened at the Pacific Film Archive in Berkeley, California, where Assayas spent a week in residence introducing and discussing his films with the audiences there  He was accompanied by his friend Jean-Michel Frodon, the current director of the journal Cahiers du cinéma, of which Assayas was once the director  Assayas said the film is autobiographical, reflecting upon his own teenage years  He went out of his way to cast actors who were not professionals or who, as in the case of male lead Cyprien Fouquet (playing Gilles), had never acted before, although female lead Virginie Ledoyen (playing Christine) had appeared in several films  The film was the result of a commission from French TV, which wanted a 52-minute film but allowed Assayas to make a longer version, after some negotiations 

Plot
Gilles and Christine are teenagers from unstable homes  When they do some shop-lifting together she is arrested, but he gets away  She escapes from a mental institution and meets him at an abandoned house in the country, where a large group of rebellious teenagers are having a wild, all-night party  American rock music from the period is played prominently and has a very strong effect, especially "Me and Bobby McGee," sung by Janis Joplin  Drugs are used, mainly pot and hash  As the party is winding down, Gilles and Christine escape even deeper into the countryside, searching for a commune where artists are said to live without electricity or running water  This is Christine's idea, but Gilles reluctantly goes along  A jolting conclusion shows us that, as Assayas puts it, "Gilles' real life has now begun "

Cast
Virginie Ledoyen - Christine
Cyprien Fouquet - Gilles
László Szabó - Gilles's father
Jean-Pierre Darroussin - Inspector
Jackie Berroyer - Christine's father
Dominique Faysse - Christine's mother
Smaïl Mekki - Mourad
Jean-Christophe Bouvet - Professor
Ilona Györi - Marie
Renée Amzallag - The nurse
Jérôme Simonin - Vendeur de dynamite
Laetitia Lemerle - Corrine
Alexandra Yonnet - Copine blouson
Caroline Doron - Copine blessée
Laetitia Giraud - Christiane
Context 3:  At 18, after working as a model in Dublin for a few months, she caught the attention of a visiting Ford Models scout, who offered her the chance to work for them in Paris Balfe's modelling career highlights include opening and closing fashion shows for Chanel, Givenchy, Dolce & Gabbana, Moschino, Alberta Ferretti and Louis Vuitton  In a three-year period, she walked in more than 250 runway shows  At the height of her career, Balfe was considered to be among the twenty most in-demand models in the world 

Acting
While living in New York, Balfe played the minor role of an employee of the magazine Runway in the 2006 film The Devil Wears Prada  In 2009, after a decade-long modelling career, Balfe returned to her initial career choice and moved from New York to Los Angeles, spending her first year and a half in the city exclusively taking acting classes, first at the Warner Loughlin Studios and then at the Sanford Meisner Center and the Judith Weston Studios  Balfe has appeared in the films Super 8, as the protagonist's mother, Now You See Me, as Michael Caine's character's wife, and Escape Plan, as the CIA lawyer that hires Sylvester Stallone's character In 2012 she portrayed Alex #34 in The Beauty Inside, a social film divided into six episodes telling the story of a man named Alex (Topher Grace) who wakes up in a different body every day  In 2013 she starred in the music videos for "First Fires" by British musician Bonobo and for "Chloroform" by French band Phoenix, the latter directed by Sofia Coppola Balfe was part of the main cast of the Warner Bros  web series H+: The Digital Series during 2012 and 2013, in which she played Breanna Sheehan, one of the executives of a biotechnology company that develops an implanted computer which allows people to be connected to the Internet 24 hours a day In September 2013, Balfe was cast as the lead character, Claire Beauchamp Randall Fraser, on the Starz television drama series Outlander, based on the novels written by Diana Gabaldon; the series premiered in August 2014  She plays a mid-20th-century nurse (later surgeon) who is transported back in time to the war-torn mid-18th-century Scottish Highlands  Both the series and her performance have received critical acclaim, with Richard Lawson of Vanity Fair saying "it helps immensely that Balfe is such an appealing actress, [she] makes Claire a spirited, principled, genuinely heroic heroine"  Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Balfe is "reason enough to watch; she's a confident actress who brings various shades to her character " James Poniewozik of Time labelled Balfe's portrayal as "wry, [and] infectiously engaging " Angelica Jade Bastién of The New York Times called Balfe "one of the most stunning actresses on television" In December 2014, Entertainment Weekly named Balfe one of its 12 Breakout Stars of 2014; that month she was also voted "Woman Of The Year" at BBC America's Anglophenia Fan Favorites tournament 
In April 2015, Balfe received Best Actress in a Lead Role Drama and Rising Star Award nominations for the 12th Irish Film & Television Awards, and was named one of People magazine's "50 Most Beautiful People in the World"  She won Saturn Awards for Best Actress on Television in 2015 and 2016  In November 2016, Balfe won the Scottish BAFTA award for Best Actress on Television and in February 2018 she won the Irish IFTA for Best Actress in a Lead Role Drama  Balfe also received four nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama for her role in Outlander Balfe co-starred in the film Money Monster (2016), directed by Jodie Foster and starring George Clooney and Julia Roberts  She played the head of PR of a company whose stock bottoms out, causing a man to lose all of his savings and subsequently take hostages on a live TV show  Eric Hills of The Movie Waffler wrote "But it's relative newcomer Balfe who leaves the greatest impression; she's magnetic, stealing scenes even when her character is only glimpsed reacting to the situation on a background monitor  Expect to see a lot more of this Irish actress in the coming years "In 2019, Balfe had a recurring voice role as Tavra in the Netflix fantasy series The Dark Crystal: Age of Resistance  The series, which was a prequel to the 1982 fantasy film The Dark Crystal and produced by the Jim Henson Company, was released to critical acclaim  Also in 2019, she had a starring role opposite Matt Damon and Christian Bale in the sports drama film Ford v Ferrari  Balfe portrayed Mollie Miles, the wife of professional race car driver Ken Miles, a role which earned her an IFTA nomination for Best Actress in a Supporting Role  The film received universal acclaim upon release and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture In 2021, Balfe had a co-starring role in Kenneth Branagh's semi-autobiographical film Belfast, for which she received critical acclaim  Critic Richard Lawson of Vanity Fair lauded Balfe for her "modest, affable performance"  Her performance earned her nominations for the Screen Actors Guild Award, Golden Globe Award, Critics' Choice Movie Award, and British Academy Film Award for Best Supporting Actress  The film was nominated for Best Picture at the 94th Academy Awards  She has been a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in the Actors Branch since June 2022 Balfe will next star in the 20th Century Studios film Amateur 

Personal life
Balfe lives in London and, while filming Outlander, in Glasgow  She previously lived in Los Angeles, where she started acting professionally, and in New York City, Paris, London, Milan, Hamburg, and Tokyo while working as a model  In addition to her native English, she is a speaker of the Irish language and is conversant in French On 10 August 2019, Balfe married her longtime boyfriend, Scottish band manager Anthony "Tony" McGill  She announced on 18 August 2021 that she had given birth to their son In an interview, Balfe was asked if she considered herself spiritual  Balfe responded "I would say I'm spiritual, though have long turned my back on institutionalised religion  I definitely believe in the inherent goodness of the universe "

Philanthropy and other ventures
She is a patron of the organisation World Child Cancer  In April 2018, she ran the London Marathon, raising over US$41,000 in support of the organisation She is also a supporter of charitable causes involving refugee relief with ChooseLove, raising thousands of dollars in funds to help aid refugees in crisis globally, as well as a vocal supporter of charities that aid the environment  In October 2020, an annual birthday fundraising initiative called Project CaiTREEna was started by fans to raise money for the environmental charity One Tree Planted  To date over US$150,000 has been raised in her honour, resulting in over 150,000 trees being planted around the world In August 2020, Balfe launched Forget Me Not, a Scottish-based small batch gin with 25% of the proceeds funding arts programmes 

Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
Passage 9:
Outlander (TV series)
Outlander is a historical drama television series based on the Outlander novel series by Diana Gabaldon  Developed by Ronald D  Moore, the show premiered on August 9, 2014, on Starz  It stars Caitríona Balfe as Claire Randall, a former Second World War military nurse in Scotland who, in 1945, finds herself transported back in time to 1743  There she encounters, falls in love with and marries a dashing Highland warrior named Jamie Fraser (Sam Heughan), a tacksman of Gabaldon's fictionalized version of Clan Fraser of Lovat  Here, Claire becomes embroiled in the Jacobite rising 
The 16-episode first season of the television series (released as two half-seasons) is based on the first novel in the series, Outlander  The second season of 13 episodes, based on Dragonfly in Amber, aired from April to July 2016  The 13-episode third season, based on Voyager, aired from September to December 2017  The 13-episode fourth season, based on Drums of Autumn, aired from November 2018 to January 2019  The fifth season of 12 episodes, based on The Fiery Cross, aired from February to May 2020  The sixth season of 8 episodes, based on A Breath of Snow and Ashes, aired from March to May 2022  The seventh season which consists of 16 episodes, is based on An Echo in the Bone and premiered on June 16, 2023 
By February 2022, development had begun on a prequel series titled Outlander: Blood of My Blood, which will focus on Jamie Fraser's parents Brian and Ellen Fraser  In January 2023, Outlander: Blood of My Blood was officially confirmed for a ten-episode first season, and Outlander was renewed for a ten-episode eighth and final season 

Plot
Season 1 (2014–2015)
In 1945, Claire Randall, who had formerly served as a nurse in the British Army during the Second World War, and her husband Frank are visiting Inverness, Scotland, when she is carried back in time to 1743 by the standing stones at Craigh na Dun (in what is now Tay Forest Park)  She falls in with a group of rebel Highlanders from Clan MacKenzie (a fictionalization of the real Clan MacKenzie), who are being pursued by government troops led by Captain Jonathan "Black Jack" Randall  Randall turns out to be Frank's ancestor 
Clan MacKenzie suspect her of being a spy, but retain her as a healer, which prevents her from attempting to return to her own time  Knowing that the Jacobite cause is doomed to fail, she tries to warn them against rebellion  Out of necessity, Claire marries a Highlander, Jamie Fraser, but they quickly fall in love  Her husband Jamie is captured, tortured, and raped by the sadistic Randall, but Claire and his clansmen rescue him  Claire tells Jamie that she is pregnant and they set sail for the Kingdom of France 

Season 2 (2016)
In 18th century Paris, Claire and Jamie try to thwart the Jacobites by subverting the funds that King Louis XV of France is likely to provide  Jamie becomes the confidant of Charles Stuart, but the Frasers fail to prevent the risings  Randall reappears in Paris, but Claire makes Jamie swear to keep him alive until Frank's descent is assured  She achieves this by convincing Randall to marry Mary Hawkins  Claire and Jamie's daughter Faith is stillborn, and she and her 18th century husband return to Scotland  The Jacobites win the Battle of Prestonpans  Jamie and Claire also adopt a young French boy named Claudel, who Jamie renames Fergus 
Before the Battle of Culloden, Jamie convinces Claire, pregnant again, to return to the 20th century  Jamie decides to die fighting at Culloden with his clan  Back in her own century, Claire tells Frank about her time travel  He asks her to forget Jamie and let him raise her child as his own  Twenty years later, Frank has died in a car accident  Claire takes her 20-year-old daughter Brianna to Scotland  Claire discovers that Jamie did not die at Culloden and vows to return to him 

Season 3 (2017)
Jamie kills Randall at Culloden and is gravely injured, but spared execution  At Ardsmuir prison, he befriends the governor, Lord John Grey, who later paroles him to work at an English estate  There, Jamie is manipulated into a sexual liaison and fathers an illegitimate son, William  Jamie returns to Scotland and becomes a printer 
In 1968, Claire enrolls in medical school in Boston, Massachusetts  Frank is killed in a car accident while Brianna is in college  With the help of Roger Wakefield, Claire finds clues to Jamie's fate after Culloden  She returns to the 18th century and discovers Jamie has married a widowed Laoghaire  Claire's return nullifies their union as illegal  They try to retrieve some hidden treasure so that he can placate Laoghaire with a settlement, but Jamie's nephew Ian is captured by pirates and taken to the Caribbean  Jamie and Claire follow and manage to rescue him from Geillis, who had escaped burning at the stake in season one  Claire and Jamie sail for Scotland, but are shipwrecked on the coast of Georgia 

Season 4 (2018–2019)
In the Province of North Carolina, Claire and Jamie seek to return to Scotland with Fergus, Marsali and Ian  They visit a plantation owned by Jamie's aunt Jocasta Cameron, where they encounter Black slaves  Claire and Jamie decide to leave and claim land that they name Fraser's Ridge, which is already inhabited by Cherokee  Jamie reunites with Murtagh, now a blacksmith and leader of the Regulator Movement  Lord John visits with Jamie's son, Willy 
In the 1970s, Brianna rejects Roger's marriage proposal  After learning her parents will die in a fire, Brianna travels through the stones  When Roger discovers Brianna has left, he follows her  They meet in Wilmington, North Carolina and enter into handfast marriage  Shortly after, they get into an argument and Roger leaves  In his absence, Stephen Bonnet rapes Brianna  She reunites with her mother and finally meets her biological father, Jamie  Brianna discovers she is pregnant  Roger goes to Fraser's Ridge, where Brianna's maid Lizzie wrongly assumes that he is the rapist  Lizzie informs Jamie, who beats Roger  Young Ian sells Roger to the Mohawk  Discovering their mistake, they set off to rescue Roger and Ian trades his freedom for Roger's  Roger and Brianna are reunited at Jocasta's plantation and Jamie receives instructions to kill Murtagh, who is a fugitive 

Season 5 (2020)
Jamie and Claire fight to retain their home at Fraser's Ridge as the American Revolutionary War looms on the horizon  Brianna and Roger marry and Governor Tryon further pushes Jamie to hunt down Murtagh, forcing Jamie to gather up a militia and counteract the Regulators  He struggles to balance keeping his godfather safe and fulfilling his duties to the British, especially under the eye of Lieutenant Knox, who is determined to find and kill Murtagh  Despite Murtagh's pleas for Jocasta to return his love for her, she moves forward with her fourth marriage, choosing the safety and security of her plantation's future over his idealism  Jamie's loyalties are pushed to the breaking point at the Battle of Alamance, when Roger's attempt to warn Murtagh fails and Murtagh is shot dead  Roger is captured and mistakenly hanged by the British; he survives, but is left traumatized by the experience  Jamie is left devastated in the months following the battle 
Meanwhile, Roger and Bree's relationship is put to the test as there are signs of Stephen Bonnet's reappearance, forcing Brianna to take matters into her own hands when she is captured by him  Eventually, Bree and Roger decide to go back through the stones when they realize Jemmy can too, as the future will be much safer for their son  Their attempt fails and the two, taking this as a sign of fate, decide to stay at Fraser's Ridge, along with their large family  Young Ian returns from his time with the Mohawk and learns the truth about Claire, Brianna and Roger's origins when he confronts them with information passed to him by the Mohawk  Claire continues to subvert conventional medical practices by producing penicillin and covertly providing medical advice under a pseudonym, but her subversive advice backfires on her  Claire is abducted and gang raped by Lionel Brown and his men, but is subsequently rescued by Jamie, Fergus, Roger, and the other men of the Ridge  Though Jamie returns Lionel's body to Richard, Lionel's brother and mayor of Brownsville, Richard subtly threatens Fraser's Ridge and Jamie's family 

Season 6 (2022)
The political unrest in the colonies begins to boil over and the Frasers (Jamie and Claire) and the MacKenzie (Roger and Brianna), try to peacefully live on their isolated homestead in the foothills of North Carolina  Jamie is suddenly faced with walking between the fires of loyalty to the oath he swore to the British Crown and following his hope for freedom in the new world  Trouble continues with the Browns as they form 'a committee of safety' that threatens the peace on the ridge dividing a wedge between the Native Americans, the British and the Frasers  In the meantime, the Christie family arrive on the Ridge, a throwback to Jamie's time in Ardsmuir Prison, and begin to influence the harmony on the Ridge  Malva Christie, the daughter of Tom Christie, takes a liking to Claire only to betray her in announcing her pregnancy with Jamie as the father  The season ends with a huge amount of unrest involving the Browns and the Christies as Jamie and Claire's grip on Fraser's Ridge becomes ever more fragile 

Cast and characters
Production
Development
In July 2012, it was reported that Sony Pictures Television had secured the rights to Gabaldon's Outlander series, with Moore attached to develop the project and Jim Kohlberg (Story Mining and Supply Co) producing  Sony completed the deal with Starz in November 2012, and Moore hired a writing team in April 2013  That June, Starz picked up the Outlander project for a sixteen-episode order, and in August it was announced that John Dahl would be directing the first two episodes  Starz CEO Chris Albrecht later said that he had green-lit several genre projects, including Outlander, to shift the network's series development toward "audiences that were being underserved" to "drive a real fervent fan base that then becomes the kind of advocacy group for the shows themselves" Calling it "a different kind of show than has ever been on, in my memory", Albrecht believed that Outlander's combination of fantasy, action, a strong central romance and a feminist focus would set it apart  Another distinguishing feature of the show is its use of Scottish Gaelic  Àdhamh Ó Broin is the language consultant and Griogair Labhruidh sang in Gaelic on the second season's soundtrack On August 15, 2014, after only the pilot episode had aired, the network renewed the series for a second season of at least thirteen episodes, based on the second book in Gabaldon's series, Dragonfly in Amber  On June 1, 2016, Starz renewed the series for a third and fourth season, which adapt the third and fourth Outlander novels, Voyager and Drums of Autumn On May 9, 2018, Starz renewed the series for a fifth and sixth season, which adapt The Fiery Cross and A Breath of Snow and Ashes, respectively and each season to consist of twelve episodes On March 14, 2021, the series was renewed for a seventh season, originally to consist of 12 episodes and adapt the seventh novel, An Echo in the Bone  On June 1, 2021, Starz announced the sixth season would premiere in early 2022 with a shortened eight-episode season, while the seventh season would consist of 16 episodes  On November 22, 2021, Gabaldon announced that the sixth season would premiere on March 6, 2022  In January 2023, the series was renewed for an eighth and final season to consist of 10 episodes 

Writing
Moore said of the pilot: "There's a lot of things we did in the first thirty to forty minutes that aren't in the book or are compilations of things that happened in the book"  He emphasised that he did not want to present the time-travel dimension in a traditional special effects-laden science fiction manner  Describing the adaptation of the first season as "straightforward", he explained: "it was always kind of clear what the basic structure was: Claire's trying to get home, then she meets this guy, now she's falling in love, now she has a conflict, will she go home  You lay it out in a very linear fashion"  Regarding the darker tone of the season's second half, he said: "the show becomes more complicated and the emotional journey more wrenching" Regarding the second season and the source novel Dragonfly in Amber, Moore said:

The book is a more complicated structure in terms of how Diana [Gabaldon] wrote it     So it was not as easy an adaptation as the first season was     Book 2 is just a more complex book  It's laid out very differently, as a result it took more wrangling to try to figure out how to translate this particular story into our season  There were more complications, there were more characters     It was a bigger task  The thing that gives me the most comfort is that Diana likes it a lot  She had said, 'Oh, I really liked the way you did it  it was a difficult plot, I know, but I think you really found the essence of it  You really found the through line that really defines what this part of the journey is '     It's not going to be a literal adaptation because I don't think that's possible with the second book     But I think it's very much the same story, the major characters are all represented, the major scenes are all represented, and it still gets you to all the same places you want to go 
Gabaldon was employed as consultant to the TV production



ground_truth: no

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the character of fictional character Claire Fraser in a British-American television drama series developed by Ronald D. Moore ?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  When asked in June 2015 about the adaptation of the first season, she said: "I think they did condense it very effectively     I ended up getting most of the things that I felt strongly about in there  There were only a few instances where the most important stuff in my opinion didn't get in"  In March 2015, she said of the scripts for season two: "The Parisian stuff is very good and in fact I'm deeply impressed by the outlines I've seen     I think they've done a wonderful job of pulling out the most important plot elements and arranging them in a convincing way"  Gabaldon wrote the screenplay for the episode "Vengeance is Mine" According to Moore, the writing and pre-production for season four began while season three was still in active production  Gabaldon wrote an episode for the fifth season 

Casting
On July 9, 2013, it was announced that Sam Heughan had been cast as Jamie Fraser, the male lead  Tobias Menzies was the second actor cast, on August 8, in dual roles of Frank and Jonathan Randall  Stephen Walters and Annette Badland were announced in the recurring roles of Angus Mhor and Mrs  Fitzgibbons on August 29, 2013, with Graham McTavish and Gary Lewis announced as the MacKenzie brothers on the September 4  Series female lead Claire Beauchamp Randall was to be portrayed by Caitríona Balfe as announced on September 11, 2013  The series later added Lotte Verbeek as Geillis Duncan and Laura Donnelly as Jamie's sister Jenny in October 2013 In December 2013, Simon Callow was cast in the supporting role of Duke of Sandringham, and Entertainment Weekly reported in April 2014 that Steven Cree would portray Ian Murray  Bill Paterson was cast as lawyer Ned Gowan in June 2014  Author Gabaldon has a cameo as Iona MacTavish in the August 2014 episode "The Gathering"  In August 2014 it was announced that Frazer Hines had been cast in the role of a prison warden in an episode to air in 2015  From 1966 to 1969, Hines had portrayed the Doctor Who character Jamie McCrimmon, who Gabaldon said had inspired the setting of the Outlander series and the character of Jamie Fraser  Hines plays Sir Fletcher Gordon, an English prison warden, in the May 2015 episode "Wentworth Prison" In June 2015, the series cast Andrew Gower as the Jacobite pretender Prince Charles Edward Stuart; Robert Cavanah as Jamie's Scottish cousin Jared, a wine merchant and Jacobite living in Paris; Margaux Châtelier as Annalise de Marillac, Jamie's French ex-lover; and Laurence Dobiesz as Alex Randall, Black Jack's younger–and gentler–brother  Other cast added for season 2 include Romann Berrux as the French pickpocket Fergus, Rosie Day as the baronet's daughter Mary Hawkins, Stanley Weber as Le Comte St  Germain, Dominique Pinon as healer Master Raymond, Marc Duret as French Minister of Finance Joseph Duverney, Frances de la Tour as Mother Hildegarde, and Audrey Brisson as Sister Angelique  In July 2015, Lionel Lingelser was cast as King Louis XV of France  Moore revealed in June 2015 that Verbeek would be returning in the role of Geillis  Richard Rankin was cast as Roger Wakefield in December 2015, while Sophie Skelton was chosen to portray Brianna Randall, Claire and Jamie's daughter, in January 2016 In August 2016, Starz announced that David Berry had been cast as Lord John William Grey for season three  In September, Wil Johnson was cast as Joe Abernathy and John Bell as "Young Ian" Fraser Murray  In October, César Domboy was cast as an adult Fergus and Lauren Lyle as Laoghaire's daughter Marsali MacKimmie  Hannah James and Tanya Reynolds were cast as sisters Geneva and Isobel Dunsany in November 2016 In October 2017, two season four roles were announced  Maria Doyle Kennedy was cast as Jamie's aunt, Jocasta and Ed Speleers as Stephen Bonnet, an Irish pirate and smuggler  The casting of Colin McFarlane as Jocasta's slave butler Ulysses was announced in January 2018  The Cherokee and Mohawk people in seasons four and five were portrayed by members of First Nations from Canada who traveled to Scotland for the filming In May 2020, Berry announced that he would not be returning to Outlander for the sixth season  Nevertheless, he made a guest appearance in one episode in season six In May 2022, it was announced that Canadian actor Charles Vandervaart had been cast to play William Ransom, Jamie's son who was raised by Lord John Grey since season three  In October 2022, it was confirmed that Graham McTavish, Nell Hudson, Steven Cree and Lotte Verbeek would reprise their roles in the seventh season 

Filming
In July 2013, British Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne confirmed that the production would benefit from the Creative Sector Tax Relief programme implemented in the UK in 2012, which extends film tax reliefs to high-end television productions  The Scottish government also agreed to help pay for the conversion of a warehouse complex on the outskirts of Cumbernauld in North Lanarkshire into a film studio  Principal photography began on location in Scotland in September 2013  The Cumbernauld studios were used for on set filming, with location shoots taking place at Doune Castle, Stirling; mills in East Linton, East Lothian; Newtonmore in the Scottish Highlands; Rothiemurchus Forest, Aviemore; quarries near Bathgate, West Lothian and Aberfoyle, Stirling, as well as Linlithgow Palace, Loch Rannoch in the Highlands and Falkland and Culross in Fife  Such settings have attracted substantial numbers of international tourists Filming for season two began in April 2015, to air in spring 2016  The primary setting for the season is Paris, which Moore explained is being recreated using other locations  Some interiors were filmed on the show's Scotland soundstages, while Prague was used for the exterior street scenes and the Palace of Versailles  In addition some palaces in the south of England which have French rooms and architecture were used as Parisian interiors and part of Versailles  Moore noted that season two of Outlander "will look completely different than season one" with a "richer, more dynamic kind of visual palette"  With the change of setting from Scotland to France, he said that "visually you’ve moved from the heavy woods and stone of season 1 into the finery of the Parisian apartments"  He explained:

Everything about Paris is so completely different, especially the costumes     It's the most stylish city in the world during this time  A lot more money  A lot of finery  Scotland is featuring a lot of heavy wools and more organic colors  In Paris everyone wants to be a peacock  You’ve got a much wider palette of textiles and colors and styles than you did in Scotland  It's a completely different world  And that kind of goes across the board for all the departments     There were really no sets or pieces of sets that we could use for Paris that we'd used for Scotland     There are carriages, there are servants with livery, there are props and furniture  It's completely different  It's a whole new show 
Production on season three began in September 2016 in Scotland and filming took place in Cape Town from March to June 2017  Filming completed on June 16, 2017 In August 2017, Moore said that for season four, locations in Scotland would double as 18th century America and some of the mountains and rivers of North Carolina would be recreated using locations in Eastern Europe  Production for season four was completed in Scotland by July 5, 2018 Production on season five, set primarily in North Carolina, began in Scotland in April 2019  Locations included Kinloch Rannoch (for Craigh na Dun), the Thomas Coats Memorial Baptist Church in Paisley, 
The Hermitage, Dunkeld in Perthshire and Milne Woods in Bridge of Allan  Much of the filming was completed at Wardpark Studios in Glasgow Production on season six was scheduled to begin in May 2020, but was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic  Production eventually began in February 2021 Production for season seven began in April 2022, while filming began in May 2022 in Scotland 

Music
The music is composed by Bear McCreary  The title song is an adaptation of Robert Louis Stevenson's poem Sing Me a Song of a Lad That Is Gone, set to the tune of the Scottish folk song "The Skye Boat Song"  For the first half of season two, the second verse of the opening theme is sung in French to reflect the season's French setting  For the second half of season three, the second verse of the opening theme has Caribbean music to reflect the season's Jamaican setting  The fourth season opening theme has a colonial American sound 

Release
Outlander premiered in the United States on August 9, 2014  Its first eight episodes aired through September and the remaining eight episodes resumed in April 2015  The first-season finale aired on May 30, 2015  The second season of 13 episodes premiered on April 9, 2016, and the 13-episode third season on September 10, 2017  The fourth season premiered on November 4, 2018, and the fifth on February 16, 2020  The sixth season premiered on March 6, 2022  The first part of the seventh season premiered on June 16, 2023, and the second part is set to debut in 2024 Outlander debuted in Australia on SoHo on August 14, 2014, and began airing in Canada on Showcase on August 24, 2014  The series also premiered on October 21, 2014, in Ireland  In the United Kingdom, it was acquired by Amazon Prime Video, where it premiered on March 26, 2015 In April 2015, The Herald reported that emails leaked in the Sony Pictures Entertainment hack suggested that the broadcast delay in the UK may have been due to sensitivity about the September 2014 Scottish independence referendum  In New Zealand, Outlander was previously distributed by the video streaming service Lightbox  Following Sky's acquisition of Lightbox, Sky's  streaming service Neon acquired the distribution rights to Outlander in New Zealand 

Reception
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the average rating of the overall series is 89%, while on Metacritic it has an average rating of 76 out of 100 

Season 1
The first season received mostly positive reviews  On Metacritic, it has a rating of 73 out of 100, based on 34 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews"   On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a 91% rating with an average rating of 7 95/10 based on 261 reviews  The website's critical consensus reads: "Outlander is a unique, satisfying adaptation of its source material, brought to life by lush scenery and potent chemistry between its leads" The Huffington Post called the first episode "    A masterpiece of impressive depth     It is amazing!" Entertainment Weekly gave the premiere an "A−" rating, writing that it was "sexy and smart and stirring"  Matt Zoller Seitz of New York magazine also praised the series, calling it "defiantly its own thing: part romance-novel fantasy, part-time-travel story and part wartime drama (set across two time periods)"  Sonia Saraiya of The A V  Club gave the first six episodes an A, writing that it "does for 1743 Scotland what Downton Abbey does for 1912 England" and adding that "Outlander succeeds admirably     it refuses to sit comfortably in any genre "British reception was more mixed  In the first UK review, Siobhan Synnot of The Scotsman said "There has not been such a proud display of tartanalia since the opening of the 2014 Commonwealth Games"  Alastair McKay of The Evening Standard quoted Saraiya's comparison with Downton Abbey, adding "[The comparison] is entirely correct  It is magical-mystical heuchter-teuchter cobblers " Euan Ferguson of The Observer called it "gorgeous drivel" and Thomas Batten of The Guardian stated "If you love the scenery, shifting allegiances and palace intrigue of [Game of Thrones], but find yourself wishing the pace were a little slower and that the sex scenes were filmed in a more pretentious manner with lots of slow pans and softer lighting, here's your show " Graeme Virtue noted "the rather languid pace of the opening episodes", but praised the show's "rare acknowledgment of the female gaze" in its treatment of sex scenes  The Daily Telegraph also made the Game of Thrones comparison, while The Independent stated "   yes, it's a time-travelling, wish-fulfilment fantasy, but it's done with such flair and attention to detail that it's impossible not to hop on board for the ride "

Season 2
The second season received universal acclaim  On Metacritic, it has a score of 85 out of 100 based on 11 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim"  On Rotten Tomatoes, it reports a 92% rating with an average rating of 8 05/10 based on 234 reviews  The website consensus reads: "Outlander returns for a second addictive season of mystery and sweeping romance as Claire and Jamie take on Paris " Based on five episodes for review, Marah Eakin of The A V  Club gave it a perfect "A" grade and wrote, "It's not just well-written and lovely to look at  It's downright immersive      Outlander feels important–even moreso in its second season "

Season 3
The third season also received universal acclaim  It has a Metacritic score of 87 out of 100 based on 6 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim"  Rotten Tomatoes reports a 90% rating with an average rating of 7 95/10 based on 195 reviews  The website consensus reads: "Outlander's epic love story returns with the same strong storytelling and an added layer of maturity " Based on six episodes for review, Liz Shannon Miller of IndieWire gave it an "A"-grade review and wrote, "This is a show that's grown and matured since its initial premiere in ways that defied our initial expectations "

Season 4
The fourth season received mostly positive reviews  It has a Metacritic score of 71 out of 100 based on 6 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews"  Rotten Tomatoes reports an 88% rating with an average rating of 7 15/10 based on 170 reviews  The website consensus reads: "Outlander's epic romance settles into a violent fourth season, planting its flag on the American frontier while treading on darker themes "

Season 5
The fifth season also received mostly positive reviews  It has a Metacritic score of 73 out of 100 based on 4 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews"  Rotten Tomatoes reports an 86% rating with an average rating of 7/10 based on 142 reviews  The website consensus reads: "Outlander's romantic ardor doesn't burn as bright in this fifth season, but the Frasers remain an enthralling pair as they try to forge a home together "

Season 6
The sixth season has an 89% rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 7 8/10 based on 9 reviews 

Season 7
The seventh season has a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 7 7/10 based on 6 reviews  On Metacritic, it has received a score of 75 out of 100 based on 4 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews" 

Ratings
The first eight episodes averaged more than 5 1 million multiplatform viewers  In July 2015, noting Outlander's strong ratings, its "vocal online fandom and a slew of think pieces tied to its feminist twists on the action genre", Josef Adalian of Vulture credited Outlander as one of the series responsible for Starz's increased success against competitors like Showtime  On February 11, 2020, cable provider Comcast moved Starz from its base cable packages to an a la carte option  This occurred five days before the premiere of season five 

Accolades
Prequel series
In February 2022, it was reported that a prequel series was in works, with Matthew B  Roberts writing and executive producing  In May 2022, executive producer Maril Davis confirmed that the series would focus on the parents of Jamie Fraser  In August 2022, it was confirmed that the series will be titled Blood of My Blood  In January 2023, Starz ordered a 10-episode first season 

Notes
Passage 10:
List of Outlander episodes
Outlander is a television drama series based on the Outlander series of historical time travel novels by Diana Gabaldon  Developed by Ronald D  Moore and produced by Sony Pictures Television and Left Bank Pictures for Starz, the show premiered on August 9, 2014  It stars Caitríona Balfe as Claire Randall, a married former World War II nurse, later surgeon, who in 1946 finds herself transported back to the Scotland of 1743 where she meets and falls in love with the dashing Highland warrior Jamie Fraser (Sam Heughan) and becomes embroiled in the Jacobite risings The seventh season consists of 16 episodes split into two eight-episode parts with the first half debuting on June 16, 2023, and the second later in 2024  In January 2023, the series was renewed for a 10-episode eighth and final season  As of July 7, 2023, 79 episodes of Outlander have aired 

Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2014–15)
Season 2 (2016)
Season 3 (2017)
Season 4 (2018–19)
Season 5 (2020)
Season 6 (2022)
Season 7 (2023)
The ninth through sixteenth episodes were written by Barbara Stepansky, Luke Schelhaas, Sarah H  Haught, Toni Graphia, Madeline Brestal & Evan McGahey, Diana Gabaldon, Danielle Berrow, and Matthew B  Roberts & Toni Graphia, respectively 

Viewership
Notes



ground_truth: Claire is a married World War II nurse