prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The Pluralist school is said to have included what creator of the theory of atomism? 

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Buddhist atomism
Buddhist atomism is a school of atomistic Buddhist philosophy that flourished on the Indian subcontinent during two major periods  During the first phase, which began to develop prior to the 6th century CE, Buddhist atomism had a very qualitative, Aristotelian-style atomic theory  This form of atomism identifies four kinds of atoms, corresponding to the standard elements  Each of these elements has a specific property, such as solidity or motion, and performs a specific function in mixtures, such as providing support or causing growth   Like the Hindus and Jains, the Buddhists were able to integrate a theory of atomism with their logical presuppositions  

According to Noa Ronkin, this kind of atomism was developed in the Sarvastivada and Sautrantika schools for whom material reality can be: reduced to discrete momentary atoms, namely, the four primary elements  These momentary atoms, through their spatial arrangement and by their concatenation with prior and posterior atoms of the same type, create the illusion of persisting things as they appear in our everyday experience  Atomic reality is thus understood first and foremost as change, though not in the sense of a thing x transforming into y  That is, change itself is the very nature of atomic reality rather than its being made of enduring substances the qualities of which undergo change  Atoms that appear to endure are, in fact, a series of momentary events that ascend and fall in rapid succession and in accordance with causal relations  Unlike the atoms of the Vaifesika, the atoms of the Sarvastivada-Vaibhasika and the Sautrantika are not permanent: they come into being and cease from one moment to the next going through a process of birth, continuance, decay and destruction  Yet the material compounds that consist of these atoms are real, if only in the minimal, phenomenological sense The second phase of Buddhist atomism, which flourished in the 7th century CE, was very different from the first  Indian Buddhist philosophers, including Dharmakirti and Dignāga, considered atoms to be point-sized, durationless, and made of energy  In discussing Buddhist atomism, Stcherbatsky writes:
    The Buddhists denied the existence of substantial matter altogether  Movement consists for them of moments, it is a staccato movement, momentary flashes of a stream of energy    "Everything is evanescent,"     says the Buddhist, because there is no stuff     Both systems [Sānkhya and later Indian Buddhism] share in common a tendency to push the analysis of Existence up to its minutest, last elements which are imagined as absolute qualities, or things possessing only one unique quality  They are called "qualities" (guna-dharma) in both systems in the sense of absolute qualities, a kind of atomic, or intra-atomic, energies of which the empirical things are composed  Both systems, therefore, agree in denying the objective reality of the categories of Substance and Quality,     and of the relation of Inference uniting them  There is in Sānkhya philosophy no separate existence of qualities  What we call quality is but a particular manifestation of a subtle entity  To every new unit of quality corresponds a subtle quantum of matter which is called guna "quality", but represents a subtle substantive entity  The same applies to early Buddhism where all qualities are substantive     or, more precisely, dynamic entities, although they are also called dharmas ("qualities") 

See also
Atomism
Dharmakirti
Dignaga
Kalapas
Mereological nihilism

Notes
Passage 2:
Leucippus
Leucippus (; Greek: Λεύκιππος, Leúkippos; fl  5th century BCE) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who has been credited as the first philosopher to develop a theory of atomism 
Leucippus' reputation, even in antiquity, was obscured by the reputation of his much more famous pupil, Democritus, who is also credited with the first development of atomic theory  Few details about Leucippus' life are known, and even his historical existence has on occasion been questioned 

Biography
Leucippus's dates are not recorded and he is often mentioned in conjunction with his more well-known pupil Democritus  Diogenes Laertius lists possible birthplaces as Miletus, Abdera and Elea  Some sources claim that around 440 or 430 BCE Leucippus founded a school at Abdera, with which his pupil, Democritus, was closely associated  There is mention that a Leucippus founded the city of Metapontum, which honored this Leucippus with a coin 

Philosophical views
"Nothing happens at random, but everything from reason and by necessity "
Leucippus is typically associated with atomism—the idea that the only two things are atoms, which are imperishable, indivisible elements that compose everything, and void, which is the space that atoms do occupy or can occupy  It is difficult to determine which contributions to atomism come from Democritus and which come from Leucippus  Aristotle and his student Theophrastus explicitly credit Leucippus with the invention of atomism  In Aristotelian terms, Leucippus agreed with the Eleatic argument that "true being does not admit of vacuum" and there can be no movement in the absence of vacuum  Leucippus contended that since movement exists, there must be empty space  However, he concludes that vacuum is identified with nonbeing, since "nothing" cannot really be  According to Aristotle, Leucippus differed from the Eleatics in not being encumbered by the "conceptual intermingling" of being and non-being, and Plato made the necessary distinction between "grades of being and types of negation" 

Writings
According to Theophrastus, Leucippus was the author of a work called The Great World System that was otherwise typically attributed to Democritus, which has not survived  A single quotation survives from another work attributed to him called On Mind 

Legacy
A brief notice in Diogenes Laërtius's life of Epicurus says that on the testimony of Epicurus, Leucippus never existed  As the philosophical heir of Democritus, Epicurus's word has some weight, and indeed a controversy over this matter raged in German scholarship for many years at the close of the 19th century  Furthermore, in his Corpus Democriteum, Thrasyllus of Alexandria, an astrologer and writer living under the emperor Tiberius (14–37 CE), compiled a list of writings on atomism that he attributed to Democritus to the exclusion of Leucippus  The present consensus among the world's historians of philosophy is that this Leucippus is historical  Moreover, it is not clear how to interpret Epicurus' comment in the first place  Epicurus said that there was no philosopher Leucippus, which might mean that Leucippus never existed, but it also might mean that Leucippus existed but was not a philosopher  As far as ancient evidence of his existence is concerned, it must be mentioned that Aristotle, who lived closer in time to Leucippus than Epicurus, attributes to Leucippus the framework of atomism as a philosophical system, lending more credibility to the thesis that Leucippus existed 
Fragments and doxographical reports about Leucippus were collected by Hermann Diels (1848–1922), firstly in Doxographi Graeci (Berlin, 1879, reprint Berlin: de Gruyter, 1929) and then in Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Berlin, 1903, 6th ed , rev  by Walther Kranz (Berlin: Weidmann, 1952; the editions after the 6th are mainly reprints with little or no change ) Diels was the leading proponent for a historical Leucippus 

See also
Indeterminism
Kanada

Notes
Bibliography
Surviving Fragments and Testimonia
In the Diels-Kranz numbering system for fragments of the pre-Socratic philosophers, Leucippus is number 67  The following works contain Diels-Kranz fragments 
 Laërtius, Diogenes (1925)  "Others: Leucippus"   Lives of the Eminent Philosophers  Vol  2:9  Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed )  Loeb Classical Library  § 30-33  - A1
 Laërtius, Diogenes (1925)  "Epicurus"   Lives of the Eminent Philosophers  Vol  2:10  Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed )  Loeb Classical Library  § 13  - A2
Simplicius, Commentary on Aristotle's Physics - A3, A8, A13-14,20
Clement of Alexandria, Stromata - A4, A37
Pseudo-Galen, History of philosophy - A5
Aristotle, Metaphysics - A6, A18
Aristotle, On Generation and Corruption -A7, A9
Aristotle, On The Heavens - A19
Aristotle, On the Soul - A28
Hippolytus, Refutation of all Heresies A10
Cicero, Academica - A11
Stobaeus, Anthologium - A12, A15, A16, A21, A22, A23, A24, A25, A26, A29, A30, A31, A32, A34, A35, A36, B2
Epiphanius - A33
Achilles Tatius - B1These fragments are collected together in:

Hermann Diels; Walther Kranz (1963)  Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (in Ancient Greek)  Vol  2  Hildesheim Weidmann  ISBN 978-3-615-12200-8  Retrieved 8 April 2022 
Passage 3:
Atomism (social)
Atomism or social atomism is a sociological theory arising from the scientific notion atomic theory, coined by the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus and the Roman philosopher Lucretius  In the scientific rendering of the word, atomism refers to the notion that all matter in the universe is composed of basic indivisible components, or atoms  When placed into the field of sociology, atomism assigns the individual as the basic unit of analysis for all implications of social life  This theory refers to "the tendency for society to be made up of a collection of self-interested and largely self-sufficient individuals, operating as separate atoms " Therefore, all social values, institutions, developments and procedures evolve entirely out of the interests and actions of the individuals who inhabit any particular society  The individual is the "atom" of society and therefore the only true object of concern and analysis 

Political implications
Political theorists such as John Locke and Thomas Hobbes extend social atomism to the political realm  They assert that human beings are fundamentally self-interested, equal, and rational social atoms that together form an aggregate society of self-interested individuals  Those participating in society must sacrifice a portion of their individual rights in order to form a social contract with the other persons in society  Ultimately, although some rights are renounced, self-interested cooperation occurs for the mutual preservation of the individuals and for society at large 
According to the philosopher Charles Taylor, The term "atomism" is used loosely to characterize the doctrines of social contract theory which arose in the seventeenth century and also successor doctrines which may not have made use of the concept of social contract but which inherited a vision of society as in some sense constituted by individuals for the fulfilment of ends which were primarily individual  Certain forms of utilitarianism are successor doctrines in this sense  The term is also applied to contemporary doctrines which hark back to social contract theory, or which try to defend in some sense the priority of the individual and his rights over society, or which present a purely instrumental view of society 

Critiques
Those who criticize the theory of social atomism believe that it neglects the idea of the individual as unique  The sociologist Elizabeth Wolgast asserts that, From the atomistic standpoint, the individuals who make up a society are interchangeable like molecules in a bucket of water – society a mere aggregate of individuals  This introduces a harsh and brutal equality into our theory of human life and it contradicts our experience of human beings as unique and irreplaceable, valuable in virtue of their variety – in what they don't share – not in virtue of their common ability to reason  Those who question social atomism argue that it is unjust to treat all persons equally when individual necessities and circumstances are clearly dissimilar 

See also
Anomie
Differentiation (sociology)
Holism
Id, ego and super-ego § Ego
Independence
Individualism
Social alienation
Social integration
Socialization
Passage 4:
Pluralist school
Pre-Socratic philosophy, also known as Early Greek Philosophy, is ancient Greek philosophy before Socrates  Pre-Socratic philosophers were mostly interested in cosmology, the beginning and the substance of the universe, but the inquiries of these early philosophers spanned the workings of the natural world as well as human society, ethics, and religion  They sought explanations based on natural law rather than the actions of gods  Their work and writing has been almost entirely lost  Knowledge of their views comes from testimonia, i e  later authors' discussions of the work of pre-Socratics  Philosophy found fertile ground in the ancient Greek world because of the close ties with neighboring civilizations and the rise of autonomous civil entities, poleis 
Pre-Socratic philosophy began in the 6th century BCE with the three Milesians: Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes  They all attributed the arche (a word that could take the meaning of "origin," "substance" or "principle") of the world to, respectively, water, apeiron (the unlimited), and air  Another three pre-Socratic philosophers came from nearby Ionian towns: Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Pythagoras  Xenophanes is known for his critique of the anthropomorphism of gods  Heraclitus, who was notoriously difficult to understand, is known for his maxim on impermanence, ta panta rhei, and for attributing fire to be the arche of the world  Pythagoras created a cult-like following that advocated that the universe was made up of numbers  The Eleatic school (Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, and Melissus) followed in the 5th century BCE  Parmenides claimed that only one thing exists and nothing can change  Zeno and Melissus mainly defended Parmenides' opinion  Anaxagoras and Empedocles offered a pluralistic account of how the universe was created  Leucippus and Democritus are known for their atomism, and their views that only void and matter exist  The Sophists advanced philosophical relativism 
The impact of the pre-Socratics has been enormous  The pre-Socratics invented some of the central concepts of Western civilization, such as naturalism and rationalism, and paved the way for scientific methodology 

Terminology
Pre-Socratic is a term adopted in the 19th century to refer to this group of philosophers  It was first used by the German philosopher J A  Eberhard as "vorsokratische Philosophie' in the late 18th century  In earlier literature they were referred to as physikoi ("physicists", after physis, "nature"), and their activity, as physiologoi (physical or natural philosophers), with this usage arising with Aristotle to differentiate them from theologoi (theologians) and mythologoi (storytellers and bards who conveyed Greek mythology), who attributed natural phenomena to the gods The term was coined to highlight a fundamental change in philosophical inquiries between the philosophers who lived before Socrates, who were interested in the structure of nature and cosmos (i e , the universe, with the implication that the universe had order to it), and Socrates and his successors, who were mostly interested in ethics and politics  The term comes with drawbacks, as several of the pre-Socratics were highly interested in ethics and how to live the best life  Further, the term implies that the pre-Socratics are less significant than Socrates, or even that they were merely a stage (implying teleology) to classical era philosophy  The term is also chronologically inaccurate, as the last of the pre-Socratics were contemporaries of Socrates According to James Warren, the distinction between the pre-Socratic philosophers and philosophers of the classical era is demarcated not so much by Socrates, but by geography and what texts survived  The shift from the pre-Socratic to the classical periods involves a shift from philosophers being dispersed throughout the Greek-speaking world to their being concentrated in Athens  Further, starting in the classical period we have complete surviving texts, whereas in the pre-Socratic era we have only fragments  Scholar André Laks distinguishes two traditions of separating pre-Socratics from Socratics, dating back to the classical era and running through current times  The first tradition is the Socratic-Ciceronian, which uses the content of their philosophical inquires to divide the two groups: the pre-Socratics were interested in nature whereas Socrates focused on human affairs  The other tradition, the Platonic-Aristotelian, emphasizes method as the distinction between the two groups, as Socrates moved to a more epistemological approach of studying various concepts  Because of the drawbacks of the term pre-Socratic, Early Greek Philosophy is also used, most commonly in Anglo-Saxon literature André Laks and Glenn W  Most have especially popularized this shift in describing the era as "Early Greek Philosophy" over "Pre-Socratic Philosophy" through their comprehensive, nine volume Loeb editions of Early Greek Philosophy  In their first volume, they distinguish their systematic approach from that of Hermann Diels, beginning with the choice of "Early Greek Philosophy" over "pre-Socratic philosophy" most notably because Socrates is contemporary and sometimes even prior to philosophers traditionally considered "pre-Socratic" (e g , the Atomists) 

Sources
Very few fragments of the works of the pre-Socratic philosophers have survived  The knowledge we have of the pre-Socratics derives from the accounts of later writers such as Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, Diogenes Laërtius, Stobaeus, and Simplicius, and some early Christian theologians, especially Clement of Alexandria and Hippolytus of Rome  Many of the works are titled Peri Physeos, or On Nature, a title probably attributed later by other authors  These accounts, known as testimonia (testimonies), often come from biased writers  Consequently, it is sometimes difficult to determine the actual line of argument some pre-Socratics used in supporting their views  Adding more difficulty to their interpretation is the obscure language they used  Plato paraphrased the pre-Socratics and showed no interest in accurately representing their views  Aristotle was more accurate, but saw them under the scope of his philosophy  Theophrastus, Aristotle's successor, wrote an encyclopedic book Opinion of the Physicists that was the standard work about the pre-Socratics in ancient times  It is now lost, but Simplicius relied on it heavily in his accounts In 1903, the German professors H  Diels and W  Kranz published Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (The Fragments of the pre-Socratics), which collected all of the known fragments  Scholars now use this book to reference the fragments using a coding scheme called Diels–Kranz numbering  The first two characters of the scheme are "DK" for Diels and Kranz  Next is a number representing a specific philosopher  After that is a code regarding whether the fragment is a testimonia, coded as "A", or "B" if is a direct quote from the philosopher  Last is a number assigned to the fragment, which may include a decimal to reflect specific lines of a fragment  For example, "DK59B12 3" identifies line 3 of Anaxagoras fragment 12  A similar way of referring to quotes is the system prefixed with "LM" by André Laks and Glenn W  Most who edited Early Greek Philosophy in 2016 Collectively, these fragments are called doxography (derived from the latin doxographus; derived from the Greek word for "opinion" doxa) 

Historical background
Philosophy emerged in ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE  The pre-Socratic era lasted about two centuries, during which the expanding Persian Achaemenid Empire was stretching to the west, while the Greeks were advancing in trade and sea routes, reaching Cyprus and Syria  The first pre-Socratics lived in Ionia, on the western coast of Anatolia  Persians conquered the towns of Ionia c  540 BCE and Persian tyrants then ruled them  The Greeks revolted in 499 BCE, but ultimately were defeated in 494 BCE  Slowly but steadily Athens became the philosophical center of Greece by the middle of the fifth century  Athens was entering its Classical Era, with philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, but the impact of the pre-Socratics continued Several factors contributed to the birth of pre-Socratic philosophy in Ancient Greece  Ionian towns, especially Miletus, had close trade relations with Egypt and Mesopotamia, cultures with observations about the natural world that differed from those of the Greeks  Apart from technical skills and cultural influences, of paramount significance was that the Greeks acquired the alphabet c  800 BCE Another factor was the ease and frequency of intra-Greek travel, which led to the blending and comparison of ideas  During the sixth century BCE, various philosophers and other thinkers moved easily around Greece, especially visiting pan-Hellenic festivals  While long-distance communication was difficult during ancient times, persons, philosophers, and books moved through other parts of the Greek peninsula, the Aegean islands, and Magna Graecia, a coastal area in Southern Italy The democratic political system of independent poleis also contributed to the rise of philosophy  Most Greek towns were not ruled by autocrats or priests, allowing citizens to question freely a wide range of issues  Various poleis flourished and became wealthy, especially Miletus  which was a centre of trade and production during the early phases of pre-Socratic philosophy  Trade of grain, oil, wine, and other commodities among each polis and colonies meant these towns were not isolated but embedded – and economically dependent – on a complex and changeable web of trade routes Greek mythology also influenced the birth of philosophy  The philosophers' ideas, were, to a certain extent, answers to questions that were subtly present in the work of Homer and Hesiod  The pre-Socratics arose from a world dominated by myths, sacred places, and local deities  The work of epic poets such as Homer, Hesiod and others reflected this environment  They are considered predecessors of the pre-Socratics since they seek to address the origin of the world and to organize traditional folklore and legends systematically  Greek popular religion contained many features of the religions of neighboring civilizations, such as the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, and Hittites  The first pre-Socratic philosophers also traveled extensively to other lands, meaning that pre-Socratic thought had roots abroad as well as domestically Homer, in his two epic poems, not only personifies gods and other natural phenomena, such as the Night, but he hints at some views on the origin and the nature of the world that came under scrutiny by the pre-Socratics  In his epic poem Theogony (literally meaning the birth of gods) Hesiod (c  700 BCE) describes the origin of gods, and apart from the solid mythical structure, one can notice an attempt towards organizing beliefs using some form of rationalization; an example would be that Night gives birth to Death, Sleep and Dreams   Transmigration of life, a belief of the Orphics, a religious cult originating from Thrace, had affected the thought of the 5th century BCE but the overall influence of their cosmology on philosophy is disputed  Pherecydes, a poet, magician, and contemporary of Thales, in his book describes a particular cosmogony, asserting that three gods pre-existed – a step towards rationality 

General features
The most important feature of pre-Socratic philosophy was the use of reason to explain the universe  The pre-Socratic philosophers shared the intuition that there was a single explanation that could explain both the plurality and the singularity of the whole – and that explanation would not be direct actions of the gods  The pre-Socratic philosophers rejected traditional mythological explanations of the phenomena they saw around them in favor of more rational explanations, initiating analytic and critical thought  Their efforts were directed at the investigation of the ultimate basis and essential nature of the external world  Many sought the material principle (arche) of things, and the method of their origin and disappearance  They emphasized the rational unity of things and rejected supernatural explanations, seeking natural principles at work in the world and human society  The pre-Socratics saw the world as a cosmos, an ordered arrangement that could be understood via rational inquiry  In their effort to make sense of the cosmos they coined new terms and concepts such as rhythm, symmetry, analogy, deductionism, reductionism, mathematization of nature and others An important term that is met in the thought of several pre-Socratic philosophers is arche  Depending on the context, it can take various related meanings  It could mean the beginning or origin with the undertone that there is an effect on the things to follow  Also, it might mean a principle or a cause (especially in Aristotelian tradition) A common feature of the pre-Socratics is the absence of empiricism and experimentation in order to prove their theories  This may have been because of a lack of instruments, or because of a tendency to view the world as a unity, undeconstructable, so it would be impossible for an external eye to observe tiny fractions of nature under experimental control According to Jonathan Barnes, a professor of ancient philosophy, pre-Socratic philosophy exhibits three significant features: they were internal, systematic and economical  Internal meaning they tried to explain the world with characteristics found within this world  Systematic because they tried to universalize their findings  Economical because they tried to invoke only a few new terms  Based on these features, they reached their most significant achievement, they changed the course of human thought from myth to philosophy and science The pre-Socratics were not atheists; however, they minimized the extent of the gods' involvement in natural phenomena such as thunder or totally eliminated the gods from the natural world Pre-Socratic philosophy encompasses the first of the three phases of ancient Greek philosophy, which spanned around a thousand years  The pre-Socratic phase itself is divided into three phases  The first phase of pre-Socratic philosophy, mainly the Milesians, Xenophanes, and Heraclitus, consisted of rejecting traditional cosmogony and attempting to explain nature based on empirical observations and interpretations  A second phase – that of the Eleatics – resisted the idea that change or motion can happen  Based on their radical monism, they believed that only one substance exists and forms Kosmos  The Eleatics were also monists (believing that only one thing exists and everything else is just a transformation of it)   In the third phase, the post-Eleatics (mainly Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and Democritus) opposed most Eleatic teaching and returned to the naturalism of the Milesians The pre-Socratics were succeeded by the second phase of ancient philosophy, where the philosophical movements of Platonism, Cynicism, Cyrenaicism, Aristotelianism, Pyrrhonism, Epicureanism, Academic skepticism, and Stoicism rose to prominence until 100 BCE  In the third phase, philosophers studied their predecessors 

Pre-Socratic philosophers
Milesian beginning: Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes
The Milesian school was located in Miletus, Ionia, in the 6th century BCE   It consisted of Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, who most probably had a teacher-pupil relationship  They were mainly occupied with the origin and substance of the world; each of them attributed the Whole to a single arche (beginning or principle), starting the tradition of naturalistic monism 

Thales
Thales (c  624–546 BCE) is considered to be the father of philosophy  None of his writings have survived  He is considered the first western philosopher since he was the first to use reason, to use proof, and to generalize  He created the word cosmos, the first word to describe the universe  He contributed to geometry and predicted the eclipse of 585 BCE  Thales may have been of Phoenician ancestry  Miletus was a meeting point and trade centre of the then great civilizations, and Thales visited the neighbouring civilizations, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete, and Phoenicia   In Egypt, geometry was advanced as a means of separating agricultural fields  Thales, though, advanced geometry with his abstract deductive reasoning reaching universal generalizations  Proclus, a later Athenian philosopher, attributed the theorem now known as Thales's theorem to Thales  He is also known for being the first to claim that the base angles of isosceles triangles are equal, and that a diameter bisects the circle  Thales visited Sardis, as many Greeks then, where astronomical records were kept and used astronomical observations for practical matters (oil harvesting)  Thales was widely considered a genius in ancient times and was revered as one of the Seven Sages of Greece Most importantly, what marks Thales as the first philosopher is the posing of the fundamental philosophical question about the origin and the substance of the world, while providing an answer based on empirical evidence and reasoning  He attributed the origin of the world to an element instead of a divine being  Our knowledge of Thales' claim derives from Aristotle  Aristotle, while discussing opinions of previous philosophers, tells us that "Thales, the founder of this type of philosophy, says the principle (arche) is water " What he meant by arche, is a matter of interpretation (might be the origin, the element, or an ontological matrix), but regardless of the various interpretations, he conceived the world as One thing instead of a collection of various items and speculated on the binding/original elements Another important aspect of Thales' philosophy is his claim that everything is full of gods  What he meant by that is again a matter of interpretation, that could be from a theistic view to an atheist one  But the most plausible explanation, suggested by Aristotle, is that Thales is advocating a theory of hylozoism, that the universe, the sum of all things that exist, is divine and alive  Lastly, another notable claim by Thales is that earth "rests on water"- maybe that was a conclusion after observing fish fossils on land 

Anaximander
Anaximander (610–546 BCE), also from Miletus, was 25 years younger than Thales  He was a member of the elite of Miletus, wealthy and a statesman  He showed interest in many fields, including mathematics and geography  He drew the first map of the world, was the first to conclude that the earth is spherical, and made instruments to mark time, something like a clock  In response to Thales, he postulated as the first principle an undefined, unlimited substance without qualities (apeiron), out of which the primary opposites, hot and cold, moist and dry, became differentiated  His answer was an attempt to explain observable changes by attributing them to a single source that transforms to various elements  Like Thales, he provided a naturalistic explanation for phenomena previously given supernatural explanations  He is also known for speculating on the origin of mankind  He proclaimed that the earth is not situated in another structure but lies unsupported in the middle of the universe  Further, he developed a rudimentary evolutionary explanation for biodiversity in which constant universal powers affected the lives of animals  According to Giorgio de Santillana, a philosophy professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Anaximander's conception of a universe governed by laws shaped the philosophical thinking of centuries to come and was as important as the discovery of fire or Einstein's breakthroughs in science 

Anaximenes
Little is known of Anaximenes' (585–525 BCE) life  He was a younger contemporary and friend of Anaximander, and the two worked together on various intellectual projects  He also wrote a book on nature in prose  Anaximenes took for his principle aēr (air), conceiving it as being modified, via thickening and thinning, into the other classical elements: fire, wind, clouds, water, and earth  While his theory resembled that of Anaximander, as they both claimed a single source of the universe, Anaximenes suggested sophisticated mechanisms in which air is transformed to other elements, mainly because of changes of density  Since the classical era, he was considered the father of naturalistic explanations  Anaximenes expanded Anaximander's attempt to find a unitary cause explaining natural phenomena both living and nonliving, without, according to James Warren, having to "reduce living things in some way to mere locations of material change" 

Xenophanes
Xenophanes was born in Colophon, an Ionian town near Miletus  He was a well-traveled poet whose primary interests were theology and epistemology  Concerning theology, he pointed out that we did not know whether there was one god or many gods, or in such case whether there was a hierarchy among them  To critique the anthropomorphic representation of the gods by his contemporary Greeks, he pointed out that different nations depicted their gods as looking like themselves  He famously said that if oxen, horses, or lions could draw, they would draw their gods as oxen, horses, or lions  This critique was not limited to the looks of gods but also their behaviour  Greek mythology, mostly shaped by the poets Homer and Hesiod, attributed moral failures such as jealously and adultery to the gods  Xenophanes opposed this  He thought gods must be morally superior to humans  Xenophanes, however, never claimed the gods were omnipotent, omnibenevolent, or omniscient  Xenophanes also offered naturalistic explanations for phenomena such as the sun, the rainbow and St  Elmo's fire  Traditionally these were attributed to divine intervention but according to Xenophanes they were actually effects of clouds  These explanations of Xenophanes indicate empiricism in his thought and might constitute a kind of proto-scientism  Scholars have overlooked his cosmology and naturalism since Aristotle (maybe due to Xenophanes' lack of teleology) until recently but current literature suggests otherwise  Concerning epistemology,  Xenophanes questioned the validity of human knowledge  Humans usually tend to assert their beliefs are real and represent truth  While Xenophanes was a pessimist about the capability of humans to reach knowledge, he also believed in gradual progress through critical thinking  Xenophanes tried to find naturalistic explanations for meteorological and cosmological phenomena Ancient philosophy historian Alexander Mourelatos notes Xenophanes used a pattern of thought that is still in use by modern metaphysics  Xenophanes, by reducing meteorological phenomena to clouds, created an argument that "X in reality is Y", for example B32, "What they call Iris [the rainbow] that too is in reality a cloud: one that
appears to the eye as purple, red, and green  This is still use[d] today 'lightning is massive electrical discharge' or 'items such as tables are a cloud of micro-particles' " Mourelatos comments that the type of analogy that the cloud analogy is remains present in scientific language and "   is the modern philosopher's favourite subject for illustrations of inter-theoretic identity" According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, Xenophanes was Parmenides' teacher; but is a matter of debate in current literature whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic 

Heraclitus
The hallmark of Heraclitus' philosophy is flux  In fragment DK B30, Heraclitus writes: This world-order [Kosmos], the same of all, no god nor man did create, but it ever was and is and will be: everliving fire, kindling in measures and being quenched in measures  Heraclitus posited that all things in nature are in a state of perpetual flux  Like previous monist philosophers, Heraclitus claimed that the arche of the world was fire, which was subject to change – that makes him a materialist monist  From fire all things originate and all things return to it again in a process of eternal cycles  Fire becomes water and earth and vice versa  These everlasting modifications explain his view that the cosmos was and is and will be  The idea of continual flux is also met in the "river fragments"  There, Heraclitus claims we can not step into the same river twice, a position summarized with the slogan ta panta rhei (everything flows)  One fragment reads: "Into the same rivers we both step and do not step; we both are and are not" (DK 22 B49a)  Heraclitus is seemingly suggesting that not only the river is constantly changing, but we do as well, even hinting at existential questions about humankind Another key concept of Heraclitus is that opposites somehow mirror each other, a doctrine called unity of opposites  Two fragments relating to this concept state, "As the same thing in us is living and dead, waking and sleeping, young and old  For these things having changed around are those, and those in turn having changed around are these" (B88) and "Cold things warm up, the hot cools off, wet becomes dry, dry becomes wet" (B126)   Heraclitus' doctrine on the unity of opposites suggests that unity of the world and its various parts is kept through the tension produced by the opposites  Furthermore, each polar substance contains its opposite, in a continual circular exchange and motion that results in the stability of the cosmos  Another of Heraclitus' famous axioms highlights this doctrine (B53): "War is father of all and king of all; and some he manifested as gods, some as men; some he made slaves, some free", where war means the creative tension that brings things into existence A fundamental idea in Heraclitus is logos, an ancient Greek word with a variety of meanings; Heraclitus might have used a different meaning of the word with each usage in his book  Logos seems like a universal law that unites the cosmos, according to a fragment: "Listening not to me but to the logos, it is wise to agree (homologein) that all things are one" (DK 22 B50)  While logos is everywhere, very few people are familiar with it  B 19 reads: [hoi polloi] "   do not know how to listen [to Logos] or how to speak [the truth]"  Heraclitus' thought on logos influenced the Stoics, who referred to him to support their belief that rational law governs the universe 

Pythagoreanism
Pythagoras (582–496 BCE) was born on Samos, a small island near Miletus  He moved to Croton at about age 30, where he established his school and acquired political influence  Some decades later he had to flee Croton and relocate to Metapontum Pythagoras was famous for studying numbers and the geometrical relations of numbers  A large following of Pythagoreans adopted and extended his doctrine  They advanced his ideas, reaching the claim that everything consists of numbers, the universe is made by numbers and everything is a reflection of analogies and geometrical relations  Numbers, music and philosophy, all interlinked, could comfort the beauty-seeking human soul and hence Pythagoreans espoused the study of mathematics Pythagorianism perceived the world as perfect harmony, dependent on number, and aimed at inducing humankind likewise to lead a harmonious life, including ritual and dietary recommendations  Their way of life was ascetic, restraining themselves from various pleasures and food  They were vegetarians and placed enormous value on friendship   Pythagoras politically was an advocate of a form of aristocracy, a position which later Pythagoreans rejected, but generally, they were reactionary and notably repressed women  Other pre-Socratic philosophers mocked Pythagoras for his belief in reincarnation Notable Pythagorians included Philolaus (470-380 BCE), Alcmaeon of Croton, Archytas (428-347 BCE) and Echphantus  The most notable was Alcmaeon, a medical and philosophical writer  Alcmaeon noticed that most organs in the body come in pairs and suggested that human health depends on harmony between opposites (hot/cold, dry/wet), and illness is due to an imbalance of them  He was the first to think of the brain as the center of senses and thinking  Philolaus advanced cosmology through his discovery of heliocentricism – the idea that the Sun lies in the middle of the earth's orbit and other planets Pythagoreanism influenced later Christian currents as Neoplatonism, and its pedagogical methods were adapted by Plato  Furthermore, there seems to be a continuity in some aspects of Plato's philosophy  As Prof  Carl Huffman notes, Plato had a tendency to invoke mathematics in explaining natural phenomena, and he also believed in the immortality, even divinity of the human soul 

The Eleatics: Parmenides, Zeno and Melissus
The Eleatic school is named after Elea, an ancient Greek town on the southern Italian Peninsula  Parmenides is considered the founder of the school  Other eminent Eleatics include Zeno of Elea and Melissus of Samos  According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, Xenophanes was Parmenides' teacher, and it is debated whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic   Parmenides was born in Elea to a wealthy family around 515 BCE  Parmenides of Elea was interested in many fields, such as biology and astronomy  He was the first to deduce that the earth is spherical  He was also involved in his town's political life 

Parmenides' contributions were paramount not only to ancient philosophy but to all of western metaphysics and ontology  Parmenides wrote a hard to interpret poem, named On Nature or On What-is, that substantially influenced later Greek philosophy  Only 150 fragments of this poem survive  It tells a story of a young man (kouros in ancient Greek) dedicated to finding the truth carried by a goddess on a long journey to the heavens  The poem consists of three parts, the proem (i e , preface), the Way of Truth and the Way of Opinion   Very few pieces from the Way of Opinion survive  In that part, Parmenides must have been dealing with cosmology, judging from other authors' references  The Way of Truth was then, and is still today, considered of much more importance  In the Way of Truth, the goddess criticizes the logic of people who do not distinguish the real from the non-existent ("What-is" and "What-is-Not")  In this poem Parmenides unfolds his philosophy: that all things are One, and therefore nothing can be changed or altered  Hence, all the things that we think to be true, even ourselves, are false representations  What-is, according to Parmenides, is a physical sphere that is unborn, unchanged, and infinite  This is a monist vision of the world, far more radical than that of Heraclitus  The goddess teaches Kouros to use his reasoning to understand whether various claims are true or false, discarding senses as fallacious  Other fundamental issues raised by Parmenides' poem are the doctrine that nothing comes from nothing and the unity of being and thinking  As quoted by DK fragment 3: To gar auto noein estin te kai einai (For to think and to be is one and the same) Zeno and Melissus continued Parmenides' thought on cosmology  Zeno is mostly known for his paradoxes, i e , self-contradictory statements which served as proofs that Parmenides' monism was valid, and that pluralism was invalid  The most common theme of those paradoxes involved traveling a distance, but since that distance comprises infinite points, the traveler could never accomplish it  His most famous is the Achilles paradox, which is mentioned by Aristotelis: "The second is called the 'Achilles' and says that the slowest runner will never be caught by the fastest, because it is necessary for the pursuer first to arrive at the point from which the pursued set off, so it is necessary that the slower will always be a little ahead " (Aristotle Phys  239b14–18 [DK 29 A26]) Melissus defended and advanced Parmenides' theory using prose, without invoking divinity or mythical figures  He tried to explain why we think various non-existent objects exist The Eleatics' focus on Being through means of logic initiated the philosophical discipline of ontology  Other philosophers influenced by the Eleatics (such as the Sophists, Plato, and Aristotle) further advanced logic, argumentation, mathematics and especially elenchos (proof)  The Sophists even placed Being under the scrutiny of elenchos  Because of the Eleatics reasoning was acquiring a formal method 

The Pluralists: Anaxagoras and Empedocles
The Pluralist school marked a return to Milesian natural philosophy, though much more refined because of Eleatic criticism Anaxagoras was born in Ionia, but was the first major philosopher to emigrate to Athens  He was soon associated with the Athenian statesman Pericles and, probably due to this association, was accused by a political opponent of Pericles for impiety as Anaxagoras held that the sun was not associated with divinity; it was merely a huge burning stone  Pericles helped Anaxagoras flee Athens and return to Ionia  Anaxagoras was also a major influence on Socrates Anaxagoras is known for his "theory of everything"  He claimed that "in everything there is a share of everything " Interpretations differ as to what he meant  Anaxagoras was trying to stay true to the Eleatic principle of the everlasting (What-is) while also explaining the diversity of the natural world  Anaxagoras accepted Parmenides' doctrine that everything that exists (What-is) has existed forever, but contrary to the Eleatics, he added the ideas of panspermia and nous  All objects were mixtures of various elements, such as air, water, and others  One special element was nous, i e , mind, which is present in living things and causes motion  According to Anaxagoras, Nous was one of the elements that make up the cosmos  Things that had nous were alive   According to Anaxagoras, all things are composites of some basic elements; although it is not clear what these elements are  All objects are a mixture of these building blocks and have a portion of each element,  except nous  Nous was also considered a building block of the cosmos, but it exists only in living objects  Anaxagoras writes: "In everything there is a portion (moira) of everything except mind (nous), but there are some things in which mind too is present " Nous was not just an element of things, somehow it was the cause of setting the universe into motion   Anaxagoras advanced Milesian thought on epistemology, striving to establish an explanation that could be valid for all natural phenomena  Influenced by the Eleatics, he also furthered the exploration of metatheoretical questions such as the nature of knowledge Empedocles was born in Akragas, a town in the southern Italian peninsula  According to Diogenes Laertius, Empedocles wrote two books in the form of poems: Peri Physeos (On nature) and the Katharmoi (Purifications)  Some contemporary scholars argue these books might be one; all agree that interpreting Empedocles is difficult On cosmological issues, Empedocles takes from the Eleatic school the idea that the universe is unborn, has always been and always will be  He also continues Anaxagoras' thought on the four "roots" (i e , classical elements), that by intermixing, they create all things around us  These roots are fire, air, earth, and water  Crucially, he adds two more components, the immaterial forces of love and strife  These two forces are opposite and by acting upon the material of the four roots unite in harmony or tear apart the four roots, with the resulting mixture being all things that exist  Empedocles uses an analogy of how this is possible: as a painter uses a few basic colors to create a painting, the same happens with the four roots  It is not quite clear if love and strife co-operate or have a greater plan, but love and strife are in a continual cycle that generates life and the earth we live in  Other beings, apart from the four roots and love and strife, according to Empedocles' Purifications are mortals, gods, and daemons  Like Pythagoras, Empedocles believed in the soul's transmigration and was vegetarian 

Atomists: Leucippus and Democritus
Leucippus and Democritus both lived in Abdera, in Thrace  They are most famous for their atomic cosmology even though their thought included many other fields of philosophy, such as ethics, mathematics, aesthetics, politics, and even embryology  The atomic theory of Leucippus and Democritus was a response to the Eleatic school, who held that motion is not possible because everything is occupied with What-is  Democritus and Leucippus reverted the Eleatic axiom, claiming that since motions exist, What-is-not must also exist; hence void exists  Democritus and Leucippus were skeptics regarding the reliability of our senses, but they were confident that motion exists  Atoms, according to Democritus and Leucippus, had some characteristics of the Eleatic What-is: they were homogeneous and indivisible  These characteristics allowed answers to Zeno's paradoxes  Atoms move within the void, interact with each other, and form the plurality of the world we live in, in a purely mechanical manner One conclusion of the Atomists was determinism - the philosophical view that all events are determined completely by previously existing causes  As Leucippus said, (DK 67 B2) "Nothing comes to be random but everything is by reason and out of necessity " Democritus concluded that since everything is atoms and void, several of our senses are not real but conventional  Color, for example, is not a property of atoms; hence our perception of color is a convention  As Democritus said, (DK 68 B9) "By convention sweet, by convention bitter, by convention hot, by convention cold, by convention colour; in reality atoms and void " This can be interpreted in two ways  According to James Warren there is an eliminativist interpretation, such that Democritus means that color is not real, and there is a relativist interpretation, such that Democritus means that color and taste are not real but are perceived as such by our senses through sensory interaction 

Sophists
The sophists were a philosophical and educational movement that flourished in ancient Greece before Socrates  They attacked traditional thinking, from gods to morality, paving the way for further advances of philosophy and other disciplines such as drama, social sciences, mathematics, and history Plato disparaged the sophists, causing long-lasting harm to their reputation  Plato thought philosophy should be reserved for those who had the appropriate intellect to understand it; whereas the sophists would teach anyone who would pay tuition  The sophists taught rhetoric and how to address issues from multiple viewpoints  Since the sophists and their pupils were persuasive speakers at court or in public, they were accused of moral and epistemological relativism, which indeed some sophists appeared to advocate  Prominent sophists include Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, Thrasymachus, Prodicus, Callicles, Antiphon, and Critias Protagoras is mostly known for two of his quotes  One is that  "[humans are  ] the measure of all things, of things that are that they are, of things that are not that they are not" which is commonly interpreted as affirming philosophical relativism, but it can also be interpreted as claiming that knowledge is only relevant to humankind, that moral rightness and other forms of knowledge are relevant to and limited to human mind and perception  The other quote is, "Concerning the gods, I cannot ascertain whether they exist or whether they do not, or what form they have; for there are many obstacles to knowing, including the obscurity of the question and the brevity of human life "Gorgias wrote a book named On Nature, in which he attacked the Eleatics' concepts of What-is and What-is-not  He claimed it is absurd to hold that nonexistence exists, and that What-is was impossible since it had to either be generated or be unlimited and neither is sufficient  There is an ongoing debate among modern scholars whether he was a serious thinker, a precursor of extreme relativism and skepticism, or merely a charlatan Antiphon placed natural law against the law of the city  One need not obey the city's laws as long as one will not get caught  One could argue that Antiphon was a careful hedonist—rejecting dangerous pleasures 

Philolaous of Croton and Diogenes of Apollonia
Philolaus of Croton and Diogenes of Apollonia from Thrace (born c  460 BCE) are considered the last generation of pre-Socratics  Rather than advancing a cosmological perspective on how our universe is constructed, they are mostly noted for advancing abstract thinking and argumentation 
Pythagorianism, Anaxagoras and Empedocles influenced Philolaus  He attempted to explain both the variety and unity of the cosmos  He addressed the need to explain how the various masses of the universe interact among them and coined the term Harmonia, a binding force that allows mass to take shape  The structure of the cosmos consisted of apeira (unlimiteds) and perainonta (limiters) 
Diogenes of Apollonia returned to Milesian monism, but with a rather more elegant thought  As he says in DK64 B2 "It seems to me, overall, that all things are alterations of the same things and are the same thing"  He explains that things, even when changing shapes, remain ontologically the same 

Topics
Knowledge
The mythologoi, Homer and Hesiod, along with other poets, centuries before the pre-Socratics, thought that true knowledge was exclusive to the divine  But starting with Xenophanes, the pre-Socratics moved towards a more secular approach to knowledge  The pre-Socratics sought a method to understand the cosmos, while being aware that there is a limit to human knowledge While Pythagoras and Empedocles linked their self-proclaimed wisdom to their divinely inspired status, they tried to teach or urge mortals to seek the truth about the natural realm—Pythagoras by means of mathematics and geometry and Empedocles by exposure to experiences  Xenophanes thought that human knowledge was merely an opinion that cannot be validated or proven to be true  According to Jonathan Warren, Xenophanes set the outline of the nature of knowledge  Later, Heraclitus and Parmenides stressed the capability of humans to understand how things stand in nature through direct observation, inquiry, and reflection 

Theology
Pre-Socratic thought contributed to the demythologization of the Greek popular religion  The narrative of their thought contributed to shifting the course of ancient Greek philosophy and religion away from the realm of divinity and even paved the way for teleological explanations  They attacked the traditional representations of gods that Homer and Hesiod had established and put Greek popular religion under scrutiny, initiating the schism between natural philosophy and theology   Pre-Socratic philosophers did not have atheistic beliefs, but it should be kept in mind that being an atheist those days was not without social or legal dangers  Despite that, arguments rejecting deities were not barred from the public sphere which can be seen in Protagoras's quotation on the gods: "About the gods I am able to know neither that they exist nor that they do not exist "The theological thought starts with the Milesian philosophers  It is evident in Anaximander's idea of the apeiron steering everything, which had other abilities usually attributed to Zeus  Later, Xenophanes developed a critique of the anthropomorphism of the gods  Xenophanes set three preconditions for God: he had to be all good, immortal and not resembling humans in appearance, which had a major impact on western religious thought The theological thought of Heraclitus and Parmenides is not entirely certain, but it is generally accepted that they believed in some kind of divinity  The Pythagoreans and Empedocles believed in the transmigration of souls  Anaxagoras asserted that cosmic intelligence (nous) gives life to things  Diogenes of Appollonia expanded this line of thinking and might have constructed the first teleological argument "it would not be possible without Intellection for it so to be divided up that it has the measures of all things — of winter and summer and night and day and rains and winds and fair weather  The other things, too, if one wishes to consider them, one would find disposed of in the best possible way " While some pre-Socratics were trying to find alternatives to divinity, others were setting the foundation of explaining the universe in terms of teleology and intelligent design by a divine force 

Medicine
Prior to the pre-Socratics, health and illness were thought to be governed by gods  Pre-Socratic philosophy and medicine advanced in parallel, with medicine as a part of philosophy and vice versa  It was Hippocrates (often hailed as the father of medicine) who separated – but not completely – the two domains  Physicians incorporated pre-Socratic philosophical ideas about the nature of the world in their theoretical framework, blurring the border between the two domains  An example is the study of epilepsy, which in popular religion was thought to be a divine intervention to human life, but Hippocrates' school attributed it to nature, just as Milesian rationalism demythologized other natural phenomena such as earthquakes  The systematic study of anatomy, physiology, and illnesses led to the discovery of cause-effect relations and a more sophisticated terminology and understanding of the diseases that ultimately yielded rational science 

Cosmology
The pre-Socratics were the first to attempt to provide reductive explanations for a plethora of natural phenomena Firstly, they were preoccupied with the mystery of the cosmic matter—what was the basic substance of the universe? Anaximander suggested apeiron (limitless), which hints, as Aristotle analyzed, there is no beginning and no end to it, both chronologically and within the space  Anaximenes placed aêr (air) as the primary principle, probably after realizing the importance of air to life and/or the need to explain various observable changes  Heraclitus, also seeking to address the issue of the ever changing world, placed fire as the primary principle of the universe, that transforms to water and earth to produce the universe  Ever-transforming nature is summarized by Heraclitus' axiom panta rhei (everything is in a state of flux)  Parmenides suggested two ever-lasting primary building blocs, night and day, which together form the universe  Empedocles increased the building blocks to four and named them roots, while also adding Love and Strife, to serve as the driving force for the roots to mingle  Anaxagoras extended even more the plurality of Empedocles, claiming everything is in everything, myriads of substances were mixing among each other except one, Nous (mind) that orchestrates everything—but did not attribute divine characteristics to Nous  Leucippus and Democritus asserted the universe consists of atoms and void, while the motion of atoms is responsible for the changes we observe 

Rationalism, observation and the beginning of scientific thought
The pre-Socratic intellectual revolution is widely considered to have been the first step towards liberation of the human mind from the mythical world and initiated a march towards reason and scientific thought that yielded modern western philosophy and science  The pre-Socratics sought to understand the various aspects of nature by means of rationalism, observations, and offering explanations that could be deemed as scientific, giving birth to what became Western rationalism   Thales was the first to seek for a unitary arche of the world  Whether arche meant the beginning, the origin, the main principle or the basic element is unclear, but was the first attempt to reduce the explanations of the universe to a single cause, based on reason and not guided by any sort of divinity   Anaximander offered the principle of sufficient reason, a revolutionary argument that would also yield the principle that nothing comes out of nothing  Most of pre-Socratics seemed indifferent to the concept of teleology, especially the Atomists who fiercely rejected the idea  According to them, the various phenomena were the consequence of the motion of atoms without any purpose  Xenophanes also advanced a critique of anthropomorphic religion by highlighting in a rational way the inconsistency of depictions of the gods in Greek popular religion Undoubtedly, pre-Socratics paved the way towards science, but whether what they did could constitute science is a matter of debate  Thales had offered the first account of a reduction and a generalization, a significant milestone towards scientific thought  Other pre-Socratics also sought to answer the question of arche, offering various answers, but the first step towards scientific thought was already taken  Philosopher Karl Popper, in his seminal work Back to Presocratics (1958) traces the roots of modern science (and the West) to the early Greek philosophers  He writes: "There can be little doubt that the Greek tradition of philosophical criticism had its main source in Ionia     It thus leads the tradition which created the rational or scientific attitude, and with it our Western civilization, the only civilization, which is based upon science (though, of course, not upon science alone) " Elsewhere in the same study Popper diminishes the significance of the label they should carry as purely semantics  "There is the most perfect possible continuity of thought between [the Presocratics'] theories and the later developments in physics  Whether they are called philosophers, or pre-scientists, or scientists, matters very little " Other scholars did not share the same view  F  M  Cornford considered the Ionanians as dogmatic speculators, due to their lack of empiricism 

Reception and legacy
Antiquity
The pre-Socratics had a direct influence on classical antiquity in many ways  The philosophic thought produced by the pre-Socratics heavily influenced later philosophers, historians and playwrights  One line of influence was the Socrato-Ciceronian tradition, while the other was the Platonic-Aristotelian Socrates, Xenophon and Cicero were highly influenced by the physiologoi (naturalists) as they were named in ancient times  The naturalists impressed young Socrates and he was interested in the quest for the substance of the cosmos, but his interest waned as he became steadily more focused on epistemology, virtue, and ethics rather than the natural world  According to Xenophon, the reason was that Socrates believed humans incapable of comprehending the cosmos  Plato, in the Phaedo, claims that Socrates was uneasy with the materialistic approach of the pre-Socratics, particularly Anaxagoras  Cicero analyzed his views on the pre-Socratics in his Tusculanae Disputationes, as he distinguished the theoretical nature of pre-Socratic thought from previous "sages" who were interested in more practical issues  Xenophon, like Cicero, saw the difference between pre-Socratics and Socrates being his interest in human affairs (ta anthropina) The pre-Socratics deeply influenced both Plato and Aristotle  Aristotle discussed the pre-Socratics in the first book of Metaphysics, as an introduction to his own philosophy and the quest for arche  He was the first to state that philosophy starts with Thales  It is not clear whether Thales talked of water as arche, or that was a retrospective interpretation by Aristotle, who was examining his predecessors under the scope of his views  More crucially, Aristotle  criticized the pre-Socratics for not identifying a purpose as a final cause, a fundamental idea in Aristotelian metaphysics  Plato also attacked pre-Socratic materialism Later, during the Hellenistic era, philosophers of various currents focused on the study of nature and advanced pre-Socratic ideas  The Stoics incorporated features from Anaxagoras and Heraclitus, such as nous and fire respectively  The Epicureans saw Democritus' atomism as their predecessor while the Sceptics were linked to Xenophanes 

Modern era
The pre-Socratics, along with the rest of ancient Greece,  invented the central concepts of Western civilization: freedom, democracy, individual autonomy and rationalism  Francis Bacon, a 16th-century philosopher known for advancing the scientific method, was probably the first philosopher of the modern era to use pre-Socratic axioms extensively in his texts  He criticized the pre-Socratic theory of knowledge by Xenophanes and others, claiming that their deductive reasoning could not yield meaningful results—an opinion contemporary philosophy of science rejects  Bacon's fondness for the pre-Socratics, especially Democritus' atomist theory, might have been because of his anti-Aristotelianism Friedrich Nietzsche admired the pre-Socratics deeply, calling them "tyrants of the spirit" to mark their antithesis and his preference against Socrates and his successors  Nietzsche also weaponized pre-Socratic antiteleology, coupled with the materialism exemplified by Democritus, for his attack on Christianity and its morals  Nietzsche saw the pre-Socratics as the first ancestors of contemporary science—linking Empedocles to Darwinism and Heraclitus to physicist Helmholtz  According to his narrative, limned in many of his books, the pre-Socratic era was the glorious era of Greece, while the so-called Golden Age that followed was an age of decay, according to Nietzsche  Nietzsche incorporated the pre-Socratics in his Apollonian and Dionysian dialectics, with them representing the creative Dionysian aspect of the duo Martin Heidegger found the roots of his phenomenology and later thinking of Things and the Fourfold in the pre-Socratics, considering Anaximander, Parmenides, and Heraclitus as the original thinkers on being, which he identified in their work as physis [φύσις] (emergence, contrasted against κρύπτεσθαι, kryptesthai, in Heraclitus’ Fragment 123) or aletheia [αλήθεια] (truth as unconcealment) 
Passage 5:
Pluralist theories of truth
A pluralist theory of truth is a theory of truth which posits that there may be more than one property that makes a proposition true 

Overview
Most traditional theories of truth are monist: that is, they hold that there is one and only property the having of which makes a belief or proposition true  Pluralist theories of truth deny this assumption  According to pluralism, ethical propositions might be true by more than one property, for example by virtue of coherence; propositions about the physical world might also be true by corresponding to the objects and properties they are about  Pluralism, in short, holds out the prospect that propositions might be "true in more than one way" 
Crispin Wright is the most well-known advocate of pluralism about truth  In his 1992 book Truth and Objectivity, Wright argued that any predicate which satisfied certain platitudes about truth qualified as a truth predicate  In some discourses, Wright argued, the role of the truth predicate might be played by the notion of superassertibility Michael Lynch (philosopher) has recently advocated a different type of pluralism about truth  In a series of articles and in his 2009 book Truth as One and Many Lynch argues that we should see truth as a functional property capable of being multiply manifested in distinct properties like correspondence or coherence 

See also
Criteria of truth
Degrees of truth
Passage 6:
Ann Pettifor
Ann Pettifor (born February 1947) is a British economist who advises governments and organisations  She has published several books  Her work focuses on the global financial system, sovereign debt restructuring, international finance and sustainable development  Pettifor is best known for correctly predicting the financial crisis of 2007–08  She was one of the leaders of the Jubilee 2000 debt cancellation campaign 
She is the director of Policy Research In Macroeconomics (PRIME) a network of economists researching Keynesian monetary theory and policies, an honorary research fellow at the Political Economy Research Centre at City, University of London (CITYPERC), Chair of the  Political Economy Research Centre's Advisory Board at Goldsmiths, a fellow of the New Economics Foundation, a director of  Advocacy International and a trustee of the PREP Foundation for pluralist economics  Pettifor is a member of the Green New  Deal Group of economists, environmentalists and entrepreneurs 

Biography
Lynda Ann Pettifor was born in South Africa in February 1947, and graduated with a degree in politics and economics from the University of the Witwatersrand  In the 1980s she held several posts as adviser to Frances Morrell, the leader of the Inner London Education Authority and later advised  Greater London Council, Ken Livingstone  She also advised the Right Hon  Margaret Beckett MP who went on to serve in the 1997 Labour government  She also worked as a lobbyist for Ian Greer Associates 
Pettifor co-founded the Jubilee 2000 worldwide campaign for the cancellation of the debts of the poorest countries  In 1998 Jubilee 2000 organised a human chain of approximately 70,000 people, which surrounded the 1998 G8 summit in Birmingham, United Kingdom  In 1999 at the Cologne G8 Summit the G8 agreed to write off approximately $100 billion of third world debt owed by 37 countries, in large part due to the campaign  Jubilee 2000 had supporters including Pope John Paul II, Muhammad Ali, Bono, Tony Blair, Gordon Brown and Bill Clinton  The Independent would later describe her work on the campaign as 'genius' At the conclusion of the Jubilee 2000 campaign Pettifor joined the New Economics Foundation in London where she headed their research unit on global macro-economics Pettifor became a member of the Green New  Deal Group of economists, environmentalists and entrepreneurs that published The Green New Deal in July 2008  The group argued that "The triple crunch of financial meltdown, climate change and ‘peak oil’ has its origins firmly rooted in the current model of globalisation  Financial deregulation has facilitated the creation of almost limitless credit  With this credit boom have come irresponsible and often fraudulent patterns of lending, creating inflated bubbles in assets such as property, and powering environmentally unsustainable consumption "
In the 2010 general election Pettifor attempted to stand for Parliament as a Labour candidate and was shortlisted in the North West Durham selection process but lost to Pat Glass  She has also unsuccessfully stood as a local election candidate for the West End ward on Westminster City Council 
As a director of Advocacy International she worked on designing and promoting the MamaYe campaign together with Options Consultancy Services  Working in five African countries the campaign makes life-saving changes for mothers and babies during pregnancy and childbirth In September 2015, she was appointed to the British Labour Party's Economic Advisory Committee, convened by Shadow Chancellor John McDonnell and reporting to Labour Party Leader Jeremy Corbyn, regarding which she stated that she was honoured to be asked to serve with such distinguished colleagues and that she hoped to play her part in overturning the Chancellor's deficit fetishism, and his employment of it as a smokescreen for an attack on the state  She currently resides in London, England 
Pettifor contributed an article to the Labour in the City Anthology in October 2018, which was launched at the City Corporation by Alistair Darling  Pettifor argues that far more radical reforms are needed to prevent a recurrence of the 2008 crisis 

Awards
Pettifor was granted the freedom of the city of Callao in Peru in 1999 (for her work on debt cancellation for Peru); and the Pax Christi International Peace Award in 2000  In 2001 she was awarded an honorary doctorate by Lord Patten, Vice-Chancellor of Newcastle University, and in the same year was honoured with a Masters of Letters Degree (a Lambeth Degree) by the Archbishop of Canterbury  The President of Nigeria, President Obasanjo made her a Member of the Order of the Niger (MON) for her work in leading the campaign to write off billions of dollars of debt owed by Africa's poorest countries  In 2018, she was awarded with the Hannah Arendt Prize 

Works
Pettifor is known for correctly predicting the global financial crises in several publications including in the book The Real World Economic Outlook, and summarised in the New Statesman in an article published on 1 September 2003 entitled "Coming soon: The new poor”  This was followed by her September 2006 book The Coming First World Debt Crisis 
1996: Debt, the Most Potent Form of Slavery: : a discussion of the role of Western lending policies in subordinating the economies of poor countries  Debt Crisis Network 
2000: Kicking the Habit: Finding a Lasting Solution to Addictive Lending and Borrowing and Its Corrupting Side-Effects (Joseph Hanlon & Angela Travis)  Jubilee 2000 Coalition 
2001: It Takes Two to Tango: Creditor Co-Responsibility for Argentina's Crisis – and the Need for Independent Resolution (with Liana Cisneros & Alejandro Olmos)  New Economics Foundation 
2002: Chapter 9/11?: Resolving International Debtcrises – The Jubilee Framework for International Insolvency  New Economics Foundation  ISBN 978-1-899407-44-6
2003: The Real World Economic Outlook Palgrave Macmillan  ISBN 978-1-4039-1794-2
2006: The Coming First World Debt Crisis  Palgrave Macmillan  ISBN 978-0-230-00784-0
2008: The Green New Deal – Joined up policies to solve the triple crunch of credit crises, climate change and high oil prices  New Economics Foundation  ISBN 978-1-904882-35-0
2013: National Plan for the UK: From Austerity to the Age of the Green New Deal New Economics Foundation
2014: Just Money: How Society Can Break the Despotic Power of Finance  Commonwealth Publishing 
2017: The Production of Money – How to Break the Power of Bankers, Verso ISBN 9781786631374
2019: The Case for the Green New Deal  Verso ISBN 9781788738156
Context 2: Passage 1:
Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs)
Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) are non-autonomous, non-coding transposable elements (TEs) that are about 100 to 700 base pairs in length  They are a class of retrotransposons, DNA elements that amplify themselves throughout eukaryotic genomes, often through RNA intermediates  SINEs compose about 13% of the mammalian genome The internal regions of SINEs originate from tRNA and remain highly conserved, suggesting positive pressure to preserve structure and function of SINEs   While SINEs are present in many species of vertebrates and invertebrates, SINEs are often lineage specific, making them useful markers of divergent evolution between species  Copy number variation and mutations in the SINE sequence make it possible to construct phylogenies based on differences in SINEs between species  SINEs are also implicated in certain types of genetic disease in humans and other eukaryotes 
In essence, short interspersed nuclear elements are genetic parasites which have evolved very early in the history of eukaryotes to utilize protein machinery within the organism as well as to co-opt the machinery from similarly parasitic genomic elements  The simplicity of these elements make them remarkably successful at persisting and amplifying (through retrotransposition)  within the genomes of eukaryotes  These "parasites" which have become ubiquitous in genomes can be very deleterious to organisms as discussed below  However, eukaryotes have been able to integrate short-interspersed nuclear elements into different signaling, metabolic and regulatory pathways and SINEs have become a great source of genetic variability  They seem to play a particularly important role in the regulation of gene expression and the creation of RNA genes  This regulation extends to chromatin re-organization and the regulation of genomic architecture  The different lineages, mutations, and activities among eukaryotes make short-interspersed nuclear elements a useful tool in phylogenetic analysis 

Classification and structure
SINEs are classified as non-LTR retrotransposons because they do not contain long terminal repeats (LTRs)  There are three types of SINEs common to vertebrates and invertebrates: CORE-SINEs, V-SINEs, and AmnSINEs  SINEs have 50-500 base pair internal regions which contain a tRNA-derived segment with A and B boxes that serve as an internal promoter for RNA polymerase III 

Internal structure
SINEs are characterized by their different modules, which are essentially a sectioning of their sequence  SINEs can, but do not necessarily have to possess a head, a body, and a tail  The head, is at the 5' end of short-interspersed nuclear elements and is an evolutionarily derived from an RNA synthesized by RNA Polymerase III such as ribosomal RNAs and tRNAs; the 5' head is indicative of which endogenous element that SINE was derived from and was able to parasitically utilize its transcriptional machinery  For example, the 5' of the Alu sine is derived from 7SL RNA, a sequence transcribed by RNA Polymerase III which codes for the RNA element of SRP, an abundant ribonucleoprotein  The body of SINEs possess an unknown origin but often share much homology with a corresponding LINE which thus allows SINEs to parasitically co-opt endonucleases coded by LINEs (which recognize certain sequence motifs)  Lastly, the 3′ tail of SINEs is composed of short simple repeats of varying lengths; these simple repeats are sites where two (or more) short-interspersed nuclear elements can combine to form a dimeric SINE  Short-interspersed nuclear elements which only possess a head and tail are called simple SINEs whereas short-interspersed nuclear elements which also possess a body or are a combination of two or more SINEs are complex SINEs 

Transcription
Short-interspersed nuclear elements are transcribed by RNA polymerase III which is known to transcribe ribosomal RNA and tRNA, two types of RNA vital to ribosomal assembly and mRNA translation  SINEs, like tRNAs and many small-nuclear RNAs possess an internal promoter and thus are transcribed differently than most protein-coding genes   In other words, short-interspersed nuclear elements have their key promoter elements within the transcribed region itself  Though transcribed by RNA polymerase III, SINEs and other genes possessing internal promoters, recruit different transcriptional machinery and factors than genes possessing upstream promoters 

Effects on gene expression
Changes in chromosome structure influence gene expression primarily by affecting the accessibility of genes to transcriptional machinery  The chromosome has a very complex and hierarchical system of organizing the genome  This system of organization, which includes histones, methyl groups, acetyl groups, and a variety of proteins and RNAs allows different domains within a chromosome to be accessible to polymerases, transcription factors, and other associated proteins to different degrees   Furthermore, the shape and density of certain areas of a chromosome can affect the shape and density of neighboring (or even distant regions) on the chromosome through interaction facilitated by different proteins and elements  Non-coding RNAs  such as short-interspersed nuclear elements, which have been known to associate with and contribute to chromatin structure, can thus play huge role in regulating gene expression   Short-interspersed-nuclear-elements similarly can be involved in gene regulation by modifying genomic architecture 
In fact Usmanova et al  2008 suggested that short-interspersed nuclear elements can serve as direct signals in chromatin rearrangement and structure   The paper examined the global distribution of SINEs in mouse and human chromosomes and determined that this distribution was very similar to genomic distributions of genes and CpG motifs  The distribution of SINEs to genes was significantly more similar than that of other non-coding genetic elements and even differed significantly from the distribution of long-interspersed nuclear elements  This suggested that the SINE distribution was not a mere accident caused by LINE-mediated retrotransposition but rather that SINEs possessed a role in gene-regulation  Furthermore, SINEs frequently contain motifs for YY1 polycomb proteins  YY1 is a zinc-finger protein that acts as a transcriptional repressor for a wide-variety of genes essential for development and signaling   Polycomb protein YY1 is believed to mediate the activity of histone deacetylases and histone acetyltransferases to facilitate chromatin re-organization; this is often to facilitate the formation of heterochromatin (gene-silencing state)  Thus, the analysis suggests that short-interspersed nuclear elements can function as a ‘signal-booster' in the polycomb-dependent silencing of gene-sets through chromatin re-organization   In essence, it is the cumulative effect of many types of interactions that leads to the difference between euchromatin, which is not tightly packed and generally more accessible to transcriptional machinery, and heterochromatin, which is tightly packed and generally not accessible to transcriptional machinery; SINEs seem to play an evolutionary role in this process 
In addition to directly affecting chromatin structure, there are a number of ways in which SINEs can potentially regulate gene expression  For example, long non-coding RNA can directly interact with transcriptional repressors and activators, attenuating or modifying their function   This type of regulation can occur in different ways: the RNA transcript can directly bind to the transcription factor as a co-regulator; also, the RNA can regulate and modify the ability of co-regulators to associate with the transcription factor   For example, Evf-2, a certain long non-coding RNA, has been known to function as a co-activator for certain homeobox transcription factors which are critical to nervous system development and organization  Furthermore, RNA transcripts can interfere with the functionality of the transcriptional complex by interacting or associating with RNA polymerases during the transcription or loading processes  Moreover, non-coding RNAs like SINEs can bind or interact directly with the DNA duplex coding the gene and thus prevent its transcription Also, many non-coding RNAs are distributed near protein-coding genes, often in the reverse direction  This is especially true for short-interspersed nuclear elements as seen in Usmanova et al  These non-coding RNAs, which lie adjacent to or overlap gene-sets provide a mechanism by which transcription factors and machinery can be recruited to increase or repress the transcription of local genes  The particular example of SINEs potentially recruiting the YY1 polycomb transcriptional repressor is discussed above   Alternatively, it also provides a mechanism by which local gene expression can be curtailed and regulated because the transcriptional complexes can hinder or prevent nearby genes from being transcribed  There is research to suggest that this phenomenon is particularly seen in the gene-regulation of pluripotent cells In conclusion, non-coding RNAs such as SINEs are capable of affecting gene expression on a multitude of different levels and in different ways  Short-interspersed nuclear elements are believed to be deeply integrated into a complex regulatory network capable of fine-tuning gene expression across the eukaryotic genome 

Propagation and regulation
The RNA coded by the short-interspersed nuclear element does not code for any protein product but is nonetheless reverse-transcribed and inserted back into an alternate region in the genome  For this reason, short interspersed nuclear elements are believed to have co-evolved with long interspersed nuclear element (LINEs), as LINEs do in fact encode protein products which enable them to be reverse- transcribed and integrated back into the genome   SINEs are  believed to have co-opted the proteins coded by LINEs which are contained in 2 reading frames  Open reading frame 1 (ORF 1)  encodes a protein which binds to RNA and acts as a chaperone to facilitate and maintain the LINE protein-RNA complex structure  Open reading frame 2 (ORF 2) codes a protein which possesses both endonuclease and reverse transcriptase activities  This enables the LINE mRNA to be reverse-transcribed into DNA and integrated into the genome based on the sequence-motifs recognized by the protein's endonuclease domain 
LINE-1 (L1) is transcribed and retrotransposed most frequently in the germ-line and during early development; as a result SINEs move around the genome most during these periods  SINE transcription is down-regulated by transcription factors in somatic cells after early development, though stress can cause up-regulation of normally silent SINEs  SINEs can be transferred between individuals or species via horizontal transfer through a viral vector SINEs are known to share sequence homology with LINES which gives a basis by which the LINE machinery can reverse transcribe and integrate SINE transcripts  Alternately, some SINEs are believed to use a much more complex system of integrating back into the genome; this system involves the use random double-stranded DNA breaks (rather than the endonuclease coded by related long-interspersed nuclear elements creating an insertion-site)  These DNA breaks are utilized to prime reverse transcriptase, ultimately integrating the SINE transcript back into the genome  SINEs nonetheless depend on enzymes coded by other DNA elements and are thus known as non-autonomous retrotransposons as they depend on the machinery of LINEs, which are known as autonomous retrotransposons <The theory that short-interspersed nuclear elements have evolved to utilize the retrotransposon machinery of long-interspersed nuclear elements is supported by studies which examine the presence and distribution of LINEs and SINEs in taxa of different species  For example, LINEs and SINEs in rodents and primates show very strong homology at the insertion-site motif  Such evidence is a basis for the proposed mechanism in which integration of the SINE transcript can be co-opted with LINE-coded protein products  This is specifically demonstrated by a detailed analysis of over 20 rodent species profiled LINEs and SINEs, mainly L1s and B1s respectively; these are families of LINEs and SINEs found at high frequencies in rodents along with other mammals  The study sought to provide phylogenetic clarity within the context of LINE and SINE activity 
The study arrived at a candidate taxa believed to be the first instance of L1 LINE extinction; it expectedly discovered that there was no evidence to suggest that B1 SINE activity occurred in species which did not have L1 LINE activity  Also, the study suggested that B1 short-interspersed nuclear element silencing in fact occurred before L1 long-interspersed nuclear element extinction; this is due to the fact that B1 SINEs are silenced in the genus most-closely related to the genus which does not contain active L1 LINEs (though the genus with B1 SINE silencing still contains active L1 LINEs)   Another genus was also found which similarly contained active L1 long-interspersed nuclear elements but did not contain B1 short-interspersed nuclear elements; the opposite scenario, in which active B1 SINEs were present in a genus which did not possess active L1 LINEs was not found  This result was expected and strongly supports the theory that SINEs have evolved to co-opt the RNA-binding proteins, endonucleases, and reverse-transcriptases coded by LINEs  In taxa which do not actively transcribe and translate long-interspersed nuclear elements protein-products, SINEs do not have the theoretical foundation by which to retrotranspose within the genome  The results obtained in Rinehart et al  are thus very supportive of the current model of SINE retrotransposition 

Effects of SINE transposition
Insertion of a SINE upstream of a coding region may result in exon shuffling or changes to the regulatory region of the gene  Insertion of a SINE into the coding sequence of a gene can have deleterious effects and unregulated transposition can cause genetic disease  The transposition and recombination of SINEs and other active nuclear elements is thought to be one of the major contributions of genetic diversity between lineages during speciation 

Common SINEs
Short-interspersed nuclear elements are believed to have parasitic origins in eukaryotic genomes  These SINEs have mutated and replicated themselves a large number of times on an evolutionary time-scale and thus form many different lineages  Their early evolutionary origin has caused them to be ubiquitous in many eukaryotic lineages 
Alu elements, short-interspersed nuclear element of about 300 nucleotides, are the most common SINE in humans, with >1,000,000 copies throughout the genome, which is over 10 percent of the total genome; this is not uncommon among other species  Alu element copy number differences can be used to distinguish between and construct phylogenies of primate species  Canines differ primarily in their abundance of SINEC_Cf repeats throughout the genome, rather than other gene or allele level mutations  These dog-specific SINEs may code for a splice acceptor site, altering the sequences that appear as exons or introns in each species Apart from mammals, SINEs can reach high copy numbers in a range of species, including nonbony vertebrates (elephant shark) and some fish species (coelacanths)  In plants, SINEs are often restricted to closely related species and have emerged, decayed, and vanished frequently during evolution  Nevertheless, some SINE families such as the Au-SINEs and the Angio-SINEs are unusually widespread across many often unrelated plant species 

Diseases
There are >50 human diseases associated with SINEs  When inserted near or within the exon, SINEs can cause improper splicing, become coding regions, or change the reading frame, often leading to disease phenotypes in humans and other animals  Insertion of Alu elements in the human genome is associated with breast cancer, colon cancer, leukemia, hemophilia, Dent's disease, cystic fibrosis, neurofibromatosis, and many others 

microRNAs
The role of short-interspersed nuclear elements in gene regulation within cells has been supported by multiple studies  One such study examined the correlation between a certain family of SINEs with microRNAs (in zebrafish)  The specific family of SINEs being examined was the Anamnia V-SINEs; this family of short interspersed nuclear elements is often found in the untranslated region of the 3' end of many genes and is present in vertebrate genomes   The study involved a computational analysis in which the genomic distribution and activity of the Anamnia V-SINEs in Danio rerio zebrafish was examined; furthermore, these V-SINEs potential to generate novel microRNA loci was analyzed   It was found that genes which were predicted to possess V-SINEs were targeted by microRNAs with significantly higher hybridization E-values (relative to other areas in the genome)   The genes that had high hybridization E-values were genes particularly involved in metabolic and signaling pathways  Almost all miRNAs identified to have a strong ability to hybridize to putative V-SINE sequence motifs in genes have been identified (in mammals) to have regulatory roles  These results which establish a correlation between short-interspersed nuclear elements and different regulatory microRNAs strongly suggest that V-SINEs have a significant role in attenuating responses to different signals and stimuli related to metabolism, proliferation and differentiation  Many other studies must be undertaken to establish the validity and extent of short-interspersed nuclear element retrotransposons' role in regulatory gene-expression networks  In conclusion, though not much is known about the role and mechanism by which SINEs generate miRNA gene loci  it is generally understood that SINEs have played a significant evolutionary role in the creation of "RNA-genes", this is also touched upon above in SINEs and pseudogenes 
With such evidence suggesting that short-interspersed nuclear elements have been evolutionary sources for microRNA loci generation it is important to further discuss the potential relationships between the two as well as the mechanism by which the microRNA regulates RNA degradation and more broadly, gene expression   A microRNA is a non-coding RNA generally 22 nucleotides in length  This non-protein coding oligonucleotide is itself coded by longer nuclear DNA sequence usually transcribed by RNA polymerase II which is also responsible for the transcription of most mRNAs and snRNAs in eukaryotes   However, some research suggests that some microRNAs that possess upstream short-interspersed nuclear elements are transcribed by RNA polymerase III which is widely implicated in ribosomal RNA and tRNA, two transcripts vital to mRNA translation   This provides an alternate mechanism by which short-interspersed nuclear elements could be interacting with or mediating gene-regulatory networks involving microRNAs 
The regions coding miRNA can be independent RNA-genes often being anti-sense to neighboring protein-coding genes, or can be found within the introns of protein-coding genes  The co-localization of microRNA and protein-coding genes provides a mechanistic foundation by which microRNA regulates gene-expression  Furthermore, Scarpato et al   reveals (as discussed above) that genes predicted to possess short-interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) through sequence analysis were targeted and hybridized by microRNAs significantly greater than other genes  This provides an evolutionarily path by which the parasitic SINEs were co-opted and utilized to form RNA-genes (such as microRNAs) which have evolved to play a role in complex gene-regulatory networks 
The microRNAs are transcribed as part of longer RNA strands of generally about 80 nucleotides which through complementary base-pairing are able to form hairpin loop structures These structures are recognized and processed in the nucleus by the nuclear protein DiGeorge Syndrome Critical Region 8 (DGCR8) which recruits and associates with the Drosha protein   This complex is responsible for cleaving some of the hair-pin structures from the pre-microRNA which is transported to the cytoplasm  The pre-miRNA is processed by the protein DICER into a double stranded 22 nucleotide   Thereafter, one of the strands is incorporated into a multi-protein RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC)  Among these proteins are proteins from the Argonaute family which are critical to the complex's ability to interact with and repress the translation of the target mRNA Understanding the different ways in which microRNA regulates gene-expression, including mRNA-translation and degradation is key to understanding the potential evolutionary role of SINEs in gene-regulation and in the generation of microRNA loci  This, in addition to SINEs' direct role in regulatory networks (as discussed in SINEs as long non-coding RNAs) is crucial to beginning to understand the relationship between SINEs and certain diseases  Multiple studies have suggested that increased SINE activity is correlated with certain gene-expression profiles and post-transcription regulation of certain genes   In fact, Peterson et al  2013 demonstrated that high SINE RNA expression correlates with post-transcriptional downregulation of BRCA1, a tumor suppressor implicated in multiple forms of cancer, namely breast cancer  Furthermore, studies have established a strong correlation between transcriptional mobilization of SINEs and certain cancers and conditions such as hypoxia; this can be due to the genomic instability caused by SINE activity as well as more direct-downstream effects   SINEs have also been implicated in countless other diseases  In essence, short-interspersed nuclear elements have become deeply integrated in countless regulatory, metabolic and signaling pathways and thus play an inevitable role in causing disease  Much is still to be known about these genomic parasites but it is clear they play a significant role within eukaryotic organisms 

SINEs and pseudogenes
The activity of SINEs however has genetic vestiges which do not seem to play a significant role, positive or negative, and manifest themselves in the genome as pseudogenes   SINEs however should not be mistaken as RNA pseudogenes  In general, pseudogenes are generated when processed mRNAs of protein-coding genes are reverse-transcribed and incorporated back into the genome (RNA pseudogenes are reverse transcribed RNA genes)  Pseudogenes are generally functionless as they descend from processed RNAs independent of their evolutionary-context which includes introns and different regulatory elements which enable transcription and processing  These pseudogenes, though non-functional may in some cases still possess promoters, CpG islands, and other features which enable transcription; they thus can still be transcribed and may possess a role in the regulation of gene expression (like SINEs and other non-coding elements)   Pseudogenes thus differ from SINEs in that they are derived from transcribed- functional RNA whereas SINEs are DNA elements which retrotranspose by co-opting RNA genes transcriptional machinery  However, there are studies which suggest  that retro-transposable elements such as short-interspersed nuclear elements are not only capable of copying themselves in alternate regions in the genome but are also able to do so for random genes too   Thus SINEs can be playing a vital role in the generation of pseudogenes, which themselves are known to be involved in regulatory networks  This is perhaps another means by which SINEs have been able to influence and contribute to gene-regulation 
Passage 2:
Exonuclease VII
The enzyme exodeoxyribonuclease VII (EC 3 1 11 6, Escherichia coli exonuclease VII, E  coli exonuclease VII, endodeoxyribonuclease VII, exodeoxyribonuclease VII) is a bacterial exonuclease enzyme  It is composed of two nonidentical subunits; one large subunit and 4 small ones  that catalyses exonucleolytic cleavage in either 5′- to 3′- or 3′- to 5′-direction to yield nucleoside 5′-phosphates  The large subunit also contains an N-terminal OB-fold domain that binds to nucleic acids 
Passage 3:
Ribosomal protein
A ribosomal protein (r-protein or rProtein) is any of the proteins that, in conjunction with rRNA, make up the ribosomal subunits involved in the cellular process of translation  E  coli, other bacteria and Archaea have a 30S small subunit and a 50S large subunit, whereas humans and yeasts have a 40S small subunit and a 60S large subunit  Equivalent subunits are frequently numbered differently between bacteria, Archaea, yeasts and humans A large part of the knowledge about these organic molecules has come from the study of E  coli ribosomes  All ribosomal proteins have been isolated and many specific antibodies have been produced  These, together with electronic microscopy and the use of certain reactives, have allowed for the determination of the topography of the proteins in the ribosome   More recently, a near-complete (near)atomic picture of the ribosomal proteins is emerging from the latest high-resolution cryo-EM data (including PDB: 5AFI​) 

Conservation
Ribosomal proteins are among the most highly conserved proteins across all life forms  Among the 40 proteins found in various small ribosomal subunits (RPSs), 15 subunits are universally conserved across prokaryotes and eukaryotes  However, 7 subunits are only found in bacteria (bS21, bS6, bS16, bS18, bS20, bS21, and bTHX), while 17 subunits are only found in archaea and eukaryotes  Typically 22 proteins are found in bacterial small subunits and 32 in yeast, human and most likely most other eukaryotic species  Twenty-seven (out of 32) proteins of the eukaryotic small ribosomal subunit proteins are also present in archaea (no ribosomal protein is exclusively found in archaea), confirming that they are more closely related to eukaryotes than to bacteria Among the large ribosomal subunit (RPLs), 18 proteins are universal, i e  found in both bacteria, eukaryotes, and archaea  14 proteins are only found in bacteria, while 27 proteins are only found in archaea and eukaryotes  Again, archaea have no proteins unique to them 

Essentiality
Despite their high conservation over billions of years of evolution, the absence of several ribosomal proteins in certain species shows that ribosomal subunits have been added and lost over the course of evolution  This is also reflected by the fact that several ribosomal proteins do not appear to be essential when deleted  For instance, in E  coli nine ribosomal proteins (uL15, bL21, uL24, bL27, uL29, uL30, bL34, uS9, and uS17) are nonessential for survival when deleted  Taken together with previous results, 22 of the 54 E  coli ribosomal protein genes can be individually deleted from the genome  Similarly, 16 ribosomal proteins (uL1, bL9, uL15, uL22, uL23, bL28, uL29, bL32, bL33 1, bL33 2, bL34, bL35, bL36, bS6, bS20, and bS21) were successfully deleted in Bacillus subtilis  In conjunction with previous reports, 22 ribosomal proteins have been shown to be nonessential in B  subtilis, at least for cell proliferation 

Assembly
In E  coli
The ribosome of E  coli has about 22 proteins in the small subunit (labelled S1 to S22) and 33 proteins in the large subunit (somewhat counter-intuitively called L1 to L36)  All of them are different with three exceptions: one protein is found in both subunits (S20 and L26), L7 and L12 are acetylated and methylated forms of the same protein, and L8 is a complex of L7/L12 and L10  In addition, L31 is known to exist in two forms, the full length at 7 9 kilodaltons (kDa) and fragmented at 7 0 kDa  This is why the number of proteins in a ribosome is of 56  Except for S1 (with a molecular weight of 61 2 kDa), the other proteins range in weight between 4 4 and 29 7 kDa Recent de novo proteomics experiments where the authors characterized in vivo ribosome-assembly intermediates and associated assembly factors from wild-type Escherichia coli cells using a general quantitative mass spectrometry (qMS) approach have confirmed the presence of all the known small and large subunit components and have identified a total of 21 known and potentially new ribosome-assembly-factors that co-localise with various ribosomal particles 

Disposition in the small ribosomal subunit
In the small (30S) subunit of E  coli ribosomes, the proteins denoted uS4, uS7, uS8, uS15, uS17, bS20 bind independently to 16S rRNA  After assembly of these primary binding proteins, uS5, bS6, uS9, uS12, uS13, bS16, bS18, and uS19 bind to the growing ribosome  These proteins also potentiate the addition of uS2, uS3, uS10, uS11, uS14, and bS21  Protein binding to helical junctions is important for initiating the correct tertiary fold of RNA and to organize the overall structure  Nearly all the proteins contain one or more globular domains  Moreover, nearly all contain long extensions that can contact the RNA in far-reaching regions  Additional stabilization results from the proteins' basic residues, as these neutralize the charge repulsion of the RNA backbone  Protein–protein interactions also exist to hold structure together by electrostatic and hydrogen bonding interactions  Theoretical investigations pointed to correlated effects of protein-binding onto binding affinities during the assembly processIn one study, the net charges (at pH 7 4) of the ribosomal proteins comprising the highly conserved S10-spc cluster were found to have an inverse relationship with the halophilicity/halotolerance levels in bacteria and archaea  In non-halophilic bacteria, the S10-spc proteins are generally basic, contrasting with the overall acidic whole proteomes of the extremely halophiles  The universal uL2 lying in the oldest part of the ribosome, is always positively charged irrespective of the strain/organism it belongs to 

In eukaryotes
Ribosomes in eukaryotes contain 79–80 proteins and four ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules 
General or specialized chaperones solubilize the ribosomal proteins and facilitate their import into the nucleus  Assembly of the eukaryotic ribosome appears to be driven by the ribosomal proteins in vivo when assembly is also aided by chaperones   Most ribosomal proteins assemble with rRNA co-transcriptionally, becoming associated more stably as assembly proceeds, and the active sites of both subunits are constructed last 

Table of ribosomal proteins
In the past, different nomenclatures were used for the same ribosomal protein in different organisms  Not only were the names not consistent across domains; the names also differed between organisms within a domain, such as humans and S  cervisiae, both eukaryotes  This was due to researchers assigning names before the sequences were known, causing trouble for later research  The following tables use the unified nomenclature by Ban et al , 2014  The same nomenclature is used by UniProt's "family" curation In general, cellular ribosomal proteins are to be called simply using the cross domain name, e g  "uL14" for what is currently called L23 in humans  A suffix is used for the organellar versions, so that "uL14m" refers to the human mitochondrial uL14 (MRPL14)  Organelle-specific proteins use their own cross-domain prefixes, for example "mS33" for MRPS33: Table S3,S4  and "cL37" for PSRP5 : Table S2,S3  (See the two proceeding citations, also partially by Ban N, for the organelle nomenclatures )

See also
Alpha operon ribosome binding site
Ribosomal protein L20 leader
Mitochondrial ribosome, for a list of its protein subunits
Passage 4:
Nuclear cap-binding protein complex
Nuclear cap-binding protein complex is a RNA-binding protein which binds to the 5' cap of pre-mRNA  The cap and nuclear cap-binding protein have many functions in mRNA biogenesis including splicing, 3'-end formation by stabilizing the interaction of the 3'-end processing machinery, nuclear export and protection of the transcripts from nuclease degradation  When RNA is exported to the cytoplasm the nuclear cap-binding protein complex is replaced by cytoplasmic cap binding complex  The nuclear cap-binding complex is a functional heterodimer and composed of Cbc1/Cbc2 in yeast and CBC20/CBC80 in multicellular eukaryotes  Human nuclear cap-binding protein complex shows the large subunit, CBC80 consists of 757 amino acid residues  Its secondary structure contains approximately sixty percent of helical and one percent of beta sheet in the strand  The small subunit, CBC20 has 98 amino acid residues  Its secondary structure contains approximately twenty percent of helical and twenty-four percent of beta sheet in the strand  Human nuclear cap-binding protein complex plays important role in the maturation of pre-mRNA and in uracil-rich small nuclear RNA 
Passage 5:
Ribozyme
Ribozymes (ribonucleic acid enzymes) are RNA molecules that have the ability to catalyze specific biochemical reactions, including RNA splicing in gene expression, similar to the action of protein enzymes  The 1982 discovery of ribozymes demonstrated that RNA can be both genetic material (like DNA) and a biological catalyst (like protein enzymes), and contributed to the RNA world hypothesis, which suggests that RNA may have been important in the evolution of prebiotic self-replicating systems The most common activities of natural or in vitro evolved ribozymes are the cleavage (or ligation) of RNA and DNA and peptide bond formation  For example, the smallest ribozyme known (GUGGC-3') can aminoacylate a GCCU-3' sequence in the presence of PheAMP  Within the ribosome, ribozymes function as part of the large subunit ribosomal RNA to link amino acids during protein synthesis  They also participate in a variety of RNA processing reactions, including RNA splicing, viral replication, and transfer RNA biosynthesis  Examples of ribozymes include the hammerhead ribozyme, the VS ribozyme, leadzyme, and the hairpin ribozyme 
Researchers who are investigating the origins of life through the RNA world hypothesis have been working on discovering a ribozyme with the capacity to self-replicate, which would require it to have the ability to catalytically synthesize polymers of RNA  This should be able to happen in prebiotically plausible conditions with high rates of copying accuracy to prevent degradation of information but also allowing for the occurrence of occasional errors during the copying process to allow for Darwinian evolution to proceed Attempts have been made to develop ribozymes as therapeutic agents, as enzymes which target defined RNA sequences for cleavage, as biosensors, and for applications in functional genomics and gene discovery 

Discovery
Before the discovery of ribozymes, enzymes—which are defined as catalytic proteins—were the only known biological catalysts  In 1967, Carl Woese, Francis Crick, and Leslie Orgel were the first to suggest that RNA could act as a catalyst  This idea was based upon the discovery that RNA can form complex secondary structures  These ribozymes were found in the intron of an RNA transcript, which removed itself from the transcript, as well as in the RNA component of the RNase P complex, which is involved in the maturation of pre-tRNAs  In 1989, Thomas R  Cech and Sidney Altman shared the Nobel Prize in chemistry for their "discovery of catalytic properties of RNA"  The term ribozyme was first introduced by Kelly Kruger et al  in a paper published in Cell in 1982 It had been a firmly established belief in biology that catalysis was reserved for proteins  However, the idea of RNA catalysis is motivated in part by the old question regarding the origin of life: Which comes first, enzymes that do the work of the cell or nucleic acids that carry the information required to produce the enzymes? The concept of "ribonucleic acids as catalysts" circumvents this problem  RNA, in essence, can be both the chicken and the egg In the 1980s, Thomas Cech, at the University of Colorado Boulder, was studying the excision of introns in a ribosomal RNA gene in Tetrahymena thermophila  While trying to purify the enzyme responsible for the splicing reaction, he found that the intron could be spliced out in the absence of any added cell extract  As much as they tried, Cech and his colleagues could not identify any protein associated with the splicing reaction  After much work, Cech proposed that the intron sequence portion of the RNA could break and reform phosphodiester bonds  At about the same time, Sidney Altman, a professor at Yale University, was studying the way tRNA molecules are processed in the cell when he and his colleagues isolated an enzyme called RNase-P, which is responsible for conversion of a precursor tRNA into the active tRNA  Much to their surprise, they found that RNase-P contained RNA in addition to protein and that RNA was an essential component of the active enzyme  This was such a foreign idea that they had difficulty publishing their findings  The following year, Altman demonstrated that RNA can act as a catalyst by showing that the RNase-P RNA subunit could catalyze the cleavage of precursor tRNA into active tRNA in the absence of any protein component 
Since Cech's and Altman's discovery, other investigators have discovered other examples of self-cleaving RNA or catalytic RNA molecules  Many ribozymes have either a hairpin – or hammerhead – shaped active center and a unique secondary structure that allows them to cleave other RNA molecules at specific sequences  It is now possible to make ribozymes that will specifically cleave any RNA molecule  These RNA catalysts may have pharmaceutical applications  For example, a ribozyme has been designed to cleave the RNA of HIV  If such a ribozyme were made by a cell, all incoming virus particles would have their RNA genome cleaved by the ribozyme, which would prevent infection 

Structure and mechanism
Despite having only four choices for each monomer unit (nucleotides), compared to 20 amino acid side chains found in proteins, ribozymes have diverse structures and mechanisms



ground_truth: Leucippus

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The large subunit and small subunit that use two types of RNA are major components that make up what?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  In many cases they are able to mimic the mechanism used by their protein counterparts  For example, in self cleaving ribozyme RNAs, an in-line SN2 reaction is carried out using the 2’ hydroxyl group as a nucleophile attacking the bridging phosphate and causing 5’ oxygen of the N+1 base to act as a leaving group  In comparison, RNase A, a protein that catalyzes the same reaction, uses a coordinating histidine and lysine to act as a base to attack the phosphate backbone Like many protein enzymes, metal binding is also critical to the function of many ribozymes  Often these interactions use both the phosphate backbone and the base of the nucleotide, causing drastic conformational changes  There are two mechanism classes for the cleavage of a phosphodiester backbone in the presence of metal  In the first mechanism, the internal 2’- OH group attacks the phosphorus center in a SN2 mechanism  Metal ions promote this reaction by first coordinating the phosphate oxygen and later stabling the oxyanion  The second mechanism also follows a SN2 displacement, but the nucleophile comes from water or exogenous hydroxyl groups rather than RNA itself  The smallest ribozyme is UUU, which can promote the cleavage between G and A of the GAAA tetranucleotide via the first mechanism in the presence of Mn2+  The reason why this trinucleotide (rather than the complementary tetramer) catalyzes this reaction may be because the UUU-AAA pairing is the weakest and most flexible trinucleotide among the 64 conformations, which provides the binding site for Mn2+ Phosphoryl transfer can also be catalyzed without metal ions  For example, pancreatic ribonuclease A and hepatitis delta virus (HDV) ribozymes can catalyze the cleavage of RNA backbone through acid-base catalysis without metal ions  Hairpin ribozyme can also catalyze the self-cleavage of RNA without metal ions, but the mechanism for this is still unclear Ribozyme can also catalyze the formation of peptide bond between adjacent amino acids by lowering the activation entropy 

Activities
Although ribozymes are quite rare in most cells, their roles are sometimes essential to life  For example, the functional part of the ribosome, the biological machine that translates RNA into proteins, is fundamentally a ribozyme, composed of RNA tertiary structural motifs that are often coordinated to metal ions such as Mg2+ as cofactors  In a model system, there is no requirement for divalent cations in a five-nucleotide RNA catalyzing trans-phenylalanation of a four-nucleotide substrate with 3 base pairs complementary with the catalyst, where the catalyst/substrate were devised by truncation of the C3 ribozyme The best-studied ribozymes are probably those that cut themselves or other RNAs, as in the original discovery by Cech and Altman  However, ribozymes can be designed to catalyze a range of reactions, many of which may occur in life but have not been discovered in cells RNA may catalyze folding of the pathological protein conformation of a prion in a manner similar to that of a chaperonin 

Ribozymes and the origin of life
RNA can also act as a hereditary molecule, which encouraged Walter Gilbert to propose that in the distant past, the cell used RNA as both the genetic material and the structural and catalytic molecule rather than dividing these functions between DNA and protein as they are today; this hypothesis is known as the "RNA world hypothesis" of the origin of life  Since nucleotides and RNA (and thus ribozymes) can arise by inorganic chemicals, they are candidates for the first enzymes, and in fact, the first "replicators" (i e , information-containing macro-molecules that replicate themselves)  An example of a self-replicating ribozyme that ligates two substrates to generate an exact copy of itself was described in 2002 
The discovery of the catalytic activity of RNA solved the "chicken and egg" paradox of the origin of life, solving the problem of origin of peptide and nucleic acid central dogma  According to this scenario, at the origin of life, all enzymatic activity and genetic information encoding was done by one molecule: RNA 
Ribozymes have been produced in the laboratory that are capable of catalyzing the synthesis of other RNA molecules from activated monomers under very specific conditions, these molecules being known as RNA polymerase ribozymes  The first RNA polymerase ribozyme was reported in 1996, and was capable of synthesizing RNA polymers up to 6 nucleotides in length  Mutagenesis and selection has been performed on an RNA ligase ribozyme from a large pool of random RNA sequences, resulting in isolation of the improved "Round-18" polymerase ribozyme in 2001 which could catalyze RNA polymers now up to 14 nucleotides in length  Upon application of further selection on the Round-18 ribozyme, the B6 61 ribozyme was generated and was able to add up to 20 nucleotides to a primer template in 24 hours, until it decomposes by cleavage of its phosphodiester bonds The rate at which ribozymes can polymerize an RNA sequence multiples substantially when it takes place within a micelle The next ribozyme discovered was the "tC19Z" ribozyme, which can add up to 95 nucleotides with a fidelity of 0 0083 mutations/nucleotide  Next, the "tC9Y" ribozyme was discovered by researchers and was further able to synthesize RNA strands up to 206 nucleotides long in the eutectic phase conditions at below-zero temperature, conditions previously shown to promote ribozyme polymerase activity The RNA polymerase ribozyme (RPR) called tC9-4M was able to polymerize RNA chains longer than itself (i e  longer than 177 nt) in magnesium ion concentrations close to physiological levels, whereas earlier RPRs required prebiotically implausible concentrations of up to 200 mM  The only factor required for it to achieve this was the presence of a very simple amino acid polymer called lysine decapeptide The most complex RPR synthesized by that point was called 24-3, which was newly capable of polymerizing the sequences of a substantial variety of nucleotide sequences and navigating through complex secondary structures of RNA substrates inaccessible to previous ribozymes  In fact, this experiment was the first to use a ribozyme to synthesize a tRNA molecule  Starting with the 24-3 ribozyme, Tjhung et al  applied another fourteen rounds of selection to obtain an RNA polymerase ribozyme by in vitro evolution termed '38-6' that has an unprecedented level of activity in copying complex RNA molecules  However, this ribozyme is unable to copy itself and its RNA products have a high mutation rate  In a subsequent study, the researchers began with the 38-6 ribozyme and applied another 14 rounds of selection to generate the '52-2' ribozyme, which compared to 38-6, was again many times more active and could begin generating detectable and functional levels of the class I ligase, although it was still limited in its fidelity and functionality in comparison to copying of the same template by proteins such as the T7 RNA polymerase An RPR called t5(+1) adds triplet nucleotides at a time instead of just one nucleotide at a time  This heterodimeric RPR can navigate secondary structures inaccessible to 24-3, including hairpins  In the initial pool of RNA variants derived only from a previously synthesized RPR known as the Z RPR, two sequences separately emerged and evolved to be mutualistically dependent on each other  The Type 1 RNA evolved to be catalytically inactive, but complexing with the Type 5 RNA boosted its polymerization ability and enabled intermolecular interactions with the RNA template substrate obviating the need to tether the template directly to the RNA sequence of the RPR, which was a limitation of earlier studies  Not only did t5(+1) not need tethering to the template, but a primer was not needed either as t5(+1) had the ability to polymerize a template in both 3' → 5' and 5' 3 → 3' directions A highly evolved RNA polymerase ribozyme was able to function as a reverse transcriptase, that is, it can synthesize a DNA copy using an RNA template  Such an activity is considered to have been crucial for the transition from RNA to DNA genomes during the early history of life on earth  Reverse transcription capability could have arisen as a secondary function of an early RNA-dependent RNA polymerase ribozyme 
An RNA sequence that folds into a ribozyme is capable of invading duplexed RNA, rearranging into an open holopolymerase complex, and then searching for a specific RNA promoter sequence, and upon recognition rearrange again into a processive form that polymerizes a complementary strand of the sequence  This ribozyme is capable of extending duplexed RNA by up to 107 nucleotides, and does so without needing to tether the sequence being polymerized 

Artificial ribozymes
Since the discovery of ribozymes that exist in living organisms, there has been interest in the study of new synthetic ribozymes made in the laboratory  For example, artificially produced self-cleaving RNAs with good enzymatic activity have been produced  Tang and Breaker isolated self-cleaving RNAs by in vitro selection of RNAs originating from random-sequence RNAs  Some of the synthetic ribozymes that were produced had novel structures, while some were similar to the naturally occurring hammerhead ribozyme 
In 2015, researchers at Northwestern University and the University of Illinois Chicago engineered a tethered ribosome that works nearly as well as the authentic cellular component that produces all the proteins and enzymes within the cell  Called Ribosome-T, or Ribo-T, the artificial ribosome was created by Michael Jewett and Alexander Mankin  The techniques used to create artificial ribozymes involve directed evolution  This approach takes advantage of RNA's dual nature as both a catalyst and an informational polymer, making it easy for an investigator to produce vast populations of RNA catalysts using polymerase enzymes  The ribozymes are mutated by reverse transcribing them with reverse transcriptase into various cDNA and amplified with error-prone PCR  The selection parameters in these experiments often differ  One approach for selecting a ligase ribozyme involves using biotin tags, which are covalently linked to the substrate  If a molecule possesses the desired ligase activity, a streptavidin matrix can be used to recover the active molecules 
Lincoln and Joyce used in vitro evolution to develop ribozyme ligases capable of self-replication in about an hour, via the joining of pre-synthesized highly complementary oligonucleotides Although not true catalysts, the creation of artificial self-cleaving riboswitches, termed aptazymes, has also been an active area of research  Riboswitches are regulatory RNA motifs that change their structure in response to a small molecule ligand to regulate translation  While there are many known natural riboswitches that bind a wide array of metabolites and other small organic molecules, only one ribozyme based on a riboswitch has been described: glmS  Early work in characterizing self-cleaving riboswitches was focused on using theophylline as the ligand  In these studies, an RNA hairpin is formed which blocks the ribosome binding site, thus inhibiting translation  In the presence of the ligand, in these cases theophylline, the regulatory RNA region is cleaved off, allowing the ribosome to bind and translate the target gene  Much of this RNA engineering work was based on rational design and previously determined RNA structures rather than directed evolution as in the above examples  More recent work has broadened the ligands used in ribozyme riboswitches to include thymine pyrophosphate  Fluorescence-activated cell sorting has also been used to engineering aptazymes 

Applications
Ribozymes have been proposed and developed for the treatment of disease through gene therapy  One major challenge of using RNA-based enzymes as a therapeutic is the short half-life of the catalytic RNA molecules in the body  To combat this, the 2’ position on the ribose is modified to improve RNA stability  One area of ribozyme gene therapy has been the inhibition of RNA-based viruses 
A type of synthetic ribozyme directed against HIV RNA called gene shears has been developed and has entered clinical testing for HIV infection Similarly, ribozymes have been designed to target the hepatitis C virus RNA, SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Adenovirus and influenza A and B virus RNA  The ribozyme is able to cleave the conserved regions of the virus's genome, which has been shown to reduce the virus in mammalian cell culture  Despite these efforts by researchers, these projects have remained in the preclinical stage 

Known ribozymes
Well-validated naturally occurring ribozyme classes:

See also
Notes and references
Further reading
External links
Tom Cech's Short Talk: "Discovering Ribozymes"
Passage 6:
Ribosome
Ribosomes () are macromolecular machines, found within all  cells, that perform biological protein synthesis (mRNA translation)  Ribosomes link amino acids together in the order specified by the codons of messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules to form polypeptide chains  Ribosomes consist of two major components: the small and large ribosomal subunits  Each subunit consists of one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules and many ribosomal proteins (RPs or r-proteins)  The ribosomes and associated molecules are also known as the translational apparatus 

Overview
The sequence of DNA that encodes the sequence of the amino acids in a protein is transcribed into a messenger RNA chain  Ribosomes bind to messenger RNAs and use their sequences for determining the correct sequence of amino acids to generate a given protein  Amino acids are selected and carried to the ribosome by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which enter the ribosome and bind to the messenger RNA chain via an anti-codon stem loop  For each coding triplet (codon) in the messenger RNA, there is a unique transfer RNA that must have the exact anti-codon match, and carries the correct amino acid for incorporating into a growing polypeptide chain  Once the protein is produced, it can then fold to produce a functional three-dimensional structure 
A ribosome is made from complexes of RNAs and proteins and is therefore a ribonucleoprotein complex  Each ribosome is composed of small (30S) and large (50S) components, called subunits, which are bound to each other:

(30S) has mainly a decoding function and is also bound to the mRNA
(50S) has mainly a catalytic function and is also bound to the aminoacylated tRNAs The synthesis of proteins from their building blocks takes place in four phases: initiation, elongation, termination, and recycling  The start codon in all mRNA molecules has the sequence AUG  The stop codon is one of UAA, UAG, or UGA; since there are no tRNA molecules that recognize these codons, the ribosome recognizes that translation is complete  When a ribosome finishes reading an mRNA molecule, the two subunits separate and are usually broken up but can be re-used  Ribosomes are ribozymes, because the catalytic peptidyl transferase activity that links amino acids together is performed by the ribosomal RNA Ribosomes are often associated with the intracellular membranes that make up the rough endoplasmic reticulum 
Ribosomes from bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes in the three-domain system resemble each other to a remarkable degree, evidence of a common origin  They differ in their size, sequence, structure, and the ratio of protein to RNA  The differences in structure allow some antibiotics to kill bacteria by inhibiting their ribosomes, while leaving human ribosomes unaffected  In all species, more than one ribosome may move along a single mRNA chain at one time (as a polysome), each "reading" a specific sequence and producing a corresponding protein molecule 
The mitochondrial ribosomes of eukaryotic cells functionally resemble many features of those in bacteria, reflecting the likely evolutionary origin of mitochondria 

Discovery
Ribosomes were first observed in the mid-1950s by Romanian-American cell biologist George Emil Palade, using an electron microscope, as dense particles or granules   They were initially called  Palade granules due to their granular structure   The term "ribosome" was proposed in 1958:

During the course of the symposium a semantic difficulty became apparent  To some of the participants, "microsomes" mean the ribonucleoprotein particles of the microsome fraction contaminated by other protein and lipid material; to others, the microsomes consist of protein and lipid contaminated by particles  The phrase "microsomal particles" does not seem adequate, and "ribonucleoprotein particles of the microsome fraction" is much too awkward  During the meeting, the word "ribosome" was suggested, which has a very satisfactory name and a pleasant sound  The present confusion would be eliminated if "ribosome" were adopted to designate ribonucleoprotein particles in sizes ranging from 35 to 100S 
Albert Claude, Christian de Duve, and George Emil Palade were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, in 1974, for the discovery of the ribosome  The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2009 was awarded to Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas A  Steitz and Ada E  Yonath for determining the detailed structure and mechanism of the ribosome 

Structure
The ribosome is a complex cellular machine  It is largely made up of specialized RNA known as ribosomal RNA (rRNA) as well as dozens of distinct proteins (the exact number varies slightly between species)  The ribosomal proteins and rRNAs are arranged into two distinct ribosomal pieces of different sizes, known generally as the large and small subunit of the ribosome  Ribosomes consist of two subunits that fit together (Figure 2) and work as one to translate the mRNA into a polypeptide chain during protein synthesis (Figure 1)  Because they are formed from two subunits of non-equal size, they are slightly longer in the axis than in diameter 

Prokaryotic ribosomes
Prokaryotic ribosomes are around 20 nm (200 Å) in diameter and are composed of 65% rRNA and 35% ribosomal proteins  Eukaryotic ribosomes are between 25 and 30 nm (250–300 Å) in diameter with an rRNA-to-protein ratio that is close to 1  Crystallographic work has shown that there are no ribosomal proteins close to the reaction site for polypeptide synthesis  This suggests that the protein components of ribosomes do not directly participate in peptide bond formation catalysis, but rather that these proteins act as a scaffold that may enhance the ability of rRNA to synthesize protein (See: Ribozyme) 

The ribosomal subunits of prokaryotes and eukaryotes are quite similar The unit of measurement used to describe the ribosomal subunits and the rRNA fragments is the Svedberg unit, a measure of the rate of sedimentation in centrifugation rather than size  This accounts for why fragment names do not add up: for example, bacterial 70S ribosomes are made of 50S and 30S subunits 
Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes, each consisting of a small (30S) and a large (50S) subunit  E  coli, for example, has a 16S RNA subunit (consisting of 1540 nucleotides) that is bound to 21 proteins  The large subunit is composed of a 5S RNA subunit (120 nucleotides), a 23S RNA subunit (2900 nucleotides) and 31 proteins 
Affinity label for the tRNA binding sites on the E  coli ribosome allowed the identification of A and P site proteins most likely associated with the peptidyltransferase activity; labelled proteins are L27, L14, L15, L16, L2; at least L27 is located at the donor site, as shown by E  Collatz and A P  Czernilofsky  Additional research has demonstrated that the S1 and S21 proteins, in association with the 3′-end of 16S ribosomal RNA, are involved in the initiation of translation 

Archaeal ribosomes
Archaeal ribosomes share the same general dimensions of bacteria ones, being a 70S ribosome made up from a 50S large subunit, a 30S small subunit, and containing three rRNA chains  However, on the sequence level, they are much closer to eukaryotic ones than to bacterial ones  Every extra ribosomal protein archaea have compared to bacteria has a eukaryotic counterpart, while no such relation applies between archaea and bacteria 

Eukaryotic ribosomes
Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes located in their cytosol, each consisting of a small (40S) and large (60S) subunit  Their 40S subunit has an 18S RNA (1900 nucleotides) and 33 proteins  The large subunit is composed of a 5S RNA (120 nucleotides), 28S RNA (4700 nucleotides), a 5 8S RNA (160 nucleotides) subunits and 49 proteins 
During 1977, Czernilofsky published research that used affinity labeling to identify tRNA-binding sites on rat liver ribosomes  Several proteins, including L32/33, L36, L21, L23, L28/29 and L13 were implicated as being at or near the peptidyl transferase center 

Plastoribosomes and mitoribosomes
In eukaryotes, ribosomes are present in mitochondria (sometimes called mitoribosomes) and in plastids such as chloroplasts (also called plastoribosomes)  They also consist of large and small subunits bound together with proteins into one 70S particle  These ribosomes are similar to those of bacteria and these organelles are thought to have originated as symbiotic bacteria  Of the two, chloroplastic ribosomes are closer to bacterial ones than mitochondrial ones are  Many pieces of ribosomal RNA in the mitochondria are shortened, and in the case of 5S rRNA, replaced by other structures in animals and fungi  In particular, Leishmania tarentolae has a minimalized set of mitochondrial rRNA  In contrast, plant mitoribosomes have both extended rRNA and additional proteins as compared to bacteria, in particular, many pentatricopetide repeat proteins The cryptomonad and chlorarachniophyte algae may contain a nucleomorph that resembles a vestigial eukaryotic nucleus  Eukaryotic 80S ribosomes may be present in the compartment containing the nucleomorph 

Making use of the differences
The differences between the bacterial and eukaryotic ribosomes are exploited by pharmaceutical chemists to create antibiotics that can destroy a bacterial infection without harming the cells of the infected person  Due to the differences in their structures, the bacterial 70S ribosomes are vulnerable to these antibiotics while the eukaryotic 80S ribosomes are not  Even though mitochondria possess ribosomes similar to the bacterial ones, mitochondria are not affected by these antibiotics because they are surrounded by a double membrane that does not easily admit these antibiotics into the organelle  A noteworthy counterexample, however, includes the antineoplastic antibiotic chloramphenicol, which successfully inhibits bacterial 50S and eukaryotic mitochondrial 50S ribosomes  Ribosomes in chloroplasts, however, are different: Antibiotic resistance in chloroplast ribosomal proteins is a trait that has to be introduced as a marker, with genetic engineering 

Common properties
The various ribosomes share a core structure, which is quite similar despite the large differences in size  Much of the RNA is highly organized into various tertiary structural motifs, for example pseudoknots that exhibit coaxial stacking  The extra RNA in the larger ribosomes is in several long continuous insertions, such that they form loops out of the core structure without disrupting or changing it  All of the catalytic activity of the ribosome is carried out by the RNA; the proteins reside on the surface and seem to stabilize the structure 

High-resolution structure
The general molecular structure of the ribosome has been known since the early 1970s  In the early 2000s, the structure has been achieved at high resolutions, of the order of a few ångströms 
The first papers giving the structure of the ribosome at atomic resolution were published almost simultaneously in late 2000  The 50S (large prokaryotic) subunit was determined from the archaeon Haloarcula marismortui and the bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans, and the structure of the 30S subunit was determined from Thermus thermophilus  These structural studies were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2009  In May 2001 these coordinates were used to reconstruct the entire T  thermophilus 70S particle at 5 5 Å resolution Two papers were published in November 2005 with structures of the Escherichia coli 70S ribosome  The structures of a vacant ribosome were determined at 3 5 Å resolution using X-ray crystallography  Then, two weeks later, a structure based on cryo-electron microscopy was published, which depicts the ribosome at 11–15 Å resolution in the act of passing a newly synthesized protein strand into the protein-conducting channel 
The first atomic structures of the ribosome complexed with tRNA and mRNA molecules were solved by using X-ray crystallography by two groups independently, at 2 8 Å and at 3 7 Å  These structures allow one to see the details of interactions of the Thermus thermophilus ribosome with mRNA and with tRNAs bound at classical ribosomal sites  Interactions of the ribosome with long mRNAs containing Shine-Dalgarno sequences were visualized soon after that at 4 5–5 5 Å resolution In 2011, the first complete atomic structure of the eukaryotic 80S ribosome from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae   was obtained by crystallography  The model reveals the architecture of eukaryote-specific elements and their interaction with the universally conserved core  At the same time, the complete model of a eukaryotic 40S ribosomal structure in Tetrahymena thermophila was published and described the structure of the 40S subunit, as well as much about the 40S subunit's interaction with eIF1 during translation initiation  Similarly, the eukaryotic 60S subunit structure was also determined from Tetrahymena thermophila in complex with eIF6 

Function
Ribosomes are minute particles consisting of RNA and associated proteins that function to synthesize proteins  Proteins are needed for many cellular functions such as repairing damage or directing chemical processes  Ribosomes can be found floating within the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum  Their main function is to convert genetic code into an amino acid sequence and to build protein polymers from amino acid monomers 
Ribosomes act as catalysts in two extremely important biological processes called peptidyl transfer and peptidyl hydrolysis  The "PT center is responsible for producing protein bonds during protein elongation" In summary, ribosomes have two main functions: Decoding the message, and the formation of peptide bonds  These two functions reside in the ribosomal subunits  Each subunit is made of one or more rRNAs and many r-proteins  The small subunit (30S in bacteria and archaea, 40S in eukaryotes) has the decoding function, whereas the large subunit (50S in bacteria and archaea, 60S in eukaryotes) catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds, referred to as the peptidyl-transferase activity  The bacterial (and archaeal) small subunit contains the 16S rRNA and 21 r-proteins (Escherichia coli), whereas the eukaryotic small subunit contains the 18S rRNA and 32 r-proteins (Saccharomyces cerevisiae; although the numbers vary between species)  The bacterial large subunit contains the 5S and 23S rRNAs and 34 r-proteins (E  coli), with the eukaryotic large subunit containing the 5S, 5 8S, and 25S / 28S rRNAs and 46 r-proteins (S  cerevisiae; again, the exact numbers vary between species) 

Translation
Ribosomes are the workplaces of protein biosynthesis, the process of translating mRNA into protein  The mRNA comprises a series of codons which are decoded by the ribosome so as to make the protein  Using the mRNA as a template, the ribosome traverses each codon (3 nucleotides) of the mRNA, pairing it with the appropriate amino acid provided by an aminoacyl-tRNA  Aminoacyl-tRNA contains a complementary anticodon on one end and the appropriate amino acid on the other  For fast and accurate recognition of the appropriate tRNA, the ribosome utilizes large conformational changes (conformational proofreading)  The small ribosomal subunit, typically bound to an aminoacyl-tRNA containing the first amino acid methionine, binds to an AUG codon on the mRNA and recruits the large ribosomal subunit  The ribosome contains three RNA binding sites, designated A, P, and E  The A-site binds an aminoacyl-tRNA or termination release factors; the P-site binds a peptidyl-tRNA (a tRNA bound to the poly-peptide chain); and the E-site (exit) binds a free tRNA  Protein synthesis begins at a start codon AUG near the 5' end of the mRNA  mRNA binds to the P site of the ribosome first  The ribosome recognizes the start codon by using the Shine-Dalgarno sequence of the mRNA in prokaryotes and Kozak box in eukaryotes 
Although catalysis of the peptide bond involves the C2 hydroxyl of RNA's P-site adenosine in a proton shuttle mechanism, other steps in protein synthesis (such as translocation) are caused by changes in protein conformations  Since their catalytic core is made of RNA, ribosomes are classified as "ribozymes," and it is thought that they might be remnants of the RNA world 
In Figure 5, both ribosomal subunits (small and large) assemble at the start codon (towards the 5' end of the mRNA)  The ribosome uses tRNA that matches the current codon (triplet) on the mRNA to append an amino acid to the polypeptide chain  This is done for each triplet on the mRNA, while the ribosome moves towards the 3' end of the mRNA  Usually in bacterial cells, several ribosomes are working parallel on a single mRNA, forming what is called a polyribosome or polysome 

Cotranslational folding
The ribosome is known to actively participate in the protein folding  The structures obtained in this way are usually identical to the ones obtained during protein chemical refolding; however, the pathways leading to the final product may be different  In some cases, the ribosome is crucial in obtaining the functional protein form  For example, one of the possible mechanisms of folding of the deeply knotted proteins relies on the ribosome pushing the chain through the attached loop 

Addition of translation-independent amino acids
Presence of a ribosome quality control protein Rqc2 is associated with mRNA-independent protein elongation  This elongation is a result of ribosomal addition (via tRNAs brought by Rqc2) of CAT tails: ribosomes extend the C-terminus of a stalled protein with random, translation-independent sequences of alanines and threonines 

Ribosome locations
Ribosomes are classified as being either "free" or "membrane-bound" 

Free and membrane-bound ribosomes differ only in their spatial distribution; they are identical in structure  Whether the ribosome exists in a free or membrane-bound state depends on the presence of an ER-targeting signal sequence on the protein being synthesized, so an individual ribosome might be membrane-bound when it is making one protein, but free in the cytosol when it makes another protein 
Ribosomes are sometimes referred to as organelles, but the use of the term organelle is often restricted to describing sub-cellular components that include a phospholipid membrane, which ribosomes, being entirely particulate, do not  For this reason, ribosomes may sometimes be described as "non-membranous organelles" 

Free ribosomes
Free ribosomes can move about anywhere in the cytosol, but are excluded from the cell nucleus and other organelles  Proteins that are formed from free ribosomes are released into the cytosol and used within the cell  Since the cytosol contains high concentrations of glutathione and is, therefore, a reducing environment, proteins containing disulfide bonds, which are formed from oxidized cysteine residues, cannot be produced within it 

Membrane-bound ribosomes
When a ribosome begins to synthesize proteins that are needed in some organelles, the ribosome making this protein can become "membrane-bound"  In eukaryotic cells this happens in a region of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) called the "rough ER"  The newly produced polypeptide chains are inserted directly into the ER by the ribosome undertaking vectorial synthesis and are then transported to their destinations, through the secretory pathway  Bound ribosomes usually produce proteins that are used within the plasma membrane or are expelled from the cell via exocytosis 

Biogenesis
In bacterial cells, ribosomes are synthesized in the cytoplasm through the transcription of multiple ribosome gene operons  In eukaryotes, the process takes place both in the cell cytoplasm and in the nucleolus, which is a region within the cell nucleus  The assembly process involves the coordinated function of over 200 proteins in the synthesis and processing of the four rRNAs, as well as assembly of those rRNAs with the ribosomal proteins 

Origin
The ribosome may have first originated as a protoribosome, possibly containing a peptidyl transferase centre (PTC), in an RNA world, appearing as a self-replicating complex that only later evolved the ability to synthesize proteins when amino acids began to appear  Studies suggest that ancient ribosomes constructed solely of rRNA could have developed the ability to synthesize peptide bonds  In addition, evidence strongly points to ancient ribosomes as self-replicating complexes, where the rRNA in the ribosomes had informational, structural, and catalytic purposes because it could have coded for tRNAs and proteins needed for ribosomal self-replication  Hypothetical cellular organisms with self-replicating RNA but without DNA are called ribocytes (or ribocells) As amino acids gradually appeared in the RNA world under prebiotic conditions, their interactions with catalytic RNA would increase both the range and efficiency of function of catalytic RNA molecules  Thus, the driving force for the evolution of the ribosome from an ancient self-replicating machine into its current form as a translational machine may have been the selective pressure to incorporate proteins into the ribosome's self-replicating mechanisms, so as to increase its capacity for self-replication 

Heterogeneous ribosomes
Ribosomes are compositionally heterogeneous between species and even within the same cell, as evidenced by the existence of cytoplasmic and mitochondria ribosomes within the same eukaryotic cells  Certain researchers have suggested that heterogeneity in the composition of ribosomal proteins in mammals is important for gene regulation, i e , the specialized ribosome hypothesis  However, this hypothesis is controversial and the topic of ongoing research Heterogeneity in ribosome composition was first proposed to be involved in translational control of protein synthesis by Vince Mauro and Gerald Edelman  They proposed the ribosome filter hypothesis to explain the regulatory functions of ribosomes  Evidence has suggested that specialized ribosomes specific to different cell populations may affect how genes are translated  Some ribosomal proteins exchange from the assembled complex with cytosolic copies suggesting that the structure of the in vivo ribosome can be modified without synthesizing an entire new ribosome 
Certain ribosomal proteins are absolutely critical for cellular life while others are not  In budding yeast, 14/78 ribosomal proteins are non-essential for growth, while in humans this depends on the cell of study  Other forms of heterogeneity include post-translational modifications to ribosomal proteins such as acetylation, methylation, and phosphorylation  Arabidopsis, Viral internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs) may mediate translations by compositionally distinct ribosomes  For example, 40S ribosomal units without eS25 in yeast and mammalian cells are unable to recruit the CrPV IGR IRES Heterogeneity of ribosomal RNA modifications plays a significant role in structural maintenance and/or function and most mRNA modifications are found in highly conserved regions  The most common rRNA modifications are pseudouridylation and 2’-O methylation of ribose 

See also
Context 3: Passage 1:
WSYY-FM
WSYY-FM (94 9 FM) is a radio station broadcasting a full-service adult hits format  Licensed to Millinocket, Maine, United States, the station's broadcast signal serves Central Penobscot County, Eastern Piscataquis County, and Southern Aroostook County, from its tower site in Millinocket  The station is owned by Katahdin Communications, Inc WSYY-FM plays a mix of oldies/classic hits, adult contemporary, rock music, and some country crossovers  The station also features programming from CBS News Radio (and has been an affiliate of that network for many decades)  WSYY-FM also airs When Radio Was 

History
In 1978, WSYY-FM was founded on 97 7 FM as WKTR, upgrading to its current facilities in 1984 on 94 9  Prior to their The Mountain 94 9 branding, WSYY-FM used to be referred to as North Country 95, airing country music full-time  The current format, branding, and slogan was probably adopted around March 1, 2004, when Katahdin Communications, Inc  assumed control of WSYY-FM & AM from Katahdin Timberlands, LLC as a result of the radio station facing increasing land disputes, initially as a short term lease agreement, but the transfer of ownership became permanent  Those land disputes would lead to a loss of WSYY-FM's 23,500-watt transmitter location (featuring an antenna HAAT of 211 meters)  WSYY-FM may have been operating under a Special Temporary Authority License (a 12,000-watt facility with an antenna HAAT of 68 meters via Hammond Ridge on Lake Road), ever since as long ago as late 2007, pending a planned permanent move to a 22,000-watt facility with an antenna HAAT of 198 4 meters (from just off Nicatou Road in Medway, well east of WSYY-FM's old or current transmitter tower location)  On November 23, 2016, the construction permit for this proposed move was modified to a 45,000-watt facility with an antenna HAAT of 146 7 meters, the first time this proposed move has ever received official approval from the FCC 

Former sports offerings
The Mountain 94 9 carried local high school sports in season until fall 2017  The Mountain 94 9 also carried the schedule of Red Sox Baseball from 1997 through 2015, when Millinocket's affiliation with the Boston Red Sox Radio Network transferred to co-owned WSYY, concluding the interruptions to the music during Major League Baseball  The transfer was completed on April 2, 2021, when 1240 WSYY returned to the air with translator 102 5 W273DJ debuting with the opening game of the Boston Red Sox 

Syndicated programming
WSYY-FM is one of two Maine affiliates (the other being WLOB in Portland) of When Radio Was, is one of the two Maine affiliates (the other being WWMJ) of The Acoustic Storm, is Maine's only affiliate of the Crook & Chase syndicated country music countdown programming, and is an affiliate of the Blues Deluxe radio show 
Passage 2:
KAND
KAND (1340  AM) is a radio station that serves the Corsicana/Ennis/Waxahachie area, and is owned by New Century Broadcasting  This station runs a country music  format, and is also the home of Corsicana High School Tigers and Navarro College Bulldogs football games, and the latest news from the Texas State Network News, and CBS News  As of July 11, 2008, it airs sports programming from Fox Sports Radio during overnights and weekends  For many years, the KAND call sign was assigned to the station now called KWPW 

History
KAND began in 1937 as a Variety/Entertainment station on 1310 kHz but 10 years later moved to AM 1340 and has maintained its variety format until the 1980s when they made a slow transition to Country music  The original station owner was J C  West, who also owned the Wolf Brand (canned) Chili plant in Corsicana  West had applied for callsign WOLF, but the Federal Communications Commission wouldn't permit it because the WOLF call letters are currently in use on Syracuse, New York's AM station 
In March 2008 Yates Communications announced FCC approval to buy KAND 
On July 9, 2010, Yates decided to sell this station to New Century BroadcastingIn 2014, KAND shifted to country full-time and switched news sources from ABC News to CBS 
Passage 3:
WSTU
WSTU (1450 kHz) is a commercial AM radio station licensed to Stuart, Florida, and serving the Treasure Coast   It broadcasts a talk radio format   The station is currently owned by Treasure Coast Broadcasters, Inc 
WSTU broadcasts at 1,000 watts   It uses a non-directional antenna 

Programming
WSTU has a local weekday morning show, "Get Up and Go with Evan and Bonnie "   The rest of the weekday schedule includes some brokered programming hours, with conservative talk from Fox News Radio, including Brian Kilmeade, Jimmy Failla and Guy Benson 

History
WSTU signed on the air in December 1954   Les Combs was the original owner   In 1969 the station was sold to Harvey L Glascock, whose family owned the station until 1997 when it was sold to American Radio Systems   After a brief ownership by a Broward County businessman, it was sold to Barry Grant Marsh and David Pomerance   Marsh had been Operations Manager of WSTU for many years under the Glasscock family 
The station was purchased by Treasure Coast Broadcasters in 2001   When WSTU went on the air, Stuart went from the biggest city on Florida's east coast without its own radio station to the smallest city on Florida's east coast with its own radio station   WSTU had a strong local news commitment from the start, and continues that to this day under News Director Tom Teter, who has been with the station since 1980   Teter has won many awards for news excellence from UPI and AP including Best Newscast in Florida and Best Spot News Reporting  From the earliest days the Martin County community viewed the station as more of a public utility than a privately owned radio station WSTU was also one of the first radio stations in Florida to broadcast high school sports on a regular basis and continues to broadcast high school football, basketball and baseball  Hamp Elliot did the play-by-play for many years followed by Teter who handled the play-by-play for more than 20 years   Rick McGuire now does much of the play-by-play  This summary written by Tom Teter For a period of time,  WSTU (1450) AM radio station program schedule included a Saturday Night Dancing 'Bongo' Party from 7 p m  to 11:30 p m , hosted by Walter Oden  On weekday afternoons in the 1960s, the station played the 'pop' tunes and encouraged teens to call in and request a song to be dedicated to a friend or 'sweetheart,' which was then announced and played on-air  This radio show  is credited with easing the path to school integration in the late 1960s 
Passage 4:
Radioshow
Radioshow is а cult Lithuanian black comedy radio and TV show hosted by Algis Ramanauskas-Greitai and Rimas Šapauskas  It is also the name of their humorous rock band  Radioshow has started at radio station Radiocentras in 1992  Later it has moved to the radio station Ultra Vires  In 1995 Radioshow debuted as a comedy puppet show on TV at LNK station  From 1997 till 1999 Radioshow was running at BTV TV station  In 2004 it briefly ran on Vilnius radio station Užupio radijas before being shut down, because of swearing on the air  However the show was immediately picked up by the regional radio station Vox Maris 

Controversy
Because of the constant taboo breaking, swearing and making fun of the symbols of national pride, Radioshow was often criticized by the conservative media and the older generation  Music critic Viktoras Gerulaitis has stated, that "These guys are sowing the seed of Satan, and it seems there is no-one that could stop them"  This quote was later sampled into the song by Algis Ramanauskas' band Svastikos Sukitės Greitai  It is ironic, that today Algis Ramanauskas is a member of the conservative Homeland Union party 
Another controversy was caused in 1995 by the obscene album Unplugged attributed to Radioshow  However Algis Ramanauskas denied his authorship and claimed, that it was a bootleg made by the imitators 

Characters
Main characters
Bronius
Bronius is approaching retirement age and is full of sentiments to the Soviet era  He often refers to programming of the Russian TV and Belarusian radio and television  He is annoyed by modern Lithuania - he has some command of English but uses it mostly to communicate disgust with all things Western  Bronius has a dirty mind and a dirty mouth and enjoys sexual innuendo and filthy fantasies, particularly those involving TV celebrities, which he describes with considerable inspiration and lewd detail  Bronius is a character voiced by Algis Greitai 

Česlovas
Česlovas is a former teacher  Česlovas' looks resemble former speaker of the Lithuanian Parliament social democrat Česlovas Juršėnas  This character is married and has two daughters (Sigutė and Akvilė), but despite that he often displays random acts of latent homosexuality, as the most of Radioshow characters do  Česlovas is voiced by Rimas Šapauskas 

Albinas
Albinas, also referred to as Senis (English: Old man), is a 100-year-old man of far-right nationalistic beliefs  His claim that he was born in the mountains of Scotland is a reference to the TV series The Highlander  Albinas makes frequent references to his pre-war memories 

Zbygniewas
Zbygniewas is a character of Polish ethnicity, speaking Lithuanian with a heavily inflicted Russian accent  Zbygniewas claims to hail from Nemenčinė, a town near capital Vilnius with large predominance of Polish, Belarusian and Russian population  In his younger days he was a hippie and used to read Kafka  His career included a stint at as a communal heating boiler attendant, a choice occupation for rebellious intellectuals in the former Soviet Union, and also at a mortuary, which involved a sexual encounter with a dead female body, which Zbygniewas discusses with great reluctance  He is voiced by Algis Ramanauskas-Greitai 

Igorj
Russian speaking character voiced by Rimas Šapauskas 

Mindaugas, later - Budulis
Coarse-voiced, aggressive young Lithuanian gangster guided by values and rules of Russian prison life ("paniatkes") and making frequent references to his encounters with the law enforcement authorities  This character underwent some changes and is currently known as Budulis  He is discernible from a blackened mouth and a track suit worn on a permanent basis  In later episodes of the show, Budulis makes references to his work as a labourer in Ireland  (voiced by Rimas Šapauskas)

Filadelfijus
Filadelfijus is a young incompetent journalist  His name originates from a motion picture title Philadelphia  In the beginning he was speaking in a high-pitched voice, hinting that he might be homosexual  However, in the later shows unprofessional babbling and not the allusions to his homosexuality became his distinctive mark  Filadelfijus is voiced by Rimas Šapauskas 

Minor characters
Mindė - nationalist character (animated pig's head); Vanga - Bulgarian  prophetess (animated portrait of Lithuanian writer Žemaitė, taken from one Litas banknote); Dujokaukė Kiulamae - Estonian character always speaking derogaratively about the Lithuanians (his name translates into English from Lithuanian as "Gas Mask" and the surname is of the former BC Žalgiris Estonian basketball player Gert Kullamäe; Slavik from Maladzechna; Almantas, a gay type 

Discography
1996 Plugged
2001 Underground
2001 Raštai
2005 Kronikos #1
2005 Kronikos #2

See also
South Park Republican
Baltish
Passage 5:
Bill McCutcheon
James William McCutcheon (May 23, 1924 – January 9, 2002) was an American character actor known for his roles in film, television, and theatre, several of which won him Emmy and Tony awards 

Early life
McCutcheon was born in Russell, Kentucky, the son of  Robert Kenna McCutcheon, who was a railroad conductor and Florence Louise (née Elam)  McCutcheon's first major role was Leo the Leprechaun on The Howdy Doody Show  He followed this appearance with a recurring role (from 1984 to 1992) as Uncle Wally on the children's television series by PBS, Sesame Street, for which he won an Emmy He also had a prominent role in the movie of 1989, Steel Magnolias, in which he played Owen Jenkins, beau of Ouiser Boudreaux (Shirley MacLaine) 

Career
He was also active in film and on the stage  His first film appearance was in 1964's Santa Claus Conquers the Martians; later on, he was seen in movies including Family Business and Steel Magnolias  McCutcheon was a familiar face to young audience in the 1960s, when he appeared on several Tootsie Roll television commercials  His theatre credits include a role as Moonface Martin in Anything Goes, which won him a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical 
Other stage appearances include You Can't Take It with You and The Man Who Came to Dinner 

Death
A resident of Mahwah, New Jersey, McCutcheon died on January 9, 2002, of natural causes, aged 77  He had three children, Carol, Jay, and Kenna 

Filmography
Passage 6:
KYTC (FM)
KYTC (102 7 FM, "Super Hits 102 7") is a radio station that broadcasts a classic hits music format  Licensed to Northwood, Iowa, U S , it serves northern Iowa and southern Minnesota  The station is currently owned by Alpha Media, through licensee Digity 3E License, LLC  The station was originally operated by Northwood businessman, Marlin Hanson as an oldies radio station with an effective radiated power of 3,000 watts, then 6,000 watts  Hanson built the station because he bought the tower from the local cable company after they abandoned it and decided a radio station would be a good use for the empty tower  It was sold to Dave Nolander who also owned KATE radio in Albert Lea, MN  It was operated as an oldies station featuring music of the 1950s and 1960s from a studio located in Northwood and satellite programming during the evening hours  The station was sold to Three Eagles Communications and the power increased to 25,000 watts  Between 2002 and 2012  the station changed from Oldies to Country to active rock and finally back to a hits of the 1960s through the 1980s  The station transmitter is located 3 miles north of Northwood and the studio is located in Mason City  Current owner Digity, LLC purchased the station on September 12, 2014 

History
On February 4, 2012, KYTC changed format from active rock (branded as "The Blaze") to classic hits, branded as "Super Hits 102 7" 

External links

KYTC in the FCC FM station database
KYTC on Radio-Locator
KYTC in Nielsen Audio's FM station database
Passage 7:
Voix du Sahel
La Voix du Sahel (English: "Voice of the Sahel") is the national radio station of Niger, owned by the Nigerien government, operating on 91 3MHZ  Based in Niamey, the radio station was established in 1958 as Radio Niger but adopted its current name in 1974  It is the only national radio station in the country and is the only radio station to offer programs in eight different languages including French 

See also
Media of Niger
Passage 8:
Al Lewis (actor)
Al Lewis (born Abraham Meister; April 30, 1923 – February 3, 2006) was an American actor and activist, best known for his role as Count Dracula-lookalike Grandpa on the television series The Munsters from 1964 to 1966 and its film versions  He previously also co-starred with The Munsters's Fred Gwynne in the television show Car 54, Where Are You?  from 1961–1963  Later in life, he was a restaurant owner, political candidate, and radio broadcaster 

Early life
Lewis was born Abraham Meister on April 30, 1923 in Manhattan  His parents Alexander and Ida (née Neidel), a house painter from Minsk and a garment worker respectively, were immigrants from the Russian Empire; his family was Jewish  Two brothers were Phillip and Henry  He had originally given his birth year as 1910  His reputed early radio work in the mid-1930s would indicate the earlier birth date, as did an off-the-cuff remark on the TVLegends interview, 2002, where he says "not a bad memory for 92"  Ted Lewis, his son, firmly said his father was born in 1923 in Brownsville, Brooklyn, New York  Other sources placed his birth in Wolcott, New York, but no official record of his birth has been published to date (2006), and officials in Wolcott say they have no record of any Meister  The Times wrote: "Lewis was born Albert Meister, probably in 1923, but he insisted that he was born in 1910  This, and Lewis's many other questionable stories, means that much of the actor's life is a broth of conjecture that his fans will no doubt squabble over for years to come " On his application for a Social Security number, completed sometime between 1936 and 1950, Lewis gave his date of birth as April 30, 1923  The 1940 census lists an Albert Meister "age 16" living on Douglass (today's Strauss) Street in Brooklyn, New York 
In a 1998 interview with Walt Shepperd, Lewis said:My mother was a worker, worked in the garment trades  My mother was an indomitable spirit  My grandfather had no sons  He had six daughters  They lived in Poland or Russia, every five years it would change  My mother being the oldest daughter, they saved their money, and when she was about sixteen they sent her to the United States, not knowing a word of English  She went to work in the garment center, worked her back and rear-end off and brought over to the United States her five sisters and two parents  I remember going on picket lines with my mother  My mother wouldn't back down to anyone 

Education
According to a report in The Jewish Week, Al Lewis attended Yeshiva Chaim Berlin in Brooklyn, New York, in his youth and "asked annoying questions to the teachers " Lewis then attended Thomas Jefferson High School, which he left in his junior year  He claimed to have attended Oswego State Teachers College (now SUNY Oswego), notwithstanding his lack of a high school diploma, and to have earned a Ph D  in child psychology from Columbia University in 1941, of which Columbia has no record  Lewis did send at least one of his children to Yeshiva in the San Fernando Valley 

Career
Acting
His acting career begins the well-documented portion of his life  He worked in burlesque and vaudeville theaters, then on Broadway in the dramas The Night Circus (1958) and One More River (1960) and as the character Moe Shtarker in the musical comedy Do Re Mi (1962) His earliest television work includes appearances on the crime drama Decoy and The Phil Silvers Show  From 1959 to 1963, he appeared in four episodes of Naked City  Lewis's first well-known television role was as Officer Leo Schnauser on the sitcom Car 54, Where Are You? from 1961 to 1963, also starring Fred Gwynne (Lewis reprised the role in the 1994 movie of the same name)  In the series, Lewis first played Al Spencer the Auto Body Man in two early first-season episodes, then landed the more familiar role of Officer Schnauser  He is best remembered as Grandpa on The Munsters, which ran on CBS from 1964 to 1966 In 1967, Lewis played the part of Zalto the magician in the Lost in Space episode "Rocket to Earth"  His first role in a movie was as Machine Gun Manny in Pretty Boy Floyd (1960)  He had small roles in The World of Henry Orient (1964), They Shoot Horses, Don't They? (1969), and They Might Be Giants (1971)  He appeared as Hanging Judge Harrison in Used Cars (1980), played a security guard on an episode of Taxi, and had a minor role in Married to the Mob (1988)  His last film role was in Night Terror (2002) 
Lewis was a recurring guest on The Howard Stern Show  In 1987, during a "Howard Stern Freedom Rally" against the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) that was broadcast live, Lewis repeatedly shouted "fuck the FCC!" until Stern was able to take the microphone away from him  Stern and the station were not punished for Lewis's comments 
Unlike some actors, Lewis did not mind being typecast  He enjoyed acting out his Grandpa character—in the original costume—and got a surprising amount of mileage from such a short-lived role



ground_truth: Ribosomes

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The owner of radio station KWPW has the same name as an American character actor. What is it?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  "Why not?" he said  "It pays the bills "In 1991, he appeared as Grandpa in an episode of Hi Honey, I'm Home on ABC  In 1991, he appeared in a low-budget movie titled Grampire (My Grandpa Is a Vampire in the U S  version), wearing much the same costume as he did in The Munsters  From 1987 to 1989, Lewis hosted Super Scary Saturday on TBS in his Grandpa outfit  This was parodied in Gremlins 2: The New Batch with the character of Grandpa Fred (Robert Prosky) 

Other pursuits
Lewis was a proponent of free speech and frequently spoke out in the late 1980s and early 1990s against government entities such as the FCC (Federal Communications Commission) and non-government entities such as the PMRC (Parents Music Resource Center)   Lewis famously uttered the phrase "(expletive) the FCC", during a speech at a Manhattan rally organized by radio personality Howard Stern  Stern later used Lewis' speech as the opening track of Stern's Crucified by the FCC comedy album in early 1991 
Lewis appeared in an episode of The American Experience where he recalled his experiences at Coney Island, which he frequently visited and worked at as a game barker  He was featured in the Atari 7800 videogame Midnight Mutants, an action-adventure title with a Halloween theme  His appearance in the game mirrored his Grandpa persona in The Munsters In 1987, he opened an Italian restaurant named Grampa's Bella Gente at 252 Bleecker Street in Manhattan  In September 1989, he licensed a comedy club named Grampa's to an entrepreneurial mafia family named Cataldo in New Dorp Plaza in Staten Island 

Politics
As a left-wing activist, he hosted a politically oriented radio program on WBAI (whose theme song was King Curtis' "Foot Pattin'") and ran as Green Party candidate for governor of New York in 1998  In that race, he sought to be listed on the ballot as Grandpa Al Lewis, arguing that he was most widely known by that name  His request was rejected by the Board of Elections, a decision upheld in court against his challenge Despite this setback, he achieved one of his campaign objectives  His total of 52,533 votes exceeded the threshold of votes set by New York law (50,000) and hence guaranteed the Green Party of New York an automatic ballot line for the next four years (see election results, New York governor)  He said that, with no political machine and no money backing him, the likelihood of winning the governorship would be "like climbing Mount Everest barefooted"  In 2000, he sought the Green Party nomination for US Senate; he ultimately placed second in the primary, with about 32 percent of the vote, losing to Mark Dunau 

Personal life and final years
Lewis married Marge Domowitz in 1956, with whom he had three sons, Dave, Ted, and Paul  The marriage ended in divorce in 1977  In 1984, he married actress Karen Ingenthron, to whom he remained married for the rest of his life In his final years, he resided on Roosevelt Island in New York City  In 2003, he was hospitalized for an angioplasty, and complications from the surgery led to an emergency bypass and the amputation of his right leg below the knee as well as all of the toes on his left foot  He died on February 3, 2006, of natural causes in Goldwater Memorial Hospital on Roosevelt Island in New York, NY  Following his body's cremation, his ashes were reportedly "placed in his favorite cigar box "

Filmography
Film
Television
Theater
Electoral history
Passage 9:
Q101 Chicago
WKQX (101 1 FM) is a commercial radio station licensed to Chicago, Illinois, featuring an alternative rock format known as "Q101"  Owned by Cumulus Media, the station serves the Chicago metropolitan area  WKQX's studios are located in the NBC Tower, while the station transmitter is located atop the John Hancock Center  In addition to a standard analog transmission, WKQX broadcasts over two HD Radio channels, and is available online 
WKQX is best known for carrying an alternative rock format that, from 1992 until 2011 and since 2022, has used the "Q101" brand  A sale of the station to Merlin Media in August 2011 saw outgoing owner Emmis Communications sell the "Q101 Chicago" name, intellectual property and all underlying trademarks for a unrelated internet radio station bearing the same name, while WKQX itself flipped to all-news radio under Merlin Media as WWWN, then to adult contemporary as WIQI  Reverting to alternative under a long-term local marketing agreement by Cumulus Media in 2014, the station branded instead under the restored WKQX call sign until Cumulus reacquired the Q101 trademarks on May 3, 2022  A former NBC Radio owned-and-operated station, WKQX's studios were located in the Merchandise Mart from the station's 1948 launch to 2016; the station relocated to the NBC Tower, the current home of onetime sister station WMAQ-TV, on August 4, 2016 WKQX-HD2 airs a classic rock format branded as "The Loop" that was previously heard on the former WLUP (97 9 FM), now WCKL 

History
The NBC years
NBC, which had an owned-and-operated station in Chicago since 1931 with WMAQ (670 AM), signed on WMAQ-FM on October 13, 1948, from studios in the Merchandise Mart  Its transmitter was located atop the Civic Opera Building, where it broadcast with an ERP of 24,000 watts  In its early years, WMAQ-FM generally operated as an outright simulcast of WMAQ The station began airing a classical music format afternoons and evenings in 1966, though it continued to simulcast WMAQ during mornings and early afternoons  By the early 1970s, it had adopted an easy listening format  In 1970, the station's transmitter was moved to the John Hancock Center In late 1972, WMAQ-FM adopted an automated adult hits format, with programming from TM Productions  In 1974, the station's call letters were changed to WJOI  In January 1975, WMAQ 670 adopted a country music format  WJOI followed suit, and aired an automated country music format aimed at a somewhat younger audience than WMAQ, with programming from TM Productions In June 1975, the station's call letters were changed to WNIS-FM, and it adopted an all news format carrying NBC Radio Network's News and Information Service (NIS) In January 1977, the station's call sign was changed to WKQX, and it adopted an album-oriented rock format  The program director was Bob Pittman, who later created MTV and is now CEO of iHeartMedia  Bob Heymann served as assistant program director and morning drive host, and Bob King was the music director  Mitch Michaels did afternoon drive and Lorna Ozmon did nights In the spring of 1977, Chicago gained another AOR station, WLUP, resulting in four FM rock stations (WKQX, WXRT, WDAI, and WLUP) competing against each other  By January 1979, WDAI switched to an all-disco format and WKQX became an adult contemporary station; Joel Sebastian hosted mornings 

Q101
In the early 1980s, WKQX began to be branded "Q-101"  By the mid-1980s, the station had evolved into a Hot AC format  During this period, the station carried Sexually Speaking with Dr  Ruth Westheimer From 1983 to 1993, Robert Murphy was the morning drive host on Q101  Tommy Edwards joined the station as program director in 1986  Starting in 1987, NBC began a two-year-long divestiture of their radio properties  In 1988, Emmis Communications purchased WKQX, along with four other NBC radio stations, for $121 5 million 
In the mid to late 1980s, WKQX aired an adult top 40 format, with the slogan "Today's Music"  Q101 continued to evolve, and on July 14, 1992, WKQX adopted an alternative rock format as "Chicago's New Rock Alternative"  Bill Gamble was the station's Program Director  
In July 1993, former MTV VJ Mark Goodman was hired as morning host, replacing Robert Murphy, but he remained in this position less than a year  In July 1998, Q101 became the new home of Mancow Muller's morning show after he left WRCX the previous month Specialty shows on the station, like Local 101, showcased promising local acts, many of whom went on to achieve greater prominence On April 1, 2005, WKQX went "on shuffle", with its playlist expanded from 200 to approximately 1,000 songs  Instead of focusing solely on new music, they expanded their playlist to include classic alternative rock from the 1980s and 1990s, and some 1970s artists  Mancow was dropped by the station on July 14, 2006, with Emmis Communications replacing his show with one that they felt would better appeal to their target demographic On September 18, 2006, Q101 launched The Morning Fix, a morning show led by former WXDX-FM Pittsburgh personality Alan Cox, and presented in a manner similar to The Daily Show, featuring a blend of current events and pop culture  However, on November 9, 2007, The Morning Fix underwent major changes when it was decided that morning airtime would be more wisely used playing music; the changes resulted in only 2 of the shows' original 6 members remaining, Alan Cox and Jim "Jesus" Lynam  On August 1, 2008, Cox and Lynam were let go, with management moving Brian Sherman and Steve Tingle from afternoons to the morning slot During its tenure as an alternative rock station, WKQX served as host to several music festivals and events, mainly Jamboree at Tweeter Center in Tinley Park every June, and Twisted (formerly Twisted Christmas) at various venues every December 

Purchase by Merlin Media
On June 21, 2011, Emmis announced that it would sell WKQX, sister station WLUP-FM, and WRXP-FM in New York City to Merlin Media, whose CEO was former Tribune Company and Clear Channel Communications executive Randy Michaels  Emmis, who retained a minority stake in Merlin Media, granted Merlin a local marketing agreement to operate WKQX and WLUP-FM from July 15 until the sale officially closed on September 1  A format flip for WKQX, from alternative rock to all-news, was rumored after the sale was announced  Michaels was on record as saying, "My favorite format has always been spoken radio    it's time for spoken word to move to FM "The entire airstaff at Q101 was dismissed upon Merlin Media's formal takeover that July 14  That same day, Emmis sold off the "Q101" name, related intellectual properties, and the Q101 com web domain, to Broadcast Barter Radio Networks Q101's final on-air staffed show, "Local 101", concluded at approximately 1:01 a m  on July 15; the program ended with "Tonight, Tonight" by Chicago-based The Smashing Pumpkins, The Cure's "Friday I'm in Love" (the first song played at Q101's 1992 inception as an alternative station), and formal goodbyes by Chris Payne, Pogo, and other Q101 staffers  Q101 would continue solely as an online stream programmed, in part, by Emmis' KROX-FM, before BBRN eventually relaunched it as an internet-only station  WKQX itself continued without on-air staffing until Midnight on July 19; after playing "Closing Time" by Semisonic, WKQX began stunting with adult contemporary music along with news reports as "FM New"  Robert Murphy returned to the station after 19 years to host mornings along with Lise Dominique for a few weeks until the full format switch took place 

FM News 101 1
On July 21, 2011, WKQX changed its call letters to WWWN, a call sign moved from a silent signal in Watseka, Illinois licensed to Randy Michaels' Radioactive LLC  Eight days after the call letter change, on July 29, at 4 p m , WWWN launched an all-news format branded as "FM News 101 1 "At the outset, "FM News 101 1" sought to differentiate itself from WBBM by highlighting its round-the-clock newswheel (as opposed to Chicago Bears flagship WBBM), aiming for a looser, less formal news presentation with a conversational tone, and deviating from hard news in favor of lifestyle, health and entertainment features  The initial on-air and newsroom staff at "FM News 101 1" included several with Chicago radio ties, including Debra Dale and Jennifer O'Neill (both WBBM alumna), Brant Miller and Monica DeSantis (WLS alums), and Ed Curran and Rob Hart (WGN alums)  The station's call letters were changed again in December 2011 to WIQI "FM News 101 1" was criticized in its early weeks for what was seen as an amateurish, unpolished, and unprepared presentation  Moreover, Merlin's top management (including Michaels) admitted that the format for both stations were still a work in progress, and "FM News" underwent a continual series of format adjustments  These included: the addition of sports and business updates; the "informal" testing of a news partnership with WMAQ-TV; and the addition of daily commentary segments from Clark Howard and Lionel  Later staff changes and reassignments at the station would lead to an increased reliance on "shared anchor arrangements" with its New York counterpart WEMP, as well as a non-linear, voicetracking-style of arranging reports, sometimes without any anchor transitions  WIQI also began an advertising campaign that included a controversial series of billboards using the face of imprisoned former Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich and the "He Never Listens    to FM News 101 1" tagline By June 2012, WIQI began phasing in blocks of "Expanded News Coverage" where the station entered a programming approach similar to talk radio  Personalities such as Mancow Muller, Neil Steinberg, Kevin Matthews, Mike North and Dan Jiggets and former WGN morning host Greg Jarrett all hosted informal auditions under the "Expanded News Coverage" banner  Jarrett himself was promoted to host morning drive on WIQI during the formats' final three weeks of existence In spite of constant format tweaks and alterations, the all-news format failed to achieve better than a 0 4 Arbitron ratings share  "FM News" was outperformed by the final ratings book for "Q101" and WKQX-LP, the aural signal of a low-power analog television station operated by Merlin under a local marketing agreement with an alternative rock format dubbed "Q87 7" 

i101
At 9 a m  (CT) on July 17, 2012, with both WIQI and WEMP languishing on the eve of their one-year anniversaries, "FM News" was abruptly dropped on both stations  WIQI flipped to a 1990s-centric adult hits format targeted at females between the ages of 18 and 49, and was branded as "i101"  The first song on "i101" was Bye Bye Bye by NSYNC  With a few exceptions, most of the WIQI and WEMP news staffs were immediately dismissed, with subsequent layoffs occurring in the following weeks and months After one month on the air, "i101" would move towards a hot adult contemporary approach  "i101" included some limited use of on-air staff, including morning host and former WLUP-FM staffer Jane Monzures, who shared morning duties with fellow "Loop" alum Pete McMurray between August and October 2012  In late 2013, the station shifted to a rhythmic adult contemporary format 

101 WKQX
On January 3, 2014, Merlin Media announced a local marketing agreement (LMA) with Cumulus Media that would see Cumulus take over operations of WIQI, WLUP and WKQX-LP  The deal, which includes an option for Cumulus to purchase WIQI and WLUP, resulted in Merlin relinquishing operations of its last remaining radio stations, and also saw an expansion of Cumulus' Chicago cluster, which includes WLS and WLS-FM  Cumulus executives indicated that they, at the time of rebranding, had no intentions of acquiring back the online rendition of "Q101" and related intellectual properties from the stations' 1992-2011 era In announcing the LMA, Cumulus indicated that it would move the alternative rock format from WKQX-LP onto the 101 1 facility  The move took place on January 10, 2014, when the stations began a transitional simulcast  "Closing Time" by Semisonic was the last song played on "i101", while the first song played on the 101 1/87 7 simulcast was "Times Like These" by Foo Fighters  The simulcast ended February 17, 2014, when Merlin Media's LMA for 87 7 ended and Tribune Broadcasting began a local marketing agreement for the station (which is now WRME-LD)  The WKQX call sign was restored on the 101 1 facility on January 17 101 WKQX's airstaff initially included Brian Phillips, Lou Lombardo, Lauren O'Neil, PJ Kling, and "wALT" (Walter Flakus of Stabbing Westward)  In September 2015, Portland radio personality Marconi joined WKQX to host weeknights (replacing PJ Kling)  Marconi left WKQX in January 2018  Brian Sherman, former on-air personality at Q101 from 2001 to 2011, and one half of the duo Sherman and Tingle, was hired as an on-air personality for weekends  Sherman retained his weekday on air role at suburban classic rocker WFXF  Russell Tanzillo from North Central College's WONC joined as a weekend host in September 2015  In April 2016, the station hired James VanOsdol, another former Q101 personality, to host a new local music showcase titled "Demo 312" (in reference to Chicago's well-known main area code) 

In November 2015, WKQX and WLUP announced their move from the Merchandise Mart, where the 101 1 frequency has been broadcast from since first taking the airwaves in 1948, in favor of a new studio at the NBC Tower  Until the new facility was completed, WKQX broadcast from a temporary facility at 190 N  State  On August 4, 2016, the move of WKQX and WLUP to the NBC Tower was finalized In January 2018, as part of Cumulus Media's bankruptcy proceedings, the company requested that a U S  Bankruptcy Court release the company from several "extremely unprofitable" contracts, including its LMAs with WLUP and WKQX  Cumulus stated that under the agreement, which carries a monthly fee of $600,000, the company had lost $8 4 million on the two Merlin stations  WLUP was sold by Merlin to the Educational Media Foundation  On April 3, 2018, it was announced that Cumulus would acquire WKQX and the intellectual property of WLUP for $18 million  The sale to Cumulus was consummated on June 15, 2018 

Returning to Q101
On April 18, 2022, Cumulus Media announced their purchase of Q101 Chicago from Broadcast Barter Radio Networks, as well as the Q101 com domain name, all underlying trademarks and related intellectual property that Emmis had divested in 2011  Cumulus Chicago Vice President/Market Manager Marv Nyren revealed to Daily Herald journalist Robert Feder that discussions had been ongoing for over four years to reacquire rights to the "Q101" brand  The internet station ceased operations, while WKQX reverted to "Q101" during the station's "10th anniversary" concert on May 3, 2022 (celebrating the launch of the current iteration of the format over the former WKQX-LP) 
Passage 10:
KWPW
KWPW (107 9 FM, "Power 108") is a radio station broadcasting a contemporary hit radio format  Licensed to Robinson, Texas, United States, the station serves the Waco area   The station is currently owned by Bill McCutcheon   Its studios are located in Waco, and its transmitter is located in Waco near the VA Hospital 

History
The station began in 1972 as KCIR in Corsicana Texas  The call letters stood for "The Golden 'CIR'cle"  It was assigned the call letters KXCL-FM on April 12, 1983   On February 1, 1985, the station changed its call sign to KAND-FM, matching the AM sister station on 1340  After its purchase by Marcos A  Rodriguez in 1994, the call sign was changed on January 19 to KICI-FM, then again on February 20, 1998 to KDXX-FM  In 2001, KDXX applied for and was granted a move from Corsicana to better serve Waco, Texas  It was relicensed to Robinson, Texas as it is currently  On January 11, 2002 the calls changed to KDOS, on April 30, 2005 to KHCK, and on August 27, 2010 to the current KWPW 

KWPW-HD2
On August 7, 2017, KWPW launched a Spanish CHR format on its HD2 subchannel, branded as "Latino 93 5" (simulcast on FM translator K228FK 93 5 FM Waco) 



ground_truth: Bill McCutcheon