prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was the last monarch of England to be overthrown before The English General Election, 1690?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
English general election, 1689
The 1689 English general election, held in January 1689, elected the Convention Parliament, which was summoned in the aftermath of the Glorious Revolution  
513 Members of Parliament were returned, across 53 counties and 217 boroughs in England and Wales, most returning two members  Only nine counties and 41 boroughs (a total of 69 seats) had contested elections, with the other candidates being returned unopposed  Six boroughs had double returns, where multiple members were recorded elected, and five of these were subsequently voided by Parliament forcing by-elections 

The majority of seats were not contested on a party basis, but partisan alignment can be identified by historians looking at subsequent voting on key issues  174 members are identified as Whigs, and 151 as Tories  The remaining members, around 190, are considered uncommitted  An older estimate based on activity throughout the Parliament suggested that the 551 Members (including those returned in by-elections) could be listed as 232 Tories and 319 Whigs or Court Tories, with none classed as uncommitted (but with over 40% recorded as "inactive")  Finally, an estimate at the end of the parliament, when party groups had had time to develop further, estimated the strength of the parties as 254 Whigs, 221 Tories, and 38 uncommitted members 

See also
List of MPs elected to the English Parliament in 1689
Convention Parliament (1689)
List of English Parliaments

Notes
Passage 2:
English general election, 1695
The 1695 English general election was the first to be held under the terms of the Triennial Act of 1694, which required parliament to be dissolved and fresh elections called at least every three years  This measure helped to fuel partisan rivalry over the coming decades, with the electorate in a constant state of excitement and the Whigs and Tories continually trying to gain the upper hand  Despite the potential for manipulation of the electorate, as was seen under Robert Walpole and his successors, with general elections held an average of every other year, and local and central government positions frequently changing hands between parties, it was impossible for any party or government to be certain of electoral success in the period after 1694, and election results were consequently genuinely representative of the views of at least the section of the population able to vote 
The election of 1695, however, was comparatively quiet, being fought mainly on local issues  The new government led by the Whig junto made gains in most contested constituencies, and their party was returned with a narrow majority  The junto's support was not certain, however, as their policies increasingly alienated backbench 'country' Whigs, who were willing to co-operate with the Tories, and the government frequently ran into trouble in the House of Commons  Eighty-five constituencies were contested, 31% of the total 

Party strengths are an approximation, with many MPs' allegiances being unknown 

Summary of the constituencies
See 1796 British general election for details  The constituencies used in England and Wales were the same throughout the period  In 1707 alone the 45 Scottish members were not elected from the constituencies, but were returned by co-option of a part of the membership of the last Parliament of Scotland elected before the Union 

See also
3rd Parliament of King William III
List of parliaments of England
Passage 3:
English general election, 1690
The 1690 English general election occurred after the dissolution of the Convention Parliament summoned in the aftermath of the Glorious Revolution, and saw the partisan feuds in that parliament continue in the constituencies  The Tories made significant gains against their opponents, particularly in the contested counties and boroughs, as the electorate saw the Whigs increasingly as a source of instability and a threat to the Church of England 
Following the election, William continued his policy of forming a coalition government around non-partisan figures  The nominal leader of the new government was the Marquess of Carnarvon, though the Tories were able to use their greater numbers in the House of Commons to increase their share of government positions  Contests occurred in 103 constituencies, 38% of the total 
Party strengths are as estimated by the History of Parliament, though division lists for this parliament are not available and so a precise count may not be possible 

Summary of the constituencies
See 1796 British general election for details  The constituencies used in England and Wales were the same throughout the period  In 1707 alone the 45 Scottish members were not elected from the constituencies, but were returned by co-option of a part of the membership of the last Parliament of Scotland elected before the Union 

See also
2nd Parliament of William and Mary
List of parliaments of England

Notes
Passage 4:
English general election, March 1679
The March 1679 English general election resulted in the  Habeas Corpus Parliament, named after the Habeas Corpus Act, which it enacted in May, 1679 to define and strengthen the ancient prerogative writ benefitting all subjects  It was dissolved while in recess on 12 July 1679  
On the current issue of excluding the King's younger brother from the succession to the throne, 218 members were in favour of the Exclusion Bill, while 137 were opposed  However, 167 members did not attend the parliament at all, so their view about Exclusion is unknown 
Passage 5:
English general election, 1685
The 1685 English general election elected the only parliament of James II of England, known as the Loyal Parliament  This was the first time the pejorative words Whig and Tory were used as names for political groupings in the Parliament of England  Party strengths are an approximation, with many MPs' allegiances being unknown 
513 Members of Parliament were returned across 53 counties and 217 boroughs in England and Wales, most returning two members  Only 15 counties and 57 boroughs (a total of 100 seats) had contested elections, with the other candidates being returned unopposed  One borough had a double return, where multiple members were recorded elected, and another was subsequently voided by Parliament, forcing a by-election 

While the number of seats had not changed from the previous election, their electorate had been substantially altered by royal influence  Following the Exclusion crisis, ninety-nine boroughs had received new charters, the aim being to eliminate the influence of the Whigs  The Whigs also lost seats in county constituencies - which were not liable to charter manipulation - dropping from around sixty county seats in 1681 to only eight In the new parliament, the Tories now had their own majority in both houses, Commons and Lords  The exact breakdown of members returned at the election is not clear, but of the 525 members who served during the 1685-89 Parliamentary term, including those elected at later by-elections, 468 are estimated as Tories and 57 as Whigs  This estimate does not treat any members as uncommitted, and up to 30% of members were recorded as inactive The election had significant effects on Parliament demographically as well as politically  The newly elected members were mostly inexperienced, with slightly over half never having sat in Parliament before  The majority of these would stand down or lose their seats at the subsequent election in 1689  Members were much more likely to be High Church Anglicans, with very few Presbyterians or Independents compared to other Parliaments of the period  There was an unusually high share of government officials and military officers, and fewer country gentry  Two minors were elected, Peter Legh and the Hon  Thomas Windsor, aged 15 and 16 respectively 
Passage 6:
English general election, October 1679
The October 1679 English general election returned a majority of members in favour of the Exclusion Bill  Consequently, this parliament  was known as the Exclusion Bill Parliament  It did not assemble until 21 October 1680, and was dissolved three months later on 18 January 1681 
Passage 7:
English general election, 1661
The 1661 English general election returned a majority of members in support of Charles II of England  This Parliament was called the Cavalier Parliament, since many of the MPs elected were former Cavaliers or the sons of Cavaliers 
Yet during the course of the Cavalier Parliament, there was considerable movement between the Cavaliers and the Roundheads 

See also
List of MPs elected to the English Parliament in 1661
Passage 8:
Glorious Revolution
The Glorious Revolution is the term, first used in 1689, to summarise events leading to the deposition of James II and VII of England, Ireland and Scotland in November 1688, and his replacement by his daughter Mary II and her husband and James's nephew William III of Orange, de facto ruler of the Dutch Republic  Known as the Glorieuze Overtocht or Glorious Crossing in the Netherlands,  it has been described both as the last successful invasion of England and as an internal coup Despite being Catholic, James became king in February 1685 with widespread support from the Protestant majority in England and Scotland  Many feared his exclusion would cause a repetition of the 1639–1653 Wars of the Three Kingdoms, while it was viewed as a short-term issue, since the heir presumptive was his Protestant elder daughter Mary  James soon lost popular support by suspending the Parliaments of Scotland and England in 1685, and thereafter ruling by personal decree Two events in June 1688 turned dissatisfaction into a political crisis  The first was the birth on 10 June of a male heir, James Francis Edward, displacing Mary and creating the prospect of a Catholic dynasty  The second was the prosecution for seditious libel of seven bishops from the Protestant Church of England  Many saw this as the latest in a series of attacks on the state church; their acquittal on 30 June sparked widespread anti-Catholic riots and destroyed James's political authority  A coalition of English politicians, soldiers and religious leaders issued the Invitation to William, asking him to intervene militarily and "protect the Protestant religion" 
William wanted to prevent British military and financial resources being used against him in the Nine Years War, launched by Louis XIV of France in September 1688  On 5 November, he landed in Brixham, Devon with 20,000 men, and advanced on London  As he did so, the Royal Army disintegrated, and James went into exile in France on 23 December  In April 1689, Parliament made William and Mary joint monarchs of England and Ireland  A separate but similar Scottish settlement was made in June 
While the Revolution itself was quick and relatively bloodless, pro-Stuart revolts in Scotland and Ireland caused significant casualties  Although Jacobitism persisted into the late 18th century, the Revolution ended a century of political dispute by confirming the primacy of Parliament over the Crown, a principle established in the Bill of Rights 1689  The Toleration Act 1688 granted freedom of worship to nonconformist Protestants, but restrictions on Catholics contained in the 1678 and 1681 English and Scottish Test Acts remained in force until 1828  Religious prohibitions on the monarch's choice of spouse were removed in 2015, but those applying to the monarch themselves remain 

Background
Despite his Catholicism, James became king in 1685 with widespread support, as demonstrated by the rapid defeat of the Argyll and Monmouth Rebellions; less than four years later, he was forced into exile  Often seen as an exclusively English event, modern historians argue James failed to appreciate the extent to which Royal power relied at the local level on the landed gentry, and the loss of that support fatally damaged his regime  The vast majority of the gentry in England and Scotland were Protestant, while even in largely Catholic Ireland a disproportionate number were members of the Protestant Church of Ireland  Although willing to accept James's personal religious beliefs, his backers did so only so long as he maintained the primacy of the Protestant Church of England and Church of Scotland  When his policies appeared to undermine the existing political and religious order, the result was to alienate his English and Scottish supporters and destabilise Ireland 

Stuart political ideology derived from James VI and I, who in 1603 had created a vision of a centralised state, run by a monarch whose authority came from God, and where the function of Parliament was simply to obey  Disputes over the relationship between king and Parliament led to the War of the Three Kingdoms and continued after the 1660 Stuart Restoration  Charles II came to rely on the Royal Prerogative since measures passed in this way could be withdrawn when he decided, rather than Parliament  However, it could not be used for major legislation or taxation Concern that James intended to create an absolute monarchy led to the 1679 to 1681 Exclusion Crisis, dividing the English political class into those who wanted to 'exclude' him from the throne, mostly Whigs, and their opponents, mostly Tories  However, in 1685 many Whigs feared the consequences of bypassing the 'natural heir', while Tories were often strongly anti-Catholic and their support assumed the continued primacy of the Church of England  Most importantly, it was seen as a short-term issue; James was 52, his marriage to Mary of Modena remained childless after 11 years, and the heirs were his Protestant daughters, Mary and Anne There was much greater sympathy in Scotland for a 'Stuart heir', and the 1681 Succession Act confirmed the duty of all to support him, 'regardless of religion ' Over 95 percent of Scots belonged to the national church or kirk; even other Protestant sects were banned, and by 1680, Catholics were a tiny minority confined to parts of the aristocracy and the remote Highlands  Episcopalians had regained control of the kirk in 1660, leading to a series of Presbyterian uprisings, but memories of the bitter religious conflicts of the Civil War period meant the majority preferred stability In England and Scotland, most of those who backed James in 1685 wanted to retain existing political and religious arrangements, but this was not the case in Ireland  While he was guaranteed support from the Catholic majority, James was also popular among Irish Protestants, since the Church of Ireland depended on Royal support for its survival, while Ulster was dominated by Presbyterians who supported his tolerance policies  However, religion was only one factor; of equal concern for Catholics were laws barring them from serving in the military or holding public office, and land reform  In 1600, 90% of Irish land was owned by Catholics but following a series of confiscation during the 17th century, this had dropped to 22% in 1685  Catholic and Protestant merchants in Dublin and elsewhere objected to commercial restrictions placing them at a disadvantage to their English competitors 

The political background in England
While James's supporters viewed hereditary succession as more important than his personal Catholicism, they opposed his policies of 'Tolerance' under which Catholics would be allowed to hold public office and engage in public life  Opposition was led by devout Anglicans who argued that the measures he proposed were incompatible with the oath he had sworn as king to uphold the supremacy of the Church of England  In an age when oaths were seen as fundamental to a stable society, by demanding that Parliament approve his measures James was seen not only to be breaking his own word but requiring others to do the same  Parliament refused to comply, despite being "the most Loyal Parliament a Stuart ever had" Although historians generally accept James wished to promote Catholicism, not establish an Absolute monarchy, his stubborn and inflexible reaction to opposition had the same result  When the English and Scottish Parliaments refused to repeal the 1678 and 1681 Test Acts, he suspended them in November 1685 and ruled by decree  Attempts to form a 'King's party' of Catholics, English Dissenters and dissident Scottish Presbyterians was politically short-sighted, since it rewarded those who joined the 1685 rebellions and undermined his supporters Demanding tolerance for Catholics was also badly timed  In October 1685 Louis XIV of France issued the Edict of Fontainebleau revoking the 1598 Edict of Nantes which had given French Protestants the right to practise their religion; over the next four years, an estimated 200,000 to 400,000 went into exile, 40,000 of whom settled in London  Combined with Louis's expansionist policies and the killing of 2,000 Vaudois Protestants in 1686, it led to fears Protestant Europe was threatened by a Catholic counter-reformation  These concerns were reinforced by events in Ireland; the Lord Deputy, the Earl of Tyrconnell, wanted to create a Catholic establishment able to survive James's death, which meant replacing Protestant officials at a pace that was inherently destabilising 

Timeline of events: 1686 to 1688
The majority of those who backed James in 1685 did so because they wanted stability and the rule of law, qualities frequently undermined by his actions  After suspending Parliament in November 1685, he sought to rule by decree; although the principle was not disputed, the widening of its scope caused considerable concern, particularly when judges who disagreed with its application were dismissed  He then alienated many by perceived attacks on the established church; Henry Compton, Bishop of London, was suspended for refusing to ban John Sharp from preaching after he gave an anti-Catholic sermon He often made things worse by political clumsiness; to general fury, the Ecclesiastical Commission of 1686 established to discipline the Church of England included suspected Catholics like the Earl of Huntingdon  This was combined with an inability to accept opposition; in April 1687, he ordered Magdalen College, Oxford, to elect a Catholic sympathiser named Anthony Farmer as president, but as he was ineligible under the college statutes, the fellows elected John Hough instead  Both Farmer and Hough withdrew in favour of another candidate selected by James, who then demanded the fellows personally apologise on their knees for 'defying' him; when they refused, they were replaced by Catholics Attempts to create an alternative 'Kings Party' were never likely to succeed, as English Catholics made up only 1 1% of the population and Nonconformists 4 4%  Both groups were divided; since private worship was generally tolerated, Catholic moderates feared greater visibility would provoke a backlash  Among Nonconformists, while Quakers and Congregationalists supported repeal of the Test Acts, the majority wanted to amend the 1662 Act of Uniformity and be allowed back into the Church of England  When James ensured the election of the Presbyterian John Shorter as Lord Mayor of London in 1687, he insisted on complying with the Test Act, reportedly because of a 'distrust of the King's favour   thus encouraging that which His Majesties whole Endeavours were intended to disannull '

To ensure a compliant Parliament, James required potential MPs to be approved by their local Lord Lieutenant; eligibility for both offices required positive answers in writing to the 'Three Questions', one being a commitment to repeal of the Test Act  In addition, local government and town corporations were purged to create an obedient electoral machine, further alienating the county gentry who had formed the majority of those who backed James in 1685  On 24 August 1688, writs were issued for a general election The expansion of the military caused great concern, particularly in England and Scotland, where memories of the Civil War left huge resistance to standing armies  In Ireland, Talbot replaced Protestant officers with Catholics; James did the same in England, while basing the troops at Hounslow appeared a deliberate attempt to overawe Parliament  In April 1688, he ordered his Declaration of Indulgence read in every church; when the Archbishop of Canterbury and six other bishops refused, they were charged with seditious libel and confined in the Tower of London  Two events turned dissent into a crisis; the birth of James Francis Edward Stuart on 10 June created the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, while the acquittal of the Seven Bishops on 30 June destroyed James's political authority 

Dutch intervention
Prelude: 1685 to June 1688
In 1677, James's elder daughter and heir Mary married her Protestant cousin William of Orange, stadtholder of the main provinces of the Dutch Republic  The two initially shared common objectives in wanting Mary to succeed her father, while French ambitions in the Spanish Netherlands threatened both English and Dutch trade  Although William sent James troops to help suppress the 1685 Monmouth Rebellion, their relationship deteriorated thereafter The Franco-Dutch War, continued French expansion, and expulsion of the Huguenots meant William assumed another war was inevitable, and although the States General of the Netherlands preferred peace, the majority accepted he was correct  This view was widely shared throughout Protestant Europe; in October 1685, Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg renounced his French alliance for one with the Dutch  In July 1686, other Protestant states formed the anti-French League of Augsburg, with Dutch support; securing or neutralising English resources, especially the Royal Navy, now became key to both sides Following a skirmish between French and Dutch naval vessels in July 1686, William concluded English neutrality was not enough and he needed their active support in the event of war  His relationship with James was affected by the fact both men relied on advisors with relatively limited views; in William's case, mainly English and Scots Presbyterian exiles, the latter with close links to the Protestant minority in Ireland, who saw Tyrconnell's policies as a threat to their existence  Having largely alienated his Tory support base, James depended on a small circle of Catholic converts like Sunderland, Melfort and Perth 

Suspicions increased when James sought William's backing for repealing the Test Acts; he predictably refused, further damaging their relationship  Having previously assumed he was guaranteed English support in a war with France, William now worried he might face an Anglo-French alliance, despite assurances by James he had no intention of doing so  Historians argue these assurances were genuine, but James did not appreciate the distrust caused by his domestic policies  In August 1687, William's cousin de Zuylestein travelled to England with condolences on the death of Mary of Modena's mother, allowing him to make contact with the political opposition  Throughout 1688, his English supporters provided William detailed information on public opinion and developments, very little of which was intercepted In October 1687, after fourteen years of marriage and multiple miscarriages, it was announced the Queen was pregnant, Melfort immediately declaring it was a boy  When James then wrote to Mary urging her to convert to Catholicism, it convinced many he was seeking a Catholic heir, one way or the other and may have been a deciding factor in whether to invade  Early in 1688, a pamphlet circulated in England written by Dutch Grand Pensionary Gaspar Fagel; this guaranteed William's support for freedom of worship for Dissenters and retaining the Test Acts, unlike James who offered tolerance in return for repeal In April 1688, Louis XIV announced tariffs on Dutch herring imports, along with plans to support the Royal Navy in the English Channel  James immediately denied making any such request, but fearing it was the prelude to a formal alliance, the Dutch began preparing a military intervention  On the pretext of needing additional resources to deal with French privateers, in July the States General authorised an additional 9,000 sailors and 21 new warships 

Invitation to William
An invasion required domestic support, and at the end of April William met with Edward Russell, unofficial envoy for the Whig opposition  In a conversation recorded by Gilbert Burnet, he requested a formal invitation asking him to "rescue the nation and the religion", with a projected date of end September  William subsequently claimed he was 'forced' to take control of the conspiracy when Russell warned him the English would rise against James even without his help, and he feared this would lead to a republic, depriving his wife of her inheritance Although this version is strongly disputed, Zuylestein returned to England in June, ostensibly to congratulate James on his new son, in reality to co-ordinate with William's supporters  Spurred by the prospect of a Catholic successor, the "Invitation to William" was quickly drafted by Henry Sydney, later described as "the great wheel on which the Revolution rolled"   The signatories were selected to represent a broad spectrum; Danby, a Whig, and Devonshire, a Tory; Henry Compton, Bishop of London, for the church; Shrewsbury and Lumley for the army, and finally Russell and Sydney for the navy  They promised to support a Dutch landing, but stressed the importance of acting quickly The Invitation was carried to The Hague on 30 June by Rear Admiral Herbert, disguised as a common sailor  Meanwhile, William's ally Bentinck launched a propaganda campaign in England, which presented him as a "true Stuart", but one without the faults of either James or Charles II  Much of the "spontaneous" support for William on his landing was organised by Bentinck and his agents 

Dutch preparations: July to September 1688
William's key strategic purpose was creating a defensive coalition that would block further French expansion in Europe, an objective not shared by the majority of his English supporters  In 1672, an alliance with the Electorate of Cologne had enabled France to bypass Dutch forward defences and nearly over-run the Republic, so ensuring an anti-French ruler was vital to prevent a repetition  As an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire, Cologne's ruler was nominated by Pope Innocent XI, in conjunction with Emperor Leopold I  Both Louis and James were in dispute with Innocent over the right to appoint Catholic bishops and clergy; when the old Elector died in June 1688, Innocent and Leopold ignored the French candidate in favour of Joseph Clemens of Bavaria After 1678, France continued its expansion into the Rhineland, including the 1683 to 1684 War of the Reunions, additional territorial demands in the Palatinate, and construction of forts at Landau and Traben-Trarbach  This presented an existential threat to Habsburg dominance, guaranteeing Leopold's support for the Dutch, and negating French attempts to build German alliances  William's envoy Johann von Görtz assured Leopold English Catholics would not be persecuted and intervention was to elect a free Parliament, not depose James, a convenient fiction that allowed him to remain neutral Although his English supporters considered a token force sufficient, William assembled 260 transport ships and 15,000 men, nearly half the 30,000 strong Dutch States Army  With France on the verge of war, their absence was of great concern to the States General and Bentinck hired 13,616 German mercenaries to man Dutch border fortresses, freeing elite units like the Scots Brigade for use in England  The increase could be presented as a limited precaution against French aggression, as the Dutch would typically double or triple their army strength in wartime; William instructed his experienced deputy Schomberg to prepare for a campaign in Germany 

Decision to invade
At the beginning of September, an invasion remained in the balance, with the States General fearing a French attack via Flanders while their army was in England  However, the surrender of Belgrade on 6 September seemed to presage an Ottoman collapse and release Austrian resources for use in Germany  Hoping to act before Leopold could respond and relieve pressure on the Ottomans, Louis attacked Philippsburg  With France now committed in Germany, this greatly reduced the threat to the Dutch Instead, Louis attempted to intimidate the States General, and on 9 September, his envoy D'Avaux handed them two letters  The first warned an attack on James meant war with France, the second any interference with French operations in Germany would end with the destruction of the Dutch state  Both misfired; convinced Louis was trying to drag him into war, James told the Dutch there was no secret Anglo-French alliance against them, although his denials only increased their suspicions  By confirming France's primary objective was the Rhineland, the second allowed William to move troops from the eastern border to the coast, even though most of the new mercenaries had yet to arrive On 22 September, the French seized over 100 Dutch ships, many owned by Amsterdam merchants; in response, on 26 September the Amsterdam City Council agreed to back William  This was a significant decision since the Council dominated the States of Holland, the most powerful political body in the Dutch Republic which contributed nearly 60% of its budget  French troops entered the Rhineland on 27 September and in a secret session held on 29th, William argued for a pre-emptive strike, as Louis and James would "attempt to bring this state to its ultimate ruin and subjugation, as soon as they find the occasion"  This was accepted by the States, with the objective left deliberately vague, other than making the English "King and Nation live in a good relation, and useful to their friends and allies, and especially to this State" Following their approval, the Amsterdam financial market raised a loan of four million guilders in only three days, with further financing coming from various sources, including two million guilders from the banker Francisco Lopes Suasso  The biggest concern for Holland was the potential impact on the Dutch economy and politics of William becoming ruler of England; the claim he had no intention of "removing the King from the throne" was not believed  These fears were arguably justified; William's access to English resources permanently diminished Amsterdam's power within the Republic and its status as the world's leading commercial and financial centre 

English defensive strategy
Neither James nor Sunderland trusted Louis, correctly suspecting that his support would continue only so long as it coincided with French interests, while Mary of Modena claimed his warnings were simply an attempt to drag England into an unwanted alliance  As a former naval commander, James appreciated the difficulties of a successful invasion, even in good weather, and as autumn approached, the likelihood seemed to diminish  With the Dutch on the verge of war with France, he did not believe the States General would allow William to make the attempt; if they did, his army and navy were strong enough to defeat it Reasonable in theory, his reliance on the loyalty and efficiency of the military proved deeply flawed  Both the army and the navy remained overwhelmingly Protestant and anti-Catholic; in July, only personal intervention by James prevented a naval mutiny when a Catholic captain held Mass on his ship  The transfer of 2,500 Catholics from the Royal Irish Army to England in September led to clashes with Protestant troops, some of his most reliable units refused to obey orders, and many of their officers resigned When James demanded the repatriation of all six regiments of the Scots Brigade in January 1688, William refused but used the opportunity to purge those considered unreliable, a total of 104 officers and 44 soldiers  Some may have been Williamite agents, such as Colonel Belasyse, a Protestant with over 15 years of service who returned to his family estates in Yorkshire and made contact with Danby  The promotion of Catholic former Brigade officers like Thomas Buchan and Alexander Cannon to command positions led to the formation of the Association of Protestant Officers, which included senior veterans like Charles Trelawny, Churchill, and Percy Kirke On 14 August, Churchill offered his support to William, helping convince him it was safe to risk an invasion; although James was aware of the conspiracy, he took no action  One reason may have been fears over the impact on the army; with a notional strength of 34,000, it looked impressive on paper but morale was brittle while many were untrained or lacked weapons  It also had to fill policing roles previously delegated to the militia, which had been deliberately allowed to decay; most of the 4,000 regular troops brought from Scotland in October had to be stationed in London to keep order  In October, attempts were made to restore the militia but many members were reportedly so angry at the changes made to local corporations, James was advised it was better not to raise them 

Widespread discontent and growing hostility to the Stuart regime were particularly apparent in North-East and South-West England, the two landing places identified by William  A Tory whose brother Jonathan was one of the Seven Bishops, Trelawny's commitment confirmed support from a powerful and well-connected West Country bloc, allowing access to the ports of Plymouth and Torbay  In the north, a force organised by Belasyse and Danby prepared to seize York, its most important city, and Hull, its largest port Herbert had been replaced by Dartmouth as commander of the fleet when he defected in June but many captains owed him their appointments and were of doubtful loyalty  Dartmouth suspected Berkeley and Grafton of plotting to overthrow him; to monitor them, he placed their ships next to his and minimised contact between the other vessels to prevent conspiracy  A lack of funds meant that excluding fireships and light scouting vessels, only 16 warships were available in early October, all third rates or fourth rates that were short of both men and supplies While The Downs was the best place to intercept a cross-Channel attack, it was also vulnerable to a surprise assault, even for ships fully manned and adequately provisioned  Instead, James placed his ships in a strong defensive position near Chatham Dockyard, believing the Dutch would seek to establish naval superiority before committing to a landing  While this had been the original plan, winter storms meant conditions deteriorated rapidly for those on the transports; William therefore decided to sail in convoy and avoid battle  The easterly winds that allowed the Dutch to cross prevented the Royal Navy leaving the Thames estuary and intervening The English fleet was outnumbered 2:1, undermanned, short of supplies, and in the wrong place  Key landing locations in the South-West and Yorkshire had been secured by sympathisers, while both army and navy were led by officers whose loyalty was questionable  Even early in 1686, foreign observers doubted the military would fight for James against a Protestant heir and William claimed only to be securing the inheritance of his wife Mary  While still a dangerous undertaking, the invasion was less risky than it seemed 

Invasion
Embarkation of the army and the Declaration of The Hague
The Dutch preparations, though carried out with great speed, could not remain secret  The English envoy Ignatius White, the Marquess d'Albeville, warned his country: "an absolute conquest is intended under the specious and ordinary pretences of religion, liberty, property and a free Parliament"  Louis threatened an immediate declaration of war if William proceeded and sent James 300,000 livres Embarkations, begun on 22 September (Gregorian calendar), had been completed on 8 October, and the expedition was that day openly approved by the States of Holland; the same day James issued a proclamation to the English nation that it should prepare for a Dutch invasion to ward off conquest  On 30 September/10 October (Julian/Gregorian calendars) William issued the Declaration of The Hague (actually written by Fagel), of which 60,000 copies of the English translation by Gilbert Burnet were distributed after the landing in England, in which he assured that his only aim was to maintain the Protestant religion, install a free parliament and investigate the legitimacy of the Prince of Wales  He would respect the position of James  William declared:

It is both certain and evident to all men, that the public peace and happiness of any state or kingdom cannot be preserved, where the Laws, Liberties, and Customs, established by the lawful authority in it, are openly transgressed and annulled; more especially where the alteration of Religion is endeavoured, and that a religion, which is contrary to law, is endeavoured to be introduced; upon which those who are most immediately concerned in it are indispensably bound to endeavour to preserve and maintain the established Laws, Liberties and customs, and, above all, the Religion and Worship of God, that is established among them; and to take such an effectual care, that the inhabitants of the said state or kingdom may neither be deprived of their Religion, nor of their Civil Rights 
William went on to condemn James's advisers for overturning the religion, laws, and liberties of England, Scotland, and Ireland by the use of the suspending and dispensing power; the establishment of the "manifestly illegal" commission for ecclesiastical causes and its use to suspend the Bishop of London and to remove the Fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford  William also condemned James's attempt to repeal the Test Acts and the penal laws through pressuring individuals and waging an assault on parliamentary boroughs, as well as his purging of the judiciary  James's attempt to pack Parliament was in danger of removing "the last and great remedy for all those evils" 

"Therefore", William continued, "we have thought fit to go over to England, and to carry over with us a force sufficient, by the blessing of God, to defend us from the violence of those evil Counsellors     this our Expedition is intended for no other design, but to have, a free and lawful Parliament assembled as soon as is possible"  On 4/14 October, William responded to the allegations by James in a second declaration, denying any intention to become king or to conquer England, a claim which remains controversial The swiftness of the embarkations surprised all foreign observers  Louis had in fact delayed his threats against the Dutch until early September because he assumed it then would be too late in the season to set the expedition in motion anyway, if their reaction proved negative; typically such an enterprise would take at least some months  Being ready after the last week of September / first week of October would normally have meant that the Dutch could have profited from the last spell of good weather, as the autumn storms tend to begin in the third week of that month  However, this year they came early  For three weeks, the invasion fleet was prevented by adverse south-westerly gales from departing from the naval port of Hellevoetsluis and Catholics all over the Netherlands and the British kingdoms held prayer sessions that this "popish wind" might endure  However, on 14/24 October, it became the famous "Protestant Wind" by turning to the east 

Crossing and landing
Although most of the warships were provided by the Admiralty of Amsterdam, the expedition was officially treated as a private affair, with the States General allowing William use of the Dutch army and fleet  For propaganda purposes, English admiral Arthur Herbert was nominally in command, but in reality operational control remained with Lieutenant-Admiral Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and Vice-Admiral Philips van Almonde  Accompanied by Willem Bastiaensz Schepers, the Rotterdam shipping magnate who provided financing, William boarded the frigate Den Briel on 16/26 October  Roughly twice the size of the Spanish Armada, the fleet included 49 warships, 76 transports for the soldiers, 120 transports for the 5,000 horses required by the cavalry and supply train, and 40,000 men on board, of whom 9,500 were sailors of the Dutch navy  It was to remain the largest fleet assembled in European waters until the D-Day operations of 1944 Having departed on 19/29 October, the expedition was halfway across the North Sea when it was scattered by a gale, forcing the Brill back to Hellevoetsluis on 21/31 October  William refused to go ashore and the fleet reassembled, having lost only one ship but nearly a thousand horses; press reports deliberately exaggerated the damage and claimed the expedition might be postponed until next spring  Dartmouth and his senior commanders considered taking advantage of this by blockading Hellevoetsluis, then decided against it, partly because the stormy weather made it dangerous but also because they could not rely on their men William replaced his losses and departed when the wind changed on 1/11 November, this time heading for Harwich where Bentinck had prepared a landing site  It has been suggested this was a feint to divert some of Dartmouth's ships north, which proved to be the case and when the wind shifted again, the Dutch armada sailed south into the Strait of Dover  In doing so, they twice passed the English fleet, which was unable to intercept because of the adverse winds and tides 

On 3/13 November, the invasion fleet entered the English Channel in an enormous formation 25 ships deep, the troops lined up on deck, firing musket volleys, colours flying and military bands playing  Intended to awe observers with its size and power, Rapin de Thoyras later described it as "the most magnificent and affecting spectacle   ever seen by human eyes"  The same wind blowing the Dutch down the Channel kept Dartmouth confined in the Thames estuary; by the time he was able to make his way out, he was too far behind to stop William reaching Torbay on 5 November As anticipated, the French fleet remained in the Mediterranean, in order to support an attack on the Papal States if needed, while a south-westerly gale now forced Dartmouth to shelter in Portsmouth harbour and kept him there for two days, allowing William to complete his disembarkation undisturbed  The regular Dutch troops amounted to 14,000-15,000 men, consisting of around 11,000 infantry, including nearly 5,000 members of the elite Anglo-Scots Brigade and Dutch Blue Guards, 3,660 cavalry and an artillery train of twenty-one 24-pounder cannon Some 5,000 volunteers, consisting of British exiles and Huguenots, also accompanied the fleet, making a total army of over 20,000 men   William brought these volunteers along to accelerate English army reforms, because they could replace the soldiers who were loyal to James  William brought weapons to equip another 20,000 men, although the subsequent and rapid collapse of James's army meant the 12,000 local volunteers who joined by 20 November were eventually dismissed 

The collapse of James's rule
Panicked by the prospect of invasion, James met with the bishops on 28 September, offering concessions; five days later they presented demands, which included restoring the religious position to that prevailing in February 1685, along with free elections for a new Parliament  Although they hoped this would allow James to remain king, in reality there was little chance of this, since at a minimum he would have to disinherit his son, enforce the Test Acts, and accept the supremacy of Parliament, all of which were unacceptable  In addition, by now his Whig opponents did not trust him to keep his promises, while Tories like Danby were too committed to William to escape punishment Although his veteran force had the capability of defeating the largely untested recruits of the Royal Army, William and his English supporters preferred to avoid bloodshed and allow the regime to collapse on its own  Landing in Torbay provided space and time for this, while heavy rainfall forced a slow advance regardless and to avoid alienating the local population by looting, his troops were well supplied and paid three months in advance  On 9 November, he entered Exeter and issued a proclamation stating his objectives were only to secure the rights of his wife and a free Parliament  There was little enthusiasm for either James or William and the general mood was one of confusion and distrust  After Danby had the Declaration publicly read in York on 12 November, much of the northern gentry confirmed their backing and the document was widely distributed On 19 November, James joined his main force of 19,000 at Salisbury, but it soon became apparent his army was not eager to fight and the loyalty of his commanders was doubtful  Three regiments sent out on 15 November to make contact with William promptly defected, while supply problems left the rest short of food and ammunition  On 20 November, dragoons led by Irish Catholic Patrick Sarsfield clashed with Williamite scouts at Wincanton; along with a minor skirmish at Reading on 9 December, also featuring Sarsfield, these were the only substantial military actions of the campaign  After securing his rear by taking Plymouth on 18 November, William began his advance on 21 November, while Danby and Belasyse captured York and Hull several days later 

James's commander Feversham and other senior officers advised retreat  Lacking information on William's movements, unable to rely on his own soldiers, worn out by lack of sleep and debilitating nose-bleeds, on 23 November James agreed  Next day Churchill, Grafton and Princess Anne's husband George deserted to William, followed by Anne herself on 26 November  The next day, James held a meeting at Whitehall Palace with those peers still in London; with the exception of Melfort, Perth and other Catholics, they urged him to issue writs for a Parliamentary election and negotiate with William On 8 December, Halifax, Nottingham and Godolphin met with William at Hungerford to hear his demands, which included the dismissal of Catholics from public office and funding for his army  Many viewed these as a reasonable basis for a settlement but James decided to flee the country, convinced by Melfort and others that his life was threatened – a suggestion generally dismissed by historians  William made it clear he would not allow James to be harmed, most Tories wanted him to retain his throne, while the Whigs simply wanted to drive him out of the country by imposing conditions he would refuse The Queen and Prince of Wales left for France on 9 December, James following separately on 10 December  Accompanied only by Edward Hales and Ralph Sheldon, he made his way to Faversham in Kent seeking passage to France, first dropping the Great Seal in the River Thames in a last-ditch attempt to prevent Parliament being summoned  In London, his flight and rumours of a "Papist" invasion led to riots and destruction of Catholic property, which quickly spread throughout the country  To fill the power vacuum, the Earl of Rochester set up a temporary government including members of the Privy Council and City of London authorities, but it took them two days to restore order 

When news arrived James had been captured in Faversham on 11 December by local fishermen, Lord Ailesbury, one of his personal attendants, was sent to escort him back to London  On entering the city on 16 December, he was welcomed by cheering crowds  By making it seem that James remained in control, Tory loyalists hoped for a settlement which would leave them in government  To create an appearance of normality, he heard Mass and presided over a meeting of the Privy Council  James made it clear to the French ambassador Paul Barillon that he still intended to escape to France  His few remaining supporters viewed his flight as cowardice, and a failure to ensure law and order criminally negligent Happy to help him into exile, William recommended he relocate to Ham, largely because it was easy to escape from  James suggested Rochester instead, allegedly because his personal guard was there, in reality conveniently positioned for a ship to France  On 18 December, he left London with a Dutch escort as William entered, cheered by the same crowds who greeted his predecessor two days before  On 22 December, Berwick arrived in Rochester with blank passports allowing them to leave England, while his guards were told that if James wanted to leave, "they should not prevent him, but allow him to gently slip through"  Although Ailesbury and others begged him to stay, he left for France on 23 December 

The revolutionary settlement
James's departure significantly shifted the balance of power in favour of William, who took control of the provisional government on 28 December  He was now master of England and in control of the country's army, navy, and finances  Elections were held in early January for a Convention Parliament, which assembled on 22 January  The Whigs had a slight majority in the Commons and the Lords was dominated by the Tories, but both were led by moderates  Archbishop Sancroft and other Stuart loyalists wanted to preserve the line of succession; they recognised keeping James on the throne was no longer possible, so they preferred Mary either be appointed his regent or sole monarch The next two weeks were spent debating how to resolve this issue, much to the annoyance of William, who needed a swift resolution; the situation in Ireland was rapidly deteriorating, while the French had over-run large parts of the Rhineland and were preparing to attack the Dutch  At a meeting with Danby and Halifax on 3 February, he announced his intention to return home if the Convention did not appoint him joint monarch; Mary let it be known she would only rule jointly with her husband  Faced with this ultimatum, on 6 February Parliament declared that in deserting his people James had abdicated and thus vacated the Crown, which was therefore offered jointly to William and Mary Historian Tim Harris argues the most radical act of the 1688 Revolution was breaking the succession and establishing the idea of a "contract" between ruler and people, a fundamental rebuttal of the Stuart ideology of divine right  While this was a victory for the Whigs, other pieces of legislation were proposed by the Tories, often with moderate Whig support, designed to protect the Anglican establishment from being undermined by future monarchs, including the Calvinist William  The Declaration of Right was a tactical compromise, setting out where James had failed and establishing the rights of English citizens, without agreeing their cause or offering solutions  In December 1689, this was incorporated into the Bill of Rights 

However, there were two areas that arguably broke new constitutional ground, both responses to what were viewed as specific abuses by James  First, the Declaration of Right made keeping a standing army without Parliamentary consent illegal, overturning the 1661 and 1662 Militia Acts and vesting control of the military in Parliament, not the Crown  The second was the Coronation Oath Act 1688; the result of James's perceived failure to comply with that taken in 1685, it established obligations owed by the monarchy to the people At their coronation on 11 April, William and Mary swore to "govern the people of this kingdom of England, and the dominions thereunto belonging, according to the statutes in Parliament agreed on, and the laws and customs of the same"  They were also to maintain the Protestant Reformed faith and "preserve inviolable the settlement of the Church of England, and its doctrine, worship, discipline and government as by law established" 

Scotland and Ireland
While Scotland was not involved in the landing, by November 1688 only a tiny minority supported James  Many of those who accompanied William were Scots exiles, including Melville, the Duke of Argyll, his personal chaplain William Carstares and Gilbert Burnet  News of James's flight led to celebrations and anti-Catholic riots in Edinburgh and Glasgow  Most members of the Scottish Privy Council went to London  On 7 January 1689, they asked William to take over government  Elections were held in March for a Scottish Convention, which was also a contest between Presbyterians and Episcopalians for control of the Kirk  While only 50 of the 125 delegates were classed as Episcopalian, they were hopeful of victory since William supported the retention of bishops On 16 March a Letter from James was read out to the convention, demanding obedience and threatening punishment for non-compliance  Public anger at its tone meant some Episcopalians stopped attending the convention, claiming to fear for their safety and others changed sides  The 1689–1691 Jacobite Rising forced William to make concessions to the Presbyterians, ended Episcopacy in Scotland and excluded a significant portion of the political class  Many later returned to the Kirk but Non-Juring Episcopalianism was the key determinant of Jacobite support in 1715 and 1745 The English Parliament held that James 'abandoned' his throne  The Convention argued that he 'forfeited' it by his actions, as listed in the Articles of Grievances  On 11 April, the Convention ended James's reign and adopted the Articles of Grievances and the Claim of Right Act, making Parliament the primary legislative power in Scotland  On 11 May, William and Mary accepted the Crown of Scotland; after their acceptance, the Claim and the Articles were read aloud, leading to an immediate debate over whether or not an endorsement of these documents was implicit in that acceptance Under the 1542 Crown of Ireland Act, the English monarch was automatically king of Ireland as well  Tyrconnell had created a largely Roman Catholic army and administration which was reinforced in March 1689 when James landed in Ireland with French military support; it took the two years of fighting of the Williamite War in Ireland before the new regime controlled Ireland 

Anglo-Dutch alliance
Though he had carefully avoided making it public, William's main motive in organising the expedition had been the opportunity to bring England into an alliance against France  On 9 December 1688 he had already asked the States General to send a delegation of three to negotiate the conditions  On 18 February (Julian calendar) he asked the convention to support the Republic in its war against France  It refused, only consenting to pay £600,000 for the continued presence of the Dutch army in England  On 9 March (Gregorian calendar) the States General responded to Louis's earlier declaration of war by declaring war on France in return 
On 19 April (Julian calendar) the Dutch delegation signed a naval treaty with England  It stipulated that the combined Anglo-Dutch fleet would always be commanded by an Englishman, even when of lower rank  The Dutch agreed to this to make their dominance over the English army less painful for the British  William had after all placed several Dutch officers and officials in key positions in the English military organisation, in order to reorganise the English army according to the Dutch model  The treaty also specified that the two parties would contribute in the ratio of five English vessels against three Dutch vessels, meaning in practice that the Dutch navy in the future would be smaller than the English  The Navigation Acts were not repealed  On 18 May the new Parliament allowed William to declare war on France  On 9 September 1689 (Gregorian calendar), William as King of England joined the League of Augsburg against France 

The decline of the Dutch Republic
Having England as an ally meant that the military situation of the Republic was strongly improved, but this very fact induced William to be uncompromising in his position towards France  This policy led to a large number of very expensive campaigns which were largely paid for with Dutch funds  In 1712 the Republic was financially exhausted and was forced to let its fleet deteriorate, making what was by then the Kingdom of Great Britain the dominant maritime power of the world The Dutch economy, already burdened by the high national debt and concomitant high taxation, suffered from the other European states' protectionist policies, which its weakened fleet was no longer able to resist  To make matters worse, the main Dutch trading and banking houses moved much of their activity from Amsterdam to London after 1688  Between 1688 and 1720, world trade dominance shifted from the Republic to Britain 

Assessment and historiography
While the 1688 revolution was labeled "Glorious" by Protestant preachers two decades later, its historiography is complex, and its assessment disputed  Thomas Macaulay's account of the Revolution in The History of England from the Accession of James the Second exemplifies the "Whig history" narrative of the Revolution as a largely consensual and bloodless triumph of English common sense, confirming and strengthening its institutions of tempered popular liberty and limited monarchy  Edmund Burke set the tone for that interpretation when he proclaimed: "The Revolution was made to preserve our ancient indisputable laws and liberties, and that ancient constitution of government which is our only security for law and liberty "An alternative narrative emphasizes William's successful foreign invasion from the Netherlands, and the size of the corresponding military operation  Several researchers have emphasized that aspect, particularly after the third centenary of the event in 1988  The historian J  R  Jones suggested that the invasion "should be seen     as the first and arguably the only decisive phase of the Nine Years' War " The invasion story is unusual because the establishment of a constitutional monarchy (a de facto republic, see Coronation Oath Act 1688) and Bill of Rights meant that the apparently invading monarchs, legitimate heirs to the throne, were prepared to govern with the English Parliament  It is difficult to classify the entire proceedings of 1687–1689 but it can be seen that the events occurred in three parts: conspiracy, invasion by Dutch forces, and "Glorious Revolution" It has been argued that the invasion aspect had been downplayed as a result of British pride and effective Dutch propaganda, trying to depict the course of events as a largely internal English affair  As the invitation was initiated by figures who had little influence, the legacy of the Glorious Revolution has been described as a successful propaganda act by William to cover up and justify his invasion  The claim that William was fighting for the Protestant cause in England was used to great effect to disguise the military, cultural and political impact that the Dutch regime had on England 
A third version, proposed by Steven Pincus, underplays the invasion aspect but unlike the Whig narrative views the Revolution as a divisive and violent event that involved all classes of the English population, not just the main aristocratic protagonists  Pincus argues that his interpretation echoes the widely held view of the Revolution in its aftermath, starting with its revolutionary labelling  Pincus argues that it was momentous especially when looking at the alternative that James was trying to enact – a powerful centralised autocratic state, using French-style "state-building"  England's role in Europe and the country's political economy in the 17th century rebuts the view of many late-20th-century historians that nothing revolutionary occurred during the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89  Pincus says it was not a placid turn of events In diplomacy and economics William III transformed the English state's ideology and policies  This occurred not because William III was an outsider who inflicted foreign notions on England but because foreign affairs and political economy were at the core of the English revolutionaries' agenda  The revolution of 1688–89 cannot be fathomed in isolation  It would have been inconceivable without the changes resulting from the events of the 1640s and 1650s  The ideas accompanying the Glorious Revolution were rooted in the mid-century upheavals  The 17th century was a century of revolution in England, deserving of the same scholarly attention that 'modern' revolutions attract James II tried building a powerful militarised state on the mercantilist assumption that the world's wealth was necessarily finite and empires were created by taking land from other states  The East India Company was thus an ideal tool to create a vast new English imperial dominion by warring with the Dutch and the Mughal Empire in India  After 1689 came an alternative understanding of economics, which saw Britain as a commercial rather than an agrarian society  It led to the foundation of the Bank of England, the creation of Europe's first widely circulating credit currency and the commencement of the "Age of Projectors"  This subsequently gave weight to the view, advocated most famously by Adam Smith in 1776, that wealth was created by human endeavour and was thus potentially infinite 

Impact
As a coup, albeit largely bloodless, its legitimacy rests in the will expressed separately by the Scottish and English Parliaments according to their respective legal processes  On this point, the Earl of Shaftesbury declared in 1689, "The Parliament of England is that supreme and absolute power, which gives life and motion to the English government"  The Revolution established the primacy of parliamentary sovereignty, a principle still relevant in consultation with the 15 Commonwealth realms regarding succession issues  The Bill of Rights 1689 formally established a system of constitutional monarchy and ended moves towards absolute monarchy by restricting the power of the monarch, who could no longer suspend laws, levy taxes, make royal appointments or maintain a standing army during peacetime without Parliament's consent  The British Army remains the military arm of Parliament, not the monarch, although the Crown is the source of all military executive authority Unlike the 1638 to 1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms, most ordinary people in England and Scotland were relatively untouched by the "Glorious Revolution", the majority of the bloodshed taking place in Ireland  As a consequence, some historians suggest that in England at least it more closely resembles a coup d'état, rather than a social upheaval such as the French Revolution  This view is consistent with the original meaning of "revolution" as a circular process under which an old system of values is restored to its original position, with England's supposed "ancient constitution" being reasserted, rather than formed anew  Contemporary English political thought, as expressed in John Locke's then popular social contract theory, linked to George Buchanan's view of the contractual agreement between the monarch and their subjects, an argument used by the Scottish Parliament as justification for the Claim of Right 
Under the Coronation Oath Act 1688, William had sworn to maintain the primacy of the Church of England, which both his native Dutch Reformed Church and the Church of Scotland viewed as ideologically suspect in both doctrine and use of bishops  This required a certain degree of religious flexibility on his part, especially as he needed to placate his Catholic allies, Spain and Emperor Leopold  Despite promising legal toleration for Catholics in his Declaration of October 1688, William failed due to domestic opposition  The Act of Toleration 1689 granted relief to Nonconformists but Catholic emancipation would be delayed until 1829 The Williamite War in Ireland can be seen as the source of later ethno-religious conflict, including The Troubles of the twentieth century  The Williamite victory in Ireland is still commemorated by the Orange Order for preserving British and Protestant supremacy in the country  In North America, the Glorious Revolution precipitated the 1689 Boston revolt in which a well-organised "mob" of provincial militia and citizens deposed the hated governor Edmund Andros  In New York, Leisler's Rebellion caused the colonial administrator, Francis Nicholson, to flee to England  A third event, Maryland's Protestant Rebellion was directed against the proprietary government, seen as Catholic-dominated  A series of events in Pennsylvania saw William Penn's Quaker-dominated proprietary government challenged by liberal elements while he was temporarily detained in England due to his well established loyalty to James and the former King Charles (James' brother)  Charles awarded Pennsylvania to Penn for his support during the Restoration  Penn was in England during the Revolution disputing a competing claim for what is now Delaware 

Footnotes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Ashley, Maurice (1966)  The Glorious Revolution of 1688  Hodder & Stoughton 
Cruickshanks, Eveline (2000)  The Glorious Revolution (British History in Perspective)  Palgrave Macmillan  ISBN 978-0-312-23009-8  OL 9818099M 
DeKrey, Gary S  (2007)  Restoration and Revolution in Britain: A Political History of the Era of Charles II and the Glorious Revolution  Palgrave Macmillan  ISBN 978-0-333-65103-2 
Glassey, Lionel K  J , ed  (1997)  The Reigns of Charles II and James VII and II  ISBN 978-0-333-62500-2 
Hamowy, Ronald (2008)  "Glorious Revolution"  The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism  Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE; Cato Institute  pp  208–211  doi:10 4135/9781412965811 n125  ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4  LCCN 2008009151  OCLC 750831024 
MacCubbin, R  P ; Hamilton-Phillips, M , eds  (1988)  The Age of William III and Mary II: Power, Politics and Patronage, 1688–1702  College of William and Mary in Virginia  ISBN 978-0-9622081-0-2 
McCaffrey, Carmel (2006)  In Search of Ireland's Heroes  Ivan R Dee  ISBN 978-1-56663-615-5  OL 8670276M 
Miller, John (1997)  The Glorious Revolution (2 ed )  ISBN 978-0-582-29222-2 
Ogg, David (1956)  William III  ISBN 978-0-758-18954-7  OL 13525080M 
Onnekink, David (2007)  The Anglo-Dutch Favourite: The Career of Hans Willem Bentinck, 1st Earl of Portland (1649–1709)  Ashgate Publishing  ISBN 978-0-7546-5545-9 
Pincus, Steven C  A  (2005)  England's Glorious Revolution 1688–1689: A Brief History with Documents  Bedford/St  Martin's  ISBN 978-0-312-16714-1  OL 24936969M 
Prall, Stuart (1972)  The Bloodless Revolution: England, 1688  Anchor Books  OCLC 644932859 
Vallance, Edward (2006)  The Glorious Revolution: 1688 – Britain's Fight for Liberty  Brown Little  ISBN 978-1-933648-24-8 

External links

Weiss, B  (2014)  "Medals of the Glorious Revolution: The Influence of Catholic-Protestant Antagonism" (PDF)  ANS Magazine  Vol  13, no  1  New York: American Numismatic Society  pp  6–23  Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 December 2014 
Glorious Revolution on In Our Time at the BBC
"Charles II (1630–1685)"  BBC History  Retrieved 15 August 2010 
"English Revolution of 1688"  Catholic Encyclopedia 
The Civil War team, presented by Tristram Hunt (7 January 2001)  "Aftershocks – The Glorious Revolution"  open2 net (BBC & Open University) 
Quinn, Stephen (17 April 2003)  "The Glorious Revolution of 1688"   In Whaples, Robert (ed )  EH Net Encyclopedia 
Royal Household at Buckingham Palace, ed  (2008–2009)  "History of the Monarchy >United Kingdom Monarchs (1603–present) >The Stuarts >Mary II, William III and The Act of Settlement > William III (r  1689–1702) and Mary II (r  1689–1694)"  Official web site of the British Monarchy 
Wilkes, Donald E  Jr ; Kramer, Matthew  "The Glorious Revolution of 1688"  Retrieved 15 August 2010 
Passage 9:
Samuel Manetoali
Samuel Manetoali (born 24 January 1969) is a member of the National Parliament of the Solomon Islands  He represents the Gao/Bugotu constituency in Isabel Province 

Early life and education
Manetoali attended Lepi Primary School and then went on to do his secondary education at King George Sixth National School in Honiara  He attended law school at the University of Papua New Guinea and graduated with an LLB degree and further unspecified qualifications from the University of Tasmania and University of South Australia 

Career
Prior to entering politics, Manetoali worked in the country's Public Solicitors Office, as a private lawyer, and a legal adviser to the Isabel Provincial Government 
He first entered parliament in the 2006 general election and re-elected in the 2010 general election  He served as the Solomon Islands' Minister of Police, National Security and Correctional Services in Prime Minister Derek Sikua's Cabinet until May 2009, when he was transferred to the position of Minister for Lands, Survey, and Housing Following the 2010 general election, he remained in Cabinet, under new Prime Minister Danny Philip, as Minister for Tourism and Culture  In the 2014 general election, he ran as an independent candidate and was re-elected for a third term in a landslide He was re-elected as a Member of Parliament in the 2019 general election for Gao/Bugotu, representing the Kadere Party 
Passage 10:
English general election, 1681
The 1681 English general election returned members to the last parliament of Charles II   Dubbed the Oxford Parliament, the body elected sat for one week from 21 March 1681 until 28 March 1681  Party strengths are an approximation, with many MPs' allegiances being unknown 
Context 2: Passage 1:
YIVO
YIVO (Yiddish: ייִוואָ, [jiˈvɔ]) is an organization that preserves, studies, and teaches the cultural history of Jewish life throughout Eastern Europe, Germany, and Russia as well as orthography, lexicography, and other studies related to Yiddish  (The word yidisher means both "Yiddish" and "Jewish ")  Established in 1925 in Wilno in the Second Polish Republic (now Vilnius, Lithuania) as the Yidisher Visnshaftlekher Institut (Yiddish: ייִדישער װיסנשאַפֿטלעכער אינסטיטוט, pronounced [ˈjidiʃɛr ˈvisn ʃaftlɛχɛr instiˈtut], Yiddish Scientific Institute, its English name became Institute for Jewish Research after its relocation to New York City, but it is still known mainly by its Yiddish acronym  YIVO is now a partner of the Center for Jewish History  Formerly, they had linguists whose main occupation was deciding on grammar rules and new words, and during this time they were seen in the secular world to serve as the recognized language regulator of the Yiddish language  However, YIVO no longer serves this purpose  Nevertheless, the YIVO system is still commonly taught in universities and known as klal shprakh (spelled in Yiddish:כּלל־שפּראַך, meaning 'standard language') and sometimes "YIVO Yiddish" (spelled in Yiddish:ייִוואָ־ייִדיש) 

Activities
YIVO preserves manuscripts, rare books, and diaries, and other Yiddish sources   The YIVO Library in New York contains over 385,000 volumes dating from as early as the 16th century  Approximately 40,000 volumes are in Yiddish, making the YIVO Library the largest collection of Yiddish-language works in the world  The YIVO archives hold over 23,000,000 documents, photographs, recordings, posters, films, and other artifacts  Together, they comprise the world's largest collection of materials related to the history and culture of Central and East European Jewry and the American Jewish immigrant experience   The archives and library collections include works in twelve major languages, including English, French,  German, Hebrew, Russian, Polish, and Judaeo-Spanish YIVO also functions as a publisher of Yiddish-language books and of periodicals including YIVO Bleter (founded 1931), Yedies Fun YIVO (founded 1929), and Yidishe Shprakh (founded 1941)  It is also responsible for English-language publications such as the YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Studies (founded 1946) 

History
YIVO was initially proposed by Yiddish linguist and writer Nochum Shtif (1879–1933)  He characterized his advocacy of Yiddish as "realistic" Zionism, contrasted to the "visionary" Hebraists and the "self-hating" assimilationists who adopted Russian or Polish  Other key founders included philologist Max Weinreich (1894–1969) and historian Elias Tcherikower (1881–1943) YIVO was founded at a Berlin conference in 1925, but headquartered in Vilna, a city with a large Jewish population in the Second Polish Republic  The early YIVO also had branches in Berlin, Warsaw and New York City  Over the next decade, smaller groups arose in many of the other countries with Ashkenazi populations 
In YIVO's first decades, Tcherikover headed the historical research section, which also included Simon Dubnow, Saul M  Ginsburg, Abraham Menes, and Jacob Shatzky  Leibush Lehrer (1887–1964) headed a section including psychologists and educators Abraham Golomb, H  S  Kasdan, and Abraham Aaron Roback  Jacob Lestschinsky (1876–1966) headed a section of economists and demographers Ben-Adir, Liebmann Hersch, and Moshe Shalit  Weinreich's language and literature section included Judah Leib Cahan, Alexander Harkavy, Judah A  Joffe, Zelig Kalmanovich, Shmuel Niger, Noach Pryłucki, and Zalman Reisen  YIVO also collected and preserved ethnographic materials under the direction of its Ethnographic Committee   In 1925, YIVO's honorary board of trustees or "Curatorium" consisted of Simon Dubnow, Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Moses Gaster, Edward Sapir and Chaim Zhitlowsky 
From 1934 to 1940, YIVO operated a graduate training program known as the Aspirantur  Named after Zemach Shabad, YIVO's chairman, the program held classes and guided students in conducting original research in the field of Jewish studies  Many of the students' projects were sociological in nature (reflecting the involvement of Max Weinreich) and gathered information on contemporary Jewish life in the Vilna region The Nazi advance into Eastern Europe caused YIVO to move its operations to New York City  A second important center, known as the Fundacion IWO, was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina  All four directors of YIVO's research sections were already in the Americas when the war broke out or were able to make their way there  The organization's new headquarters were established in New York City  A portion of the Vilna archives was ransacked by the Nazis and sent to Frankfurt to become the basis of an anti-Semitic department of the Nazis' planned university  In 1946, the U S  Army recovered these documents and sent them to YIVO in New York The YIVO Library was looted by the Germans and the ERR, but an organization that called itself "The Paper Brigade" were able to smuggle out many books and preserve them from destruction  These materials were then saved from the Soviets by a Lithuanian librarian, Antanas Ulpis  These materials are now held in the Lithuanian Central State Archives and Martynas Mažvydas National Library of Lithuania  In 2014, with the cooperation of the government of the Republic of Lithuania, Brent established the landmark Edward Blank YIVO Vilna Online Collections project at The YIVO Institute to preserve and digitize over 1 5 million documents and approximately 12,200 books representing 500 years of Jewish history in Eastern Europe and Russia In addition to New York City and Buenos Aires, the Chicago YIVO Society is a third center active today 

Publications
YIVO has undertaken many major scholarly publication projects, the most recent being The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, published in March 2008 in cooperation with Yale University Press  Under the leadership of editor-in-chief Gershon David Hundert, professor of history and of Jewish Studies at McGill University in Montreal, this unprecedented reference work systematically represents the history and culture of Eastern European Jews from their first settlement in the region to the present day  More than 1,800 alphabetical entries encompass a vast range of topics including religion, folklore, politics, art, music, theater, language and literature, places, organizations, intellectual movements, and important figures  The two-volume set also features more than 1,000 illustrations and 55 maps  With original contributions from an international team of 450 distinguished scholars, the encyclopedia covers the region between Germany and the Ural Mountains, from which more than 2 5 million Jews emigrated to the United States between 1870 and 1920 

See also
Academy of the Hebrew Language, for Hebrew
Autoridad Nasionala del Ladino, for Ladino
Dina Abramowicz (long-time YIVO librarian)
Yiddish Book Center
League for Yiddish
Passage 2:
Israel Bartal
Israel Bartal (Hebrew: ישראל ברטל), is Avraham Harman Professor of Jewish History, member of Israel Academy of Sciences (2016), and the former Dean of the Faculty of Humanities at Hebrew University (2006–2010)  Since 2006 he is the chair of the Historical Society of Israel  He served as director of the Center for Research on the History and Culture of Polish Jewry, and the academic chairman of the Project of Jewish Studies in Russian at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem  Professor Bartal was the co-director of the Center for Jewish Studies and Civilization at Moscow State University  Bartal received his PhD from Hebrew University in 1981  He focuses his research on the history of the Jews in Palestine, the Jews of Eastern Europe, the Haskalah Movement, Jewish Orthodoxy  and modern Jewish historiography Professor Bartal taught at Harvard University, McGill University, University of Pennsylvania Rutgers University and Johns Hopkins, as well as at Moscow State University (MGU), the Central European University in Budapest (CEU), and Paideia in Stockholm   He was for many years a faculty member of the Open University of Israel and has contributed to the development of its teaching programs  Since November 1, 2010 he is a visiting scholar at the Simon-Dubnow-Institut, at Leipzig University  Bartal is one of the founders of Cathedra, the leading scholarly journal on the history of the Land of Israel, and had served as its co-editor for over twenty years  Since 1998 he is the editor of vestnik, a scholarly journal of Jewish studies in Russian  From 1995 to 2003 he chaired the Israeli history high-school curriculum committee 
Bartal has published many books and numerous articles on the history and culture of East European Jewry, Palestine in the pre-Zionist era, and Jewish nationalism 
Among his recent publications:

Poles and Jews: a Failed Brotherhood (with Magdalena Opalski, Hanover, University Press of New England, 1992);
Exile in the Land (published in Hebrew, Jerusalem, ha-Sifriya ha-Tsiyonit, 1994);
From Corporation to Nation: The Jews of Eastern Europe, 1772-1881 (Tel Aviv, Misrad ha-Bitahon Publishing House, 2002);
A Century  of Israeli Culture (editor, Jerusalem, The Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2002);
Kehal Yisrael vol  3 (editor, Jerusalem, Merkaz Shazar, 2004);
The Jews of Eastern Europe  1772-1881 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005, 2006, published also in Russian and German);
The Varieties of Haskalah (editor, with Shmuel Feiner, Jerusalem, the Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2005);
Cossack and Bedouin: Land and People in Jewish Nationalism, (Tel Aviv, Am Oved Publishers, 2007)
Tangled Roots, The Emergence of Israeli Culture, Brown Judaic Studies, (Providence RI, 2020);He is co-editor (with Antony Polonsky) of Polin, vol  12 (1999), which focuses on the Jews in Galicia, 1772–1914 

Edited books (in Hebrew)
(1975) יעקב צור, דיוקנה של התפוצה, הוצאת כתר, ירושלים
(1977) עם יהושע קניאל וזאב צחור), העלייה השנייה, א-ג, הוצאת יד יצחק בן צבי, ירושלים תשנ"ח)
(1987) משה בדורו, על משה מונטיפיורי ופעליו, אסופת מאמרים, משגב ירושלים - המכון לחקר מורשת יהדות ספרד והמזרח, תשמ"ז
(1993) עם חוה טורניאנסקי ועזרא מנדלסון), כמנהג אשכנז ופולין: ספר יובל לחנא שמרוק, קובץ מחקרים בתרבות יהודית, מרכז זלמן שזר, תשנ"ג)
(1994) עם רחל אליאור וחנא שמרוק) צדיקים ואנשי מעשה מחקרים בחסידות פולין, מוסד ביאליק, תשנ"ד)
(1994) עם יונתן פרנקל), בין פולין לרוסיה, מחקרים בתולדות יהודי מזרח אירופה, ספר זיכרון לשמואל אטינגר, מרכז שזר, ירושלים תשנ"ה)
(1998) עם ישעיהו גפני), ארוס, אירוסין ואיסורים, מיניות ומשפחה בהיסטוריה, הוצאת מרכז שזר, תשנ"ח)
(1999) עם יוסי בן ארצי ואלחנן ריינר, נוף מולדתו: מחקרים בגאוגרפיה של ארץ ישראל ובתולדותיה מוגשים ליהושע בן אריה, הוצאת ספרים ע"ש י"ל מאגנס, תש"ס
(1999) הקריאה לנביא, מחקרי היסטוריה וספרות, מאת חנא שמרוק, ירושלים: מרכז זלמן שזר, תש"ס
(2001) עם ישראל גוטמן), קיום ושבר, יהודי פולין לדורותיהם, מרכז זלמן שזר, תשנ"ז 1997-תשס"א)
(2002) עם דוד אסף), מווילנה לירושלים: מחקרים בתולדותיהם ובתרבותם של יהודי מזרח אירופה מוגשים לפרופסור שמואל ורסס, הוצאת ספרים ע"ש י"ל מאגנס, תשס"ב)
(2002) העגלה המלאה: מאה ועשרים שנות תרבות בישראל, הוצאת ספרים על שם י"ל מאגנס, תשס"ב
(2005) עם שמואל פיינר), ההשכלה לגווניה: עיונים חדשים בתולדות ההשכלה ובספרותה, הוצאת ספרים ע"ש י"ל מאגנס, בית הספרים הלאומי והאוניברסיטאי, ירושלים תשס"ה)
(2007) עם שמואל פיינר), היסטוריוגרפיה במבחן: עיון מחודש במשנתו של יעקב כ"ץ, מרכז שזר, תשס"ח)
(2010) עם חיים גורן), ספר ירושלים בשלהי התקופה העות'מאנית (1917-1800), הוצאת יד יצחק בן צבי, תש"ע)
(2010) עם אברהם גרינבוים ודן חרוב), ספרא וסייפא: שמעון דובנוב - היסטוריון ואיש ציבור, מרכז זלמן שזר, תשע"א)
יומן מסע ואגרות ארץ ישראל בשנות השלושים למאה הי"ט, יד יצחק בן-צבי, תשל"ד
עם שמואל אטינגר ומיכאל גרץ), ישן מול חדש: פעולותיהם של ארגונים יהודיים עולמיים בארץ-ישראל, במאה הי"ט ובימי המנדט, מרכז שזר, תש"ן)
Passage 3:
Gershon Galil
Gershon Galil is Professor of Biblical Studies and Ancient History and former chair of the Department of Jewish History at  the University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel 
Gershon Galil earned his doctorate from the Hebrew University in Jerusalem  His work, The Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Judah, suggests a new chronology for the kings of ancient Israel and ancient Judah   His thesis was published by Brill Academic Publishers in 1996 and his chronology contrasts with those presented by the more traditional William F  Albright or Edwin R  Thiele 
Galil's studies of  ancient Near Eastern culture and history include Israel and Assyria (Hebrew; Zmora-Bitan, 2001);  The Lower Stratum Families in the Neo-Assyrian Period (BRILL, 2007) and more  He also co-edited two volumes of the Supplement to Vetus Testamentum:
Studies in Historical Geography and Biblical Historiography presented to Zecharia Kallai (with M  Weinfeld, Brill, 2000); and Homeland and Exile: Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Honour of Bustenay Oded (with M  Geller and A  Millard, Brill, 2009) 

See also
Khirbet Qeiyafa
Passage 4:
Hikmet Tanyu
Hikmet Tanyu (1918 – 1992) was a Turkish scientist and college professor specializing in philosophy and the history of religions, with a particular focus on Jewish religious history  In the 1970s, he pursued studies in Israel  Tanyu authored a book titled Jews and Turks throughout History, which examines the history of Jews and the relations between Jewish and Turkish societies over time  This book is widely regarded as the first comprehensive study of Jewish history in Turkey 
During the 1940s, Tanyu was a dedicated nationalist in the Republic of Turkey  He faced trial in the Racism-Turanism trials  Following six months of imprisonment, he was acquitted and released  Due to the torture he endured during his time in prison, he filed a lawsuit against the Turkish authorities at the Council of State 
Passage 5:
Center for Jewish History
The Center for Jewish History is a partnership of five Jewish history, scholarship, and art organizations in New York City: American Jewish Historical Society, American Sephardi Federation, Leo Baeck Institute New York, Yeshiva University Museum, and YIVO Institute for Jewish Research  Together, housed in one location, the partners have separate governing bodies and finances, but collocate resources  The partners' collections make up the biggest repository of Jewish history in the United States  The Center for Jewish History also serves as a centralized place of scholarly research, events, exhibitions, and performances  Located within the center are the Lillian Goldman Reading Room, Ackman & Ziff Family Genealogy Institute and a Collection Management & Conservation Wing  The Center for Jewish History is also an affiliate of the Smithsonian Institution 

History
In 2000, the center was opened after six years of construction and planning with a goal of creating synergy among the five member organizations, each offering a different approach to Jewish history, scholarship and art  This was one of the first attempts at uniting differing views on Jewish culture and resulted in the largest repository documenting the Jewish experience outside of Israel leading some to refer to it as the Jewish Library of Congress In the late 1980s, Bruce Slovin, who was the chairman of YIVO, originated the concept of a unified center where the partners could share resources  The idea was triggered when he realized that the then home of YIVO, a mansion located at 86th and Fifth Avenue, was not able to meet the needs of its collections or visitors, resulting in an environment that was hazardous to the collection (it was not temperature-controlled) as well as made archival study difficult  The location on Museum Mile was not seen as an advantageous adjacency  Slovin saw YIVO and the partner organizations as being more academic-focused The Leo Baeck Institute was previously located at 129 East 73rd Street, and the American Jewish Historical Society, which had previously been a New York City-based institution prior to the early 1960s, was then located near Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts  The Yeshiva University Museum was located in the Washington Heights neighborhood uptown When it opened its doors to the public in October 2000, the center struggled with financial problems  In 2007, there were preliminary talks about a partnership with NYU's Skirball Department for Hebrew and Judaic Studies to the benefit of both organizations  In the end, the center and Skirball decided not to move forward  In 2010, the Center for Jewish History was able to raise $30 million to retire its construction debt  The amount was raised and donated by the chairman and founder of the center, Bruce Slovin; co-chairmen William Ackman and Joseph Steinberg; the Fairholme Foundation; and 19 other donors  These efforts meant that the center was debt-free  In 2012, the center received a top rating of four stars from the Charity Navigator non-profit evaluation service In 2013, the Lillian Goldman Charitable Trust awarded the center a $1 5 million grant to establish a reference services division 

Facilities
The center is located in Manhattan's Union Square neighborhood, and is a four-building 125,000 square feet (11,600 m2) campus built around a courtyard that has a central entrance on 16th Street  The center is made up of four previously existing buildings and two new buildings  The buildings are the former location of the American Foundation for the Blind/Helen Keller Institute  The cost of the complex was $4 4 million 

Collections
The partners' collections include more than 100 million documents, 500,000 books, thousands of art objects, textiles, ritual objects, music, films, and photographs  most of which had been poorly housed in the member institutions and were at risk of damage or destruction  The center is heavily involved with the preservation of records that define moments in Jewish immigration to New York City  A $670,000 grant awarded in 2007 helped with the cataloging of these materials 

Partner collection highlights
Original handwritten copy of Emma Lazarus' 1883 "The New Colossus" poem that was later inscribed on the base of the Statue of Liberty
Sandy Koufax's Brooklyn Dodgers jersey
Letter from Thomas Jefferson to New York's oldest Jewish congregation
First Hebrew prayer books printed in AmericaThe collections range from the early modern era in Europe and pre-colonial times in the Americas to present-day materials from across the globe  The center provides access to a comprehensive collection of historic archival materials, including Franz Kafka, Theodor Herzl, Moses Mendelssohn, Sigmund Freud and Albert Einstein  In addition to historical documents like the 1478 record of the trial of Simon of Trent, the center also includes holdings of artwork by Max Lieberman as well as Jewish ephemera like philosopher Moses Mendelssohn's eyeglasses 

Digital initiatives
In 2011, the Center for Jewish History began a 2-year project called, "Illuminating Hidden Collections at the Center for Jewish History," with a $229,600 grant from the Council on Library and Information Resources
In 2013, the Center for Jewish History donated 600 images to the Google Art Project, which is part of the Google Cultural Institute, an initiative that puts cultural material online  The center was one of four New York City-based institutions to donate at that time, joining eight others  The images are very high resolution and include rich metadata 
Passage 6:
Jeffrey S  Gurock
Jeffrey S  Gurock is Libby M  Klaperman Professor of Jewish History at Yeshiva University in New York City 

Biography
Gurock earned a bachelor's degree from the City College of New York and a master's degree from Columbia University  He served as associate editor to American Jewish History from 1982 to 2002 

Published works
He has written over a dozen books in the field of American Jewish history  His work focuses on the American Orthodox community and the variations in Orthodox practice and ritual over the course of American Jewish history  His books include Orthodox Jews in America (Indiana University Press, 2009), a comprehensive social and cultural history of this group and its relations to other Jews and mainstream American society, and Jews in Gotham (New York University Press, 2012), which chronicles New York Jewry from 1920 to 2010 

Awards and distinctions
For its 135th annual gala in 2015, the City College of New York honored Gurock as one of its distinguished alumni

Books
A Modern Heretic and a Traditional Community: Mordecai M  Kaplan, Orthodoxy, and American Judaism   Coauthor with Jacob J  Schacter, Columbia University Press (1997)

Further reading
Ruttman, Larry (2013)  "Jeffrey Gurock: Professor of Jewish History at Yeshiva University, Orthodox Jew, and Sportsman"  American Jews and America's Game: Voices of a Growing Legacy in Baseball  Lincoln, Nebraska and London, England: University of Nebraska Press  pp  429–437  ISBN 978-0-8032-6475-5 

Notes
External links
Jeffrey S  Gurock
Passage 7:
David N  Myers
David N  Myers (born November 2, 1960) is a professor of history at the University of California, Los Angeles, where he holds the Sady and Ludwig Kahn Chair in Jewish History  Myers was the president and CEO of the Center for Jewish History from July 2017 to August 2018   He serves as the President of the New Israel Fund Board 

Early life
A native of Scranton, Pennsylvania, Myers received his A B  cum laude from Yale University in 1982  He commenced graduate studies in Jewish history at Tel Aviv University (1982–84), where he studied with Anita Shapira, Yaakov Shavit, Matitiyahu Mintz, and Moshe Mishkinsky, before moving on to study medieval Jewish thought with Isadore Twersky at Harvard University (1984–85)  He then moved to Columbia University, where he worked under the supervision of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, whose work and thought left a profound impression on him and remain a source of ongoing scholarly interest  Myers received his Ph D  with distinction in 1991 

Academic career
Myers joined the faculty of the UCLA History Department in 1991 as a lecturer and 1992 as an assistant professor  He published his first book, Re-Inventing the Jewish Past: European Jewish Intellectuals and the Zionist Return to History, in 1995  Myers served for ten years as the director of the UCLA Center for Jewish Studies and, from 2010–15, as the Robert N  Burr Department Chair of the UCLA History Department  He also has served since 2003 as the co-editor, along with Elliott Horowitz and Natalie Dohrmann, of the Jewish Quarterly Review    He is an elected fellow of the American Academy for Jewish Research  He received the inaugural Sady and Ludwig Kahn Chair in Jewish History at UCLA in 2015 
In 2022, he completed a book with Nomi M  Stolzenberg on the Satmar Hasidic community of Kiryas Joel, New York  This book, American Shtetl, was awarded the National Jewish Book Award for American Jewish Studies in 2022 
Myers' early work focused on the intersection of the history of Jewish historiography and the history of Zionism in his dissertation and first book on the founding generation of the Institute for Jewish Studies of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem  His next book, Resisting History, continued his interest in intellectual history and modes of historical thought, but shifted focus to German Jewish thinkers in the late Wilhelmine and Weimar eras  Myers' next book, Between Jew and Arab, engaged the enigmatic Jewish thinker Simon Rawidowicz—and an intriguing essay on Palestinian refugees that he wrote for inclusion in his monumental book Bavel vi-Yerushalayim, but ultimately decided not to include  Myers then wrote a short synthesis on Jewish history as part of the Oxford University Press VSI series  His next book, The Stakes of History, was a reflection on the historian and historiographical practice that was initially delivered as the Franz Rosenzweig Lectures at Yale in 2014  Already in the early 2000s, Myers began to develop a scholarly interest in the history and politics of Haredi communities, especially Kiryas Joel, New York  For almost two decades, he worked together with his wife on a book on Kiryas Joel that was published in 2022 as American Shtetl  At present, Myers is working on a research project devoted to mid-twentieth-century population displacements through the lens of political and affective history 

Center For Jewish History
In 2017, Myers was appointed CEO of Center for Jewish History 
Following Myers' appointment, some in the Jewish community objected to his activism in organizations supportive of Israeli-Palestinian peace and co-existence, while simultaneously hundreds of Jewish historians responded by expressing their support for Myers  Those who demanded his resignation included Israeli Knesset Member Bezalel Smotrich, as well as the Zionist Organization of America and others  The right-wing Middle East Forum opined "Myers may present a moderate façade, but his academic & political affiliations expose his radical core "
 According to the Forward, "the campaign against Myers appears to have shaken the CJH," though Myers has stated that the protests were only a nuisance early in his tenure and were not the reason for his decision to leave the Center  “After the first two unpleasant months, I had a great time here,” Myers said 
Despite the attacks by groups associated with the Israeli right, Jewish studies scholars in the United States largely rallied behind Myers  In an op-ed defending Myers, Brandeis professors Jonathan Sarna and Rabbi David Ellenson wrote, "The writings of David Myers indisputably fall well within the scholarly mainstream of Jewish life and they are unquestionably supportive of Israel’s basic right to exist "Myers stepped down from this position in August 2018, returning to UCLA full time  “This is the result of months of deliberation spent on planes going back and forth and really asking myself, Where do I want to be in life?” he said 

New Israel Fund
He became President of the New Israel Fund board in October 2018 after serving as a board member  He also has served as an instructor for the Wexner Heritage Foundation, and writes frequently on matters of contemporary Jewish concern 

Published books
Authored
Re-Inventing the Jewish Past: European Jewish Intellectuals and the Zionist Return to History  New York: Oxford University Press, 1995 ISBN 978-0195098426
Resisting History: Historicism and its Discontents in German-Jewish Thought  Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003 ISBN 978-0691146607
Between Jew and Arab: The Lost Voice of Simon Rawidowicz  Hanover and London: Brandeis University Press, 2008 ISBN 978-1584657361
Jewish History: A Very Short Introduction   New York: Oxford University Press, 2016 ISBN 9780199730988
The Stakes of History: On the Use and Abuse of Jewish History for Life   New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018   ISBN 9780300228939
American Shtetl: The Making of Kiryas Joel, a Hasidic Village in Upstate New York   Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2022   ISBN 9780691199771

Edited
David N  Myers and William V  Rowe, eds  From Ghetto to Emancipation: Historical and Contemporary Reconsiderations of the Jewish Community, introduction by D  N  Myers  Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press, 1997 ISBN 9780940866720
David N  Myers and David B  Ruderman, eds  The Jewish Past Revisited: Reflections on Modern Jewish Historians, introduction by D  N  Myers  New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998 ISBN 9780300191530
Elisheva Carlebach, John M  Efron, and David N  Myers, eds  Jewish History and Jewish Memory: Essays in Honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi  Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1998 ISBN 978-0874518719
Richard Hovannisian and David N  Myers, eds  Enlightenment and Diaspora: The Armenian and Jewish Cases  Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999 ISBN 978-0788506048
Michael Brenner and David N  Myers, eds  Jüdische Geschichtsschreibung heute: Themen, Positionen, Kontroversen  Munich: Beck Verlag, 2002 ISBN 978-3406488788
David N  Myers et al  eds  Acculturation and its Discontents: The Italian Jewish Experience between Integration and Exclusion  Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008 ISBN 9780802098511
David N  Myers and Alexander Kaye, eds  The Faith of Fallen Jews: Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi and the Writing of Jewish History  Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2013 ISBN 978-1611684872
Michael A  Meyer and David N  Myers, eds  Between Jewish Tradition and Modernity: Essays in Honor of David Ellenson   Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2014 ISBN 9780814338599
David N  Myers, eds  The Eternal Dissident: Rabbi Leonard I  Beerman and the Radical Imperative to Think and Act  Oakland, CA, 2018   ISBN 978-0520297456
David N  Myers and Benjamin C I  Ravid, eds  Simon Rawidowicz: Between Babylon and Jerusalem: Select Writings  Goettingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co KG, 2022   ISBN 9783525311257
Passage 8:
Moses Rischin
Moses Rischin (1925-2020) was an American historian, author, lecturer, editor, and emeritus professor of history at San Francisco State University  He coined the phrase new Mormon history in a 1969 article of the same name Rischin is considered an authority on American ethnic and immigration history and a pioneer in the field of American Jewish history  Historian Selma Berrol, however, has challenged the minimal treatment Rischin has given to the tensions between earlier German Jews and later Russian Jews in America 

Biography
Rischin was born and raised in Brooklyn, New York City  His undergraduate studies were at Brooklyn College  Harvard University awarded him a Ph D  in 1957 Ruschin became a professor at San Francisco State University in 1964  In addition to his professorship, he sat on the board for the Journal of American Ethnic History and on the council of the American Jewish History Society  During the Monica Lewinsky scandal, Rischin was a signatory of "Historians in Defense of the Constitution" wherein 400 historians criticized efforts to impeach President Bill Clinton He was the longtime director of the Western Jewish History Center, at the Judah L  Magnes Museum, from its founding in 1967; from 2005 until approximately 2010, an annual lecture was given there in his name A collection of historical essays was published in Rischin's honor in 1996 A character in the 1967 novel Meyer Meyer by Helen Hudson may have been partly modeled after him 

Books
The Promised City: New York's Jews, 1870-1914 (Harvard University Press) ISBN 978-0674715011
Jews of the American West, with John Livingston (Wayne State University Press) ISBN 0-8143-2171-2

Articles and essays
"The New Mormon History", The American West 6, March 1969, 49 
"The Jewish Experience in America: A View from the West"
Foreword to California Jews (2003) Brandeis University Press

Awards
1963: National Jewish Book Award in The Promised City: New York's Jews, 1870-1914

See also
"I'll take Manhattan: reflections on Jewish studies" by Deborah Dash Moore
Passage 9:
Carole B  Balin
Carole Beth Balin (born 1964) is a Reform rabbi and professor of Jewish history at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion in New York City  Her research interests include Eastern European and American Jewish history, the history of Reform Judaism, and gender studies  She received laudatory reviews for her 2003 book To Reveal Our Hearts: Jewish Women Writers in Tsarist Russia, and has co-edited two other books  She is a co-curator of "Bat Mitzvah Comes of Age", a traveling exhibition sponsored by the Smithsonian-affiliated National Museum of American Jewish History and the Moving Traditions Jewish non-profit 

Early life and education
Carole Beth Balin grew up in Andover, Massachusetts, the daughter of Theodore G  Balin, a defense engineer, and Marcia Balin, a telemarketing sales trainer  She became bat mitzvah in 1977; her mother celebrated her own bat mitzvah in 1979 She earned her bachelor's degree in history at Wellesley College in 1986  Her senior honors thesis was "Unraveling an American-Jewish Synthesis: Rosa Sonneschein's The American Jewess, 1895–1899"  In 1989 she earned a master's degree in Hebrew letters at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, followed by rabbinic ordination in 1991 at the same institute  In 1994 she earned a Master of Philosophy degree at Columbia University, and in 1998 completed her PhD in history at Columbia  Her doctoral advisors were Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi and Michael Stanislawski 

Academic career
Balin was a visiting instructor at the Institute for Advanced Jewish Studies in Moscow in 1995  She joined the faculty of her alma mater, the Hebrew Union College, in 1997 as assistant professor of Jewish history, advancing to associate professor in 2004 and full professor in 2006  She was also a faculty member of the Wexner Heritage Foundation from 1999 to 2003 

Works
Balin's 2003 book To Reveal Our Hearts: Jewish Women Writers in Tsarist Russia was noted for its "pioneering" research by several reviewers, as she rediscovered the existence of 67 Jewish women writers (44 Russian-language, 17 Hebrew-language, and six Yiddish-language) in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through archival material in Russia, Israel, and North America  The book explores in-depth the lives of five of these writers Balin has written numerous book chapters and articles, including several biographies for the Jewish Women's Archive  She wrote the pieces "Betty Friedan’s 'Spiritual Daughters,' the ERA, and the CCAR" and "From Periphery to Center: A History of the Women's Rabbinic Network", which appear in the book The Sacred Calling: Four Decades of Women in the Rabbinate, published in 2016  She also blogs for The Huffington Post 

Other activities
In 1991 Balin became the spiritual leader of the Jewish Congregation of Kinnelon, New Jersey, which conducts joint worship services at St  David's, an Episcopal church  Her duties for the 300-member Reform congregation included officiating at religious services, planning seminars on religion, preparing youth for their bar mitzvah or bat mitzvah, and visiting hospitalized and homebound Jewish patients In 2008 she was one of the interviewees on the PBS documentary The Jewish People: A Story of Survival Balin is the co-curator, with Josh Perelman and Lori Perlow, of the traveling exhibition "Bat Mitzvah Comes of Age", which opened in April 2012 at the Jewish Community Center of Manhattan  The exhibition, a collaboration between the Smithsonian-affiliated National Museum of American Jewish History and the Moving Traditions Jewish non-profit, traces the history of bat mitzvahs in the United States through the stories of 150 American women, depicted in images and oral histories  It has since visited eight other locales She is a member of the board of Moving Traditions 

Personal life
Balin married Michael Eric Gertzman, a Harvard law student, in August 1988  From 1992 to 1996 Gertzman served as Assistant United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York  He is currently a partner at Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison in New York City  They have three children 

Bibliography
Books
'To Tread on New Ground': Selected Hebrew Writings of Hava Shapiro  Wayne State University Press  2014  ISBN 978-0814338704  (co-edited with Wendy I  Zierler)
Sisterhood: A Centennial History of Women of Reform Judaism  Hebrew Union College Press  2013  ISBN 978-0878202546  (co-edited with Dana Herman and Jonathan D  Sarna)
To Reveal Our Hearts: Jewish Women Writers in Tsarist Russia  Hebrew Union College Press  2003  ISBN 978-0878204564 

Selected chapters
Balin, Carole B  (2012)  "Preface"   In Cosgrove, Elliot J ; Wolpe, David J  (eds )  Jewish Theology in Our Time: A New Generation Explores the Foundations and Future of Jewish Belief  Jewish Lights Publishing  ISBN 978-1580236300 
Balin, Carole B  (2011)  "Making Every Forkful Count: Reform Jews, Kashrut, and Mindful Eating, 1840–2010"   In Zamore, Mary L  (ed )  The Sacred Table: Creating a Jewish Food Ethic  CCAR Press  pp  50–59  ISBN 978-0881231861 
Balin, Carole B  (2008)  "Moving Through the Movements: American denominations and their Haggadot"   In Arnow, David (ed )  My People's Passover Haggadah: Traditional texts, modern commentaries  Vol  1  Jewish Lights Publishing  pp  79–84  ISBN 978-1580233545 
Balin, Carole B  (2008)  "'Good to the Last Drop': The proliferation of the Maxwell House Haggadah"   In Arnow, David (ed )  My People's Passover Haggadah: Traditional texts, modern commentaries  Vol  1  Jewish Lights Publishing  pp  85–90  ISBN 978-1580233545 

Selected articles
"Leaning In to the Presidency: Hillary, Sheryl and Me"  The Huffington Post  11 June 2014 
"The Uniongram and the Cookie"  Women of Reform Judaism  10 September 2013  Archived from the original on 1 May 2016  Retrieved 25 April 2016 
"Bat Mitzvah Comes of Age: 90 Years of Transforming Jewish Girls to Women"  The Huffington Post  12 March 2012 
Passage 10:
Arnold Richards
Arnold Richards (born August 1934) is a psychoanalyst and former editor of The American Psychoanalyst and Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association (JAPA)  Richards also is the Training and Supervising Analyst at the New York Psychoanalytic Institute  He is the founder and Editor-in-Chief of the International Psychoanalysis net magazine  Richards is a board member and former chair of YIVO 

Career
Richards became an editor for The American Psychoanalyst in 1989  He redesigned the format and content of the newsletter during his term as editor  From 1994 to 2003, Richards was an editor for the Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association (JAPA)  He is a faculty member of the American Institute of Psychoanalysis and the Metropolitan Institute of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy  Richards presented the 50th annual Leo Baeck Memorial lecture in 2006  In 2014, he participated in the Senior Sino-American Continual Training Project of Psychoanalysis 

Writing and research
He presented "A A  Brill: The Politics of Exclusion and the Politics of Pluralism" in November 1995  He presented "The Organizational Structure of the American Psychoanalytic Association: The Politics of Exclusion" at the 37th annual conference of the International Psychohistorical Association in June 2014 

Awards and recognition
Richards received the Mary S  Sigourney Award in 2000  He is a member of the American Psychoanalytic Association and received its Distinguished Contributor Award in 2004  In 2013, Richards received the Hans W  Loewald award 

Personal life
Richards' parents were Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe; his father was from Podolia and his mother was from Galicia  Richards grew up in Brooklyn, New York in a Yiddish and English speaking household Richards is married to Arlene Kramer Richards, a practicing psychoanalyst, and lives in an apartment in Manhattan and a condo in Palm Beach, Florida 

Bibliography
Psychoanalysis: The Science of Mental Conflict - Essays in Honor of Charles Brenner (1986) ISBN 9780881630541
Fantasy, Myth, and Reality: Essays in Honor of Jacob A  Arlow (1988) ISBN 9780823618873
The Spectrum of Psychoanalysis: Essays in Honor of Martin S  Bergmann (1994) ISBN 9780823645053
The Perverse Transference and Other Matters: Essays in Honor of R  Horacio Etchegoyen (1997) ISBN 9780765700711
Psychology of Women: Psychoanalytic Perspectives (2000) ISBN 9780823655885
The Jewish World of Sigmund Freud: Essays on Cultural Roots and the Problem of Religious Identity (2010) ISBN 9780786444243

Selected publications
2013 Letter to the Editor re Paper by James Anderson, Clio’s Psyche 19(4) 486-388  http://internationalpsychoanalysis net/2013/10/15/letter-to-the-editor-response-to-jim-anderson-by-arnold-richards/
2014 APM Paper in The Bulletin of the Association for Psychoanalytic Medicine   http://internationalpsychoanalysis net/2013/05/10/apm-paper-by-arnold-richards/
2013 Book Essay on The Second Century of Psychoanalysis: Evolving Perspectives on Therapeutic Action Arnold D  Richards Journal of the American Psychoanalytic  Association Volume 61(1): pp  157–165 
2013   Freud's Free Clinics: A Tale of Two Continents  The Psychoanalytic Review Vol  100, No  6, pp  819–838 
2014 A Dangerous Legacy: Judaism and the Psychoanalytic Movement by Hans Reijzer Reviewed Arnold D  Richards in (2014)  The Psychoanalytic Review Vol  101, No  6, pp  925–938 
2015 What is Jewish about Psychoanalysis? A review of Hans Reijzer’s A Dangerous Legacy: Judaism and the Psychoanalytic Movement  Clio’s Psyche  In Press
2014 Freud’s Jewish identity and Psychoanalysis as a Science  Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 62:987-1003 
2014) A Dangerous Legacy: Judaism and the Psychoanalytic Movement  By Hans Reijzer  London: Karnac Books, 2011, 236 pp  £9 99 (paperback)   Psychoanal  Rev , 101(6):931-938 
2015  Psychoanalysis in Crisis: The Danger of Ideology  Psychoanalytic Review 102(3):389-405 
2018  A Cultural Citizen of the World: Sigmund Freud's Knowledge and use of British and American Writings: By S  S  Prawer  Abingdon, UK / New York: Modern Humanities Research Association / Routledge, 2009  156 pp   Psychoanalytic Quarterly 87(2):383-387 
2018  Dreams and the Wish for Immortality  Canadian Journal Psychoanalysis 26(1):142-158 
2018  Some Thoughts on Self-Disclosure  Psychoanalytic Review 105(2):137-156 
2020 The Organizational Life of Psychoanalysis, by Kenneth Eisold  Routledge, New York, 2018, 262 pp   Psychodynamic Psychology, 48(2):201-211 
2020  The Organizational Structure of the American Psychoanalytic Association: The Politics of Exclusion  Psychoanalytic Review 107(3):211-227 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Red Branch (novel)
Red Branch (ISBN 080410591X, 1989), by the Irish-American author Morgan Llywelyn, is a novel about the life of the Irish hero Cú Chulainn   Red Branch novelizes several stories from the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology, including the well-known Táin Bó Cúailnge (Cattle Raid of Cooley) and Deirdre (of the Sorrows) 
Passage 2:
Robert Jordan
James Oliver Rigney Jr  (October 17, 1948 – September 16, 2007), better known by his pen name Robert Jordan, was an American author of epic fantasy  He is known best for his series  The Wheel of Time (finished by Brandon Sanderson after Jordan's death) which comprises 14 books and a prequel novel  He is one of several writers to have written original Conan the Barbarian novels; his are considered by fans to be some of the best of the non-Robert E  Howard efforts  Jordan also published historical fiction using the pseudonym Reagan O'Neal, a western as Jackson O'Reilly, and dance criticism as Chang Lung  Jordan claimed to have ghostwritten an "international thriller" that is still believed to have been written by someone else 

Early life
Jordan was born in Charleston, South Carolina  He went to Clemson University after high school, but dropped out after one year and enlisted in the U S  Army  He served two tours of duty during the Vietnam War as a helicopter gunner  He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross with oak leaf cluster, the Bronze Star with "V" and oak leaf cluster, and two Vietnamese Gallantry Crosses with palm After returning from Vietnam in 1970, Jordan studied physics at The Citadel  He graduated in 1974 with a Bachelor of Science degree and began working for the U S  Navy as a nuclear engineer  He began writing in 1977 

Personal life
Robert Jordan was a history buff and enjoyed hunting, fishing, sailing, poker, chess, pool, and pipe-collecting  He described himself as a "High church" Episcopalian and received communion more than once a week  Politically, he described himself as a "libertarian monarchist"  He lived with his wife, Harriet McDougal, who works as a book editor (currently with Tor Books; she was also Jordan's editor) in a house built in 1797  He listed John D  MacDonald, Jane Austen, Louis L'Amour, Charles Dickens, Robert A  Heinlein, Mark Twain and Montaigne as his favorite authors 

Illness and death
On March 23, 2006, Jordan disclosed that he had been diagnosed with cardiac amyloidosis and that, with treatment, his median life expectancy was four years  In a separate weblog post, he encouraged his fans not to worry about him and stated that he intended to have a long and creative life He began chemotherapy at Mayo Clinic during early April 2006  He participated in a study of the drug Revlimid, which had been approved recently for multiple myeloma but not yet tested for primary amyloidosis Jordan died on September 16, 2007, from complications stemming from Multiple Myeloma  His funeral service was on September 19, 2007  He was cremated and his ashes buried in the churchyard of St  James Church in Goose Creek, outside Charleston, South Carolina Jordan's papers can be found in the special collections of the College of Charleston 

Selected works
The Wheel of Time
Jordan published 11 books of 14 in the main sequence of the Wheel of Time series  Reviewers and fans of the earlier books noted a slowing of the pace of events in the last few installments written solely by Jordan owing to the expansion of the scale of the series as a whole  Because of his health problems, Jordan did not work at full force on the final installment A Memory of Light (later split into three volumes beginning with The Gathering Storm), but blog entries confirmed that he continued work on it until his death, and he shared all of the significant plot details with his family not long before he died  He maintained that in doing so the book would get published even if "the worst actually happens"  On December 7, 2007, Tor Books announced that Brandon Sanderson had been chosen to finish the Wheel of Time series  Harriet McDougal, Jordan's widow, chose him after reading Mistborn: The Final Empire 
All paperback (PB) page totals given are for the most widely available mass-market paperback editions  The page count for the hardback (HB) editions does not include glossary or appendix page counts 
The World of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time is an encyclopedia for the series about the unnamed world where the plot takes place, which is often referred to by fans of the series as the World of the Wheel  It is published in the United States by Tor Books and in the United Kingdom by Orbit Books  The bulk of the text was written by Teresa Patterson based on notes and information provided by Jordan, who also served as the overall editor on the project  While the information in the guide is broadly canonical, the book is deliberately written with vague, biased, or even downright false (or guessed) information in places, as Patterson felt this would reflect a key theme of the series (the mutability of knowledge across time and distance) 

Conan the Barbarian
Jordan was one of several writers who has written Conan the Barbarian stories  When Tom Doherty obtained the rights, he needed a novel very quickly, so Jordan's wife Harriet McDougal recommended him because she knew he had written his first novel, Warriors of the Altaii, in thirteen days 

So he thought I could write something fast, and he was right, and I liked it  It was fun writing something completely over the top, full of purple prose, and in a weak moment I agreed to do five more and the novelization of the second Conan movie  I've decided that those things were very good discipline for me  I had to work with a character and a world that had already been created and yet find a way to say something new about the character and the world  That was a very good exercise 
Conan the Invincible (1982)
Conan the Defender (1982)
Conan the Unconquered (1983)
Conan the Triumphant (1983)
Conan the Magnificent (1984)
Conan the Destroyer (1984) (adaptation of the movie of the same title)
Conan the Victorious (1984)They were packed into two separate volumes par Conan the Destroyer:

The Conan Chronicles
The Further Chronicles of Conan (The Conan Chronicles II in the UK, different contents)Jordan also compiled a well-known Conan Chronology 
Passage 3:
Lion of Ireland
Lion of Ireland, by the American-Irish author Morgan Llywelyn, is a novel about the life of the Irish hero and High King Brian Boru 

Plot summary
The story begins with Brian as a child of around 8 or 9 and it ends with him as an 88-year-old man  The book shows his rise to power and his struggle to maintain it  His personal life is an important part of the plot, because Brian's war against Máel Mórda (leader of the Leinstermen) and Sihtric (king of Dublin) was to be inextricably connected with his complicated marital relations, in particular his marriage to Gormlaith, Máel Mórda's sister and Sihtric's mother, who had been in turn the wife of Amlaíb Cuarán, king of Dublin and York, then of Máel Sechnaill  Even though the book is based on a historical figure, most of it is fiction 

Film adaptation
In 2003, Ireland based RiverFilms proposed a film adaptation of the book as Braveheart and El Cid meet The Vikings On March 4, 2019, it was announced in Deadline that a new movie adaptation was in the works  The series would be created by Irish author Michael Scott  The article was subsequently picked up the Sunday Times, and Irish Central who listed both Scott and BCDF Pictures as producers 
Passage 4:
List of locations in The Wheel of Time
The Wheel of Time is a series of high fantasy novels by American author Robert Jordan, with Brandon Sanderson as a co-author for the final three novels  Originally planned as a six-book series at its debut in 1990, The Wheel of Time came to span 14 volumes, in addition to a prequel novel and two companion books  Jordan died in 2007 while working on what was planned to be the final volume in the series  He prepared extensive notes which enabled fellow fantasy author Brandon Sanderson to complete the final book, which grew into three volumes: The Gathering Storm (2009), Towers of Midnight (2010), and A Memory of Light (2013) 
The series draws on numerous elements of both European and Asian mythology, most notably the cyclical nature of time found in Buddhism and Hinduism; the metaphysical concepts of balance, duality, and a respect for nature found in Taoism; the Abrahamic concepts of God and Satan; and Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace The Wheel of Time is notable for its length, detailed imaginary world, and magic system, and its large cast of characters  The eighth through fourteenth books each reached number one on the New York Times Best Seller list  After its completion, the series was nominated for a Hugo Award  As of 2021, the series has sold over 90 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling epic fantasy series since The Lord of the Rings  Its popularity has spawned a collectible card game, a video game, a roleplaying game, and a soundtrack album  A TV series adaptation produced by Sony Pictures and Amazon Studios premiered in 2021 

Setting
The series is set in a future unnamed world and that, due to the cyclical nature of time as depicted in the series, is simultaneously the distant past and the distant future Earth  Fans have come to refer to this world as Randland (from the name of the central character) or the World of the Wheel (cf  a section of the companion book The World of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time) 

Premise
At the dawn of time, a deity known as the Creator forged the universe and the Wheel of Time, which spins the Pattern of the Ages using the lives of men and women as its threads  The Wheel has seven spokes, each representing an age, and it is rotated by the One Power, which flows from the True Source  The One Power is divided into male and female halves, saidin and saidar, which work in opposition and in unison to drive the Wheel  Humans who can use its power are known as channelers; their principal organization is called the Aes Sedai or "Servants of All" in the Old Tongue 
The Creator imprisoned its antithesis, "Shai'tan", the Dark One, at the moment of creation, sealing him away from the Wheel  However, in a time called the Age of Legends, an Aes Sedai experiment inadvertently breached the Dark One's prison, allowing his influence to seep back into the world  He rallied the proud, the corrupt, and the ambitious to his cause and these servants began an effort to fully free the Dark One from his prison, so he might remake time and reality in his own image  In response to this threat, the Wheel spun out the Dragon, a channeler of immense power, to be a champion for the Light  In the Age of Legends, the Dragon was a man named Lews Therin Telamon, who eventually rose to command the Aes Sedai and their allies in the struggle against the Dark One's forces  After a grueling 10-year war, Lews Therin led his forces to victory in a daring assault on the volcano of Shayol Ghul (the site of the earthly link to the Dark One's prison) and was able to reseal the prison  However, at the moment of victory, the Dark One was able to taint saidin, driving male channelers of the One Power insane  Lews Therin killed his friends and family and then, by intentionally overloading himself with the One Power, killed himself  The other male channelers devastated the world with the One Power, unleashing earthquakes and tidal waves that reshaped the world  Eventually, the last male channeler was killed or cut off from the One Power, leaving the human race all but destroyed and only women able to wield the One Power safely  The Aes Sedai reconstituted and guided humanity out of this dark time  Mankind now lived under the shadow of a prophecy that the Dark One would break free from his prison and the Dragon would be reborn to fight him once more, and although he is humanity's only hope against the Dark One, he would devastate the world a second time in the process 
After a span of three thousand years, the human race has rebuilt a level of technology roughly comparable to that of the Late Middle Ages or Early Modern Era, though with a higher level of general education and understanding of hygiene and anatomy, but nevertheless an almost complete lack of formal science, industrial production, and academic institutions  This can be traced to the post-apocalyptic nature of the world, where much knowledge has survived, but the structures and institutions that made that knowledge possible were destroyed  One major difference from our history is that women enjoy full equality with men in most societies, and are superior in some  This is attributed to the power and prestige of the female-only Aes Sedai influencing the larger society 
Several major wars have ravaged the main continent since the defeat of the Dark One, such as the Trolloc Wars, when the surviving servants of the Dark One tried to destroy civilization once more but were defeated by an alliance of nations led by the Aes Sedai; and the War of the Hundred Years, a devastating civil war that followed the fall of a continent-spanning empire ruled by the high king, Artur Hawkwing  These wars have prevented the human race from regaining the power and high technology of the Age of Legends and also left humanity divided  Even the prestige of the Aes Sedai has fallen, with their shrinking numbers and the emergence of rival organizations such as the Children of the Light, a military order who believe that all who channel the One Power are servants of the Shadow  The nations of the modern era are able to unite in defense against the warrior-clans of the Aiel, who cross into the western kingdoms on a mission of vengeance after they suffer a grievous insult, but are too divided to work effectively together in other areas 

Plot summary
The prequel novel, New Spring, takes place during the Aiel War and chronicles the end of the conflict  The Aes Sedai discover that the Prophecies of the Dragon have been fulfilled and the Dragon has been Reborn  Aes Sedai agents are dispatched to try to find the newborn child before servants of the Shadow can do the same 
The series proper commences almost 20 years later in the Two Rivers district of the kingdom of Andor, a near-forgotten backwater place  A young sheep herder named Rand al’Thor (the series protagonist) and his father Tam al’Thor travel to the nearby town of Emond's Field to deliver cider  Rand, keen to further explore his romance with the mayor's daughter, Egwene al’Vere, becomes caught up with an Aes Sedai called Moiraine Damodred, and her Warder, Lan, after his father sustains a serious wound  Rand and his friends, Matrim "Mat" Cauthon and Perrin Aybara discover from Moiraine that servants of the Dark One are searching for one particular young man living in the area  Unfortunately, Moiraine is unable to determine which of three men it is: Rand himself, Mat, or Perrin, and so takes all three of them out of the Two Rivers district along with his romantic interest Egwene (whom Moiraine has determined can channel the One Power and would teach to be Aes Sedai) and the village "Wisdom" (a local healer) Nynaeve al'Meara after a terrible battle with creatures created by The Dark One  The first novel depicts their flight from various agents of the Shadow and their attempts to escape to the Aes Sedai city of Tar Valon 
From then, the story expands and protagonist Rand, as well as the other characters, are frequently split into different groups, pursuing different missions or agendas aimed at furthering the cause of the Dragon Reborn, sometimes thousands of miles apart  Broadly speaking, the original group of characters from the Two Rivers make new allies, gain experience, and become figures of some influence and authority  As they struggle to unite the western kingdoms against the Dark One's forces, their task is complicated by rulers of the nations who refuse to give up their authority and by factions such as the Children of the Light, who do not believe in the prophecies, and the Seanchan, the people of a long-lost colony of Artur Hawkwing's empire across the western ocean who have returned, believing it is their destiny to conquer the world  The Aes Sedai also become divided between those who believe the Dragon Reborn should be strictly controlled and those who believe he must lead them into battle as he did in the earlier war  As the story expands, new characters representing different factions are introduced; although this expansion of the narrative allows the sheer scale of the growing struggle to be effectively depicted, it has been criticized for slowing the pace of the novels and sometimes reducing the appearances of the original or main cast to extended cameos 
By the sixth novel, it has become clear that the Last Battle, caused when the Dark One is able to exert its influence directly on the world once more, is imminent, as only three Seals (keys to the Dark One's prison) are intact



ground_truth: King James II of England

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Arnold Richards was the former chair of what organization that is a member of the Center for Jewish History?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  Once the remaining Seals break, the Dark One will be free to touch the world  The Last Battle, Tarmon Gai'don, is depicted in the fourteenth and final novel in the series, A Memory of Light 

Books in the series
All paperback (PB) page totals given are for the most widely available mass-market paperback editions  The page count for the hardback (HB) editions does not include a glossary or appendix, page counts 
In 2002 the first book, The Eye of the World, was repackaged as two volumes with new illustrations for younger readers: From the Two Rivers, including an extra chapter (Ravens) before the existing prologue, and To the Blight with an expanded glossary  In 2004 the same was done with The Great Hunt, with the two parts being The Hunt Begins and New Threads in the Pattern 

Prologue eBooks
On several occasions, chapters from various books in the series were released several months in advance of publication  These were released in eBook format as promotional tools for the then-upcoming release 
The prologue eBook releases included:

Snow: The Prologue to Winter's Heart (September 2000)
Glimmers: The Prologue to Crossroads of Twilight (July 17, 2002)
Embers Falling on Dry Grass: The Prologue to Knife of Dreams (July 22, 2005) 
What the Storm Means: The Prologue to The Gathering Storm (September 17, 2009) 
Chapter 1 of The Gathering Storm, Tears from Steel, was released free on Friday September 4, 2009 on Tor com
Chapter 2 of The Gathering Storm, The Nature of Pain, was released in Audio form free on Thursday September 24, 2009 on Tor com
Distinctions: The Prologue to Towers of Midnight (Tuesday September 21, 2010) 
Chapter 1 of Towers of Midnight, Apples First, was released free on Friday October 1, 2010 on Tor com
Chapter 2 of Towers of Midnight, Questions of Leadership was released in Audio form free on Tuesday October 19, 2010
Chapter 8 of Towers of Midnight, The Seven-Striped Lass (on September 16, 2010, Chapter 8, The Seven-Striped Lass, was revealed as part of The Great Hunt scavenger hunt setup by Brandon on his website beginning August 30, 2010 in relation to his new book: The Way of Kings) 
By Grace And Banners Fallen: The Prologue to A Memory Of Light (Wednesday September 19, 2012) 
A segment of chapter 1 of A Memory Of Light was released in mid-2012 on Dragonmount com
A segment of chapter 11 of A Memory Of Light was similarly released publicly in mid-2012 on Dragonmount com

Short stories
Jordan wrote two short stories within the franchise in the late 1990s  The first, The Strike at Shayol Ghul, predates the main series by several thousand years  It was made available on the Internet and was later published in The World of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time  Jordan also wrote a short story entitled New Spring, for the 1998 Legends anthology edited by Robert Silverberg  Jordan later expanded this into the stand-alone novel New Spring that was published in January 2004 
During Brandon Sanderson's work on A Memory of Light, two sections of the book were cut and later published as short stories in anthologies  The first, River of Souls, was published in Unfettered: Tales by Masters of Fantasy (2013)  The second, A Fire Within the Ways was published in Unfettered III in 2019  Unlike "River of Souls", "A Fire Within the Ways" is not considered canon 

Encyclopedic works
Tor Books published a companion book to the series, entitled The World of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time, in November 1997, which contains much hitherto unrevealed background information about the series including the first maps of the entire world and the Seanchan home continent  Jordan co-authored the book with Teresa Patterson  Jordan ruled the book broadly canonical but stated that it was written from the perspective of an historian within The Wheel of Time universe and was prone to errors of bias and guesswork On November 3, 2015, The Wheel of Time Companion: The People, Places, and History of the Bestselling Series was released in hardback format, written by Harriet McDougal, Alan Romanczuk, and Maria Simons from Tor Books  Alan Romanczuk and Maria Simons were Robert Jordan's editorial assistants  The book is an encapsulating glossary of the entire series  The authors began compiling material for the volume as early as 2005, and the final book was released after the series' conclusion Origins of The Wheel of Time by Michael Livingston was released on November 8, 2022 

Development
Writing and conception
The novel proved extremely difficult to write because characters and storylines changed considerably during the writing process  The series was originally centered on an older man who discovered relatively late in life that he was the 'chosen one' who had to save the world  However, Jordan deliberately decided to move closer to the tone and style of J  R  R  Tolkien's The Fellowship of the Ring and made the characters younger and less experienced  Once this decision had been made, writing proceeded much more easily and Jordan completed the second volume, The Great Hunt, at roughly the same time the first book was published Jordan wrote full-time at breakneck speed for the next several years until he completed the seventh volume, A Crown of Swords, at which point he slowed down, delivering a book every two years  Fans objected when he took some time off to expand a short story into a prequel novel called New Spring, so he decided to shelve his plans for additional prequels in favor of finishing off the last two volumes in the series  He rejected criticisms of the later volumes of the series slowing down in pace in order to concentrate on minor secondary characters at the expense of the main characters from the opening volumes but acknowledged that his structure for the tenth volume, Crossroads of Twilight (where he showed a major scene from the prior book, Winter's Heart, from the perspective of the main characters that were not involved in the scene), had not worked out as he had planned  Knife of Dreams, the eleventh volume, had a much more positive reception from critics and fans alike and Jordan announced the twelfth volume, which he had previously announced would have the working title A Memory of Light, would conclude the series  According to Forbes, Jordan had intended for it to be the final book "even if it reaches 2,000 pages "

Jordan's death, and completion by Sanderson
Jordan was diagnosed with the terminal heart disease primary amyloidosis with cardiomyopathy in December 2005, and while he intended to finish at least A Memory of Light even if the "worse comes to worst," he made preparations in case he was not able to complete the book: "I'm getting out notes, so if the worst actually happens, someone could finish A Memory of Light and have it end the way I want it to end "With Jordan's death on September 16, 2007, the conclusion of the series was in question  On December 7, of that year the publisher Tor Books announced that fantasy author Brandon Sanderson was to finish A Memory of Light  Sanderson, a longtime fan of the series, was chosen by Jordan's widow Harriet McDougal partly because she liked Sanderson's novels and partly because of a eulogy he had written for Jordan On March 30, 2009, Tor Books announced that A Memory of Light would be split into three volumes, with Brandon Sanderson citing timing and continuity reasons  By his estimate in early 2009, the book would have taken several years to write and would have reached 800,000 words  McDougal doubted that Jordan could have concluded it in a single volume  The three volumes were published from 2009 to 2013,  as The Gathering Storm, Towers of Midnight, and A Memory of Light, with the last book using Jordan's title 

After A Memory of Light
Prior to his death, Jordan had often discussed adding an additional two prequels and an 'outrigger' sequel trilogy  In a Q&A following the release of A Memory of Light, Sanderson ruled out the completion of these works; Jordan had left very little in the way of notes for these additional novels – only two sentences in the case of the sequel trilogy Sanderson went on to release two cut portions of A Memory of Light as short stories  These were released in Unfettered anthologies, part of a charitable endeavour to support authors and artists with medical debt  River of Souls, a canonical segment removed from the published book due to pacing, was released in the first volume in 2013  A Fire in the Ways, a non-canon alternate sequence of events around the climax of the final book, was included in the third volume in 2019  A glossary to the series, The Wheel of Time Companion was released in 2015 

Themes and influences
The Wheel of Time is a novel from the modern fantasy genre, specifically high fantasy  The book is set in a world that is simultaneously the distant past and distant future of the real world, as a result of time being cyclical rather than linear  The opening of the first book establishes the concept:

The Wheel of Time turns, and Ages come and pass, leaving memories that become legend  Legend fades to myth, and even myth is long forgotten when the Age that gave it birth comes again  In one Age, called the Third Age by some, an Age yet to come, an Age long past, a wind rose   Jordan acknowledged the influence of J  R  R  Tolkien, including deliberately modelling the setting of the first chapters on the Shire in The Lord of the Rings  Concepts drawn from Abrahamic religions include the duality between good and evil and between "Creator" (Light) and Shai'tan, "The Dark One" (Shaitan is an Arabic word that, in Islamic contexts, is used as a name for the Devil or Satan)  Other influences include Arthurian legends, Norse mythology and Irish mythology, as well as real life history In addition, Jordan also drew influences from Eastern mythology, which was rare for a Western fantasy series  The concept of a wheel of time was drawn from Hinduism  Versions of the concept include the Yuga cycle in Hinduism and Kalachakra in Buddhism  The series was also influenced by the concepts of reincarnation and balance, and the symbol of the Aes Sedai resembles the yin and yang 
Fate is an important theme to the series  The series explores in great detail the implications of a common fantasy premise, in which an ordinary boy on the verge of adulthood discovers he is fated to lead a major struggle  It also deals with the divide between fate and free will  Some major characters are ta'veren, who have exceptional abilities to influence the course of history in a tumultuous period, but even they can only go so far as permitted by "The Pattern" that is being set by the Wheel of Time 
The series also featured alternative portrayals of the role of gender in society  The nature of magic in its world means that only women can safely use it  This disparity influences the power dynamics at multiple levels of its societies, including familial, communal and political levels; many of its societies are ruled by women 

Adaptations
Comic books
In 2004, Jordan sold the film, television, video game, and comic rights to the series to production company Red Eagle Entertainment  Dabel Brothers began adapting the series in comic book form, starting with the prequel New Spring in July 2005  The series initially ran on a monthly schedule, but then went on a three-year hiatus after the fifth issue  Red Eagle cited delays and changes to the creative team on the DB Pro end  The final three issues were ultimately completed and published in 2009–10 
In 2009 Dabel moved on to their adaptation of the first book of the series proper, The Eye of the World  On March 17, 2009, they showcased ten pages of art from the prelude to the series "The Wheel of Time: Eye of the World #0 – Dragonmount" on their website  Dynamite Entertainment published 35 issues of Robert Jordon's The Wheel of Time: The Eye of the World comic book series, which concluded in March 2013 When asked in a 2013 interview about whether the comics would continue their run, Harriet McDougal replied "Well, eventually, [we'll] do the whole thing, unless it stops selling in a dreadful way  In other words, I don't really know " The 43 New Spring and Eye of the World comics were later collected together and released as a series of six graphic novels, the last of which was released in February 2015 

Games
There is a Wheel of Time MUD, identified as such or by the initialism WoTMUD, which is based on a world like that of the Wheel of Time but set in a time frame around 30 world years prior   It has been in operation almost continuously since 1993  Notably, the WoTMUD had gained written permission from the author to use his creation including all but major characters A Wheel of Time computer game was released in 1999  Over the course of the game, Aes Sedai must track down a robber following an assault on the White Tower, and prevent the Dark One from being released prematurely  She eventually learns of and executes a long-forgotten ritual at Shayol Ghul to ensure the Dark Lord remains sealed within the prison  While Robert Jordan was consulted in the creation of the game, he did not write the storyline himself, and the game is not considered canon The Wheel of Time Roleplaying Game was released in 2001 from Wizards of the Coast using the d20 rules developed for the third edition of the Dungeons and Dragons game  The game had a single adventure module published in 2002, Prophecies of the Dragon  Shortly after the release of the adventure book Wizards of the Coast announced they would not be releasing any further products for the game  Robert Jordan cited some problems with the roleplaying game, such as storyline details in the adventure module that contradicted the books In early 2009 EA Games announced that they had bought the rights for a MMORPG, with the plan to publish it through the EA Partners-Program  The following year Obsidian Entertainment announced that they would be working on the project, for a PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and PC release  However, the project was seemingly dropped around 2014 

Music
In 1999, A Soundtrack for the Wheel of Time was released, featuring music by Robert Berry and inspired by the books 
The German power metal band Blind Guardian have written two songs dedicated to the Wheel of Time series as part of their 2010 album At the Edge of Time: "Ride into Obsession" and "Wheel of Time"  Swedish heavy metal band Katana also wrote a song, entitled "The Wisdom of Emond's Field", on their 2012 album Storms of War  The American power metal band Noble Beast, on their 2014 album of the same name, wrote a song entitled "The Dragon Reborn", in reference to Rand al'Thor  The American black metal band Shaidar Logoth takes its name from an adaptation of the city of Shadar Logoth, and lyrically expands on the character Padan Fain  The Austrian metal band Dragony, on their 2018 album "Masters of the Multiverse", released the song "Flame of Tar Valon", referencing the Amyrlin Seat  The Swedish metal band Freternia, on their 2019 album "The Gathering", released the song "Reborn", referencing the Dragon Reborn, Rand al'Thor



ground_truth: YIVO

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was born first,  Morgan Llywelyn or Robert Jordan?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  The American band Lyra wrote the song "The Sword That Could Not Be Broken", about the history of Manetheren, as well as the song "Betrayer of Hope", in reference to Ishamael  The Dread Crew of Oddwood produced the song "The Gleeman", which refers to Thom's battle with a Myrddraal in Whitebridge  The Scottish metal band Farseer, on their 2016 album "Fall Before the Dawn", released the song "Luck of the Joker", which references the most important events that happen to Matrim Cauthon during the whole series In the tradition of the literature-inspired symphonic poem, American composer Seth Stewart produced a full-scale orchestral work entitled "Age of Legends", inspired by the eponymous era of myth and magic described throughout the Wheel of Time series  The orchestral piece was premiered and recorded in 2011 at the Beall Concert Hall 

Television and film
In a 2000 chat on CNN com, Robert Jordan mentioned that NBC had purchased an option to do a miniseries of The Eye of the World  But he expressed doubts that the series would be made stating "key people involved in getting that contract together have left NBC " The series was optioned by Universal Pictures in 2008 for film adaptations, with plans to adapt The Eye of the World as the first film  Neither project ultimately emerged 
In February 2015, Red Eagle Entertainment paid air time to cable network FXX to air Winter Dragon, a  low-budget 22-minute pilot for a potential The Wheel of Time series that allowed Red Eagle to hold on to the rights to the series  The pilot, based on the prologue to The Eye of the World, starred Max Ryan as Lews Therin Thelamon and Billy Zane as Ishamael and aired after Midnight with no announcements or publicity  Harriet McDougal initially stated she was unaware of the show ahead of time, and that the film rights to The Wheel of Time were set to revert to the Bandersnatch Group, her company, a few days later on February 11, 2015  Her comments triggered a slander lawsuit with Red Eagle, which was ultimately dismissed during settlement talks that July  In an interview with io9, Red Eagle Entertainment's CEO Rick Selvage stated "it was more of an [issue of] getting it on the air "  A spokesman for FXX stated that the channel was paid to air the show, but Selvage hinted that it was indeed produced with a future series in mind  "We think there's huge demand for the television series internationally, and we're looking forward to producing it and getting it out in the marketplace "On April 29, 2016, Harriet McDougal confirmed that the legal issues had been resolved and that a TV series was in development  Further details emerged on 20 April 2017, when it was announced that Sony Pictures Television would be handling the adaptation, with Rafe Judkins as writer and executive producer  In February 2018, Amazon Studios revealed that it had struck a deal with Sony Pictures Television to co-develop the series for distribution on Amazon's video streaming service  The series was formally greenlit in October 2018  Production began in late 2019, but was hindered in part due to the COVID-19 pandemic  The series premiered on 19 November 2021 

Fan culture
Many fans of The Wheel of Time attend Dragon Con, which had an exclusive Wheel of Time content track from 2001 through 2012  The Wheel of Time now has its own annual convention, JordanCon, which has been held annually in Atlanta, Georgia, since 2009  The 2020 convention was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic  Instead, it took place over the Internet, some aspects being held through the use of the Zoom platform  The 2023 convention in April was the 15th anniversary of the founding of JordanCon 
In 2022, a new convention titled WoT Con, took place in Dublin, OH  This convention was created to be dedicated to the world of the Wheel of Time in all media aspects: novels, social media, and the television show  The second convention will take place July 14-16, 2023 
Passage 5:
The World of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time
The World of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time is an encyclopedia for the bestselling The Wheel of Time epic fantasy series of novels by Robert Jordan about the unnamed world where the plot takes place, which is often referred by fans of the series as the World of the Wheel  It is published in the United States by Tor Books and in the United Kingdom by Orbit Books  The bulk of the text was written by Teresa Patterson based on notes and information provided by Jordan, who also serves as overall editor on the project  While the information in the guide is broadly canonical, the book is deliberately written with vague, biased, or even downright false (or guessed) information in places, as Patterson felt this would reflect a key theme of the series (the mutability of knowledge across time and distance) 

Publication history
The book has been printed in several formats  The original release on 6 November 1997 was a large-format hardback with a predominantly white cover  This led to the book being dubbed 'The Big White Book' by fans  Some additional fans, citing poor quality of the internal illustrations, have dubbed the volume "The Big Book With Bad Art"  This edition of the book runs to 304 pages  The book was reprinted in a slightly different edition of the same size a year later  This edition has a different cover (a map of the Westlands) and the gallery has been expanded to include the cover of the eighth novel, The Path of Daggers, which was released at the same time  A large-format paperback edition followed in November 1999  On 6 June 2002 Orbit re-released the book as a 461-page mass-market paperback, stripped of all illustrations apart from the maps  This is the 'current' UK edition 

Description
The book is an attempt to fill in the enormous backstory of The Wheel of Time novels and also serves as 'guidebook' to the world presented in the books  The original large-editions of the book were presented with full-colour art by Todd Cameron Hamilton and includes maps by Ellisa Mitchell, John M  Ford and Thomas Canty  The covers of the novels, painted by Darrell K  Sweet, were also included  The mass-market paperback editions only include the Mitchell, Ford, and Canty maps, however  The original artwork by Hamilton was fiercely criticised on release The book consists of six sections, outlined as follows:

The Wheel and the Power: a description and explanation of The Wheel of Time, the True Source and the One Power, the relationships between the three, and how they are tapped and used 
The Age of Legends: a historical overview of the Age of Legends, the War of the Shadow and the Breaking of the World  Includes biographies and character studies of the thirteen Forsaken and information on the Friends of the Dark and Shadowspawn 
The World Since the Breaking: a historical overview of events since the Breaking, including the founding of the White Tower and the rise of the Ten Nations, the Trolloc Wars, the rise of Artur Hawkwing in the War of the Second Dragon, the colonisation of Seanchan, the War of the Hundred Years, the start of the New Era, the Whitecloak War, and the Aiel War 
Narrative Paintings: the cover artwork for the first seven (expanded to eight in later editions) novels in the series  This section is missing from mass-market paperback editions of the book 
The World of the Wheel: a gazetteer to the world of the novels, including information on Shara, Seanchan, the Aiel Waste, the Land of the Madmen, and the Ogier  A map of the whole world is shown, along with a more detailed map of Shara and the Aiel Waste, and another of the Seanchan home continent  Information on history, customs, and the Seanchan exotic animals is also included 
Within the Land: focuses on the fourteen nations and the major city-states that make up the main continent shown in the books, featuring information on holidays, prophecies, military forces, governments, trade, and the influence of the Aes Sedai 
Passage 6:
Morgan Llywelyn
Morgan Llywelyn (born December 3, 1937) is an American-Irish historical interpretation author of historical and mythological fiction and historical non-fiction  Her interpretation of mythology and history has received several awards and has sold more than 40 million copies, and she herself is recipient of the 1999 Exceptional Celtic Woman of the Year Award from Celtic Women International 

Biography
Llywelyn was born Sally Snyder in New York in 1937  She was the daughter of Joseph John (an attorney) and she attended high school in Dallas  In her teens, Llywelyn moved to the Dallas area, where she developed a love of horses  By the age of 16, Llywelyn was competing in professional horse shows across the United States  By age 18, she modeled for Neiman Marcus and Arthur Murray  After 15 years of experience as a horse trainer and instructor, she tried out for and narrowly missed making the 1976 United States Olympic Team in dressage  She was instead shortlisted, missing the cut off score by  05 percent With her mother's encouragement and a successfully published article on horse training, she refocused her efforts in tracing the Llywelyn family history and eventually made a career out of writing historical novels that allowed the exploration of her Celtic roots  In reference to this career change, Llywelyn had this to say:

I have a strong strain of Welsh on my mother's side, which does indeed go back to Llywelyn ap Iorwerth  And Llywelyn the Great! (We have the proven genealogy from the College of Heralds ) She was very proud of her royal Welsh connection  That is why she was so interested in genealogy in the first place, and inspired me to get involved as well     leading in turn to THE WIND FROM HASTINGS  But both my parents were predominantly Irish – my father totally so – and I spent half the years of my childhood here  So I have always been much more interested in Ireland and its history and legends 
Llywelyn has received several awards for her works  She received the Novel of the Year Award from the National League of American Penwomen for her novel, The Horse Goddess, as well as the Woman of the Year Award from the Irish-American Heritage Committee for Bard: The Odyssey of the Irish  The latter award was presented to her by Ed Koch, then-mayor of New York City Although Llywelyn's grandparents have their roots in Ireland, it was only after the death of her parents and her husband in 1985 that she relocated to Ireland  Llywelyn now lives outside Dublin and has become an Irish citizen In 1990, Llywelyn began her focus on writing books geared for younger readers  These works started with Brian Boru: Emperor of the Irish, for which she won an Irish Children's Book Trust Bisto Award in 1991, and includes other titles, such as Strongbow: The Story of Richard and Aoife, for which she won a Bisto Award in the Historical Fiction category, 1993 and the Reading Association of Ireland Award, 1993, and Star Dancer, which departed from her usual Celtic topic and was centered on her experiences with dressage  Further works include The Vikings in Ireland, an exploration of when the Norsemen arrived in Ireland, and Pirate Queen, a younger reader's version of the story of Grace O'Malley, told through letters from Granuaile to her beloved son 

Bibliography
Novels and short fiction collections
1978 The Wind from Hastings, Tor Books, ISBN 9781429983563
1980 Lion of Ireland, Forge Books, ISBN 9780765302571
1983 The Horse Goddess, Tor Books, ISBN 9781429983464
1984 Bard: The Odyssey of the Irish, Tor Books, ISBN 9780765334886 
1984 Personal Habits, Doubleday
1986 Grania: She-King of the Irish Seas, Forge Books, ISBN 9781429920636
1987 Xerxes, Chelsea House Publications, ISBN 0877544476
1989 The Isles of the Blest, Olmstead Press, ISBN 9781587541131
1989 Red Branch, Ivy Books, ISBN 9780804105910
1990 Brian Boru: Emperor of the Irish, Tor Books, ISBN 9780812544619
1989 On Raven's Wing, Mandarin, ISBN 9780749302054
1991 Druids, Del Rey, ISBN 9780804108447
1992 The Last Prince of Ireland: A Novel, W  Morrow, ISBN 9780688107949
1992 O'Sullivan's March
1993 The Elementals, Tor Books, ISBN 9780312855680
1993 Star Dancer, The O'Brien Press, ISBN 9780862783310
1994 Finn Mac Cool, Forge Books, ISBN 9781250754226  
1995 Cold Places
1995 Ireland: A Graphic History (with Michael Scott)
1995 Silverhand (Arcana, Book 1; with Michael Scott), Baen, ISBN 9780671877286
1996 19 Railway Street (with Michael Scott), Poolbeg Press Ltd, ISBN 9781853716423
1996 The Vikings in Ireland
1996 Strongbow: The Story of Richard & Aoife, The O'Brien Press, ISBN 9780862782740
1996 Silverlight (Arcana, Book 2; with Michael Scott)
1996 Pride of Lions
1998 1916, A Novel Of the Irish Rebellion, Forge Books, ISBN 9780765386144 
1999 The Essential Library for Irish Americans
2000 Etruscans (with Michael Scott), Tor Books, ISBN 9780312875510
2000 A Pocket History of Irish Rebels
2000 The Earth Is Made Of Stardust, Borgo Press, ISBN 9781587151590
2001 1921, The War for Independence, Forge Books, ISBN 9780765326935 
2001 Granuaile, The Pirate Queen (republished as Pirate Queen in 2006), The O'Brien Press, ISBN 9780862789749
2003 1949, The Irish Republic, Forge Books, ISBN 9780765381347
2005 1972, A Novel of Ireland's Unfinished Revolution, Forge Books, ISBN 9780765381330
2006 The Greener Shore: A Novel of the Druids of Hibernia, Del Rey, ISBN 9780345477675, 0345477677
2006 The Young Rebels, The O'Brien Press, ISBN 9780862785796
2006 The History of Irish Rebels
2006 The Vikings in Ireland
2008 1999 - A Novel of the Celtic Tiger and the Search for Peace, Forge Books, ISBN 9781429927062
2010 Brendan - The Remarkable Life and Voyage of Brendan of Clonfert, Forge Books, ISBN 9780312860998
2012 Cave of Secrets, The O'Brien Press, ISBN 9781847172075
2013 After Rome, Forge Books, ISBN 9781429987400 
2014 1014: Brian Boru & the Battle for Ireland, Dover Publications, ISBN 9780486842004
2016 Only the Stones Survive, Forge Books, ISBN 9780765337931 
2018 Drop by Drop, Tor Books, ISBN 9781250245311 
2019 Step by Step
2020 Inch by Inch, Tor Books, ISBN 9781250245328 
2021 Breath by Breath, Tor Books, ISBN 9780765388728

Awards
Passage 7:
Grania: She-King of the Irish Seas
Grania: She-King of the Irish Seas is a 1986 historical fiction novel about Grace O'Malley (Irish: Gráinne Ní Mháille), the so-called "Sea Queen of Connemara", by American-born Irish author Morgan Llywelyn  Llywelyn's novel is a heavily fictionalized account of O'Malley's life, with the author having created characters as needed for the plot of the story  The novel was the basis for the 2007 Broadway musical The Pirate Queen 
Passage 8:
Pride of Lions (novel)
Pride of Lions (ISBN 9780812536508, 1996), by the American-Irish author Morgan Llywelyn, is a novel about the lives of the children of Irish hero and High King Brian Boru, particularly his son, Donough, after the Battle of Clontarf  It is a sequel to Lion of Ireland published in 1980 
Passage 9:
Bard: The Odyssey of the Irish
Bard: The Odyssey of the Irish is a 1984 historical fantasy novel by Morgan Llywelyn  It depicts the migration of Galicians to Ireland, led by Amergin the bard and the Sons of the Mil  It is loosely based on the Early Irish Lebor Gabála Érenn or The Book of Invasions found in several medieval manuscripts 

Plot summary
Official tagline: "The sweeping historical tale of the coming of the Irish to Ireland, and of the men and women who made the Emerald Isle their own "
In the 4th century BC a group of Gaelic speaking people living in the northwest of Iberia, the Galicians, are waning in prosperity  A group of Phoenician traders unexpectedly arrives and gives hope to the tribe 
The story follows Amergin, druid and chief bard of the Galicians, and his brothers; Éremón, Colptha, Éber Finn, Donn, and Ír - all sons of Milesios  After years of declining prosperity, the Gaelicians hope that the Phoenician traders, led by Age-Nor, will help bring them back  Unfortunately, neither side has anything of much worth to trade 
At a reception in the Heroes' Hall, Age-Nor is attacked by Ír, while Milesios is asleep and unaware  Amergin uses his bardic talent to entrance Ír, thus saving Age-Nor 
Later in the novel, Age-Nor rewards Amergin, despite the bard's vehement protests, by giving him a servant, a shipwright named Sakkar, and regaling him with a tale of a fabled land to the north, Ierne  After a series of mishaps and bad decisions, it is eventually decided that a group of the Gaelicians, led by the Sons of the Mil, will settle this land 
The tribe builds a series of ships with the help of Sakkar, and set sail 
When they arrive on Ierne, they are confronted by the mysterious Tuatha Dé Danann, People of the Goddess Danu  After a battle, the Dananns vanish with no trace, leaving Ierne for the Milesians after Éiru (A Goddess of the Tuatha De Dannan) hands over Ireland to Amergin for it was foretold 

External links
Morgan Llywelyn
Passage 10:
Finn Mac Cool (novel)
Finn Mac Cool is a 1994 novel by the Irish-American author Morgan Llywelyn  It is based on the Fenian Cycle about the Irish hero Finn Mac Cool and the fianna  Terri Windling described it as "a skilfully crafted Irish novel       in the shadowy realm between history and mythology" 



ground_truth: Morgan Llywelyn