prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What was the Roud Folk Song Index of the nursery rhyme inspiring What Are Little Girls Made Of?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
A Wise Old Owl
"A Wise Old Owl" is an English language nursery rhyme  It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 7734 and in The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes, 2nd Ed  of 1997, as number 394  The rhyme is an improvement of a traditional nursery rhyme "There was an owl lived in an oak, wisky, wasky, weedle "

Lyrics
This version was first published in Punch, April 10, 1875, and ran as follows 

One version was published upon bookmarks during the mid-1930s, and goes as follows:

The 1875 version is ungrammatical from the standpoint of modern English, relying on an apo koinou construction for meter; this is also used in a children's song called Bingo 

History
The rhyme refers to the traditional image of owls as the symbol of wisdom  It was recorded as early as 1875 and is apparently older than that  It was quoted by John D  Rockefeller in 1909 and is frequently misattributed to Edward Hersey Richards and William R  Cubbage During World War II, the United States army used the rhyme on a poster with the tweaked ending, "Soldier     be like that old bird!" with the caption "Silence means security "


== Notes ==
Passage 2:
Aiken Drum
"Aiken Drum" (Roud 2571) is a popular Scottish folk song and nursery rhyme, which probably has its origins in a Jacobite song about the Battle of Sheriffmuir (1715) 

Lyrics
Modern versions of the lyrics include:

Other versions of the song include the lyrics:

Origins
The rhyme was first printed by James Hogg in Jacobite Reliques in 1820, as a Jacobite song about the Battle of Sheriffmuir (1715):

Sir Walter Scott in his novel The Antiquary (1816) refers to Aiken Drum in a story told by an old beggar about the origins of what has been perceived by the protagonist as a Roman fort  The beggar tells him that it was actually built by him and others for "auld Aiken Drum's bridal" and that one of the masons cut the shape of a ladle into the stone as a joke on the bridegroom  The reference suggests that the rhyme, and particularly the chorus, was well enough known in the early nineteenth century for the joke to be understood 

Performances
The Scottish folk group The Singing Kettle performs this song for children in an interactive way by allowing the children to decide the foods of which Aiken Drum is made  A version is included on their CD Singalong Songs from Scotland, produced in 2003 for Smithsonian Folkways Recordings Popular Armenian-Canadian children's singer Raffi played a version of the song, called "Aikendrum", on his album Singable Songs for the Very Young (1976)  Raffi's version of the song replaces the various foods with ones that would be more familiar to an American audience: spaghetti for Aikendrum's hair, meatballs for his eyes, cheese for his nose, and pizza for his mouth  This version was also the Barney & Friends version 
The album Classic Scots Ballads (1961) by Ewan MacColl and Peggy Seeger includes a recording of this song with the original lyrics 

The Brownie of Blednoch
Aiken Drum is also the name given by the Scottish poet William Nicholson to the brownie in his poem "The Brownie of Blednoch" (1828)  The poem incorporates traditional brownie legends, but there is no evidence of the name being used for a brownie prior to Nicholson 

In popular culture
Aiken Drum is the name chosen for one of the main characters in the science fiction series The Saga of Pliocene Exile 

See also
Passage 3:
Row, Row, Row Your Boat
"Row, Row, Row Your Boat" is an English language nursery rhyme and a popular children's song, often sung in a round  It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 19236 
Bing Crosby included the song in a medley on his album 101 Gang Songs (1961)  Crosby also used the song as part of a round with his family during his concert at the London Palladium in 1976  The performance was captured on the album Bing Crosby Live at the London Palladium 

Lyrics
The most common modern version is often sung as a round for up to four voice parts (play )  A possible arrangement for SATB is as follows:

 The text above is often sung multiple times in succession to allow for the different voices to interweave with each other, forming four-part harmony 

Melody
Origins
The earliest printing of the song is from 1852, when the lyrics were published with similar lyrics to those used today, but with a very different tune  It was reprinted again two years later with the same lyrics and another tune  The modern tune was first recorded with the lyrics in 1881, mentioning Eliphalet Oram Lyte in The Franklin Square Song Collection but not making it clear whether he was the composer or adapter 

Legacy and alternative versions
The nursery rhyme is well known, appearing in several films, e g  Star Trek V, Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind and Manos: The Hands of Fate  People often add additional verses, a form of children's street culture, with the intent of either extending the song or (especially in the case of more irreverent versions) to make it funny, parody it, or substitute another sensibility for the perceived innocent one of the original  In Bean, Rowan Atkinson (Mr  Bean) and Peter MacNicol (David Langley) also used this parody singing in the film   Don Music, a muppet character in Sesame Street, changed the lyrics to feature a car instead of a boat In addition, Aimee Mann included a brief interpolation in "Choice in the matter" from her second solo album "I'm with stupid" 
Versions include:

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and
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and


== Notes and references ==
Passage 4:
Pretty Little Dutch Girl
"Pretty Little Dutch Girl" is a children's nursery rhyme, clapping game and jump-rope rhyme  	It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 12986 

Lyrics
The lyrics of the song vary considerably  British versions of this rhyme differ significantly, perhaps because many of the allusions in the rhyme were unknown to British children at the time  Common versions include:

I am a pretty little Dutch girl,
As pretty as I can be, be, be,
And all the boys in the baseball team
Go crazy over me, me, me My boy friend’s name is Fatty,
He comes from the Senoratti,
With turned-up toes and a pimple on his nose,
And this is how the story goes:Variation 1

I am a pretty little Dutch girl
As pretty as I can be
And all the boys in the neighborhood
Are crazy over meMy boyfriend's name is Mello
He comes from the land of Jello
With pickles for his toes and a cherry for his nose
And that's the way my story goesVariation 2

I am a pretty little Dutch girl,
As pretty as pretty can be,
And all the boys around the block
Go crazy over me My boyfriend's name is Billy,
He comes from good ole Philly,
With a cherry on his nose
And ten fat toes,
And that's the way my story goes My boyfriend gave me peaches,
My boyfriend gave me pears,
My boyfriend gave me fifty cents
And kissed me on the stairs I gave him back his peaches,
I gave him back his pears,
I gave him back his fifty cents
And kicked    him    down     the     stairs!Variation 3

I am a pretty little Dutch girl,
As pretty as I can be 
and all the boys in the neighborhood
come chasing after me me me My boyfriend's name is Tony,
he comes from the land of bologna,
with a pickle on his nose and 3 sore toes
and that's the way the story goes!One day he gave me peaches,
one day he gave me pears,
one day he gave me 50 cents
and took me to the fair!After the fair was over,
I asked him to take me home,
he ran off with another girl
and left me all alone!I gave him back his peaches 
I gave him back his pears 
I gave him back his 50 cents,
and kicked him down the stairs!Variation 4

I am a pretty little Dutch girl
As pretty as pretty can be 
And all the boys around the block
Go crazy over me I hate to do the dishes
I hate to do the chores
But I love to kiss my boyfriend
Behind the kitchen door One day while I was walking
I heard my boyfriend talking
To a pretty little girl
with strawberry curlsand this is what he said:
I L-O-V-E love you
All the T-I-M-E time
And I will K-I-S-S kiss you
In the D-A-R-K dark Variation 5 (Western Canada, 1960s)

I am a pretty little Dutch girl,
As pretty as pretty can be, be, be,
And all the boys on the baseball team
are chasing after me, me, me My father came from England,
My mother came from France, France, France 
My boyfriend came from the USA
to teach me how to dance, dance, dance My boyfriend gave me apples,
My boyfriend gave me pears, pears, pears 
My boyfriend gave me fifty cents
and kissed me up the stairs, stairs, stairs I gave him back his apples,
I gave him back his pears, pears, pears 
I gave him back his fifty cents
and kicked him down the stairs, stairs, stairs    with a pickle on his nose and 3 sore toes,
that's the way it goes, goes, goes Variation 6

I am a pretty little Dutch girl
As pretty as pretty can be
And all the boys around my block
Go crazy over me!I had a boyfriend, Patty
Who comes from Cincinnati
With 48 toes and a pickle on his nose
And this is the way my story goes   One day when I was walkin'
I heard my boyfriend talkin'
To a pretty little girl with a strawberry curls
And this is what he said to her   I L-O-V-E, love you
to K-I-S-S, kiss you
yes K-I-S-S, kiss you in
the D-A-R-K dark boom boom!Variation 7

I am a pretty little Dutch girl
As pretty as pretty can be
and all the boys in my hometown
are crazy over meMy boyfriend's name is Chico
he came from Puerto Rico
with a rubber nose
and 28 toes
and this is how my story goesOne day as I was walking
I heard my Chico talking
to a pretty little girl
with strawberry curls
and this is what he said to herI L-O-V-E love you
I K-I-S-S kiss you
I K-I-S-S kiss you
in the D-A-R-K dark dark darkVariation 8

I am a pretty little Dutch girl,
As pretty as can be, be, be,
And all the boys on the baseball team,
Go crazy after me, me, me!
One day they gave me peaches,
One day they gave me pears, pears, pears,
One days they gave me 50 cents and took me to the fair, fair, fair 
And when the fair was over,
I asked them to take me home, home, home,
They said they had another date and left me all alone, lone, lone 
I gave them back their peaches,
I gave them back their pears, pears, pears,
I gave them back their 50 cents and kicked them down the stairs, stairs, stairs!Variation 9 (Northwest England, 2010s)

My boyfriend gave me an apple
My boyfriend gave me a pear
My boyfriend gave me a kiss on the lips, and he threw me down the stairsI gave him back his apple
I gave him back his pear
I gave him back kiss on the lips, and I threw him down the stairsI threw him over London
I threw him over France
I threw him over the football pitch, and he lost his underpantsHis underpants were yellow
His underpants were green
His underpants were black and white, and smelt like rotten cheeseVariation 10 (Austin, Texas 1960s) Given the actions that went with this, people assume this went through music halls I am a pretty little Dutch girl
As pretty as pretty can be
And all the boys around the block
Are crazy over me 

My boyfriend's name is Harry 
He comes from Paris, France
With turned up toes and a pimple on his nose
And this is the way my story goes 

My boyfriend gave me apples,
My boyfriend gave me pears 
My boyfriend gave me fifty cents
And took me to the fair 

One day as I was walking
I heard my boyfriend talking
To a pretty little girl with a strawberry curl
and this is what he said to her:I L-O-V-E, love you 
I K-I-S-S, kiss you 
I K-I-S-S, kiss you
On your F-A-C-E, face, face, face 

I gave him back his apples
I gave him back his pears
I gave him back his fifty cents
And threw him down the stairs I threw him over London 
I threw him over France 
I threw him over [substitute wherever here]
And he lost his underpants 

I have a little brother 
His name is Tiny Tim
I put him in the bathtub
To see if he could swim

He drank up all the water
He ate up all the soap
He tried to eat the bathtub
But it wouldn't go down his throat

Oh, Suzy called the doctor,
Oh, Suzy called the nurse,
Oh, Suzy called the lady
With the alligator purse 

in walked the doctor,
In walked the nurse,
In walked the lady
With the alligator purse 

Out walked the doctor,
Out walked the nurse,
Out walked the lady
With the alligator purse 

My boyfriend's name is Harry 
He comes from Paris, France
With turned up toes and a pimple on his nose
And this is the way my story goes 
Variation 11

I am a pretty little Dutch girl,
As pretty as can be,
And all the boys around the block are crazy over me, me, me 
My boyfriend's name is Chaim,
He comes from yerushalayim
With a pickle up his nose and three black toes,
And this is how my story goes 

One day when I was walking,
I saw my boyfriend talking
To a pretty little girl with a strawberry curl
And this is what he said to her:
I L-O-V-E love you,
I K-I-S-S kiss you 
And he fell in the lake,
And he swallowed a snake,
And he came out with a bellyache Variation 12 (Long Island, NY, 1970s - a clapping game)

I am a pretty little Dutch girl,
As pretty as pretty can be,
And all the boys around my block go crazy over me 
My boyfriend's name is Larry
He comes from Cincinnati
With his forty-two toes and a pickle in his nose
And this is what he said to me:
"I L-O-V-E love you
I K-I-S-S kiss you
I K-I-S-S kiss you on your
F-A-C-E, F-A-C-E, F-A-C-E, face, face, face!"Variation 13 (from Australia)

I am a pretty little Dutch girl,
as pretty as pretty can be be be 
And all the boys in the baseball team,
go crazy over me me me My boyfriends name is Steven,
He comes from New Zealand 
With five fat toes and a pimple on his nose,
And this is how my story goes One day when I was walking,
I heard my boyfriend talking 
To a pretty little girl with strawberry curls,
and this is what he said to her:
"I LOVE love you and I KISS kiss you"
So jump in the lake and swallow a snake,
and come out with a belly ache Variation 14 (from Tóg Sos CD, Ireland 2003)

I am a pretty little Dutch girl,
As pretty as I can be, be, be,
And all the boys in the baseball team
Go crazy over me, me, me My boyfriend’s name is Johnny,
He comes from Cincinnati,
With forty-eight toes and a pickle up his nose,
And this is how my story goes One day I went out walking,
And I heard my boyfriend talking
To a pretty little girl with strawberry curls
And this is what he said to her   
"I L-O-V-E love you,
I K-I-S-S kiss you,"
So I jumped in a lake and swallowed a snake
And now I have a bellyache!Variation 15 (from USA, East Coast Early 2000s)

I am a pretty little Dutch girl,
As pretty, as pretty as can be
And all the boys in the baseball team
Go crazy over me, me, me My boyfriend’s name is Tommy,
He comes from Salami,
With a pickle up his nose,
And 55 toes
And that's the way my story goes!

Story told within the song
The rhyme (and at least some of its variants) tells the story of an extremely beautiful girl (of Dutch descent, hence the song's title) who is popular with boys (particularly around the neighborhood, block or the whole town) and has a rather unattractive boyfriend; some versions mention that the boyfriend dumps the pretty Dutch girl in favor of an even prettier girl  The Dutch girl is often depicted from illustration to illustration wearing traditional Dutch clothing, complete with ribbon-adorned long braids in her hair, wooden shoes and (occasionally exaggerated) Dutch cap 

Origins and distribution
The origins of the rhyme are obscure  The tune of the song is similar to "A Sailor Went to Sea" and "Miss Suzie Had A Steamboat" (though some notes are removed to account for the double-syllable words "pretty" and "little", and some notes are added in)  The earliest record found so far is for New York around 1940  It seems to have spread over the US by the 1950s and reached Britain in 1959, where it was taken up very quickly across the country to become one of the most popular skipping rhymes among girls The tune is also used in British pubs as a drinking song in which a person is challenged by their companions to down their drink  This version goes like this:

We like to drink with (insert name here)
'Cause (insert name here) is our mate 
And when we drink with (insert name here)
He/she/they finish(es) in 8! 7! 6! 5! 4! 3! 2! 1!

Use in children's media
In the Wee Sing Video Series video Grandpa's Magical Toys, the song is represented and sung by a blonde-haired Barbie-like doll in Dutch traditional costume aptly named "Dutch Girl" (played by Jacqueline "Jacque" Drew) that enjoys jump-roping and is very concerned about the red ribbons tying her long braids together; she even gets very emotional when those ribbons come undone (she prefers them to be straight), but the three shrunken children in the movie (named Peter, David and Sara) talk her out of her moping and convince her that her then-straight ribbons aren't the reason why she played with them  Convinced, she then wears her ribbons undone throughout the rest of the movie, and her dress seem to be falling apart by the movie's end  She even says that Pretty Little Dutch Girl is "my [her] song" when she is introduced to the three kids, and she also has a tendency to prattle 
(5:01)
In the 1977 Australian animated film Dot and the Kangaroo, two hopping mice near the end of the waterhole scene sang a song about a bushgirl who is pretty to the tune of Pretty Little Dutch Girl after they see Dot touching the bandicoot and scaring it and made the bandicoot jump in the waterhole where Dot laughs on what she did and the hopping mice laugh as well, so they did the same thing Dot did  One of the hopping mice pushed the other one into the waterhole 

Notes
External links
Various parody versions and original text
Passage 5:
Did You Ever See a Lassie?
"Did You Ever See a Lassie?" is a traditional folk song with a Roud Folk Song Index number of 5040 

Lyrics
Modern versions of the lyrics include:

Did you ever see a lassie,
A lassie, a lassie?
Did you ever see a lassie
Go this way and that?Go this way and that way,
Go this way and that way 
Did you ever see a lassie
Go this way and that?Did you ever see a laddie,
A laddie, a laddie?
Did you ever see a laddie
Go this way and that?Go this way and that way,
Go this way and that way 
Did you ever see a laddie
Go this way and that?

Origins
The use of the terms "lassie" and "laddie" mean that this song is often attributed to possible origins in Scotland (by various forms of media; see "references" section), but it was first collected in the United States in the last decade of the nineteenth century and was not found in Great Britain until the mid-twentieth century  However, it can be surmised that the words to the song may have come from Scottish immigrants or Scottish-Americans because of the aforementioned terms Along with "The More We Get Together", it is generally sung to the same tune as "Oh du lieber Augustin", a song written in Germany or Vienna in the late seventeenth century It was first published in 1909, in Games for the Playground, Home, School and Gymnasium by Jessie Hubbell Bancroft 

As a game
The song is often accompanied by a circle singing game  Players form a circle and dance around one player  When they reach the end of the verse they stop, the single in the middle performs an action (such as Highland dancing), which everyone then imitates, before starting the verse again, often changing the single player to a boy, or a boy can join the center player - thus creating an extra verse in the song ("Did you ever see some children   ") 

References in popular culture and children's media
The song is featured in the 1963 motion picture Ladybug, Ladybug   In the movie, children sing the song as part of a game while walking home from school during a nuclear bomb attack drill 
The song, as sung by children, was used in a 1990 commercial for Maidenform, and played over a succession of pictures of women in uncomfortable-looking clothing, was followed by the tag-line, "Isn't it nice to live in a time when women aren't being pushed around so much anymore?"
The song is featured in an episode of The Simpsons, "The Otto Show", and was titled "Hail to the Bus Driver" 
Passage 6:
Billy Boy
"Billy Boy" is a traditional folk song and nursery rhyme found in the United States, in which "Billy Boy" is asked various questions, and the answers all center on his quest to marry a girl who is said to be too young to leave her mother  
It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 326   It is a variant of the traditional English folk song "My Boy Billy", collected by Ralph Vaughan Williams and published by him in 1912 as number 232 in Novello's School Songs 

Origins and interpretations
The nursery rhyme, framed in question-and-answer form, is ironic and teasing in tone:
Oh, where have you been, Billy Boy, Billy Boy?
Oh, where have you been, Charming Billy?
I have been to seek a wife, she's the joy of my whole life
But she's a young thing and cannot leave her mother
The narrative of the song has been related by some to "Lord Randall", a murder ballad from the British Isles, in which the suitor is poisoned by the woman he visits By contrast, Robin Fox uses the song to make a point about cooking and courtship, and observes:

Feeding has always been closely linked with courtship […] With humans this works two ways since we are the only animals who cook: the bride is usually appraised for her cooking ability  (“Can she bake a cherry pie, Billy boy, Billy boy?”) In some cultures this is far more important than her virginity 
In the traditional last verse of the song, Billy Boy is asked how old the girl is  While his answer is convoluted, it reveals an age that is old and not young - adding to the irony and humor of the song   
The song was also parodied in 1941 by Pete Seeger and Lee Hays in an anti-war protest song of the same name 

In popular culture
A line from the song was used as the title for Henry Jaglom's 1983 film Can She Bake a Cherry Pie?, which concerns a middle-aged New York City musician who, after being dumped by her husband, develops a relationship with a middle-aged divorced social worker  The song "Billy Boy" is also performed in the film In the 1948 Walt Disney film So Dear to My Heart, Burl Ives performs snippets of the song throughout the movie 
In the 1981 movie Bill, both Bill and Barry play and sing the song 

Recordings
Further variants have been recorded, some greatly extending the number of verses and the tasks that the wife can perform  An extended version of the song in which the lover performs many tasks besides baking a cherry pie was collected by Alan Lomax and John Avery Lomax; it appears in American Ballads and Folk Songs  The Lomax version names the woman being courted Betsy Jane 
A version of the song by Jerry Lee Lewis was released on the 1975 album Rare, Vol  1 
Jazz pianist Ahmad Jamal arranged and recorded the song in 1951  The recording was later featured on his 1959 album The Piano Scene of Ahmad Jamal, as well as on the 2008 Poinciana compilation album 
Led by pianist Red Garland, the rhythm section of Miles Davis' band recorded Jamal's arrangement of "Billy Boy" for Davis' album Milestones (1958)  It is the only track on the album that does not feature any horns playing 
An anti-war version of the song was released by Australian punk band Black Chrome on the 2018 album Age of Rage 
Guitarist Bill Frisell included an instrumental version of "Billy Boy" in his 1992 album  Have a Little Faith 

See also
Children's literature portal
National Book Award-winning novel (1998) Charming Billy, by Alice McDermott

Notes
Passage 7:
Three Little Kittens
"Three Little Kittens" is an English language nursery rhyme, probably  with roots in the British folk tradition  The rhyme as published today however is a sophisticated piece usually attributed to American poet Eliza Lee Cabot Follen (1787–1860)  With the passage of time, the poem has been absorbed into the Mother Goose collection  The rhyme tells of three kittens who first lose, then find and soil, their mittens  When all is finally set to rights, the kittens receive their mother's approval and some pie  It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 16150 
The poem was published in England in 1827 in a mock review by William Ewart Gladstone, writing as Bartholomew Bouverie, in The Eton Miscellany A version was later published in 1833 as an anonymous addition to a volume of Follen's verse and in the United States in 1843  Follen may have developed and refined an existing, rude version of the poem, and, in the process, made it her own  The poem is a sophisticated production that avoids the typical moralization of 19th century children's literature in favour of anthropomorphic fantasy, satirical nonsense, and word play 

Text
From Gladstone, The Eton Miscellany (1827)

From Follen, New Nursery Songs for All Good Children (1843)

Background
According to Janet Sinclair Gray, author of Race and Time, "Three Little Kittens" may have origins in the British folk tradition, but the poem as known today is a sophisticated production far removed from such origins  Gray supports her assertion by pointing out that the cats are not the barnyard felines of folk material but bourgeois domestic cats who eat pie and wear mittens  Gray observes that the mother cat's disciplinary measures and the kittens' need to report their movements to her are also indicators of a bourgeois status  "Three Little Kittens" is attributed to Bostonian Sunday school teacher and abolitionist, Eliza Lee Cabot Follen (1787–1860), a member of a prominent New England family and the author of the juvenile novel The Well-Spent Hour  Gray explains that "Kittens" is unlike any of Follen's typical poems, but also notes that Follen is just the sort of person who would write such a piece  It is unlikely Follen composed "Kittens" wholecloth, Gray believes, but rather far more likely that she developed and refined an existing but rude version of the piece  In doing so, she made the poem her own  Although Follen disclaimed authorship following the poem's first appearance in print, she continued to publish it under her name in succeeding years 

Publication
The poem was printed in 1827 in The Eton Miscellany  A later version was printed in 1833 in Britain in Follen's Little Songs for Little Boys and Girls  It was an addition to the volume and probably inserted by the publisher  In the introduction to a subsequent edition, Follen denied any hand in the poem's composition, but took it under her wing and claimed ownership as the poem passed through various reprints  The poem was first published in the United States in 1843 in Follen's New Nursery Songs for All Good Children  An 1856 American reprint was subtitled "A Cat's Tale, with Additions" Cuthbert Bede (pen name of Edward Bradley) published a prose version in his Fairy Fables (1857)  In 1858 R  M  Ballantyne published his prose version that elaborated Follen's poem 
in a volume of the Good Little Pig's Library  This version included a musical setting for Follen's poem 

Reception
"Three Little Kittens" was hugely popular and quickly absorbed into the Mother Goose collection  Unlike her female literary contemporaries who typically stressed moral edification in their children's pieces, Follen subordinated such edification in "Three Little Kittens" and emphasized fantasy involving anthropomorphic characters, verbal play, and satirical nonsense  The poem is considered a cornerstone in the shift from moral literature for children to romantic literature intended to amuse and entertain 

See also
The Milky Way (1940 film)
List of nursery rhymes

Notes


== External links ==
Passage 8:
What Are Little Boys Made Of?
"What Are Little Boys Made Of?" is a nursery rhyme dating from the early 19th century  It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 821 
The author of the rhyme is uncertain, but may be English poet Robert Southey (1774–1843) 

Lyrics
Here is a representative modern version of the lyrics:

The rhyme appears in many variant forms  For example, other versions may describe boys as being made of "snaps", "frogs", "snakes", or "slugs", rather than "snips" as above 

Origins
In the earliest known versions, the first ingredient for boys is either "snips" or "snigs", the latter being a Cumbrian dialect word for a small eel 
The rhyme sometimes appears as part of a larger work called What Folks Are Made Of or What All the World Is Made Of  Other stanzas describe what babies, young men, young women, sailors, soldiers, nurses, fathers, mothers, old men, old women, and all folks are made of  According to Iona and Peter Opie, this first appears in a manuscript by the English poet Robert Southey (1774–1843), who added the stanzas other than the two below  Though it is not mentioned elsewhere in his works or papers, it is generally agreed to be by him The relevant section in the version attributed to Southey was:

See also
List of folk songs by Roud number
The Powerpuff Girls
Passage 9:
Tweedledum and Tweedledee
Tweedledum and Tweedledee are characters in an English nursery rhyme and in Lewis Carroll's 1871 book Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There  Their names may have originally come from an epigram written by poet John Byrom  The nursery rhyme has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 19800  The names have since become synonymous in western popular culture slang for any two people whose appearances and actions are identical 

Lyrics
Common versions of the nursery rhyme include:

Tweedledum and Tweedledee
    Agreed to have a battle;
For Tweedledum said Tweedledee
    Had spoiled his nice new rattle Just then flew down a monstrous crow,
    As black as a tar-barrel;
Which frightened both the heroes so,
    They quite forgot their quarrel 

Origins
The words "Tweedle-dee and Tweedle-dum" make their first appearance in print as names applied to the composers George Frideric Handel and Giovanni Bononcini in "one of the most celebrated and most frequently quoted (and sometimes misquoted) epigrams", satirising disagreements between  Handel and Bononcini, written by John Byrom (1692–1763): in his satire, from 1725 

Some say, compar'd to Bononcini
That Mynheer Handel's but a Ninny
Others aver, that he to Handel
Is scarcely fit to hold a Candle
Strange all this Difference should be
'Twixt Tweedle-dum and Tweedle-dee!Although Byrom is clearly the author of the epigram, the last two lines have also been attributed to Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope  While the familiar form of the rhyme was first printed in Original Ditties for the Nursery (c  1805), Byrom may have drawn on an existing rhyme 

Through The Looking-Glass
The characters are perhaps best known from Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass and what Alice Found There (1871)  Carroll, having introduced two fat little men named Tweedledee and Tweedledum, quotes the nursery rhyme, which the two brothers then go on to enact  They agree to have a battle, but never have one  When they see a monstrous black crow swooping down, they take to their heels  The Tweedle brothers never contradict each other, even when one of them, according to the rhyme, "agrees to have a battle"  Rather, they complement each other's words, which led John Tenniel to portray them as twins in his illustrations for the book 

Other depictions
Tweedledee and Tweedledum appear in Disney's 1951 version of Alice in Wonderland, both voiced by J  Pat O'Malley, and representing the sun and moon as they tell Alice the story of The Walrus and the Carpenter, and the first stanza of the poem called, You Are Old, Father William before Alice quietly leaves to find the White Rabbit  The Disney versions of the characters later appeared in the Disney television series House of Mouse and one of them in the final scene of Who Framed Roger Rabbit 
Tweedledee and Tweedledum appear in Once Upon a Time in Wonderland, portrayed by Ben Cotton and Matty Finochio  They appear as the Red Queen's servants where they started out working for the Red King  While Tweedledum is shown to be loyal to the Red Queen, Tweedledee is shown to be loyal to Jafar 


== Notes ==
Passage 10:
What Are Little Girls Made Of?
"What Are Little Girls Made Of?" is the seventh episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series, Star Trek  Written by Robert Bloch and directed by James Goldstone, it first aired on October 20, 1966 
In the episode, Nurse Chapel searches for her long lost fiancé and uncovers his secret plan to create sophisticated androids for galactic conquest 
The first episode of the series to be repeated on NBC, the title of the episode is taken from the fourth line of the 19th-century nursery rhyme, "What Are Little Boys Made Of?"

Plot
The USS Enterprise, under the command of Captain Kirk, travels to the icy planet Exo-III to search for the exobiologist Dr  Roger Korby  Korby was the fiancé of Dr  McCoy's temporary assistant, Nurse Christine Chapel, who signed on to the Enterprise to search for Korby 
At Korby's request, Kirk and Chapel beam down alone to a cavern entrance, but Korby is not there to meet them  Finding this suspicious, Kirk has two security officers beamed down from the Enterprise  One is instructed to stay at the entrance and keep a lookout, and the other accompanies Kirk and Chapel  The three begin to descend into a system of caves  When passing over a deep chasm, the security officer disappears  Shortly after, they meet Korby's aide Dr  Brown  Chapel recognizes him but is surprised the man does not remember her  Brown assures them that the security officer fell by accident, and the three continue on  Kirk contacts the remaining security officer and tells him to contact the Enterprise for reinforcements, but a strange creature kills the officer before he gets the chance  Meanwhile, Kirk, Chapel and Brown find Korby, who tells them that the caves were left by an extinct race  Korby shows Kirk and Chapel machinery that creates androids  With the help of Ruk, a still-functioning android from the time of the original inhabitants, Korby has created more androids, one being a beautiful woman he calls "Andrea"  Brown is also an android  It is also revealed that Ruk had killed the security officers 
Korby creates an android duplicate of Kirk as Chapel looks on  As Kirk's personality is imprinted on the android, the real Kirk imagines himself insulting Spock as a "half-breed"  Korby has the duplicate Kirk beamed aboard the Enterprise with orders to identify a planet suitable for creating more androids  When Spock questions the Kirk-android's orders, it repeats the insult Kirk had used  Spock, realizing that this is not Kirk, forms a security team to follow the Kirk-android back down to Exo-III  When it reaches the planet, the Kirk-android encounters Andrea, thinking it is the real Kirk, destroys him when he refuses to kiss her 
The real Kirk convinces Ruk that Korby is a threat to his existence  Ruk begins to recall the clash between the "Old Ones" and the androids that led to his civilization's demise centuries ago  Korby enters, and Ruk confronts him, but Korby destroys Ruk with a phaser  Shortly afterward, in a struggle with Kirk, the skin of Korby's hand is torn, revealing that he is also an android 
It is now revealed that Korby, dying of frostbite, had transferred his mind to an android body  He begs Chapel to believe that he is still the same man, but Chapel is repelled by what he has done to himself  Andrea, realizing she loves Korby, kisses him, and in despair, Korby fires Andrea's weapon between the embracing pair, destroying them both 
Spock arrives with the security force, but finds that the crisis has passed  When Spock inquires about Dr  Korby's whereabouts, Kirk replies, "Dr  Korby was never here " Chapel decides to stay on with the Enterprise and finish out her tour of duty  Spock tells Kirk about his dismay of using the term "half-breed" to warn that something was wrong  The captain says he will remember this should he find himself in a "similar situation "

Production
The episode was written by Robert Bloch, but received rewrites during shooting by Gene Roddenberry  The director of the second pilot "Where No Man Has Gone Before", James Goldstone, was hired to direct this episode, but due to problems with the script, shooting went two days over schedule and Goldstone was not re-hired Sherry Jackson, who plays the android woman Andrea, said that they had a censor on set to make sure that her costume fully covered her breasts and that side cleavage was not visible  She also said of William Shatner, "I must say when he kissed me on screen, he really kissed me!" and that Shatner's chest had to be shaved for his nude scenes in the android machine because Gene Roddenberry felt that Captain Kirk would not be hairy Reference to the works of H  P  Lovecraft was briefly made in Bloch's script, with its mention of "the Old Ones" and the look of the trapezoidal doors in the caverns 

Reception
Zack Handlen of The A V  Club gave the episode a "B+" rating, noting that the "repetitive plotting" took away any real sense of threat and that without Spock or McCoy to play off, Kirk's character is less interesting 

See also
Ship of Theseus
Allegiance (Star Trek: The Next Generation)
Redshirt (stock character)
Context 2: Passage 1:
Merck &amp; Co 
Merck & Co , Inc  is an American multinational pharmaceutical company headquartered in Rahway, New Jersey, and is named for Merck Group, founded in Germany in 1668, of whom it was once the American arm  The company does business as Merck Sharp & Dohme or MSD outside the United States and Canada  It is one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world, generally ranking in the global top five by revenue Merck & Co  was originally established as the American affiliate of Merck Group in 1891  Merck develops and produces medicines, vaccines, biologic therapies and animal health products  It has multiple blockbuster drugs or products each with 2020 revenues including cancer immunotherapy, anti-diabetic medication and vaccines against HPV and chickenpox 
The company is ranked 71st on the 2022 Fortune 500 and 87th on the 2022 Forbes Global 2000, both based on 2021 revenues 

Products
The company develops medicines, vaccines, biologic therapies and animal health products  In 2020, the company had 6 blockbuster drugs or products, each with over $1 billion in revenue: Keytruda (pembrolizumab), a humanized antibody used in cancer immunotherapy that had $14 3 billion in 2020 revenue; Januvia (sitagliptin), an anti-diabetic medication used to treat type 2 diabetes that had $5 3 billion in 2020 revenue; Gardasil, an HPV vaccine that had $3 9 billion in 2020 revenue; Varivax, a varicella vaccine used to protect against chickenpox that had $1 9 billion in 2020 revenues; Bridion (Sugammadex), a neuromuscular-blocking drug that had $1 2 billion in 2020 revenue; and Pneumovax 23, a pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine that had $1 1 billion in 2020 revenue  Other major products by the company include Isentress (raltegravir), an antiretroviral medication used to treat HIV/AIDS that had $857 million in 2020 revenue; Simponi (golimumab), a human monoclonal antibody used as an immunosuppressive drug that had $838 million in 2020 revenue; RotaTeq, a rotavirus vaccine that had $797 million in 2020 revenue; and Lynparza (olaparib), a medication for the maintenance treatment of BRCA-mutated advanced ovarian cancer in adults that generated $725 million in 2020 revenue for the company Details of Merck's major products are as follows:

Januvia (sitagliptin) is a dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitor for the treatment of type 2 diabetes  In 2013, Januvia was the second largest selling diabetes drug worldwide  Januvia is commonly paired with the generic anti-diabetes drug metformin  It has been popular due in part because unlike many other diabetes drugs, it causes little or no weight gain and is not associated with hypoglycemic episodes  Merck also sells a single pill combination drug containing both Januvia and metformin under the trade name Janumet  There has been some concern that treatment with Januvia and other DPP-IV inhibitors may be associated with a modestly increased risk of pancreatitis 
Zetia (ezetimibe) is a drug for hypercholesterolemia that acts by inhibiting the absorption of dietary cholesterol  Zetia has been controversial, as it was initially approved based on its impact on serum cholesterol levels without proof that it actually impacted the incidence of cardiovascular disease  Results of the IMPROVE-IT study, however, introduced at the 2014 Scientific Sessions of the American Heart Association, showed a statistically significant, albeit modest, benefit in adding Zetia to simvastatin for high-risk, post-acute-coronary-syndrome patients 
Remicade (infliximab) is a monoclonal antibody directed toward the cytokine TNF-alpha and used for the treatment of a wide range of autoimmune disorders, including rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, ankylosing spondylitis, plaque psoriasis, and others  Remicade and other TNF-alpha inhibitors exhibit additive therapeutic effects with methotrexate and improve quality of life  Adverse effects include increased risk of infection and certain cancers  Merck had rights to the drug in certain areas, while Janssen Biotech had rights in other areas; in 2017, Merck announced a biosimilar to Remicade, Renflexis 
Gardasil (recombinant human papilloma virus vaccine) is a vaccine against multiple serotypes of human papilloma virus (HPV), which is responsible for most cases of cervical cancer worldwide 
Isentress (raltegravir) is a human immunodeficiency virus integrase inhibitor for the treatment of HIV infection  It is the first anti-HIV compound having this mechanism of action  It is part of one of several first line treatment regimens recommended by the United States Department of Health and Human Services 
Keytruda (pembrolizumab) is an immune modulator for the treatment of cancer  On September 4, 2014, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Pembrolizumab (MK-3475) as a breakthrough therapy for melanoma treatment  In clinical trials, pembrolzumab provided partial tumor regression in about one quarter of patients, many of whom have not seen further progression of their disease in over 6 months of follow-up 
Invanz (Ertapenem) is an injectable antibiotic, rights to which Merck has owned since 1999  Merck was in a legal dispute with the Taiwanese company Savior Lifetec over their attempt to secure rights to sell a generic drug version in the United States  Savior has since obtained approval to market generic ertapenem 
Mexsana is an antiseptic medicated powder 
Mectizan (ivermectin) is an anti-parasitic medicine traditionally used to treat river blindness  It is the focus of Merck's Mectizan Donation Program, wherein Merck has donated doses of the drug to treat millions of people in countries such as Yemen and African nations 
Molnupiravir is an antiviral pill to treat COVID-19, developed in partnership with Ridgeback Biotherapeutics Merck & Co  publishes The Merck Manuals, a series of medical reference books for physicians, nurses, technicians, and veterinarians  These include the Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, the world's best-selling medical reference  The Merck Index, a compendium of chemical compounds, was published by Merck & Co  until it was acquired by the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2012 

History
Roots and early history
Merck & Co  traces its origins to its former German parent company Merck Group, which was established by the Merck family in 1668 when Friedrich Jacob Merck purchased a drug store in Darmstadt  In 1827, Merck Group evolved from a pharmacy to a drug manufacturer company with the commercial manufacture of morphine  Merck perfected the chemical process of deriving morphine from opium and later introduced cocaine, used to treat sinus problems and to add to beverages to boost energy levels In 1887 a German-born, long-time Merck employee, Theodore Weicker, went to the United States to represent Merck Group  In 1891, with $200,000 received from E  Merck, Weicker started Merck & Co , with headquarters in lower Manhattan  That year George Merck, the 23-year-old son of the then head of E  Merck (and grandson of the founder) joined Weicker in New York  Merck & Co  operated from 1891 to 1917 as the US subsidiary of the Merck Group 

Nationalization
After the U S  entered World War I, due to its German connections, Merck & Co  was the subject of expropriation under the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917  In 1919, George W  Merck, in partnership with Goldman Sachs and Lehman Brothers, bought the company back at a U S  government auction for $3 5 million, but Merck & Co  remained a separate company from its former German parent  Merck & Co  holds the trademark rights to the "Merck" name in the United States and Canada, while its former parent company retains the rights in the rest of the world; the right to use the Merck name was the subject of litigation between the two companies in 2016 In 1929, H  K  Mulford Company merged with Sharp and Dohme, Inc  and brought vaccine technology, including immunization of cavalry horses in World War I and delivery of a diphtheria antitoxin to Merck & Co 
In 1943, Streptomycin was discovered during a Merck-funded research program in Selman Waksman's laboratory at Rutgers University  It became the first effective treatment for Tuberculosis  At the time of its discovery, sanatoriums for the isolation of tuberculosis-infected people were a ubiquitous feature of cities in developed countries, with 50% dying within 5 years of admission  Although Merck's agreement with Rutgers gave it exclusive rights to streptomycin, at Waksman's request the company renegotiated the agreement, returning the rights to the university in exchange for a royalty  The university then set up non-exclusive licenses with seven companies to ensure a reliable supply of the antibiotic 

1950–2000
In the 1950s, thiazide diuretics were developed by Merck scientists Karl H  Beyer, James M  Sprague, John E  Baer, and Frederick C  Novello and led to the marketing of the first drug of this class, chlorothiazide, under the trade name Duiril in 1958  The research leading to the discovery of chlorothiazide, leading to "the saving of untold thousands of lives and the alleviation of the suffering of millions of victims of hypertension" was recognized by a special Public Health Award from the Lasker Foundation in 1975 In 1953, Merck & Co  merged with Philadelphia-based Sharp & Dohme, Inc , becoming the largest U S  drugmaker  Sharp and Dohme had acquired H  K  Mulford Company in 1929, adding smallpox vaccines to its portfolio  The combined company kept the trade name Merck in the United States and Canada, and as Merck Sharp & Dohme (MSD) outside North America In 1965, Merck & Co  acquired Charles Frosst Ltd  of Montreal (founded 1899), creating Merck-Frosst Canada, Inc , as its Canadian subsidiary and pharmaceutical research facility  Merck & Co  closed this facility in July 2010 but remerged in 2011 as Merck Canada Maurice Hilleman, a scientist at Merck, developed the first mumps vaccine in 1967, the first rubella vaccine in 1969, and the first trivalent measles, mumps, rubella (MMR vaccine) in 1971  The incidence of rubella-associated birth defects fell from up to 10,000 per year in the U S  to zero in the aftermath of the rubella vaccine's development  Hilleman also developed the first Hepatitis B vaccine and the first varicella vaccine, for chickenpox The company was incorporated in New Jersey in 1970  John J  Horan became CEO and Chairman in 1976, serving until 1985  Under his leadership, the company's investment in R&D grew threefold, and Merck became the largest pharmaceutical company in the world In 1979, Merck scientists developed lovastatin (Mevacor), the first drug of the statin class Merck scientist William C  Campbell and Satoshi Ōmura developed ivermectin for veterinary use in 1981, and later put it to human use against Onchocerciasis in 1987–88 with the name Mectizan; today the compound is used against river blindness, lymphatic filariasis, scabies and other parasitic infections In 1982, the company formed a joint venture, KBI Inc , with AstraZeneca  During the late 1980s and 1990s, the company also established joint ventures with DuPont to access research and development expertise, and with Johnson & Johnson to sell over-the-counter consumer medications In 1985, Merck received approval for imipenem, the first member of the carbapenem class of antibiotics  Antibiotics of the carbapenem class play an important role in treatment guidelines for certain hospital-acquired and multi-drug resistant infections  P  Roy Vagelos became CEO and Chairman that year, succeeding Horan In 1991, Merck's Kelco subsidiary was responsible for volatile organic compound (VOC) emission pollution in the San Diego area  In 1996 Merck paid $1 8 million for polluting the air  New machines were installed to reduce smog emissions by 680,000 lb (310,000 kg) a year In November 1993, Merck & Co  acquired Medco Containment Services for $6 billion  Merck & Co  spun Medco off ten years later 

2001–2019
In May 2002, The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation purchased stock in Merck From 2002 through 2005, the Australian affiliate of Merck paid publishing house Elsevier an undisclosed amount to produce eight issues of a medical journal, the Australasian Journal of Bone and Joint Medicine  Although it gave the appearance of being an independent peer-reviewed journal, without any indication that Merck had paid for it, the journal actually reprinted articles that originally appeared in other publications and that were favorable to Merck  The misleading publication came to light in 2009 during a personal injury lawsuit filed over Vioxx; 9 of 29 articles in the journal's second issue referred positively to Vioxx  The CEO of Elsevier's Health Sciences Division, Michael Hansen, admitted that the practice was "unacceptable" In 2005, CEO Raymond Gilmartin retired following Merck's voluntary worldwide withdrawal of Vioxx  Former president of manufacturing Richard Clark was named CEO and company president In November 2009, Merck & Co  completed a merger with Schering-Plough in a US$41 billion deal  Although Merck & Co  was in reality acquiring Schering-Plough, the purchase was declared a "reverse merger", in which "Old" Merck & Co  was renamed Merck Sharp & Dohme, and Schering-Plough renamed as "Merck & Co , Inc  The maneuver was an attempt avoid a "change-of-control" in order to preserve Schering-Plough's rights to market Remicade  A settlement with Johnson & Johnson was reached in 2011, in which Merck agreed to pay $500 million  Merck Sharp & Dohme remains a subsidiary of the Merck & Co  parent Richard Clark retired as CEO and company president in October 2011 and Kenneth Frazier became CEO In October 2013, Merck announced it would cut 8,500 jobs in an attempt to cut $2 5 billion from its costs by 2015  Combined with 7,500 job cuts announced in 2011 and 2012, the layoffs amounted to 20% of its workforce By 2014, research performed at Merck has led to U S  FDA approval of 63 new molecular entities In August 2014, Merck acquired Idenix Pharmaceuticals for $3 85 billion In December 2014, the company acquired Swiss biotechnology company OncoEthix for up to $375 million Between 2010 and 2015, the company cut around 36,450 jobs  During that time, the company sold its consumer health business to Bayer and narrowed the company's focus to immunology, vaccines, diabetes, emerging markets and medicines used in hospitals, like certain antibiotics In January 2015, Merck acquired Cubist Pharmaceuticals In July 2015, Merck and Ablynx expanded their 18-month-old immuno-oncology collaboration by four years, generating a potential $4 4 billion in milestone payments for the Abylnx  The company also announced it would spend $95 million up front collaborating with cCAM Biotherapeutics and its early-stage treatment similar to Keytruda  Merck & Co  will bring in CM-24, an antibody designed to block the immune checkpoint CEACAM1 In January 2016, Merck announced two new partnerships; the first with Quartet Medicine and its small molecule pain treatments, the second with Complix investigating intracellular cancer targets, with both collaborations potentially generating up to $595 million and $280 million respectively  Days later the company announced it would acquire IOmet Pharma, with IOmet becoming a wholly owned subsidiary of Merck & Co  The acquisition includes IOmets indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO), tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO), and dual-acting inhibitors In July 2016, the company acquired Afferent Pharmaceuticals, developer of a candidate used to block P2RX3 receptors, for approximately $1 billion, plus up to $750 million in milestone payments In 2017, Merck bought the PARP inhibitor Lynparza from AstraZeneca In April 2017, Merck Animal Health acquired Vallée S A , a Brazilian animal health product manufacturer In September 2017, the company announced it would acquire Rigontec, developer of a candidate to target the retinoic acid-inducible gene I pathway, for $554 million In October 2017, the company granted the inaugural Merck-AGITG Clinical Research Fellowship in Gastro-Intestinal (GI) Cancer to David Lau, a professional in Melbourne, Australia In June 2018, Merck acquired Viralytics, an Australian viral cancer drug company, for AUD$502 million In 2018, Merck began the submission process for a Biologics License Application to the Food and Drug Administration under the Breakthrough Therapy Designation for an investigational vaccine, called V920, to fight the Zaire strain of the Ebola virus In April 2019, the company acquired Immune Design for approximately $300 million, gaining access to its immunotherapy programs  It also acquired Antelliq Group for $2 4 billion, or $3 7 billion including debt In May 2019, Merck announced it would acquire Peloton Therapeutics, developer of a HIF-2alpha inhibitor for Von Hippel–Lindau disease-associated renal cell carcinoma, for up to $2 2 billion In June 2019, Merck announced it would acquire Tilos Therapeutics for up to $773 million In November 2019, the company acquired Calporta, which focused on Parkinsons and Alzheimers treatments In December 2019, Merck Animal Health acquired Vaki, an aquaculture company, from Pentair 

2020–present
In January 2020, Merck acquired ArQule, developer of ARQ 531, an oral Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitor, for $2 7 billion In March 2020, Merck was one of ten companies recognised at the inaugural Manufacturing Awards by New Jersey Business magazine and the New Jersey Business and Industry Association In June 2020, Merck acquired Themis Bioscience, a company focused on vaccines and immune-modulation therapies for infectious diseases including COVID-19 and cancer Also in June 2020, Merck Animal Health acquired Quantified Ag, a data and analytics company that monitors cattle body temperature and movement in order to detect illness early In August 2020, Merck Animal Health acquired IdentiGEN, engaged in DNA-based animal traceability In September 2020, Merck acquired $1 billion of Seattle Genetics common stock, and agreed to co-develop ladiratuzumab vedotin In November 2020, Merck announced it would acquire VelosBio for $2 75 billion, developer of VLS-101, an antibody-drug conjugate designed to target Tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor 1 (ROR1) in both hematological and solid tumors  VLS-101 is currently Phase I and Phase II clinical trials  The company also announced it would acquire OncoImmune for $425 million and its phase 3 candidate, CD24Fc, used in the treatment of patients with severe and critical COVID-19 In February 2021, Merck Animal Health acquired PrognostiX Poultry In March 2021, Merck Head of Corporate Affairs Petra Wicklandt represented the company at the Munich Security Conference, where she participated in a tabletop exercise simulating the public health response to the release of a weaponized strain of monkeypox In April 2021, Merck acquired Pandion Therapeutics for $1 85 billion, expanding its offering in treating autoimmune diseases In June 2021, the U S  government agreed to spend $1 2 billion to purchase 1 7 million doses of Molnupiravir, a Merck product, if it were to be approved by regulators to treat COVID-19  In October 2021, the company said that the drug reduces the risk of hospitalization or death by around 50% for patients with mild or moderate cases of COVID-19 and that it would seek Emergency Use Authorization for the drug In July 2021, Robert M  Davis became CEO, succeeding Kenneth Frazier, who became executive chairman In July 2021, Merck completed the corporate spin-off of Organon & Co In September 2021, Merck announced it would acquire Acceleron Pharma for $11 5 billion, gaining control over Sotatercept, used in the treatment of pulmonary hypertension, and luspatercept-aamt In September 2022, the company announced it would acquire Vence, a livestock management company for an undisclosed sum, incorporating it within Merck Animal Health In December 2022, the company announced a licensing deal with Kelun-Biotech of China whereby it would expand its early cancer pipeline with a set of antibody-drug conjugates; this follows an earlier agreement between the two companies to co-develop such drugs In April 2023, Merck announced it would acquire Prometheus Biosciences Inc for $10 8 billion 

Acquisition history
Philanthropy
Merck Company Foundation
Since it was founded in 1957, the Merck Company Foundation has distributed $740 million in overall charitable distributions including more than $480 million to educational and non-profit organizations On December 7, 2012, the foundation announced that it was ending its donations to the Boy Scouts of America citing its discrimination against gay people 

Patient assistance programs
Merck & Co  was one of the first American pharmaceutical companies to offer assistance to those unable to afford its medications, beginning a program in the 1950s  Merck & Co  offers seven patient assistance programs, each with specific eligibility requirements 

Hilleman Laboratories
Merck and the Wellcome trust jointly fund the Hilleman Laboratories, an India-based non-profit research organization dedicated to the development of low-cost vaccines for use in developing countries  Current projects include the development of low cost, thermostable vaccines for the prevention of cholera, rotavirus, and meningitis 

Merck for Mothers
Merck for Mothers is Merck's global initiative to help create a world where no woman has to die while giving life 

Mectizan donation program
In 1987, Merck began a program with UNICEF to donate its new drug Mectizan to "all that need it for as long as needed" in an effort to combat onchocerciasis, also known as river blindness, primarily in Africa  Up to that point, the World Health Organization had fought the disease through the use of insecticides to lower the population of its primary vector, the Black Fly  However, when studies in the 1980s showed how effective the drug was at treating and preventing the disease, the WHO agreed to use it instead of its previous strategies  Merck's involvement is considered a key factor in the success against the disease all over the world, and the decision to donate the entirety of the drug to all those in need of it is used as part of the Mectizan Donation Program that covers countries such as Yemen and African countries  More than 700 million people have been treated since the inception of the program with 80 million people still undergoing treatment in Africa, Latin America, and Yemen  Blindness caused by onchocerciasis is decreasing, and there are regions of Latin America and Africa that have been shown to have eliminated the disease altogether 

Lawsuits and controversies
Vioxx
In 1999, the U S  Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Vioxx (known generically as rofecoxib), a Merck product for treating arthritis  Vioxx was designed as a selective inhibitor of the enzyme cyclooxygenase-2  Such compounds were expected to cause less gastrointestinal bleeding than older anti-inflammatory drugs such as naproxen, which were associated with 20,000 hospitalizations and 2000 deaths each year  Vioxx became one of the most prescribed drugs in history Thereafter, studies by Merck and by others found an increased risk of heart attack associated with Vioxx use when compared with naproxen  Merck adjusted the labeling of Vioxx to reflect possible cardiovascular risks in 2002 On September 23, 2004, Merck received information about results from a clinical trial it was conducting that included findings of increased risk of heart attacks among Vioxx users who had been using the medication for over eighteen months  On September 28, 2004, Merck notified the FDA that it was voluntarily withdrawing Vioxx from the market, and it publicly announced the withdrawal on September 30  An analysis for the period 1999–2004, based on U S  Medical Expenditure Survey data, reported that Vioxx was associated with 46,783 heart attacks, and along with the other popular COX-2 inhibitor Celebrex, an estimated 26,603 deaths from both About 50,000 people sued Merck, claiming they or their family members had suffered medical problems such as heart attacks or strokes after taking Vioxx  In November 2007, Merck agreed to pay $4 85 billion to settle most of the pending Vioxx lawsuits  The settlement required that claimants provide medical and pharmacy records confirming the occurrence of a heart attack, ischemic stroke, or sudden cardiac death; the receipt of at least 30 Vioxx pills within 60 days prior to the injury or death; and confirmation of Vioxx being used within 14 days of the Vioxx-related event  The settlement was generally viewed by industry analysts and investors as a victory for Merck, considering that original estimates of Merck's liability reached between $10 billion and $25 billion  As of mid-2008, when the plaintiff class had reached the threshold percentage required by Merck to go through with the settlement, plaintiffs had prevailed in only three of the twenty cases that had reached juries, all with relatively small awards Merck has refused to consider compensation for Vioxx victims and their families outside the US  This is particularly true in the UK where there are at least 400 victims and the legal protection afforded to the victims and their families is particularly weak According to internal e-mail traffic released at a later lawsuit, Merck had a list of doctors critical of Vioxx to be "neutralized" or "discredited"  "We may need to seek them out and destroy them where they live," wrote an employee  A Stanford Medical School professor said that Merck was engaged in intimidation of researchers and infringement upon academic freedom On May 20, 2008, Merck settled for $58 million with 30 states alleging that Merck engaged in deceptive marketing tactics to promote Vioxx  All its new television pain-advertisements must be vetted by the Food and Drug Administration and changed or delayed upon request until 2018 

Fosamax
Fosamax (alendronate) is a bisphosphonate used for the treatment of post-menopausal osteoporosis and for the prevention of skeletal problems in certain cancers  The American College of Clinical Endocrinology, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the North American Menopause Society and the UK National Osteoporosis Guideline Group recommend alendronate and certain other bisphosphonates as first line treatments for post-menopausal osteopotosis  Long-term treatment with bisphosponates produces anti-fracture and bone mineral density effects that persist for 3–5 years after an initial 3–5 years of treatment  Alendronate reduces the risk of hip, vertebral, and wrist fractures by 35-39% In December 2013, Merck agreed to pay a total of $27 7 million to 1,200 plaintiffs in a class action lawsuit alleging that the company's osteoporosis drug had caused them to develop osteonecrosis of the jaw  Prior to the settlement, Merck had prevailed in 3 of 5 so-called bellwether trials  Approximately 4000 cases still await adjudication or settlement as of August 2014 

Medicaid overbilling
A fraud investigation by the United States Department of Justice began in 2000 when allegations were brought in two separate lawsuits filed by whistleblowers under the False Claims Act  They alleged that Merck failed to pay proper rebates to Medicaid and other health care programs and paid illegal remuneration to health care providers  On February 7, 2008, Merck agreed to pay more than $650 million to settle charges that it routinely overbilled Medicaid for its most popular medicines  The settlement was one of the largest pharmaceutical settlements in history  The federal government received more than $360 million, plus 49 states and Washington, DC, received over $290 million  One whistleblower received a $68 million reward  Merck made the settlement without an admission of liability or wrongdoing 

"Merck" name legal dispute
In 191 of 193 countries, the original Merck company, the Merck Group of Darmstadt, owns the rights to the "Merck" name  In the United States and Canada, the company trades under the name EMD (an abbreviation of Emanuel Merck, Darmstadt), its legal name here says Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany, and instead of "Merck Group", the "EMD Group" name is used  In the United States and Canada, Merck & Co  holds the rights to the trademark "Merck", while in the rest of the world the company trades under the name MSD (an abbreviation of Merck, Sharp & Dohme) and its legal name says here Merck Sharp & Dohme LLC , a subsidiary of Merck & Co , Inc  Kenilworth, NJ, USA 
In 2015 the Merck Group adopted a new logo and said it will be "much more aggressive" about protecting the brand of "the real Merck"  Merck of Darmstadt has initiated litigation against its former subsidiary, Merck & Co  (MSD) of Kenilworth, in several countries over infringing use of the Merck name  In 2016, the High Court of Justice in the United Kingdom ruled that MSD had breached an agreement with its former parent company and that only Merck of Darmstadt is entitled to use the Merck name in the United Kingdom  The judge also held that MSD's use of "Merck" as part of branding on its global websites were directed to the UK and infringed Merck's trade mark rights in the UK In response to the ruling, MSD initiated counter-litigation in the United States in January 2016 by filing a federal lawsuit which accused its former parent company of "infringing on its trademark" through actions that included the increased usage of "Merck KGaA" and "MERCK" in branding in the US as well as on its social media presence  Further Merck & Co  has also accused the Merck Group of federal trademark dilution, unfair competition, false advertising, deceptive trade practices, breach of contract, and cybersquatting  The case came to a head when a research scientist believed he was communicating with Merck & Co regarding a research grant in oncology, when in fact he was talking with the Merck Group  As a result, Merck & Co  asked the federal court to stop the Merck Group from using "Merck" on any products or marketing materials in the United States  As a direct result, Merck & Co is seeking "all monetary gains, profits, and advantages" made by the Merck Group and three-times the damage, plus additional punitive damages In April 2020, in the course of litigation of Merck against MSD in Switzerland, the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland ruled that MSD's use of the "Merck" brand in its global websites could, absent geotargeting mechanisms, have "commercial effect" in Switzerland and could therefore violate Merck's rights (if any) to the "Merck" brand in Switzerland 

Tax fraud
In 2007, Merck paid $2 3 billion to settle allegations of offshore tax fraud between 1993 and 2001 

Propecia
In 2021, an investigation by Reuters revealed that Merck's baldness drug Propecia caused persistent sexual dysfunction in men  The drug has been linked to over 700 incidences of suicidal thoughts and 110 deaths  Merck has been receiving reports since 1998, but never included the risks on the label  In 2015, Merck was sued by consumer-rights law firm Hagens Berman over a wrongful death linked to Propecia 

Environmental violations
Merck & Co  once used methylene chloride, an animal carcinogen on the United States Environmental Protection Agency's list of pollutants, as a solvent in some of its manufacturing processes  Merck chemists and engineers subsequently replaced the compound with others having fewer negative environmental effects  Merck has also modified its equipment to protect the environment, installing a distributed control system that coordinates chemical reactions more efficiently and expedites manufacturing by 50 percent, eliminating the need for the disposal and storage of harmful waste  Biological oxygen demand has also been reduced  In 2011, Merck paid a $1 5 million civil penalty to settle alleged violations of federal environmental laws at its pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities in Riverside, Pennsylvania and West Point, Pennsylvania 

Public-private engagement
Conferences
Merck was a Conference Supporter for the Virtual ISPOR Asia Pacific conference in September 2020 

Political lobbying
Merck is a contributing member of AcademyHealth, a health research advocacy network that also includes government agencies, universities, pharmaceutical companies and lobbying groups 
Passage 2:
American Laser Games
American Laser Games was a company based in Albuquerque, New Mexico that created numerous light gun laserdisc video games featuring live action full motion video  The company was founded in the late 1980s by Robert Grebe, who had originally created a system to train police officers under the company name ICAT (Institute for Combat Arms and Tactics) and later adapted the technology for arcade games  Its first hit game was Mad Dog McCree, a light gun shooter set in the American Old West  By mid-1995 they were recognized as the leading company in the medium of laserdisc-based arcade games  Almost all arcade games released by the company were light gun shooters and a number of them also had an Old West theme 
Later, the company turned toward compact disc technology to release its games  Ports of its arcade titles were released for the Sega CD, CD-i and DOS computers equipped with CD-ROM drives  The company was particularly supportive of the 3DO, not only releasing versions of its games for the console, but also offering a modified version of the 3DO platform as an upgrade kit for existing arcade video game cabinets, supporting compressed video versions of their games at a lower cost  In 1995, American Laser Games released Mazer for the 3DO home market and Orbatak (3DO-powered) for the arcade - their first and only in-house non-Full motion video based games  The company also released a series of light-gun controllers, including the 3DO Game Gun and the PC Gamegun, for home computer use  The latter proved unsuccessful due to its poor accuracy 
American Laser Games lasted until the mid-to-late 1990s, by which time it had begun making "games for girls" for the PC under the moniker Her Interactive, beginning with McKenzie & Co  In response to a major slump in the arcade industry, American Laser Games ended its direct manufacturing of coin-op machines in November 1995, and turned its focus to developing games for the Sega Saturn and Sony PlayStation  This failed to revive the company's fortunes, and revenues in 1996 were roughly half of the $16 million it generated in 1995  At the end of 1996 ALG laid off a third of its staff, Jan Claesson replaced Grebe as president, and the company began focusing primarily on the Her Interactive line, cancelling all the games in their mainstream line except for Shining Sword  The company eventually closed its doors and was bought out by Her Interactive, which had been spun off before ALG closing and is still making games as of January 2018  In 2000, the development and publishing rights to all of the games that were produced by American Laser Games were purchased by Digital Leisure, Inc from Her Interactive  Many of these games were then re-released for the PC and in DVD TV game format 

Games
Light gun arcade games
Mad Dog McCree (1990)
Who Shot Johnny Rock? (1991)
Space Pirates (1992)
Mad Dog II: The Lost Gold (1992)
Gallagher's Gallery (1992)
Crime Patrol (1993)
Crime Patrol 2: Drug Wars (1993)
The Last Bounty Hunter (1994)
Fast Draw Showdown (1994)
Shootout at Old Tucson (1994, limited arcade release  3DO port was cancelled)

Other games
Mazer
Way of the Warrior (with Naughty Dog)
Orbatak
McKenzie & Co 
McKenzie & Co  : More Friends
The Vampire Diaries
Battles in Time (with QQP)
Shining Sword (cancelled)
Blood Bath at Red Falls(1995)

See also
Digital Pictures

Notes
Passage 3:
Devon General
Devon General was the principal bus operator in south Devon from 1919  The name was first used by the Devon General Omnibus and Touring Company which was created in 1919  In 1922 it was purchased by the National Electric Construction Company which merged with British Electric Traction in 1931  Nationalisation in 1969 resulted in 1971 with the company being merged into Western National  In 1983 a new Devon General Limited was created which became the first operating subsidiary of the National Bus Company to be privatised in 1986 when it became the first company of Transit Holdings  It was sold to the Stagecoach Group in 1996 and renamed Stagecoach Devon in 2003 
Coaches were operated under various names, principally Fleet Cars from 1925 until 1933, and Grey Cars from 1932 until 1971 
Its main principal depots were in Exeter and Torquay, but the area of operation covered most of south, east and mid Devon 

History
The Devon General Omnibus and Touring Company started operations in south Devon in 1919 with two bus routes from Exeter to Torquay  In 1922 Torquay Tramways bought the company for £36,000, although it was operated as a subsidiary of the National Electric Construction Company (NECC) and the motor buses already owned by the tramway company were transferred to Devon General  Some charabanc tours had been operated by the Torquay Tramways and this continued under Devon General
Context 3: Passage 1:
Tommie Smith
Tommie C  Smith (born June 6, 1944) is an American former track and field athlete and former wide receiver in the American Football League  At the 1968 Summer Olympics, Smith, aged 24, won the 200-meter sprint finals and gold medal in 19 83 seconds – the first time the 20-second barrier was broken officially  His Black Power salute with John Carlos atop the medal podium to protest racism and injustice against African Americans in the United States caused controversy, as it was seen as politicizing the Olympic Games  It remains a symbolic moment in the history of the Black Power movement 

Early life and career
Tommie Smith was born on June 6, 1944, in Clarksville, Texas, the seventh of twelve children born to Richard and Dora Smith  He suffered from pneumonia as a child, but still grew to be an athletic youth  While attending Lemoore High School in Lemoore, California, Smith showed great potential, setting most of the school's track records, many of which remain  He won the 440-yard dash in the 1963 CIF California State Meet  He was voted Lemoore's "Most Valuable Athlete" in basketball, football, and track and field, and was also voted vice president of his senior class  His achievements earned him a scholarship to San José State University On May 7, 1966, while he was at San Jose State, Smith set a world best of 19 5 seconds in the 200m straight, which he ran on a cinder track  That record for 200m was finally beaten by Tyson Gay on May 16, 2010, just over 44 years later, though Smith still holds the record for the slightly longer 220-yard event  Since the IAAF has abandoned ratifying records for the event, Smith still retains the official record for the straightaway 200m/220 yards in perpetuity A few weeks later, on June 11, 1966, Smith set the record for 200 meters and 220 yards around a turn at 20 0, the first man to do that in 20 seconds  Six days later he won the NCAA Men's Outdoor Track and Field Championship  Smith also won the national collegiate 220-yard (201 17 m) title in 1967 before adding the AAU furlong (201 17m) crown as well  He traveled to Japan for the 1967 Summer Universiade and won the 200m gold medal  He repeated as U S  200m champion in 1968 and made the Olympic team 

1968 Summer Olympics
Leading up to the Olympics, at the U S  Olympic Trials at Echo Summit, California, San Jose State teammate John Carlos beat Smith and his world record, running 19 92A  John Carlos' record was disallowed because of the brush spike shoes he was wearing, as was a similar record by Vince Matthews in the 400 meters As a member of the Olympic Project for Human Rights (OPHR) Smith originally advocated a boycott of the 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games unless four conditions were met: South Africa and Rhodesia uninvited from the Olympics, the restoration of Muhammad Ali's world heavyweight boxing title, Avery Brundage to step down as president of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), and the hiring of more African-American assistant coaches  As the boycott failed to achieve support after the IOC withdrew invitations for South Africa and Rhodesia, he decided, together with Carlos, to not only wear their gloves but also go barefoot to protest poverty, wear beads to protest lynchings, and wear buttons that said OPHR At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico, Smith nursed an injured groin into the 200m final  In the race, teammate Carlos powered out to the lead through the turn, while Smith got a slow start  Coming off the turn, Smith charged past Carlos and sped to victory   Knowing he had passed his training partner and closest opponent, his victory was so clear, he raised his arms to celebrate 10m before the finish line  Still, he improved upon his own world record that would last for 11 years until Pietro Mennea would surpass it on the same track  Smith's time of 19 83 was among the first automatically timed world records for the event as recorded by the IAAF 

Carlos and Smith made headlines around the world by raising their black-gloved fists at the medal award ceremony  Both athletes wore black socks and no shoes on the podium to represent African-American poverty in the United States  In support, Peter Norman, the silver medalist who was a white athlete from Australia, participated in the protest by wearing an OPHR badge IOC president Avery Brundage deemed it to be a domestic political statement unfit for the apolitical, international forum the Olympic Games were intended to be  In response to their actions, he ordered Smith and Carlos suspended from the US team and banned from the Olympic Village  When the US Olympic Committee refused, Brundage threatened to ban the entire US track team  This threat led to the expulsion of the two athletes from the Games A spokesman for the IOC said Smith and Carlos's actions were "a deliberate and violent breach of the fundamental principles of the Olympic spirit " Brundage, who was president of the United States Olympic Committee in 1936, had made no objections against Nazi salutes during the Berlin Olympics  He argued that the Nazi salute, being a national salute at the time, was acceptable in a competition of nations, while the athletes' salute was not of a nation and therefore unacceptable Smith and Carlos faced consequences for challenging white authority in the U S  Ralph Boston, a black U S  long jumper at the 1968 games, stated: "The rest of the world didn't seem to find it such a derogatory thing  They thought it was very positive  Only America thought it was bad " The men's gesture had lingering effects for all three athletes, the most serious of which were death threats against Smith, Carlos and their families  Following their suspension by the IOC, they faced economic hardship Smith stated in later years that "We were concerned about the lack of black assistant coaches  About how Muhammad Ali got stripped of his title  About the lack of access to good housing and our kids not being able to attend the top colleges "

Athletics and later career
During his career, Smith set seven individual world records and also was a member of several world-record relay teams at San Jose State, where he was coached by Lloyd (Bud) Winter  With personal records of 10 1 for 100 meters, 19 83 for 200 and 44 5 for the 400, Smith still ranks high on the world all-time lists 
Smith, who had been drafted by the National Football League's Los Angeles Rams in the ninth round of the 1967 NFL Draft, signed to play for the American Football League's Cincinnati Bengals and was part of the team's taxi squad for most of three seasons as a wide receiver  During the 1969 season, he played in two games, catching one pass for 41 yards A year after his Olympic win, Smith finished his BA in Social Science at San Jose State University and went on to earn a master's in Social Change from Goddard College, whose program enabled Smith to integrate his teaching and writing practices into his coursework After his track and football careers, he became a member of the United States National Track and Field Hall of Fame in 1978  In 1996, Smith was inducted into the California Black Sports Hall of Fame, and in 1999 he received that organization's Sportsman of the Millennium Award  In 2000 and 2001 the County of Los Angeles and the State of Texas presented Smith with commendation, recognition and proclamation awards He later became a track coach at Oberlin College in Ohio, where he also taught sociology and until 2005 was a faculty member teaching physical education at Santa Monica College in Santa Monica, California In August 2008, he gave 2008 Olympic triple gold winner Usain Bolt of Jamaica one of his shoes from the 1968 Olympics as a birthday gift In 2010, Smith put his gold medal and spikes up for auction  Bids started at $250,000, and the sale was scheduled to close November 4, 2010  In 2013 Goddard College honored Smith as an alumnus by awarding him the Presidential Award for Activism in 2013 

Books
Smith's autobiography (co-written with David Steele), Silent Gesture was published in 2007 by Temple University Press  It was named a 2008 Adult Nonfiction Honor Book by the Black Caucus of the American Library Association and nominated for a 2008 NAACP Image Award 
Smith's second book Victory  Stand! Raising My Fist for Justice was published in 2022 by Norton Young Readers  The graphic memoir was co-written with Derrick Barnes and illustrated by Dawud Anyabwile  The book received literary acclaim  It won the 2023 YALSA Award for Excellence in Nonfiction and was recognized as a 2023 Corretta Scott King Award Author and Illustrator Honor Book as well as a finalist for the 2022 National Book Award for Young People's Literature 

Personal life
Smith first married Jimi Denise Paschal from 1967 to 1973, with whom he had one child  He then married Denise M  "Akiba" Kyle in 1977, with whom he had four children  The two divorced in 2000, and Smith married Delois Jordan in the same year 

Recognition
Tommie Smith is featured in the 1999 HBO documentary Fists of Freedom: The Story of the '68 Summer Games  The documentary looks at events leading up to, during and after the 1968 Olympics  It features interviews with Smith, Carlos and sociologist Harry Edwards  There is archival footage of the Games and the fallout after the raised fist salutes by Carlos and Smith  Smith says in the programme:
We were not Antichrists   We were just human beings who saw a need to bring attention to the inequality in our country   I don't like the idea of people looking at it as negative   There was nothing but a raised fist in the air and a bowed head, acknowledging the American flag – not symbolizing a hatred for it 
For his lifelong commitment to athletics, education, and human rights, Smith received the Courage of Conscience Award from The Peace Abbey in Sherborn, Massachusetts  In 2004, a sports hall bearing his name was inaugurated in his presence at Saint-Ouen, France In 2005, a statue showing Smith and Carlos on the medal stand was constructed by political artist Rigo 23 and dedicated on the campus of San Jose State University  Norman's silver medal position was left vacant at his request, so visitors could pose for photos in solidarity with Smith and Carlos, as Norman had stood A mural of the photo taken with Smith on the podium at the 1968 Olympics with Carlos and Norman was painted on the brick wall of a residence in Newtown, New South Wales, Australia, titled "Three Proud People Mexico 68"  The house's owner, Silvio Offria, allowed an artist known only as "Donald" to paint the mural, and said that Norman came to Newtown to see the mural and have his photo taken with it before he died in 2006  The mural faces the train tracks linking Sydney city to the Western and Southern Suburbs  In 2012, the Sydney City Council heritage listed the mural to safeguard it, after it had faced possible demolition in 2010 to make way for a railway tunnel  Smith and Carlos were pallbearers at Norman's funeral in Melbourne in 2006 On July 16, 2008, Smith and Carlos accepted the Arthur Ashe Award for Courage for the salute at the 2008 ESPY Awards  In 2018, Smith received the Dresden Peace Prize The Tommie Smith Youth Track Meet is held annually in his honor  It has been both an AAU and USATF-sponsored event, held at the University of California, Berkeley at Edwards Stadium  
San Jose State University has secured funding to rebuild the  track and field complex  The centerpiece is Speed City Legacy Center, which pays tribute to SJSU alumni track stars and civil rights advocates 

See also
Timeline of the civil rights movement
Bay Area Sports Hall of Fame
Other American Football League players
Men's 200 metres world record progression

Further reading
Bates, Karen Grigsby (October 16, 2018)  "50 Years Later, Raised Fists During National Anthem Still Resonate"  Morning Edition  NPR 
Brown, DeNeen (October 16, 2018)  "'A cry for freedom': The Black Power salute that rocked the world 50 years ago"  Washington Post 
Barra, Allan  "Fists Raised, but Not in Anger" The New York Times, August 22, 2008
Thomas, Katie  "For Australian Athletes, a Voice From the Grave" The New York Times May 23, 2008
"In-flight film will urge Olympians to protest", The Daily Telegraph, May 24, 2008
"Norman loses his spot in history", Sporting Life, October 17, 2005
"Norman dies after heart attack", Fox Sports, October 3, 2006
"Peter Norman, man on podium for Black Power salute, dies", USA Today, October 3, 2006
Reed, Ron  "Norman to receive a final salute", The Herald Sun, October 6, 2006
Hoy, Greg  "Fellow athletes pay tribute to Peter Norman", Australian Broadcasting Corporation, October 10, 2006
Blackistone, Kevin B , The Dallas Morning News, August 23, 2008 (Archived original "'68 protest more than a memory" at the Wayback Machine (archived July 1, 2001))
"Peter Norman dies after heart attack", The Age, October 3, 2006
"Bitter price of Olympics' iconic image", Sydney Morning Herald, October 17, 2003
Wise, Mike  "Clenched Fists, Helping Hand", The Washington Post, October 5, 2006
"Norman Remembered as an Unflinching Champion", The Australian, October 9, 2006
"Carlos, Smith act as pallbearers at funeral of podium mate from 1968 Olympics" at the Wayback Machine (archived March 11, 2007), MSNBC, October 9, 2006 (Archived original)
Rees, Margaret "Australian athlete supported American civil rights struggle", World Socialist Web Site, October 23, 2006
Passage 2:
Black Power: The Politics of Liberation
Black Power: The Politics of Liberation is a 1967 book co-authored by Kwame Ture (then known as Stokely Carmichael) and political scientist Charles V  Hamilton  The work defines Black Power, presents insights into the roots of racism in the United States and suggests a means of reforming the traditional political process for the future   Published originally as Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America, the book has become a staple work produced during the Civil Rights Movement and Black Power movement One of the main focuses of the book is describing the struggles that black communities faced in trying to get involved in politics   Black people had faced severe and violent discrimination since the Civil War, as well as segregation since the late nineteenth century  Consequently, the community faced problems with political participation as the community faced material consequences of systemic racism when attempting to vote or engaging with the political world   Carmichael and Hamilton cite white supremacy, colonialism, and the systemic continuation of these dynamics as drivers of disenfranchisement and racism These issues led to the creation of certain groups and organizations   For instance, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) attempted to build organizational capacity within the Southern black community, offering a progressive alternative to the Democratic Party in Mississippi that would adopt the national party's platform (see Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party)   By creating regional campaigns and running black candidates, SNCC saw success within their own community   However, with the limited power that this and other organizations held, their efforts to engage in the political arena for the black community were often not fully realized  This led the authors to reconceptualize Black Power as a tool for confronting the totality of oppression, not exclusively that of political representation 
Carmichael and Hamilton continue to write about the ways that black communities' attempts to be active in politics have been thwarted by self-serving groups who offer shallow allyship   Criticizing labor movements, liberals, and the middle class for being complacent in systemic racism, Black Power challenges coalitions to genuinely serve the anti-racism and the needs of the black community  Carmichael and Hamilton state, "We do not believe it is possible to form meaningful coalitions unless both or all parties are not only willing but believe it absolutely necessary to challenge [white supremacy] and other prevailing norms and institutions" Carmichael and Hamilton write that Black Power meant more than simply changing the physical, material conditions of inequality faced by black Americans; it also meant changing perspectives of race relations in a historical context, both inside and outside the community  The authors believe Black Power not only rests in dismantling white supremacy, but also in establishing camaraderie within the black community  In this way, Black Power disavows the legitimacy of liberal, conformist politics, and instead seeks a degree of sovereignty for black community 
Ohio prison library included Black Power in its list of books in 1975 

See also
Where Do We Go From Here: Chaos or Community
Passage 3:
African-American bookstores
African-American bookstores, also known as black bookstores, are bookstores owned and operated by African Americans   These stores often, although not always, specialize in works by and about African Americans and their target customers are often African Americans   Although they are a variety of African-American business, African-American bookstores have often been closely tied to radical political movements including Marxism, Black Power, and pan-Africanism  The first documented African-American bookstore was established by the abolitionist David Ruggles in 1834  The first African-American bookstore to open in Harlem was Young's Book Exchange  One of the earliest African-American bookstores to achieve national prominence was Lewis Michaux's African National Memorial Bookstore, which operated in Harlem from the early 1930s to the middle of the 1970s   Michaux's store doubled as a meeting place for black activists, including most famously Malcolm X   The Black Power movement embraced black-owned bookstores in the 1960s and 70s as vehicles for promoting their ideology and creating radical political spaces in black communities across the United States   By the 1990s, African-American bookstores earned significant attention from more politically moderate and business oriented media outlets such as the magazine Black Enterprise   In the 2000s and 2010s, however, as independent bookstores of all kinds declined and bookstores chains and Amazon increasingly sold black-authored books, the number of African-American bookstores declined rapidly, dropping from more than 250 to just over 70 Prominent black-owned booksellers currently in business include Marcus Books in Oakland, the oldest black bookseller in the country, Everyone's Place in Baltimore, Hakim's Bookstore in Philadelphia, Eso Won Books in Los Angeles (noted as "a Leimert Park institution of black literature and culture"), and Sankofa in Washington, D C Prominent online black booksellers include AALBC com (founded in 1998), Mahogany Books and Hue-Man Bookstore, which formerly had brick-and-mortar storefronts in Denver, Colorado, and in Harlem 

See also
Bookselling in the US
Antiquarian book trade in the United States
Books in the United States
Lewis H  Micheaux
Young's Book Exchange
Martin Sostre
David Ruggles
Passage 4:
Black Power movement
The Black Power movement or Black Liberation movement was a branch or counterculture within the civil rights movement of the United States, reacting against its more moderate, mainstream, or incremental tendencies and motivated by a desire for safety and self-sufficiency that was not available inside redlined African American neighborhoods  Black Power activists founded black-owned bookstores, food cooperatives, farms, media, printing presses, schools, clinics and ambulance services  The international impact of the movement includes the Black Power Revolution in Trinidad and Tobago By the late 1960s, Black Power came to represent the demand for more immediate violent action to counter American white supremacy  Most of these ideas were influenced by Malcolm X's criticism of Martin Luther King Jr 's peaceful protest methods  The 1965 assassination of Malcolm X, coupled with the urban riots of 1964 and 1965, ignited the movement  New organizations that supported Black Power philosophies ranging from the adoption of socialism by certain sects of the movement to black nationalism, including the Black Panther Party (BPP), grew to prominence While black American thinkers such as Robert F  Williams and Malcolm X influenced the early Black Power movement, the Black Panther Party and its views are widely seen as the cornerstone  It was influenced by philosophies such as pan-Africanism, black nationalism and socialism, as well as contemporary events including the Cuban Revolution and the decolonization of Africa 

History
Origins
The first popular use of the term "Black Power" as a social and racial slogan was by Stokely Carmichael (later known as Kwame Ture) and Willie Ricks (later known as Mukasa Dada), both organizers and spokespeople for the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee  On June 16, 1966, in a speech in Greenwood, Mississippi, during the March Against Fear, Carmichael led the marchers in a chant for Black power that was televised nationally The organization Nation of Islam began as a Black nationalist movement in the 1930s, inspiring later groups  Malcolm X is largely credited with the group's dramatic increase in membership between the early 1950s and early 1960s (from 500 to 25,000 by one estimate; from 1,200 to 50,000 or 75,000 by another)  In March 1964, Malcolm X left the Nation due to disagreements with Elijah Muhammad; among other things, he cited his interest in working with civil rights leaders, saying that Muhammad had prevented him from doing so  Later, Malcolm X also said Muhammad had engaged in extramarital affairs with young Nation secretaries‍—‌a serious violation of the group's teachings  On February 21, 1965, Malcolm X was shot and killed while speaking at the Audubon Ballroom in Washington Heights, New York City  Three Nation members were convicted of assassinating him  Despite this, there has long been speculation and suspicion of government involvement  The forty police officers at the scene were instructed to "stand down" by their commanding officers while the shooting took place After the Watts riots in Los Angeles in 1965, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee decided to cut ties with the mainstream civil rights movement  They argued that blacks needed to build power of their own, rather than seek accommodations from the power structure in place  SNCC migrated from a philosophy of nonviolence to one of greater militancy after the mid-1960s  The organization established ties with radical groups such as the Students for a Democratic Society 
In late October 1966, Huey P  Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party  In formulating a new politics, they drew on their experiences working with a variety of Black Power organizations 

Escalation in the late 1960s
The Black Panther Party initially utilized open-carry gun laws to protect party members and local black communities from law enforcement  Party members also recorded incidents of police brutality by distantly following police cars around neighborhoods  Numbers grew slightly starting in February 1967, when the party provided an armed escort at the San Francisco airport for Betty Shabazz, Malcolm X's widow and keynote speaker at a conference held in his honor  By 1967, the SNCC began to fall apart due to policy disputes in its leadership, and many members left for the Black Panthers  Throughout 1967, the Panthers staged rallies and disrupted the California State Assembly with armed marchers  In 1956 the FBI developed COINTELPRO to investigate black nationalist groups and others  By 1969, the Black Panthers and their allies had become primary COINTELPRO targets, singled out in 233 of the 295 authorized "black nationalist" COINTELPRO actions  In 1968, the Republic of New Afrika was founded, a separatist group seeking a black country in the southern United States, only to dissolve by the early 1970s 
By 1968, many Black Panther leaders had been arrested, including founder Huey Newton for the murder of a police officer (Newton's prosecution was eventually dismissed), yet membership surged  Black Panthers later engaged the police in a firefight in a Los Angeles gas station  In the same year, Martin Luther King Jr  was assassinated, creating nationwide riots, the widest wave of social unrest since the American Civil War  In Cleveland, Ohio, the "Republic of New Libya" engaged the police in the Glenville shootout, which was followed by rioting  The year also marked the start of the White Panther Party, a group of whites dedicated to the cause of the Black Panthers  Founders Pun Plamondon and John Sinclair were arrested, but eventually freed, in connection to the bombing of a Central Intelligence Agency office in Ann Arbor, Michigan that September By 1969, the Black Panthers began purging members due to fear of law enforcement infiltration, engaged in multiple gunfights with police and one with a black nationalist organization  The Panthers continued their "Free Huey" campaign internationally  In the spirit of rising militancy, the League of Revolutionary Black Workers was formed in Detroit, which supported labor rights and Black liberation  \

Peak in the early 1970s
In 1970 the Honorary Prime Minister of the Black Panther Party, Stokely Carmichael, traveled to various countries to discuss methods to resist "American imperialism"  In Trinidad, the Black Power Movement had escalated into the Black Power Revolution in which many Afro-Trinidadians forced the government of Trinidad to give into reforms  Later many Panthers visited Algeria to discuss Pan-Africanism and anti-imperialism  In the same year former Black Panthers formed the Black Liberation Army to continue a violent revolution rather than the party's new reform movements  On October 22, 1970, the Black Liberation Army is believed to have planted a bomb in St  Brendan's Church in San Francisco while it was full of mourners attending the funeral of San Francisco police officer Harold Hamilton, who had been killed in the line of duty while responding to a bank robbery  The bomb was detonated, but no one in the church suffered serious injuries In 1971, several Panther officials fled the U S  due to police concerns  This was the only active year of the Black Revolutionary Assault Team, a group that bombed the New York South African consular office in protest of apartheid  On September 20 it placed bombs at the UN Missions of Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa) and the Republic of Malawi  In February 1971, ideological splits within the Black Panther Party between leaders Newton and Eldridge Cleaver led to two factions within the party; the conflict turned violent and four people were killed in a series of assassinations  On May 21, 1971, five Black Liberation Army members participated in the shootings of two New York City police officers, Joseph Piagentini and Waverly Jones  Those brought to trial for the shootings include Anthony Bottom (also known as Jalil Muntaqim), Albert Washington, Francisco Torres, Gabriel Torres, and Herman Bell During the jail sentence of White Panther John Sinclair a "Free John" concert took place, including John Lennon and Stevie Wonder  Sinclair was released two days later  On August 29, three BLA members murdered San Francisco police sergeant John Victor Young at his police station  Two days later, the San Francisco Chronicle received a letter signed by the BLA claiming responsibility for the attack  Late in the year Huey Newton visited China for meetings on Maoist theory and anti-imperialism  Black Power icon George Jackson attempted to escape from prison in August, killing seven hostages only to be killed himself  Jackson's death triggered the Attica Prison uprising which was later ended in a bloody siege  On November 3, Officer James R  Greene of the Atlanta Police Department was shot and killed in his patrol van at a gas station by Black Liberation Army members 1972 was the year Newton shut down many Black Panther chapters and held a party meeting in Oakland, California  On January 27, the Black Liberation Army assassinated police officers Gregory Foster and Rocco Laurie in New York City  After the killings, a note sent to authorities portrayed the murders as a retaliation for the prisoner deaths during 1971 Attica prison riot  To date no arrests have been made    On July 31, five armed BLA members hijacked Delta Air Lines Flight 841, eventually collecting a ransom of $1 million and diverting the plane, after passengers were released, to Algeria  The authorities there seized the ransom but allowed the group to flee  Four were eventually caught by French authorities in Paris, where they were convicted of various crimes, but one – George Wright – remained a fugitive until September 26, 2011, when he was captured in Portugal  After being accused of murdering a prostitute in 1974, Huey Newton fled to Cuba  Elaine Brown became party leader and embarked on an election campaign 

De-escalation in the late 1970s
In the late 1970s a rebel group named after the killed prisoner formed the George Jackson Brigade  From March 1975 to December 1977, the Brigade robbed at least seven banks and detonated about 20 pipe bombs – mainly targeting government buildings, electric power facilities, Safeway stores, and companies accused of racism  In 1977, Newton returned from exile in Cuba  Shortly afterward, Elaine Brown resigned from the party and fled to Los Angeles  The Party fell apart, leaving only a few members MOVE developed in Philadelphia in 1972 as the "Christian Movement for Life", a communal living group based on Black Liberation principles  When police raided their house in 1978, a firefight broke out; during the shootout, one officer was killed, seven other police officers, five firefighters, three MOVE members, and three bystanders were also injured In another high-profile incident of the Black Liberation Army, Assata Shakur, Zayd Shakur and Sundiata Acoli were said to have opened fire on state troopers in New Jersey after being pulled over for a broken taillight  Zayd Shakur and state trooper Werner Foerster were both killed during the exchange  Following her capture, Assata Shakur was tried in six different criminal trials  According to Shakur, she was beaten and tortured during her incarceration in a number of different federal and state prisons  The charges ranged from kidnapping to assault and battery to bank robbery  Assata Shakur was found guilty of the murder of both Foerster and her companion Zayd Shakur, but escaped prison in 1979 and eventually fled to Cuba and received political asylum  Acoli was convicted of killing Foerster and sentenced to life in prison 
In 1978 a group of Black Liberation Army and Weather Underground members formed the May 19th Communist Organization, or M19CO  It also included members of the Black Panthers and the Republic of New Africa  In 1979 three M19CO members walked into the visitor's center at the Clinton Correctional Facility for Women near Clinton, New Jersey  They took two guards hostage and freed Shakur  Several months later M19CO arranged for the escape of William Morales, a member of Puerto Rican separatist group Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional Puertorriqueña from Bellevue Hospital in New York City, where he was recovering after a bomb he was building exploded in his hands 

Decline in the 1980s
Over the 1980s the Black Power movement continued despite a decline in its popularity and organization memberships  The Black Liberation Army was active in the US until at least 1981 when a Brinks truck robbery, conducted with support from former Weather Underground members Kathy Boudin and David Gilbert, left a guard and two police officers dead  Boudin and Gilbert, along with several BLA members, were subsequently arrested  M19CO engaged in a bombing campaign in the 1980s  They targeted a series of government and commercial buildings, including the U S  Senate  On November 3, 1984, two members of the M19CO, Susan Rosenberg and Timothy Blunk, were arrested at a mini-warehouse they had rented in Cherry Hill, New Jersey  Police recovered more than 100 blasting caps, nearly 200 sticks of dynamite, more than 100 cartridges of gel explosive, and 24 bags of blasting agent from the warehouse  The M19CO alliance's last bombing was on February 23, 1985, at the Policemen's Benevolent Association in New York City 
MOVE had relocated to West Philadelphia after the earlier shootout  On May 13, 1985, the police, along with city manager Leo Brooks, arrived with arrest warrants and attempted to clear the MOVE building and arrest the indicted MOVE members  This led to an armed standoff with police, who lobbed tear gas canisters at the building  MOVE members shot at the police, who returned fire with automatic weapons  The police then bombed the house, killing several adults and children, and causing a large fire that destroyed the better part of a city block In 1989, well into the waning years of the movement, the New Black Panther Party formed  In the same year on August 22, Huey P  Newton was fatally shot outside by 24-year-old Black Guerilla Family member Tyrone Robinson 

Characteristics
Education
The fifth point of the Black Panther Party's Ten-Point Program called for "education for our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society  We want education that teaches us our true history and our role in the present day society " This sentiment was echoed in many of the other Black Power organizations; the inadequacy of black education had earlier been remarked on by W  E  B  Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, and Carter G  Woodson 
With this backdrop, Stokely Carmichael brought political education into his work with SNCC in the rural South  This included get-out-the-vote campaigns and political literacy  Bobby Seale and Huey Newton used education to address the lack of identity in the black community  Seale had worked with youth in an after-school program before starting the Panthers  Through this new education and identity building, they believed they could empower black Americans to claim their freedom 

Media
Just as Black Power activists focused on community control of schools and politics, the movement took a major interest in creating and controlling its own media institutions  Most famously, the Black Panther Party produced the Black Panther newspaper, which proved to be one of the BPP's most influential tools for disseminating its message and recruiting new members 
WAFR was launched in September 1971 as the first public, community-based black radio station  The Durham, North Carolina, station broadcast until 1976, but influenced later activist radio stations including WPFW in Washington, D C  and WRFG in Atlanta 

Australian Black Power
The American Black Power movement influenced Aboriginal Australian activists from the late 1960s onwards, especially in Sydney, Brisbane and Melbourne  The term became widely known after the Victorian Aborigines Advancement League (AAL), led by Bruce McGuinness and Bob Maza, invited Caribbean activist Roosevelt Brown to give a talk on Black Power in Melbourne in 1968, causing a media frenzy  The AAL was influenced by the ideas of Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael  The Australian "Black Power movement" had emerged in Redfern in Sydney, Fitzroy, Melbourne, and South Brisbane, following the "Freedom Ride" led by  Charles Perkins in 1965  There was a small group of people at the centre of the movement known as the Black Caucus Bobbi Sykes defined Australian Black Power as "The power generated by people who seek to identify their own problems and those of the community as a whole, and who strive to take action in all possible forms to solve those problems", while Paul Coe saw it as the need for Aboriginal people to "take control both of the economical, the political and cultural resources of the people and of the land…so that they themselves have got the power to determine their own future"  Activist and later academic Gary Foley later wrote that in Australia, Black Power "was essentially about the necessity for Black people to define the world in their own terms, and to seek self-determination and independence on their own terms, without white interference"  The Aboriginal Legal Service in Redfern grew out of this activism 

Legacy
After the 1970s the Black Power movement saw a decline, but not an end  In 1998, the Black Radical Congress was founded, with debatable effects  The Black Riders Liberation Party was created by Bloods and Crips gang members as an attempt to recreate the Black Panther Party in 1996  The group has spread, creating chapters in cities across the United States, and frequently staging paramilitary marches  During the 2008 presidential election New Black Panther Party members were accused of voter intimidation at a polling station in a predominantly black, Democratic voting district of Philadelphia  After the killing of Trayvon Martin black power paramilitaries formed, including the Huey P  Newton Gun Club, African American Defense League, and the New Black Liberation Militia, all staging armed marches and military training Some have compared the modern movement Black Lives Matter to the Black Power movement, noting its similarities  The Movement for Black Lives openly promotes Black Power 

See also
Black mecca
Black nationalism
Black Panther Party
Black supremacy
Black separatism
Chicano Movement
History of the socialist movement in the United States
New Left
Black Arts Movement
Protests of 1968
Red Power movement
Los Siete de la Raza
Passage 5:
Hakim Jamal
Hakim Abdullah Jamal (born Allen Donaldson; March 28, 1931 – May 1, 1973) was an American activist and writer  He was an associate of Michael X and wrote From the Dead Level, a memoir of his life and memories of Malcolm X  During his life, Jamal was romantically involved with several high-profile women, notably Jean Seberg, Diana Athill, and Gale Benson 

Early life
Donaldson was born in Roxbury, Boston, in 1931  His father was an alcoholic, and his mother abandoned him when he was 6  Donaldson started regularly drinking alcohol when he was aged 10 and became a heroin user at 14  In his early 20s he spent four years in prison Donaldson's violent temper led to his committal to a mental asylum, after two attempted murders  He later underwent a conversion to the teachings of the Nation of Islam and renamed himself Hakim Jamal  He became a spokesman for the movement and contributed articles to various newspapers promoting Black Power  After Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam, Jamal supported his decision and was outspoken in his criticism of Elijah Muhammad 

Founding US Organization
After Malcolm X's death, Jamal joined with Maulana Karenga and others to found "US", an organization to promote African-American cultural unity  He had already circulated a self-produced magazine entitled "US", a pun on the phrase "us and them" and the accepted abbreviation of "United States"  This promoted the idea of black cultural unity as a distinct national identity  Jamal and Karenga published a magazine Message to the Grassroot in 1966, in which Karenga was listed as chairman and Jamal as founder of the new group  Jamal argued that the ideas of Malcolm X should be the main ideological model for the group However, Jamal's views increasingly differed from Karenga's  Jamal continued to emphasise his cousin's radical politics, while Karenga wished to root black Americans in African culture  Jamal saw no point in projects such as teaching Swahili and promoting traditional African rituals  He left "US" to establish the Malcolm X Foundation, based in Compton, California 

Relationships
Though married to fellow-activist Dorothy Jamal, Jamal had several significant affairs  He had a brief relationship with actress Jean Seberg  His wife phoned Seberg's father to try to bring an end to the affair Jamal moved to London during the late 1960s where he met Gale Benson, daughter of the British MP Leonard Plugge 
The writer V  S  Naipaul described Benson as Jamal's "white-woman slave " Jamal and Benson traveled in America seeking funds for a project to create a Montessori school for black children  Following an unsuccessful attempt to establish a commune in Guyana with the young German radical Herbert Girardet, the couple later joined West Indian Black Power leader Michael X at his commune in Trinidad, where Jamal wrote articles in support of Michael's activities 

Gale Benson murder
Benson traveled once again to America to raise funds for the school, but was unsuccessful  Shortly after her return to Trinidad in 1972, she was murdered by Michael X and his associates  Jamal was not a suspect, but it was alleged that Michael X had ordered her death because she was causing "mental strain" to Jamal In 1971, Jamal wrote his autobiography, From the Dead Level: Malcolm X and Me  It was published in the UK by André Deutsch and at this time Jamal became involved in a relationship with his London editor, Diana Athill  She later wrote about their romance in her memoir Make Believe, recording his increasing mental instability and alleged that he made repeated assertions that he was God Jamal eventually returned to his wife and moved back to Boston, where he revived his role as director of the Malcolm X Foundation 

Death
On May 1, 1973, Jamal was killed when four men burst into his apartment in Boston and shot him repeatedly  Police attributed the crime to a factional dispute, linked to Jamal's attacks on Elijah Muhammad  It was blamed on a group known as De Mau Mau  Five members of the group were convicted of involvement in the murder 

In popular culture
Jamal is a character in the 2008 film The Bank Job, in which he is played by Colin Salmon 
In the Jean Seberg biopic Seberg from 2019, he is played by Anthony Mackie 

Notes
Further reading
Athill, Diana (2004) [1993]  Make Believe: A True Story  London: Granta  ISBN 978-1-86207-708-9 
Jamal, Hakim A  (1972)  From The Dead Level: Malcolm X and Me  New York: Random House  ISBN 978-0-394-46234-9 

External links
"Hakim Jamal (centre), Portobello Road", 1971 photograph by Charlie Phillips  V&A collection 
FBI Docs Hakim Jamal FBI file as well as inventory of other FBI files on Jamal held by the National Archives II
Passage 6:
Etheridge Knight
Etheridge Knight (April 19, 1931 – March 10, 1991) was an African-American poet who made his name in 1968 with his debut volume, Poems from Prison   The book recalls in verse his eight-year-long sentence after his arrest for robbery in 1960   By the time he left prison, Knight had prepared a second volume featuring his own writings and works of his fellow inmates  This second book, first published in Italy under the title Voce negre dal carcere, appeared in English in 1970 as Black Voices from Prison  These works established Knight as one of the major poets of the Black Arts Movement, which flourished from the early 1960s through the mid-1970s  With roots in the Civil Rights Movement, Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam, and the Black Power Movement, Etheridge Knight and other American artists within the movement sought to create politically engaged work that explored the African-American cultural and historical experience Knight is also considered an important poet in the mainstream American tradition  In his 2012 book Understanding Etheridge Knight, Michael S  Collins calls Knight "a mighty American poet    He and Wallace Stevens stand as 'two poles of American poetry,' according to his better-known fellow writer Robert Bly  Or, rather, Knight was, as he often said, a poet of the belly: a poet of the earth and of the body, a poet of the feelings from which cries and blood oaths and arias come, while Stevens was a poet, arguably, of the ache left in the intellect after it tears itself from God  'Ideas are not the source of poetry,' Knight told one interviewer  'For me it's passion, heart and soul    '"

Biography
Knight was born on April 19, 1931, as one of eight children to Belzora Cozart  Knight and Etheridge "Bushie" Knight in rural Corinth, Mississippi, but moved with his family to Paducah, Kentucky, where his father, a failed farmer, worked as a laborer on the Kentucky Dam  During this time, Knight frequently ran away from home, and so, was sent back to Corinth during the summer to stay with an uncle  Although he was an extremely bright student, Knight decided to drop out of school at the age of 16  His first job was as a shoe shiner in a small Kentucky town, where he first became more attuned to nuances of language as he absorbed the world and activity around him  In addition to his work, Knight spent much of his time at juke joints, pool halls, and underground poker games, which furthered his interest in language  It was during this time that Knight became exposed to "toasts," which are narrative-style oral poetry which relates a story  In 1947, Knight enlisted in the army and served as a medical technician in the Korean War until November 1950, during which time he sustained serious wound as well as psychological trauma, which led him to begin using morphine  By the time Knight was discharged from the army and returned to Indianapolis, Indiana, where his family had moved, he had become addicted to opiates  He spent much of the next several years dealing drugs and stealing to support his drug addiction In 1960, after a few previous run-ins with the police, Knight and two of his associates were arrested for armed robbery  Knight was initially so furious about his sentence that he was later unable to recall much of what happened during his first few months of his sentence  But after realizing that such anger was counterproductive, he turned his attention to reading as much as he could and dedicated himself to poetry During the following years, Knight became increasingly well known for his poetry writings  After working as a journalist for prison publications, he began submitting poetry to the Negro Digest in 1965   He also started establishing contacts with significant figures in the African-American literary community, including well-known poets like Gwendolyn Brooks, Dudley Randall, Sonia Sanchez and Haki Madhubuti, many of whom came to visit him in prison  The poems he had written during his time in prison were so effective that Dudley Randall, a poet and owner of Broadside Press, published Knight’s first volume of verse, Poems from Prison, and hailed Knight as one of the major poets of the Black Arts Movement  The book’s publication coincided with his release from prison 
Upon his release from prison in 1968, Knight married poet Sonia Sanchez  Over the next few years, he held the position of writer-in-residence at several universities, including two years, 1968 and 1969, spent at the University of Pittsburgh  While living in Pittsburgh with his wife and their family, Knight spent time as poetry editor for Motive magazine  Because of his ongoing drug addiction, his marriage to Sanchez did not last long, and they were divorced in 1970 while still in Pittsburgh  He continued writing his third book, Belly Song and Other Poems, which was published in 1973  His third work incorporates new life experiences and attitudes about love and race, and Knight was praised for the work’s sincerity  Belly Song was nominated for the National Book Award and the Pulitzer Prize  Knight’s time in Pennsylvania was very important to his career: his work during this period won him both a National Endowment for the Arts grant in 1972 and a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1974 
He married Mary McAnally in 1972, and she adopted two children  They settled in Minneapolis, Minnesota, until they separated in 1977  He then resided in Memphis, Tennessee, where he received Methadone treatments  Knight rose from a life of poverty, crime, and drug addiction to become exactly what he expressed in his notebook in 1965: a voice that was heard and helped his people 
Knight continued to write throughout his post-prison life  Belly Song and Other Poems (1973) dealt with themes of racism and love  Knight believed the poet was a "meddler" or intermediary between the poem and the reader  He elaborated on this concept in his 1980 work Born of a Woman  The Essential Etheridge Knight (1986), which is a compilation of his work 
In 1990, he earned a bachelor's degree in American poetry and criminal justice from Martin Center University in Indianapolis  Knight taught at the University of Pittsburgh, the University of Hartford, and Lincoln University, before he was forced to stop working due to illness  He also continued to be known as a charismatic poetry reader  Knight died in Indianapolis, Indiana, of lung cancer on March 10, 1991 

Style and themes
Knight’s poetry uses Black vernacular and includes a number of haiku among its forms, including this poem titled ″Vigo County″: ″Beyond the brown hill / Above the silent cedars, / Blackbirds flee the April rains ″  This message aligns with the Black Arts Movement in that the artists were no longer going to be imprisoned by silence; they would use their voices and art to escape 
Joyce Ann Joyce places Knight "in the context of an African philosophical/aesthetic tradition " His "tribute to the ancestors," she writes, "emerges as a ritualistic drama in which the values of the poet's ancestors are reborn, redefined, reaffirmed and reinterpreted, at once giving them added viability and sacralizing their new form " This ethnophilosophical perspective, she finds, "differs significantly from the Eurocentric concept of intertextuality that confines itself to reading texts only within the context of other texts ” Joyce calls him “a truly African oral performer," whose subjects "grew out of his and his people's lives" so that "viewed in the context of an African philosophical/aesthetic tradition, his poetry places him among those at the vanguard of any discussion of the history of African-American poetic letters " In his poem, ″Cell Song″ Knight articulates his desire to create good from his time in prison  He speaks to himself:
Night Music Slanted
Light strike the cave of sleep  I alone
tread the red circle
and twist the space with speech
Come now, etheridge, don't
be a savior; take your words and scrape
the sky, shake rain
on the desert, sprinkle
salt on the tail
of a girl,
can there anything
good come out of
prisonKnight places the reader within the cell; he capitalizes the first three words to show emphasis – this is not actual music, but the quiet and intermittent noises expected to be heard at night in prison  In the dark and light of the "red circle," he paces and ruminates over the words and ideas in his head  He attempts to project to that life beyond the prison walls, to use his talents for good, to use his words to make an impact  The reader can imagine Knight walking in small circles within his cell, as the words of the poem wind tighter and tighter  He concludes rather than questions that ″good″ can ″come out of prison ″
His exploration of themes of freedom and imprisonment, including his tributes to Martin Luther King Jr  and Malcolm X, are noted in a biographical study by Cassie Premo, who writes that his life and work dwell on "the theme of prisons imposed from without (slavery, racism, poverty, incarceration) and prisons from within (addiction, repetition of painful patterns) [which] are countered with the theme of freedom  His poems of suffering and survival, trial and tribute, loss and love testify to the fact that we are never completely imprisoned  Knight's poetry expresses our freedom of consciousness and attests to our capacity for connection to others ”In his prison-era poem, "The Warden Said to Me the Other Day," Knight "limns his feelings of emotional, imaginative, and perceptual confinement "The warden said to me the other day
(innocently, I think), "Say etheridge,
why come the black boys don't run off
like the white boys do?"
I lowered my jaw and scratched my head
And said (innocently, I think), "Well, suh,
I ain't for sure, but I reckon it's cause
We ain't got no wheres to run to "Written in a vernacular style reminiscent of a tale by Uncle Remus, Knight expresses the doubtfulness of black autonomy and white motives, for "Knight[sees] American as a prison where, no matter how benevolent a warden wishes to be, his gestures remain part of what locks his charges in " Knight's true prison, then, is the ways in which the Law, controlled by white America, imprisons black bodies and black voices, regardless of their presumed physical freedom 
Knight's poem, ″A WASP Woman Visits a Black Junkie in Prison″ shows how humans must only find a common interest to make a connection, in this case, both the black man and white woman have children  According to Premo, the "encounter leaves the man touched and softened by the woman, as are many of Knight's male speakers  In ″Belly Song,″ the speaker "sings of love: all the emotion, pain, memory, and passion of living ″  In ″The Stretching of the Belly," Knight contrasts the stretchmarks of his third wife, Charlene Blackburn with his own scars  His wife's representing ″growth and life″ while his are from ″war, violence, and slavery ″

Works
Poems from Prison  Detroit: Broadside Press, 1968 
2 Poems for Black Relocation Centers, 1968 
The Idea of Ancestry, 1968 
Black Voices from Prison (with others)  New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970 
A Poem for Brother Man, 1972 
For Black Poets Who Think of Suicide, 1972 
Belly Song and Other Poems  Detroit: Broadside Press, 1973 
Born of a Woman: New and Selected Poems  Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980 
The Essential Etheridge Knight  Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1986 
The Lost Etheridge  Athens: Kinchafoonee Creek Press, 2022 
Passage 7:
Rainbow Coalition (Fred Hampton)
The Rainbow Coalition was an antiracist, anticlass multicultural movement founded April 4, 1969 in Chicago, Illinois by Fred Hampton of the Black Panther Party, along with William "Preacherman" Fesperman of the Young Patriots Organization and José Cha Cha Jiménez, founder of the Young Lords  It was the first of several 20th century black-led organizations to use the "rainbow coalition" concept Some members of the Young Patriots included Jack (Junebug) Boykin, Bobby Joe Mcginnis and Hy Thurman who worked with Field Marshall Bobby Lee of the Black Panthers  Hampton first met Jimenez in Chicago's Lincoln Park neighborhood the day after the Young Lords were in the news, having occupied the police community workshop meeting of the 18th District Police Station  Hampton was arrested twice in February 1969 with Jimenez at the Wicker Park Welfare Office  Both were charged with Mob Action during peaceful pickets of the welfare office protesting mistreatment of the patrons 
The Rainbow Coalition soon included various radical socialist community groups like the Lincoln Park Poor People's Coalition, later, the coalition was joined nationwide by the Students for a Democratic Society ("SDS"), the Brown Berets, the American Indian Movement and the Red Guard Party  In April 1969, Hampton called several press conferences to announce that this "Rainbow Coalition" had formed  Some of the things the coalition engaged in joint action against were poverty, corruption, racism, police brutality, and substandard housing  The participating groups supported each other at protests, strikes, and demonstrations where they had a common cause The coalition later included many other local groups like Rising Up Angry, and Mothers and Others  The Coalition also brokered treaties to end crime and gang violence  Hampton, Jimenez and their colleagues believed that the Richard J  Daley Democratic Party machine in Chicago used gang wars to consolidate their own political positions by gaining funding for law enforcement and dramatizing crime rather than underlying social issues The coalition eventually collapsed under duress from constant harassment by local and federal law enforcement, including the murder of Hampton 

History
Black nationalism changed around 1964-65 with Dr  Martin Luther King, Jr , began to radicalize his movement as he came to understand the importance of the ballot box, or electoral politics for social change  Malcolm X suggested that a mass convention could potentially help them decide between what he called a Black party and a Black army  While this specific convention never came to fruition, Malcolm X focused his energy on creating an intelligence for a Black political power  He came to understand it would be more difficult than he initially thought Malcolm X spent the last year of his life strategizing how to increase voter participation and provide widespread political education  At the same time, Dr  King was getting more militant  He believed they should have addressed political power previously, that Black people needed to be in power to address Black issues  He thought organizations needed to stop fighting and unite because they have a responsibility to the movement  It was important to not just increase Black votes but also to put their voices in powerful places 

Formation
Chicago was very segregated, separated by whites, Puerto Ricans, and blacks  Following the release of West Side Story, Puerto Ricans started dying their clothes purple, and that became their “colors " It was very difficult to get a job in Chicago, some would donate blood because that was the only way they could bring in a profit  Students for a Democratic Society came in and formed a JOIN Jobs or Income Now, and introduced the civil rights movement, which started the progress for change  When the west and south side of Chicago combined it was the largest contiguous area of 90 or more percent black population in the world outside of Africa  Mayor Daley used virtually every instrument of government he could to keep Chicago segregated  He served as mayor from 1955 to 1976  At his peak, he was the “most powerful and most influential urban figure in America ” Martin Luther King Jr  believed that southwest Chicago was a closed society in terms of race  The “white flight” went to the suburbs to flee the minorities coming into the communities, and Mayor Daley wanted to bring them back into the city  “Urban renewal was a racist plan, and was supported by the federal government with funds ”  Some of the activists in the Puerto Rican community came across a Community Conservation Council meeting in their community, and inside there were models of the city with the Puerto Rican areas of the city being vacant, and the meeting was run by about 12 white men  So the activists said they had to hold these meetings with some representatives from different minorities if they wanted to continue to hold meetings in that venue  When the representatives refused, the Puerto Ricans picked up chairs and started throwing them around, and ended up shutting down the Department of Urban Renewal for about three months 
Police brutality really started to take off during this point  The police had a bench with the handcuffs on the side so they could cuff you, and beat you with whatever they wanted to hit you with as long as they didn’t leave any marks  Many minorities would get beat up before they ever even got into jail, and there was nothing they could do about it  Following Martin Luther King Jr ’s assassination, Daley showed his power through the force of his police during the Democratic Convention in 1968  Daley stated on broadcast, “Shoot to kill any arsonists, or anyone with a molotov cocktail in their hand in Chicago”  This caused the Young Lords to transform from a gang into a human rights movement  “The mission was self-determination for Puerto Rico  That meant that we were powerful as a people, and as a nation, to promote a sense of pride for being Puerto Rican ” The mission also included being patriotic to the community, not to the system  The demands of the people included, freedom, the power to determine individual destiny, true education, decent housing, fair trials with a jury of their peers, and an end to police brutality 
Fred Hampton was someone everyone in the community respected  The Black Panthers attended a community meeting with the JOIN organization in Uptown and asked where they could help in the community  At this point however, there were still many suspicions about the Panthers and their gun-carrying terrorist reputation  However, by showing they were dedicated to the community, the Panthers gained the trust of the JOIN organization, and the coalition started to take shape  In March, 1969, the community went to the 18th District police station and performed a non-violent takeover of a police workshop meeting  The next day, the Panthers met Fred Hampton  Shortly after, the first official Rainbow Coalition meeting was held  “The Rainbow Coalition was about uniting communities so we could make revolutionary change ” The Coalition also started a free health clinic, which ran from 1969 to 1975 (Pien)  The police department’s Gang Intelligence Unit formed a Panther squad, which would perform raids on the party, and often end up with Panther members and associates being incarcerated  Reverend Bruce Johnson was the pastor of Armitage Avenue United Methodist Church, which became the headquarters of the Young Lords  Following this partnership, the city of Chicago began to attack Reverend Johnson, and fined him $200 for every day the Young Lords were in the church  In Oakland, California, in July 1969, a three day conference was held called the Conference for a United Front Against Fascism  Shortly after this conference, Reverend Johnson and his wife were brutally murdered  Because of this, the Black Panther party started to defend themselves from the police raids, and there were shootings that followed The original rainbow coalition was the idea of Fred Hampton and other Black Panther Party leaders  They saw the Young Lords and Young Patriots as established groups in their designated communities  The people that lived in Lawndale, Lincoln Park, and Uptown were treated and governed as crippling to the city as a whole  It was also difficult for these people to find jobs in the post World War II era as they were looked at as an unwanted part of the population by employers  As these groups came together in the rainbow coalition it gave them more of a voice to fight with  Each of these groups wanted to help their people and work to get rid of the discrimination against them  Coming together helped these groups have more of an effect on local government and policies  It also gave their people the feeling of having a larger community that knew what each other were fighting 

Legacy
The phrase "rainbow coalition" was co-opted over the years by Reverend Jesse Jackson, who eventually appropriated the name in forming his own, more moderate coalition, Rainbow/PUSH  Some scholars, including Peniel Joseph, assert that the original rainbow coalition concept was a prerequisite for the multicultural coalition that Barack Obama built his political career upon Jeffrey Haas, a lawyer who represented the BPP after Hampton's assassination, praised some of Hampton's politics, stating that his work in unifying movements are things one can learn from him  However, Haas was critical towards the way Hampton ran the BPP hierarchical organization  Haas praised the horizontal structure of Black Lives Matter stating: "They may also have picked up on the vulnerability of a hierarchal movement where you have one leader, which makes the movement very vulnerable if that leader is imprisoned, killed, or otherwise compromised  I think the fact that Black Lives Matter says, 'We're leader-full, not leaderless,' perhaps makes them less vulnerable to this kind of government assault "

See also
Political history of Chicago
Passage 8:
Maulana Karenga
Maulana Ndabezitha Karenga (born Ronald McKinley Everett, July 14, 1941), previously known as Ron Karenga, is an American activist, author, convicted felon and professor of Africana studies, best known as the creator of the pan-African and African-American holiday of Kwanzaa 
Born in Parsonsburg, Maryland, to an African-American family, Karenga studied at Los Angeles City College and the University of California, Los Angeles  He was active in the Black Power movement of the 1960s, joining the Congress of Racial Equality and Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee  In 1965, Karenga and Hakim Jamal co-founded the black nationalist group US Organization, which became involved in violent clashes with the Black Panther Party by 1969  In 1971, he was convicted of felony assault, torture, and false imprisonment of women  He denied involvement and claimed the prosecution was political in nature  Karenga was imprisoned in California Men's Colony until he received parole in 1975 In 1966, Karenga notably created Kwanzaa, modeling the holiday after the African "first fruit" traditions  The rituals of the holiday promote African traditions, including the "seven principles of African heritage"  During the early years of Kwanzaa, Karenga said it was meant to be a black alternative to Christmas  Karenga, a secular humanist, challenged the sanity of Jesus and declared Christianity a "White religion" that black people should shun  However, Karenga later changed his opinion, stating that Kwanzaa was not meant to provide people with an alternative to "their own religion or religious holiday "Karenga has been awarded two doctorates, one in Political Science in 1976 and one in Social Ethics in 1994  He currently chairs the Africana Studies Department at California State University, Long Beach and has authored several books 

Early life
Karenga was born in Parsonsburg, Maryland, the 14th child and seventh son in the family  His father was a tenant farmer and Baptist minister who employed the family to work fields under an effective sharecropping arrangement  Karenga moved to Los Angeles in 1959, joining his older brother who was a teacher there, and attended Los Angeles City College  He became active with civil rights organizations Congress of Racial Equality and Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, took an interest in African studies, and was elected as LACC's first African-American student president After earning his associate degree, he matriculated from the University of California, Los Angeles and earned BA and MA degrees in political science  He studied Swahili, Arabic, and other African-related subjects  Among his influences at UCLA were Jamaican anthropologist and Negritudist Councill Taylor, who contested the Eurocentric view of alien cultures as primitive  During this period, he took the name Karenga (Swahili for "keeper of tradition") and the title Maulana (Swahili-Arabic for "master teacher") 

1960s activism
US Organization
The Watts riots broke out when Karenga was a year into his doctoral studies  The Black Congress ("BC") was formed as a community-rebuilding organization in the aftermath  Within the BC, a discussion group centered on black nationalist ideas, called the Circle of Seven, was formed, which included Hakim Jamal (a cousin of Malcolm X) and Karenga  The group published US Magazine (meaning "Us black people") and in 1966 formed an organization called US  The organization joined in several community revival programs and was featured in press reports  Karenga cited Malcolm X's Afro-American Unity program as an influence on US Organization's work:

Malcolm was the major African American thinker that influenced me in terms of nationalism and Pan-Africanism  As you know, towards the end, when Malcolm is expanding his concept of Islam, and of nationalism, he stresses Pan-Africanism in a particular way  And he argues that, and this is where we have the whole idea that cultural revolution and the need for revolution, he argues that we need a cultural revolution, he argues that we must return to Africa culturally and spiritually, even if we can't go physically  And so that's a tremendous impact on US 
Karenga soon diverged from Malcolm X's ideas on Black nationalism and took US in a direction more focused on promoting African culture  Jamal and other adherents to Malcolm X's ideas left the group As racial disturbances spread across the country, Karenga appeared at a series of Black power conferences, joining other groups in urging the establishment of a separate political structure for African Americans  US developed a youth component with paramilitary aspects called the Simba Wachanga, which advocated and practiced community self-defense and service to the masses In 1966, Karenga founded the newspaper Harambee, which started as a newsletter for US and eventually became the newspaper for the Los Angeles Black Congress, an umbrella organization for several groups During the late 1960s, US Organization became bitter rivals with the Black Panther Party over their differing views on Black nationalism  The Federal Bureau of Investigation intensified this antipathy as part of its COINTELPRO operations, sending forged letters to each group which purported to be from the other group, so that each would believe that the other was publicly humiliating them  The rivalry came to a climax during 1969, with a series of armed confrontations and retaliatory shootings that left four Panthers dead, and more injured on both sides  A memorandum of the Los Angeles field office of the FBI dated May 26, 1970, confirmed that the surge of conflict suited their objectives and more would be encouraged:

"It is intended that US, Inc  will be discreetly and appropriately advised of the time and locations of BPP activities in order that the two organizations might be brought together and thus grant nature the opportunity to take her due course "
According to Louis Tackwood, a former informant with the Los Angeles Police Department's Criminal Conspiracies Section and author of The Glass House Tapes, Ronald Karenga was knowingly provided financial, arms, and other support by LAPD, with Tackwood as liaison, for US operations against the Black Panthers  Karenga enjoyed a level of trust among figures in government, including LAPD Chief Thomas Reddin and California Governor Ronald Reagan 

Kwanzaa
Karenga created Kwanzaa in 1966 to be the first pan-African holiday  Karenga said his goal was to "give Blacks an alternative to the existing holiday and give Blacks an opportunity to celebrate themselves and their history, rather than simply imitate the practice of the dominant society "Kwanzaa is inspired by African "first fruit" traditions, and the name chosen is from Swahili, "matunda ya kwanza " The rituals of the holiday promote African traditions and Nguzo Saba, the "seven principles of African Heritage" that Karenga described as "a communitarian African philosophy":

Umoja (unity)—To strive for and maintain unity in the family, community, nation, and race 
Kujichagulia (self-determination)—To define ourselves, name ourselves, create for ourselves, and speak for ourselves 
Ujima (collective work and responsibility)—To build and maintain our community together and make our brother's and sister's problems our problems and to solve them together 
Ujamaa (cooperative economics)—To build and maintain our own stores, shops, and other businesses and to profit from them together 
Nia (purpose)—To make our collective vocation the building and development of our community in order to restore our people to their traditional greatness 
Kuumba (creativity)—To do always as much as we can, in the way we can, in order to leave our community more beautiful and beneficial than we inherited it 
Imani (faith)—To believe with all our heart in our people, our parents, our teachers, our leaders, and the righteousness and victory of our struggle 

Criminal conviction and imprisonment
In 1971, Karenga was sentenced to one to ten years in prison on counts of felony assault and false imprisonment  One of the victims gave testimony of how Karenga and other men tortured her and another woman  The woman described having been stripped naked and beaten with an electrical cord  Karenga's estranged wife, Brenda Lorraine Karenga, testified that she sat on the other woman's stomach while another man forced water into her mouth through a hose 
A May 14, 1971, article in the Los Angeles Times described the testimony of one of the women:

Deborah Jones, who once was given the Swahili title of an African queen, said she and Gail Davis were whipped with an electrical cord and beaten with a karate baton after being ordered to remove their clothes  She testified that a hot soldering iron was placed in Miss Davis' mouth and placed against Miss Davis' face and that one of her own big toes was tightened in a vise  Karenga, head of US, also put detergent and running hoses in their mouths, she said  They also were hit on the heads with toasters 
Jones and Brenda Karenga testified that Karenga believed the women were conspiring to poison him, which Davis has attributed to a combination of ongoing police pressure and his own drug abuse Karenga denied any involvement in the torture, and argued that the prosecution was political in nature  He was imprisoned at the California Men's Colony, where he studied and wrote on feminism, Pan-Africanism, and other subjects  The US Organization fell into disarray during his absence and was disbanded in 1974  After he petitioned several black state officials to support his parole on fair sentencing grounds, it was granted in 1975 Karenga has declined to discuss the convictions with reporters and does not mention them in biographical materials  During a 2007 appearance at Wabash College, he again denied the charges and described himself as a former political prisoner 

Later career
After his parole, Karenga re-established the US Organization under a new structure He was awarded his first Ph D  in 1976 from United States International University (now known as Alliant International University) for a 170-page dissertation titled "Afro-American Nationalism: Social Strategy and Struggle for Community"  In 1977, he formulated a set of principles called Kawaida, a Swahili term for normal  Karenga called on African-Americans to adopt his secular humanism and reject other practices as mythical He was also the director of the Kawaida Institute for Pan African Studies and the author of several books, including his Introduction to Black Studies, a comprehensive Black/African Studies textbook now in its fourth edition (2010), originally published in 1982  He is also known for having co-hosted, in 1984, a conference that gave rise to the Association for the Study of Classical African Civilizations  
In 1994, he was awarded a second Ph D  in social ethics from the University of Southern California for an 803-page dissertation titled "Maat, the moral ideal in ancient Egypt: A study in classical African ethics " In 1995, he sat on the organizing committee and authored the mission statement of the Million Man March Karenga delivered a eulogy at the 2001 funeral service of New Black Panther Party leader Khalid Abdul Muhammad, praising him for his organizing activities and commitment to black empowerment  In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Maulana Karenga on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans As of 2021, Karenga chairs the Africana Studies Department at California State University, Long Beach 

Films
Owen Alik Shahadah's documentary 500 Years Later (2005) and its sequel Motherland (2010)
M K  Asante's documentary The Black Candle (2012)

Published works
Introduction to Black Studies  2010, 4th edition, University of Sankore Press  ISBN 0943412307 (Editions: 1982,1993,2002,2010)
Kwanzaa: A Celebration of Family, Community and Culture  1998  ISBN 0943412218
Maat, The Moral Ideal in Ancient Egypt  ISBN 0415947537
Odu Ifa: The Ethical Teachings  ISBN 0943412226
Kawaida and Questions of Life and Struggle  ISBN 0943412293
Selections from the Husia  ISBN 0943412064
Book of Coming Forth By Day  ISBN 0943412145
Handbook of Black Studies, co-edited with Molefi Kete Asante  ISBN 0761928405
The Million Man March/Day of Absence: A Commemorative Anthology, co-edited with Haki Madhubuti  ISBN 0883781883
Maulana Karenga: An Intellectual Portrait, Polity  ISBN 0745648282



ground_truth: 821

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where is the company that created Doravirine ( from?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  A local independent company that traded as Fleet Cars was purchased in 1925 but continued to operate as a separate business for a few seasons, during which time a number of other small operators were also acquired and merged with Fleet Cars In 1931 the NECC became a part of British Electric Traction (BET)  The Torquay tram network was closed in January 1934  The Tramways company was sold to Devon General, the fleet of which was enlarged by 24 buses to allow it to operate the former tram routes Devon General had turned down the chance to buy local independent coach operator Grey Cars in 1930 so it had instead been purchased by A Timpson & Sons of Catford in 1931  Timpsons sold the business to Devon General in 1932 and the following year both Grey Cars and Fleet Cars, which had been operated as separate businesses, were merged into Devon General  Most coaches continued to operate under Grey Cars' name, although some small operators that were subsequently bought out by Devon General continued in their old names for a while 

National Bus Company
BET's bus operations, including Devon General, became part of the National Bus Company (NBC) when it was formed on 1 January 1969  Devon General had worked closely with the Corporation of Exeter's bus services since 1947  In April 1970 the corporation's buses and routes were transferred to the NBC and merged into Devon General  The city's unusual use of route letters (as opposed to numbers) continued In January 1971, the NBC transferred the bus operations of Devon General to neighbouring Western National but the Devon General name was retained as a brand, while the Grey Cars coaching operation was transferred to Exeter-based Greenslades  NBC split Western National into four new companies on 1 January 1983, one of which was Devon General Limited  This operated in south and east Devon as the old Devon General had done, but the Tiverton area became a part of a new North Devon operation 

Transit Holdings
On 19 August 1986, Devon General became the first NBC operating subsidiary to be privatised under the Transport Act 1985 by being sold in a management buyout led by managing director Harry Blundred An experimental high-frequency service using 22 minibuses had been introduced in Exeter on 27 February 1984  By the time the company was privatised in August 1986, the minibus fleet had expanded to more than 200 vehicles, more than half the buses in service  By the end of 1990 all regular services had been converted to minibus operation using a mixture of 16 and 24-seat vehicles The new owners of Devon General formed Transit Holdings to operate number of other bus companies, most of them in southern England:
Bayline (Torquay)
Devon General (Exeter)
Docklands Transit (London)
Portsmouth Transit (Portsmouth)
Thames Transit (Oxford)
Transit AustraliaBayline was established in 1992 for the operations in Torbay and Newton Abbot, after which Devon General operated in the Exeter area  Both companies were sold to the Stagecoach Group in 1996, and became Stagecoach Devon in 2003 

Area of operation
Devon General quickly expanded beyond its original routes between Exeter, Newton Abbot and Torquay  A number of small operators were bought out (see below), but area agreements with larger neighbours set out the company's area of operation  While the boundaries changed in detail from time to time, the area was largely set out in two agreements 

In 1922 an eastern boundary was agreed with the National Omnibus and Transport Company along the road from Minehead via Tiverton, Cullompton and Honiton to Sidmouth 
In 1924 a northern boundary was agreed with Hardy Central Garage between Okehampton, Bampton and Wellington 
By 1929 the western boundary had settled at Kingswear, Totnes, Buckfastleigh and Okehampton, with Western National having control beyond 

Offices and depots
Most of the directors of the Devon General Omnibus and Touring Company came from the London area and so the company offices were established in a house Kilmore Road, Forest Hill, London  The first buses were housed at the Exeter Garage Company's premises in Paris Street, Exeter  In 1921 the offices were moved to the new garage that was being constructed at Blackboy Road in Exeter, but the takeover by the NECC the following year saw the office moved back to Queen Street in the city of London The merger of NECC with BET in 1932 saw the Queen Street office closed in favour of BET's headquarters in Kingsway, London  At around this time work started on the construction of a new large garage and central workshops at Newton Road in Torquay  The BET headquarters were moved across London to Piccadilly in 1952 but in 1956 the registered offices of Devon General were moved to the garage at 87 Newton Road, Torquay When Devon General was absorbed into Western National in 1971, all the office work was moved to the latter company' offices in Queen Street, Exeter  The newly independent Devon General Limited of 1983 chose to remain in Exeter, but moved into offices in Belgrave Road where a new bus depot had opened in 1975 Buses were based in garages or open yards at
Ashburton
Dropping Wells 1925–1927
West Street (Blue Saloon Motor Services) 1927–1928
Brixham
New Road 1935–1939
Mount Pleasant Road 1940–1957
Bus Station 1957–1992
Crediton
Unknown site 1928?–1931
Mill Street 1931–1954
Exeter
Gold's Garage, Heavitree Road 1919–1921
Blackboy Road 1921–1971
Heavitree Road (Exeter Corporation) 1970–1975
Belgrave Road 1975–(1996)
Exmouth
New Street 1921–1931
Imperial Road 1931–(1996)
Moretonhampstead
Station Road June – September 1924
Steven's Garage, Chagford 1924–1928?
Court Street 1928–1971 Moved to a different site in Court Street in 1931
Newton Abbot
Bradley Hotel 1919–1921
Newton Road, Kingsteignton 1921–1960
Kingsteignton Road 1960–1992
Paignton
Roundham Road 1923–1925
Churston 1925–1930
Orient Road, Preston 1924–1932
Bus Station 1988–(1996) The bus station opened in 1954
Sidmouth
Mill Street 1922–?
Station Road, Newton Poppleford ?–1930
Woolbrook 1930–1996
Tiverton
Chapel Street (Croscols) 1924–1938
Old Road 1938–1971 After 1971 buses were kept at the bus station 
Torquay
Westhill Avenue (Torquay Tramways) 1922–1931
Newton Road 1931–1988
Torwood Street (Grey Cars) 1933–1940 and 1946–1971
Belgrave Road (Court Garages) 1940–1946 and 1966–1973
Regents Close 1992–(1996)One or two buses were also kept at a number of other towns and villages such as Axminster (1922–1924, 1927–1984), Budleigh Salterton (1930–1939, 1988–1989), Crockernwell (1942–1957), Cullompton (1922–1996), East Budleigh 1921–1931, Kenton (1942–1947), Okehampton (1923–1997), Ottery St Mary (1927–1938, 1949–1967), Tiverton Junction (1955–1977), Uffculme (1942–1954) 

Livery
The first buses were painted in red with cream relief  Coaches were generally grey with deep red relief and open top buses (introduced in 1955) were given a cream livery with red relief In 1972 NBC imposed a standard poppy red colour with white relief, but from 1979 Devon General buses started to be painted in leaf green and white, the same colours as the parent Western National fleet  Six months after the operation became independent of Western National in 1983 a red livery was again adopted  The first minibuses were painted in bright red and yellow colours with a black skirt To coincide with privatisation in 1986 a new livery was introduced  Buses were painted an ivory colour with red skirt and lower deck window surrounds 

Amalgamated companies
Over the years many rival operators were purchased and their fleets and/or routes were amalgamated into Devon General 

Torquay–Chelston Car Company
The Torquay–Chelston Car Company, which Devon General bought in 1927, had its origins in 1903, when a Chelmsford steam bus was demonstrated in Torquay in May 1903  Torquay & District Motor Omnibus Co Ltd, formed on 23 July 1903, ran a Strand - Chelston route from 2 November 1903 via Torbay Road and Rathmore Road terminating at Normanhurst, just short of Rosery Road railway bridge  The bus was green with orange lines and the domed roof was white  It carried 12 inside and 2 beside the driver and 2,828 passengers in the first week  8 steam buses were working by Easter 1905 between St Marychurch and Babbacombe, but sold after trams started on 4 April 1907  Torquay Road Car took over the old bus garage and ran until liquidation on 24 December 1908 
On 28 March 1911 Torquay-Chelston Steam Car Company Ltd started with 3 Chelmsford buses, possibly those stored after the liquidation  They dropped the 'Steam' part of the name when a single deck RAF type Leyland took over, after Devon General started a competing Meadfoot Beach - Chelston route on 31 March 1923  The Chelston company bought a new Leyland PLSC Lion in 1925  In 1926, Devon General started to shadow the Chelston bus  The company sold out to Devon General in 1927, the Leylands becoming 98 and 99 in their fleet  The Devon General timetables were revised in July, 1929, with numbering similar to current services, including 32 (Torquay - Paignton via Preston), 33 (Strand-Chelston circular) and 35 (Shiphay Turn - Meadfoot Beach) 
On the Chelston routes Devon General used Leyland Lions, Dennis Lancet lIs from 1938, AEC Regals from 1939, Leyland Royal Tigers in 1954, AEC Reliances in 1957, Regent IIIs in 1960 and Leyland Atlanteans from 1964 

See also
Open top buses in Torbay
Passage 4:
Hercules Inc 
Hercules, Inc  was a chemical and munitions manufacturing company based in Wilmington, Delaware, United States, incorporated in 1912 as the Hercules Powder Company following the breakup of the DuPont explosives monopoly by the U S  Circuit Court in 1911   Hercules Powder Company became Hercules, Inc  in 1966,  operating under this name until 2008, when it was merged into Ashland Inc 
An earlier Hercules Powder Company was formed in 1882 by DuPont and Laflin & Rand Powder Company   This company was dissolved on June 30, 1904 Hercules was one of the major producers of smokeless powder for warfare in the United States during the 20th century  At the time of its spin-off, the DuPont Corp  retained the processes and patents for the production of "single-base" nitrocellulose gunpowders, whereas Hercules was given the patents and processes for the production of "double-base" gunpowders that combined nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine 

History
A special formulation of dynamite was patented in 1874 by J W  Willard, superintendent of the California Powder Works in Santa Cruz, California  He called his invention "Hercules powder", a competitive jab at rival Giant Powder Company which had acquired the exclusive U S  rights to Alfred Nobel's original dynamite formula   The mythological Hercules was known as a giant slayer 
The California Powder Works became the only manufacturer of Hercules powder  In 1877, J W  Willard moved to Cleveland, Ohio to oversee the opening of a new California Powder Works plant there, dedicated to the manufacture of Hercules powder  In 1881, the California Powder Works moved its Hercules powder manufacturing in California to a new site along the northeast shore of San Francisco Bay   The company town that grew up around the facility became known as "Hercules", later (1900) incorporated as Hercules, California 
In 1882, thanks to their interlocking ownership interests with the California Powder Works by that time, the DuPont corporation and Laflin & Rand Powder Company acquired the rights to manufacture Hercules powder and incorporated the Hercules Powder Company for that purpose   In 1904, Du Pont dissolved the company as part of its ongoing effort to consolidate the many explosives manufacturers that it controlled under the Du Pont name 
In 1911, the United States won a lawsuit that it had brought against the Du Pont corporation under the Sherman Antitrust Act  The U S  Circuit Court in Delaware found that Du Pont had been operating an unlawful monopoly, and ordered a breakup of its explosives and gunpowder manufacturing business   The breakup resulted in the creation of two new companies in 1912, Atlas Powder Company and Hercules Powder Company  Atlas received the explosives manufacturing portion of Du Pont's business (including the facilities acquired from the Giant Powder Company), while Hercules received the gunpowder portion 
The first management team of this new Hercules Powder Company included President H  Dunham, T W  Bacchus, G G  Rheuby, J T Skelly, Norman Rood, Fred Stark, C D  Prickett, and George Markell Some of their products were used by the military in World War I  A school and a plant were named after T  W  Bacchus in Bacchus, Utah  Hercules Powder Company ranked 65th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts In the 1920s and 30s, Hercules diversified into the pine resin products business (see below) 
On 12 September 1940, the Kenvil, New Jersey plant suffered a major explosion  News reports at the time estimated at least fifteen buildings were destroyed along with twenty-five tons of explosives  Fifty-one people were killed outright with perhaps two hundred injured and many missing  This facility also exploded twice in 1934 and again in 1989 Richard F  Heck, recipient of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, gained experience with transition metal chemistry while working at Hercules in 1957 By the 1960s, the community was experiencing the first signs of a suburban transition  The Hercules Powder Co , once a small dynamite manufacturing firm, had begun producing rocket motors at its Bacchus Works south of the Magna community  The growing availability of jobs was one factor encouraging subdivision development in the Magna, Kearns and West Valley areas 
In 1966, the Hercules Powder Company changed its name to Hercules, Inc 

In 1995, Hercules, Inc  sold its subsidiary Hercules Aerospace Co  to Alliant Techsystems Inc  The sale included all of what remained of Hercules' gunpowder lines 
By the end of the 1990s, Hercules Inc , had sold off a significant number of its divisions that had not been profitable for the company  This caused the price of shares of common stock in Hercules to rise above US$70  Several successful cost-savings programs were implemented in addition to buying back its own shares   Also at that time, Hercules had a significant amount of assets  available for possible purchases of other corporations  Hercules, Inc , had a Paper Technology Division (PTD) whose products were slowly becoming commodities  In order to survive, this division needed to obtain new products 
First, Hercules Inc , tried to purchase the Allied Colloids Company, but this was not successful  Next, Hercules bought the Betz-Dearborn Corporation  Betz-Dearborn produced mostly chemicals for paper processing, and the Hercules PTD produced mainly functional chemicals for paper  According to some business analysts, Hercules Inc  paid about three times as much for Betz-Dearborn as compared with its actual value 
Soon after the purchase of Betz-Dearborn, the price per share of stock in Hercules Inc , had dropped from above US$70 to below US$10  It has been speculated that Hercules Inc , was close to going bankrupt after this failed purchase operation  Afterwards, several senior managers were forced out of the company because of this failure; however, a significant amount of former PTD senior managers were able to keep their positions within Hercules  The price of stock shares in Hercules Inc  never recovered from this debacle  Finally, Hercules Inc  was sold off to the Ashland Corporation in 2008, and dissolved 
In 2009, rapper George Watsky released a song about the history of the company called "Hercules" 

Product lines
Commercial gunpowders
Some of the more recent gunpowders marketed to reloaders include the brand names "Bullseye", "2400", "Reloder", "Unique", and "Red Dot"   These gunpowders are still being manufactured by Alliant Techsystems Inc  in Radford, Virginia 

Powders inherited from DuPont in 1912
EC (Explosives Company) shotgun powder was the first smokeless powder manufactured in the United States   Production began in 1890, and was discontinued in 1931 
WA  30 caliber powder was named W for United States Army Lieutenant Whistler and A for American Smokeless Powder Company factory superintendent Aspinwall   This tubular powder was used for military loading of the  30 U S  Army (the M1892 Springfield and the M1893 Gatling) from 1894 until the military specification was changed to single-base nitrocellulose powder in 1908   Grains of 2 mm (0 08 inch) diameter were 1 mm long   Hercules continued producing the powder for other users until 1930 
Sharpshooter was a flake powder introduced by Laflin & Rand in 1897 to replace black powder for loading the  45-70   Black flakes containing 15 to 18 percent nitroglycerin were approximately 2 mm in diameter   Production was discontinued after World War II 
Bullseye was introduced by Laflin & Rand in 1898   Large surface area per unit weight enables rapid combustion in short-barreled handguns   Laflin & Rand began production using small, irregular particles removed by screening runs of larger grained powders   Improved manufacturing processes offered other reclamation options for reduced quantities of rejected material   Hercules manufactured Bullseye as thin, round flakes   It is believed to be the oldest smokeless powder formulation still being manufactured in the United States   It is designed for handguns and can also be used in 12-gauge shotgun target loads
Lightning was introduced by Laflin & Rand in 1899 for lever action sporting rifles like the  30-30 Winchester and  303 Savage   Production of 2 mm diameter flakes was discontinued after World War II   Tubular Lightning # 2 was manufactured from 1903 to 1929 
Infallible was a flake shotgun powder introduced by Laflin & Rand in 1900   Initial production had an orange color, but graphite coating gave later production a black color   Production was discontinued after World War II 
Unique is a gray flake powder introduced by Laflin & Rand in 1900   Individual flakes are approximately 1 5 mm (0 06 inch) in diameter   It is designed for shotguns and can be used in handguns 
Bear was a tubular powder introduced by Laflin & Rand in 1908 for small capacity rifle cartridges like the  351 and  401 Winchester Self-Loading and the  32-20 and  25-20 Winchester   Production was discontinued after World War II 
Military Rifle (MR) # 19 was a tubular powder containing 20 percent nitroglycerin introduced by DuPont in 1908 and was renamed HiVel (# 1) when manufactured by Hercules   It was modified as HiVel # 2 in 1915   Production was discontinued in 1964   A smaller grained version was produced as HiVel # 3 from 1926 to 1941 

Powders developed by Hercules Powder Company
Hercules # 308 was Hercules production of single-base tubular Pyro DG (Diphenylamine Graphited) powder for loading military  30-06 Springfield ammunition through World War I   Production began in 1915 and continued through the 1920s 
Hercules # 300 was a black, tubular single-base rifle powder produced from 1916 to 1932 
Pyro was produced from 1922 to 1928 as lightly graphited yellow flakes for loading the  45 ACP 
Hercules # 2400 is a coated flake powder containing 20 percent nitroglycerin introduced in 1932   Individual dark gray flakes are approximately 1 mm (0 04 inch) in diameter and 0 3 mm thick   It is designed for small capacity center-fire rifle cartridges and can be used in magnum handgun and  410 bore shotgun loads 
Red Dot is a flake powder introduced in 1932   Individual flakes are approximately 1 5 mm (0 06 inch) in diameter and some are dyed red to aid identification   It is designed for light and standard loads for 12, 16, and 20 gauge shotguns and can be used in handguns 
HiVel # 6 was produced from 1933 to 1941 for loading the  30-06 Springfield 
Herco is a flake powder introduced in the 1930s   Individual flakes are approximately 1 5 mm (0 06 inch) in diameter   It is designed for heavy loads for 10, 12, 16, 20 and 28 gauge shotguns and can be used for heavy handgun loads 
Green Dot is a flake powder introduced in 1965   Individual flakes are approximately 1 5 mm (0 06 inch) in diameter and some are dyed green to aid identification   It is designed for medium and standard loads for 12, 16, and 20 gauge shotguns and can be used in handguns 
Reloder 7 was the most popular of three cylindrical rifle powders introduced in 1965 to replace HiVel # 2   Each powder was blended from four different formulations dyed different colors   Production of the other two longer-grained powders, Reloder 11 and Reloder 21, was discontinued in 1972 
Blue Dot is a flake powder introduced in 1972   Individual flakes are approximately 1 5 mm (0 06 inch) in diameter and some are dyed blue to aid identification   It is designed for magnum loads for 10, 12, 16, 20 and 28 gauge shotguns and can be used for magnum handgun loads 

Pine resin products
In the 1920s, Hercules entered the pine resin products business, a development which followed upon the faster clearing of forests for lumber and farmland , especially in the southeast U S , around the time of the First World War  The clearings had left many stumps which had to be removed, often with dynamite supplied by Hercules and others   Hercules itself was a consumer of wood pulp, a key ingredient in their dynamite  The increasing surplus of wood pulp led the company to the idea of producing other things from it, namely, the various chemicals that were present in pine resin  They set up production sites such as the one in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, and Brunswick, Georgia for this express purpose, and added to their raw supply by offering to take or buy tree stumps from farmers 

Solid-fuel rocket motor production
Beginning in 1959, Hercules, Inc , began to diversify into the production of large solid-propellant rocket motors, and it soon became a primary producer of these, especially for the U S  Department of Defense, U S  Air Force, U S  Navy, and U S  Army - and to a lesser degree for the civilian National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)  In 1961, the company hired contractors C H  Leavell & Company, Morrison-Knudsen, and Alaskan Plumbing and Heating Company to expand the existing Bacchus Works site  The contractors added "Air Force Plant 81" adding 97 buildings, including a 97,000 square foot administration building  One of its major solid-fuel rocket products was the third-stage engine for the three -stage solid-fueled Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) for the U S  Air Force, of which 1,000 were made and deployed at Air Force Bases in several northern states during the 1960s  In addition, all of the missiles of the Minuteman I series were removed from service and replaced with the Minuteman II and Minuteman III series of more-advanced ICBMs  Hence, the Minuteman ICBM program was a huge project and a major source of revenue for Hercules, Inc 
Hercules, Inc , also produced the solid-fueled rocket motors for the two-stage Polaris missile system of intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs) for the U S  Navy in its 41 for Freedom series of 41 George Washington class ballistic missile submarines  These nuclear submarines carried 16 Polaris missiles apiece for a grand total of 656 missiles  In addition, the Polaris series consisted of the successively-improved Polaris A-1, Polaris A-2, and Polaris A-3 missiles  The early Polaris submarines that had been armed with the Polaris A-1 were upgraded to the Polaris A-2; and then all that had been armed with the Polaris A-2 were upgraded to the Polaris A-3 
For some of the early Polaris submarines, the Polaris A-3 was the end of their upgrades, but a large number of them (about 31) were further rearmed with the more-advanced and longer-ranged two-stage Poseidon C-3 missile  Hence, the Polaris missile submarine program was also a huge project and a major source of revenue for Hercules, Inc 
During the 1960s, Hercules, Inc , also made solid-fuel rocket motors for hundreds of the U S  Army's Honest John missile, a mobile tactical missile for carrying tactical nuclear weapons for U S  Army divisions  The Honest John missile was mostly deployed with the U S  Seventh Army in West Germany as part of the American commitment to NATO to defend Western Europe against aggression from the Warsaw Pact, using nuclear weapons on Eastern Europe, if necessary  None of the Honest John, Minuteman, Polaris, or Poseidon has ever been used in combat, and the threat of nuclear war has been sufficient to deter aggression and make it unnecessary to use nuclear weapons for defense 
During the 1970s and 80s, the Honest John missile was removed from deployment, scrapped, and replaced by the more-advanced Lance missile by the U S  Army in Europe  Of all of the missiles mentioned above, only a reduced number of the Minuteman missiles remain in service at Air Force Bases in the United States, with all of the others having been removed from deployment and scrapped, along with all of the Polaris and Poseidon submarines 
For space exploration and satellite launches by the U S  Air Force and NASA, Hercules, Inc , developed and manufactured the two large, strap-on solid-fueled Solid Rocket Motor Upgrade (SRMU) booster rockets for the otherwise liquid-fueled Titan IVB rockets  These strap-on rockets replaced the UA120 series of boosters used on the Titan IVB's predecessors, the Titan IIIC, Titan IIIE and Titan IVA 
After the end of production and firing of NASA's huge Saturn IB and 
Saturn V rockets, the Titan IV was the largest and heaviest  unmanned rocket available anywhere in the world, and especially in the Titan IV-Centaur version  The Titan IV-Centaur was used for special launches of heavy space probes into the Solar System, such as the Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn which was launched in 1997  The Titan IV is no longer manufactured, and the last one of these was fired during a launch in October 2005   In 1995 the aerospace division of Hercules, including its solid motor line, was acquired by the American defense contractor ATK 

Business segments
In its later years, Hercules, Inc , manufactured and marketed worldwide specialist chemicals that were used in a wide variety of industrial, home, and office markets, and it and had over 4,500 employees  Hercules was composed of two major divisions: the Paper Technologies and Ventures (PTV) division and the Aqualon division  In 2005, the former accounted for 49% of its sales and 35% of its operating profits, with the latter producing 37% and 68% respectively 

Aqualon Group
Aqualon produces products for physical property modification of aqueous systems which are sold into a wide variety of industries including personal care, food additives, and construction 

Paper Technologies and Ventures Group
Paper Technologies
Paper Technologies produces specialty chemicals to the pulp and paper industry  These products include functional, process, and water treatment chemicals for a wide variety of pulp and paper applications 
Functional chemicals can be divided in three main groups  Wet strength resins, Rosin sizes and AKD -sizes  Significant persons developing functional chemicals in Hercules could be mentioned: Dr  Keim on his efforts developing PAE wet strength resin, Mr Kai Kiviö on his efforts on developing cationic rosin size  Basis of AKD -technology Hercules acquired more or less voluntary from German BASF after the Second World War 

Ventures
Ventures produces specialty chemicals for a variety of markets, including adhesives and sealants, paints, inks, coatings, lubricants, rubber, plastics, and building and construction 
Hercules Incorporated, in collaboration with Professor Kaichang Li of Oregon State University and Columbia Forest Products, received a 2007 Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Award for the Greener Synthetic Pathways category in developing and commercializing a formaldehyde-free adhesive made from soy flour and Hercules' unique polymer chemistries 

See also
Tekoi, a former solid fuel rocket motor test and calibration site operated by Hercules Aerospace
Passage 5:
Doravirine
Doravirine, sold under the brand name Pifeltro, is a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor medication developed by Merck & Co  for use in the treatment of HIV/AIDS 
Doravirine was approved for medical use in the United States in August 2018 
Passage 6:
Liquid Assets Paint &amp; Pigment Company
Liquid Assets Paint & Pigment Company is an artist supply company based in Buenos Aires, Argentina that manufactures acrylic paints and pigments created with real currency, such as Euro, US Dollar, Argentine Peso, and Romanian Leu  The Company's slogan "The Price of Art" refers to the company's assertion that its products allow fine artists to quantify the precise and actual value of a work of art created using Liquid Assets products  The company was started in 2007 by a group of Buenos Aires–based professional artists and presently operates a manufacturing plant in Buenos Aires, as well as a retail store in the Palermo Soho neighborhood  In September 2010, Liquid Assets opened a temporary pop up store in New York City's Tribeca neighborhood in conjunction with the Swervewolf Experience marketing and design firm  Although artists have used valuable commodities such as gold leaf to create works of art for centuries, such as gilding, Liquid Assets Paint & Pigment Company is the world's only known manufacturer of artist paint and pigment created with actual currency 
Passage 7:
New England Emigrant Aid Company
The New England Emigrant Aid Company (originally the Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Company) was a transportation company founded in Boston, Massachusetts by activist Eli Thayer in the wake of the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which allowed the population of Kansas Territory to choose whether slavery would be legal  The Company's ultimate purpose was to transport anti-slavery immigrants into the Kansas Territory  The Company believed that if enough anti-slavery immigrants settled en masse in the newly-opened territory, they would be able to shift the balance of political power in the territory, which in turn would lead to Kansas becoming a free state (rather than a slave state) when it eventually joined the United States The Company is noted less for its direct impact than for the psychological impact it had on proslavery and abolitionist groups  Thayer's prediction that the Company would eventually be able to send 20,000 immigrants a year never came to fruition, but it spurred border ruffians from nearby Missouri, where slavery was legal, to move to Kansas to ensure its admission to the Union as a slave state  That, in turn, further galvanized Free-Staters and other enemies of the Slave Power 
Thayer's intention was to capitalize on anti-slavery sentiment in the Northern United States and to send settlers to Kansas to purchase land and build houses, shops, and mills  They could then sell the land at a significant profit and send the proceeds back to Thayer and his investors  At the behest of several investors, who found the notion of profiting from the anti-slavery cause distasteful, the company's model was shifted to that of a benevolent society, and it was renamed the New England Emigrant Aid Company in 1855  While the company achieved neither a profit nor a significant impact on the population of Kansas, it played an important role in the events that would later be termed Bleeding Kansas 

Creation
The Company was formed in the midst of the sectional crisis that preceded the American Civil War  To the Northern United States, the concept of popular sovereignty, which stated that the population of each new U S  state should be allowed to decide if it allowed slavery, was an attempt by Southerners to gain power  When the Kansas–Nebraska Act threatened to extend popular sovereignty into the new Kansas Territory, Eli Thayer, a second-term Congressman from Massachusetts, hatched the idea of an Emigrant Aid Company in the winter of 1853–1854  His primary partners in the venture were Alexander H  Bullock and Edward Everett Hale, and together, they set Thayer's plans in motion on March 5, 1854  Thayer announced the Company at a rally against the impending passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act in Worcester on March 11  Shortly thereafter, the Company's charter was approved by the Massachusetts Legislature for up to $5,000,000 in capital Officially, the Company was a profit-making venture, and how the settlers voted was of no consequence to the company  For example, the company secretary, Thomas Webb released a pamphlet in 1855 stating that although the settlers sent to the territories would not be required to vote for one side or the other, they were expected to support the free-state movement  A number of abolitionists questioned the profit motive behind the company, and even many of Thayer's potential investors balked at the notion "that people might say we were influenced by pecuniary considerations in our patriotic work " Although Thayer personally disagreed with such hesitations, in 1855 the Company reorganized as a benevolent society and changed its name to the New England Emigrant Aid Company 

Reaction
The success of the endeavor prompted other aid assistance companies to form back East, in New York and Ohio, with new companies such as the Worcester County Emigrant Aid Society 

Impact
The company was directly responsible for creating the Kansas towns of Lawrence and Manhattan, and it played a key role in founding Topeka and Osawatomie  Lawrence was named after the Company secretary, Amos Adams Lawrence  Multiple politicians were found in the emigrants who left for Kansas, such as Daniel Read Anthony, Charles L  Robinson, Samuel C  Pomeroy, and Martin F  Conway, who would later be Kansas's first US Representative 
The exact number of people who left for Kansas is unknown  James Rawley puts the numbers somewhere around 2000, about a third of whom returned home, but the Kansas Historical Society puts the number at around 900 for those who left for Kansas in 1855 alone The Company's mission was ultimately successful, and Kansas entered the United States as a free state in 1861 

Notes



ground_truth: American

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which name adopted by African-American activist Allen Donaldson co-found Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s

The following are given passages.
Context 4:  It serves as access via the Robert Moses Causeway to both of the downstream crossings, the State Boat Channel Bridge and the Fire Island Inlet Bridge, also leading visitors and on-lookers to either the Fire Island Lighthouse or the Robert Moses State Park 

History
The bridge was originally a single span, that opened in 1954 and was called the Captree Bridge  Today it carries southbound traffic 
In 1964, a second parallel span opened to traffic and carried northbound traffic  This brought much needed relief to traffic heading back from Jones Beach, Robert Moses, and Captree parks  The bridges are through trusses and are painted a traditional "bridge green" 
In 1997, a major rebuild of the deck of the older span began and was completed in 2000  Safety compliant railings were installed on the older span  In 2013–2014, the northbound span received upgraded railings  Major improvements NYSDOT is considering is a cycle/pedestrian path shared with the northbound lanes  NYSDOT has not released any official plans 

See also
State Boat Channel Bridge
Passage 9:
Oak Beach, New York
Oak Beach is a small community and census-designated place located near the eastern end of Jones Beach Island, a barrier island between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great South Bay of Long Island  The community is part of the village of Babylon in Suffolk County, New York, United States  The eastern part, the Oak Island Beach Association, is gated, whereas the western part is not  The Oak Beach CDP was first listed prior to the 2020 census  Prior to that the community was part of the Oak Beach–Captree census-designated place 

History and amenities
Oak Beach has been inhabited since at least the first decade of the twentieth century, when a U S  Coast Guard lifesaving station was located there, although it could not be reached overland at that time   Prior to that, marsh bird hunters had kept shacks in the area   Ferry access from Babylon enabled cottages to be built and made more accessible by car after construction of Ocean Parkway; it was largely a summer community until the completion of the Robert Moses Causeway in 1951, which allowed much faster travel from the main part of Long Island  It has gradually evolved since then to become a location where most residents live year-round Although now entirely residential, Oak Beach was once the location of the popular but controversial Oak Beach Inn, which was closed in 1999 and torn down in 2003, along with a small general store ("The Store") and bait/tackle/surf shop that closed a decade earlier   There is now a public park at the site  The "park" is unusual, in that it lacks any amenities other than a fishing dock and a single portable toilet  While the park encompasses over nine acres of land, there are but two trees and nearly 300 parking spots  In the warmer months the park - or rather the parking lot - collects an informal early Sunday morning motor rally, attracting local motorcycle and car enthusiasts 

Geography
Oak Beach is in southwestern Suffolk County, in the southeast part of the village of Babylon  The census-designated place includes the community of Oak Beach on Jones Beach Island, as well as the community of Oak Island, directly to the north  The CDP is bordered to the east by Captree State Park and to the west by Gilgo State Park  To the south is the west end of Fire Island 

Ownership
The land is not owned by the residents but is on long-term lease from the Village of Babylon   In the early 1990s, New York State litigated against extension of the lease   After much negotiation, including detailed environmental impact statements, the lease was renewed (currently through 2050), although with a ramp up in costs  In 2012, the Village of Babylon agreed to extend the current leases through 2065 

Shannan Gilbert
On May 1, 2010,  Shannan Gilbert disappeared after fleeing a client's house in the Oak Beach Association  In December 2010, while searching for Gilbert, the police found 10 dead bodies along the adjacent highway, some bodies in December 2010, others in April 2011  Consequently, the community attracted much public attention 
In December 2011, the body of the original missing sex worker Shannan Gilbert was found in the marsh east of the community  On November 29, 2011, the police announced their belief that one person is responsible for all 10 deaths (whom the press refers to at various times as: "the Long Island serial killer", "LISK", "the Gilgo Beach Killer", or "the Craigslist Ripper"), and that they did not believe the case of Gilbert, who went missing before the first set of bodies was found, was related  "It is clear that the area in and around Gilgo Beach has been used to discard human remains for some period of time," said Suffolk County District Attorney Thomas Spota On December 10, 2015, Suffolk County Police announced that the FBI had officially joined the investigation  A spokesperson for the FBI confirmed the announcement  The FBI had previously assisted in the search for victims, but was never officially part of the investigation until this announcement  The investigation is ongoing 
Passage 10:
Gilgo-Oak Beach-Captree, New York
Gilgo-Oak Beach-Captree, frequently just called Oak Beach, was a census-designated place (CDP) in Suffolk County, New York within the Town of Babylon  The population was 333 at the 2000 census 
Following the 2010 census, the area was delineated as two CDPs: Gilgo and Oak Beach–Captree  The original CDP contained several small beach communities on a barrier island along the southern edge of Long Island  In order from west to east, these included West Gilgo Beach (on the Nassau/Suffolk county border), Gilgo Beach, Cedar Beach (no residences), Oak Beach (including the Oak Island Beach Association), Oak Island and Captree Island  They are connected to the mainland by Ocean Parkway from the west and Robert Moses State Parkway from the north 
Prior to the 2020 census, the Oak Beach-Captree CDP was further split into the Oak Beach and Captree CDPs 

Geography
Oak Beach is located at 40°38′28″N 73°16′42″W (40 641100, -73 278195) According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP had a total area of 3 7 square miles (9 6 km2), of which 2 7 square miles (7 0 km2) was land and 0 9 square miles (2 3 km2), or 25 21%, is water 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 333 people, 161 households, and 94 families residing in the CDP  The population density was 122 1 inhabitants per square mile (47 1/km2)  There were 305 housing units at an average density of 111 9 per square mile (43 2/km2)  The racial makeup of the CDP was 97 00% White, 0 30% African American and 2 70% Asian  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1 80% of the population 
There were 161 households, out of which 14 9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50 9% were married couples living together, 6 2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41 0% were non-families  34 8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 07 and the average family size was 2 64 
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 13 5% under the age of 18, 1 5% from 18 to 24, 28 8% from 25 to 44, 34 8% from 45 to 64, and 21 3% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 48 years  For every 100 females, there were 109 4 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100 0 males 
The median income for a household in the CDP was $66,250, and the median income for a family was $105,870  Males had a median income of $61,250 versus $37,083 for females  The per capita income for the CDP was $55,813  None of the families and 0 9% of the population were living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and none of those over 64 
The census numbers are presumably for full-time inhabitants; many of these houses are second homes and not primary residences, although the proportion of seasonal residents is decreasing 
The land for these communities is not privately owned, but leased from the State of New York through the year 2050   However, the residences on the property are owned   If the leases are not renewed at some point in the future, the owners will have to move the houses elsewhere, similar to what happened at High Hill Beach when Jones Beach was created 



ground_truth: Hakim Abdullah Jamal