prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What was the home city of the author of the famous novel tracing the life of a male roe deer from his birth onward?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Siberian roe deer
The Siberian roe deer, eastern roe deer, or Asian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus), is a species of roe deer found in northeastern Asia  In addition to Siberia and Mongolia, it is found in Kazakhstan, the Tian Shan Mountains of Kyrgyzstan, eastern Tibet, the Korean Peninsula, and northern China 
Its specific name pygargus, literally "white-rumped", is shared by the pygarg, an antelope known in antiquity  The name was chosen by the German biologist Peter Simon Pallas in the late 18th century  The Siberian roe deer has long antlers 

Taxonomy
The Siberian roe deer was once considered to be the same species as the European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), but it is now considered to be a separate species 
The two subspecies of the Siberian roe deer are C  p  pygargus and C  p  tianschanicus (the latter is named for the Tian Shan mountains) 

Description
The Siberian roe deer is a medium-sized metacarpalian deer, with a long neck and large ears  It is typically up to 146 cm (4 8 ft) in body length and 59 kg (130 lb) in weight, making it larger than C  capreolus where populations from Ural and Northern Kazakhstan are the largest on average, followed by those from Transbaikal, Amur, and Primolskil regions  It has larger antlers with more branches than those of European roe deer  Siberian roe deer generally live about 8–12 years, with a maximum of about 18 years  In winter the northern populations exhibit light gray coloring, but their southern counterparts are grayish brown and ochraceous  The belly is creamy and the caudal patch is white  In the summer, their coloring is reddish  Young have a spotted coat  Males are larger and have three-tined antlers, widely spaced and slanting upward, which are shed in the autumn or early winter and begin to regrow shortly thereafter 

Distribution and habitat
Siberian roe deer are found within the temperate zone of Eastern Europe and Central and East Asia  Fossil records show their territory once stretched to the northern Caucasus Mountains, as well as eastern Ukraine  In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, their range was diminished by overhunting in Eastern Europe, northern Kazakhstan, western Siberia, and the northern regions of eastern Siberia  Due to a division in their range, two morphologically different subspecies resulted (Tian Shan and Siberian)   The Siberian and European roe deer meet at the Caucasus Mountains with the Siberian roe deer occupying the northern flank, and the European roe deer occupying the southern flank, Asia Minor, and parts of northwestern Iran 
The Siberian roe deer has a light, slender build adapted for tall, dense grass  They live in forest and steppe habitats and develop high densities in tall-grass meadows and floodplains  They are adapted to severe weather extremes It may have become naturalized in England for a short period in the early 20th century as an escapee from Woburn, but it was extirpated by 1945 

Ecology
Diet
The diet of the Siberian roe deer consists of over 600 species of plants – mostly herbaceous dicotyledons (58%), monocotyledons (16%), and woody species (22%)  In winter, without proper sustenance, they have a lowered metabolic rate  In summer, their dietary need for sodium necessitates visits to natural salt licks  Water is usually obtained through moisture-rich foods as opposed to directly from the source 

Behavior
Siberian roe deer can jump distances up to 15 m (49 ft), and mating occurs in August and September  Female Siberian roe deer are the only ungulates to undergo embryonic diapause  Embryonic implantation takes place in January and gestation lasts 280–300 days  Females usually have two young at a time, which are weaned after 4–5 months  Females reach sexual maturity in their first year of age but usually do not breed until their second  Males usually mate in their third year of life  The life-span of the Siberian roe deer does not usually exceed 10 years Males mark their territory with olfactory marks, using secretion glands on the head skin, which they rub against trees, shrubs, and high grasses, or with visual marks, by fraying trees with their antlers  Vocal signals are also a form of communication in Siberian roe deer  They have six signals: squeaking or whistling, rasping, barking, whining, screaming, and nonvocal sounds Some Siberian roe deer perform mass migrations 

Predation
The Siberian roe deer is preyed upon by the Amur leopard, Siberian lynx, snow leopard, Himalayan wolf, and Siberian tiger 

See also
Animals portal
 Siberia portal
Passage 2:
Bambi, a Life in the Woods
Bambi, a Life in the Woods (German title: Bambi: Eine Lebensgeschichte aus dem Walde) is a 1923 Austrian coming-of-age novel written by Felix Salten, and originally published in Berlin by Ullstein Verlag  The novel traces the life of Bambi, a male roe deer, from his birth through childhood, the loss of his mother, the finding of a mate, the lessons he learns from his father, and the experience he gains about the dangers posed by human hunters in the forest  It is also, in its most complete translation, seen as a parable of the dangers and persecution faced by Jews in Europe An English translation by Whittaker Chambers was published in North America by Simon & Schuster in 1928, and the novel has since been translated and published in over thirty languages around the world  Salten published a sequel, Bambi's Children, in 1939 
The novel was well received by critics and is considered a classic, as well as one of the first environmental novels  It was adapted into a theatrical animated film, Bambi, by Walt Disney Productions in 1942, as well as two Russian live-action adaptations in 1985 and 1986, a ballet in 1987, and a stage production in 1998  Another ballet adaptation was created by an Oregon troupe, but never premiered  Janet Schulman published a children's picture book adaptation in 2000 that featured realistic oil paintings and many of Salten's original words 

Plot
Bambi is a roe deer fawn born in a thicket in late spring one year  Over the course of the summer, his mother teaches him about the various inhabitants of the forest and the ways deer live  When she feels he is old enough, she takes him to the meadow, which he learns is a wonderful but also dangerous place, as it leaves the deer exposed and in the open  After some initial fear over his mother's caution, Bambi enjoys the experience  On a subsequent trip, Bambi meets his Aunt Ena and her twin fawns Faline and Gobo  They quickly become friends and share what they have learned about the forest  While they are playing, they encounter princes, male deer, for the first time  After the stags leave, the fawns learn that those were their fathers, but that the fathers rarely stay with or speak to the females and young 
As Bambi grows older, his mother begins to leave him alone  While searching for her one day, Bambi has his first encounter with "He" – the animals' term for humans – which terrifies him  The man raises a firearm and aims at him; Bambi flees at top speed, joined by his mother  After he is scolded by a stag for crying for his mother, Bambi gets used to being alone at times  He later learns the stag is called the "Old Prince", the oldest and largest stag in the forest, who is known for his cunning and aloof nature  During the winter, Bambi meets Marena, a young doe, Nettla, an old doe who no longer bears young, and two princes, Ronno and Karus  Mid-winter, hunters enter the forest, killing many animals including Bambi's mother  Gobo also disappears and is presumed dead 
After this, the novel skips ahead a year, noting that Bambi, now a young adult, was cared for by Nettla and that when he got his first set of antlers he was abused and harassed by the other males  It is summer and Bambi is now sporting his second set of antlers  He is reunited with his cousin Faline  After he battles and defeats first Karus, then Ronno, Bambi and Faline fall in love with each other  They spend a great deal of time together  During this time, the Old Prince saves Bambi's life when he nearly runs towards a hunter imitating a doe's call  This teaches the young buck to be cautious about blindly rushing toward any deer's call  During the summer, Gobo returns to the forest, having been raised by a man who found him collapsed in the snow during the hunt where Bambi's mother was killed  While his mother and Marena welcome him and celebrate him as a "friend" of man, the Old Prince and Bambi pity him  Marena becomes his mate, but several weeks later Gobo is killed when he approaches a hunter in the meadow, falsely believing the halter he wore would keep him safe from all men 
As Bambi continues to age, he begins spending most of his time alone, including avoiding Faline though he still loves her in a melancholic way  Several times he meets with the Old Prince, who teaches him about snares, shows him how to free another animal from one, and encourages him not to use trails, to avoid the traps of men  When Bambi is later shot by a hunter, the Prince shows him how to walk in circles to confuse the man and his dogs until the bleeding stops, then takes him to a safe place to recover  They remain together until Bambi is strong enough to leave the safe haven again  When Bambi has grown gray and is "old", the Old Prince shows him that men are not all-powerful by showing him the dead body of a man who was shot and killed by another man  When Bambi confirms that he now understands that "He" is not all-powerful, and that there is "Another" over all creatures, the stag tells him that he has always loved him and calls him "my son" before leaving 
At the end of the novel, Bambi meets with twin fawns who are calling for their mother, and he scolds them for not being able to stay alone  After leaving them, he thinks to himself that the girl fawn reminded him of Faline, and that the male was promising, and that Bambi hoped to meet him again when he was grown 

Publication history
Felix Salten, himself an avid hunter, penned Bambi: Eine Lebensgeschichte aus dem Walde after World War I, targeting an adult audience  The novel was first published in Vienna in serialized form in the newspaper the Neue Freie Presse from 15 August to 21 October 1922, and as a book in Germany by Ullstein Verlag in 1923, and republished in 1926 in Vienna 

Translations
Max Schuster, a German Jewish émigré and co-founder of Simon & Schuster, led the effort to publish Bambi in English  Clifton Fadiman, an editor there, engaged his Columbia University classmate Whittaker Chambers to translate it  Simon & Schuster published this first English edition in 1928, with illustrations by Kurt Wiese, under the title Bambi: A Life in the Woods  The New York Times Book Review praised the prose as "admirably translated" that made the book "literature of a high order " The translation immediately became "a Book-of-the-Month Club hit " Simon & Schuster printed a first-run of 75,000 copies and sold more than 650,000 copies between 1928 and 1942  (Jonathan Cape published the book in the UK starting in 1928 as well ) Chambers' translation has been reprinted repeatedly with different illustrations  Bambi, along with Salten's Fifteen Rabbits and The City Jungle, all translated by Chambers, remain in print from Simon & Schuster  In 2015, an Austrian scholar voiced objections to Simon & Schuster's "publication strategies" and "marketing strategy," as well as Chambers' translation for "opening the possibility for the story to be understood less as a human story about persecution, expulsion or assimilation and more as an animal story conveying a strong message about the protection of animals and the necessity of conservation "A translation by Hannah Correll was published in 2019 by Clydesdale Press  A translation by Jack Zipes was published in 2022 by Princeton University Press  Zipes commented the conversation between animals is "reminiscent of Austrian German you'd hear in cafes around Vienna  The original translation didn't capture that and I hope mine does," while a grandson of Chambers countered that the 1928 translation is more poetic  One reviewer wrote: "Chambers and Zipes differ moderately in style, with Zipes cleaving more faithfully to the German ("polecat") and Chambers privileging his American audience ("ferret")  An aim of Zipes’ translation is to restore Salten's more overt anthropomorphism, which Chambers softened  To a reader familiar with the 1928 translation, some of Zipes' more faithful anthropomorphic choices are jarring; it feels odd to read that a fawn "yelled," for example  And Zipes occasionally increases the anthropomorphism beyond that suggested by Salten, as when he uses the pronouns "he" and "she" in a conversation between two autumn leaves, which are genderless in the original text  The Zipes translation is also not quite complete: one reviewer noted omissions ranging from short phrases and individual sentences to an entire passage recounting Bambi's first meeting with the old roebucks  A translation by Damion Searls was published in 2022 by The New York Review of Books  The translations have been reviewed in various newspapers and magazines 

Formats
Over 200 editions of the novel have been published, with almost 100 German and English editions alone, and numerous translations and reprintings in over 30 languages  It has also been published in a variety of formats, including printed medium, audiobook, Braille, and E-book formats 

Copyright dispute
When Salten originally published Bambi in 1923, he did so under Germany's copyright laws, which required no statement that the novel was copyrighted  In the 1926 republication, he did include a United States copyright notice, so the work is considered to have been copyrighted in the United States in 1926  In 1936, Salten sold some film rights to the novel to MGM producer Sidney Franklin who passed them on to Walt Disney for the creation of a film adaptation  After Salten's death in 1945, his daughter Anna Wyler inherited the copyright and renewed the novel's copyrighted status in 1954 (U S  copyright law in effect at the time provided for an initial term of 28 years from the date of first publication in the U S , which could be extended for an additional 28 years provided the copyright holder filed for renewal before the expiration of the initial copyright)  In 1958, she formulated three agreements with Disney regarding the novel's rights  Upon her death in 1977, the rights passed to her husband, Veit Wyler, and her children, who held on to them until 1993 when he sold the rights to the publishing house Twin Books  Twin Books and Disney disagreed on the terms and validity of Disney's original contract with Anna Wyler and Disney's continued use of the Bambi name When the two companies were unable to reach a solution, Twin Books filed suit against Disney for copyright infringement  Disney argued that because Salten's original 1923 publication of the novel did not include a copyright notice, by American law it was immediately considered a public domain work  It also argued that as the novel was published in 1923, Anna Wyler's 1954 renewal occurred after the deadline and was invalid  The case was reviewed by the U S  District Court for the Northern District of California, which ruled that the novel was copyrighted upon its publication in 1923, and not a public domain work then  However, in validating 1923 as the publication date, this confirmed Disney's claim that the copyright renewal was filed too late and the novel became a public domain work in 1951 Twin Books appealed the decision, and in March 1996 the U S  Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit reversed the original decision, stating that the novel was a foreign work in 1923 that was not in its home country's public domain when published, therefore the original publication date could not be used in arguing American copyright law  Instead, the 1926 publication date, the first in which it specifically declared itself to be copyrighted in the United States, is considered the year when the novel was copyrighted in America  Anna Wyler's renewal was therefore timely and valid, and Twin Books' ownership of the copyright was upheld The Twin Books decision is still regarded as controversial by many copyright experts  David Nimmer, in a 1998 article, argued that the Twin Books ruling meant that an ancient Greek epic, if only published outside the U S  without the required formalities, would be eligible for copyright protection  Although Nimmer concluded that Twin Books required this finding (within the Ninth Circuit), he characterized the result as "patently absurd "The American copyright of the novel expired on January 1, 2022, while in Austria and other countries of the European Union it entered the public domain on January 1, 2016 

Sequel
While living in exile in Switzerland, after being forced to flee Nazi-occupied Austria, Salten wrote a sequel to Bambi that follows the birth and lives of Bambi's twin offspring, Geno and Gurri  The young fawns interact with other deer, and are educated and watched over by Bambi and Faline as they grow  They also learn more about the ways of man, including both hunters and the gamekeeper seeking to protect the deer  Due to Salten's exiled status – he had lost his Austrian publisher Paul Zsolnay Verlag – the English translation of the novel was published first, in the United States in 1939 by Bobbs-Merrill; it would take a year before the sequel was published in the original German language in Switzerland by his new publisher 

Reception
In the United States, the 1928 translation of Bambi was "hugely popular", selling 650,000 copies by 1942  When Felix Salten visited the United States as a member of a European delegation of journalists in May–July 1930, he was greeted warmly because of Bambi wherever the delegation went, as was testified by the Finnish member of the delegation, Urho Toivola  In his own travel book, Salten did not boast about this; only when describing his visit to a "Negro college" of Atlanta, he mentions passingly that the children praised his books In 1936 Nazi Germany however, the government banned the original as "political allegory on the treatment of Jews in Europe " Many copies of the novel were burned, making original first editions rare and difficult to find 

In his foreword, John Galsworthy called it a "delicious book – delicious not only for children but for those who are no longer so fortunate" and a "little masterpiece" that shows a "delicacy of perception and essential truth"  He observed that while reading the galley proof of the novel while crossing the English Channel, he, his wife, and his nephew read each page in turn over the course of three hours in "silent absorption" Among US reviewers, New York Times reviewer John Chamberlain praised Salten's "tender, lucid style" that "takes you out of yourself"  He felt that Salten captured the essence of each of the creatures as they talked, catching the "rhythm of the different beings who people his forest world" and showed particular "comprehension" in detailing the various stages of Bambi's life  He also considered the English translation "admirably" done  A reviewer for Catholic World praised the approach of the subject, noting that it was "marked by poetry and sympathy [with] charming reminders of German folklore and fairy tale" but disliked the "transference of certain human ideals to the animal mind" and the vague references to religious allegory  The Boston Transcript called it a "sensitive allegory of life"  The Saturday Review considered it "beautiful and graceful" piece that showed a rare "individuality"  Isabel Ely Lord, reviewing the novel for the American Journal of Nursing, called the novel a "delightful animal story" and Salten a "poet" whose "picture of the woods and its people is an unforgettable one " In comparing Bambi to Salten's later work Perri – in which Bambi makes a brief cameo – Louise Long of the Dallas Morning News considered both to be stories that "quietly and completely [captivate] the heart"  Long felt the prose was "poised and mobile and beautiful as poetry" and praises Salten for his ability to give the animals seemingly human speech while not "[violating] their essential natures " Vicky Smith of Horn Book Magazine felt the novel was gory compared to the later Disney adaptation and called it a "weeper"  While criticizing it as one of the most esteemable anti-hunting novels available, she concedes the novel is not easily forgettable and praises the "linchpin scene" where Bambi's mother dies, stating "the understated conclusion of that scene, 'Bambi never saw his mother again,' masterfully evokes an uncomplicated emotional response"  She questions Galsworthy's recommendation of the novel to sportsmen in the foreword, wondering "how many budding sportsmen might have had conversion experiences in the face of Salten's unrelieved harangue and how many might have instead become alienated " In comparing the novel to the Disney film, Steve Chapple of Sports Afield felt that Salten viewed Bambi's forest as a "pretty scary place" and the novel as a whole had a "lot of dark adult undertones"  Interpreting it as an allegory for Salten's own life, Chapple felt Salten came across as "a little morbid, a bleeding heart of a European intellectual " A half century later,The Wall Street Journal's James P  Sterba also considered it an "antifascist allegory" and sarcastically notes that "you'll find it in the children's section at the library, a perfect place for this 293-page volume, packed as it is with blood-and-guts action, sexual conquest and betrayal" and "a forest full of cutthroats and miscreants  I count at least six murderers (including three child-killers) among Bambi's associates "Among UK reviews, the Times Literary Supplement stated that the novel is a "tale of exceptional charm, though untrustworthy of some of the facts of animal life "

Impact
Some critics have argued that Bambi is one of the first environmental novels 

Adaptations
Film
Walt Disney animated film
With World War II looming, Max Schuster aided the Jewish Salten's flight from Nazi controlled Austria and Nazi Germany and helped introduce him, and Bambi, to Walt Disney Productions  Sidney Franklin, a producer and director at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, purchased the film rights in 1933, initially desiring to make a live-action adaptation of the work  Deciding such a film would be too difficult to make, he sold the rights to Walt Disney in April 1937 in hopes of it being adapted into an animated film instead  Disney began working on the film immediately, intending it to be the company's second feature-length animated film and his first to be based on a specific, recent work The original novel, written for an adult audience, was considered too "grim" and "somber" for the young audience Disney was targeting, and with the work required to adapt the novel, Disney put production on hold while it worked on several other projects  In 1938, Disney assigned Perce Pearce and Carl Fallberg to develop the film's storyboards, but attention was soon drawn away as the studio began working on Fantasia  Finally, on 17 August 1939, production on Bambi began in earnest, although it progressed slowly due to changes in the studio personnel, location and the methodology of handling animation at the time  The writing was completed in July 1940, by which time the film's budget had swelled to $858,000  Disney was later forced to slash 12 minutes from the film before final animation, to save costs on production Heavily modified from the original novel, Bambi was released to theaters in the United States on 8 August 1942  Disney's version severely downplays the naturalistic and environmental elements found in the novel, giving it a lighter, friendlier feeling  The addition of two new characters, Thumper the Rabbit and Flower the Skunk, two sweet and gentle forest creatures, contributed to giving the film the desired levity  Considered a classic, the film has been called "the crowning achievement of Walt Disney's animation studio" and was named as the third best film in the animation genre of the AFI's 10 Top 10 "classic" American film genres On January 28, 2020, a computer-animated remake of the Disney film was announced to be in development with a script co-written by Geneva Robertson-Dworet and Lindsey Beer while Paul Weitz, Chris Weitz, and Andrew Miano will produce the film 

Russian live-action films
In 1985, a Russian-language live-action adaptation, Russian: Детство Бемби (Detstvo Bembi, lit  Bambi's Childhood), was produced and released in VHS format in the Soviet Union by Gorky Film Studios  It was directed by Natalya Bondarchuk, who also co-wrote the script with Yuri Nagibin, and featured music by Boris Petrov  Natalya 's son Ivan Burlyayev and her husband Nikolay Burlyaev starred as the young and adolescent Bambi, respectively, while Faline (renamed Falina) was portrayed by Yekaterina Lychyova as a child and Galina Belyayeva as an adult  In this adaptation, the film starts using animals, changes to using human actors, then returns to using animals for the ending A sequel, Russian: Юность Бемби (Yunost Bembi), lit  Bambi's Youth, followed in 1986 with Nikolay and Galina reprising their voice roles as Bambi and Falina  Featuring over 100 species of live animals and filmed in various locations in Crimea, Mount Elbrus, Latvia and Czechoslovakia, the film follows new lovers Bambi and Felina as they go on a journey in search of a life-giving flower  Both films were released to Region 2 DVD with Russian and English subtitle options by the Russian Cinema Council in 2000  The first film's DVD also included a French audio soundtrack, while the second contained French subtitles instead 

Horror film
On November 21, 2022, a live-action horror film, titled Bambi: The Reckoning, was announced to be in development for ITN Studios and Jagged Edge Productions with Scott Jeffrey directing and Rhys Frake-Waterfield producing  The film will be about the titular character getting revenge after the death of his mother  The film is expected to begin principal photography in mid-2023 

Ballet
The Estonian composer Lydia Auster composed the ballet Bambi in 1986 which was premièred in Tartu, Vanemuine theater, in 1987 The Oregon Ballet Theatre adapted Bambi into an evening-length ballet entitled Bambi: Lord of the Forest  It was slated to premiere in March 2000 as the main production for the company's 2000–2001 season  A collaboration between artistic director James Canfield and composer Thomas Lauderdale, the ballet's production was to be an interpretation of the novel rather than the Disney film  In discussing the adaptation, Canfield stated that he was given a copy of the novel as a Christmas present and found it to be a "classic story about coming of age and a life cycle " He went on to note that the play was inspired solely by the novel and not the Disney film  After the initial announcements, the pair began calling the work The Collaboration, as Disney owns the licensing rights for the name Bambi and they did not wish to fight for usage rights  The local press began calling the ballet alternative titles, including Not-Bambi which Canfield noted to be his favorite, out of derision at Disney  Its premiere was delayed for unexplained reasons, and it has yet to be performed 

Theater
Playwright James DeVita, of the First Stage Children's Theater, created a stage adaptation of the novel  The script was published by Anchorage Press Plays on 1 June 1997  Crafted for young adults and teenagers and retaining the title Bambi – A Life in the Woods, it has been produced around the United States at various venues  The script calls for an open-stage setup, and utilizes at least nine actors: five male and four female, to cover the thirteen roles  The American Alliance Theatre and Education awarded the work its "Distinguished Play Award" for an adaptation 

Book
In 1999, the novel was adapted into an illustrated hardback children's book by Janet Schulman, illustrated by Steve Johnson and Lou Fancher, and published by Simon & Schuster as part of its "Atheneum Books for Young Readers" imprint  In the adaptation, Schulman attempted to retain some of the lyrical feel of the original novel  She notes that rather than rewrite the novel, she "replicated Salten's language almost completely  I reread the novel a number of times and then I went through and highlighted the dialogue and poignant sentences Salten had written " Doing so retained much of the novel's original lyrical feel, though the book's brevity did result in a sacrifice of some of the "majesty and mystery" found in the novel  The illustrations were created to appear as realistic as possible, using painted images rather than sketches  In 2002, the Schulman adaptation was released in audiobook format by Audio Bookshelf, with Frank Dolan as the reader 

See also
Bambi Awards
Bambi effect
Bambi's Children
Fifteen Rabbits
Passage 3:
Felix Salten
Felix Salten (German: [ˈzaltn̩]; 6 September 1869 – 8 October 1945) was an Austro-Hungarian author and literary critic in Vienna 

Life
Salten was born Siegmund Salzmann on 6 September 1869 in Pest, Austria-Hungary  His father was Fülöp Salzmann, the telegraph office's clerk in Pest; his mother was Maria Singer  He was the grandson of an Orthodox rabbi  When he was four weeks old, his family relocated to Vienna, as many Jews did after the Imperial government had granted full citizenship rights to Jews in 1867 
When his father went bankrupt, the sixteen-year-old Salten quit school and began working for an insurance agency  He also began submitting poems and book reviews to journals  He became part of the "Young Vienna" movement (Jung-Wien) and soon received work as a full-time art and theater critic for Vienna's press (Wiener Allgemeine Zeitung, Zeit)  In 1900, he published his first collection of short stories  In 1901, he initiated Vienna's first, short-lived literary cabaret Jung-Wiener Theater Zum lieben Augustin 
He was soon publishing, on an average, one book a year, of plays, short stories, novels, travel books, and essay collections  He also wrote for nearly all the major newspapers of Vienna  In 1906, Salten went to Ullstein as an editor in chief of the B Z  am Mittag and the Berliner Morgenpost, but relocated to Vienna some months later  He wrote also film scripts and librettos for operettas  In 1927 he became president of the Austrian P E N  club as successor of Arthur Schnitzler 
His best remembered work is Bambi (1923)  A translation in English was published by Simon & Schuster in 1928, and became a Book-of-the-Month Club success  In 1933, he sold the film rights to the American director Sidney Franklin for only $1,000, and Franklin later transferred the rights to the Walt Disney Studios, which formed the basis of the animated film Bambi (1942) 
Life in Austria became perilous for Jews during the 1930s  In Germany, Adolf Hitler had Salten's books banned in 1936  Two years later, after Germany's annexation of Austria, Salten moved to Zurich, Switzerland, with his wife, and spent his final years there  Felix Salten died on 8 October 1945, at the age of 76  He is buried at Israelitischer Friedhof Unterer Friesenberg 
Salten married actress Ottilie Metzl (1868–1942) in 1902, and had two children: Paul (1903–1937) and Anna Katharina (1904–1977), who married Swiss actor Hans Rehmann  He composed another book based on the character of Bambi, titled Bambi’s Children: The Story of a Forest Family (1939)  His stories Perri and The Hound of Florence inspired the Disney films Perri (1957) and The Shaggy Dog (1959), respectively 
Salten was himself an avid hunter Salten is now considered the probable author of a successful erotic novel, Josephine Mutzenbacher: The Life Story of a Viennese Whore, as Told by Herself published anonymously in 1906, filled with social criticism 

Selected works
1899 – Der Gemeine
1906 – Josephine Mutzenbacher, authorship assumed – in German: Josefine Mutzenbacher oder Die Geschichte einer Wienerischen Dirne von ihr selbst erzählt (Vienna: Privatdruck [Fritz Freund], 1906)
1907 – Herr Wenzel auf Rehberg und sein Knecht Kaspar Dinckel
1910 – Olga Frohgemuth
1911 – Der Wurstelprater
1922 – Das Burgtheater
1923 – Der Hund von Florenz; English translation by Huntley Paterson, illustrated by Kurt Wiese, The Hound of Florence (Simon & Schuster, 1930), OCLC 1826868
1923 – Bambi: Eine Lebensgeschichte aus dem Walde; English transl  Whittaker Chambers, illus  Kurt Wiese, foreword John Galsworthy, as Bambi, a Life in the Woods (US: Simon & Schuster, 1928, OCLC 69170544; UK: Jonathan Cape, June/July 1928, OCLC 8454451); re-illustrated by Barbara Cooney (S&S, 1970), OCLC 824177272
1925 – Neue Menschen auf alter Erde: Eine Palästinafahrt
1927 – Martin Overbeck: Der Roman eines reichen jungen Mannes
1929 – Fünfzehn Hasen: Schicksale in Wald und Feld; English transl  Whittaker Chambers, as Fifteen Rabbits (US: Simon & Schuster, 1930, OCLC 1050794154); revised and enlarged (New York : Grosset & Dunlap, 1942, illus  Kurt Wiese), OCLC 4026552)
1931 – Freunde aus aller Welt: Roman eines zoologischen Gartens; English transl  Whittaker Chambers, illus  Kurt Wiese, as The City Jungle (US: Simon & Schuster, 1932, OCLC 2079025)
1931 – Fünf Minuten Amerika
1933 – Florian: Das Pferd des Kaisers; transl  Erich Posselt and Michel Kraike, Florian: The Emperor’s Stallion (Bobbs-Merrill, 1934), OCLC 8990860
1938 – Perri; German, Die Jugend des Eichhörnchens Perri
1939 – Bambi's Children, English translation (Bobbs-Merrill); German original, Bambis Kinder: Eine Familie im Walde (1940)
1940 – Renni the Rescuer
1942 – A Forest World
1945 – Djibi, the Kitten, illus  Walter Linsenmaier; U S  transl , Jibby the Cat (Messner, 1948)

Selected filmography
Doctor Schotte (1918)
Modern Marriages (1924)
Comedians (1925)
Storm in a Water Glass (1931)
Poor as a Church Mouse (1931)
Scampolo (1932)
The Empress and I (1933)
The Only Girl (1933)
Florian (1940)
Bambi (1942)
Perri (1957)
The Shaggy Dog (1959)

See also
Exilliteratur
Fable
Salzmann
Passage 4:
Roe Green Park
Roe Green Park is a park in the London Borough of Brent, northwest London, England  The Barn Hill Conservation Group maintain the Roe Green walled garden that is within the park  Roe Green Village was built between 1918 and 1920, using Prussian/German prisoners of war as cheap labour after World War I  The park was incorporated and thus taken under council control between 1935 and 1938 

History
This now much used park in Kingsbury came about because of the rapid growth of suburban housing in this part of the district in the early 1930s  In 1933 the local Council identified a 5-acre (2 0 ha) site on the north side of Kingsbury Road for a park, but this was subject to plans for housing (Manor Close) by the developer, George Cloke  He had moved into Kingsbury Manor in 1929, and bought most of the land of Valley Farm the following year  Under pressure from the local Ratepayers' Association, the Council negotiated with Mr Cloke to purchase some of his other land for a park, and in March 1935 two fields on the south side of Bacon Lane (about 21 acres) were bought for about £27,000, with Middlesex County Council contributing 25% of the money  As the entrance to this new park was from Roe Green, it was given the name "Roe Green Park" 
While the purchase was going through, Wembley Urban District Council decided to use part of the park fronting Kingsbury Road as the site for an open air swimming pool  In 1936 and 1937 Roe Green Park was used as the venue for a week-long Carnival and Fete to raise money for Wembley Hospital (which was run by a charity in these days before the National Health Service) and also for brass band concerts on summer Sunday evenings, but these events were transferred to Silver Jubilee Park when work started on building Kingsbury Swimming Pool in 1938  The Olympic-sized pool opened in May 1939 
After buying the two fields, the Council wanted to acquire further land, to make the park more accessible from the main shopping centre and Kingsbury Station  After three years of negotiations, they bought the 5-acre (2 0 ha) Westcroft field for £13,750 from another local developer, Henry Higinbotham, in 1938  In the same year, Kingsbury Manor and its 10-acre (4 0 ha) grounds were purchased from George Cloke  This was a joint purchase with Middlesex County Council, who wanted to use the large, secluded house as a Maternity Hostel for unmarried mothers 
The land for the park as it now exists had been acquired, but soon the outbreak of the Second World War meant that all of the park was ploughed up to provide allotments where local people could grow vegetables and fruit  After the war, twenty "pre-fab" bungalows were built along the Kingsbury Road edge of the park between the swimming pool and the Kingsbury Manor lodge, as emergency housing for families, and it was only around 1960 that local residents could enjoy the use of all of the park again The pool was closed in 1988 and demolished a few years later, replaced by green pitches 

John Logie Baird
John Logie Baird, the television pioneer, leased the former stables and coach house at Kingsbury Manor in 1928  He employed H  Barton-Chapple to take charge of his experiments there, which included designing and building prototype TV receivers  In May 1929, two 25-metre high masts were erected, and the first international moving picture transmissions, from Berlin in Germany to England, were received here  The following year, the first combined sound and vision signals were received  For many years afterwards the former stables were known as Kingsbury Manor Studio, and are now the home of Kingsbury Veterans' Club  The masts were taken down at the start of the Second World War, as they would have been a landmark for German bombers, but the concrete base of one of the masts can still be seen in Roe Green Park    A plaque to commemorate Baird's work here was unveiled next to this by Wembley History Society in the 1950s, which was moved to the Veterans' Club after damage by vandals 

Homicide
The park was in the news headlines in February 2002 when the fire-blistered body of an 18-year-old Sri Lankan man was found there  A year later, four other Sri Lankans – including ring-leader Senthamil Thillainathan – were found guilty of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment  Senthamil had also murdered another man in an axe attack in nearby Wembley eight months earlier 

George Michael
The video for the 2004 single "Round Here" from George Michael's fifth solo album, Patience, features several clips of Roe Green Park  The song is about the singer's childhood, and includes the lyric "I hear my mamma call/In Kingsbury Park" 
Passage 5:
Deer of Great Britain
Six species of deer are living wild in Great Britain: Scottish red deer, roe deer, fallow deer, sika deer, Reeves's muntjac, and Chinese water deer  Of those, Scottish red and roe deer are native and have lived in the isles throughout the Holocene  Fallow deer have been reintroduced twice, by the Romans and the Normans, after dying out in the last ice age  The other three are escaped or released alien species 

Native
Scottish red deer - (subspecies)
Roe deer

Introduced
Fallow deer
Sika deer
Reeves's muntjac
Water deer

Reintroduced
Eurasian elk - (on private reserves)
Reindeer - (on private reserves)

Extinct
Irish elk

Gallery
Passage 6:
Roe deer
The roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), also known as the roe, western roe deer, or European roe deer, is a species of deer  The male of the species is sometimes referred to as a roebuck  The roe is a small deer, reddish and grey-brown, and well-adapted to cold environments  The species is widespread in Europe, from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia, from Scotland to the Caucasus, and east as far as northern Iran 

Etymology
The English roe is from the Old English rā or rāha, from Proto-Germanic *raihô, cognate with Old Norse rá, Old Saxon rēho, Middle Dutch and Dutch ree, Old High German rēh, rēho, rēia, German Reh  It is perhaps ultimately derived from a PIE root *rei-, meaning "streaked, spotted or striped" The word is attested on the 5th-century Caistor-by-Norwich astragalus – a roe deer talus bone, written in Elder Futhark as ᚱᚨᛇᚺᚨᚾ, transliterated as raïhan In the English language, this deer was originally simply called a 'roe', but over time the word 'roe' has become a qualifier, and it is now usually called 'roe deer' The Koiné Greek name πύγαργος, transliterated 'pygargos', mentioned in the Septuagint and the works of various writers such as Hesychius, Herodotus and later Pliny, was originally thought to refer to this species (in many European translations of the Bible), although it is now more often believed to refer to the addax  It is derived from the words pyge 'buttocks' and argo 'white' 
The taxonomic name Capreolus is derived from capra or caprea, meaning 'billy goat', with the diminutive suffix -olus  The meaning of this word in Latin is not entirely clear: it may have meant 'ibex' or 'chamois'  The roe was also known as capraginus or capruginus in Latin 

Taxonomy
Linnaeus first described the roe deer in the modern taxonomic system as Cervus capreolus in 1758  The initially monotypic genus Capreolus was first proposed by John Edward Gray in 1821, although he did not provide a proper description for this taxon  Gray was not actually the first to use the name Capreolus, it has been used by other authors before him  Nonetheless, his publication is seen as taxonomically acceptable  He was generally ignored until the 20th century, most 19th-century works having continued to follow Linnaeus 
The name Capreolus capreolus is a tautonym Roe deer populations gradually become somewhat larger as one moves further to the east, peaking in Kazakhstan, then becoming smaller again towards the Pacific Ocean  The Soviet mammalogist Vladimir Sokolov had recognised this as a separate species from 1985 already using electrophoretic chromatography to show differences in the fractional protein content of the body tissues, the next year he showed that there were differences in the skull morphology, and a year after he used sonographs to demonstrate that the fawns, females and males made very different noises between species  Alexander S  Graphodatsky looked at the karyotypy to present more evidence to recognise these Russian and Asian populations as a separate species, now renamed the eastern or Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus), in his 1990 paper  The taxa are differentiated by the B chromosomes found in C  pygargus, populations of this species gain more of these strange 'junk' chromosomes as one moves further east 
This new taxonomic interpretation (circumscription) was first followed in the American book Mammal Species of the World in 1993  Populations of the roe deer from east of the Khopyor River and Don River to Korea are considered to be this species 

Subspecies
The Integrated Taxonomic Information System, following the 2005 Mammal Species of the World, gives the following subspecies:
Capreolus capreolus capreolus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Capreolus capreolus canus Miller, 1910 - Spain
Capreolus capreolus caucasicus Nikolay Yakovlevich Dinnik, 1910 - A large-sized subspecies found in the region to the north of the Caucasus Mountains; although Mammal Species of the World appears to recognise the taxon, this work bases itself on a chapter by Lister et al  in the 1998 book The European roe deer: the biology of success, which only recognises the name as provisional 
Capreolus capreolus italicus Enrico Festa, 1925 - ItalyThis is just one (extreme) interpretation among a number of them  Two main specialists did not recognise these taxa and considered the species to be without subspecies in 2001  The European Union's Fauna Europaea recognised in 2005 two subspecies, but besides the nominate form recognises the Spanish population as the endemic Capreolus capreolus garganta Meunier, 1983  In 2008 the IUCN recognised three infraspecific taxa: the nominate and the subspecies garganta and italicus 

Systematics
Roe deer are most closely related to the water deer, and, counter-intuitively, the three species in this group, called the Capreolini, are most closely related to moose and reindeer Although roe deer were once classified as belonging to the Cervinae subfamily, they are now classified as part of the Odocoileinae, which includes the deer from the New World 

Hybrids
Both the European roe deer and Siberian roe deer have seen their populations increase, both around the 1930s  In recent times, since the 1960s, the two species have become sympatric where their distributions meet, and there is now a broad 'hybridization zone' running from the right side of the Volga River up to eastern Poland  It is extremely difficult for hunters to know which species they have bagged  In line with Haldane's rule, female hybrids of the two taxa are fertile, while male hybrids are not  Hybrids are much larger than normal and a Cesarean section was sometimes needed to birth the fawns, becoming larger than their mothers at the age of 4–5 months  F1 hybrid males may be sterile, but backcrosses with the females are possible 22% of the animals around Moscow carry the mtDNA of the European roe deer and 78% of the Siberian  In the Volgograd region, the European roe deer predominates  In the Stavropol and Dnipropetrovsk regions of Ukraine, most of the deer are Siberian roe deer  In northeastern Poland there is also evidence of introgression with the Siberian roe deer, which was likely introduced  In some cases, such as around Moscow, former introductions of European stock is likely responsible 

Description
The roe deer is a relatively small deer, with a body length of 95–135 cm (3 ft 1 in – 4 ft 5 in) throughout its range, and a shoulder height of 63–67 cm (2 ft 1 in – 2 ft 2 in), and a weight of 15–35 kg (35–75 lb)  Populations from Urals and northern Kazakhstan are larger on average growing to 145 cm (4 ft 9 in) in length and 85 cm (2 ft 9 in) at shoulder height, with body weights of up to 60 kg (130 lb), with the populations becoming smaller again further east in the Transbaikal, Amur Oblast, and Primorsky Krai regions  In healthy populations, where population density is restricted by hunting or predators, bucks are slightly larger than does  Under other conditions, males can be similar in size to females, or slightly smaller Bucks in good conditions develop antlers up to 20–25 cm (8–10 in) long with two or three, rarely even four, points  When the male's antlers begin to regrow, they are covered in a thin layer of velvet-like fur which disappears later on after the hair's blood supply is lost  Males may speed up the process by rubbing their antlers on trees, so that their antlers are hard and stiff for the duels during the mating season  Unlike most cervids, roe deer begin regrowing antlers almost immediately after they are shed 

Distribution
Within Europe the roe deer occurs in most areas with the exception of northernmost Scandinavia, in Norway it occurs throughout the country with the exception of parts of northern Vestland and northernmost Nordland (north of Narvik), and the islands of Iceland, Ireland and those of the Mediterranean Sea islands  In the Mediterranean region, it is largely confined to mountainous areas, and is absent or rare at low altitudes There is an early Neolithic fossil record from Jordan It is known that there are roe deer that live in the Red Forest near Chornobyl in Ukraine 

Belgium
In Flanders the roe deer was mostly confined to the hilly regions in the east, but like in neighbouring countries the population has expanded in recent times  A theory is that the expansion of maize cultivation, which are higher than traditional crops and afford more shelter, has aided their expansion to the west 

Britain
In England and Wales, roe deer have experienced a substantial expansion in their range in the latter half of the 20th century and continuing into the 21st century  This increase in population also appears to be affecting woodland ecosystems  At the start of the 20th century, they were almost extirpated in Southern England, but since then have hugely expanded their range, mostly due to restrictions and decrease in hunting, increases in forests and reductions in arable farming, changes in agriculture (more winter cereal crops), a massive reduction in extensive livestock husbandry, and a general warming climate over the past 200 years  Furthermore, there are no large predators in Britain  In some cases, roe deer have been introduced with human help  In 1884 roe deer were introduced from Württemberg in Germany into the Thetford Forest, and these spread to populate most of Norfolk, Suffolk, and substantial parts of Cambridgeshire  In southern England, they started their expansion in Sussex (possibly from enclosed stock in Petworth Park) and from there soon spread into Surrey, Berkshire, Wiltshire, Hampshire, and Dorset, and for the first half of the 20th century, most roe deer in Southern England were to be found in these counties  By the end of the 20th century, they had repopulated much of southern England and had expanded into Somerset, Devon, Cornwall, Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, Warwickshire, Lincolnshire and South Yorkshire, and had even spread into Wales from the Ludlow area where an isolated population had appeared  At the same time, the surviving population in Scotland and the Lake District had pushed further south beyond Yorkshire and Lancashire and into Derbyshire and Humberside In the 1970s, the species was still completely absent from Wales  Roe deer can now be found in most of rural England except for southeast Kent and parts of Wales; anywhere in the UK mainland suitable for roe deer may have a population  Not being a species that needs large areas of woodland to survive, urban roe deer are now a feature of several cities, notably Glasgow and Bristol, where in particular they favour cemeteries  In Wales, they are least common, but they are reasonably well established in Powys and Monmouthshire 

Iran
Roe deer are found in northern Iran in the Caspian region: they occur in the Hyrcanian woodlands and agricultural lands of the Alborz Mountains (Golestan National Park, Jahan Nama Protected Area) 

Ireland
Scottish roe deer were introduced to the Lissadell Estate in County Sligo in Ireland around 1870 by Sir Henry Gore-Booth  The Lissadell roe deer were noted for their occasional abnormal antlers and survived in that general area for about 50 years before they died out  According to the National Biodiversity Data Centre, in 2014 there was a confirmed sighting of roe deer in County Armagh  There have been other, unconfirmed, sightings in County Wicklow 

The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, roe deer were extirpated from the entirety of the country except for two small areas around 1875  As new forests were planted in the country in the 20th century, the population began to expand rapidly  Although it was a protected species in 1950, the population is no longer considered threatened and it has lost legal protection  As of 2016 there are some 110,000 roe deer in the country  The population is primarily kept in check through the efforts of hunters 

Israel
In 1991, a breeding colony of 27 roe deer coming from France, Hungary and Italy were brought in the Hai-Bar Carmel Reserve  A small number of this roe deer population has been reintroduced to the Carmel Mountains from the Carmel Hai-Bar Nature Reserve, with the first deer being released in 1996  24 to 29 animals had been released by 2006  Some of the reintroduced animals were hand-reared and could be monitored by their responses to their keeper calls 

Ecology
Habitat
This species can utilize a large number of habitats, including open agricultural areas and above the tree line, but a requisite factor is access to food and cover  It retreats to dense woodland, especially among conifers, or bramble scrub when it must rest, but it is very opportunistic and a hedgerow may be good enough  Roe deer in the southern Czech Republic live in almost completely open agricultural land  The animal is more likely to be spotted in places with nearby forests to retreat to  A pioneer species commonly associated with biotic communities at an early stage of succession, during the Neolithic period in Europe when farming humans began to colonise the continent from the Middle East, the roe deer was abundant, taking advantage of areas of forest or woodland cleared by Neolithic farmers 

Behaviour
In order to mitigate risk, roe deer remain within refuge habitats (such as forests) during the day  They are likelier to venture into more open habitats at night and during crepuscular periods when there is less ambient activity  It scrapes leaf litter off the ground to make a 'bed' When alarmed it will bark a sound much like a dog and flash out its white rump patch  Rump patches differ between the sexes, with the white rump patches heart-shaped on females and kidney-shaped on males  Males may also bark or make a low grunting noise  Does (the females) make a high-pitched "pheep" whine to attract males during the rut (breeding season) in July and August  Initially the female goes looking for a mate and commonly lures the buck back into her territory before mating  The roe deer is territorial, and while the territories of a male and a female might overlap, other roe deer of the same sex are excluded unless they are the doe's offspring of that year 

Diet
It feeds mainly on grass, leaves, berries, and young shoots  It particularly likes very young, tender grass with a high moisture content, i e , grass that has received rain the day before  Roe deer will generally not venture into a field that has or has had livestock in it 

Reproduction
The polygamous roe deer males clash over territory in early summer and mate in early autumn  During courtship, when the males chase the females, they often flatten the underbrush, leaving behind areas of the forest in the shape of a circle or figure eight called 'roe rings'  These tend to be 1-3m in diameter  In 1956 it was speculated based on some field evidence that they choose where to form rings around plants with ergot mould, but this has not been substantiated further  Males may also use their antlers to shovel around fallen foliage and soil as a way of attracting a mate  Roebucks enter rutting inappetence during the July and August breeding season  Females are monoestrous and after delayed implantation usually give birth the following June, after a 10-month gestation period, typically to two spotted fawns of opposite sexes  The fawns remain hidden in long grass from predators; they are suckled by their mother several times a day for around three months  Young female roe deer can begin to reproduce when they are around 6 months old  During the mating season, a male roe deer may mount the same doe several times over a duration of several hours 

Population ecology
A roe deer can live up to 20 years, but it usually does not reach such an age  A normal life span in the wild is seven to eight years, or 10 years The roe deer population shows irruptive growth  It is extremely fecund and can double its population every year; it shows a retarded reaction to population density with females continuing to have a similar fecundity at high population densities 
Population structure is modified by available nutrition, where populations are irrupting there are few animals over six years old  Where populations are stagnant or moribund, there is huge fawn mortality and a large part of the population is over seven years old  Mortality is highest in the first weeks after birth due to predation, or sometimes farm machinery; or in the first winter due to starvation or disease, with up to 90% mortality 

Community ecology
It is a main prey of the Persian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana) in the Alborz Mountains of Iran The nematode Spiculopteragia asymmetrica infects this deer Compared to the other large herbivores and omnivores in Iran, it is a poor disperser of plant seeds, despite consuming relatively more of them 

Uses
The roe deer is a game animal of great economic value in Europe, providing large amounts of meat and earning millions of euros in sport hunting  In 1998, some 2,500,000 roe deer were shot per year in Western Europe  In Germany alone, 700,000 were shot a year in the 1990s  This is insufficient to slow down the population growth, and the roe deer continues to increase in number It is the main source of venison in Europe  In the 2000s, there was growing interest among consumers in alternative and organic food products such as game meat  Frozen roe venison should not be stored longer than 10 to 12 months at −25 °C to maintain a high quality  Storage time and quality can decrease if the bullet has travelled through the digestive tract and contaminated the meat  The meat, like most game meat, is darker in colour than most farmed meat 

Palaeontology
Roe deer are thought to have evolved from a species in the Eurasian genus Procapreolus, with some 10 species occurring from the Late Miocene to the Early Pleistocene, which moved from the east to Central Europe over the millennia, where Procapreolus cusanus (also classified as Capreolus cusanus) occurred  It may not have evolved from C  cusanus, however, because the two extant species split from each other 1 375 and 2 75 Myr ago, and the western species first appeared in Europe 600 thousand years ago As of 2008 over 3,000 fossil specimens of this species have been recovered from Europe, which affords a good set of data to elucidate the prehistoric distribution  The distribution of the European species has fluctuated often since entering Europe  During the some periods during the last ice age it was present in central Europe, but during the Last Glacial Maximum it retreated to refugia in the Iberian Peninsula (two refugia here), southern France, Italy (likely two), the Balkans and the Carpathians  When the last Ice Age ended the species initially abruptly expanded north of the Alps to Germany during the Greenland Interstadial, 12 5–10 8 thousand years ago, but during the cooling of the Younger Dryas, 10 8–10 thousand years ago, it appears to have disappeared again from this region  It reappeared 9 7–9 5 thousand years ago, reaching northern central Europe  The modern population in this area appears to have recolonised it from the Carpathians and/or further east, but not the Balkans or other refugia  This is opposite to the red deer, which recolonised Europe from Iberia  There has been much admixture of these populations where they meet, also possibly due to human intervention in some cases It is thought that during the Middle Ages the two species of roe deer were kept apart due to hunting pressure and an abundance of predators; the different species may have met in the period just before that, and yet, during the Ice Age they were also kept apart 

Conservation
Populations are increasing throughout Europe; it is considered a species of 'least concern' 

Culture
In the Hebrew Bible Deuteronomy 14:5, the יַחְמ֑וּר, yahmur, derived from 'to be red', is listed as the third species of animal that may be eaten  In most Bibles this word has usually been translated as 'roe deer', and it still means as much in Arabic (أحمر, pronounced 'ahmar) -it was still said to be a common species in the Mount Carmel area in the 19th century  The King James Bible translated the word as 'fallow deer', and in other English Bible translations the word has been translated as a number of different species  When Modern Hebrew was reconstructed to serve as the language of the future Israel in late Ottoman and British Mandatory Palestine, the King James Bible interpretation was chosen, despite the fallow deer being fallow, not red 
Bambi, the titular character of the book Bambi, A Life in the Woods and its sequel Bambi's Children was originally a roe deer  When the story was adapted to the animated film Bambi by Walt Disney Pictures, the main character was changed to a white-tailed deer Albino roe deer were exceedingly rare in history, and they were regarded as national treasures or sacred animals in ancient times in China 
Passage 7:
5 6×57mm
The 5 6×57mm (designated as the 5,6 × 57 by the C I P ) cartridge was created by Rheinisch-Westfälische Sprengstoffwerke (RWS) in Germany in 1964 by necking down popular 7×57mm Mauser (similarly to how Paul Mauser himself created 6 5×57mm Mauser) for hunting small deer such as roe deer, and for chamois  The calibre has a significant following among European sportsmen, and most European mass production riflemakers chamber several models of rifle for this cartridge   During the 1970-1990 period this cartridge was widely and successfully used in the Republic of Ireland for deer shooting, since security considerations at a period of Provisional Irish Republican Army violence had led to a ban on the civilian ownership of calibres larger than  224in   Some British small deer specialist hunters use the 5 6×57 mm with great success on roe deer, muntjac and Chinese water deer With a factory-load velocity of 3,500 ft/s (1,100 m/s) with a 74-grain, cone-pointed bullet, it is approximately 100 ft/s (30 m/s) faster than the  220 Swift cartridge firing a bullet of equivalent weight   The larger case capacity means that handloaders can produce 50-grain loads that, with velocities in excess of 4,100 ft/s (1,200 m/s), will outpace anything that can safely be achieved by the Swift  The  223 Winchester Super Short Magnum is a 21st-century cartridge that is comparable to the 5 6×57 mm The 5 6×57mm cartridge case has a distinctively thick case wall, and this causes significant problems when handloading, owing to the force that needs to be used through the press when re-sizing the case neck   It has been suggested that this unusual neck thickness is the result of the use of  22 rimfire chamber adapters in centrefire rifles chambered for this cartridge 

5 6×57mm rimmed variant
The 5 6×57mmR (designated as the 5,6 × 57 R by the C I P ) is a rimmed variant of the 5 6×57mm  The rimmed variant was designed for break-open rifles and is almost identical to the rimless variant except for the rim 

Specifications
Bullet diameter: 5 69 mm ( 224")
Loads:
74 gr @ 1040 m/s (3412 ft/s)
60 gr @ 3700 ft/s
Passage 8:
Whitetail Deer Cutaneous Fibroma
Cutaneous fibromas (also known as deer warts) are common neoplasms occurring in wild and domestic deer of many species and are caused by host-specific viral infections  The fibromas occur most frequently in animals under 2 years of age, with cases in older deer reported occasionally or rarely Deer fibromas appear on the skin as hard and round tumors that can be up to 1 cm in diameter  The tumors are blackish or brown and have a rough-textured surface  They do not cause the animal harm unless clumps of fibromas interfere with breathing, eating, or walking 
Fibromas have been reported in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), fallow deer (Cervus dama), red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), Sika deer (Cervus nippon), moose (Alces alces), and caribou (Rangifer caribou) " They occur across the entirety of the white-tail deer's range 

Clinical signs and symptoms
The only visible signs of cutaneous fibroma in white-tailed deer are fleshy wart-like growths on the skin  These growths can vary from single to clusters of warts  These warts can also vary in size from small to very large  They are only attached to the skin, not to the underlying muscle and bone, so their only physical effects on the deer stem from their ability to impair the deer's sight and range of motion if they are large enough to inhibit normal behavior  Deer with these growths can still be in perfect health and usually show no symptoms of ill health 

Transmission
The fibromas are most often caused by host-specific papillomaviruses  They may also be due to host-specific poxviruses The transmission of cutaneous fibromas in the white-tailed deer is caused by a virus that is thought to be transmitted through a variety of insect bites or by a deer coming in contact with any contaminated object that scratches or penetrates the skin of the deer or contaminates wounded/damaged skin  Deer tend to frequent particular trails during their movements, and may thus potentially become infected by contact with objects on the path previously contaminated by other deer  As fibromas occur more commonly in bucks, the virus is probably often transmitted during sparring This disease appears temporary, manifesting after about 7 weeks after inoculation and lasting only about two months  Cutaneous fibromas are not transmissible to other livestock or to humans if their meat is consumed 

Occurrence
Fibromas occur most frequently in animals under 2 years of age  The tumor has been diagnosed in 2 1% of males and 0 4% of females  More bucks are shot (either by law or hunter preference), which influences the sampling 

Treatment and control
Treatment is not a feasible option for most wild populations  The disease has not been a problem in captive herds  The growths could be removed surgically if they became important, but that would rarely be an issue  Because exposure to the virus leads to immunity, it should be possible to develop a vaccine if prevention becomes necessary  To date, this disease has been too rare to justify such actions 

Prognosis
Large, ulcerated fibromas are infrequent  In most deer, the fibromas develop to only a few millimeters in diameter  Tumors then regress; this has been observed both in naturally occurring and experimentally induced cases  Only in an occasional deer do they develop into conspicuous skin tumors  Results of a New York survey indicated that wild deer are exposed and develop an immunity to the fibroma virus early in life 

Significance
Fibromatosis is not an important cause of deer mortality  The disease is not known to infect humans  Although they do not harm the meat, fibromas are repulsive to most people, so they discourage them from consuming the deer Some domesticated animals (cattle, dogs, etc ) are subject to "warts" common to their species  Fibromatosis of deer is quite unlikely to be infectious to domestic animals 

See also
Shope papilloma virus
Context 2: Passage 1:
Arcade (Marvel Comics)
Arcade is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics  He first appeared in 1978's Marvel Team-Up #65, the creation of writer Chris Claremont and writer/artist John Byrne  The character is a combination of an evil genius and a hitman who carries out his assassinations via various elaborate traps, often referred to as Murderworld 
Arcade's first intended victims were Spider-Man and Captain Britain but since Arcade's Murderworld games always leave the outcome up to chance, the duo defeated Arcade and escaped with their lives  Over the years Arcade has targeted a multitude of Marvel heroes, often focusing on the X-Men and associated members of X-Factor, X-Force and Excalibur  In what is considered the "game changer" for Arcade, Avengers Arena, he managed to kidnap 16 superpowered teens and forced them to kill each other for survival in his latest version of Murderworld; unlike most Murderworld schemes, this endeavor yielded several casualties 
Arcade has appeared in a number of other Marvel properties outside of comic books, in X-Men: Evolution voiced by Gabe Khouth, and in the Ultimate Spider-Man animated series voiced by Eric Bauza  He has also appeared as one of the main villains in a number of video games, including X-Men: Madness in Murderworld, Spider-Man/X-Men: Arcade's Revenge, Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, Spider-Man: Edge of Time and Marvel: Avengers Alliance 

Publication history
Arcade was created by Chris Claremont and John Byrne  Arcade first appeared in Marvel Team-Up #65 The same storyline was reprinted shortly thereafter in the black-and-white comic Marvel UK title Super Spider-Man & Captain Britain #248) Arcade has regularly been a guest villain in the majority of Marvel comics appearances he has made throughout the years since his introduction  His earliest encounter with the X-Men team occurred in the pages of Uncanny X-Men #122–124  Some time later he would encounter the team again, this time partnered with Dr  Doom in issues #145-147  Arcade also makes an appearance in The Uncanny X-Men #197 (featuring Colossus) 

Fictional character biography
Arcade affects a manner of dress and speech that makes him appear to be a comedic character  This is part of his overall theme, which extends into his preferred method of murder, an underground funhouse of colorful deathtraps, usually decked out in cheery colors and disguised as an amusement park, which he has dubbed "Murderworld" 
Arcade's back-story, up to and including his real name, remains largely unknown even to the present  According to the man himself, he was born into an extremely wealthy family and lived much of his early life, depending on the telling, on a ranch in Texas, or in a mansion in Beverly Hills  At the age of either eighteen or twenty-one, his allowance was cut off by his father, who declared that he did not deserve it  In retaliation, Arcade murders his father, thus inheriting all of the man's vast estate 
Arcade became a freelance assassin, traveling across the world, killing people in rather mundane fashions, and amassing even more wealth than he already had  Discovering an aptitude for technology, Arcade designed and built his first Murderworld, a subterranean evil lair disguised as an amusement park  From this base, and with the help of two mysterious assistants named Miss Locke and Mr  Chambers, he reemerged as the world's most expensive hitman  For the price of $1 million, he would tailor Murderworld to exploit the specific weaknesses of his targets and then watch as they are killed by a variety of colorful deathtraps strewn throughout the facility 
However, one of his "gimmicks" is that he always deliberately leaves each target a small chance of survival  In one instance, when the girlfriend of one of his captives begged him "If you're going to kill them, at least have the decency to do it quickly, painlessly!" Arcade laughs and replied, "Decency's dull    besides, miss, your way, they're dead and that's that  My way, they've got a chance  Not much of one, but a chance " This sets Arcade notably apart from most other villains who use deathtraps; while most villains believe that their death machines are infallible, Arcade likes to give them a chance on purpose, for the sport of it 

Since his first attempt to slay the unlikely duo of Spider-Man and Captain Britain, Arcade has tangled, at one time or another, with a large number of heroes and teams of heroes  In addition to battling the X-Men, X-Factor, X-Force and Excalibur as groups, he has attempted to kill many individual members, usually in pairs  Examples of this include Gambit and Wolverine, Colossus and Shadowcat, Iceman and Angel, Nightcrawler, Northstar, Meggan, and Dazzler, Other would-be victims of Murderworld have included Green Goblin (Phil Urich), Hercules Johnny Blaze, Patsy Walker, Gwenpool, Iron Man and The Thing and the Micronauts Courtney Ross is one of the few non-super-powered civilians to escape Arcade's attention alive  She survives for some time due to outwitting multiple opponents (such as the Crazy Gang) and discovers a talent for improvisational comedy  In the end, she is rescued by the superhero team Excalibur  The entire situation gives her a new outlook and appreciation for life (though she is soon killed by an unrelated villain after her escape) In another confrontation with Excalibur, Arcade trapped the team in a Murderworld programmed as a Looney Tunes parody, called the Loonies  He was revealed to be the "Wizard of Oz" of this world after Excalibur had to go down the yellow brick road At one point Arcade entraps the two otherworldly warriors, Adam X and Shatterstar, who team up to survive his plans  Arcade finds himself astonished as the two (mostly Adam) literally kill several of his employees  This causes him to state that the clients will be receiving a refund and the two are not to be dealt with in the future  Shatterstar attempts to kill Arcade, but he only destroys a robotic double The battle with Ghost Rider came when Arcade, having taken his show on the road, joins up with Blaze's Quentin Carnival; his Murderworld folded out from the back of a semi  Blaze rampages through the fold-out Murderworld, which he discovers is infested with demonic beings, destroying all the obstacles in his sight and killing what he can  He then leaves Arcade trapped in its depths  Arcade's trailer, now more normal-shaped, is driven out into the desert and abandoned Prior to a confrontation with Wolverine and Gambit, he murdered his assistant Miss Locke in a fit of rage  During the struggle, she wounded him with a carving knife and scarred much of his face  Over time, Arcade recovered from the physical trauma (presumably through facial surgery, though that has never been confirmed or even addressed in future stories) and even built a series of Miss Locke androids, virtually identical to her in every way, to replace his now-dead companion 
In the three-part miniseries called "Claws", Arcade secretly creates a Kraven the Hunter robot, with the "assistance" of White Rabbit, in an attempt to kill both Wolverine and Black Cat  The two heroes overwhelm Arcade and the White Rabbit and strand them in the dinosaur-filled wilds of the Savage Land He is responsible for the destruction of Mutant Town, as part of a botched plan to kidnap X-Factor's Rictor  He later resurfaced, confronting Deadpool and Hercules, Dazzler, Human Torch and the Impossible Man  and the Young Allies and Avengers Academy 

Avengers Arena and Undercover
In a shift from his usual modus operandi, Arcade is responsible for the "Avengers Arena " He and a new associate named Miss Coriander abduct 16 teenage superheroes (several with ties to the Avengers, including several members of Avengers Academy) and strand them on a deserted island, re-modified as an elaborate Murderworld location, forcing them to fight to the death  The heroes Mettle, Red Raven, Kid Briton, Juston Seyfert, Apex, and Nara do not survive this Murderworld encounter  (Nico Minoru of the Runaways is also killed, but the powers of her Staff of One resurrect her before the series' end)
Months later, in the pages of Avengers Undercover, Arcade has cashed in on the success of Avengers Arena in the villainous underground nation of Bagalia  Several Murderworld survivors reunite and are convinced by fellow hero Cullen Bloodstone to kill Arcade at the Massacre Casino in revenge for his actions  After a chaotic battle, Hazmat finally kills Arcade by destroying him with a concentrated radiation burst  However, it was later revealed that Arcade was actually alive the entire time, imprisoned in a Masters of Evil cell (by Baron Zemo, with assistance from his now former comrade Ms  Coriander) and that Hazmat had in reality killed a clone made by members of the Masters of Evil; all revealed as an effort to coerce the heroes to turn against the Avengers and to join them  After the Masters of Evil get away on a hijacked Helicarrier, it was shown that they had strapped Arcade to the front of it 

Partnership with Wilson Fisk
Arcade later encountered Gwenpool at a time when Arcade had trapped members of the MODOK organization and Walrus in his latest Murderworld  With help from Deadpool, Gwenpool rescued the captives and assisted Deadpool in defeating Arcade  Arcade later set a trap for Hellcat and She-Hulk on Coney Island He had most recently moved his enterprises to Las Vegas and was embroiled in his usual games of life & death with Elektra  In addition, he collaborated with Screwball where he gave her the training, equipment, and exclusive streaming rights that she needed  During this encounter he revealed that he'd partnered with Wilson Fisk to eliminate certain heroes "from the board," such as Elektra, Hellcat, Gwenpool, Deadpool and others, explaining their previous encounters  After Elektra put an end to his Vegas operation, Arcade found his way to Madripoor and encountered Spider-Man and Deadpool 

Arcade Industries
In the prelude to the "Hunted" storyline, Arcade and his company Arcade Industries assisted Kraven the Hunter and Last Son of Kraven in preparation for his upcoming hunt in Central Park  He started by having King Cobra, Rhino, Scorpion, Stegron, Tarantula, and Vulture be branded the Savage Six after they were apprehended for Kraven the Hunter by Taskmaster and Black Ant  When Arcade offered to test an automaton called the Hunter-Bot which contains Kraven the Hunter's physical characteristics, a Great Hunt participant named Bob used the VR Goggles to help test it out on Iguana  As Iguana attacked the Hunter-Bot, Bob channeled his anger from life failures and controlled the Hunter-Bot into using a special club which tore into Iguana's hide  When Arcade's Hunter-Bots are unleashed on the animal-themed superhumans, they managed to kill Bison, Gazelle of the Salem's Seven, and Mad Dog  Then a Hunter-Bot killed Gibbon as Spider-Man stays by his side in Gibbon's final moments  It was mentioned by Spider-Man and Toad to the other animal-themed superhumans that Arcade's Hunter-Bots controlled by the participants have killed Mandrill and Man-Bull  Arcade receives Vermin from Taskmaster and Lizard  Kraven has Arcade tell Vulture that there is a chance to break the forcefield by killing more Hunter-Bots  Vermin is being kept captured by Arcade who found him due to Taskmaster and Lizard showing Arcade his location  Vermin bites Arcade's finger in defiance  In fear of being killed by Arcade, Vermin reveals that Lizard and Taskmaster are working against Arcade  Arcade puts a serum into Vermin's skin causing him to spawn clones of him in the cage  When the Great Hunt ends, Captain Marvel shows up to confront Arcade while the controllers of the Hunter-Bots are confronted by Captain America who plans to have a conversation with them about New York's hunting laws 

Arcade's other impacts
One of his old facilities was used as a headquarters by the superhero team X-Force  They planned to use it as a base for crimefighting and even attended a nearby college out of it  Arcade later destroys the base remotely; X-Force barely escapes with their lives Another old Murderworld location was converted into a training room by an incarnation of the New Warriors Madripoor Island-ruler Viper had bought one of Arcade's Murderworld facilities and used it to deceive the X-Men, threatening the city of London with nuclear weapons On one occasion, Arcade experimented with what he called "Video Murder Machines", using a laser-like beam to abduct targets into a virtual environment where the victims would engage in deadly video game type scenarios  He intended to abduct the X-Men but accidentally captured the Micronauts with whom he was unfamiliar  The Micronauts (Arcturus Rann, Devil, Microtron, Nanotron) were able to eventually escape the virtual environments through Microtron's hacking into the system  The premise was inspired by the then recent 1982 Disney film Tron 

Powers and abilities
Arcade has no superhuman powers but has absolute genius-level knowledge of technology far ahead of conventional science, particularly in the fields of robotics and mechanical and electrical engineering  Usually when he appears to be captured, it turns out to be a robot  It is implied that he is an expert in conventional assassination, including ranged weapons, poison, and sabotage, all of which became elements in Murderworld 
In Agent X #5, it was revealed that Arcade also has some medical skills which he uses to save Agent X's life In the Avengers Arena series, Arcade easily held back a cadre of 16 high-powered teenage superheroes seemingly without having to resort to mechanical or technological devices of any sort  He displayed the ability to create force fields, proved to be nearly invulnerable to energy blasts without the force field, controlled the motor functions of his 16 captives all at the same time, employed telekinesis, caused nearby matter to form into a throne for him to sit on, and effortlessly blew apart an almost-invulnerable mutant with a simple gesture  However, these abilities are the result of technology provided by his henchwoman, Miss Coriander, and can only be manifested within the confines of the Antarctica Murderworld 

Associates
Miss Locke – Arcade's bodyguard and chief enforcer, is an expert in martial arts and gun combat  According to a flashback sequence in Avengers Arena #7 (2013), he murdered her in cold blood despite her years of faithful service once she, in Arcade's mind, had tried to get "too close" to him by having an emotional and physical relationship 
Mr  Chambers – Arcade's henchman who has displayed electronic and mechanical skill and is thus in charge of Murderworld's system operations and maintenance  In several appearances he is the driver of a vehicle (disguised as a garbage truck) that would often capture Arcade's victims for transport back to Murderworld 
Miss Coriander – Arcade's latest henchwoman, she claims to be responsible for the vast array of powers that Arcade currently employs in his underground base seen in the "Avengers Arena" storyline  She appears to far surpass even Arcade in terms of knowledge about superhuman powers and how to counter them, and has gifted Arcade with a vastly powerful set of abilities that she has purloined from cutting-edge technology, exotic energy sources, and magical power  She later betrays Arcade after his supposed death and joined up with Baron Zemo's Masters of Evil 

Other versions
Age of Apocalypse
In the Age of Apocalypse timeline, Arcade is a member of the Marauders, a heavily armed group of human traitors who work for Apocalypse, alongside Red, Dirigible, and the Owl  He is killed by Gwen Stacy and Clint Barton 

Age of X
In the Age of X universe, Arcade (real name Harcourt Teesdale) was the prison governor of the Alcatraz Island mutant prison  He was responsible for making Basilisk kill his brother Havok  Basilisk later escaped and killed Arcade 

Deadpool Kills the Marvel Universe
It is revealed that Arcade has been captured by Deadpool and forced to build deathtraps used to kill various members of the X-Men  He begs Wolverine to save him, horrified by the things Deadpool wants him to build  Wolverine instead kills Arcade for his involvement 

Marvel Adventures
In this version, Arcade has an actual amusement park in order to entertain the kids; he is skillful in robots and highly arrogant  After Mister Fantastic ruins his robots, he decides to prove he is superior to Mr  Fantastic and lures him into Murderworld  There, Mr  Fantastic defeats all the traps and turns all the robots against Arcade  Arcade is taken into custody and Mr  Fantastic learns to be more tactful Later, Arcade traps high school student Flash Thompson in a new arcade machine and uses the young video gamer as a tester to destroy New York City  Eventually, Spider-Man breaks up Arcade's scheme and saves his schoolmate 

Secret Wars (2015)
During the "Secret Wars" storyline, Arcade is the master of ceremonies at the Killiseum, an arena on the outskirts of the Battleworld domain of Doomstadt that is built to entertain the masses of Battleworld  Here, he encountered such heroes as Captain America and the Hulk and Thunderbolt Ross the War Machine  He also oversees the Ghost Racers event, which pits the various individuals possessed by the Spirit of Vengeance (including Carter Slade, Johnny Blaze, Danny Ketch, Alejandra Blaze, and Robbie Reyes) against one another in violent races around a booby-trapped track  Thanks to the determined leadership of the unbeaten Reyes, the Ghost Racers would eventually break free of their captivity and kill Arcade 

Ultimate Marvel
In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Arcade is portrayed as a taller, fitter gaming prodigy who invented a literal first-person shooter (which is called Murderworld)  His sister was killed by Magneto in the bridge explosion in Ultimate War, giving him a hatred of mutants  He is apparently a skilled hunter and tracker, equipped with various high tech weapons and equipment  When the Ultimate Universe version of Longshot is found guilty of murdering a Genoshan politician, he is sentenced to participate in a reality TV show in which he is stranded on an island and hunted by opponents  As Arcade makes his way through the island jungle, he encounters three X-Men trying to save the prisoner  He subdues them and is about to kill Nightcrawler when Longshot knocks him unconscious  He is last seen being tied to a tree by Colossus with some scraps of iron 

What If?
In a reality where Wolverine was transformed into the Horseman of War by Apocalypse and then killed his maker and ran rampant on the Marvel Universe, Arcade was one of many X-foes who were slain by the rampaging mutant 

In other media
Television
A variation of Arcade appears in the X-Men: Evolution episode "Fun and Games", voiced by Gabe Khouth  This version is reimagined as Webber Torque, a high school gamer who calls himself "Arcade"  He is tricked by Mystique posing as "Risty Wilde" into believing the X-Mansion's Danger Room is an elaborate video game, which he uses to attack the X-Men, whom he believes to be game characters  Despite nearly killing the X-Men, he apologizes for playing the "video game" without permission 
Arcade appears in the Ultimate Spider-Man episode "Game Over", voiced by Eric Bauza  This version is an technopathic Asian-American mutant who is willing to use his abilities to lure superheroes to Madland for his own childish amusement, regardless of his actions' possible consequences 
Arcade appears in M O D O K , voiced by Alan Tudyk 

Video games
Arcade appears in X-Men: Madness in Murderworld 
Arcade appeared in Spider-Man/X-Men: Arcade's Revenge 
Arcade appears as a boss in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, voiced by Quinton Flynn  This version is a member of Doctor Doom's Masters of Evil  Additionally, Murderworld appears as a stage 
A Marvel 2099-inspired incarnation of Arcade appears in the Nintendo DS version of Spider-Man: Edge of Time, voiced by Jim Cummings  This version controls a cyber-arena game called Murder Galaxy to hunt down and destroy heroes in front of a live audience and seeks to challenge the stranded present-day Spider-Man, only to be defeated 
Arcade appears in Marvel: Avengers Alliance 

Toys
An Arcade action figure was produced as part of a Super Villains assortment of Marvel Legends action figures released in June 2021 
Passage 2:
Ultimate Nick Fury
General Nicholas Joseph "Nick" Fury is a fictional character appearing in comic books published by Marvel Comics' Ultimate Marvel section as a different version of Nick Fury  He has a substantial presence in all the Ultimate Marvel comics, appearing first in Ultimate Marvel Team-Up and Ultimate X-Men and later reappearing regularly in Ultimate Spider-Man and finally securing a regular, recurring role as the general of S H I E L D  and the leader of the Ultimates, a re-imagining of the Avengers  This character was designed to look like Samuel L  Jackson, who later went on to portray the character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe; the recognizability of the MCU version later led Marvel to retire the original Earth-616 character with his son 

Publication history
Ultimate Nick Fury first appeared in Ultimate Marvel Team-Up #5 (2001), where he was drawn as a younger version of the original iteration of the character  His clothing integrated high-tech capabilities such as invisibility and shoes capable of flight and addressed as "Colonel Fury"   In 2002, the character had a starring role in The Ultimates, where artist Bryan Hitch redesigned him to look like actor Samuel L  Jackson  The similarity is noted within the story 

Fictional character biography
Origins
Nicholas Fury fought for the United States in World War II  During the invasion of Sicily, he, along with Private Fisk (the grandfather of Wilson Fisk) and Canadian paratrooper Corporal Howlett, attempted to loot a house  American military police arrived to arrest them, and all three were subdued  Fisk was grazed by a bullet, while Fury was imprisoned in an unknown location alongside several other black men, and Howlett, despite protests that he was Canadian, was also shipped to an unknown location  Fury was selected to be the next test subject for Project: Rebirth, as his blood work most closely matched that of Subject #22, the most successful of the previous test subjects  He was injected with a serum that gave him super-strength, which he used to free himself and the other prisoners, who then escaped  The scientists who were working on him let him escape, deciding that they have all the information that they needed for now After attending college in India, Fury enlisted in the U S  military, where he was deployed into various conflicts such as the Kosovo War  He was later assigned to S H I E L D 's Weapon X program in the original Gulf War  While transporting the mind wiped Wolverine in an adamantium cage, an Iraqi guerrilla ambushed and killed his team, inadvertently freeing Wolverine from his prison  After slaughtering the Iraqi guards, Wolverine discovered Fury, the only survivor of the ambush, and transported him back through the desert to the Allied forces  Although Wolverine was summarily subdued and re-imprisoned by his handlers, a bond between the two men was formed  The next day, Fury, already mostly healed, was confronted by General Thaddeus Ross  The General had discovered much was unusual about Fury and questioned him at length, prompting him to reexamine where he was going in life 

Director of S H I E L D  and Ultimates
Years later, the X-Men were abducted and imprisoned by the Weapon X program  This program was overseen at the time by Wraith, who had previously staged a coup against General Ross  This coup had prevented Ross from dismantling the Weapon X program altogether  Wolverine, the only X-Man who eludes capture, later asks Fury for help in freeing the other X-Men and bringing down the Weapon X program  During the operation, which also involves the Brotherhood of Mutants, Wraith was about to kill Nightcrawler, but was shot dead by Fury Fury is summarily promoted to General and resumes the duties of the Director of S H I E L D  He was tasked with forming a team to battle posthuman threats and resurrecting the Super-Soldier program, two objectives that resulted in the formation of the Ultimates  Fury operates as the commander of the team, at times leading them into action, though he often shares duties with the revived World War II hero Captain America and billionaire genius Iron Man  Nick Fury is also responsible for monitoring superhumans who are not affiliated with the U S  Military, including Peter Parker and the X-Men Nick Fury lost his right arm in a battle against the Liberators in The Ultimates 2  He replaced it shortly thereafter with a bionic one 

Ultimate Spider-Man
Nick Fury has also been involved in the Ultimate Spider-Man comics  In them, he meets Peter after Norman Osborn returns  He states that S H I E L D  was able to figure out who Peter was because of the security shots of the OZ Spider biting Peter, as well as Dr  Octopus screaming that Peter Parker is Spider-Man while in jail  Nick Fury has been watching Peter and informs him that, due to his illegal genetically altered status, he will become the property of S H I E L D  when he turns eighteen  Although Fury wants him to be part of the Ultimates, this may have changed because the Ultimates broke apart  Peter and Fury's relationship became strained after the Hobgoblin arc  Peter punches Fury for ignoring his questions for why Harry Osborn became the Hobgoblin  At that point, Fury told one of his scientists that he wanted to know everything about OZ and that it was time for Peter Parker to lose his spider powers  This follows on to the Ultimate Clone Saga, in which it is revealed by Fury that the Tinkerer's Spider-Slayers were developed to handle Peter if and when he ever went insane  Mary Jane Watson, upon discovering Fury's intentions, tells him that Peter looks up to him like a father  This convinced Fury to let Peter keep his powers, and he apologizes to Peter, stating that in his line of work he's been trained to expect someone in Peter's position to crack under stress 

Ultimate Power
During Ultimate Power, Fury was judged to be at least partially responsible for the devastation of much of Earth-31916 along with Emil Burbank  Burbank had sought a means to defeat the Hyperion of that universe  An alien organism, unleashed in an attempt to achieve this, spread throughout the United States, causing widespread devastation  A probe sent by Reed Richards provided evidence that an "invasion from another universe" was responsible  The Squadron Supreme was dispatched to the Ultimate Universe in order to arrest Richards so that he could stand trial for his "crimes"  A lengthy battle ensued between the Squadron on one side and the Ultimates, Spider-Man, the X-Men, and the Fantastic Four on the other  Richards, believing himself to be responsible when the Squadron produced his probe as evidence, surrendered himself  Fury was unwilling to accept this and convinced Thor to create a bridge to Earth-31916, through which the Helicarrier was able to travel  Once there, another battle between the Squadron and the Ultimate Universe heroes began  Spider-Man learns that Fury had an ulterior motive - the retrieval of the probes and their data, and had conspired with Doctor Doom to do so  In addition, Fury had brought insurance in the form of the Hulk  It took the combined power of the Ultimate Universe heroes, the Earth-31916 Squadron Supreme, and their counterparts from Earth-712 to defeat the Hulk, but Doom had proven to be simply a Doombot  To stop the fighting, the Ultimates agreed to turn over Fury to the Earth-31916 Squadron and to allow Power Princess to return with them to their universe  Fury tries to convince them that they are making a mistake, but his pleas are ignored Fury is seen still stranded in Earth-31916 in Squadron Supreme (Vol  2) #1  He has apparently fulfilled the prophecy made by Hyperion in Ultimate Power #9: "Given the strength of our military industrial complex, Fury would have risen here to even greater heights than your homeworld "

Ultimatum
Fury returns to the Ultimate Universe in Ultimatum #4 and is instrumental in defeating Magneto  Jean Grey telepathically relays the information discovered by Fury in Ultimate Origins that mutants are not the next stage in human evolution, but are in fact the result of experimentation done by humans  This revelation causes Magneto to reverse the damage done to the Earth's magnetic poles Following the events of Ultimatum, Fury is informed by Hawkeye about how Captain America discovered the secret of the Red Skull  Fury asks head of S H I E L D  Carol Danvers for permission to start up a "death squad" in order to catch the Red Skull and Cap, which he then carries out with the help of Hawkeye, Gregory Stark, and the rest of the Ultimate Avengers 

Project: Avengers
In Ultimate Comics: Avengers Fury returned to S H I E L D  again  After learning that Captain America went rogue after discovering that the Red Skull was his biological son, Fury re-activated "Project Avenger" and recruited a team of questionable super humans to find Captain America  Following Captain America's capture, Fury briefed the Avengers of AIM's purpose of creating the Cosmic Cube to build their visioned utopia and readied his team to thwart the organization's plans 
Fury guided his team of Avengers from headquarters, with the secret intent to go ahead with "Plan B", which is to detonate a nuclear warhead that was built into War Machine's armor by Dr  Gregory Stark in case the mission failed 
Captain America managed to arrive at the location of the battle between the Red Skull and the Avengers and teleported the jet to the exact location where the Red Skull was standing, impaling him through the chest with one of the rods that protrudes from its nose  The Red Skull was taken to a hospital and kept alive long enough for Gail, his mother, to say her goodbyes  Red Skull explained to Fury that all he wanted to do with the Cosmic Cube was turn back time and prevent Steve Rogers from being lost during the war so that he could grow up with him and lead a normal life, rather than the one he was given  Petra Laskov, dressed as a doctor, then entered the room and shot Red Skull in the head, killing him 
A short time later, Fury is fixing his damaged prosthetic arm while speaking with Gregory Stark  Gregory concludes that it was in fact Fury himself who hired the Red Skull to come out of retirement, in some sort of plot to resurrect Project Avengers, securing him a position in S H I E L D 's employment and eventually regaining his old title as Director  Fury told him that was how he got the job the first time, and expects the same outcome this time as well  Fury and his Avengers later faced threats from the Ghost Rider and a vampiric menace  In Ultimate Avengers vs  New Ultimates, Stark would end up framing Fury for selling information to North Korea and stealing his position as S H I E L D  Director and charging Fury's ex-assistant Carol Danvers' New Ultimates to apprehend him, ending in a standstill when Stark caught Fury, revealing he was manipulating both  Fury and his Avengers take down Stark's forces with Thor landing a strike from his hammer, killing Gregory In "Ultimate Enemy", approximately six months after Ultimatum, Fury is Black OPS and is "Off the Grid"  He was enjoying a meal while under cover when the restaurant he was at was attacked by a creature with energy powers  Fury manages to hold the creature at bay until Spider-Man and Human Torch arrive at the scene to investigate  The creature vanishes after a short battle with the three of them  Peter is surprised to see Fury alive, as he has not seen him for months Nick breaks into the Triskelion and confronts Carol Danvers in the ladies' room and points a gun to her head, exclaiming that she is the only person who knew he was alive and would have motive to have him killed  The two fight before being interrupted by a female S H I E L D  agent, informing Danvers that an attack has been made in Queens, which Fury knows is where the Parker residence is located  Simultaneously, the two order a Battalion of Hulkbuster agents to get to Queens to intercept the attacker, where they succeed in apprehending the monster attacking superhumans Attempting to atone for his mistakes with Peter, Fury has taken on a more direct mentor role for Miles Morales as the new Spider-Man 
When the Peter Parker of Earth-616 is sent to the Ultimate Universe, Fury interrogates him for information about his presence in this universe, accepting Peter's story that he came from another universe as nobody would come up with something that insane as a lie  Peter also notes that Ultimate Nick Fury is a lot cooler than the version Peter knows  Attempting to atone for his mistakes with his Peter, Fury allows the other Peter to visit his counterpart's family, and is satisfied when Peter gives Miles his blessing to become that world's new Spider-Man 

Taking on HYDRA, Formation of the Howling Commandos
Nick joined HYDRA using a bio-camouflage to change his appearance under the name of "Scorpio" (resembling his classic mainstream look), stating that his motivations were to destroy the government that took everything away from him, although he still had a different agenda apart from Hydra's  The Ultimates managed to track him and tried to capture him, believing he was the traitor who provided Hydra with S H I E L D  weapons  During an attack to Hydra's Death's Head camp, it was revealed Nick Fury was trying to destroy Hydra from the inside, while the S H I E L D  traitor was actually Hydra leader Commander Crimson who used an Infinity Gem to battle her enemies, until a burst of energy made her disappear along with the artifact In the aftermath of the battle, Nick told Monica Chang he was planning to create his own team, the Howling Commandos, to battle Hydra the way the Ultimates couldn't, along ex-Hydra agent Abigail Brand  Before leaving, Chang told Fury he would be under her supervision 

Secret Wars
As the final Incursion of Earth-1610 and Earth-616 begins, the Maker (the Mister Fantastic of Earth-1610) urges Fury to defend his world by attacking Earth-616  Despite not trusting the Maker, Fury sends every weapon and hero in his arsenal against the Marvel Universe's heroes  His invasion fails against the might of the defending forces, but it buys time for the Maker to launch his doomsday weapon 

Abilities and technologies
Like his Earth-616 counterpart, Nick Fury is an active physical man despite being over 80 years of age  Initially, he was not shown to use the Infinity Formula or other physical enhancements that his mainstream Marvel Universe counterpart possessed  However, Fury was later revealed to have served during World War II and was a test subject of the Super Soldier program (albeit as an unwilling participant)  In this reality, the Super Soldier serum not only gave Fury low level super-human strength and agility but has also reduced his aging, allowing Fury to continue to be active despite his advanced chronological age Fury has had his right arm replaced with a cybernetic arm that gives him even greater strength than his enhanced biological original  The exact level of his cybernetic arm has not been specifically revealed  Unlike his mainstream counterpart who retains his injured eye despite being legally blind in it with a 95% vision loss, Fury has actually lost his left eye  The skin around the left eye-socket is shown to be badly scarred, extending beyond the eye patch 
Fury is an exceptional combatant and strategist and a gifted field leader  In his earliest appearances, he operated with technology years ahead of traditional forces, including the latest experimental weaponry, and some form of projected invisibility and the ability to walk through solid matter  These powers have very limited windows due to massive expense for any moment of "uptime"; costs for these run to the millions for less than a minute of use  He once used a chewing gum that was programmed to explode after 200 chews  The number of instances in which Fury uses these technologies has decreased since The Ultimates #1, and Fury is shown to primarily use conventional firearms 
While General Fury was Director of S H I E L D  he was constantly monitored and shadowed by dozens of S H I E L D  agents and all known observation technologies   After leaving S H I E L D , Fury has shown that he knows how to elude all such monitoring devices to the point that he was able to enter the S H I E L D helicarrier and attack the current Director Carol Danvers 

In other media
Most appearances of Nick Fury in other media since the 2000s have been modeled on the Ultimate Marvel version of the character, most notably in the Marvel Cinematic Universe where he is portrayed by Samuel L  Jackson 
Passage 3:
List of Spider-Man enemies
Spider-Man is a superhero created by Marvel Comics who debuted in the anthology comic book series issue Amazing Fantasy #15 (August 1962) during the Silver Age of Comics  After his debut, he got his own comic book entitled The Amazing Spider-Man  This comic introduced many of what would become his major supervillain adversaries  Spider-Man then became popular enough for more Spider-Man comic spinoffs (The Spectacular Spider-Man, Marvel Team-Up, Web of Spider-Man, Peter Parker: Spider-Man etc ) which introduced more recurring enemies of the web-slinger, across their various incarnations 
As with Spider-Man, most of his villains' powers originate from scientific accidents or the misuse of scientific technology  They can be classified into multiple categories, such as animal-themed villains (Doctor Octopus, Vulture, Black Cat, Lizard, Rhino, Scorpion, Jackal, Beetle, Kangaroo, Tarantula, and Puma), those with powers over the elements (Sandman, Electro, Molten Man, and Hydro-Man), horror-themed villains (the Green Goblin, the Hobgoblin, Morbius, Morlun, and the Symbiotes), crime lords (the Kingpin, Tombstone, Hammerhead, Silvermane, and Mister Negative), inventors (the Shocker, the Tinkerer, Spencer Smythe, and Alistair Smythe), and masters of trickery and illusion (the Chameleon and Mysterio)  There are, however, numerous villains that don't fit into any specific category, such as Kraven the Hunter and Mephisto, the latter of whom originated as a Silver Surfer villain  The villains oftentimes form teams such as the Sinister Six to oppose the web-slinger 
Spider-Man is notable for having numerous villains that redeemed themselves and became antiheroes, such as Black Cat, the Prowler, Morbius, Kraven,  Sandman and Silver Sable  Also, unlike most superheroes, Spider-Man doesn't have one particular archenemy, but rather three: the Norman Osborn version of the Green Goblin, the Otto Octavius version of Doctor Octopus, and the Eddie Brock version of Venom, the latter two of whom have been similarly redeemed and depicted as antiheroes; since the late 2000s, the demon Mephisto has additionally been depicted as an overarching archenemy/prominent adversary of all incarnations of Spider-Man, responsible for Harry and Norman Osborn's transformations into the Green Goblin, creating Kindred, and manipulating various incarnations of Spider-Man into making deals with him: erasing Peter Parker's and Mary Jane Watson's marriage (and future daughter) from history, reverting Octavius from the Superior Spider-Man to a return to villainy, and tricking Miles Morales into sacrificing an innocent soul 
The rogues gallery of Spider-Man has garnered positive critical acclaim and has been considered one of the greatest rogues galleries of all time 

Debuting in Spider-Man titles
The majority of supervillains depicted in Spider-Man comics first appeared in The Amazing Spider-Man, while some first appeared in spinoff comics such as The Spectacular Spider-Man and Marvel Team-Up and other titles 

The Amazing Spider-Man debuts
Most of the supervillains of Spider-Man would be introduced in The Amazing Spider-Man comic book starting with the Chameleon  The early villains would be introduced in the 1960s during the Silver Age of Comic Books, and created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko  John Romita Sr  replaced Ditko starting with the Rhino  Gerry Conway later replaced Stan Lee and helped create new adversaries for the web-slinger and also helped pave the way for the Bronze Age of Comic Books with the death of Spider-Man's long time romantic interest, Gwen Stacy  Many collaborators would soon take over The Amazing Spider-Man title  One of the more popular examples included Todd McFarlane's Venom in the Modern Age of Comic Books Note: Alter ego characters who are the most high profile in the supervillain alias but have shared that alias with others are in bold  Alter egos listed having N/A use their real name as the supervillain name  All the villains are listed in the chronological order of their debut in comics  Characters of the central rogues gallery are in bold 

Central rogues gallery
Foes of lesser renown that originated in The Amazing Spider-Man
The Spectacular Spider-Man debuts
Note: In chronological order

Marvel Team-Up debuts
Note: In chronological order

Debuting in other Spider-Man titles
Note: In chronological order

Debuting outside Spider-Man titles
Other villains
Coldheart
Coldheart debuted in Spider-Man #49  Not much is known about the history of Kateri Deseronto  She is an expert martial artist and swordsman who wields Cryonic Swords that can freeze anyone in their place 

Delilah
Delilah first appeared in The Amazing Spider-Man #414 by Tom DeFalco and Mark Bagley  A highly skilled and ruthless assassin who came under the employ of the Rose during one of the many crime-boss gang wars and became his confidante as well as his chief enforcer  She is first shown wiping out an entire room of mobsters so the Rose could maintain control of part of the New York Organize Crime  Delilah came into conflict with Spider-Man for the first time when she attempted to assassinate the ex-husband of one of Rose's employers  When the Black Tarantula first involved himself in the gang war, Delilah attempted to kill his super-strong henchman El Uno but she was overwhelmed by his power  The rematch, though, was a firm win for Delilah, with El Uno's head being mailed back to the Black Tarantula She also had a role during the Rose's efforts to gain extra muscle and to remove Spider-Man from interfering in their operations, in the rebirth of two of Spider-Man's old foes  She was the one who threw the switch of the electric chair which gave Electro his powers back, hoping he would eliminate Spider-Man  Electro failed, and so they devised a new plan  This time, they stole the corpse of Doctor Octopus so the Hand could succeed in restoring him to life  Delilah later found herself ambushed by the Black Tarantula himself, who easily subdued her and broke her neck, inflicting fatal injuries, but before she could die, however, the Black Tarantula instantly healed her with a message of warning for the Rose 
Attempting to find help to bring down the Black Tarantula, Delilah enlisted the aid of the new costumed adventurer Ricochet (actually Spider-Man in disguise)  Together they tackled two of the Black Tarantula's operatives, Roughhouse and Bloodscream  Bloodscream grabbed hold of Delilah and caused her to bleed until she passed out  She was taken by the authorities to the hospital 
Years later she appears in Loners as an assassin smuggling MGH  When Johnny Gallo (the second Ricochet) broke into a laboratory, she thought he was the one she had teamed up with, and attacked him  Despite her skills, Johnny managed to knock her out with a cunningly thrown disc 

Spidercide
Spidercide was a major antagonist in the "Maximum Clonage" story arc  He first appeared in The Spectacular Spider-Man #222 by Tom DeFalco and Sal Buscema  He is depicted as an evil foil of Spider-Man, Ben Reilly, and Kaine  Introduced as a red herring to suggest the possibility of a third individual that was the original Peter Parker, he is one of the Spider-Man clones created by Jackal, to be Jackal's enforcer and protector  However, Spidercide is actually a clone to Ben Reilly, who is a direct genetic duplicate of Spider-Man The Jackal later modified Spidercide's powers, granting him the unique ability to control his physical make-up on a molecular level; he can alter his mass, density, shape and state at will similar to the symbiotes  Despite being created to escort and protect the Jackal, Spidercide betrayed him and aligned with the Scrier  He was believed to have died after being thrown off the roof of the Daily Bugle  only to survive and return to menace Reilly shortly afterwards

Antiheroes and reformed, semi-reformed, or occasionally reformed supervillains
The following is a list of Spider-Man adversaries who, at one point or another, have been reformed or semi-reformed, either temporarily or currently, or who are no longer primarily antagonists of Spider-Man  Many of these characters are now anti-heroes and have often acted as allies of the web-slinger, while others occasionally return to villain status depending on the story arc 

Non-supervillain enemies
Group villains
Kravinoff family
Archenemies
Unlike most superheroes, who have a particular villain or villainous group among their adversaries with whom they have come into conflict the most (e g , the Joker to Batman, and Lex Luthor to Superman in DC Comics, or the Red Skull to Captain America, Doctor Doom to the Fantastic Four, and the Brotherhood of Mutants to the X-Men in Marvel Comics etc ), Spider-Man is often regarded as having three archenemies, and it can be debated as to which one is the worst:
^ Doctor Octopus has been described as Spider-Man's greatest enemy, and the man Peter Parker might have become if he hadn't been raised with a sense of responsibility  He is infamous for defeating him the first time in battle and for almost marrying Peter's Aunt May  He is also the core leader of the Sinister Six, and at one point adopted the "Master Planner" alias  ("If This Be My Destiny   !") Later depictions revealed him in Peter Parker's body where he was the titular character for a while, ultimately becoming an antihero; on several occasions, he and Spider-Man have even put their differences aside to become allies 
^ The Norman Osborn version of the Green Goblin is most commonly regarded as Spider-Man's archenemy  Unlike Doctor Octopus, who only aims to kill Spider-Man, the Goblin also targeted his loved ones and showed no remorse in killing them as long as it caused pain to Spider-Man, therefore making him not only Spider-Man's worst enemy, but also Peter Parker's  His most infamous feat is killing Spider-Man's girlfriend in what became one of the most famous Spider-Man stories of all time and helped end the Silver Age of Comic Books and begin the Bronze Age of Comic Books  While the Goblin was killed in the same story, he returned in the 1990s to plague Spider-Man once again, committing more heinous acts (such as being involved of the murder of Aunt May)  He also came into conflict with other heroes, such as the Avengers  Norman is sometimes depicted as an enemy of Spider-Man even when not being the Green Goblin 
^ The Eddie Brock incarnation of Venom is often regarded as Spider-Man's deadliest foe, and has been described as an evil mirror version of Spider-Man in many ways  He is also among Spider-Man's most popular villains  Venom's main goal is usually to ruin Peter Parker's life and mess with his head in any way he can  Despite this, Venom is not a traditional criminal, as he is only interested in hurting Spider-Man and does not engage in criminal acts, lacking the typical supervillain desires for wealth and power  The character also has a sense of honor and justice, and later starred in his own comic book stories, where he is depicted as an antihero and has a desire to protect innocent people from harm  On several occasions, he and Spider-Man have even put their differences aside to become allies 

In other media
Reception
Reaction to Spider-Man's rogues gallery has been overwhelmingly positive with many journalists citing it as one of the greatest comic book rogues galleries of all time, with Batman's rogues gallery being its most rivaled contender  However, editors such as The Hollywood Reporter's Graeme McMillan felt that only Flash's rogues gallery can compete with Spider-Man's rogues  Kyle Schmidlin of What Culture! described the superhero's rogues gallery as "one of the most colorful in comics" explaining that Batman could only be debated as having a great number of enemies as good as Spider-Man  IGN staff editors, Joshua Yehl and Jesse Schedeen, described the Spider-Man villains as "one of the most iconic and well-balanced in comics"  They opined that the scope of their schemes, how cool their powers are, and how dramatically they have affected Spider-Man's life is what makes the Spider-Man villains so great  Newsarama ranked Spider-Man's rogues gallery as number one out of ten as the greatest rogues gallery of all time 

Themes
George Marston of Newsarama said that the reason he felt that Spider-Man's rogues gallery was the best was the thematic elements that the villains manifested  He explained that just like the superhero they have the same concept of science gone wrong  They are "like him, great men with great minds, great power, and great determination " But instead they fail to use their powers responsibly, symbolizing the thin line between being a hero and being a villain  Alex Wyse of Comic Book Resources felt that a good villain is supposed to challenge the ideals of the hero  For Spider-Man that idea was the famous quote "With great power comes great responsibility", where the superhero is pitted against an antithesis of the hero's motto like the concept of using superpowers for their personal gain 

Me and the Boys
A viral internet meme called "Me and the Boys", centering on images of Spider-Man foes from the 1960s Spider-Man animated series that showcases the four supervillains – the Green Goblin, Electro, Vulture and a photoshopped addition of Rhino – along with other Spider-Man foes in some variations, emerged in 2019  The meme image parodied and represented a group of friends bonding, hanging out, or engaging in various shenanigans  It originated from Reddit and, later, Twitter  It was placed as the 35th-best meme of 2019 by Thrillist 

See also
Savage Six: Antagonists of Spider-Girl and Agent Venom, similar to the Sinister Six 
The Superior Foes of Spider-Man: A comic book series starring Spider-Man villains 

Notes
^ The Chameleon is the first member of Spider-Man's rogues gallery in publication date  (Excluding the Burglar ) He is also well known to be related to Kraven the Hunter and Kraven to him  That revealed relationship helped evolve him as a major villain compared to his original depiction of being just a solo villain in the original issue of The Amazing Spider-Man 
^ Besides being most notable as a Spider-Man supervillain, he has also been depicted as a Fantastic Four antagonist in Stan Lee and Jack Kirby comics books (mostly due to being introduced as the original Frightful Four)  He was also a heroic figure (as an Avengers member) until being introduced as a tragic supervillain in the Spider-Man comics once again 
^ The character is also known as the member of the Frightful Four battling the Fantastic Four  He is also the first major Marvel villain to be written in publication history as battling Daredevil  Even being the founder and leader of the supervillain team that oppose him, the Emissaries of Evil 
^ Just like Electro, he has also been a major villain of Daredevil  In the storyline "Guardian Devil" he crossed into Daredevil's territory almost pushing Daredevil to the edge (just like he if often trying to do with Spider-Man) when Mysterio believes Spider-Man is a clone at one point 
^ While a recurring villain to Spider-Man since his introduction, Kraven the Hunter did not stand out as a memorable supervillain until the critically acclaimed storyline, "Kraven's Last Hunt" 
^ Not counting any other character in the mainstream Marvel Universe with that name  Only outside of the mainstream Spider-Man comics or in other media is there other Spider-Man villains (that isn't named Mac Gargan) that are antagonists of Spider-Man  Gargan is the third character to assume the Scorpion alias in comics, but he became the most notable one, and is only one to be a recurring adversary of Spider-Man 
^ While initially written to be a recurring villain of Spider-Man, Rhino has also come into conflict with other superheroes (especially Hulk)  He is a major character in the storyline titled "Flowers for Rhino" (Spider-Man's Tangled Web), whose name is an homage to Flowers for Algernon 
^ Despite first appearing in Spider-Man comic books, the Kingpin is more notable of being Daredevil's archenemy  Despite this he is a major antagonist of both superheroes in the Marvel comic books just as recurringly  He also is a major recurring villain in the rest of the Marvel Universe crossing over as major antagonists to superheroes/antiheroes (such as the Punisher) in certain comic books of the many based universes of Marvel (PunisherMAX, etc )
^ Morbius debuted in the storyline "The Six Arms Saga" 
^ Miles Warren's first appearance was in The Amazing Spider-Man #31 (December 1965), but he didn't become the Jackal until much later 
^ Although she is listed as a supervillain, the Black Cat is more often portrayed as an antiheroine and the major femme fatale romantic interest for Spider-Man  She is struggling to decide between good and bad, and the only thing preventing her from becoming a villain is her complicated relationship with Spider-Man  Nonetheless  she has been a staple supporting Spider-Man character during her debut 
^ The Amazing Spider-Man #299 is the first appearance of Eddie Brock as Venom  The alien costume debuted from The Amazing Spider-Man #252 and the symbiote bonded to Spider-Man in Secret Wars #8  Venom's creators are determined by pre-alien costume by not counting the creators/designers of the alien costume, David Michelinie or Mike Zeck, or the Marvel Comics fan who originally thought of the concept for the creators 
^ Cletus Kasady first appeared in The Amazing Spider-Man 344  Carnage is a major character in the popular storyline "Maximum Carnage" 
^ Despite becoming an antihero with his own comic book storylines, the Punisher was first introduced as an adversary of Spider-Man 
^ Harry didn't become the Green Goblin until The Amazing Spider-Man #136 (September 1974) 
Passage 4:
Batman: Son of the Demon
Batman: Son of the Demon is a 1987 graphic novel by writer Mike W  Barr and artist Jerry Bingham, published by American company DC Comics  It was released in both hardcover and softcover formats  
Although it was deemed to be non-canon, Grant Morrison used elements of this story in the 4-issue story "Batman and Son" in 2006  DC Comics published a new printing of Batman: Son of the Demon in 2006 featuring new cover art by Andy Kubert for the first time in standard comic book size with a cover price of $5 99 US, tying in with the "Batman and Son" arc 

Plot
The story centers on the eco-terrorist and head of the League of Assassins, Ra's al Ghul aiding Batman in his quest to solve the murder of Harris Blaine, one of Gotham City's most prominent scientists  Ra's al Ghul and Batman turn out to be searching for the same man, the terrorist known as Qayin  Qayin is a rogue assassin who had murdered Ra's al Ghul's wife Melisande, mother to his favorite daughter and heir-apparent, Talia, by throwing her into an early version of a Lazarus Pit  Batman has shared a stormy, on-again, off-again romance with Talia for many years, despite his ideological conflict with Ra's  During the course of the storyline, Batman has time to properly romance Talia  When Batman asks if there should have been a marriage ceremony of some sort, Talia replies that there already has been: her father had previously, in a bid to stop Batman from interfering with his plans, performed such a ceremony in the tradition of his own country, where only the consent of the bride was needed to constitute a marriage  Talia soon becomes pregnant, and the prospect of a family has a profound effect on Batman's demeanor, making him more risk-averse and softening his typically grim outlook  Batman is nearly killed protecting the recently pregnant (and still very dangerous in her own right) Talia from an attack by the assassin's agents  Observing Batman's dangerous and overly protective behavior, Talia resolves that she cannot allow him to continue to act in such a manner, as he will almost certainly be killed  To that end, Talia claims to have miscarried  Crushed by the news, Batman returns to his typically grim disposition, and he and Talia agree to have the marriage dissolved  Batman returns to Gotham, never knowing Talia is still carrying his child 
The child, a boy, is born and left with an orphanage, and soon adopted by a Western couple  The only hint of his impressive heritage is a jewel-encrusted necklace, a gift Bruce gave to Talia just before Qayin attacked Ra's' HQ 

Critical reaction
IGN ranked Batman: Son of the Demon #6 on a list of the 25 greatest Batman graphic novels, calling it "the perfect Ra's al Ghul tale" and "a brilliant, perfectly paced story" 
Passage 5:
Jerry Bingham
Gerald Joseph Bingham Jr  (born June 25, 1953, in Chicago, Illinois) is an American artist who has worked in the fields of comic books, commercial illustration, and design  He is known for his artwork on Marvel Team-Up and the DC Comics graphic novel Batman: Son of the Demon 

Biography
Given his first break by veteran comics artist Dan Adkins, Bingham's first published comics work was a Green Arrow backup story in World's Finest Comics #251 (June–July 1978)  From there, Bingham drew comics for Marvel Comics, First Comics, TSR, Malibu Comics, Dark Horse Comics, Heavy Metal, and others   He drew the Batman: Son of the Demon graphic novel in 1987, which introduced a character later revealed to be Damian Wayne  This graphic novel reputedly "restored DC Comics to first place in sales after fifteen years "Leaving comics in the late 1990s, Bingham moved to the West Coast, where he did production art for the movies, designing props, special effects and monster make-up  He contributed design work for Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, shopping centers, Universal Studios, and the Hollywood Christmas Parade  In addition, Bingham has illustrated paperback, game, and magazine covers 

Education
Bingham attended the American Academy of Art, the Scottsdale Artists School, the California Art Institute, and UCLA 

Awards
Jack Kirby Award, 1984 – Best Graphic Album: Beowulf
Golden Apple Award, 1987 – Best Graphic Novel: Batman: Son of the Demon
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program, 1999 – Background Designer (animation): Todd McFarlane's Spawn

Bibliography
DC Comics
First Comics
Beowulf graphic novel (1984)
Warp! #10–15, 17–18 (1984)

HM Communications, Inc 
Heavy Metal #v7#3, #v7#7 (1983)

Marvel Comics
Passage 6:
Marvel Team-Up
Marvel Team-Up is an American comic book series published by Marvel Comics  The series featured two or more Marvel characters in one story  The series was originally published from March 1972 through February 1985, and featured Spider-Man as the lead "team-up" character in all but ten of its 150 issues, and in six of its seven Annuals  It was the first major ongoing spin-off series for Spider-Man, being preceded only by the short-lived The Spectacular Spider-Man magazine  Of the issues that did not star Spider-Man, the Human Torch headlines six issues (#18, 23, 26, 29, 32, 35); the Hulk, four (#97, 104, 105, and Annual #3); and Aunt May, one (#137)  Publication of most of the issues starring the Human Torch coincided with that of Giant-Size Spider-Man, an alternate Spider-Man "team-up"-themed series by the regular Marvel Team-Up creative team   When cancelled with #150 in 1985, the title was replaced by Web of Spider-Man 
The second series was published for 11 issues from September 1997 through July 1998 and originally featured Spider-Man; Namor the Sub-Mariner was the featured character starting with #8  From 1995 to 1997, a quarterly series titled Spider-Man Team-Up fulfilled much the same purpose as the original title  The third Marvel Team-Up series, written by Robert Kirkman, began publication in January 2005 and frequently featured Spider-Man  This volume often reintroduced lesser-known Marvel characters that had fallen into obscurity 
The spirit of Marvel Team-Up was carried on by Avenging Spider-Man and later by Superior Spider-Man Team-Up 

Publication history
Comics journalist Jonathan Miller summarized Marvel Team-Up in a retrospective article: The series was admittedly formulaic; either Spider-Man or that issue's guest-star would encounter a menace and then by sheer chance cross paths with another hero who would lend a hand  The title's guest-stars were an equal mix of A-list characters whose presence was likely to increase sales and fledgling heroes being given exposure in the hopes of launching them into stardom but who for the most part continued to languish in obscurity 
The series debuted with a March 1972 cover-dated issue featuring Spider-Man and the Human Torch in a story by writer Roy Thomas and artist Ross Andru  Spider-Man and the Human Torch were originally the permanent headliners on the series, but the creators found this format limiting, and after just three issues the Human Torch was dropped in favor of a rotating co-star slot  The main artists on the series for the first several years were Andru, Gil Kane, Sal Buscema, and Jim Mooney In 1974, Marvel started publishing Giant-Size Spider-Man, which was a quarterly 68-page comic that lasted for six issues which complemented Marvel Team-Up  The series featured team-ups, with each issue featuring a new story with a back-up reprint, except the last issue, which only featured a reprint 
Due to the limitations of the typically single-issue team-up stories, the supporting cast of Spider-Man's other titles rarely appeared in Marvel Team-Up  The series often featured non-superhero characters in the co-star slot  A multi-issue time travel story arc began in issue #41 with Spider-Man and the Scarlet Witch traveling to the Salem witch trials in 1692, and pushed the barriers of continuity by having Spider-Man team up with two characters who had no established connection to the mainstream Marvel Universe, Killraven and Deathlok  Though the series did often team Spider-Man with other highly popular characters, it regularly gave the co-star slot to obscure characters that the average reader was unlikely to even recognize, particularly during writer J  M  DeMatteis's run  DeMatteis recounted, "I was always attracted to the more obscure characters, mainly because they were ripe for exploration  You could crack them open and really develop them      I just looked at these fringe characters as more inviting than the mainstream, more established characters - who all had their set-in-stone continuity  I wanted room to play and those characters gave me all the room I wanted  And let's face it, our lead character was as mainstream as you can get, so the obscure ones made for a nice contrast "With issue #47, the series had a crossover with Marvel Two-in-One #17, which featured the Thing  Jean DeWolff was introduced as a supporting character in the Spider-Man/Iron Man story in issue #48 John Byrne, who would later become the artist on The Uncanny X-Men, first drew the characters in Marvel Team-Up #53  Byrne and his Uncanny X-Men collaborator, writer Chris Claremont worked together on several issues of Marvel Team-Up  Captain Britain, a character created for Marvel UK, made his first appearance in an American comic book in Marvel Team-Up #65 (January 1978) Karma, a character that later joined the New Mutants, was created by Claremont and artist Frank Miller in #100's lead story  A photo cover by Eliot R  Brown was used for the Spider-Man/Captain America team-up in issue #128 Though published for well over a decade, the series format never truly caught on with readers  Upon taking a serious look at sales figures for Marvel Team-Up, Marvel's editorial staff found that sales dramatically rose or fell with each issue depending solely on the popularity of that issue's co-star  Taking this into consideration, Marvel editor-in-chief Jim Shooter concluded that it would make more sense to have another Spider-Man solo series with guest stars appearing when the storyline and/or promotional needs called for it, rather than a team-up series which unnaturally forced guest-stars upon the story  The series ended with issue #150 (February 1985), to be replaced by Web of Spider-Man A Hulk and the Human Torch story written by Jack C  Harris and drawn by Steve Ditko in the 1980s that was intended for Marvel Team-Up was published by Marvel as Incredible Hulk and the Human Torch: From the Marvel Vault #1 in August 2011 Spider-Man Team-Up was a brief attempt to revive the concept of the series and was soon followed by Marvel Team-Up vol  2 which was published from September 1997 to July 1998  The third Marvel Team-Up series launched in January 2005 and ran for 25 issues which starred a variety of characters  The fourth series began with a June 2019 cover date and contains legacy numbering 

Marvel Team-Up (1972-1985)
Annuals (1976-1984)
Spider-Man Team-Up (1995-1997)
Marvel Team-Up vol  2 (1997-1998)
Marvel Team-Up vol  3 (2005-2006)
Marvel Team-Up vol  4 (2019)
Collected editions
Volume 1
Marvel Masterworks: Marvel Team-Up
Vol  1 collects issue #1-11, 248 pages, December 2010, ISBN 978-0785142102
Vol  2 collects issue #12-22, 256 pages, June 2012, ISBN 978-0785159339
Vol  3 collects issue #23-30, Giant-Size Spider-Man #1-3, 272 pages, May 2018, ISBN 978-1302909703
Vol  4 collects issue #31-40, Giant-Size Spider-Man #4-5, Marvel Comics Calendar 1975, 296 pages, January 2019, ISBN 978-1302915209
Vol  5 collects issue #41-52, 304 pages, August 2020, ISBN 978-1-302-92218-4
Vol  6 collects issue #53-64, Annual #1, 320 pages, August 2021, ISBN 978-1-302-92931-2
Vol  7 collects issue #65-73 and #75-77, 264 pages, December 2023
Essential Marvel Team-Up
Vol  1 collects issue #1-24, 496 pages, April 2002, ISBN 978-0785108283
Vol  2 collects #25-51, 528 pages, August 2006, ISBN 978-0785121633
Vol  3 collects #52-73, #75, and Annual #1, 480 pages, September 2009, ISBN 978-0785130680
Vol  4 collects #76-78, 80–98, and Annual #2-3, 480 pages, February 2013, ISBN 978-0785167341
Spider-Man: Marvel Team-Up by Claremont & Byrne includes Marvel Team-Up #59-70, 75, 240 pages, December 2011, ISBN 978-0785158660
Fantastic Four/Spider-Man Classic includes Marvel Team-Up #100 and #132-133, 152 pages, April 2005, ISBN 978-0785118039
Essential Defenders
Vol  5 includes Marvel Team-Up #101, 111 and 116, 448 pages, August 2010, ISBN 978-0785145370
Vol  6 includes Marvel Team-Up #119, 528 pages, October 2011, ISBN 978-0785157540
Spider-Man: The Complete Alien Costume Saga
Volume 1 includes Marvel Team-Up #141-145, Annual #7, 488 pages, January 2012, ISBN 978-0785156130
Volume 2 includes Marvel Team-Up #146-150, 504 pages, May 2015, ISBN 978-0785190035

Spider-Man Team-Up
Spider-Man: The Complete Clone Saga Epic Vol  5 includes Spider-Man Team-Up #1, 424 pages, April 2010, ISBN 978-0785144625
Spider-Man: The Complete Ben Reilly Epic
Volume 3 includes Spider-Man Team-Up #2, 432 pages, January 2012, ISBN 978-0785156130
Volume 4 includes Spider-Man Team-Up #3, 464 pages, April 2012, ISBN 978-0785161318
Volume 5 includes Spider-Man Team-Up #4, 464 pages, July 2012, ISBN 978-0785163831
Volume 6 includes Spider-Man Team-Up #5, 448 pages, November 2012, ISBN 978-0785165521
Thunderbolts Classic Vol  1 includes Spider-Man Team-Up #7, 296 pages, April 2011, ISBN 978-0785153092

Volume 3
Marvel Team-Up
Vol  1: The Golden Child collects Marvel Team-Up vol  3 #1-6, 144 pages, June 2005, ISBN 978-0785115953
Vol  2: Master of the Ring collects Marvel Team-Up vol  3 #7-13, 176 pages, December 2005, ISBN 978-0785115960
Vol  3: League of Losers collects Marvel Team-Up vol  3 #14-18, 120 pages, June 2006, ISBN 978-0785119463
Vol  4: Freedom Ring collects Marvel Team-Up vol  3 #19-25, 168 pages, February 2007, ISBN 978-0785119906

Volume 4
Ms  Marvel Team-Up collects Marvel Team-Up vol  4 #1-6, November 2019, ISBN 978-1-302-91831-6

See also
The Brave and the Bold - The first DC Comics equivalent 
DC Comics Presents - The second DC Comics equivalent 
Ultimate Marvel Team-Up - The Ultimate Marvel Universe's team-up series 
Passage 7:
Superior Spider-Man Team-Up
Superior Spider-Man Team-Up was an ongoing comic book series published by Marvel Comics that debuted in July 2013  The series is written by Christopher Yost with artwork by a rotating team of artists including David Lopez, Paolo Rivera, and Marco Checchetto  It is meant to serve as a direct successor to Avenging Spider-Man and a spiritual successor to Marvel Team-Up, whose name it plays on  It is also meant to act as an expansion of the Superior Spider-Man brand by Marvel 

Format
Like Marvel Team-Up and Avenging Spider-Man before it, Superior Spider-Man Team-Up features a team-up format where Spider-Man is partnered with a different character each issue  It will continue plot threads started in Avenging Spider-Man and run in tandem with Dan Slott's main Superior Spider-Man title 

Publication history
Superior Spider-Man Team-Up was announced in April 2013 as a part of Marvel's Superior brand expansion  Christopher Yost, writer of Superior Spider-Man Team-Up, said, "Well, in my heart when I say "Team-Up" for "Superior Spider-Man," I probably mean "Versus " In the latest "Avenging" issues, we've seen that he has a fairly contentious relationship with most of the heroes he's encountered  And with "Superior Spider-Man Team Up," that just gets bigger  I think in issue #1, he teams up with pretty much the entire Marvel Universe"  
Axel Alonso, Marvel's Editor-In-Chief, added "All I can say is, they had me at the title  I grew up loving "Marvel Team-Up " Bought every issue I could get my hands on  Every month Spider-Man would team up with someone new  There was even an issue where Iceman teamed up with the Human Torch  I was like, "What the—!?"   So it didn't take much for me to sign off on the series" 

Issues
Collected editions
Passage 8:
Ultimate Marvel Team-Up
Ultimate Marvel Team-Up is a comic book series, published by Marvel Comics which ran for 16 issues, including a concluding Ultimate Spider-Man Super Special  It is set in one of Marvel's shared universes, the Ultimate Universe and is based on the original universe Marvel Team-Up  The whole series starred Spider-Man teaming up with another superhero each issue  The series was written by Brian Michael Bendis, with each arc drawn by a different artist 

Issues, artists and characters
Issue 1
Starring: Spider-Man & Wolverine vs  Sabretooth
Penciled and Inked by: Matt Wagner
Trivia: Sabretooth's first appearance in Ultimate Marvel 

Issues #2-3
Starring: Spider-Man & Hulk
Penciled by: Phil Hester and inked by Ande Parks
Trivia: Hulk's first appearance in Ultimate Marvel 

Issues #4-5
Starring: Spider-Man & Iron Man vs  Latverian mercenaries
Penciled and Inked by: Mike Allred
Trivia: Iron Man's first appearance in Ultimate Marvel 

Issues #6-8
Starring: Spider-Man, the Punisher (in issues #6-8) and Daredevil (issues #7-8)
Penciled and Inked by: Bill Sienkiewicz
Trivia: Daredevil & Punisher's first appearance in Ultimate Marvel 

Issue #9
Starring: Spider-Man & Fantastic Four vs  the Skrulls
Penciled and Inked by: Jim Mahfood
Trivia: The events in this issue are not in Ultimate Marvel canon

Issue #10
Starring: Spider-Man & Man-Thing vs Lizard
Penciled and Inked by: John Totleben, with "art assistance" by Ron Randall
Trivia: The Lizard and Man-Thing's first appearance in Ultimate-Marvel

Issue #11
Starring: Spider-Man & the X-Men
Penciled and Inked by: Chynna Clugston-Major

Issues #12-13
Starring: Spider-Man and Doctor Strange vs  Xandu
Penciled and Inked by: Ted McKeever
Trivia: Doctor Strange's First Appearance in Ultimate Marvel

Issue #14
Starring: Spider-Man & the Black Widow
Penciled by: Terry Moore and inked by Walden Wong
Trivia: Black Widow's First Appearance in Ultimate Marvel

Issues #15-16
Starring: Spider-Man & Shang-Chi
Penciled by: Rick Mays and inked by Jason Martin
Trivia: Shang-Chi's First Appearance in Ultimate Marvel

Ultimate Spider-Man Special
Starring Spider-Man, and many of the other headlined characters above, as well as a small appearance by Blade and Elektra 
Art by Alex Maleev, Dan Brereton, John Romita, Sr , Al Milgrom, Frank Cho, Jim Mahfood, Scott Morse, Craig Thompson, Michael Avon Oeming, Jason Pearson, Sean Phillips, Mark Bagley, Rodney Ramos, Bill Sienkiewicz, P  Craig Russell, Jacen Burrows, Walden Wong, Leonard Kirk, Terry Pallort, Dave Gibbons, Mike Gaydos, James Kochalka, David Mack, Brett Weldele, Ashley Wood, and Art ThibertBlade and Elektra's first appearance in Ultimate Marvel


== Collected editions ==
Context 3: Passage 1:
English general election, 1689
The 1689 English general election, held in January 1689, elected the Convention Parliament, which was summoned in the aftermath of the Glorious Revolution  
513 Members of Parliament were returned, across 53 counties and 217 boroughs in England and Wales, most returning two members  Only nine counties and 41 boroughs (a total of 69 seats) had contested elections, with the other candidates being returned unopposed  Six boroughs had double returns, where multiple members were recorded elected, and five of these were subsequently voided by Parliament forcing by-elections 

The majority of seats were not contested on a party basis, but partisan alignment can be identified by historians looking at subsequent voting on key issues  174 members are identified as Whigs, and 151 as Tories  The remaining members, around 190, are considered uncommitted  An older estimate based on activity throughout the Parliament suggested that the 551 Members (including those returned in by-elections) could be listed as 232 Tories and 319 Whigs or Court Tories, with none classed as uncommitted (but with over 40% recorded as "inactive")  Finally, an estimate at the end of the parliament, when party groups had had time to develop further, estimated the strength of the parties as 254 Whigs, 221 Tories, and 38 uncommitted members 

See also
List of MPs elected to the English Parliament in 1689
Convention Parliament (1689)
List of English Parliaments

Notes
Passage 2:
English general election, 1695
The 1695 English general election was the first to be held under the terms of the Triennial Act of 1694, which required parliament to be dissolved and fresh elections called at least every three years  This measure helped to fuel partisan rivalry over the coming decades, with the electorate in a constant state of excitement and the Whigs and Tories continually trying to gain the upper hand  Despite the potential for manipulation of the electorate, as was seen under Robert Walpole and his successors, with general elections held an average of every other year, and local and central government positions frequently changing hands between parties, it was impossible for any party or government to be certain of electoral success in the period after 1694, and election results were consequently genuinely representative of the views of at least the section of the population able to vote 
The election of 1695, however, was comparatively quiet, being fought mainly on local issues  The new government led by the Whig junto made gains in most contested constituencies, and their party was returned with a narrow majority  The junto's support was not certain, however, as their policies increasingly alienated backbench 'country' Whigs, who were willing to co-operate with the Tories, and the government frequently ran into trouble in the House of Commons  Eighty-five constituencies were contested, 31% of the total 

Party strengths are an approximation, with many MPs' allegiances being unknown 

Summary of the constituencies
See 1796 British general election for details  The constituencies used in England and Wales were the same throughout the period  In 1707 alone the 45 Scottish members were not elected from the constituencies, but were returned by co-option of a part of the membership of the last Parliament of Scotland elected before the Union 

See also
3rd Parliament of King William III
List of parliaments of England
Passage 3:
English general election, 1690
The 1690 English general election occurred after the dissolution of the Convention Parliament summoned in the aftermath of the Glorious Revolution, and saw the partisan feuds in that parliament continue in the constituencies  The Tories made significant gains against their opponents, particularly in the contested counties and boroughs, as the electorate saw the Whigs increasingly as a source of instability and a threat to the Church of England 
Following the election, William continued his policy of forming a coalition government around non-partisan figures  The nominal leader of the new government was the Marquess of Carnarvon, though the Tories were able to use their greater numbers in the House of Commons to increase their share of government positions  Contests occurred in 103 constituencies, 38% of the total 
Party strengths are as estimated by the History of Parliament, though division lists for this parliament are not available and so a precise count may not be possible 

Summary of the constituencies
See 1796 British general election for details  The constituencies used in England and Wales were the same throughout the period  In 1707 alone the 45 Scottish members were not elected from the constituencies, but were returned by co-option of a part of the membership of the last Parliament of Scotland elected before the Union 

See also
2nd Parliament of William and Mary
List of parliaments of England

Notes
Passage 4:
English general election, March 1679
The March 1679 English general election resulted in the  Habeas Corpus Parliament, named after the Habeas Corpus Act, which it enacted in May, 1679 to define and strengthen the ancient prerogative writ benefitting all subjects  It was dissolved while in recess on 12 July 1679  
On the current issue of excluding the King's younger brother from the succession to the throne, 218 members were in favour of the Exclusion Bill, while 137 were opposed  However, 167 members did not attend the parliament at all, so their view about Exclusion is unknown 
Passage 5:
English general election, 1685
The 1685 English general election elected the only parliament of James II of England, known as the Loyal Parliament  This was the first time the pejorative words Whig and Tory were used as names for political groupings in the Parliament of England  Party strengths are an approximation, with many MPs' allegiances being unknown 
513 Members of Parliament were returned across 53 counties and 217 boroughs in England and Wales, most returning two members  Only 15 counties and 57 boroughs (a total of 100 seats) had contested elections, with the other candidates being returned unopposed  One borough had a double return, where multiple members were recorded elected, and another was subsequently voided by Parliament, forcing a by-election 

While the number of seats had not changed from the previous election, their electorate had been substantially altered by royal influence  Following the Exclusion crisis, ninety-nine boroughs had received new charters, the aim being to eliminate the influence of the Whigs  The Whigs also lost seats in county constituencies - which were not liable to charter manipulation - dropping from around sixty county seats in 1681 to only eight In the new parliament, the Tories now had their own majority in both houses, Commons and Lords  The exact breakdown of members returned at the election is not clear, but of the 525 members who served during the 1685-89 Parliamentary term, including those elected at later by-elections, 468 are estimated as Tories and 57 as Whigs  This estimate does not treat any members as uncommitted, and up to 30% of members were recorded as inactive The election had significant effects on Parliament demographically as well as politically  The newly elected members were mostly inexperienced, with slightly over half never having sat in Parliament before  The majority of these would stand down or lose their seats at the subsequent election in 1689  Members were much more likely to be High Church Anglicans, with very few Presbyterians or Independents compared to other Parliaments of the period  There was an unusually high share of government officials and military officers, and fewer country gentry  Two minors were elected, Peter Legh and the Hon  Thomas Windsor, aged 15 and 16 respectively 
Passage 6:
English general election, October 1679
The October 1679 English general election returned a majority of members in favour of the Exclusion Bill  Consequently, this parliament  was known as the Exclusion Bill Parliament  It did not assemble until 21 October 1680, and was dissolved three months later on 18 January 1681 
Passage 7:
English general election, 1661
The 1661 English general election returned a majority of members in support of Charles II of England  This Parliament was called the Cavalier Parliament, since many of the MPs elected were former Cavaliers or the sons of Cavaliers 
Yet during the course of the Cavalier Parliament, there was considerable movement between the Cavaliers and the Roundheads 

See also
List of MPs elected to the English Parliament in 1661
Passage 8:
Glorious Revolution
The Glorious Revolution is the term, first used in 1689, to summarise events leading to the deposition of James II and VII of England, Ireland and Scotland in November 1688, and his replacement by his daughter Mary II and her husband and James's nephew William III of Orange, de facto ruler of the Dutch Republic  Known as the Glorieuze Overtocht or Glorious Crossing in the Netherlands,  it has been described both as the last successful invasion of England and as an internal coup Despite being Catholic, James became king in February 1685 with widespread support from the Protestant majority in England and Scotland  Many feared his exclusion would cause a repetition of the 1639–1653 Wars of the Three Kingdoms, while it was viewed as a short-term issue, since the heir presumptive was his Protestant elder daughter Mary  James soon lost popular support by suspending the Parliaments of Scotland and England in 1685, and thereafter ruling by personal decree Two events in June 1688 turned dissatisfaction into a political crisis  The first was the birth on 10 June of a male heir, James Francis Edward, displacing Mary and creating the prospect of a Catholic dynasty  The second was the prosecution for seditious libel of seven bishops from the Protestant Church of England  Many saw this as the latest in a series of attacks on the state church; their acquittal on 30 June sparked widespread anti-Catholic riots and destroyed James's political authority  A coalition of English politicians, soldiers and religious leaders issued the Invitation to William, asking him to intervene militarily and "protect the Protestant religion" 
William wanted to prevent British military and financial resources being used against him in the Nine Years War, launched by Louis XIV of France in September 1688  On 5 November, he landed in Brixham, Devon with 20,000 men, and advanced on London  As he did so, the Royal Army disintegrated, and James went into exile in France on 23 December  In April 1689, Parliament made William and Mary joint monarchs of England and Ireland  A separate but similar Scottish settlement was made in June 
While the Revolution itself was quick and relatively bloodless, pro-Stuart revolts in Scotland and Ireland caused significant casualties  Although Jacobitism persisted into the late 18th century, the Revolution ended a century of political dispute by confirming the primacy of Parliament over the Crown, a principle established in the Bill of Rights 1689  The Toleration Act 1688 granted freedom of worship to nonconformist Protestants, but restrictions on Catholics contained in the 1678 and 1681 English and Scottish Test Acts remained in force until 1828  Religious prohibitions on the monarch's choice of spouse were removed in 2015, but those applying to the monarch themselves remain 

Background
Despite his Catholicism, James became king in 1685 with widespread support, as demonstrated by the rapid defeat of the Argyll and Monmouth Rebellions; less than four years later, he was forced into exile  Often seen as an exclusively English event, modern historians argue James failed to appreciate the extent to which Royal power relied at the local level on the landed gentry, and the loss of that support fatally damaged his regime  The vast majority of the gentry in England and Scotland were Protestant, while even in largely Catholic Ireland a disproportionate number were members of the Protestant Church of Ireland  Although willing to accept James's personal religious beliefs, his backers did so only so long as he maintained the primacy of the Protestant Church of England and Church of Scotland  When his policies appeared to undermine the existing political and religious order, the result was to alienate his English and Scottish supporters and destabilise Ireland 

Stuart political ideology derived from James VI and I, who in 1603 had created a vision of a centralised state, run by a monarch whose authority came from God, and where the function of Parliament was simply to obey  Disputes over the relationship between king and Parliament led to the War of the Three Kingdoms and continued after the 1660 Stuart Restoration  Charles II came to rely on the Royal Prerogative since measures passed in this way could be withdrawn when he decided, rather than Parliament  However, it could not be used for major legislation or taxation Concern that James intended to create an absolute monarchy led to the 1679 to 1681 Exclusion Crisis, dividing the English political class into those who wanted to 'exclude' him from the throne, mostly Whigs, and their opponents, mostly Tories  However, in 1685 many Whigs feared the consequences of bypassing the 'natural heir', while Tories were often strongly anti-Catholic and their support assumed the continued primacy of the Church of England  Most importantly, it was seen as a short-term issue; James was 52, his marriage to Mary of Modena remained childless after 11 years, and the heirs were his Protestant daughters, Mary and Anne There was much greater sympathy in Scotland for a 'Stuart heir', and the 1681 Succession Act confirmed the duty of all to support him, 'regardless of religion ' Over 95 percent of Scots belonged to the national church or kirk; even other Protestant sects were banned, and by 1680, Catholics were a tiny minority confined to parts of the aristocracy and the remote Highlands  Episcopalians had regained control of the kirk in 1660, leading to a series of Presbyterian uprisings, but memories of the bitter religious conflicts of the Civil War period meant the majority preferred stability In England and Scotland, most of those who backed James in 1685 wanted to retain existing political and religious arrangements, but this was not the case in Ireland  While he was guaranteed support from the Catholic majority, James was also popular among Irish Protestants, since the Church of Ireland depended on Royal support for its survival, while Ulster was dominated by Presbyterians who supported his tolerance policies  However, religion was only one factor; of equal concern for Catholics were laws barring them from serving in the military or holding public office, and land reform  In 1600, 90% of Irish land was owned by Catholics but following a series of confiscation during the 17th century, this had dropped to 22% in 1685  Catholic and Protestant merchants in Dublin and elsewhere objected to commercial restrictions placing them at a disadvantage to their English competitors 

The political background in England
While James's supporters viewed hereditary succession as more important than his personal Catholicism, they opposed his policies of 'Tolerance' under which Catholics would be allowed to hold public office and engage in public life  Opposition was led by devout Anglicans who argued that the measures he proposed were incompatible with the oath he had sworn as king to uphold the supremacy of the Church of England  In an age when oaths were seen as fundamental to a stable society, by demanding that Parliament approve his measures James was seen not only to be breaking his own word but requiring others to do the same  Parliament refused to comply, despite being "the most Loyal Parliament a Stuart ever had" Although historians generally accept James wished to promote Catholicism, not establish an Absolute monarchy, his stubborn and inflexible reaction to opposition had the same result  When the English and Scottish Parliaments refused to repeal the 1678 and 1681 Test Acts, he suspended them in November 1685 and ruled by decree  Attempts to form a 'King's party' of Catholics, English Dissenters and dissident Scottish Presbyterians was politically short-sighted, since it rewarded those who joined the 1685 rebellions and undermined his supporters Demanding tolerance for Catholics was also badly timed  In October 1685 Louis XIV of France issued the Edict of Fontainebleau revoking the 1598 Edict of Nantes which had given French Protestants the right to practise their religion; over the next four years, an estimated 200,000 to 400,000 went into exile, 40,000 of whom settled in London  Combined with Louis's expansionist policies and the killing of 2,000 Vaudois Protestants in 1686, it led to fears Protestant Europe was threatened by a Catholic counter-reformation  These concerns were reinforced by events in Ireland; the Lord Deputy, the Earl of Tyrconnell, wanted to create a Catholic establishment able to survive James's death, which meant replacing Protestant officials at a pace that was inherently destabilising 

Timeline of events: 1686 to 1688
The majority of those who backed James in 1685 did so because they wanted stability and the rule of law, qualities frequently undermined by his actions  After suspending Parliament in November 1685, he sought to rule by decree; although the principle was not disputed, the widening of its scope caused considerable concern, particularly when judges who disagreed with its application were dismissed  He then alienated many by perceived attacks on the established church; Henry Compton, Bishop of London, was suspended for refusing to ban John Sharp from preaching after he gave an anti-Catholic sermon He often made things worse by political clumsiness; to general fury, the Ecclesiastical Commission of 1686 established to discipline the Church of England included suspected Catholics like the Earl of Huntingdon  This was combined with an inability to accept opposition; in April 1687, he ordered Magdalen College, Oxford, to elect a Catholic sympathiser named Anthony Farmer as president, but as he was ineligible under the college statutes, the fellows elected John Hough instead  Both Farmer and Hough withdrew in favour of another candidate selected by James, who then demanded the fellows personally apologise on their knees for 'defying' him; when they refused, they were replaced by Catholics Attempts to create an alternative 'Kings Party' were never likely to succeed, as English Catholics made up only 1 1% of the population and Nonconformists 4 4%  Both groups were divided; since private worship was generally tolerated, Catholic moderates feared greater visibility would provoke a backlash  Among Nonconformists, while Quakers and Congregationalists supported repeal of the Test Acts, the majority wanted to amend the 1662 Act of Uniformity and be allowed back into the Church of England  When James ensured the election of the Presbyterian John Shorter as Lord Mayor of London in 1687, he insisted on complying with the Test Act, reportedly because of a 'distrust of the King's favour   thus encouraging that which His Majesties whole Endeavours were intended to disannull '

To ensure a compliant Parliament, James required potential MPs to be approved by their local Lord Lieutenant; eligibility for both offices required positive answers in writing to the 'Three Questions', one being a commitment to repeal of the Test Act  In addition, local government and town corporations were purged to create an obedient electoral machine, further alienating the county gentry who had formed the majority of those who backed James in 1685  On 24 August 1688, writs were issued for a general election The expansion of the military caused great concern, particularly in England and Scotland, where memories of the Civil War left huge resistance to standing armies  In Ireland, Talbot replaced Protestant officers with Catholics; James did the same in England, while basing the troops at Hounslow appeared a deliberate attempt to overawe Parliament  In April 1688, he ordered his Declaration of Indulgence read in every church; when the Archbishop of Canterbury and six other bishops refused, they were charged with seditious libel and confined in the Tower of London  Two events turned dissent into a crisis; the birth of James Francis Edward Stuart on 10 June created the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, while the acquittal of the Seven Bishops on 30 June destroyed James's political authority 

Dutch intervention
Prelude: 1685 to June 1688
In 1677, James's elder daughter and heir Mary married her Protestant cousin William of Orange, stadtholder of the main provinces of the Dutch Republic  The two initially shared common objectives in wanting Mary to succeed her father, while French ambitions in the Spanish Netherlands threatened both English and Dutch trade  Although William sent James troops to help suppress the 1685 Monmouth Rebellion, their relationship deteriorated thereafter The Franco-Dutch War, continued French expansion, and expulsion of the Huguenots meant William assumed another war was inevitable, and although the States General of the Netherlands preferred peace, the majority accepted he was correct  This view was widely shared throughout Protestant Europe; in October 1685, Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg renounced his French alliance for one with the Dutch  In July 1686, other Protestant states formed the anti-French League of Augsburg, with Dutch support; securing or neutralising English resources, especially the Royal Navy, now became key to both sides Following a skirmish between French and Dutch naval vessels in July 1686, William concluded English neutrality was not enough and he needed their active support in the event of war  His relationship with James was affected by the fact both men relied on advisors with relatively limited views; in William's case, mainly English and Scots Presbyterian exiles, the latter with close links to the Protestant minority in Ireland, who saw Tyrconnell's policies as a threat to their existence  Having largely alienated his Tory support base, James depended on a small circle of Catholic converts like Sunderland, Melfort and Perth 

Suspicions increased when James sought William's backing for repealing the Test Acts; he predictably refused, further damaging their relationship  Having previously assumed he was guaranteed English support in a war with France, William now worried he might face an Anglo-French alliance, despite assurances by James he had no intention of doing so  Historians argue these assurances were genuine, but James did not appreciate the distrust caused by his domestic policies  In August 1687, William's cousin de Zuylestein travelled to England with condolences on the death of Mary of Modena's mother, allowing him to make contact with the political opposition  Throughout 1688, his English supporters provided William detailed information on public opinion and developments, very little of which was intercepted In October 1687, after fourteen years of marriage and multiple miscarriages, it was announced the Queen was pregnant, Melfort immediately declaring it was a boy  When James then wrote to Mary urging her to convert to Catholicism, it convinced many he was seeking a Catholic heir, one way or the other and may have been a deciding factor in whether to invade  Early in 1688, a pamphlet circulated in England written by Dutch Grand Pensionary Gaspar Fagel; this guaranteed William's support for freedom of worship for Dissenters and retaining the Test Acts, unlike James who offered tolerance in return for repeal In April 1688, Louis XIV announced tariffs on Dutch herring imports, along with plans to support the Royal Navy in the English Channel  James immediately denied making any such request, but fearing it was the prelude to a formal alliance, the Dutch began preparing a military intervention  On the pretext of needing additional resources to deal with French privateers, in July the States General authorised an additional 9,000 sailors and 21 new warships 

Invitation to William
An invasion required domestic support, and at the end of April William met with Edward Russell, unofficial envoy for the Whig opposition  In a conversation recorded by Gilbert Burnet, he requested a formal invitation asking him to "rescue the nation and the religion", with a projected date of end September  William subsequently claimed he was 'forced' to take control of the conspiracy when Russell warned him the English would rise against James even without his help, and he feared this would lead to a republic, depriving his wife of her inheritance Although this version is strongly disputed, Zuylestein returned to England in June, ostensibly to congratulate James on his new son, in reality to co-ordinate with William's supporters  Spurred by the prospect of a Catholic successor, the "Invitation to William" was quickly drafted by Henry Sydney, later described as "the great wheel on which the Revolution rolled"   The signatories were selected to represent a broad spectrum; Danby, a Whig, and Devonshire, a Tory; Henry Compton, Bishop of London, for the church; Shrewsbury and Lumley for the army, and finally Russell and Sydney for the navy  They promised to support a Dutch landing, but stressed the importance of acting quickly The Invitation was carried to The Hague on 30 June by Rear Admiral Herbert, disguised as a common sailor  Meanwhile, William's ally Bentinck launched a propaganda campaign in England, which presented him as a "true Stuart", but one without the faults of either James or Charles II  Much of the "spontaneous" support for William on his landing was organised by Bentinck and his agents 

Dutch preparations: July to September 1688
William's key strategic purpose was creating a defensive coalition that would block further French expansion in Europe, an objective not shared by the majority of his English supporters  In 1672, an alliance with the Electorate of Cologne had enabled France to bypass Dutch forward defences and nearly over-run the Republic, so ensuring an anti-French ruler was vital to prevent a repetition  As an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire, Cologne's ruler was nominated by Pope Innocent XI, in conjunction with Emperor Leopold I  Both Louis and James were in dispute with Innocent over the right to appoint Catholic bishops and clergy; when the old Elector died in June 1688, Innocent and Leopold ignored the French candidate in favour of Joseph Clemens of Bavaria After 1678, France continued its expansion into the Rhineland, including the 1683 to 1684 War of the Reunions, additional territorial demands in the Palatinate, and construction of forts at Landau and Traben-Trarbach  This presented an existential threat to Habsburg dominance, guaranteeing Leopold's support for the Dutch, and negating French attempts to build German alliances  William's envoy Johann von Görtz assured Leopold English Catholics would not be persecuted and intervention was to elect a free Parliament, not depose James, a convenient fiction that allowed him to remain neutral Although his English supporters considered a token force sufficient, William assembled 260 transport ships and 15,000 men, nearly half the 30,000 strong Dutch States Army  With France on the verge of war, their absence was of great concern to the States General and Bentinck hired 13,616 German mercenaries to man Dutch border fortresses, freeing elite units like the Scots Brigade for use in England  The increase could be presented as a limited precaution against French aggression, as the Dutch would typically double or triple their army strength in wartime; William instructed his experienced deputy Schomberg to prepare for a campaign in Germany 

Decision to invade
At the beginning of September, an invasion remained in the balance, with the States General fearing a French attack via Flanders while their army was in England  However, the surrender of Belgrade on 6 September seemed to presage an Ottoman collapse and release Austrian resources for use in Germany  Hoping to act before Leopold could respond and relieve pressure on the Ottomans, Louis attacked Philippsburg  With France now committed in Germany, this greatly reduced the threat to the Dutch Instead, Louis attempted to intimidate the States General, and on 9 September, his envoy D'Avaux handed them two letters  The first warned an attack on James meant war with France, the second any interference with French operations in Germany would end with the destruction of the Dutch state  Both misfired; convinced Louis was trying to drag him into war, James told the Dutch there was no secret Anglo-French alliance against them, although his denials only increased their suspicions  By confirming France's primary objective was the Rhineland, the second allowed William to move troops from the eastern border to the coast, even though most of the new mercenaries had yet to arrive On 22 September, the French seized over 100 Dutch ships, many owned by Amsterdam merchants; in response, on 26 September the Amsterdam City Council agreed to back William  This was a significant decision since the Council dominated the States of Holland, the most powerful political body in the Dutch Republic which contributed nearly 60% of its budget  French troops entered the Rhineland on 27 September and in a secret session held on 29th, William argued for a pre-emptive strike, as Louis and James would "attempt to bring this state to its ultimate ruin and subjugation, as soon as they find the occasion"  This was accepted by the States, with the objective left deliberately vague, other than making the English "King and Nation live in a good relation, and useful to their friends and allies, and especially to this State" Following their approval, the Amsterdam financial market raised a loan of four million guilders in only three days, with further financing coming from various sources, including two million guilders from the banker Francisco Lopes Suasso  The biggest concern for Holland was the potential impact on the Dutch economy and politics of William becoming ruler of England; the claim he had no intention of "removing the King from the throne" was not believed  These fears were arguably justified; William's access to English resources permanently diminished Amsterdam's power within the Republic and its status as the world's leading commercial and financial centre 

English defensive strategy
Neither James nor Sunderland trusted Louis, correctly suspecting that his support would continue only so long as it coincided with French interests, while Mary of Modena claimed his warnings were simply an attempt to drag England into an unwanted alliance  As a former naval commander, James appreciated the difficulties of a successful invasion, even in good weather, and as autumn approached, the likelihood seemed to diminish  With the Dutch on the verge of war with France, he did not believe the States General would allow William to make the attempt; if they did, his army and navy were strong enough to defeat it Reasonable in theory, his reliance on the loyalty and efficiency of the military proved deeply flawed  Both the army and the navy remained overwhelmingly Protestant and anti-Catholic; in July, only personal intervention by James prevented a naval mutiny when a Catholic captain held Mass on his ship  The transfer of 2,500 Catholics from the Royal Irish Army to England in September led to clashes with Protestant troops, some of his most reliable units refused to obey orders, and many of their officers resigned When James demanded the repatriation of all six regiments of the Scots Brigade in January 1688, William refused but used the opportunity to purge those considered unreliable, a total of 104 officers and 44 soldiers  Some may have been Williamite agents, such as Colonel Belasyse, a Protestant with over 15 years of service who returned to his family estates in Yorkshire and made contact with Danby  The promotion of Catholic former Brigade officers like Thomas Buchan and Alexander Cannon to command positions led to the formation of the Association of Protestant Officers, which included senior veterans like Charles Trelawny, Churchill, and Percy Kirke On 14 August, Churchill offered his support to William, helping convince him it was safe to risk an invasion; although James was aware of the conspiracy, he took no action  One reason may have been fears over the impact on the army; with a notional strength of 34,000, it looked impressive on paper but morale was brittle while many were untrained or lacked weapons  It also had to fill policing roles previously delegated to the militia, which had been deliberately allowed to decay; most of the 4,000 regular troops brought from Scotland in October had to be stationed in London to keep order  In October, attempts were made to restore the militia but many members were reportedly so angry at the changes made to local corporations, James was advised it was better not to raise them 

Widespread discontent and growing hostility to the Stuart regime were particularly apparent in North-East and South-West England, the two landing places identified by William  A Tory whose brother Jonathan was one of the Seven Bishops, Trelawny's commitment confirmed support from a powerful and well-connected West Country bloc, allowing access to the ports of Plymouth and Torbay  In the north, a force organised by Belasyse and Danby prepared to seize York, its most important city, and Hull, its largest port Herbert had been replaced by Dartmouth as commander of the fleet when he defected in June but many captains owed him their appointments and were of doubtful loyalty  Dartmouth suspected Berkeley and Grafton of plotting to overthrow him; to monitor them, he placed their ships next to his and minimised contact between the other vessels to prevent conspiracy  A lack of funds meant that excluding fireships and light scouting vessels, only 16 warships were available in early October, all third rates or fourth rates that were short of both men and supplies While The Downs was the best place to intercept a cross-Channel attack, it was also vulnerable to a surprise assault, even for ships fully manned and adequately provisioned  Instead, James placed his ships in a strong defensive position near Chatham Dockyard, believing the Dutch would seek to establish naval superiority before committing to a landing  While this had been the original plan, winter storms meant conditions deteriorated rapidly for those on the transports; William therefore decided to sail in convoy and avoid battle  The easterly winds that allowed the Dutch to cross prevented the Royal Navy leaving the Thames estuary and intervening The English fleet was outnumbered 2:1, undermanned, short of supplies, and in the wrong place  Key landing locations in the South-West and Yorkshire had been secured by sympathisers, while both army and navy were led by officers whose loyalty was questionable  Even early in 1686, foreign observers doubted the military would fight for James against a Protestant heir and William claimed only to be securing the inheritance of his wife Mary  While still a dangerous undertaking, the invasion was less risky than it seemed 

Invasion
Embarkation of the army and the Declaration of The Hague
The Dutch preparations, though carried out with great speed, could not remain secret  The English envoy Ignatius White, the Marquess d'Albeville, warned his country: "an absolute conquest is intended under the specious and ordinary pretences of religion, liberty, property and a free Parliament"  Louis threatened an immediate declaration of war if William proceeded and sent James 300,000 livres Embarkations, begun on 22 September (Gregorian calendar), had been completed on 8 October, and the expedition was that day openly approved by the States of Holland; the same day James issued a proclamation to the English nation that it should prepare for a Dutch invasion to ward off conquest  On 30 September/10 October (Julian/Gregorian calendars) William issued the Declaration of The Hague (actually written by Fagel), of which 60,000 copies of the English translation by Gilbert Burnet were distributed after the landing in England, in which he assured that his only aim was to maintain the Protestant religion, install a free parliament and investigate the legitimacy of the Prince of Wales  He would respect the position of James  William declared:

It is both certain and evident to all men, that the public peace and happiness of any state or kingdom cannot be preserved, where the Laws, Liberties, and Customs, established by the lawful authority in it, are openly transgressed and annulled; more especially where the alteration of Religion is endeavoured, and that a religion, which is contrary to law, is endeavoured to be introduced; upon which those who are most immediately concerned in it are indispensably bound to endeavour to preserve and maintain the established Laws, Liberties and customs, and, above all, the Religion and Worship of God, that is established among them; and to take such an effectual care, that the inhabitants of the said state or kingdom may neither be deprived of their Religion, nor of their Civil Rights 
William went on to condemn James's advisers for overturning the religion, laws, and liberties of England, Scotland, and Ireland by the use of the suspending and dispensing power; the establishment of the "manifestly illegal" commission for ecclesiastical causes and its use to suspend the Bishop of London and to remove the Fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford  William also condemned James's attempt to repeal the Test Acts and the penal laws through pressuring individuals and waging an assault on parliamentary boroughs, as well as his purging of the judiciary  James's attempt to pack Parliament was in danger of removing "the last and great remedy for all those evils" 

"Therefore", William continued, "we have thought fit to go over to England, and to carry over with us a force sufficient, by the blessing of God, to defend us from the violence of those evil Counsellors     this our Expedition is intended for no other design, but to have, a free and lawful Parliament assembled as soon as is possible"  On 4/14 October, William responded to the allegations by James in a second declaration, denying any intention to become king or to conquer England, a claim which remains controversial The swiftness of the embarkations surprised all foreign observers  Louis had in fact delayed his threats against the Dutch until early September because he assumed it then would be too late in the season to set the expedition in motion anyway, if their reaction proved negative; typically such an enterprise would take at least some months  Being ready after the last week of September / first week of October would normally have meant that the Dutch could have profited from the last spell of good weather, as the autumn storms tend to begin in the third week of that month  However, this year they came early  For three weeks, the invasion fleet was prevented by adverse south-westerly gales from departing from the naval port of Hellevoetsluis and Catholics all over the Netherlands and the British kingdoms held prayer sessions that this "popish wind" might endure  However, on 14/24 October, it became the famous "Protestant Wind" by turning to the east 

Crossing and landing
Although most of the warships were provided by the Admiralty of Amsterdam, the expedition was officially treated as a private affair, with the States General allowing William use of the Dutch army and fleet  For propaganda purposes, English admiral Arthur Herbert was nominally in command, but in reality operational control remained with Lieutenant-Admiral Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and Vice-Admiral Philips van Almonde  Accompanied by Willem Bastiaensz Schepers, the Rotterdam shipping magnate who provided financing, William boarded the frigate Den Briel on 16/26 October  Roughly twice the size of the Spanish Armada, the fleet included 49 warships, 76 transports for the soldiers, 120 transports for the 5,000 horses required by the cavalry and supply train, and 40,000 men on board, of whom 9,500 were sailors of the Dutch navy  It was to remain the largest fleet assembled in European waters until the D-Day operations of 1944 Having departed on 19/29 October, the expedition was halfway across the North Sea when it was scattered by a gale, forcing the Brill back to Hellevoetsluis on 21/31 October  William refused to go ashore and the fleet reassembled, having lost only one ship but nearly a thousand horses; press reports deliberately exaggerated the damage and claimed the expedition might be postponed until next spring  Dartmouth and his senior commanders considered taking advantage of this by blockading Hellevoetsluis, then decided against it, partly because the stormy weather made it dangerous but also because they could not rely on their men William replaced his losses and departed when the wind changed on 1/11 November, this time heading for Harwich where Bentinck had prepared a landing site  It has been suggested this was a feint to divert some of Dartmouth's ships north, which proved to be the case and when the wind shifted again, the Dutch armada sailed south into the Strait of Dover  In doing so, they twice passed the English fleet, which was unable to intercept because of the adverse winds and tides 

On 3/13 November, the invasion fleet entered the English Channel in an enormous formation 25 ships deep, the troops lined up on deck, firing musket volleys, colours flying and military bands playing  Intended to awe observers with its size and power, Rapin de Thoyras later described it as "the most magnificent and affecting spectacle   ever seen by human eyes"  The same wind blowing the Dutch down the Channel kept Dartmouth confined in the Thames estuary; by the time he was able to make his way out, he was too far behind to stop William reaching Torbay on 5 November As anticipated, the French fleet remained in the Mediterranean, in order to support an attack on the Papal States if needed, while a south-westerly gale now forced Dartmouth to shelter in Portsmouth harbour and kept him there for two days, allowing William to complete his disembarkation undisturbed  The regular Dutch troops amounted to 14,000-15,000 men, consisting of around 11,000 infantry, including nearly 5,000 members of the elite Anglo-Scots Brigade and Dutch Blue Guards, 3,660 cavalry and an artillery train of twenty-one 24-pounder cannon Some 5,000 volunteers, consisting of British exiles and Huguenots, also accompanied the fleet, making a total army of over 20,000 men   William brought these volunteers along to accelerate English army reforms, because they could replace the soldiers who were loyal to James  William brought weapons to equip another 20,000 men, although the subsequent and rapid collapse of James's army meant the 12,000 local volunteers who joined by 20 November were eventually dismissed 

The collapse of James's rule
Panicked by the prospect of invasion, James met with the bishops on 28 September, offering concessions; five days later they presented demands, which included restoring the religious position to that prevailing in February 1685, along with free elections for a new Parliament  Although they hoped this would allow James to remain king, in reality there was little chance of this, since at a minimum he would have to disinherit his son, enforce the Test Acts, and accept the supremacy of Parliament, all of which were unacceptable  In addition, by now his Whig opponents did not trust him to keep his promises, while Tories like Danby were too committed to William to escape punishment Although his veteran force had the capability of defeating the largely untested recruits of the Royal Army, William and his English supporters preferred to avoid bloodshed and allow the regime to collapse on its own  Landing in Torbay provided space and time for this, while heavy rainfall forced a slow advance regardless and to avoid alienating the local population by looting, his troops were well supplied and paid three months in advance  On 9 November, he entered Exeter and issued a proclamation stating his objectives were only to secure the rights of his wife and a free Parliament  There was little enthusiasm for either James or William and the general mood was one of confusion and distrust  After Danby had the Declaration publicly read in York on 12 November, much of the northern gentry confirmed their backing and the document was widely distributed On 19 November, James joined his main force of 19,000 at Salisbury, but it soon became apparent his army was not eager to fight and the loyalty of his commanders was doubtful  Three regiments sent out on 15 November to make contact with William promptly defected, while supply problems left the rest short of food and ammunition  On 20 November, dragoons led by Irish Catholic Patrick Sarsfield clashed with Williamite scouts at Wincanton; along with a minor skirmish at Reading on 9 December, also featuring Sarsfield, these were the only substantial military actions of the campaign  After securing his rear by taking Plymouth on 18 November, William began his advance on 21 November, while Danby and Belasyse captured York and Hull several days later 

James's commander Feversham and other senior officers advised retreat  Lacking information on William's movements, unable to rely on his own soldiers, worn out by lack of sleep and debilitating nose-bleeds, on 23 November James agreed  Next day Churchill, Grafton and Princess Anne's husband George deserted to William, followed by Anne herself on 26 November  The next day, James held a meeting at Whitehall Palace with those peers still in London; with the exception of Melfort, Perth and other Catholics, they urged him to issue writs for a Parliamentary election and negotiate with William On 8 December, Halifax, Nottingham and Godolphin met with William at Hungerford to hear his demands, which included the dismissal of Catholics from public office and funding for his army  Many viewed these as a reasonable basis for a settlement but James decided to flee the country, convinced by Melfort and others that his life was threatened – a suggestion generally dismissed by historians  William made it clear he would not allow James to be harmed, most Tories wanted him to retain his throne, while the Whigs simply wanted to drive him out of the country by imposing conditions he would refuse The Queen and Prince of Wales left for France on 9 December, James following separately on 10 December  Accompanied only by Edward Hales and Ralph Sheldon, he made his way to Faversham in Kent seeking passage to France, first dropping the Great Seal in the River Thames in a last-ditch attempt to prevent Parliament being summoned  In London, his flight and rumours of a "Papist" invasion led to riots and destruction of Catholic property, which quickly spread throughout the country  To fill the power vacuum, the Earl of Rochester set up a temporary government including members of the Privy Council and City of London authorities, but it took them two days to restore order 

When news arrived James had been captured in Faversham on 11 December by local fishermen, Lord Ailesbury, one of his personal attendants, was sent to escort him back to London  On entering the city on 16 December, he was welcomed by cheering crowds  By making it seem that James remained in control, Tory loyalists hoped for a settlement which would leave them in government  To create an appearance of normality, he heard Mass and presided over a meeting of the Privy Council  James made it clear to the French ambassador Paul Barillon that he still intended to escape to France  His few remaining supporters viewed his flight as cowardice, and a failure to ensure law and order criminally negligent Happy to help him into exile, William recommended he relocate to Ham, largely because it was easy to escape from  James suggested Rochester instead, allegedly because his personal guard was there, in reality conveniently positioned for a ship to France  On 18 December, he left London with a Dutch escort as William entered, cheered by the same crowds who greeted his predecessor two days before  On 22 December, Berwick arrived in Rochester with blank passports allowing them to leave England, while his guards were told that if James wanted to leave, "they should not prevent him, but allow him to gently slip through"  Although Ailesbury and others begged him to stay, he left for France on 23 December 

The revolutionary settlement
James's departure significantly shifted the balance of power in favour of William, who took control of the provisional government on 28 December  He was now master of England and in control of the country's army, navy, and finances  Elections were held in early January for a Convention Parliament, which assembled on 22 January  The Whigs had a slight majority in the Commons and the Lords was dominated by the Tories, but both were led by moderates  Archbishop Sancroft and other Stuart loyalists wanted to preserve the line of succession; they recognised keeping James on the throne was no longer possible, so they preferred Mary either be appointed his regent or sole monarch The next two weeks were spent debating how to resolve this issue, much to the annoyance of William, who needed a swift resolution; the situation in Ireland was rapidly deteriorating, while the French had over-run large parts of the Rhineland and were preparing to attack the Dutch  At a meeting with Danby and Halifax on 3 February, he announced his intention to return home if the Convention did not appoint him joint monarch; Mary let it be known she would only rule jointly with her husband  Faced with this ultimatum, on 6 February Parliament declared that in deserting his people James had abdicated and thus vacated the Crown, which was therefore offered jointly to William and Mary Historian Tim Harris argues the most radical act of the 1688 Revolution was breaking the succession and establishing the idea of a "contract" between ruler and people, a fundamental rebuttal of the Stuart ideology of divine right  While this was a victory for the Whigs, other pieces of legislation were proposed by the Tories, often with moderate Whig support, designed to protect the Anglican establishment from being undermined by future monarchs, including the Calvinist William  The Declaration of Right was a tactical compromise, setting out where James had failed and establishing the rights of English citizens, without agreeing their cause or offering solutions  In December 1689, this was incorporated into the Bill of Rights 

However, there were two areas that arguably broke new constitutional ground, both responses to what were viewed as specific abuses by James  First, the Declaration of Right made keeping a standing army without Parliamentary consent illegal, overturning the 1661 and 1662 Militia Acts and vesting control of the military in Parliament, not the Crown  The second was the Coronation Oath Act 1688; the result of James's perceived failure to comply with that taken in 1685, it established obligations owed by the monarchy to the people At their coronation on 11 April, William and Mary swore to "govern the people of this kingdom of England, and the dominions thereunto belonging, according to the statutes in Parliament agreed on, and the laws and customs of the same"  They were also to maintain the Protestant Reformed faith and "preserve inviolable the settlement of the Church of England, and its doctrine, worship, discipline and government as by law established" 

Scotland and Ireland
While Scotland was not involved in the landing, by November 1688 only a tiny minority supported James  Many of those who accompanied William were Scots exiles, including Melville, the Duke of Argyll, his personal chaplain William Carstares and Gilbert Burnet  News of James's flight led to celebrations and anti-Catholic riots in Edinburgh and Glasgow  Most members of the Scottish Privy Council went to London  On 7 January 1689, they asked William to take over government  Elections were held in March for a Scottish Convention, which was also a contest between Presbyterians and Episcopalians for control of the Kirk  While only 50 of the 125 delegates were classed as Episcopalian, they were hopeful of victory since William supported the retention of bishops On 16 March a Letter from James was read out to the convention, demanding obedience and threatening punishment for non-compliance  Public anger at its tone meant some Episcopalians stopped attending the convention, claiming to fear for their safety and others changed sides  The 1689–1691 Jacobite Rising forced William to make concessions to the Presbyterians, ended Episcopacy in Scotland and excluded a significant portion of the political class  Many later returned to the Kirk but Non-Juring Episcopalianism was the key determinant of Jacobite support in 1715 and 1745 The English Parliament held that James 'abandoned' his throne  The Convention argued that he 'forfeited' it by his actions, as listed in the Articles of Grievances  On 11 April, the Convention ended James's reign and adopted the Articles of Grievances and the Claim of Right Act, making Parliament the primary legislative power in Scotland  On 11 May, William and Mary accepted the Crown of Scotland; after their acceptance, the Claim and the Articles were read aloud, leading to an immediate debate over whether or not an endorsement of these documents was implicit in that acceptance Under the 1542 Crown of Ireland Act, the English monarch was automatically king of Ireland as well  Tyrconnell had created a largely Roman Catholic army and administration which was reinforced in March 1689 when James landed in Ireland with French military support; it took the two years of fighting of the Williamite War in Ireland before the new regime controlled Ireland 

Anglo-Dutch alliance
Though he had carefully avoided making it public, William's main motive in organising the expedition had been the opportunity to bring England into an alliance against France  On 9 December 1688 he had already asked the States General to send a delegation of three to negotiate the conditions  On 18 February (Julian calendar) he asked the convention to support the Republic in its war against France  It refused, only consenting to pay £600,000 for the continued presence of the Dutch army in England  On 9 March (Gregorian calendar) the States General responded to Louis's earlier declaration of war by declaring war on France in return 
On 19 April (Julian calendar) the Dutch delegation signed a naval treaty with England  It stipulated that the combined Anglo-Dutch fleet would always be commanded by an Englishman, even when of lower rank  The Dutch agreed to this to make their dominance over the English army less painful for the British  William had after all placed several Dutch officers and officials in key positions in the English military organisation, in order to reorganise the English army according to the Dutch model  The treaty also specified that the two parties would contribute in the ratio of five English vessels against three Dutch vessels, meaning in practice that the Dutch navy in the future would be smaller than the English  The Navigation Acts were not repealed  On 18 May the new Parliament allowed William to declare war on France  On 9 September 1689 (Gregorian calendar), William as King of England joined the League of Augsburg against France 

The decline of the Dutch Republic
Having England as an ally meant that the military situation of the Republic was strongly improved, but this very fact induced William to be uncompromising in his position towards France  This policy led to a large number of very expensive campaigns which were largely paid for with Dutch funds  In 1712 the Republic was financially exhausted and was forced to let its fleet deteriorate, making what was by then the Kingdom of Great Britain the dominant maritime power of the world The Dutch economy, already burdened by the high national debt and concomitant high taxation, suffered from the other European states' protectionist policies, which its weakened fleet was no longer able to resist  To make matters worse, the main Dutch trading and banking houses moved much of their activity from Amsterdam to London after 1688  Between 1688 and 1720, world trade dominance shifted from the Republic to Britain 

Assessment and historiography
While the 1688 revolution was labeled "Glorious" by Protestant preachers two decades later, its historiography is complex, and its assessment disputed  Thomas Macaulay's account of the Revolution in The History of England from the Accession of James the Second exemplifies the "Whig history" narrative of the Revolution as a largely consensual and bloodless triumph of English common sense, confirming and strengthening its institutions of tempered popular liberty and limited monarchy  Edmund Burke set the tone for that interpretation when he proclaimed: "The Revolution was made to preserve our ancient indisputable laws and liberties, and that ancient constitution of government which is our only security for law and liberty "An alternative narrative emphasizes William's successful foreign invasion from the Netherlands, and the size of the corresponding military operation  Several researchers have emphasized that aspect, particularly after the third centenary of the event in 1988  The historian J  R  Jones suggested that the invasion "should be seen     as the first and arguably the only decisive phase of the Nine Years' War " The invasion story is unusual because the establishment of a constitutional monarchy (a de facto republic, see Coronation Oath Act 1688) and Bill of Rights meant that the apparently invading monarchs, legitimate heirs to the throne, were prepared to govern with the English Parliament  It is difficult to classify the entire proceedings of 1687–1689 but it can be seen that the events occurred in three parts: conspiracy, invasion by Dutch forces, and "Glorious Revolution" It has been argued that the invasion aspect had been downplayed as a result of British pride and effective Dutch propaganda, trying to depict the course of events as a largely internal English affair  As the invitation was initiated by figures who had little influence, the legacy of the Glorious Revolution has been described as a successful propaganda act by William to cover up and justify his invasion  The claim that William was fighting for the Protestant cause in England was used to great effect to disguise the military, cultural and political impact that the Dutch regime had on England 
A third version, proposed by Steven Pincus, underplays the invasion aspect but unlike the Whig narrative views the Revolution as a divisive and violent event that involved all classes of the English population, not just the main aristocratic protagonists  Pincus argues that his interpretation echoes the widely held view of the Revolution in its aftermath, starting with its revolutionary labelling  Pincus argues that it was momentous especially when looking at the alternative that James was trying to enact – a powerful centralised autocratic state, using French-style "state-building"  England's role in Europe and the country's political economy in the 17th century rebuts the view of many late-20th-century historians that nothing revolutionary occurred during the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89  Pincus says it was not a placid turn of events In diplomacy and economics William III transformed the English state's ideology and policies  This occurred not because William III was an outsider who inflicted foreign notions on England but because foreign affairs and political economy were at the core of the English revolutionaries' agenda  The revolution of 1688–89 cannot be fathomed in isolation  It would have been inconceivable without the changes resulting from the events of the 1640s and 1650s  The ideas accompanying the Glorious Revolution were rooted in the mid-century upheavals  The 17th century was a century of revolution in England, deserving of the same scholarly attention that 'modern' revolutions attract James II tried building a powerful militarised state on the mercantilist assumption that the world's wealth was necessarily finite and empires were created by taking land from other states  The East India Company was thus an ideal tool to create a vast new English imperial dominion by warring with the Dutch and the Mughal Empire in India  After 1689 came an alternative understanding of economics, which saw Britain as a commercial rather than an agrarian society  It led to the foundation of the Bank of England, the creation of Europe's first widely circulating credit currency and the commencement of the "Age of Projectors"  This subsequently gave weight to the view, advocated most famously by Adam Smith in 1776, that wealth was created by human endeavour and was thus potentially infinite 

Impact
As a coup, albeit largely bloodless, its legitimacy rests in the will expressed separately by the Scottish and English Parliaments according to their respective legal processes  On this point, the Earl of Shaftesbury declared in 1689, "The Parliament of England is that supreme and absolute power, which gives life and motion to the English government"  The Revolution established the primacy of parliamentary sovereignty, a principle still relevant in consultation with the 15 Commonwealth realms regarding succession issues  The Bill of Rights 1689 formally established a system of constitutional monarchy and ended moves towards absolute monarchy by restricting the power of the monarch, who could no longer suspend laws, levy taxes, make royal appointments or maintain a standing army during peacetime without Parliament's consent  The British Army remains the military arm of Parliament, not the monarch, although the Crown is the source of all military executive authority Unlike the 1638 to 1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms, most ordinary people in England and Scotland were relatively untouched by the "Glorious Revolution", the majority of the bloodshed taking place in Ireland  As a consequence, some historians suggest that in England at least it more closely resembles a coup d'état, rather than a social upheaval such as the French Revolution  This view is consistent with the original meaning of "revolution" as a circular process under which an old system of values is restored to its original position, with England's supposed "ancient constitution" being reasserted, rather than formed anew  Contemporary English political thought, as expressed in John Locke's then popular social contract theory, linked to George Buchanan's view of the contractual agreement between the monarch and their subjects, an argument used by the Scottish Parliament as justification for the Claim of Right 
Under the Coronation Oath Act 1688, William had sworn to maintain the primacy of the Church of England, which both his native Dutch Reformed Church and the Church of Scotland viewed as ideologically suspect in both doctrine and use of bishops  This required a certain degree of religious flexibility on his part, especially as he needed to placate his Catholic allies, Spain and Emperor Leopold  Despite promising legal toleration for Catholics in his Declaration of October 1688, William failed due to domestic opposition  The Act of Toleration 1689 granted relief to Nonconformists but Catholic emancipation would be delayed until 1829 The Williamite War in Ireland can be seen as the source of later ethno-religious conflict, including The Troubles of the twentieth century  The Williamite victory in Ireland is still commemorated by the Orange Order for preserving British and Protestant supremacy in the country  In North America, the Glorious Revolution precipitated the 1689 Boston revolt in which a well-organised "mob" of provincial militia and citizens deposed the hated governor Edmund Andros  In New York, Leisler's Rebellion caused the colonial administrator, Francis Nicholson, to flee to England  A third event, Maryland's Protestant Rebellion was directed against the proprietary government, seen as Catholic-dominated  A series of events in Pennsylvania saw William Penn's Quaker-dominated proprietary government challenged by liberal elements while he was temporarily detained in England due to his well established loyalty to James and the former King Charles (James' brother)  Charles awarded Pennsylvania to Penn for his support during the Restoration  Penn was in England during the Revolution disputing a competing claim for what is now Delaware 

Footnotes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Ashley, Maurice (1966)  The Glorious Revolution of 1688  Hodder & Stoughton 
Cruickshanks, Eveline (2000)  The Glorious Revolution (British History in Perspective)  Palgrave Macmillan  ISBN 978-0-312-23009-8  OL 9818099M 
DeKrey, Gary S  (2007)  Restoration and Revolution in Britain: A Political History of the Era of Charles II and the Glorious Revolution  Palgrave Macmillan  ISBN 978-0-333-65103-2 
Glassey, Lionel K  J , ed  (1997)  The Reigns of Charles II and James VII and II  ISBN 978-0-333-62500-2 
Hamowy, Ronald (2008)  "Glorious Revolution"  The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism  Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE; Cato Institute  pp  208–211  doi:10 4135/9781412965811 n125  ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4  LCCN 2008009151  OCLC 750831024 
MacCubbin, R  P ; Hamilton-Phillips, M , eds  (1988)  The Age of William III and Mary II: Power, Politics and Patronage, 1688–1702  College of William and Mary in Virginia  ISBN 978-0-9622081-0-2 
McCaffrey, Carmel (2006)  In Search of Ireland's Heroes  Ivan R Dee  ISBN 978-1-56663-615-5  OL 8670276M 
Miller, John (1997)  The Glorious Revolution (2 ed )  ISBN 978-0-582-29222-2 
Ogg, David (1956)  William III  ISBN 978-0-758-18954-7  OL 13525080M 
Onnekink, David (2007)  The Anglo-Dutch Favourite: The Career of Hans Willem Bentinck, 1st Earl of Portland (1649–1709)  Ashgate Publishing  ISBN 978-0-7546-5545-9 
Pincus, Steven C  A  (2005)  England's Glorious Revolution 1688–1689: A Brief History with Documents  Bedford/St  Martin's  ISBN 978-0-312-16714-1  OL 24936969M 
Prall, Stuart (1972)  The Bloodless Revolution: England, 1688  Anchor Books  OCLC 644932859 
Vallance, Edward (2006)  The Glorious Revolution: 1688 – Britain's Fight for Liberty  Brown Little  ISBN 978-1-933648-24-8 

External links

Weiss, B  (2014)  "Medals of the Glorious Revolution: The Influence of Catholic-Protestant Antagonism" (PDF)  ANS Magazine  Vol  13, no  1  New York: American Numismatic Society  pp  6–23  Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 December 2014 
Glorious Revolution on In Our Time at the BBC
"Charles II (1630–1685)"  BBC History  Retrieved 15 August 2010 
"English Revolution of 1688"  Catholic Encyclopedia 
The Civil War team, presented by Tristram Hunt (7 January 2001)  "Aftershocks – The Glorious Revolution"  open2 net (BBC & Open University) 
Quinn, Stephen (17 April 2003)  "The Glorious Revolution of 1688"   In Whaples, Robert (ed )  EH Net Encyclopedia 
Royal Household at Buckingham Palace, ed  (2008–2009)  "History of the Monarchy >United Kingdom Monarchs (1603–present) >The Stuarts >Mary II, William III and The Act of Settlement > William III (r  1689–1702) and Mary II (r  1689–1694)"  Official web site of the British Monarchy 
Wilkes, Donald E  Jr ; Kramer, Matthew  "The Glorious Revolution of 1688"  Retrieved 15 August 2010 
Passage 9:
Samuel Manetoali
Samuel Manetoali (born 24 January 1969) is a member of the National Parliament of the Solomon Islands  He represents the Gao/Bugotu constituency in Isabel Province 

Early life and education
Manetoali attended Lepi Primary School and then went on to do his secondary education at King George Sixth National School in Honiara  He attended law school at the University of Papua New Guinea and graduated with an LLB degree and further unspecified qualifications from the University of Tasmania and University of South Australia 

Career
Prior to entering politics, Manetoali worked in the country's Public Solicitors Office, as a private lawyer, and a legal adviser to the Isabel Provincial Government 
He first entered parliament in the 2006 general election and re-elected in the 2010 general election  He served as the Solomon Islands' Minister of Police, National Security and Correctional Services in Prime Minister Derek Sikua's Cabinet until May 2009, when he was transferred to the position of Minister for Lands, Survey, and Housing Following the 2010 general election, he remained in Cabinet, under new Prime Minister Danny Philip, as Minister for Tourism and Culture  In the 2014 general election, he ran as an independent candidate and was re-elected for a third term in a landslide He was re-elected as a Member of Parliament in the 2019 general election for Gao/Bugotu, representing the Kadere Party 
Passage 10:
English general election, 1681
The 1681 English general election returned members to the last parliament of Charles II   Dubbed the Oxford Parliament, the body elected sat for one week from 21 March 1681 until 28 March 1681  Party strengths are an approximation, with many MPs' allegiances being unknown 



ground_truth: Vienna

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which artist is known for his work on Marvel Team-Up and Batman: Son of the Demon?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: Passage 1:
Portland International Airport MAX Station
Portland International Airport, or just Airport on station signage, is a light rail station in Portland, Oregon, United States, served by TriMet as part of the MAX Light Rail system  It serves Portland International Airport as the eastern terminus of the Red Line, which connects travelers to downtown Portland and Beaverton  The station is attached to ground floor of the main passenger terminal, near the southern end of the arrivals hall and baggage claim area  It features a wedge-shaped island platform, just beyond which both tracks join because the section approaching the terminal is single-tracked 
Portland International Airport station was built as part of the Airport MAX project; construction began in July 2000, and it opened on September 10, 2001  Trains serve it for 22 hours daily with headways of 15 minutes during most of the day  In late 2018, the station recorded an average of 2,461 weekday boardings 

History
Portland's regional transit agency, TriMet, had served Portland International Airport with bus routes since 1970, notably with route 12–Sandy Boulevard since 1986, the same year planners from Metro (the Portland metropolitan area's regional government) first proposed an airport light rail line  Early plans envisioned a line running from Clackamas to the airport via Interstate 205 (I-205) using rights-of-way provided by the I-205 busway, which was originally built to accommodate a bus rapid transit line that never operated  In 1991, the Port of Portland adopted a multi-phased, $300 million airport master plan to address expected passenger traffic growth through 2010; the plan raised the capacity of the main passenger terminal building, as well as provisioned for a future light rail station outside the terminal's arrivals hall  By 1994, travelers using the airport had risen by 34 percent, far exceeding the Port's projections  Port officials, struggling to meet the surge in demand, moved to accelerate airport light rail plans, which regional planners did not anticipate until the late 2000s  TriMet—which by then was operating the region's light rail system called Metropolitan Area Express (MAX)—also aimed to complete its Westside MAX and the South/North Corridor projects before it would consider extending MAX to the airport In 1996, engineering firm Bechtel approached the Port with an unsolicited proposal to build the airport line  After negotiations between Bechtel, the Port, and local jurisdictions, Bechtel was granted the design–build contract for the light rail extension in exchange for development rights to the 120-acre (48 6 ha) Portland International Center, the largest commercially zoned property in Portland at the time  Bechtel later developed this property and renamed it Cascade Station  The Port projected the airport terminal station to cost $8 4 million and allocated a $3 ticket fee to fund its construction  Delta Airlines, Reno Air, and United Airlines protested the use of ticket fees but the Federal Aviation Administration authorized it in May 1999  Construction of the Airport MAX extension commenced the following month  Hoffman Construction began building the station's platform in July 2000 and by August, Stacy and Witbeck had started to lay the 3,000 ft (914 4 m) of rail along the segment closest to the terminal On September 10, 2001, the station opened along with the entire Airport MAX extension that introduced Red Line service between downtown Portland and the airport  Celebrations planned for the following weekend were canceled following the September 11 attacks, and the airport was closed for three days  Planners projected single-car trains to initially serve Portland International Airport station but TriMet deployed two-car consists on the line after recording 3,800 riders over Thanksgiving weekend in November 2001  In September 2003, TriMet extended Red Line service farther west using the existing Westside MAX tracks to Beaverton Transit Center  This was done in an effort to provide a one-seat ride to the airport for westside riders  In 2006, the station handled more than one million passengers in a single year for the first time TriMet had reintroduced bus service to the airport with the 272–PDX Night Bus route on September 2, 2018  The bus route ran in the late night and early morning hours when the Red Line was not operating  It was indefinitely suspended on April 5, 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic 

Station details
The station's platform is situated at ground level just outside the main passenger terminal, near the southernmost entrance and within 150 ft (45 7 m) of the baggage claim area  It features a wedge-shaped island platform and a glass canopy designed by ZGF Architects, which also designed the airport terminal's main-entrance canopy  An 80-seat station lobby is located inside the terminal and has ticket vending machines and real-time displays showing train departure times  The station occupies the end of a single-track section of the Airport MAX segment; the only other such section on the MAX system is located on another segment of the Airport MAX near Gateway/Northeast 99th Avenue Transit Center 

Public art
Public art pieces commissioned for the Airport MAX Project have a common theme of "flight"  The station houses one art installation as part of TriMet's Public Art Program, which is funded at 1 5 percent of a project's total cost  Time Flies by Christine Bourdette is a large, porcelain enamel mural that is displayed on a wall between the station platform and the baggage claim area  The work is described as "a sequence of images related to time and motion"   Bourdette also installed bronze rails that lead passengers from the escalators to the platform and blue chevrons on the platform pavement to depict movement 

Services
Portland International Airport station is served by TriMet's MAX Red Line, which connects the airport to Northeast Portland, Portland City Center, and central Beaverton  In late 2018, the station recorded an average of 2,461 boardings on weekdays  The day's first train arrives from Beaverton Transit Center  The last three westbound trips travel eastbound to Ruby Junction/East 197th Avenue station as through services of the Blue Line  Headway between trains varies from 15 minutes for most of the day to 30 minutes during the early mornings and late evenings  Services operate on all days of the week and are the most frequent on weekdays  Trains from the station take approximately 40 minutes to reach Pioneer Square in downtown Portland—where transfers to all lines are available—and approximately 65 minutes to reach the other end of the line at Beaverton Transit Center 
Passage 2:
Gerald R  Ford International Airport
Grand Rapids Gerald R  Ford International Airport (IATA: GRR, ICAO: KGRR, FAA LID: GRR) is a commercial airport in Cascade Township approximately 13 miles (21 km) southeast of Grand Rapids, Michigan, United States  The facility is owned by the Kent County Board of Commissioners and managed by an independent authority   The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2017–2021 categorized it as a small hub primary commercial service facility The facility opened as the Kent County Airport and later became Kent County International Airport  In December 1999, the airport was renamed for Gerald R  Ford, the 40th Vice President and the 38th President of the United States  Ford represented the Grand Rapids area in the United States House of Representatives from 1949 to 1973 
The airport is the largest commercial airport in the West Michigan region and is the second-largest airport in Michigan after Detroit Metropolitan Airport  GRR covers 3,127 acres (1,265 ha) The airport currently has flights to 37 domestic airports 

History
Grand Rapids' first airport broke ground in November 1919, four miles (6 4 km) south of downtown  This was eight years after the area witnessed its first landing, a Wright biplane at Comstock Park State Fairgrounds on September 10, 1911  The airport was operated by the Kent County Board of Supervisors 
The first scheduled air service in the United States was between Grand Rapids and Dearborn on a Ford-Stout monoplane named Miss Grand Rapids, which started July 26, 1926 
In 1938–39, the Works Progress Administration made improvements including new runways and runway widening, fencing, sodding, lighting, remodeling the administration building and construction of a new restaurant Circa 1940, the airport extended between 32nd and 36th Streets, from Jefferson Avenue east to the railroad; the west end was soon expanded south to just north of Himes Street and in the 1950s runway 18/36 was extended to 5700’ and reached south to 44th Street 
In 1959, the county began construction on the present airport in Cascade Township, several miles east of the first airport  The new airport opened November 23, 1963, and was dedicated June 6, 1964; it had a 6,600-foot (2,000 m) runway designated 08/26 and a 3,400-foot (1,000 m) designated 18/36  The first scheduled jet was a United Airlines Boeing 737-200 on April 28, 1968, from Chicago O'Hare  The aircraft, N9003U, was named 'City of Grand Rapids'  In 1968, the only scheduled non-stops beyond Michigan were to Chicago and Green Bay 
On January 27, 1977, the Board of Commissioners renamed Kent County Airport as Kent County International Airport with the opening of a U S  Customs Service Office in the main terminal building 
In 1997, the board added the 8,500-foot (2,600 m) runway 17/35 to allow continued operations during a $32 million reconstruction of runway 8R/26L, completed in 2001  It completed a passenger terminal renovation in 2000 at a cost of approximately $50 million In 2004, the airport served more than 2 million passengers for the first time in a year  In 2010, the airport broke the 2004 record with almost 2 2 million passengers, as increase of over 23% from 2009 
On January 2, 2007, a U S  Air Force jet carried the remains of former president Gerald Ford to his namesake airport as part of funeral services culminating in burial at his presidential museum in Grand Rapids the next day 
From April 2010 through October 2011, the airport was a focus city for Allegiant Air Air Canada operated the airport's only international flights to Toronto Pearson International Airport from July 2008 until September 2013   It was the airline's second attempt at service between the two markets Delta Air Lines operates Boeing 757-200s seasonally between Grand Rapids and Detroit during the summer, making it the largest aircraft to serve GRR Allegiant Air announced in mid-January 2019 that they would be making the airport one of Allegiant's 16 focus cities once again  After dropping GRR as a focus city in 2011, Allegiant is upgrading GRR again to a focus city adding Nashville, Tennessee, and Savannah-Hilton Head, Georgia, as new routes In 2013 the airport began building a natural treatment system to improve stormwater management practices and safeguard the waters of the Thornapple River  The new, innovative system will include a biological treatment system that will improve collection of stormwater runoff and naturally remove sediments and pollutants before sending the water to the Thornapple River, which flows just east of the airfield The airport eliminated the two separate security checkpoints in each concourse and created one consolidated checkpoint in the grand hall area to help traffic flow much faster and to be prepared for future growth  In addition, the grand hall area and the entrance area to the airport was renovated with more shopping and dining options  Work began in late 2015 and completed in June 2017 The airport began construction of a roof over the parking deck in March 2015 to increase close-in, covered, long-term parking  The roof covers most of the fourth floor, though some spaces on the fourth and third floors remain uncovered due to airfield sight-line requirements for the FAA control tower  The garage roof was completed in November 2015 and will allow use of the fourth floor spaces during heavy snow In 2016, the airport partnered with the Cascade Community Foundation on plans to renovate the current outdoor viewing area to make it a larger, more inviting place for people to relax   The renovated park opened in May 2017 In November 2018 the airport began the phase II of the Gateway Transformation Project, reconstructing the baggage claim, check-in, and front of house areas, and have completed the apron reconstruction adding new pavement to the apron and taxiway areas 

Facilities
Gerald R  Ford International Airport has two parallel east–west runways and one north–south runway  Along with cargo and general aviation facilities, the airport has a passenger terminal with two concourses: A has seven gates and B has eight  Runways 08R/26L and runway 17/35 have ILS  The airport also has a 5,000-foot (1,500 m) general aviation runway north of the main 08R/26L runway 
In September 2017, the airport celebrated the opening of phase one of their Gateway Transformation, a 59,000 square foot addition onto the passenger terminal facility that included a consolidated passenger security screening checkpoint, a new Marketplace with expanded retail and food & beverage offerings, new business centers and lounges, and much more  Concourse A's tenants are Allegiant Air, Delta Air Lines, American Airlines and Frontier Airlines  Southwest Airlines and United Airlines occupy Concourse B  All gates have climate-controlled jetways 
The airport is served by Signature Flight Support, which operates an FBO on the field  Besides fuel, the facility provides general maintenance, aircraft parking, courtesy and rental cars, conference rooms, pilot supplies, a crew lounge, snooze rooms, and more When new baggage screening regulations were introduced by the Transportation Security Administration in 2002, the airport was the first in the nation to conduct trials on the new screening machines  The baggage processing areas were too small for the machines so they were placed in the passenger lobby The airport is also home to the West Michigan Aviation Academy, a public charter high school that focuses on aviation, STEM, and robotics educations  The school offers a fleet of Cessna 172 aircraft for flight training, allows students to build a Carbon Cub EX2 plane, and has a Redbird LD flight simulator 

Airlines and destinations
Passenger
Source:

Cargo
Source: Flight Aware

Statistics
Top domestic destinations
Airline market share
Annual traffic
Ground transportation
The airport is at the intersection of 44th Street and Patterson Avenue  It abuts I-96 on the east, M-6 on the south, M-37 on the west, and M-11 on the north 
Metro Cab and Metro Cars provides taxi and luxury sedan service and the airport is served by Avis, Budget, Enterprise, Hertz, and National/Alamo rental car companies on-site Rapid route 17, Woodland/Airport, travels between the airport and Woodland Mall (Kentwood Station) on weekdays between 6:30 a m  and 10:30 p m  From Woodland Mall, passengers can continue on to downtown or parts of the east side of Grand Rapids via routes 5 and 6, or across town to Grandville and Wyoming on routes 24, 28, and 44 

Planned development
In late August 2019, the airport made an announcement about its next focus, Project Elevate  This phase of airport development, consisting of three major projects, includes a $90 million expansion and extension of Concourse A to encompass 8 more gates, a $50 million relocation and construction of a new air traffic control tower as well as a $25 million federal inspection station to facilitate departures and arrivals of direct international flights A $156 million rental car facility was announced in 2023 and is expected to be completed by late 2025 

Accidents & Incidents
On May 9, 2008, a Cessna 208 Caravan operating for Federal Express by CSA Air crashed just north of Grand Rapids  The pilot was injured 
On September 6, 2010, a Cessna 210 Centurion that departed from Grand Rapids made an emergency landing in a field due to an engine failure  The aircraft was on a training flight at the time of impact  The probable cause of the accident was found to be a fatigue failure of the crankshaft due to the loss of engine case through-bold torque 
On October 29, 2012, a Delta Air Lines McDonnell Douglas MD-88 diverted to the airport after an engine issue  The engine was shut off and the plane was able to land safely 
On January 9, 2022, an aircraft returned to the airport due to a landing gear problem  It landed safely back at the airport 
On July 8, 2022, an American Airlines flight en route from Chicago to Buffalo, New York diverted to Grand Rapids due to smoke in the cockpit  The plane landed safely and there were no injuries 
On December 16, 2022, a Delta Air Lines Airbus A320 departed Grand Rapids for Minneapolis–Saint Paul and returned shortly after departure following an engine failure  The aircraft landed safely and the 147 passengers and crew were uninjured 
Passage 3:
Portland International Airport
Portland International Airport (IATA: PDX, ICAO: KPDX, FAA LID: PDX) is a joint civil–military airport and the largest airport in the U S  state of Oregon, accounting for 90% of the state's passenger air travel and more than 95% of its air cargo  It is within Portland's city limits just south of the Columbia River in Multnomah County, 6 miles (10 kilometers) by air and 12 mi (19 km) by highway northeast of downtown Portland  Portland International Airport is often referred to by its IATA airport code, PDX  The airport covers 3,000 acres (1,214 ha) of land Portland International Airport has direct flights and connections to most major airports throughout the United States, and non-stop international flights to Canada, Germany, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, Iceland and the United Kingdom  The airport is a hub for Alaska Airlines  It also has a maintenance facility for Alaska Air subsidiary Horizon Air  General aviation services are provided at PDX by Atlantic Aviation  The Oregon Air National Guard has a base on the southwest portion of the airport property grounds, and is also the host unit of the 142nd Fighter Wing (142 FW), which operates the F-15 Eagle  Local transportation includes the MAX Red Line light rail, which takes passengers between PDX and downtown Portland, as well as farther west to Beaverton  There is also Interstate 205, which connects to southwestern Washington (north from PDX) along with many suburbs of Portland (south from PDX) 
PDX receives top honors among many polls: Travel + Leisure magazine 2013 readers' poll for best US airport; Condé Nast Traveler in 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2010: top airport for business travelers; #1 in 2015, 2016, and 2019 by J D  Power and Associates for U S  "Large Passenger Airports" and overall highest amongst passenger satisfaction; the 2015 ALPA Airport of the Year 

History
Portland's first airport was the Swan Island Municipal Airport, northwest of downtown Portland on the Willamette River  The Port of Portland purchased 256 acres (104 ha) and construction began in 1926  Charles Lindbergh flew in and dedicated the new airfield in 1927 
By 1935 it was becoming apparent to the Port of Portland that the airport was becoming obsolete  The small airfield couldn't easily be expanded, nor could it accommodate the larger aircraft and passenger loads expected to become common to Portland  Plans immediately were conceived to relocate the outdated airfield to a larger site  The Swan Island area is now used by the Port of Portland as an industrial park 

Construction and early operations
The Portland City Council purchased the present PDX site in 1936  It was 700 acres (280 ha) bordered by the Columbia River in the north and the Columbia Slough in the south  The city council issued US$300,000 and asked the Port of Portland to sponsor a US$1 3 million Works Progress Administration (WPA) grant to develop the site into a "super airport"  The project provided badly needed Great Depression-era jobs  Construction of the airport steadily employed over 1,000 men, and was described by historian Neil Barker as "Portland's most significant public works improvement during the New Deal era"  The WPA and Port of Portland faced difficulties in preparing the site for construction because the low-lying area was frequently covered by flood waters from the Columbia River  Workers covered the area with over 4 million cubic yards (3,100,000 m3) of sand to help drain it of water, and constructed a series of dikes to control flooding  Two runways capable of serving the modern aircraft of the time were operational by 1941  The airport was designated Portland–Columbia Airport to distinguish it from then-operating Swan Island Airport  During World War II, the airfield was used by the United States Army Air Forces 
The "super airport" had a terminal on the north side, off Marine Drive, and five runways (NE-SW, NW-SE, and an E-W runway forming an asterisk)  This configuration was adequate until a new terminal and a longer, 8,800-foot (2,700 m) east–west runway were constructed in 1952  View airport diagrams: 1955 and 1965
In 1948 the entire airport grounds were flooded during the Vanport Flood, forcing scheduled airline services to reroute to nearby Troutdale Airport  The grounds were under water for several months 

New terminal (1950s)
A new terminal opened in 1959, which for the most part serves as the present facility  The new terminal is located to the east of the original runways, and north of the then-new 8,800 ft (2,700 m) runway  Construction of a second east–west runway to the north made this a midfield terminal  At this point, all but the NE-SW (3/21) runway in the original "X" were abandoned and turned into taxiways  3/21 was extended for use as a cross-wind runway  "International" was added to the airport's official designation after the 1950s-era improvements 
Plans made in 1968 to add a third runway by means of filling in parts of the Columbia River were met with vocal public opposition and scrapped  The airport switched from screening passengers at individual gates to screening all visitors at concourse entrances in 1973 as new FAA regulations went into effect  In 1974, the south runway was extended to 11,000 feet (3,400 m) to service the newest jumbo jets  The terminal building was renovated and expanded in 1977 By the 1980s, the terminal building began an extensive renovation in order to update PDX to meet future needs  The ticketing and baggage claim areas were renovated and expanded, and a new Concourse D for Alaska Airlines was added in 1986  Concourse E was first to be reconstructed in 1992, and featured PDX's first moving sidewalks  The Oregon Marketplace, a small shopping mall, was added in the former waiting areas behind the ticket counters 
The early 1990s saw a food court and extension added to Concourse C, and the opening of the new Concourse D in 1994  This marked the first concessions inside secured areas, allowing passengers to purchase items without having to be re-screened 
An expanded parking garage, new control tower, and canopy over the curbside were finished in the late 1990s  Although hailed by architectural critics, the canopy blocked views of Mount Hood from the curbside   On July 31, 1997, during construction, the garage addition collapsed due to inadequate bolts holding girders together and inadequate securing of structural members, killing three steelworkers The present H-shape of the PDX terminal, designed by Zimmer Gunsul Frasca Partnership, was completed on September 10, 2001, when the new A, B and C concourses, as well as the light rail line, were finished  Probably the most stunning portion of PDX's interior, the new concourses reflect a Northwest theme, focusing heavily on the nearby Columbia River  A huge celebration was to be held the following weekend, but the events of September 11, 2001, interceded  The new concourses, designed to be public spaces, were closed to non-passengers 
In August 2005, the concourse connector was opened  This is a long hallway on the secure side of the airport that connects the A, B and C concourses to the D and E concourses on the other side of the airport  If there is a long line at the checkpoint at one end of the airport, passengers may use the other checkpoint and walk through the connector to their desired concourse  The connector closed permanently on January 5, 2021, to make room for terminal expansion The airport's carpet, installed in 1987, was designed to stylize the criss-crossing north and south runways  Beginning in 2014, a new design replaced the original pattern  In response, many residents created products to celebrate the carpet as a local icon In December 2016, The Port of Portland renovated the security checkpoints and immigration facilities as part of its PDXNext project  This included the relocation, and wider of the exit lanes by the security checkpoints and upgraded security on both sides of the terminal 

Terminal expansion (2020s)
In the latter half of 2016, the Port of Portland and several airlines at PDX approved a project intended to balance the use of the terminal and concourses at Portland International Airport  The subsequent project extended Concourse E by 750 feet (230 m) and added 6 new gates to the facility  After the project, Southwest Airlines relocated its operations from Concourse C to the newly expanded Concourse E, alongside United Airlines  With the relocation of Southwest Airlines to Concourse E, Alaska Airlines, American Airlines and JetBlue Airways became the primary users of Concourses B and C  Construction on this project began in the spring of 2017 and opened to passengers on July 15, 2020 Concourse A was demolished in November 2019 due to the age and space of the structure and was replaced by an expanded Concourse B  The extension featured 4 jet bridges, 6 ground loading zones, and improved concession stands  All Horizon operations that operated out of Concourse A was temporarily moved to Concourse C until the expanded Concourse B was completed  The new concourse opened on December 8, 2021 In March 2020, the main terminal began a 5-year expansion process to generate more open space in the pre-security area and an expansion of 150 feet toward the west  The Concourse Connector was closed in January 2021 and the Clocktower Plaza closed 3 months later to make room for the expansion  During construction, the remains of the concourse connector will be reused for passengers to bypass the construction zone to get to concourses C and D  Construction of the new main terminal is expected to be complete by 2025 

Domestic service
The April 1957 OAG shows 38 United departures per day, ten West Coast, eight Northwest and six Western  Alaska had four a week and Pacific Northern had three; Pan Am and Northwest both flew SEA-PDX-HNL and back, Pan Am with five DC-7C round trips a week and Northwest with four DC-6Bs  Portland's first jets were Pan Am 707-321s about October 1959 
In 1966 PDX had nonstop flights to SLC, DEN, ORD and no other cities farther east than Boise; in 1977 nonstops reached LAS–PHX–DEN–DFW–ORD and no others east of Boise  In 1967 United started PDX's first transcon nonstop, to JFK; it ended in 1973 
By 1974, the airport was served by Braniff, Cascade, Continental, Eastern, Hughes Airwest, Northwest Orient, Pan Am, United and Western, and the Seattle route was served by seven airlines with aircraft as large as Boeing 747s Air Oregon started short-haul service from Portland following deregulation in 1978, and by 1979 had routes to seven other cities in Oregon In the 1980s Air California had nonstop flights to Seattle, Reno and the Bay Area; PSA (Pacific Southwest Airlines) had nonstops to San Francisco and one or two to Reno and Sacramento  In 2010 Northwest's former Honolulu service was eliminated by Delta altogether  In 2015, Delta resumed its seasonal service to Honolulu 
United was the dominant carrier at PDX during the regulated era and through the 1980s On May 30, 2022, Alaska Airlines added New Orleans' Armstrong International Airport to its schedule, and in doing so, added the only domestic FAA-designated "large hub" airport missing from the southern airfield's roster  Flights AS142 and AS143 will operate daily, beginning January 5, 2023, between Portland and New Orleans, operated by a Boeing 737-900ER 

International service
The first international nonstop was Western's 720B to Vancouver in 1967 
United Airlines, then the dominant carrier at PDX, used Portland as a once-weekly stop for its Chicago–O'Hare-Tokyo–Narita service from 1983 to 1987  The flight stopped in Seattle/Tacoma six days a week and in Portland once a week  After United Airlines acquired Pan American World Airways' Asian routes in 1986, they were able to use Pan American World Airways' Boeing 747SP aircraft to eliminate the West Coast stop As United Airlines made plans to end Tokyo service from Portland, Delta Air Lines applied to begin Atlanta-Tokyo service via Portland using Lockheed L-1011 aircraft  Like United Airlines, Delta Air Lines lacked aircraft that could fly to Japan nonstop from the eastern United States; Delta Air Lines also lacked a West Coast hub at the time, and saw Portland as favorable international and domestic hub over Seattle, which was dominated by Northwest Airlines  After beginning Tokyo service in 1986, Delta Air Lines added a flight to Seoul in 1988, coinciding with the 1988 Summer Olympics; the Seoul flight was later extended to Hong Kong, Beijing, Shanghai, and Taipei  By 1994, Delta Air Lines had introduced McDonnell Douglas MD-11 aircraft, and added another transpacific flight to Nagoya and domestic flights to New York City, Anchorage, Fairbanks, and other destinations  Delta Air Lines's hub had peaked in 1998, with additional service to Osaka and Fukuoka The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis hurt Delta Air Lines's operation, and international travel decreased even further due to complaints about treatment at the immigration facility in Portland, leading it to be nicknamed "DePortland"  The combination of these factors caused Delta Air Lines to discontinue what was then the last direct flight from Portland to Tokyo and from Portland to Nagoya in March 2001  This change brought local media scrutiny  This then combined with the resulting congressional pressure, caused the officials in charge of the immigration facility to address the problems 
Meanwhile, local travel businesses had begun recruiting other carriers  Lufthansa started direct flights to Frankfurt, Germany, in 2003, but suspended the route in 2009 citing lack of profitability  Northwest Airlines introduced non-stop flights to Tokyo–Narita on June 10, 2004, reviving a route terminated by Delta  Mexicana Airlines also introduced service to Guadalajara and Mexico City; after 5 years of service, Mexicana Airlines withdrew in 2008 due to high fuel prices and change in demand Northwest Airlines added nonstop service to Amsterdam in 2008  The service was reduced that year to a Northwest-operated Delta-flown 767-300, and occasionally a Northwest-operated Delta-flown 767-400  The service has since been fluctuating between 767-300s, 767-400s and A330-300s depending on the season  Air Canada operated seasonal service to Toronto–Pearson from 2010 to 2012 but was then resumed in May 2016  Since 2014, three more foreign carriers have begun service at PDX: Volaris with service to Guadalajara, Condor with seasonal service to Frankfurt, and Icelandair with seasonal service to Reykjavík–Keflavík  British Airways also recently announced service to London–Heathrow beginning in June, 2022 
Following its acquisition of Northwest, Delta Air Lines has maintained Northwest's nonstop flights to Amsterdam and Tokyo  The latter required a one-time $3 5 million subsidy from the Port of Portland to Delta in 2009 to maintain the route On May 31, 2016, Delta Air Lines announced seasonal nonstop service to London–Heathrow in the United Kingdom, which began on May 26, 2017  This service ended the following year  British Airways announced a year-round service to LHR which is scheduled to start in June 2022 
In May 2017, Delta Air Lines and Aeroméxico announced new non-stop service from Portland to Mexico City using Aeroméxico flown Boeing 737-800 aircraft, which began on December 1, 2017, but ended on January 7, 2019 On June 3, 2022, British Airways launched a non-stop flight to London Heathrow 4x a week with a Boeing 787-8  It was the first time in 4 years the two cities were connected via nonstop flights 

Terminal
There is one passenger terminal in the airport, with four concourses split between two sides  From January 5, 2021, until late 2023, the two sides are not connected beyond security  The airport also offers many complimentary services such as free Wi-Fi wireless internet access, a children's play area, and postal services 
The airport has a shopping mall behind its ticketing counters, with all shops and restaurants open every day  Because the state is one of the few in the nation with no sales tax, all stores offer tax-free shopping  The Port of Portland also requires all airport shops and restaurants to practice fair retail pricing—businesses are not allowed to charge more than at off-airport locations  Stores include national stores and Oregon-based ones such as Made in Oregon, Nike, Columbia Sportswear, Powell's Books, and Oregon Pendleton Shop among others   Food services also are a mix of national chains and local options Several local food carts are located within the pre-security concourse



ground_truth: Gerald "Jerry" Joseph Bingham, Jr.

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was the last monarch of England to be overthrown before The English General Election, 1690?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: 

Concourses and terminals
The two sections of the main terminal (South and North) at Portland International Airport have four concourses (B, C, D, E)  In addition, Portland International Airport handles many operations from a variety of cargo transportation airlines 
The international section of Concourse D was renamed the Governor Victor G  Atiyeh International Concourse to honor the former Oregon governor, who was also known as "Trader Vic" for launching international tourism and trade initiatives during his gubernatorial term 

South TerminalConcourse B has 10 gates (B1–B10)
Concourse C has 23 gates (C1–C23)North TerminalConcourse D has 15 gates (D1–D15)
Concourse E has 12 gates (E2–E13)There are 60 gates within the two passenger terminals 

Airport lounges
South Terminal
Concourse B: None
Concourse C: Alaska Lounge – across from Gate C5North Terminal
Concourse D: Delta Sky Club – across from Gate D6
Concourse E: United Club – across from Gate E2

Airport facilities
Infrastructure
Jet fuel is supplied via the Portland Jet Line, an 8 inches (200 mm) Kinder Morgan fuel pipeline running from the Northwest Industrial area of Portland's Willbridge Terminal to the airport  Willbridge contains 40 tanks, connected to the 14 inches (360 mm) Olympic pipeline and 8 inches (200 mm) Eugene pipeline, BNSF rail, truck, and ships 

Bicycle resources
The lower terminal roadway near the TriMet MAX Red Line station has a work station and assembly for repairing bicycles  The Oregon Welcome Center also has a "Tool check-out" 

Mini-movie theater
In February 2017, the Hollywood Theatre opened a microcinema within the post-security section of concourse C near gate C5  The theater has seventeen seats, with an additional standing only room  The films shown run for approximately fifteen minutes, are free of charge and showcase the work of Portland-based filmmakers, primarily focused on the culture of the Pacific Northwest 

Distillery
Operating at Portland International Airport since the summer of 2013, House Spirits Distillery upgraded and expanded their presence at the airport in 2017 from a mobile kiosk to a larger, permanent retail location within concourse C, across from gate C6  Known for the anchor of Portland's "Distillery Row", House Spirits Distillery was recognized as the nation's "Best New Specialty Retail Concept, Small Operator" as awarded in 2015 by the Airport Revenue News  They were recognized for their immersive retail experience at the airport and its offerings of product tastings, branded apparel and distilled beverages  House Spirits Distillery is currently the first distillery in the world to operate a spirits tasting room within an airport location In addition to selling spirits and other curated items, House Spirits Distillery will also provide mini classes to introduce PDX fliers to their products during airport down time  The new retail experience is inspired by their new facility in Southeast Portland which opened in November 2015 and expanded the company's production capacity sixfold 

Airlines and destinations
Passenger
Cargo
Statistics
Top destinations
Airline market share
Annual traffic
Ground transportation
Public transit service to the airport is provided by TriMet, the metropolitan area's primary transit agency, with its MAX Red Line light rail service  During late nights, service is provided by the 272-PDX Night Bus route  The 1986-opened MAX Light Rail system was extended to the airport in 2001  The Red Line originally provided service as far as downtown Portland only, but in 2003 it was extended west to Beaverton  The light rail station is located only about 150 ft (50 m) from the airport's baggage claim area  Prior to 2001, TriMet service to the airport consisted of bus route 72-82nd Avenue from 1970 to 1986, and route 12-Sandy Blvd  from 1986 to 2001 C-Tran route 67 bus connects the airport to Fisher's Landing Transit Center in east Vancouver, Washington 
By road, the terminal is accessible from exit 24 on Interstate 205 

Accidents and incidents
On October 1, 1966, West Coast Airlines Flight 956 crashed in a desolate section of the Mount Hood National Forest during descent into Portland International Airport  Of the 18 passengers and crew, there were no survivors  The probable cause of the accident was "the descent of the aircraft below its clearance limit and below that of surrounding obstructing terrain, but the Board was unable to determine the cause of such descent " The accident was the first loss of a Douglas DC-9 
On December 28, 1978, United Airlines Flight 173 was en route to Portland International Airport from Stapleton International Airport in Denver, Colorado  On approach to Portland International Airport, the crew lowered the landing gear which caused a loud thump, abnormal vibration, unusual yaw, and the landing gear indicator lights failed to light  The plane circled Portland while the crew investigated the problem  After about an hour, the plane exhausted its fuel supply and crashed into the suburban neighborhood of East Burnside Street and NE 158th Ave  Of the 189 passengers and crew on board, ten died and 24 more were injured  An investigation revealed that the crash was caused by "the failure of the captain to properly monitor the aircraft's fuel state"  This accident's investigation led to substantially improved aviation safety by widespread adoption of crew resource management which emphasizes crew teamwork and communication instead of a command hierarchy 
On February 16, 2008, visibility of 1/8 mile was a possible factor in the fatal accident that took the life of the pilot, Oregon doctor Richard Otoski, a Klamath Falls dermatologist flying his Columbia 400  The accident took place just short of runway 10R at Portland International Airport  Otoski was the only person on board the aircraft, manufactured by the former Lancair Company  "Damn it    we're gonna crash" were the last words PDX controllers heard from N621ER  The aircraft was apparently in the process of making another missed approach in poor visibility following the ILS when it clipped an airport perimeter fence, crashed, and soon caught fire  The aircraft had departed from Klamath Falls 90 minutes earlier 

Airport ratings
Travel + Leisure
In 2013, a Travel + Leisure magazine readers' poll named PDX as the best US airport, based on its on-time record, dining, shopping, and mass transportation into the main parts of the city  In 2015, ten new restaurants opened at PDX, making it a "foodie haven" according to travelers  PDX also got significant recognition for its unique carpet pattern, which was replaced throughout the entire airport with newer carpet that contains a similar design 

Condé Nast Traveler
In 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2010, PDX was identified as the top airport for business travelers in the United States by Condé Nast Traveler magazine  The Condé Nast ranking was based upon criteria including location and access, ease of connections, food, shops, amenities, comfort and design, and perceived safety and security; PDX received the top overall score, and the magazine noted the airport's environmentally friendly initiatives, including the airport's use of solar panels for power, its connection to the MAX Light Rail, and the recycling of its restaurants' used oil and grease 

J  D  Power and Associates
The 2015, 2016, and 2019 J D  Power and Associates rankings for US "Large Passenger Airports" lists PDX at the #1 spot and overall highest among passenger satisfaction criteria 

Air Line Pilots Association, International
In 2015 the Air Line Pilots Association, International, Airport and Ground Environment Group recognized Portland International Airport as the recipient of the Airport of the Year  The award was given as a result of the collaboration and partnering between PDX and ALPA on important on-going airport safety and construction issues 

Gallery
See also
Oregon World War II Army Airfields
Pearson Field
Portland-Mulino Airport
Tourism in Portland, Oregon
Western Air Defense Force
Passage 4:
United Airlines Flight 173
United Airlines Flight 173 was a scheduled flight from John F  Kennedy International Airport in New York City to Portland International Airport in Portland, Oregon, with a scheduled stop in Denver, Colorado  On December 28, 1978, the aircraft flying this route ran out of fuel while troubleshooting a landing gear problem and crashed in a suburban Portland neighborhood near NE 157th Avenue and East Burnside Street, killing 10 on board 

Aircraft
The aircraft involved was a Douglas DC-8 60 series, powered by four Pratt & Whitney JT3D engines and delivered new to United Airlines in May 1968    The aircraft was registered N8082U and was the 357th DC-8 built at the Long Beach assembly plant  The 60 series was a stretched version of the DC-8 that was 36 7 ft (11 2 m) longer than the DC-8 series 10 through 50 

Flight
Flight 173 was piloted by an experienced cockpit crew, consisting of Captain Malburn "Buddy" McBroom (age 52), First Officer Roderick "Rod" Beebe (45), and Flight Engineer Forrest "Frosty" Mendenhall (41)  McBroom had been with United Airlines for 27 years; he was one of the airline's most senior pilots with more than 27,600 hours of flight time, of which about 5,500 hours had been as a DC-8 captain  Beebe had been with the airline for 13 years and had logged more than 5,200 flight hours  Mendenhall had close to 3,900 flight hours and had been with the airline for 11 years  The first officer and flight engineer had over 2,500 hours of flying experience between them in the DC-8 Flight 173 departed from Denver's Stapleton International Airport at 15:47 MST with 189 people on board—eight crew and 181 passengers  The estimated flight time was 2 hours and 26 minutes, and the planned arrival time in Portland was 17:13 PST, about 40 minutes after sunset  According to the automatic flight plan and monitoring system, the total amount of fuel required for the flight to Portland was 31,900 lb (14,500 kg)  About 46,700 lb (21,200 kg) of fuel were on board the aircraft when it departed the gate in Denver 
As the landing gear was being lowered on approach to Portland International Airport, the crew felt an abnormal vibration and yaw of the aircraft and a lack of an indicator light showing the gear was lowered successfully  The crew requested a holding pattern to diagnose the problem, and for about the next hour, the crew flew over southeast Portland and worked to identify the status of the landing gear and prepare for a potential emergency landing  During this time, none of the three cockpit flight crew effectively monitored the fuel levels, which was exacerbated by the fact that the gear was down with the flaps at 15° during the entire hour-long holding maneuver, significantly increasing fuel burn rate  As a result, the number 3 and 4 engines flamed out 
As the crew prepared for a final approach for an emergency landing on runway 28L, they lost the number one and number two engines to a flameout, at which point a mayday was declared  This was the last radio transmission from Flight 173 to air traffic control; it crashed into a wooded section of a populated area of suburban Portland, about six nautical miles (11 km; 7 mi) southeast of the airport Of the crew members, two were killed, flight engineer Mendenhall and lead flight attendant Joan Wheeler; two sustained injuries classified by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) as "serious", and four sustained injuries classified as "minor/none"  Eight passengers died, and 21 had serious injuries The 304th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron of the Air Force Reserve, based at Portland International Airport, was conducting routine training flights in the area that evening  Airborne aircraft from this unit (HH-1H Huey helicopters) were immediately diverted to the crash scene and proceeded to transport many of the survivors to local hospitals 

Crash investigation and report
The NTSB investigation revealed that, when the landing gear was lowered, a loud thump was heard  That unusual sound was accompanied by abnormal vibration and yaw of the aircraft  The right main landing gear retract cylinder assembly had failed due to corrosion, and that allowed the right gear to free fall  Although it was down and locked, the rapid and abnormal free fall of the gear damaged a microswitch so severely that it failed to complete the circuit to the cockpit green light that tells the pilots that gear is down and locked  Those unusual indications (loud noise, vibration, yaw, and no green light) led the captain to abort the landing, so they would have time to diagnose the problem and prepare the passengers for an emergency landing  While the decision to abort the landing was prudent, the accident occurred because the flight crew became so absorbed with diagnosing the problem that they failed to monitor their fuel state and calculate a time when they needed to return to land or risk fuel exhaustion 
 The Safety Board believes that this accident exemplifies a recurring problem—a breakdown in cockpit management and teamwork during a situation involving malfunctions of aircraft systems in flight… Therefore, the Safety Board can only conclude that the flight crew failed to relate the fuel remaining and the rate of fuel flow to the time and distance from the airport, because their attention was directed almost entirely toward diagnosing the landing gear problem 
The NTSB determined the following probable cause:
 The failure of the captain to monitor properly the aircraft's fuel state and to properly respond to the low fuel state and the crewmember's advisories regarding fuel state  This resulted in fuel exhaustion to all engines  His inattention resulted from preoccupation with a landing gear malfunction and preparations for a possible landing emergency 
The NTSB also determined the following contributing factor:
 The failure of the other two flight crewmembers either to fully comprehend the criticality of the fuel state or to successfully communicate their concern to the captain
The fuel situation was known to be on the minds of the pilot and crew to some degree  Transcripts of cockpit recordings confirm this  Media reports at the time suggested that a not widely known problem existed with fuel state gauges on that model aircraft  The problem was not widely known in part because commercial aircraft are expected to fly with no less than a 45-minute reserve of fuel at all times  The gauge problem is addressed, though obliquely, in one of the safety board's recommendations:

 Issue an Operations Alert Bulletin to have FAA inspectors assure that crew training stresses differences in fuel-quantity measuring instruments and that crews flying with the new system are made aware of the possibility of misinterpretation of gauge readings  (Class II, Priority Action, A-79-32)
While the totalizer fuel gauge issue might have contributed to the crew's confusion toward the end of the flight, the NTSB report emphasized that the captain should never have allowed such a situation to develop in the first place  The NTSB made the following recommendation to specifically address that concern:

 Issue an operations bulletin to all air carrier operations inspectors directing them to urge their assigned operators to ensure that their flightcrews are indoctrinated in principles of flight deck resource management, with particular emphasis on the merits of participative management for captains and assertiveness training for other cockpit crewmembers  (Class II, Priority Action, X-79-17)

Aftermath
This last NTSB recommendation following the incident, addressing flight deck resource management problems, was the genesis for major changes in the way airline crewmembers were trained  This new type of training addressed behavioral management challenges such as poor crew coordination, loss of situational awareness, and judgment errors frequently observed in aviation accidents  It is credited with launching the crew resource management (CRM) revolution in airline training  Within weeks of the NTSB recommendation, NASA held a conference to bring government and industry experts together to examine the potential merits of this training United Airlines instituted the industry's first CRM for pilots in 1981  This program is now used throughout the world, prompting some to call the United 173 accident one of the most important in aviation history  The NTSB Air Safety Investigator who wrote the CRM recommendation was aviation psychologist Alan Diehl Assigned to investigate this accident, Diehl realized it was similar to several other major airline accidents including United Airlines Flight 2860, which occurred a little over a year before Flight 173 and under near identical circumstances; Eastern Air Lines Flight 401; and the Tenerife airport disaster  Diehl was familiar with the research being conducted at NASA’s Ames Research Center and believed these training concepts could reduce the likelihood of human error Held responsible for the accident, Captain McBroom lost his pilot's license and retired from United Airlines shortly afterwards  He spent his remaining years battling health problems related to injuries sustained in the crash, as well as lung and prostate cancers  Family members and passengers who spoke to McBroom at a 1998 reunion of crash survivors reported he was "a broken man" plagued by guilt over his role in the accident  He died on October 9, 2004 at age 77 One of the surviving passengers, a three-year-old in 1978, was awarded US$900,000 in damages from the airline by a Portland jury in 1984  She was injured and both her little sisters and her parents were killed Published in February 2018, Crash Course by Julie Whipple focuses on the events of the night of the crash, the investigation, and aftermath of the crash 

In popular culture
The events of Flight 173 were featured in "Focused on Failure" (also known as "Fatal Fixation"), a season-12 (2012) episode of the Canadian TV series Mayday (called Air Emergency in the US and Air Crash Investigation in the UK and elsewhere around the world) 
It is featured in season 2, episode 1, of the TV show Why Planes Crash, in an episode called "Crisis in the Sky" 
"One Against the Storm" By Stanley C  Mann 1980 ISBN 0938662007 Paperback Bailey/sullivan "About Joan Wheeler"

See also
Aviation safety
List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft
List of airline flights that required gliding
Passage 5:
Portland International Airport carpet
The carpet at Portland International Airport (PDX) in Portland, Oregon, featured geometric shapes on a teal background, representing the intersection of the north and south runways seen by air traffic controllers from the airport's tower at night  SRG Partnership designed it in 1987, and since then, the carpet has received much media attention 
In 2013, the Port of Portland announced the carpet's replacement with a new pattern conceptualized by the Portland-based firm Zimmer Gunsul Frasca Architects  The announcement generated a social media "phenomenon" and gained attention from local and national news outlets  Removal of the original carpet began in January 2015, with the airport recycling worn portions and making remaining pieces available for sale by local retail vendors 
In 2015,  Portland Trail Blazers point guard Damian Lillard released his first PDX carpet colorway on the Adidas D Lillard 1 sneaker  In 2016, Lillard released the colorway on the D Lillard 2, also inspired by the carpet 
In February 2022, it was announced that the iconic carpet would be returning to the airport when a new terminal opens in 2024 On November 14, 2022, the Portland Trail Blazers of the NBA introduced their City Edition uniforms   The uniform pays homage to the airport carpet with a sash design that mimics the geometric pattern of the carpet 

Background
To reduce the amount of noise created by people walking across hard terminal floors, the Port of Portland contracted SRG Partnership to design new carpeting for PDX in 1987  The SRG principal and co-designer of the carpet, John Schleuning, visited several airports before deciding what to create for the carpet at Portland International Airport  SRG steered away from the earth tones traditionally used by airports in the 1980s, incorporating blue and green into their design early on and hoping to evoke "northwest to the core " Its pattern featured geometric shapes on a teal background, an abstract depiction of the intersecting north and south runways seen by air traffic controllers from the airport's tower at night  Several acres of the carpet were installed by the early 1990s Over time, the carpet gained a cult following  Multiple social media accounts were dedicated to it and more than 20,000 pictures were posted to its official Instagram hashtag, #pdxcarpet  Airport visitors often took pictures of their feet on the carpet The original carpet design received a positive reception by Portland residents and airport visitors, eventually reaching "local icon" status  Its pattern was used on a variety of products, including bicycle helmets, socks and T-shirts  In 2013, Portland Monthly published "Ode on a Carpet", a poem inspired by T  S  Eliot's "The Hollow Men" (1925)  In September 2014, PDX installed an 11 ft × 16 ft (3 4 m × 4 9 m) collage made of the carpet 

Replacement
A $13 million replacement of the airport's carpet was announced in 2013, sparking social media attention that was picked up by local and national media outlets  The Port of Portland received a large number of comments from local residents who were concerned about the original carpet's future  Annie Linstrom, a spokesperson for the port district, confirmed they were investigating recycling options and considering giving away portions to locals as keepsakes  She also said that the Port of Portland "understand[s] that people have an emotional connection to the carpet " In December 2013, Portland Monthly published a preview of the redesign, which was conceptualized by Zimmer Gunsul Frasca Architects of Portland  The magazine reported that the new design included "mood-enhancing colors and a new repeating pattern, while clearly preserving key elements" from the original carpet  Linstrom said, "The Port hopes that travelers will grow to appreciate elements of the new carpet design over time, just as much as the old "
In January 2015, removal of the nearly-30-year-old carpet began in front of a crowd of airport employees and media  The Port of Portland's chief operating officer said: "Normally we do these ribbon cuttings when we’re introducing a new thing, but it’s actually the reverse of that in removing the old carpet  We’re going to miss the carpet and we appreciate the community and the love of this carpet " Any businesses that were able to receive, stockpile, and redistribute carpet could request 1,000 square yards (840 m2) from the Port of Portland The airport's new carpet design features natural and man-made shapes found around the airport—referencing flight, nature, and structures such as airplane wings, hiking trails, leaves, runways, and waterways  According to Oregon Public Broadcasting, the old and new carpet designs are similar in appearance "to the untrained, out-of-towner eye " Installation was scheduled to continue through November 2015  Local firm Hennebery Eddy Architects is overseeing its installation, having been contracted in June 2013 to select materials and manage logistics  The new carpet is made of materials from recycled carpet and plastic bottles and jars 
Passage 6:
PenAir
Peninsula Airways, operated as PenAir, was a U S -based regional airline headquartered in Anchorage, Alaska  It was Alaska's second-largest commuter airline operating scheduled passenger service, as well as charter and medevac services throughout the state  Its main base was Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport  PenAir had a code sharing agreement in place with Alaska Airlines with its flights operated in the state of Alaska 

History
Peninsula Airways was founded by Orin Seybert in 1955  Seybert was 19 years old, living in Pilot Point, Alaska, and owned a 1946 two-seat Taylorcraft  In 1956, a four-seat Piper Tri-Pacer was added  On March 1, 1965, Peninsula Airways became incorporated and purchased the fixed base operation (FBO) in King Salmon 
In 1967, Peninsula Airways became a full-time subcontractor to Reeve Aleutian Airways, meeting Reeve's certificate obligations to Chignik, Perryville and Ivanoff Bay 
In 1969, Peninsula Airways acquired all assets of Tibbetts-Herre Airmotive, which had operated from Naknek since 1950  By 1973, regular service was provided between King Salmon and the Pribilof Island communities, St  Paul and St  George  Charter service was also extended into the Aleutian Islands, Dutch Harbor, Atka and Adak with Grumman G-44 Widgeon amphibious aircraft 
In 1977, two Grumman Goose amphibious aircraft were purchased from Reeve Aleutian Airways, and the sub-contract was expanded to cover all locations certificated to Reeve throughout the Alaskan Peninsula and Aleutian Islands  This required setting up an operating base at Cold Bay, with hangars, offices and employee housing 
In 1980, the Civil Aeronautics Board awarded a Part 401 Certificate of Public Convenience and Necessity to Peninsula Airways, and all aircraft operations were conducted under Part 135 of the Federal Air Regulations 
In 1983, Peninsula Airways acquired its first turboprop: a Cessna Conquest operated out of Cold Bay  Peninsula Airways was the first Alaskan air carrier to qualify for CAB Part 419 subsidy, allowing the airline to operate Essential Air Service (EAS) routes to Atka, St  George and Kodiak Island 

In 1985, Peninsula Airways acquired all assets of Air Transport Services, Inc , based in Kodiak  Included in the deal was a hangar and office facility with approximately six aircraft and scheduled year-round service to all points on the Island  A base was established in Anchorage with two Cessna Conquest turboprops offering charter service from Anchorage to the Pribilof Islands  Scheduled service from Anchorage to King Salmon and Dillingham was added a year later 
The first Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner propjet was placed into service in 1987 and Metro aircraft remained in the fleet until 2011 
In 1988, several bush operators in Dillingham had their certificates revoked by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), prompting Peninsula Airways to set up an operation there  A hangar and aircraft were purchased and service to the surrounding communities began 
In 1989, Peninsula Airways was contracted by Exxon to support the Exxon Valdez oil spill cleanup  At the same time, a contract was awarded to Peninsula Airways by Alaska Regional Hospital to provide 24-hour medevac service  Peninsula Airways' operations were inspected and approved by Exxon Corporation, U S  Department of the Interior Office of Aviation Services (OAS), U S  Department of Defense, and two (FAA) NASIP "white glove" inspections 
In 1991, Peninsula Airways began doing business as PenAir and became a code sharing and Mileage Plan partner with Alaska Airlines  PenAir transitioned to FAA Part 121 regulations in 1996, operating under both Part 135 and 121  PenAir was the first regional airline in the United States to make the 10-19 seat required conversion, including a dispatch department 
In 1997, PenAir acquired two Saab 340B aircraft and, in 1998, moved its headquarters into a new hangar/office complex in Anchorage, Alaska The airline expanded its operations outside of Alaska in 2012 after bidding on and being awarded Essential Air Service routes in the Northeastern United States  It established a hub at Boston's Logan International Airport and started operating service to Presque Isle, Maine and Plattsburgh, New York, with additional seasonal service to  Bar Harbor, Maine PenAir's presence in the continental United States greatly expanded in 2016 when the airline was awarded multiple Essential Air Service routes in the Midwestern and Western United States  The airline established its third and fourth hubs at Denver International Airport and Portland International Airport  From Denver, PenAir operated service to Dodge City and Liberal, Kansas and Kearney, North Platte, and Scottsbluff, Nebraska  From Portland, PenAir operated Essential Air Service to Crescent City, California and also began service to Arcata/Eureka and Redding, California and Klamath Falls and North Bend/Coos Bay, Oregon 
On August 7, 2017, PenAir filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy  PenAir made the decision to end all flights out of its Denver and Portland hubs  Routes in California and Oregon that were not funded by Essential Air Service subsidies were terminated within days  The terms of the Essential Air Service contract required that PenAir continue to operate those routes until a new airline could be awarded the contract, a process expected to be completed within 90 days  On August 30, 2017, PenAir announced it would cease all Denver operations effective after September 10, 2017 due to a mass resignation involving 17 crew members On November 30, 2017, PenAir announced it would end its service to Crescent City, California as of December 15  The city has chosen Contour Airlines to operate the Essential Air Service route, but PenAir stated it would be unable to continue the service until Contour begins operating On May 30, 2018, PenAir cancelled service via Boston to and from Plattsburgh, Bar Harbor and Presque Isle a month early, citing staffing issues, breaking their Essential Air Services contract with the Department of Transportation On June 1, 2019, PenAir ceased direct ticket sales under its own brand  From that day, all PenAir flights are marketed and sold using Ravn Alaska (7H) flight numbers 

Fleet
As of March 2019 the PenAir fleet consisted of the following aircraft:

PenAir was the only air carrier in the U S  operating the Saab 2000 regional turboprop in scheduled passenger airline service 
PenAir was among the last airlines in the world to operate the Grumman G-21A Goose seaplane on scheduled flights  This piston-powered amphibious aircraft was used to resupply remote coastal locations where no land-based airstrip existed  On December 21, 2012, the Grumman Goose made its final commercial flight from Unalaska to Anchorage   PenAir also previously operated another piston-powered amphibious aircraft type being the Grumman G-44 Widgeon 
The airline also previously operated several turboprop-powered aircraft types including the Cessna 208B Grand Caravan, Cessna 441 Conquest, as well as the Metro II, Metro III and Metro 23 variants of the Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner    

Previously operated piston-powered landplane aircraft included the Piper Navajo Chieftain and Piper Saratoga According to the July 1, 2016 Alaska Airlines system timetable, PenAir was then operating all of its code sharing flights in the state of Alaska on behalf of Alaska Airlines with Saab 340B and Saab 2000 turboprop aircraft   The Saab 2000 is a larger, high-speed version of the Saab 340B  All Alaska Airlines code sharing flights in the lower 48 states in the U S  were operated by PenAir with the Saab 340B 

Destinations
Using Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport as an operating base, PenAir operated scheduled service to the following destinations in Alaska as of June 2019 
Anchorage (ANC) – Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport (to Cold Bay, Dillingham, Dutch Harbor, King Salmon, Kodiak, Fairbanks, and Sand Point)
Cold Bay (CDB) – Cold Bay Airport (to Anchorage)
Dillingham (DLG) – Dillingham Airport (to Anchorage)
Dutch Harbor / Unalaska (DUT) – Unalaska Airport (to Anchorage) (marketed and sold by Alaska Airlines)
King Salmon (AKN) – King Salmon Airport (to Anchorage)
Kodiak (ADQ) – Kodiak Airport (to Anchorage)
Fairbanks (FAI) – Fairbanks International Airport (to Anchorage)
Sand Point (SDP) – Sand Point Airport (to Anchorage)All flights in the state of Alaska were operated as code sharing service with Ravn Alaska, with the exception of service to Dutch Harbor / Unalaska which was operated under a capacity purchase agreement, where flights were marketed and sold by Alaska Airlines and operated by PenAir 

Community awareness
PenAir, along with Bering Air, Frontier Flying Service, Grant Aviation, Northern Air Cargo, and Ryan Air Services all participate in the Flying Can service, which allows rural Alaskan communities to recycle aluminum cans and number 1 PET bottles in cooperation with Alaskans for Litter Prevention and Recycling 

Accidents and incidents
On October 10, 2001, Peninsula Airways (PenAir) Flight 350, a Cessna 208 Caravan (N9530F) on a scheduled flight from Dillingham, Alaska to King Salmon, Alaska, crashed shortly after takeoff from Dillingham Airport  The pilot and all nine passengers were fatally injured, and the airplane was destroyed on impact  There was no fire 
On October 17, 2019, PenAir Flight 3296, a Saab 2000 (N686PA) on a scheduled flight from Anchorage, Alaska to Unalaska, Alaska, went off the runway after landing at the Unalaska Airport, teetering over a bank toward a nearby body of water  The left propeller was destroyed and at least part of one blade entered the passenger cabin  An eyewitness reported high winds at the time of the accident  There were 39 passengers, including a high school swim team from Cordova, Alaska, and 3 flight crew aboard the flight  One passenger was fatally injured, two passengers were critically injured, and 10 more received medical care at a local hospital  There was no fire 

See also
List of seaplane operators
Passage 7:
Pan Am Flight 845/26
Pan Am Flight 845/26 was a four-engined Boeing 377 Stratocruiser named Clipper United States and registered as N1032V  It departed Portland International Airport in Oregon on a flight to Honolulu International Airport in Hawaii on March 26, 1955  The aircraft was en route and about 35 miles (56 km) off the Oregon coast when at 11:12 Pacific Standard Time the No  3 engine and propeller tore loose from the wing causing a loss of control  The aircraft was ditched  
The aircraft floated for twenty minutes before sinking in 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) of water  Approximately two hours after the aircraft ditched, the United States Navy attack transport USS Bayfield (APA-33) arrived on the scene and rescued the 19 survivors  Four people died The probable cause was failure of No  3 propeller which caused the engine to detach and the aircraft to become uncontrollable 
The experience provided lessons that helped prevent any casualties in another ditching the following year, when Pan Am Flight 6 sank between Honolulu and San Francisco 
Passage 8:
Pre-Commissioning Unit
Pre-commissioning unit (PRECOMUNIT or PCU) is a designation used by the United States Navy to describe vessels under construction prior to their official commissioning  For example, prior to her commissioning, USS Gerald R  Ford (CVN 78) had been described by the Navy as " PCU Gerald R  Ford (CVN 78)"  Such descriptions can appear in the media as well 
"PCU" is a temporary, descriptive term, and is not a ship prefix or a part of the ship's official name  Until they are commissioned, U S  Navy vessels are officially identified by their given name and hull number, such as Gerald R  Ford (CVN 78) A "PCU" is also the entity that the ships staff is assigned to for training while the ship is being constructed and fitted-out  Prior to reporting to the ship, sailors will report to a PCU at one of two fleet training centers, located at either Naval Station Norfolk or Naval Base San Diego 

See also
List of current United States Navy ships
Passage 9:
Twin Cities Air Service
Twin Cities Air Service was an American fixed-base operator and charter airline based at Auburn, Maine and operated from Auburn/Lewiston Municipal Airport and the Portland International Jetport  The airline was a certified Part 135 operator, provided on demand and commuter service, while the FBO provided standard aircraft services and maintenance, specializing in overhauls of the Cessna 400 series aircraft   Beginning in March 2010, Twin Cities Air Service began a scheduled commuter route between Portland, Maine, and Yarmouth, Nova Scotia   At the time of the initiation of this route, Twin Cities was the only scheduled carrier into the Yarmouth Airport, and was the only scheduled international service into the Portland International Jetport 

History
Twin Cities Air Service was founded in 1992 as a fixed-base operator at the Auburn airport   The company has since expanded to include on demand air charter services, airframe maintenance and support, and scheduled international air service 
Ch-aviation stated "Out of Business", the last change on the Website was 2012, it seems the company has ceased 

Fleet
Twin Cities Air Service currently operated a fleet of five aircraft  The majority of these aircraft are available for on-demand charter operations throughout the Northeastern United States, although the aircraft are certified to operate in Canada, Bermuda, and parts of The Caribbean and Central America   A single Cessna aircraft is devoted to the scheduled service between Portland, Maine and Yarmouth, Nova Scotia 
As of March 2010 the Twin Cities fleet includes:
1 Beechcraft King Air 200
1 Cessna 310
3 Cessna 402 Utililiner
1 Gates Learjet 35A



ground_truth: King James II of England