prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which is a shrub, Mimosa or Cryptocoryne?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Mimosa
Mimosa is a genus of about 590 species of herbs and shrubs, in the mimosoid clade of the legume family Fabaceae  The generic name is derived from the Greek word μῖμος (mimos), an "actor" or "mime", and the feminine suffix -osa, "resembling", suggesting its 'sensitive leaves' which seem to 'mimic conscious life' Two species in the genus are especially notable  One is Mimosa pudica, commonly known as touch-me-not, which folds its leaves when touched or exposed to heat  It is native to southern Central and South America but is widely cultivated elsewhere for its curiosity value, both as a houseplant in temperate areas, and outdoors in the tropics  Outdoor cultivation has led to weedy invasion in some areas, notably Hawaii  The other is Mimosa tenuiflora, which is best known for its use in shamanic ayahuasca brews due to the psychedelic drug dimethyltryptamine found in its root bark 

Taxonomy
The taxonomy of the genus Mimosa has gone through several periods of splitting and lumping, ultimately accumulating over 3,000 names, many of which have either been synonymized under other species or transferred to other genera  In part due to these changing circumscriptions, the name "Mimosa" has also been applied to several other related species with similar pinnate or bipinnate leaves, but are now classified in other genera  The most common examples of this are Albizia julibrissin (Persian silk tree) and Acacia dealbata (wattle) 

Description
Members of this genus are among the few plants capable of rapid movement; examples outside of Mimosa include the telegraph plant, Aldrovanda, some species of Drosera and the Venus flytrap  The leaves of the Mimosa pudica close quickly when touched  Some mimosas raise their leaves in the day and lower them at night, and experiments done by Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan on mimosas in 1729 provided the first evidence of biological clocks Mimosa can be distinguished from the large related genera, Acacia and Albizia, since its flowers have ten or fewer stamens  Botanically, what appears to be a single globular flower is actually a cluster of many individual ones  Mimosas contain some level of heptanoic acid 

Species
There are about 590 species including:
Mimosa aculeaticarpa Ortega
Mimosa andina Benth 
Mimosa arenosa (Willd ) Poir 
Mimosa asperata L 
Mimosa borealis Gray
Mimosa caesalpiniaefolia Benth 
Mimosa casta L 
Mimosa cupica Gray
Mimosa ceratonia L 
Mimosa diplotricha C Wright ex Sauvalle
Mimosa disperma Barneby
Mimosa distachya Cav 
Mimosa dysocarpa Benth 
Mimosa emoryana Benth 
Mimosa grahamii Gray
Mimosa hamata Willd 
Mimosa hystricina (Small ex Britt  et Rose) B L Turner
Mimosa invisa Martius ex Colla
Mimosa latidens (Small) B L  Turner
Mimosa laxiflora Benth 
Mimosa loxensis Barneby
Mimosa malacophylla Gray
Mimosa microphylla Dry 
Mimosa nothacacia Barneby
Mimosa nuttallii (DC ) B L  Turner
Mimosa ophthalmocentra Mart  ex Benth  1865
Mimosa pellita Kunth ex Willd 
Mimosa pigra L 
Mimosa polycarpa Kunth
Mimosa pudica L 
Mimosa quadrivalvis L 
Mimosa quadrivalvis var  hystricina (Small) Barneby
Mimosa quadrivalvis var  quadrivalvis L 
Mimosa roemeriana Scheele
Mimosa rubicaulis Lam 
Mimosa rupertiana B L  Turner
Mimosa scabrella Benth 
Mimosa schomburgkii Benth 
Mimosa somnians Humb  & Bonpl  ex Willd 
Mimosa strigillosa Torr  et Gray
Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd ) Poir  (= Mimosa hostilis)
Mimosa texana (Gray) Small
Mimosa townsendii Barneby
Mimosa turneri Barneby
Mimosa verrucosa Benth 
Passage 2:
Mimosa somnians
Mimosa somnians, commonly known as dormideira, is a species of woody shrub in the genus Mimosa and the family Fabaceae  It is native to the Caribbean, Central America and South America  It is a short, low-lying shrub with minuscule thorns lining its stem-like hairs Mimosa somnians is notable for exhibiting rapid plant movement  Its leaves are sensitive to tactile stimulus, folding quickly when touched, similar to Mimosa pudica  It can be differentiated from Mimosa pudica in that its leaves are bipinnate, there are more than four subbranchlets and these originate from more than one point on the branch Mimosa somnians's leaflets are 4–5 mm long  The flowers form pink balls  It propagates by seeds 

Forms, subspecies and varieties
Mimosa somnians f  viscida
Mimosa somnians subsp  longipes 
Mimosa somnians subsp  viscida
Mimosa somnians var  aquatica
Mimosa somnians var  deminuta
Mimosa somnians var  diminuta
Mimosa somnians var  glandulosa
Mimosa somnians var  lasiocarpa
Mimosa somnians var  leptocaulis
Mimosa somnians var  longipes
Mimosa somnians var  lupulina
Mimosa somnians var  possensis
Mimosa somnians var  somnians
Mimosa somnians var  velascoensis
Mimosa somnians var  viscida

Uses
In Guyana, it is used to calm down irritable children via washing 

Chemical constituents
Mimosa somnians contains (whole plant) about 0 029% tryptamine and about 0 029% methyltryptamine 
Passage 3:
Mimosa turneri
Mimosa turneri, the desert mimosa, is a perennial small- to medium-sized shrub native to the Southern United States and particularly abundant in Texas  It grows between 3 5 and 10 feet (1 1 and 3 0 m) tall and produces pink flowers  In many places it is considered a weed because it can grow invasively in moist soils 

Habitat and ecology
This species grows as a small to medium-sized shrub that is localized on limestone soil that can range from 2200 feet to 4000 feet above sea level in the desert  This plant is deciduous and has a very high heat tolerance, allowing it to grow in very hot deserts  This plant species was a contained species that escaped and became invasive in the Florida, Texas and Mexico regions  These plants live in soil with high alkalinity 

Morphology
The leaves of the desert mimosa resemble the fronds of a fern and consists of many leaflets that grow opposite of each other along the stem  The leaves are known as bipinnate  Leaflets can range from 9 mm to 12 mm and be 1 5 mm wide at its widest point  Each leaf has about 12- 25 leaflets  Flowers are globe like clusters of thin petals  They contain stamens that are double the number of petals or equal which are often twice the lengths of the corolla  Anthers are small and the ovary is sessile 

Usage
The desert mimosa is often used as food for cattle and livestock, as fuel, construction material as well as living fences that grow into barriers in the wild and can be used as decorative fences 
Passage 4:
Mimosa aculeaticarpa
Mimosa aculeaticarpa is a species of woody shrub in the family Fabaceae  It is commonly known as the catclaw mimosa or the wait-a-minute bush, and is endemic to upland regions of Mexico and the Southwestern United States, particularly Arizona, New Mexico and Texas 

Description
The catclaw mimosa is a straggling thicket forming shrub, usually growing to about one metre tall but occasionally double that height  The twigs are hairy and armed with backward pointing spines that easily catch in clothing  The alternate leaves are bi-pinnate with a varying number of small oblong leaflets  The flowers are white or pale pink, bunched together in globular heads  The fruits are flat pods up to four centimetres long, flattened between the seeds and splitting open when ripe  There are recurved prickles on the edges of the pods 

Distribution
This species grows in upland areas of central and southern Arizona, southern New Mexico, western and central Texas and northern Mexico 

Ecology
This species occurs as scattered individual plants in oak, oak-pine, and evergreen woodlands, pinyon-juniper woodland and mixed with other shrubs in grassland and shrub-steppe communities  It grows on mesas, rocky slopes and gravel deposits  It is commonly found growing in chaparral and is spreading into desert and semi arid areas  This may be because the seed pods are eaten by cattle and the seeds are deposited in the dung, giving them a rich environment for germination  The plant is fire tolerant and sprouts readily after bushfires  In upland areas of west Texas, the redberry juniper (Juniperus pinchotii) acts as a nurse plant for the seedlings   They benefit from the shade and leaf litter associated with the juniper which seems to provide a favourable microclimate for the establishment of the seedlings 
Passage 5:
Mimosa invisa
Mimosa invisa is a species of leguminous woody shrub or vine native to South America  Mimosa invisa includes two subspecies, each with two varieties:  The species is considered to be noxious and invasive in much of the United States 
Mimosa invisa Martius ex CollaMimosa invisa invisa BarnebyMimosa invisa invisa var  invisa Barneby - native to Brazil and Paraguay
Mimosa invisa invisa var  macrostachya (Bentham) Barneby - native to Brazil and ParaguayMimosa invisa spiciflora (Karsten) BarnebyMimosa invisa spiciflora var  spiciflora Barneby - native to northern South America
Mimosa invisa spiciflora var  tovarensis (Bentham) Barneby - native to Venezuela
Passage 6:
Mimosa rubicaulis
Mimosa rubicaulis is a shrub belonging to the family Fabaceae and subfamily Mimosoideae  It is bipinnately compound, each leaf having 8–12 pairs of pinnae, each with 16–20 pairs of pinnules, unlike Mimosa pudica which has at most two prickly pairs of leaflets  It is found across India 

Description
Mimosa rubicaulis is a large, straggling, very prickly shrub  It flowers from June to September, sporting long clusters of many pink spherical flower heads 1–1 5 cm across  The flowers fade to white, so the clusters sport both pink and white flower-heads most of the time  Leaves are double-compound, 8–15 cm long, with thorny rachis  Leaves have 3–2 pairs of side-stalks, each with 6–15 pairs of tiny oblong leaflets 4–8 mm  Pods are thin, flat, curved, 8–13 cm long, 1 cm wide, breaking into 4–10 rectangular single-seeded units, leaving the remains of the pod attached to the shoot It is considered useful for hedges  The wood is suitable for tent pegs and for making gunpowder charcoal  Roots and leaves are used medicinally  Himalayan Mimosa is found in the Himalayas, from Afghanistan to Bhutan, at altitudes of 300–1900 m  It prefers forest edges and boundaries of fields and gardens 
Passage 7:
Mimosa hamata
Mimosa hamata (Hindi:Alāy shrub (अलाय) is a species of flowering shrub in the family Fabaceae, that is native to the countries of India and Pakistan 

Uses
This plant has been used for animal feed 
Passage 8:
Cryptocoryne
Cryptocoryne is a genus of aquatic plants from the family Araceae  The genus is naturally distributed in tropical regions of India, Southeast Asia and New Guinea The typical habitats of Cryptocoryne are mostly streams and rivers with not too rapidly flowing water, in the lowland forest  They also live in seasonally inundated forest pools or on river banks submerged only at high water  Although the proper scientific name of the genus is Cryptocoryne, they are commonly referred to as crypts  The English name "water trumpet" refers to their inflorescence, a spadix enclosed by a spathe (typical for the whole family), which resembles a trumpet 
The first Cryptocoryne species was described in 1779 as Arum spirale by Retzius  The genus was described by Friedrich Ernst Ludwig von Fischer in 1828  However, the scientific classification of Cryptocoryne species is very complicated and there are different opinions about it  Lagenandra is another genus closely related to the genus Cryptocoryne  The two can be easily told apart since the leaves of Cryptocoryne species exhibit convolute vernation whereas Lagenandra species exhibit involute vernation 

The name Cryptocoryne is derived from the Greek crypto, hidden, and koryne, meaning club  The common name (water trumpet) refers to the shape of its inflorescence, which is typical of the Araceae family 

Cultivation and uses
Some Cryptocoryne are popular commercially cultivated aquarium plants  Submerged plants reproduce vegetatively, emerse plants may flower and reproduce sexually  Many species are cultivated only by dedicated experts and are very hard to grow, or are not present in a culture at all  Some species are endangered because their natural habitats are disappearing  On the other hand, some water trumpets (e g  Cryptocoryne beckettii) are very hardy aquarium plants, easy to grow to the point that they have become an invasive species after being introduced in Florida in North America Cryptocoryne is either found in peat bogs or on limestone; the latter do well in most aquaria, the former must have soft water to survive and need decomposing beech leaf litter to do well  C  striolata, while found primarily in peat bogs, has also been found growing on limestone  Borneo is home to many endemic crypts previously thought to grow only in tea-colored soft acid water emulating peat bogs but exploration of habitats from 2005 to 2010 showed about half grew on limestone as well  These hardwater Cryptocorynes are generally the easier ones to keep (in fact, some species, such as Cryptocoryne wendtii are said to be among the most versatile of aquarium plants); they tolerate low or bright light but grow faster in more intense light  This water plant's range is around 12 to 33 °C, and slightly alkaline to neutral pH 
Plants of the genus Cryptocoryne, which range from India to New Guinea are found in very diverse conditions  Some are true acid loving plants such as C  pallidnerva, found in peat bogs in Borneo, while others such as C  crispatula var  balansae and C  pontiderifolia are found in streams with limestone beds—hard alkaline water  One species, C  ciliata is even found in semi-brackish water in some areas  It is one of the few aquarium plants that tolerates salt concentrations 
Cryptocoryne plants have been in cultivation in the aquarium hobby since the late 18th century, although it was not until the 1960s that more than a handful of species was known and became more common in the hobby  New species still regularly crop up as interest in these plants widens and more collecting expeditions by private parties are carried out 

Crypt melt
A phenomenon often encountered when planting new crypts in an aquarium is commonly called Crypt melt, whereby the plant loses all its leaves  There seem to be two possible causes for this 
Rapid environmental change is thought to trigger this, as these plants do not seem to adapt well to transplantion, and may need 30 days or so to become established and for the leaves to regrow  Experienced growers report that it is better to plant crypts in aquariums that have been established for at least three months In the wild, crypts can grow fully submerged underwater, but in some plant nurseries they are often grown emersed and crypt melt could then be triggered by the change from emerse to submerse conditions 
There is lately a trend for such nurseries to send crypts as just a rootstock (i e  without the leaves) to reduce shipping costs and because the leaves will be lost anyway once planted in an aquarium 
Other reports emphasise the need to change the aquarium water regularly to prevent the buildup of nitrates which are thought to trigger this condition (often referred to as a disease) 

Species
Cryptocoryne affinis N E Br  in J D Hooker - Thailand, Malaysia
Cryptocoryne alba de Wit - Sri Lanka
Cryptocoryne albida R Parker - southern China, eastern India, Bangladesh, Indochina
Cryptocoryne annamica Serebryanyi - Vietnam
Cryptocoryne aponogetifolia Merr  - Philippines
Cryptocoryne aura  - West kalimantan
Cryptocoryne auriculata Engl  - Sarawak, Philippines
Cryptocoryne bangkaensis Bastm  - Sumatra
Cryptocoryne beckettii Thuill  ex Trim  - Sri Lanka; naturalized in Texas
Cryptocoryne bogneri Rataj - Sri Lanka
Cryptocoryne bullosa Becc  - Sarawak
Cryptocoryne ciliata (Roxb ) Schott - India, Bangladesh, Indochina, Malaysia, Indonesia, New Guinea, Philippines
Cryptocoryne cognata Schott - India
Cryptocoryne consobrina Schott - India
Cryptocoryne cordata var  cordata Griff  - Malaysia
Cryptocoryne cordata var  siamensis Griff  - Thai
Cryptocoryne cordata var  diderici Griff  - Sumatra
Cryptocoryne cordata var  grandis Ridl  - Northeast Borneo
Cryptocoryne cordata var  grabowskii Engl  - South Kalimantan
Cryptocoryne cordata var  zonata de Wit  - Sri Aman
Cryptocoryne coronata Bastm  & Wijng  - Philippines
Cryptocoryne crispatula var  crispatula Engl  - Southeast Asia
Cryptocoryne cruddasiana Prain - Myanmar
Cryptocoryne decus-silvae de Wit - Johor
Cryptocoryne dewitii N Jacobsen - Papua New Guinea
Cryptocoryne purpurea nothovar  edithiae de Wit  - South Kalimantan
Cryptocoryne elliptica N E Br  - Malaysia
Cryptocoryne ferruginea Engl  - Sarawak
Cryptocoryne fusca de Wit - Borneo
Cryptocoryne griffithii Schott - Kalimantan, Peninsular Malaysia
Cryptocoryne hudoroi Bogner & N Jacobsen - Kalimantan
Cryptocoryne ideii Budianto - Kalimantan
Cryptocoryne jacobsenii de Wit - Sumatra
Cryptocoryne joshanii Naive & Villanueva - Philippines
Cryptocoryne keei N Jacobsen - Sarawak
Cryptocoryne lingua Becc  ex Engl - Sarawak
Cryptocoryne loeiensis  Bastm , T Idei & N Jacobsen - Laos, Thailand
Cryptocoryne longicaudaBecc  ex Engl  - Borneo, Malaysia, Sumatra
Cryptocoryne mekongensis T Idei, Bastm  & N Jacobsen - Cambodia, Laos, Thailand
Cryptocoryne minima Ridl  - Malaysia, Sumatra
Cryptocoryne moehlmannii de Wit - Sumatra
Cryptocoryne nevillii Trimen - Sri Lanka
Cryptocoryne noritoi Wongso - Kalimantan
Cryptocoryne nurii var  nurii Furtado - Peninsular Malaysia
Cryptocoryne nurii var  raubensis N Jacobsen - Peninsular Malaysia
Cryptocoryne pallidinervia Engl  - Borneo
Cryptocoryne parva de Wit- Sri Lanka
Cryptocoryne pontederiifolia Schott - Sumatra
Cryptocoryne purpurea nothovar  purpurea Ridl  - Peninsular Malaysia
Cryptocoryne purpurea nothovar  sarawakensis Yosuke Kobayashi - sarawak
Cryptocoryne purpurea nothovar  borneoensis  N Jacobsen , Bastm  - Central Kalimantan
Cryptocoryne pygmaea Merr  - Philippines
Cryptocoryne retrospiralis  (Roxb ) Kunth - Bangladesh, India, Myanmar
Cryptocoryne schulzei de Wit - Johor
Cryptocoryne scurrilis de Wit - Sumatra
Cryptocoryne sivadasanii Bogner - southern India
Cryptocoryne spiralis (Retz ) Fisch  ex Wydler - Bangladesh, India
Cryptocoryne striolata Engl  - Borneo
Cryptocoryne thwaitesii Schott - Sri Lanka
Cryptocoryne timahensis Bastm  - Singapore   (C  cordata × C  nurii)
Cryptocoryne uenoi Yuji Sasaki - Sarawak
Cryptocoryne undulata Wendt - Sri Lanka
Cryptocoryne usteriana Engl   - Philippines
Cryptocoryne versteegii Engl  - New Guinea
Cryptocoryne vietnamensis I Hertel & H Mühlberg - Vietnam
Cryptocoryne villosa N Jacobsen - Sumatra
Cryptocoryne walkeri Schott - Sri Lanka
Cryptocoryne wendtii de Wit - Sri Lanka
Cryptocoryne × willisii Reitz - Sri Lanka   (C  parva × C  walkeri)
Cryptocoryne yujii Bastm  - Sarawak
Cryptocoryne zaidiana Ipor & Tawan - Sarawak
Cryptocoryne zukalii Rataj - Peninsular Malaysia
Passage 9:
Mimosa tenuiflora
Mimosa tenuiflora, syn  Mimosa hostilis, also known as jurema preta, calumbi (Brazil), tepezcohuite (México), carbonal, cabrera, jurema, black jurema, and binho de jurema, is a perennial tree or shrub native to the northeastern region of Brazil (Paraíba, Rio Grande do Norte, Ceará, Pernambuco, Bahia) and found as far north as southern Mexico (Oaxaca and coast of Chiapas), and the following countries: El Salvador, Honduras, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela   It is most often found in lower altitudes, but it can be found as high as 1,000 m (3,300 ft) 

Description
The fern-like branches have leaves that are Mimosa like, finely pinnate, growing to 5 cm (2 0 in) long   Each compound leaf contains 15–33 pairs of bright green leaflets 5–6 mm (0 20–0 24 in) long   The tree itself grows up to 8 m (26 ft) tall and it can reach 4–5 m (13–16 ft) tall in less than 5 years   The white, fragrant flowers occur in loosely cylindrical spikes 4–8 cm (1 6–3 1 in) long  In the Northern Hemisphere it blossoms and produces fruit from November to June or July   In the Southern Hemisphere it blooms primarily from September to January   The fruit is brittle and averages 2 5–5 cm (0 98–1 97 in) long   Each pod contains 4–6 seeds that are oval, flat, light brown and 3–4 mm (0 12–0 16 in) in diameter   There are about 145 seeds/1 g (0 035 oz)   In the Southern Hemisphere, the fruit ripens from February to April 

The tree's bark is dark brown to gray   It splits lengthwise and the inside is reddish brown 
The tree's wood is dark reddish brown with a yellow center   It is very dense, durable and strong, having a density of about 1 11 g/cm3 Mimosa tenuiflora does very well after a forest fire, or other major ecological disturbance   It is a prolific pioneer plant   It drops its leaves on the ground, continuously forming a thin layer of mulch and eventually humus   Along with its ability to fix nitrogen, the tree conditions the soil, making it ready for other plant species to come along 

Medicinal uses
A tea made of the leaves and stem has been used to treat tooth pain   For cases of cough and bronchitis, a water extract (decoction) of Mimosa tenuiflora is drunk   A handful of bark in one liter of water is used by itself or in a syrup   The solution is drunk until the symptoms subside One preliminary clinical study found Mimosa tenuiflora to be effective in treating venous leg ulcerations Aqueous extracts of Mimosa are widely used for wound healing and burns in Middle and South America  Consequently, the products of the plant (generally grouped under the term "Tepezcohuite") have become a popular and easily produced cosmetic ingredient in commercial skincare products, used and marketed by celebrities including Kylie Jenner and Salma Hayek 

Other uses
The tree is an acceptable source of forage or fodder for animals, providing vital protein and other nutrients   It does well in the dry season and in drought, while providing life saving food for local livestock and animals   Cows, goats and sheep eat the pods and leaves   There seems to be evidence that Mimosa tenuiflora forage or fodder cause development defects to pregnant ruminants in Brazil The tree is an important source of forage for bees, especially during the dry season and in the beginning of the wet season 
Like most plants in the family Fabaceae, Mimosa tenuiflora fertilizes the soil via nitrogen fixing bacteria   The tree is useful in fighting soil erosion and for reforestation 

Mimosa tenuiflora is a very good source of fuel wood and works very well for making posts, most likely because of its high tannin content (16%), which protects it from rot   Due to its high tannin content, the bark of the tree is widely used as a natural dye and in leather production   It is used to make bridges, buildings, fences, furniture and wheels   It is an excellent source of charcoal and at least one study has been done to see why this is the case The healing properties of the tree make it useful in treating domestic animals   A solution of the leaves or bark can also be used for washing animals in the prevention of parasites   Because the tree keeps most of its leaves during the dry season, it is an important source of shade for animals and plants during that time 

Chemistry
The bark is known to be rich in tannins, saponins, alkaloids, lipids, phytosterols, glucosides, xylose, rhamnose, arabinose, lupeol, methoxychalcones, and kukulkanins   Additionally, Mimosa hostilis contains labdane diterpenoids 

Entheogenic uses
Mimosa tenuiflora is an entheogen used by the Jurema Cult (O Culto da Jurema) in northeastern Brazil  Dried Mexican Mimosa tenuiflora root bark has been recently shown to have a dimethyltryptamine (DMT) content of about 1-1 7%   The stem bark has about 0 03% DMT The parts of the tree are traditionally used in northeastern Brazil in a psychoactive decoction also called Jurema or Yurema  Analogously, the traditional Western Amazonian sacrament Ayahuasca is brewed from indigenous ayahuasca vines 
However, to date no β-carbolines such as harmala alkaloids have been detected in Mimosa tenuiflora decoctions, yet the Jurema is used in combination with several plants This presents challenges to the pharmacological understanding of how DMT from the plant is rendered orally active as an entheogen, because the psychoactivity of ingested DMT requires the presence of a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), such as a β-carboline  If an MAOI is neither present in the plant nor added to the mixture, the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO) will metabolize DMT in the human gut, preventing the active molecule from entering the blood and brain 
The plant is also used in clandestine manufacture of crystalline DMT  In this form, it is psychoactive by itself when vaporized and inhaled 
The isolation of the chemical compound yuremamine from Mimosa tenuiflora as reported in 2005 represents a new class of phytoindoles, which may explain an apparent oral activity of DMT in Jurema 

Cultivation
For outside planting, USDA Zone 9 or higher is recommended In nature, Mimosa tenuiflora "[   ] fruits and seeds are disseminated by the wind in a radius of 5–8 m (16–26 ft) from the mother plant; rain carries them from slopes to lower plains and human activities contribute to their dissemination "For cultivation, the seed pods are collected once they start to spontaneously open on the tree   The collected pods are laid out in the sun so that the pods open up and release their seeds   The seeds can then be planted in sandy soil with sun exposure 
Scarification of the seed via mechanical means or by using sulfuric acid greatly increases the germination rate of the seeds over non-treatment   The seeds can be sown directly into holes in the ground or planted in prepared areas 
The seeds can germinate in temperatures ranging from 10 to 30 °C, but the highest germination rate occurs at around 25 °C (about 96%), even after four years of storage   Germination takes about 2–4 weeks 
It is also possible to propagate Mimosa tenuiflora via cuttings Trimming adult Mimosa tenuiflorae during the rainy season is not recommended as it can kill them 

Legal status
United Nations
See also
Dimethyltryptamine
Psychedelic plants
Passage 10:
Mimosa texana
Mimosa texana is a shrub in the family Fabaceae  It is commonly known as the Texas mimosa, the Texas catclaw or the Wherry mimosa and is endemic to upland regions of Mexico and Texas  This species used to be classified as Mimosa biuncifera but it was found that phenotypic variations occurred across its range and a new taxonomy was proposed by Rupert C  Barneby in 1986, splitting the species into Mimosa aculeaticarpa var  biuncifera and Mimosa texana 

Distribution
Texas mimosa is found on alkaline soils in Mexico and Zapata and Starr counties in the state of Texas  It is uncommon and grows on caliche and gravelly hillsides 

Description
This species is a straggly, much branched, deciduous shrub of up to two metres tall  It has slender, zigzag, dark coloured twigs clad in backward pointing prickles  The alternate bi-pinnate leaves have medium-sized leaflets  The globular flowers are creamy-white and cover the bush in the spring  They are intensely fragrant and attract numerous insects  The seed pods are brick red and flattened, with prickly edges 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Power factor
In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC power system is defined as the ratio of the real power absorbed by the load to the apparent power flowing in the circuit   Real power is the average of the instantaneous product of voltage and current and represents the capacity of the electricity for performing work  Apparent power is the product of RMS current and voltage  Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power may be greater than the real power, so more current flows in the circuit than would be required to transfer real power alone  A power factor magnitude of less than one indicates the voltage and current are not in phase, reducing the average product of the two  A negative power factor occurs when the device (which is normally the load) generates real power, which then flows back towards the source 
In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred  The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system and require larger wires and other equipment  Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power factor 
Power-factor correction increases the power factor of a load, improving efficiency for the distribution system to which it is attached  Linear loads with a low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network of capacitors or inductors  Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system  In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor  The devices for correction of the power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or built into power-consuming equipment 

General case
The general expression for power factor is given by

  
    
      
        
          
            power factor
          
        
        =
        P
        
          /
        
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{power factor}}=P/P_{a}}
  

  
    
      
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
        =
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle P_{a}=I_{rms}V_{rms}}
  where 
  
    
      
        P
      
    
    {\displaystyle P}
   is the real power measured by an ideal wattmeter, 
  
    
      
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{rms}}
   is the rms current measured by an ideal ammeter, and 
  
    
      
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle V_{rms}}
   is the rms voltage measured by an ideal voltmeter   Apparent power, 
  
    
      
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle P_{a}}
  , is the product of the rms current and the rms voltage 
If the load is sourcing power back toward the generator, then 
  
    
      
        P
      
    
    {\displaystyle P}
   and 
  
    
      
        
          
            power factor
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{power factor}}}
   will be negative 

Periodic waveforms
If the waveforms are periodic with the same period which is much shorter than the averaging time of the physical meters, then the power factor can be computed by the following

  
    
      
        
          
            power factor
          
        
        =
        P
        
          /
        
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{power factor}}=P/P_{a}}
  

  
    
      
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
        =
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle P_{a}=I_{rms}V_{rms}}
  

  
    
      
        P
        =
        
          
            1
            T
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            
              t
              ′
            
          
          
            
              t
              ′
            
            +
            T
          
        
        i
        (
        t
        )
        v
        (
        t
        )
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle P={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{t'}^{t'+T}i(t)v(t)dt}
  

  
    
      
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          
            1
            T
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            
              t
              ′
            
          
          
            
              t
              ′
            
            +
            T
          
        
        
          
            i
            (
            t
            )
          
          
            2
          
        
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{rms}^{2}={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{t'}^{t'+T}{i(t)}^{2}dt}
  

  
    
      
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          
            1
            T
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            
              t
              ′
            
          
          
            
              t
              ′
            
            +
            T
          
        
        
          
            v
            (
            t
            )
          
          
            2
          
        
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle V_{rms}^{2}={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{t'}^{t'+T}{v(t)}^{2}dt}
  where 
  
    
      
        i
        (
        t
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle i(t)}
   is the instantaneous current, 
  
    
      
        v
        (
        t
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle v(t)}
   is the instantaneous voltage, 
  
    
      
        
          t
          ′
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle t'}
   is an arbitrary starting time, and 
  
    
      
        T
      
    
    {\displaystyle T}
   is the period of the waveforms 

Nonperiodic waveforms
If the waveforms are not periodic and the physical meters have the same averaging time, then the equations for the periodic case can be used with the exception that 
  
    
      
        T
      
    
    {\displaystyle T}
   is the averaging time of the meters instead of the waveform period 

Linear time-invariant circuits
Linear time-invariant circuits (referred to simply as linear circuits for the rest of this article), for example, circuits consisting of combinations of resistors, inductors and capacitors have a sinusoidal response to the sinusoidal line voltage  A linear load does not change the shape of the input waveform but may change the relative timing (phase) between voltage and current, due to its inductance or capacitance 
In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in step (or in phase), changing polarity at the same instant in each cycle  All the power entering the load is consumed (or dissipated) 
Where reactive loads are present, such as with capacitors or inductors, energy storage in the loads results in a phase difference between the current and voltage waveforms  During each cycle of the AC voltage, extra energy, in addition to any energy consumed in the load, is temporarily stored in the load in electric or magnetic fields then returned to the power grid a fraction of the period later 
Electrical circuits containing predominantly resistive loads (incandescent lamps, heating elements) have a power factor of almost 1, but circuits containing inductive or capacitive loads (electric motors, solenoid valves, transformers, fluorescent lamp ballasts, and others) can have a power factor well below 1 
In the electric power grid, reactive loads cause a continuous ebb and flow of nonproductive power   A circuit with a low power factor will use a greater amount of current to transfer a given quantity of real power than a circuit with a high power factor thus causing increased losses due to resistive heating in power lines, and requiring the use of higher-rated conductors and transformers 

Definition and calculation
AC power has two components:

Real power or active power (
  
    
      
        P
      
    
    {\displaystyle P}
  ) (sometimes called average power), expressed in watts (W)
Reactive power (
  
    
      
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q}
  ), usually expressed in reactive volt-amperes (var)Together, they form the complex power (
  
    
      
        S
      
    
    {\displaystyle S}
  ) expressed as volt-amperes (VA)  The magnitude of the complex power is the apparent power (
  
    
      
        
          |
        
        S
        
          |
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle |S|}
  ), also expressed in volt-amperes (VA) 
The VA and var are non-SI units mathematically identical to the watt, but are used in engineering practice instead of the watt to state what quantity is being expressed  The SI explicitly disallows using units for this purpose or as the only source of information about a physical quantity as used The power factor is defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power  As power is transferred along a transmission line, it does not consist purely of real power that can do work once transferred to the load, but rather consists of a combination of real and reactive power, called apparent power  The power factor describes the amount of real power transmitted along a transmission line relative to the total apparent power flowing in the line The power factor can also be computed as the cosine of the angle θ by which the current waveform lags or leads the voltage waveform, 

Power triangle
One can relate the various components of AC power by using the power triangle in vector space  Real power extends horizontally in the real axis and reactive power extends in the direction of the imaginary axis  Complex power (and its magnitude, apparent power) represents a combination of both real and reactive power, and therefore can be calculated by using the vector sum of these two components  We can conclude that the mathematical relationship between these components is:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                S
              
              
                
                =
                P
                +
                j
                Q
              
            
            
              
                
                  |
                
                S
                
                  |
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      P
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                    +
                    
                      Q
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
                
                  pf
                
              
              
                
                =
                cos
                ⁡
                
                  θ
                
                =
                
                  
                    P
                    
                      
                        |
                      
                      S
                      
                        |
                      
                    
                  
                
                =
                cos
                ⁡
                
                  
                    (
                    
                      arctan
                      ⁡
                      
                        
                          (
                          
                            
                              Q
                              P
                            
                          
                          )
                        
                      
                    
                    )
                  
                
              
            
            
              
                Q
              
              
                
                =
                P
                
                tan
                ⁡
                (
                arccos
                ⁡
                (
                
                  pf
                
                )
                )
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}S&=P+jQ\\|S|&={\sqrt {P^{2}+Q^{2}}}\\{\text{pf}}&=\cos {\theta }={\frac {P}{|S|}}=\cos {\left(\arctan {\left({\frac {Q}{P}}\right)}\right)}\\Q&=P\,\tan(\arccos({\text{pf}}))\end{aligned}}}
  As the angle θ increases with fixed total apparent power, current and voltage are further out of phase with each other  Real power decreases, and reactive power increases 

Lagging, leading and unity power factors
Power factor is described as leading if the current waveform is advanced in phase with respect to voltage, or lagging when the current waveform is behind the voltage waveform  A lagging power factor signifies that the load is inductive, as the load will consume reactive power  The reactive component 
  
    
      
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q}
   is positive as reactive power travels through the circuit and is consumed by the inductive load  A leading power factor signifies that the load is capacitive, as the load supplies reactive power, and therefore the reactive component 
  
    
      
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q}
   is negative as reactive power is being supplied to the circuit 

If θ is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power factor is equal to the cosine of the angle, 
  
    
      
        cos
        ⁡
        θ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \cos \theta }
  :

  
    
      
        
          |
        
        P
        
          |
        
        =
        
          |
        
        S
        
          |
        
        cos
        ⁡
        θ
      
    
    {\displaystyle |P|=|S|\cos \theta }
  Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless number between -1 and 1  When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle  When the power factor is 1, referred to as unity power factor, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load  Power factors are usually stated as leading or lagging to show the sign of the phase angle  Capacitive loads are leading (current leads voltage), and inductive loads are lagging (current lags voltage) 
If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply, current and voltage will change polarity in step, the power factor will be 1, and the electrical energy flows in a single direction across the network in each cycle  Inductive loads such as induction motors (any type of wound coil) consume reactive power with the current waveform lagging the voltage  Capacitive loads such as capacitor banks or buried cables generate reactive power with the current phase leading the voltage  Both types of loads will absorb energy during part of the AC cycle, which is stored in the device's magnetic or electric field, only to return this energy back to the source during the rest of the cycle 
For example, to get 1 kW of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 1 = 1 kVA)  At low values of power factor, more apparent power needs to be transferred to get the same real power  To get 1 kW of real power at 0 2 power factor, 5 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 0 2 = 5 kVA)  This apparent power must be produced and transmitted to the load and is subject to losses in the production and transmission processes 
Electrical loads consuming alternating current power consume both real power and reactive power  The vector sum of real and reactive power is the complex power, and its magnitude is the apparent power  The presence of reactive power causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the electric load has a power factor of less than 1 
A negative power factor (0 to −1) can result from returning active power to the source, such as in the case of a building fitted with solar panels when surplus power is fed back into the supply 

Power factor correction of linear loads
A high power factor is generally desirable in a power delivery system to reduce losses and improve voltage regulation at the load  Compensating elements near an electrical load will reduce the apparent power demand on the supply system  Power factor correction may be applied by an electric power transmission utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the network  Individual electrical customers who are charged by their utility for low power factor may install correction equipment to increase their power factor so as to reduce costs 
Power factor correction brings the power factor of an AC power circuit closer to 1 by supplying or absorbing reactive power, adding capacitors or inductors that act to cancel the inductive or capacitive effects of the load, respectively  In the case of offsetting the inductive effect of motor loads, capacitors can be locally connected  These capacitors help to generate reactive power to meet the demand of the inductive loads  This will keep that reactive power from having to flow all the way from the utility generator to the load  In the electricity industry, inductors are said to consume reactive power and capacitors are said to supply it, even though reactive power is just energy moving back and forth on each AC cycle 
The reactive elements in power factor correction devices can create voltage fluctuations and harmonic noise when switched on or off  They will supply or sink reactive power regardless of whether there is a corresponding load operating nearby, increasing the system's no-load losses  In the worst case, reactive elements can interact with the system and with each other to create resonant conditions, resulting in system instability and severe overvoltage fluctuations  As such, reactive elements cannot simply be applied without engineering analysis 

An automatic power factor correction unit consists of a number of capacitors that are switched by means of contactors  These contactors are controlled by a regulator that measures power factor in an electrical network  Depending on the load and power factor of the network, the power factor controller will switch the necessary blocks of capacitors in steps to make sure the power factor stays above a selected value 
In place of a set of switched capacitors, an unloaded synchronous motor can supply reactive power  The reactive power drawn by the synchronous motor is a function of its field excitation  It is referred to as a synchronous condenser  It is started and connected to the electrical network  It operates at a leading power factor and puts vars onto the network as required to support a system's voltage or to maintain the system power factor at a specified level 
The synchronous condenser's installation and operation are identical to those of large electric motors  Its principal advantage is the ease with which the amount of correction can be adjusted; it behaves like a variable capacitor  Unlike with capacitors, the amount of reactive power supplied is proportional to voltage, not the square of voltage; this improves voltage stability on large networks   Synchronous condensers are often used in connection with high-voltage direct-current transmission projects or in large industrial plants such as steel mills 
For power factor correction of high-voltage power systems or large, fluctuating industrial loads, power electronic devices such as the static VAR compensator or STATCOM are increasingly used  These systems are able to compensate sudden changes of power factor much more rapidly than contactor-switched capacitor banks and, being solid-state, require less maintenance than synchronous condensers 

Non-linear loads
Examples of non-linear loads on a power system are rectifiers (such as used in a power supply), and arc discharge devices such as fluorescent lamps, electric welding machines, or arc furnaces  Because current in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the current contains frequency components that are multiples of the power system frequency  Distortion power factor is a measure of how much the harmonic distortion of a load current decreases the average power transferred to the load 

Non-sinusoidal components
In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power factor arises only from the difference in phase between the current and voltage  This is displacement power factor Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some other form  Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental frequency) AC current  This is of importance in practical power systems that contain non-linear loads such as rectifiers, some forms of electric lighting, electric arc furnaces, welding equipment, switched-mode power supplies, variable speed drives and other devices  Filters consisting of linear capacitors and inductors can prevent harmonic currents from entering the supplying system 
To measure the real power or reactive power, a wattmeter designed to work properly with non-sinusoidal currents must be used 

Distortion power factor
The distortion power factor is the distortion component associated with the harmonic voltages and currents present in the system 

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                
                  
                    distortion power factor
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      I
                      
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      I
                      
                        r
                        m
                        s
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      I
                      
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        I
                        
                          1
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      
                        I
                        
                          2
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      
                        I
                        
                          3
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      
                        I
                        
                          4
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      ⋯
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    1
                    
                      1
                      +
                      
                        
                          
                            
                              I
                              
                                2
                              
                              
                                2
                              
                            
                            +
                            
                              I
                              
                                3
                              
                              
                                2
                              
                            
                            +
                            
                              I
                              
                                4
                              
                              
                                2
                              
                            
                            +
                            ⋯
                          
                          
                            I
                            
                              1
                            
                            
                              2
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    1
                    
                      1
                      +
                      T
                      H
                      
                        D
                        
                          i
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\mbox{distortion power factor}}&={\frac {I_{1}}{I_{rms}}}\\&={\frac {I_{1}}{\sqrt {I_{1}^{2}+I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }}}\\&={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+{\frac {I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }{I_{1}^{2}}}}}}\\&={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+THD_{i}^{2}}}}\\\end{aligned}}}
  
  
    
      
        
          
            
              THD
            
          
          
            i
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{THD}}_{i}}
   is the total harmonic distortion of the load current  

  
    
      
        T
        H
        
          D
          
            i
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                
                  ∑
                  
                    h
                    =
                    2
                  
                  
                    ∞
                  
                
                
                  I
                  
                    h
                  
                  
                    2
                  
                
              
            
            
              I
              
                1
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                I
                
                  2
                
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              
                I
                
                  3
                
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              
                I
                
                  4
                
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              ⋯
            
            
              I
              
                1
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle THD_{i}={\frac {\sqrt {\displaystyle \sum _{h=2}^{\infty }I_{h}^{2}}}{I_{1}}}={\frac {\sqrt {I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }}{I_{1}}}}
  
  
    
      
        
          I
          
            1
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{1}}
   is the fundamental component of the current and 
  
    
      
        
          I
          
            
              rms
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{\mbox{rms}}}
   is the total current – both are root mean square-values (distortion power factor can also be used to describe individual order harmonics, using the corresponding current in place of total current)  This definition with respect to total harmonic distortion assumes that the voltage stays undistorted (sinusoidal, without harmonics)  This simplification is often a good approximation for stiff voltage sources (not being affected by changes in load downstream in the distribution network)  Total harmonic distortion of typical generators from current distortion in the network is on the order of 1–2%, which can have larger scale implications but can be ignored in common practice The result when multiplied with the displacement power factor (DPF) is the overall, true power factor or just power factor (PF):

  
    
      
        
          
            PF
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              cos
              ⁡
              
                φ
              
            
            
              1
              +
              T
              H
              
                D
                
                  i
                
                
                  2
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{PF}}={\frac {\cos {\varphi }}{\sqrt {1+THD_{i}^{2}}}}}

Distortion in three-phase networks
In practice, the local effects of distortion current on devices in a three-phase distribution network rely on the magnitude of certain order harmonics rather than the total harmonic distortion 
For example, the triplen, or zero-sequence, harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc ) have the property of being in-phase when compared line-to-line  In a delta-wye transformer, these harmonics can result in circulating currents in the delta windings and result in greater resistive heating  In a wye-configuration of a transformer, triplen harmonics will not create these currents, but they will result in a non-zero current in the neutral wire  This could overload the neutral wire in some cases
and create error in kilowatt-hour metering systems and billing revenue   The presence of current harmonics in a transformer also result in larger eddy currents in the magnetic core of the transformer  Eddy current losses generally increase as the square of the frequency, lowering the transformer's efficiency, dissipating additional heat, and reducing its service life Negative-sequence harmonics (5th, 11th, 17th, etc ) combine 120 degrees out of phase, similarly to the fundamental harmonic but in a reversed sequence   In generators and motors, these currents produce magnetic fields which oppose the rotation of the shaft and sometimes result in damaging mechanical vibrations 

Switched-mode power supplies
A particularly important class of non-linear loads is the millions of personal computers that typically incorporate switched-mode power supplies (SMPS) with rated output power ranging from a few watts to more than 1 kW  Historically, these very-low-cost power supplies incorporated a simple full-wave rectifier that conducted only when the mains instantaneous voltage exceeded the voltage on the input capacitors   This leads to very high ratios of peak-to-average input current, which also lead to a low distortion power factor and potentially serious phase and neutral loading concerns 
A typical switched-mode power supply first converts the AC mains to a DC bus by means of a bridge rectifier  The output voltage is then derived from this DC bus  The problem with this is that the rectifier is a non-linear device, so the input current is highly non-linear  That means that the input current has energy at harmonics of the frequency of the voltage  This presents a problem for power companies, because they cannot compensate for the harmonic current by adding simple capacitors or inductors, as they could for the reactive power drawn by a linear load  Many jurisdictions are beginning to require power factor correction for all power supplies above a certain power level 
Regulatory agencies such as the EU have set harmonic limits as a method of improving power factor  Declining component cost has hastened implementation of two different methods  To comply with current EU standard EN61000-3-2, all switched-mode power supplies with output power more than 75 W must at least include passive power factor correction  80 Plus power supply certification requires a power factor of 0 9 or more 

Power factor correction (PFC) in non-linear loads
Passive PFC
The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter that passes current only at line frequency (50 or 60 Hz)  The filter consists of capacitors or inductors and makes a non-linear device look more like a linear load  An example of passive PFC is a valley-fill circuit 
A disadvantage of passive PFC is that it requires larger inductors or capacitors than an equivalent power active PFC circuit  Also, in practice, passive PFC is often less effective at improving the power factor 

Active PFC
Active PFC is the use of power electronics to change the waveform of current drawn by a load to improve the power factor   Some types of the active PFC are buck, boost, buck-boost and synchronous condenser   Active power factor correction can be single-stage or multi-stage 
In the case of a switched-mode power supply, a boost converter is inserted between the bridge rectifier and the main input capacitors  The boost converter attempts to maintain a constant voltage at its output while drawing a current that is always in phase with and at the same frequency as the line voltage  Another switched-mode converter inside the power supply produces the desired output voltage from the DC bus  This approach requires additional semiconductor switches and control electronics but permits cheaper and smaller passive components  It is frequently used in practice 
For a three-phase SMPS, the Vienna rectifier configuration may be used to substantially improve the power factor 
SMPSs with passive PFC can achieve power factor of about 0 7–0 75, SMPSs with active PFC, up to 0 99 power factor, while a SMPS without any power factor correction have a power factor of only about 0 55–0 65 Due to their very wide input voltage range, many power supplies with active PFC can automatically adjust to operate on AC power from about 100 V (Japan) to 240 V (Europe)  That feature is particularly welcome in power supplies for laptops 

Dynamic PFC
Dynamic power factor correction (DPFC), sometimes referred to as real-time power factor correction, is used for electrical stabilization in cases of rapid load changes (e g  at large manufacturing sites)  DPFC is useful when standard power factor correction would cause over or under correction   DPFC uses semiconductor switches, typically thyristors, to quickly connect and disconnect capacitors or inductors to improve power factor 

Importance in distribution systems
Power factors below 1 0 require a utility to generate more than the minimum volt-amperes necessary to supply the real power (watts)  This increases generation and transmission costs  For example, if the load power factor were as low as 0 7, the apparent power would be 1 4 times the real power used by the load  Line current in the circuit would also be 1 4 times the current required at 1 0 power factor, so the losses in the circuit would be doubled (since they are proportional to the square of the current)  Alternatively, all components of the system such as generators, conductors, transformers, and switchgear would be increased in size (and cost) to carry the extra current  When the power factor is close to unity, for the same kVA rating of the transformer more load current can be supplied Utilities typically charge additional costs to commercial customers who have a power factor below some limit, which is typically 0 9 to 0 95   Engineers are often interested in the power factor of a load as one of the factors that affect the efficiency of power transmission 
With the rising cost of energy and concerns over the efficient delivery of power, active PFC has become more common in consumer electronics  Current Energy Star guidelines for computers call for a power factor of ≥ 0 9 at 100% of rated output in the PC's power supply  According to a white paper authored by Intel and the U S  Environmental Protection Agency, PCs with internal power supplies will require the use of active power factor correction to meet the ENERGY STAR 5 0 Program Requirements for Computers In Europe, EN 61000-3-2 requires power factor correction be incorporated into consumer products 
Small customers, such as households, are not usually charged for reactive power and so power factor metering equipment for such customers will not be installed 

Measurement techniques
The power factor in a single-phase circuit (or balanced three-phase circuit) can be measured with the wattmeter-ammeter-voltmeter method, where the power in watts is divided by the product of measured voltage and current  The power factor of a balanced polyphase circuit is the same as that of any phase  The power factor of an unbalanced polyphase circuit is not uniquely defined 
A direct reading power factor meter can be made with a moving coil meter of the electrodynamic type, carrying two perpendicular coils on the moving part of the instrument  The field of the instrument is energized by the circuit current flow  The two moving coils, A and B, are connected in parallel with the circuit load   One coil, A, will be connected through a resistor and the second coil, B, through an inductor, so that the current in coil B is delayed with respect to current in A  At unity power factor, the current in A is in phase with the circuit current, and coil A provides maximum torque, driving the instrument pointer toward the 1 0 mark on the scale  At zero power factor, the current in coil B is in phase with circuit current, and coil B provides torque to drive the pointer towards 0  At intermediate values of power factor, the torques provided by the two coils add and the pointer takes up intermediate positions Another electromechanical instrument is the polarized-vane type  In this instrument a stationary field coil produces a rotating magnetic field, just like a polyphase motor  The field coils are connected either directly to polyphase voltage sources or to a phase-shifting reactor if a single-phase application   A second stationary field coil, perpendicular to the voltage coils, carries a current proportional to current in one phase of the circuit  The moving system of the instrument consists of two vanes that are magnetized by the current coil  In operation, the moving vanes take up a physical angle equivalent to the electrical angle between the voltage source and the current source  This type of instrument can be made to register for currents in both directions, giving a four-quadrant display of power factor or phase angle



ground_truth: Mimosa

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In modern history of Syria this kingdom lasted for only four months, this kingdom surrendered to who?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Arab Kingdom of Syria
The Arab Kingdom of Syria (Arabic: المملكة العربية السورية, al-Mamlakah al-‘Arabīyah as-Sūrīyah) was a self-proclaimed, unrecognized constitutional monarchy existing briefly in the territory of historical Syria  It was announced on 5 October 1918 as a fully and independent Arab constitutional government with the permission of the British military  It gained de facto independence as an Emirate after the withdrawal of the British forces from OETA East on 26 November 1919, and was proclaimed as a Kingdom on 8 March 1920 
As a Kingdom it existed only a little over four months, from 8 March to 25 July 1920  During its brief existence, the kingdom was led by Sharif Hussein bin Ali's son Faisal bin Hussein  Despite its claims to the territory of Greater Syria, Faisal's government controlled a limited area and was dependent on Britain which, along with France, generally opposed the idea of a Greater Syria and refused to recognize the kingdom  The kingdom surrendered to French forces on 25 July 1920 

History
Foundations
The Arab Revolt and the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence were crucial factors in the foundation of the Arab Kingdom of Syria  In the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence promises of an Arab Kingdom were made by the British in return for an Arab uprising against the Ottomans : 209–215  As the British were promising independence, The French made the Sykes–Picot Agreement  Ultimately, the implementation of the Sykes–Picot Agreement would lead to the undermining and end of the Arab Kingdom of Syria  Despite the significance of the Arab Revolt to modern Arab countries formed in its wake, at the time there was significant distrust and even opposition to the idea of an Arab Kingdom or series of Arab Kingdoms 
This opposition was due in part to the heavy influence of the French and the British in facilitating the revolt and the establishment of what would be considered, by modern standards, puppet states : 185–191  The involvement of foreign powers in distributing large sums of money and military support to establish an empire that would be led by imperial aspirants, rather than legitimate Arab nationalists, was instrumental in the disintegration of the majority of the early Hashemite Kingdoms (Kingdom of Hejaz and Kingdom of Iraq)  Additionally, at the time, many Arabs expressed grave concerns that the family of the Sharif of Mecca, the Hashemites, could wrest control from the Ottoman Sultan, with whom their loyalty had rested for centuries : 187

Arab constitutional government
Near the end of World War I, the British Egyptian Expeditionary Force, under command of Edmund Allenby, captured Damascus on 30 September 1918  Shortly thereafter, on 3 October, Faisal entered the city : 30  The jubilation would be short lived, as Faisal would soon be made aware of the Sykes–Picot agreement  Faisal had come to expect an independent Arab kingdom in the name of his father but was soon told of the division of territory and how Syria fell under French protective power  Faisal saw this admission as a betrayal by the British, but believed the actual settlement would be worked out at a later date when the war had ended  There was some likelihood that by then the British would have changed their support for French pretensions in Syria 
On 5 October, with the permission of General Allenby, Faisal announced the establishment of a fully and absolutely independent Arab constitutional government : 34  Faisal announced it would be an Arab government based on justice and equality for all Arabs regardless of religion  The French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau found disconcerting the establishment of a semi-independent Arab state without international recognition and under the auspices of the British  Even reassurances by Allenby that all actions taken were provisional did not ease the looming tensions between the British, the French, and the Arabs  For Arab nationalists, and many of the Arabs who fought in the Arab Revolt, this independent state would be the realization of a long hard-fought goal 

Determining the status
After the war, at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, Faisal pushed for Arab independence  At the Conference, the victorious Allies decided what was to become of the defeated nations of the Central Powers, especially who was to control their territories, such as the Ottoman Empire's Middle East possessions  The status of the Arab lands in the Middle East was the subject of intense negotiations between the French and British  In May 1919, the French and British prime ministers met in Quai d’Orsay to decide between them their respective claims to territories or spheres of influence in the Middle East  The meeting determined that in return for a British guarantee of French control in Syria, the British would be given a mandate over Mosul and Palestine 
At about the same time, an American compromise resulted in an agreement to set up a commission to determine the wishes of the inhabitants  Though they initially supported the idea, Britain and France eventually backed out, leaving the King–Crane Commission of 1919 solely American : 268  The findings of the commission, not published until 1922 after the vote on the mandates in the League of Nations, indicated strong Arab support for an independent Arab state and opposition to a French presence 

Creation
These events in Europe led Syrian nationalist societies like al-Fatat (the Young Arab Society) to make preparations for a national congress  These Syrian nationalist societies advocated complete independence for an Arab Kingdom that united Arabs under Faisal  The King–Crane Commission encouraged efforts to unify, and hasty elections were called including representatives from all over the Arab lands, including Palestine and Lebanon, although French officials prevented many of their representatives from arriving  The first official session of the Syrian Congress was held on 3 June 1919 and al-Fatat member Hashim al-Atassi was elected its president : 17 When the King–Crane Commission arrived in Damascus on 25 June 1919, it was met with a flurry of leaflets saying "Independence or Death" 
On 2 July the Syrian National Congress in Damascus passed the Damascus Program, a series of resolutions calling for a completely independent constitutional monarchy with Faisal as king, asking for assistance from the United States, and rejecting any rights claimed by the French : 19  The resolutions defined the borders as 

on the north, the Taurus Range; on the south, a line running from Rafah to Al-Jauf and following the Syria-Hejaz border below 'Aqaba; on the east, the boundary formed by the Euphrates and Khabur rivers and a line stretching from some distance east of Abu-Kamal to some distance east of al-Jauf; on the west, the Mediterranean Sea 
Any hope that Faisal may have had that either the British or Americans would come to his aid and counter French moves quickly faded, especially after the Anglo-French Agreement for the withdrawal of British troops from Syria and the end of the British military government in Syria  The British withdrew from the region on 26 November 1919 In January 1920, Faisal was forced into an agreement with France which stipulated that France would uphold the existence of the Syrian state and would not station troops in Syria as long as the French government remained the only government supplying advisers, counselors and technical experts : 167  News of this compromise did not bode well with Faisal's vehemently anti-French and independence-minded supporters who immediately pressured Faisal to reverse his commitment, which he did  In the aftermath of this reversal, violent attacks against French forces took place and the Syrian Congress assembled in March 1920 to declare Faisal the king of Syria as well as to officially set up the Arab Kingdom of Syria with Hashim al-Atassi as Prime Minister and Yusuf al-'Azma as Minister of War and Chief of Staff 
This unilateral action was immediately repudiated by the British and French and the San Remo Conference was called by the Allied Powers in April 1920 to finalise the allocation of League of Nations mandates in the Middle East  This was in turn repudiated by Faisal and his supporters  After months of instability and failure to make good on the promises to the French, the commander of French forces General Henri Gouraud gave an ultimatum to King Faisal on 14 July 1920 declaring he surrender or fight : 215

Dissolution
Worried about the results of a long bloody fight with the French, King Faisal surrendered  However, Yusuf al-'Azma, the defense minister, ignored the King's order, and led a small army to confront the French advance into Syria  This army depended mainly on individual weapons and were no match to the French artillery  At the Battle of Maysalun, the Syrian army was easily defeated by the French, with General al-'Azma being killed during the battle  The loss led to the siege and capture of Damascus on 24 July 1920 and the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon was put into effect thereafter 

Legacy
After surrendering to French forces, Faisal was expelled from Syria and went to live in the United Kingdom in August 1920  In August 1921 he was offered the crown of Iraq under the British Mandate of Iraq 
A pro-French government under the leadership of 'Alaa al-Din al-Darubi was installed one day after the fall of Damascus, on 25 July 1920 : 37  On 1 September 1920, General Gouraud divided the French mandate territory of Syria into several smaller states as part of a French scheme to make Syria easier to control 
The Kingdom, through its short and tumultuous existence, would become a subject of great inspiration to later Arab liberation movements  It would be the often-repeated story of an Arab people breaking out from their colonial bonds only to be castigated for their revolutionary fervor and for their resistance to the imperial powers  The symbolism of the fall of the Kingdom of Syria also imparted deep mistrust of European powers, who were seen as liars and oppressors 

Politics of Syria (1918–1920)
Heads of Government
King
Prime Ministers
Gallery
Passage 2:
Gouding
Gouding (Chinese: 句町) was a monarchical state that lasted approximately 400 years, from 111 BC to 316 AD, and was centered on Guangnan County in modern-day Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan province, China 

In December 2015, artifacts unearthed from Gouding were on display at the Guangnan Minorities Museum 

See also
Đông Sơn drums
Neighbouring kingdoms of Dian and Yelang 
Southward expansion of the Han dynasty
Zomia (geography)
Passage 3:
Modern history of Syria
The modern history of Syria begins with the termination of Ottoman control of Syria by French forces and the establishment of the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration during World War I  The short-lived Arab Kingdom of Syria emerged in 1920, which was however soon committed under the French Mandate, which produced the short-lived autonomous State of Aleppo, State of Damascus (later State of Syria), Alawite State and Jabal al-Druze (state); the autonomies were transformed into the Mandatory Syrian Republic in 1930  Syrian Republic gained independence in April 1946  The Republic took part in the Arab-Israeli War and remained in a state of political instability during the 1950s and 1960s 
The 8 March 1963 coup resulted in the installation of the National Council for the Revolutionary Command (NCRC), a group of military and civilian officials who assumed control of all executive and legislative authority  The takeover was engineered by members of the Ba'ath Party led by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar  He was overthrown in early 1966 by Marxist-Leninist military dissidents of the party led by General Salah Jadid  Since the Arab Spring of 2011, Bashar al-Assad's government has been involved in the ongoing Syrian civil war 

Syria under the Mandate
OETA
The Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA) was a joint British and French military administration over Levantine and Mesopotamian provinces of the former Ottoman Empire between 1918 and 1920, set up following the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I  The administration ended following the assignment of the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon and British Mandate for Palestine at the 19–26 April 1920 San Remo conference 

Initial civil administration
Following the San Remo conference in April 1920 and the defeat of King Faisal's short-lived monarchy in Syria at the Battle of Maysalun on 24 July 1920, the French general Henri Gouraud established civil administration in the territory  The mandate region was subdivided into six states  They were the states of Damascus (1920), Aleppo (1920), Alawites (1920), Jabal Druze (1921), the autonomous Sanjak of Alexandretta (1921) (modern-day Hatay), and the State of Greater Lebanon (1920), which later became the modern country of Lebanon 
The drawing of those states was based in part on the sectarian make-up on the ground in Syria  However, nearly all the Syrian sects were hostile to the French mandate and to the division it created  This was best demonstrated by the numerous revolts that the French encountered in all of the Syrian states  Maronite Christians of Mount Lebanon, on the other hand, were a community with a dream of independence that was being realized under the French; therefore, Greater Lebanon was the exception to the newly formed states 

Syrian Federation (1922-24)
In July 1922, France established a loose federation between three of the states: Damascus, Aleppo, and the Alawite state under the name of the Syrian Federation (Fédération syrienne)  Jabal Druze, Sanjak of Alexandretta, and Greater Lebanon were not parts of this federation, which adopted a new federal flag (green-white-green with French canton)  On 1 December 1924, the Alawite state seceded from the federation when the states of Aleppo and Damascus were united into the State of Syria 

The Great Syrian Revolt
In 1925, a revolt in Jabal Druze led by Sultan Pasha el Atrash spread to other Syrian states and became a general rebellion in Syria  France tried to retaliate by having the parliament of Aleppo declare secession from the union with Damascus, but the voting was foiled by Syrian patriots 

First Syrian Republic
The red stars that represented the three districts of the republic (Damascus, Aleppo, and Deir ez Zor) 

1936 Independence treaty
In 1936, the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence was signed, a treaty that would not be ratified by the French legislature  However, the treaty allowed Jabal Druze, the Alawite (now called Latakia), and Alexandretta to be incorporated into the Syrian republic within the following two years  Greater Lebanon (now the Lebanese Republic) was the only state that did not join the Syrian Republic  Hashim al-Atassi, who was Prime Minister under King Faisal's brief reign (1918–1920), was the first president to be elected under a new constitution adopted after the independence treaty 

Separation of Hatay
In September 1938, France again separated the Syrian district of Alexandretta and transformed it into the Republic of Hatay  The Republic of Hatay joined Turkey in the following year, in June 1939  Syria did not recognize the incorporation of Hatay into Turkey and the issue is still disputed until the present time 

World War II and the founding of the UN
With the fall of France in 1940 during World War II, Syria came under the control of the Vichy Government until the British and Free French invaded and occupied the country in July 1941  Syria proclaimed its independence again in 1941 but it was not until 1 January 1944 that it was recognized as an independent republic 
On 27 September 1941, France proclaimed, by virtue of, and within the framework of the Mandate, the independence and sovereignty of the Syrian State  The proclamation said "the independence and sovereignty of Syria and Lebanon will not affect the juridical situation as it results from the Mandate Act  Indeed, this situation could be changed only with the agreement of the Council of the League of Nations, with the consent of the Government of the United States, a signatory of the Franco-American Convention of 4 April 1924, and only after the conclusion between the French Government and the Syrian and Lebanese Governments of treaties duly ratified in accordance with the laws of the French Republic Benqt Broms said that it was important to note that there were several founding members of the United Nations whose statehood was doubtful at the time of the San Francisco Conference and that the Government of France still considered Syria and Lebanon to be mandates Duncan Hall said "Thus, the Syrian mandate may be said to have been terminated without any formal action on the part of the League or its successor  The mandate was terminated by the declaration of the mandatory power, and of the new states themselves, of their independence, followed by a process of piecemeal unconditional recognition by other powers, culminating in formal admission to the United Nations  Article 78 of the Charter ended the status of tutelage for any member state: 'The trusteeship system shall not apply to territories which have become Members of the United Nations, relationship among which shall be based on respect for the principle of sovereign equality '"On 29 May 1945, France bombed Damascus and tried to arrest its democratically elected leaders  While French planes were bombing Damascus, Prime Minister Faris al-Khoury was at the founding conference of the United Nations in San Francisco, presenting Syria's claim for independence from the French Mandate 
Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalist groups and British pressure forced the French to evacuate their last troops on 17 April 1946 

Republic of Syria 1946-1963
Syrian independence was acquired in 1946  Although rapid economic development followed the declaration of independence, Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s was marked by upheaval  The early years of independence were marked by political instability 
In 1948, Syria was involved in the Arab-Israeli War with the newly created State of Israel  The Syrian army was pressed out of the Israeli areas, but fortified their strongholds on the Golan and managed to keep their old borders and occupy some additional territory  In July 1949, Syria was the last Arab country to sign an armistice agreement with Israel 
In March 1949, Syria's national government was overthrown by a military coup d'état led by Husni al-Zaim in a coup  Some authors claim involvement by the United States CIA Later that year Zaim was overthrown by his colleague Sami al-Hinnawi and Adib al-Shishakli  The latter undermined civilian rule and led to Shishakli's complete seizure of power in 1951  Shishakli continued to rule the country until 1955, when growing public opposition forced him to resign and leave the country  The national government was restored, but again to face instability, this time from abroad  After the overthrow of President Shishakli in a 1954 coup, continued political maneuvering supported by competing factions in the military eventually brought Arab nationalist and socialist elements to power  Between 1946 and 1956, Syria had 20 different cabinets and drafted four separate constitutions 
During the Suez Crisis of 1956, after the invasion of the Sinai Peninsula by Israeli troops, and the intervention of British and French troops, martial law was declared in Syria  Later Syrian and Iraqi troops were brought into Jordan to prevent a possible Israeli invasion  The November 1956 attacks on Iraqi pipelines were in retaliation for Iraq's acceptance into the Baghdad Pact  In early 1957 Iraq advised Egypt and Syria against a conceivable takeover of Jordan 
In November 1956 Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union, providing a foothold for communist influence within the government in exchange for planes, tanks, and other military equipment being sent to Syria  This increase in the strength of Syrian military technology worried Turkey, as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake Iskenderon, a formerly Syrian city now in Turkey  On the other hand, Syria and the USSR accused Turkey of amassing its troops at the Syrian border  During this standoff, communists gained more control over the Syrian government and military  Only heated debates in the United Nations (of which Syria was an original member) lessened the threat of war 
Syria's political instability during the years after the 1954 coup, the parallelism of Syrian and Egyptian policies, and the appeal of Egyptian President Gamal Abdal Nasser's leadership in the wake of the Suez crisis created support in Syria for union with Egypt  On 1 February 1958, Syrian president Shukri al-Kuwatli and Nasser announced the merging of the two countries, creating the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties, as well as the Communists therein, ceased overt activities 
The union was not a success, however  Following a military coup on 28 September 1961, Syria seceded, reestablishing itself as the Syrian Arab Republic  Instability characterised the next 18 months, with various coups culminating on 8 March 1963, in the installation by leftist Syrian Army officers of the National Council of the Revolutionary Command (NCRC), a group of military and civilian officials who assumed control of all executive and legislative authority  The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist Resurrection Party (Ba'ath Party), which had been active in Syria and other Arab countries since the late 1940s  The new cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members 

Ba'athist Arab Republic of Syria 1963-today
First Ba'ath government
The Ba'ath takeover in Syria followed a Ba'ath coup in Iraq, the previous month  The new Syrian Government explored the possibility of federation with Egypt and with Ba'ath-controlled Iraq  An agreement was concluded in Cairo on 17 April 1963, for a referendum on unity to be held in September 1963  However, serious disagreements among the parties soon developed, and the tripartite federation failed to materialize  Thereafter, the Ba'ath governments in Syria and Iraq began to work for bilateral unity  These plans foundered in November 1963, when the Ba'ath government in Iraq was overthrown 
In May 1964, President Amin al-Hafiz of the NCRC promulgated a provisional constitution providing for a National Council of the Revolution (NCR), an appointed legislature composed of representatives of mass organisations—labour, peasant, and professional unions—a presidential council, in which executive power was vested, and a cabinet 

Second Ba'ath government
On 23 February 1966, a group of army officers carried out a successful, intra-party coup, imprisoned President Hafiz, dissolved the cabinet and the NCR, abrogated the provisional constitution, and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government on 1 March  The coup leaders described it as a "rectification" of Ba'ath Party principles  In June 1967 Israel captured and occupied the Golan Heights  The Six Day War had significantly weakened the radical socialist government established by the 1966 coup 
On 18 September 1970, during the events of Black September in Jordan, Syria tried to intervene on behalf of the Palestinian guerrillas  Hafez al-Assad sent in armored forces equivalent to a brigade, with tanks, some of them allegedly hastily rebranded from the regular Syrian army for the purpose  Other Syrian units were the 5th Infantry Division and Commandos  On 21 September, the Syrian 5th Division broke through the defenses of the Jordanian 40th Armoured Brigade, and pushed it back off the ar-Ramtha crossroads  On 22 September, the Royal Jordanian Air Force began attacking Syrian forces, which were badly battered as a result  The constant airstrikes broke the Syrian force, and on the late afternoon of 22 September the 5th Division began to retreat  The swift Syrian withdrawal was a severe blow to Palestinian guerillas  Jordanian armored forces steadily pounded their headquarters in Amman, and threatened to break them in other regions of the Kingdom as well  Eventually, the Palestinian factions agreed to a cease-fire  King Hussein and Yasser Arafat attended the meeting of the Arab League in Cairo, where the hostilities briefly ended  The Jordanian-Palestinian Civil War shortly resumed, but without Syrian intervention 
By 1970 a conflict had developed between an extremist military wing and a more moderate civilian wing of the Ba'ath Party  The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during the "Black September" hostilities with Jordan reflected this political disagreement within the ruling Ba'ath leadership 

Ba'ath Party under Hafez al-Assad, 1970–2000
Power takeover
On 13 November 1970, Minister of Defense Hafez al-Assad effected a bloodless military coup, ousting the civilian party leadership and assuming the role of President 
Upon assuming power, Hafez al-Assad moved quickly to create an organizational infrastructure for his government and to consolidate control  The Provisional Regional Command of Assad's Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party nominated a 173-member legislature, the People's Council, in which the Ba'ath Party took 87 seats  The remaining seats were divided among "popular organizations" and other minor parties 
In March 1971, the party held its regional congress and elected a new 21-member Regional Command headed by Assad  In the same month, a national referendum was held to confirm Assad as president for a 7-year term  In March 1972, to broaden the base of his government, Assad formed the National Progressive Front, a coalition of parties led by the Ba'ath Party, and elections were held to establish local councils in each of Syria's 14 governorates  In March 1973, a new Syrian constitution went into effect followed shortly thereafter by parliamentary elections for the People's Council, the first such elections since 1962 

October War
On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt began the Yom Kippur War (also called the "Ramadan War" or "October War" because Syria and Egypt attacked during Muslim Ramadan holiday) by staging a surprise attack against Israel  Despite the element of surprise, Egypt and Syria lost their initial gains in a three-week-long warfare, and Israel continued to occupy the Golan Heights and the Sinai peninsula 

Intervention in Lebanon
In early 1976, the Lebanese Civil War was going poorly for the Maronite Christians, so the Lebanese President Elias Sarkis officially requested Syria intervene militarily  After receiving their first mandate from the Lebanese President, Syria was given a second mandate by the Arab League to intervene militarily in Lebanon  Syria sent 40,000 troops into the country to prevent the Christians from being overrun, but soon became embroiled in this war, beginning the 30 year Syrian presence in Lebanon  Over the following 15 years of civil war, Syria fought both for control over Lebanon, and as an attempt to undermine Israel in southern Lebanon, through extensive use of Lebanese allies as proxy fighters  Many saw the Syrian Army's presence in Lebanon as an occupation, especially following the end of the civil war in 1990, after the Syrian-sponsored Taif Agreement  Syria then remained in Lebanon until 2005, exerting a heavy-handed influence over Lebanese politics, that was deeply resented by many 
About one million Syrian workers came into Lebanon after the war ended to find jobs in the reconstruction of the country  Syrian workers were preferred over Palestinian Arabs and Lebanese workers because they could be paid lower wages, but some have argued that the Syrian government's encouragement of citizens entering its small and militarily dominated neighbor in search of work, was in fact an attempt at Syrian colonization of Lebanon  In 1994, under pressure from Damascus, the Lebanese government controversially granted citizenship to over 200,000 Syrians resident in the country 

Muslim Brotherhood uprising and Hama Massacre
On 31 January 1973, Assad implemented the new Constitution which led to a national crisis  Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the  president of Syria must be a Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo organized by the Muslim Brotherhood and the ulama  They labeled Assad as the "enemy of Allah" and called for a jihad against his rule  Robert D  Kaplan has compared Assad's coming to power to "an untouchable becoming maharajah in India or a Jew becoming tsar in Russia—an unprecedented development shocking to the Sunni majority population which had monopolized power for so many centuries " The authoritarian government was not without its critics, a serious challenge arose in the late 1970s from fundamentalist Sunni Muslims, who reject the basic values of the secular Ba'ath program and object to rule by the Alawis whom they consider heretical  From 1976 until its suppression in 1982, the arch-conservative Muslim Brotherhood led an armed insurgency against the government  In response to an attempted uprising by the brotherhood in February 1982, the government crushed the fundamentalist opposition centered in the city of Hama, leveling parts of the city with artillery fire and causing many thousands of dead and wounded  During the rest of Hafez al-Assad's reign, public manifestations of anti-government activity were very limited 

During Gulf War
Syria's 1990 participation in the U S -led multinational coalition aligned against Saddam Hussein marked a dramatic watershed in Syria's relations both with other Arab states and with the Western world  Syria participated in the multilateral Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in October 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in direct, face-to-face negotiations with Israel  These negotiations failed, and there have been no further Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafiz al-Assad's meeting with President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000 

Internal power struggle
In what has become known as the 1999 Latakia incident, violent protests and armed clashes erupted following the 1998 People's Assembly's Elections  The violent events were an explosion of a long-running feud between Hafez al-Assad and his younger brother Rifaat, who previously attempted to initiate a coup against Hafez in 1984, but was eventually expelled from Syria  Two people were killed in fire exchanges of Syrian police and Rifaat's supporters during police crack-down on Rifaat's port compound in Latakia  According to opposition sources, denied by the government, the clashes in Latakia resulted in hundreds of dead and injured 

Drought in Syria
From 2006 to 2010, Syria experienced its worst drought in modern history  The drought resulted in a mass migration from the Syrian countryside into urban centers, which notably strained existing infrastructure already burdened by the influx of some 1 5 million refugees from Iraq  The drought itself has been linked to human caused global climate change  It has also been directly linked as a contributing factor to the socieoeconomic conditions that led to initial protests and uprising  Adequate water supply continues to be an issue in the ongoing civil war and the supply is frequently the target of military action 

Under Bashar al-Assad, 2000–present
The Damascus Autumn
Hafiz al-Assad died on 10 June 2000, after 30 years in power  Immediately following al-Assad's death, the Parliament amended the constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President from 40 to 34, which allowed his son, Bashar al-Assad, to become legally eligible for nomination by the ruling Ba'ath party  On 10 July 2000, Bashar al-Assad was elected president by referendum in which he ran unopposed, garnering 97 29% of the vote, according to Syrian government statistics Bashar, who speaks French and English and has a British-born wife, was said to have "inspired hopes" for reform, and a "Damascus Spring" of intense political and social debate took place from July 2000 to August 2001  The period was characterized by the emergence of numerous political forums or salons where groups of like minded people met in private houses to debate political and social issues  The phenomenon of salons spread rapidly in Damascus and to a lesser extent in other cities  Political activists, such as, Riad Seif, Haitham al-Maleh, Kamal al-Labwani, Riyad al-Turk, and Aref Dalila were important in mobilizing the movement  The most famous of the forums were the Riad Seif Forum and the Jamal al-Atassi Forum  The Damascus Spring ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of ten leading activists who had called for democratic elections and a campaign of civil disobedience 

International and internal tensions
On 5 October 2003, Israel bombed a site near Damascus, claiming it was a terrorist training facility for members of Islamic Jihad  Islamic Jihad said the camp was not in use; Syria said the attack was on a civilian area  The Israeli action was condemned by European governments  The German Chancellor said it "cannot be accepted" and the French Foreign Ministry said "The Israeli operation… constituted an unacceptable violation of international law and sovereignty rules " The Spanish UN Ambassador Inocencio Arias called it an attack of "extreme gravity" and "a clear violation of international law "The United States Congress passed the Syria Accountability Act in December 2003, with the goal of ending what the U S  sees as Syrian involvement in Lebanon, Iraq, terrorism, and weapons of mass destruction through international sanctions 
Ethnic tensions increased in Syria, following an incident in a football stadium in Al Qamishli, 30 people were killed and more than 160 were injured in days of clashes starting from 12 March  Kurdish sources indicated that Syrian security forces used live ammunition against civilians after clashes broke out at a football match between Kurdish fans of the local team and Arab supporters of a visiting team from the city of Deir al-Zor  The international press reported that nine people were killed on 12 March  According to Amnesty International hundreds of people, mostly Kurds, were arrested after the riots  Kurdish detainees were reportedly tortured and ill-treated  Some Kurdish students were expelled from their universities, reportedly for participating in peaceful protests In June 2005, thousands of Kurds demonstrated in Qamishli to protest the assassination of Sheikh Khaznawi, a Kurdish cleric in Syria, resulting in the death of one policeman and injury to four Kurds Renewed opposition activity occurred in October 2005 when activist Michel Kilo launched with leading opposition figures the Damascus Declaration, which criticized the Syrian government as "authoritarian, totalitarian and cliquish" and called for democratic reform On 6 September 2007 a Syrian facility was bombed in the Deir ez-Zor region  While no one claimed responsibility for this act, Syria accused Israel, which in turn declared that the indicated site was a nuclear facility with a military purpose  Syria denied the claim 
On 26 October 2008 helicopter-borne CIA paramilitary officers and United States Special Operations Forces carried out a raid to the Syrian territory from Iraq The Syrian government called the event a "criminal and terrorist" attack on its sovereignty, alleging all of the reported eight fatalities were civilians  An unnamed U S  military source, however, alleged that the target was a network of foreign fighters who travel through Syria to join the Iraqi insurgency against the United States-led Coalition in Iraq and the Iraqi government 

Syrian civil war
The Syrian civil war is an ongoing internal violent conflict in Syria  It is a part of the wider Arab Spring, a wave of upheaval throughout the Arab World  Public demonstrations across Syria began on 26 January 2011 and developed into a nationwide uprising  Protesters demanded the resignation of President Bashar al-Assad, the overthrow of his government, and an end to nearly five decades of Ba’ath Party rule 
Since spring 2011, the Syrian government deployed the Syrian Army to quell the uprising, and several cities were besieged, though the unrest continued  According to some witnesses, soldiers, who refused to open fire on civilians, were summarily executed by the Syrian Army  The Syrian government denied reports of defections, and blamed armed gangs for causing trouble  Since early autumn 2011, civilians and army defectors began forming fighting units, which began an insurgency campaign against the Syrian Army  The insurgents unified under the banner of the Free Syrian Army and fought in an increasingly organized fashion; however, the civilian component of the armed opposition lacked an organized leadership 
The uprising has sectarian undertones, though neither faction in the conflict has described sectarianism as playing a major role  The opposition is dominated by Sunni Muslims, whereas the leading government figures are Alawites, affiliated with the Shia Islam  As a result, the opposition is winning support from the Sunni Muslim states, whereas the government is publicly supported by the Shia dominated Iran and the Lebanese Hizbullah 
According to various sources, including the United Nations, up to 13,470–19,220 people have been killed, of which about half were civilians, but also including 6,035–6,570 armed combatants from both sides and up to 1,400 opposition protesters  Many more have been injured, and tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned  According to the Syrian government, 9,815–10,146 people, including 3,430 members of the security forces, 2,805–3,140 insurgents and up to 3,600 civilians, have been killed in fighting with what they characterize as "armed terrorist groups " To escape the violence, tens of thousands of Syrian refugees have fled the country to neighboring Jordan, Iraq and  Lebanon, as well to Turkey  The total official UN numbers of Syrian refugees reached 42,000 at the time, while unofficial number stood at as many as 130,000 
UNICEF reported that over 500 children have been killed, Another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons  Both claims have been contested by the Syrian government  Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners have died under torture  Human Rights Watch accused the government and Shabiha of using civilians as human shields when they advanced on opposition held-areas  Anti-government rebels have been accused of human rights abuses as well, including torture, kidnapping, unlawful detention and execution of civilians, Shabiha and soldiers  HRW also expressed concern at the kidnapping of Iranian nationals  The UN Commission of Inquiry has also documented abuses of this nature in its February 2012 report, which also includes documentation that indicates rebel forces have been responsible for displacement of civilians The Arab League, US, EU states, GCC states, and other countries have condemned the use of violence against the protesters  China and Russia have avoided condemning the government or applying sanctions, saying that such methods could escalate into foreign intervention  However, military intervention has been ruled out by most countries  The Arab League suspended Syria's membership over the government's response to the crisis, but sent an observer mission in December 2011, as part of its proposal for peaceful resolution of the crisis  The latest attempts to resolve the crisis has been made through the appointment of Kofi Annan, as a special envoy to resolve the Syrian crisis in the Middle East  Some analysts however have posited the partitioning the region into a Sunnite east, Kurdish north and Shiite/Alawite west 

See also
Politics of Syria
Foreign relations of Syria
Passage 4:
Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom
The Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom (traditional Chinese: 甘州回鶻; simplified Chinese: 甘州回鹘; pinyin: Gānzhōu Huíhú), also referred to as the Hexi Uyghurs, was established in 894 around Ganzhou in modern Zhangye  The kingdom lasted from 894 to 1036; during that time, many of Ganzhou's residents converted to Buddhism The Hexi Corridor, located within modern Gansu, was traditionally a Chinese inroad into Central Asia  From the 9th to 11th centuries this area was shared between the Ganzhou Uyghurs and the Guiyi Circuit  By the early 11th century both the Uyghurs and Guiyi Circuit were conquered by the Tangut people of the Western Xia dynasty The Ganzhou Uyghur rulers were descended from the House of Yaglakar 

History
There was a pre-existing community of Uyghurs at Ganzhou by 840 at the very latest In 874, remnant forces of the Tibetan Empire known as the Wenmo, Han Chinese slave soldiers under the Tibetan Empire, in Ganzhou drove out the Uyghurs Around the years 881 and 882, Ganzhou slipped from the control of the Guiyi Circuit 
In 894 the Uyghurs led by Pangteqin (Huaijian Khagan) established the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom in Ganzhou In 902 the Ganzhou Uyghurs sent military aid to Emperor Zhaozong of Tang In 910 the Ganzhou Uyghurs attacked the Kingdom of Jinshan (Guiyi) 
In 911 the Ganzhou Uyghurs attacked the Kingdom of Jinshan and forced them into an alliance as a lesser partner In 916 a Ganzhou Uyghur princess was married to Cao Yijin, governor of the Guiyi Circuit 
In 920 Huaijian Khagan became sickly 
In 924 Huaijian Khagan died and his sons Diyin and Renmei fought over the throne with Diyin coming out on top  They received a royal appointment from the Later Tang dynasty  The Khitans of the Liao dynasty offered to let the Ganzhou Uyghurs return to their former homeland on the Orkhon but they refused the offer In 925 Cao Yijin led an attack on the Ganzhou Uyghurs and defeated them 
In 926 Diyin died and Aduoyu succeeded him as Shunhua Khagan  Shunhua Khagan married Cao Yijin's daughter 
In 930 Cao Yijin visited the Ganzhou Uyghur court in Ganzhou 
In 933 Shunhua Khagan died and Jingqiong succeeded him 
In 961 the Ganzhou Uyghurs accepted the Song dynasty as suzerains In 975 Jingqiong died and Yeluohe Mili'e succeeded him 
In 983 Jingqiong died and Lusheng succeeded him 
In 1003 Lusheng died and Zhongshun Baode Khagan succeeded him  The Tanguts attacked the Ganzhou Uyghurs but were defeated In 1008 the Ganzhou Uyghurs and Tanguts engaged in combat and the Uyghurs emerged victorious  The Liao dynasty attacked the Ganzhou Uyghurs and defeated them In 1009 the Ganzhou Uyghurs captured Liangzhou 
In 1010 the Liao dynasty attacked the Ganzhou Uyghurs and defeated them In 1016 Zhongshun Baode Khagan died and Huaining Shunhua Khagan succeeded him 
In 1023 Huaining Shunhua Khagan died and Guizhong Baoshun Khagan succeeded him 
In 1026 the Ganzhou Uyghurs were defeated in battle by the Liao dynasty In 1028 the Ganhzhou Uyghurs were defeated by the Tanguts  Guizhong Baoshun Khagan died and Baoguo Khagan succeeded him 
In 1036 the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom was annexed by the Tanguts  After the destruction of their realm, the Ganzhou Uyghurs migrated and settled in Dunhuang (Shazhou) and Guazhou  The Guazhou Uyghurs surrendered to the Tanguts in 1030 and Shazhou surrendered in 1036  A record of a Huolasan Khan ruling in Shazhou in 1127 shows that the Uyghurs there retained some amount of autonomy in Western Xia  Another group that settled between Dunhuang and the Qaidam Basin came to be known as the Yellow Head Uyghurs  They practiced Buddhism and lived as pastoral nomads  In the 13th century they were called the Sali Uyghurs  Their descendants are today known as the Yugurs 

Religion
The Uyghurs of Ganzhou originally practiced Manichaeanism as their state religion but abandoned it for Buddhism at the end of the 10th century due to pressure from the Tanguts  Like the Tanguts, they sent Buddhist pilgrimages to Mount Wutai, but the real reason for the expeditions may have been to spy on the Liao dynasty  According to Hong Hao, a Song dynasty diplomat on his way to the Jurchen Jin dynasty, the Uyghurs of the Hexi Corridor still practiced Buddhism:

The Uighur believe mostly in Buddhism  They place the (Buddhist) sculptures in the hall  At each sacrifice, they must slaughter a lamb  Some drink alcohol merrily  Then they dip their finger into the blood of the lamb and dye the mouth of the Buddha with blood  Some hold the foot of the Buddha screaming, which was meant to show intimacy and respect for the Buddha  When chanting the Scripture, they wore Kasaya (the monk’s robe) and used the Indian language 

Modern era
The modern day descendants of the Ganzhou Uyghurs are known as the Yugur 

See also
Yugur
Turkic peoples
Timeline of the Turkic peoples (500–1300) 
Uyghur Khaganate
Qocho
Passage 5:
Omukama of Toro
The Omukama of Tooro is the name given to the king of Tooro, one of the East African kingdom of Tooro  The kingdom was founded in 1830 by Omukama Kaboyo Olimi l who was the son of Kyebambe lll Nyamutukura, the king of Bunyoro  Since that time, Tooro existed as an independent kingdom until 1967 when President Apollo Milton Obote banned all kingdoms in Uganda  The kingdoms were reinstated as cultural institutions in 1993 
The Omukama of Tooro and the other kings play a vital role in Ugandan politics as cultural leaders and agents of peace and stability in their respective kingdoms  Tooro and Bunyoro kingdoms enjoy a close relationship 

List of Abakama (Kings) of Tooro
The following is a list of the Abakama of Tooro, starting around 1800 AD:
Kaboyo Olimi I, (Kasunsu Nkwanzi) c  1830 - 1861
Kazaana Ruhaga l, c 1861- 1862
Nyaika Kasunga Kyebambe I, c  1862-1863 and c  1864 - 1874
Kato Rukidi I, 1863-64
Mukabirere Olimi II, c  1874 -1876
Mukarusa Kyebambe II, c  1876 - 1877
Isingoma Rukidi ll, c  1877
Rubuubi Kyebambe lll c  1878 and 1879
Kakende Nyamuyonjo c  1878 and 1881 - 1882
Katera Rujwenge, c 1878–1879 a period of Interregnum, 1880–1891; reverted to Bunyoro
Daudi Kasagama Kyebambe IV, 1891–1928
George David Kamurasi Rukidi III, 1929–1965
Patrick David Matthew Kaboyo Olimi III, 1966–1995 interrupted by the discontinuation by the Ugandan government, 1967–1993
Oyo Nyimba Kabamba Iguru Rukidi IV, 1995–present

See also
Omukama of Bunyoro
Kabaka of Buganda
Toro Kingdom
Passage 6:
Omukama of Bunyoro
Omukama wa Bunyoro  Translates to The King of Bunyoro is the title given to rulers of the East African kingdom of Bunyoro-Kitara   The kingdom lasted as an independent state from the 16th to the 19th century  The Omukama of Bunyoro remains an important figure in Ugandan politics, especially among the Banyoro people of whom he is the titular head  He is closely related to the Omukama of Toro Kingdom 
The Royal Palace, called Ekikaali Karuziika, (Karuziika Palace) is located in Hoima  The current Omukama is Rukirabasaija Solomon Iguru I Gafabusa Amooti and his wife is Omugo (the Queen) Margaret Karunga Adyeri  As a cultural head, the King is assisted by his Principal Private Secretary, a Cabinet of 21 Ministers and  Orukurato (a Parliament) 

Constitutional recognition
In 1962, the United Kingdom granted independence to Uganda  In February 1966, Prime Minister Milton Obote suspended the constitution and seized power, abolishing all of the traditional kingdoms—including Bunyoro—in 1967  The Omukama (King) of Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom was reinstated by Statute No  8 of 1993, enacted by the Parliament of Uganda after the monarchy had been abolished for many years  Unlike the pre-1967 Omukama, who was both titular head and a political figure of the government of Bunyoro, the Omukama today is a cultural leader above partisan politics, although the king remains the titular head of the Bunyoro regional government Article 246 of the 1995 Ugandan constitution provides:

Etymology of Omukama
Omukama means ‘the milker’, as the leader of the kingdom provides his citizens with food and wealth  The word comes from Runyoro-Rutooro omu- (singular human-being class prefix) and -kama ‘to milk’, which ultimately comes from Proto-Bantu kám ‘squeeze, wring’ 
In modern Runyoro-Rutooro, however, dropping the initial vowel of this word (mukama ‘boss, sir’) changes its meaning considerably 

History of the Omukama of Bunyoro-Kitara dynasties
Babiito dynasty
The Bachwezi dynasty was followed by the Babiito dynasty of the current Omukama of Bunyoro-Kitara  Any attempt to pinpoint the dates of this, or any other dynasty before it, is pure conjecture; as there were no written records at the time  Modern day historians place the beginning of the Babiito dynasty at around the time of the invasion of Bunyoro by the Luo from the North  The first mubiito (singular) king was Isingoma Mpuga Rukidi I, whose reign is placed around the 14th century  To date, there have been a total of 27 Babiito kings of Bunyoro-Kitara 
Source: The official Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom website

List of Omukamas of the Babiito dynasty
Rukidi of Bunyoro, late fifteenth century
Ocaki of Bunyoro, late fifteenth/early sixteenth century
Oyo Nyiba of Bunyoro, early sixteenth century
Winyi I of Bunyoro, early sixteenth century
Olimi I of Bunyoro, mid sixteenth century
Nyabongo of Bunyoro, mid sixteenth century
Winyi II of Bunyoro, late sixteenth century/early seventeenth century
Olimi II of Bunyoro, mid seventeenth century
Nyarwa of Bunyoro, mid seventeenth century
Cwamali of Bunyoro, mid seventeenth century
Masamba of Bunyoro, late seventeenth century
Anabwani I of Bunyoro, late seventeenth century
Kyebambe I of Bunyoro, late seventeenth century
Winyi III of Bunyoro, early eighteenth century
Nyaika of Bunyoro, early eighteenth century
Kyebambe II of Bunyoro, early eighteenth century
Olimi III of Bunyoro, c  1710–1731
Duhaga of Bunyoro, 1731–c  1782
Olimi IV of Bunyoro, c  1782–1786
Nyamutukura Kyebambe III of Bunyoro, 1786–1835
Nyabongo II of Bunyoro, 1835–1848
Olimi V of Bunyoro, 1848–1852
Kyebambe IV of Bunyoro, 1852–1869
Kabalega of Bunyoro, 1869–1898
Kitahimbwa of Bunyoro, 1898–1902
Duhaga II of Bunyoro, 1902–1924
Winyi IV of Bunyoro, 1925–1967
Monarchy discontinued by the Ugandan government, 1967–1994
Solomon Iguru I, 1994–present
Passage 7:
Syrian National Congress
The Syrian National Congress, also called the Pan-Syrian Congress and General Syrian Congress (GSC), was convened in May 1919 in Damascus, Syria, after the expulsion of the Ottomans from Syria  The mission of the Congress was to consider the future of "Syria", by which was meant Greater Syria: present-day Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, and Jordan  The Congress also intended to present Arab views to the American King-Crane Commission of inquiry  The Congress was considered the first national parliament in the modern history of Syria 
The Congress was attended by representatives from all parts of Greater Syria, including Lebanon and Palestine, and was headed by Hashim al-Atassi  Some participants showed support for King Faisal's demands, while others were beginning to question his willingness to make concessions to pro-Zionist groups  In its final report it pleaded that "there be no separation of the southern part of Syria, known as Palestine, nor of the littoral western zone, which includes Lebanon, from the Syrian country " The King-Crane Commission recommended "the unity of Syria be preserved" in response The  Congress declared an independent Arab Kingdom of Syria on March 8, 1920, proclaiming:
The full and absolute independence of our country Syria, including Palestine, within her natural boundaries, based on a civil, representative form of government, protection of the rights of minorities, and rejection of the claims of the Zionists to Palestine as a national homeland or place of immigration for the Jews 
The new state intended to included Syria, Palestine, Lebanon and portions of northern Mesopotamia  King Faisal was declared the head of state  At the same time Prince Zeid, Faisal's brother, was declared regent of Mesopotamia  Hashim al-Atassi was named Prime Minister and Yusuf al-'Azma became Minister of War and Chief of Staff 
The Congress continued during the short-lived life of the Kingdom until July 17, 1920, when the French gave Faisal an ultimatum to surrender or fight, and Faisal surrendered, bringing to an end the Kingdom and dissolving its institutions 

Gallery
See also
Elizabeth F  Thompson (2020)  How the west stole democracy from the Arabs: The Syrian Arab Congress of 1920 and the Destruction of its Historic Liberal-Islamic Alliance  Grove Atlantic  ISBN 978-0-8021-4820-9  OL 29824859M  Wikidata Q108862853 
Passage 8:
Herodian dynasty
The Herodian dynasty was a royal dynasty of Idumaean (Edomite) descent, ruling the Herodian Kingdom of Judea and later the Herodian Tetrarchy as a vassal state of the Roman Empire  The Herodian dynasty began with Herod the Great, who assumed the throne of Judea, with Roman support, bringing down the century-old Hasmonean Kingdom  His kingdom lasted until his death in 4 BCE, when it was divided among his sons as a tetrarchy, which lasted for about 10 years  Most of those tetrarchies, including Judea proper, were incorporated into Judaea Province from 6 CE, though limited Herodian de facto kingship continued until Agrippa I's death in 44 CE and nominal title of kingship continued until 92 CE, when the last Herodian monarch, Agrippa II, died and Rome assumed full power over his de jure domain 

History
Origin
During the time of the Hasmonean ruler John Hyrcanus (134–104 BCE), Judea conquered Edom (Idumea) and forced the Edomites to convert to Judaism The Edomites were gradually integrated into the Judean nation, and some of them reached high-ranking positions  In the days of Alexander Jannaeus, the Edomite Antipas was appointed governor of Edom  His son Antipater, father of Herod the Great, was the chief adviser to Hasmonean Hyrcanus II and managed to establish a good relationship with the Roman Republic, who at that time (63 BCE) extended their influence over the region, following conquest of Syria and intervention in a civil war in Judea 
There are differing genealogies for the dynasty, depending on the source  According to Sextus Julius Africanus, Antipater's father was named Herod, and Epiphanius of Salamis writes that this Herod's father was named Antipas  It is Josephus who states that Antipas fathered Antipater, without further delineating his ancestry  This model is usually accepted by scholars 
Julius Caesar appointed Antipater to be procurator of Judea in 47 BCE and he appointed his sons Phasael and Herod to be governors of Jerusalem and Galilee respectively  Antipater was murdered in 43 BCE; however, his sons managed to hold the reins of power and were elevated to the rank of tetrarchs in 41 BCE by Mark Antony 

Rise to power
In 40 BCE, the Parthians invaded the eastern Roman provinces and managed to drive the Romans out of many areas  In Judea, the Hasmonean dynasty was restored under king Antigonus II Mattathias as a pro-Parthian monarch  Herod the Great, the son of Antipater the Idumaean and Cypros (possibly of Nabataean descent), managed to escape to Rome  After convincing the Roman Senate of his sincere intentions in favor of Romans he eventually was announced as king of the Jews by the Roman Senate Despite his announcement as king of the whole of Judea, Herod did not fully conquer it until 37 BCE  He subsequently ruled the Herodian kingdom as a vassal king for 34 years, crushing the opposition while also initiating huge building projects, including the harbor at Caesarea Maritima, the plaza surrounded by retaining walls at the Temple Mount, the Masada and the Herodium, among other fortresses and public works  Herod ruled Judea until 4 BCE; at his death, his kingdom was divided among his three sons as a tetrarchy 

Tetrarchies
Herod Archelaus, son of Herod and Malthace the Samaritan, was given the title of ethnarch and ruled over the main part of the kingdom: Judea proper, Idumea, and Samaria  He ruled for ten years until 6 CE, when he was "banished to Vienna in Gaul, where according to Cassius Dio, "Hist  Roma," lv  27—he lived for the remainder of his days " See also Census of Quirinius 
Philip, sometimes erroneously called Herod Philip II, was the son of Herod and his fifth wife Cleopatra of Jerusalem  He was given the title of tetrarch with jurisdiction over the northeast part of his father's kingdom: Iturea, Trachonitis, Batanaea, Gaulanitis, Auranitis, and Paneas  He ruled until his death in 34 CE 
Herod Antipas, another son of Herod and Malthace, was made a tetrarch of Galilee and Perea; he ruled there until he was exiled to Spain by emperor Caligula in 39 CE, according to Josephus  Herod Antipas is the person referenced in the Christian New Testament Gospels, playing a role in the death of John the Baptist and the trial of Jesus  The Gospel of Luke states that Jesus was first brought before Pontius Pilate for trial, since Pilate was the governor of Roman Judea, which encompassed Jerusalem where Jesus was arrested  Pilate initially handed him over to Antipas, in whose territory Jesus had been most active, but Antipas sent him back to Pilate's court 

Last rulers
Herod Agrippa was the grandson of Herod  Thanks to his friendship with Caligula, the emperor appointed him ruler with the title of king over the territories of Philip in 37 CE, which were after Philip's death in 34 CE shortly part of the Roman province of Syria, and in 40 CE he was given the territories of Herod Antipas  In 41 CE, Emperor Claudius added to his territory the parts of Judea province that previously belonged to Herod Archelaus  Thus Agrippa I practically re-united his grandfather's kingdom under his rule  Agrippa died in 44 CE 
Agrippa's son Herod Agrippa II was appointed a tetrarch of Chalcis and later king of the territories previously ruled by Philip  He actively participated in the quelling of the Great Revolt of Judea on the Roman side  Agrippa II was the last of the Herodians; with his death in c  92 or 100 CE the dynasty was extinct, and the kingdom became fully incorporated into the Roman province of Judaea 
In addition, Herod of Chalcis ruled as king of Chalcis, and his son, Aristobulus of Chalcis, was tetrarch of Chalcis and king of Armenia Minor 

List of Herodian rulers (47 BCE – 100 CE)
Antipater the Idumaean (Procurator of Judaea) 47–44 BCE
Herod the Great
Governor of Galilee 47–44 BCE
Tetrarch of Galilee 44–40 BCE
Elected king of all Judaea by the Roman Senate 40 BCE, reigned 37–4 BCE
Phasael (Governor of Jerusalem) 47–40 BCE
Pheroras (Governor of Perea) 20–5 BCE
Herod Archelaus (Ethnarch of Judaea) 4 BCE – 6 CE
Herod Antipas (Tetrarch of Galilee) 4 BCE – 39 CE
Philip the Tetrarch (Tetrarch of Batanaea) 4 BCE – 34 CE
Salome I (Tetrach of Jabneh) 4 BCE – 10 CE
Tigranes V of Armenia (King of Armenia) 6–12 CE
Herod Agrippa
King of Batanaea 37–41 CE
King of Galilee 40–41 CE
King of all Judaea 41–44 CE, previously Judaea (Roman province), given to him by Claudius, and reinstated as a province after his death 
Herod of Chalcis (King of Chalcis) 41–48 CE
Herod Agrippa II
Tetrarch of Chalcis 48–53 CE
King of Batanaea 53–100 CE
Aristobulus of Chalcis
King of Armenia Minor 55–72 CE
Tetrarch of Chalcis 57–92 CE
Tigranes VI of Armenia (King of Armenia) 58–61 CE
Gaius Julius Alexander (King of Cetis) 58–72 CE

Herodian dynasty in later culture
Literature
Novels
Hordos u-Miryam (1935), a Hebrew novel by Aaron Orinowsky
Mariamne (1967), a Swedish novel by Pär Lagerkvist
Claudius the God (1934), an English novel by Robert Graves, features Herod Agrippa I as an important character

Plays
Herod appears in some cycles of the Mystery Plays, played as an over the top villain   Such portrayals were still in folk memory in William Shakespeare's time, for Hamlet instructs the players not to "out-Herod Herod" (Act 3, Scene 2) 
Marianna (1565), an Italian drama by Lodovico Dolce
Mariam, the Faire Queene of Jewry (1613) an English drama by Elizabeth Tanfield Cary
Herod and Antipater, with the Death of Faire Mariam (1622), an English drama by Gervase Markham and William Sampson
Mariamne (1636), a French drama by François Tristan l'Hermite
La mort des enfants d’Hérode; ou, Suite de Mariamne (1639), a French drama by Gathier de Costes de la Calprenède
Herod and Mariamne (1673), an English drama by Samuel Pordage
La Mariamne (1696), an Italian opera by Giovanni Maria Ruggeri (mus ) and Lorenzo Burlini (libr )
Mariamne (1723), a French drama by Elijah Fenton
Herod features in two 18th century French plays on Mariamne, by Nadal and Voltaire 
Herodes und Mariamne (1850), a German drama by Christian Friedrich Hebbel
Myriam ha-Hashmonayith (1891), a Yiddish drama by Moses Seiffert
Tsar Irod I tsaritsa Mariamna (1893), a Russian drama by Dmitri Alexandrov
Herod and Mariamne (1938), an English drama by Clemence Dane

Poetry
Herod and Mariamne (1888), an English poem by Amelie Rives
Mariamne (1911), an English poem by Thomas Sturge Moore

Movies
The King of Kings (1927) by Cecil B  DeMille
Salome (1953) by William Dieterie
King of Kings (1961) by Nicholas Ray
The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965) by George Stevens, David Lean, Jean Nugelesco
Herod the Great (1959) (Italy) by Victor Tourjansky

Figurative arts
Painting
Mariamne Leaving the Judgment Seat of Herod (1887), a painting by John William Waterhouse

Performing arts
Music
Herod’s Lament for Mariamne (1815), an English song by Isaac Nathan (mus ) and George Byron (libr )
Herodes und Mariamne (1922), incidental music by Karol Rathaus
Lied der Mariamne (ohne Worte) (1927), incidental music by Mikhail Gnesin

Ballet
La Marianna (1785), an Italian ballet by Giuseppe Banti (chor )

Opera
Marianne (1796), opera in French with music by Nicolas Dalayrac and a libretto of Benoît-Joseph Marsollier
Hérodiade (1881), opera in French by Jules Massenet after Gustave Flaubert's play Hérodias (1877)
Salome (1905), opera in German by Richard Strauss after Oscar Wilde's play's Salome

Family tree of the Herodian dynasty
See also
Hasmonean dynasty
History of ancient Israel and Judah#Roman occupation
Herod's Temple
Herodian coinage
Herodian kingdom
Kings of Israel and Judah
Kings of Judah
List of High Priests of Israel
Promagistrate
Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC)



ground_truth: French

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What was the nationality and profession of the person responsible for the concept of a dimensionless number in physics and engineering?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: 
Digital instruments exist that directly measure the time lag between voltage and current waveforms  Low-cost instruments of this type measure the peak of the waveforms  More sophisticated versions measure the peak of the fundamental harmonic only, thus giving a more accurate reading for phase angle on distorted waveforms  Calculating power factor from voltage and current phases is only accurate if both waveforms are sinusoidal Power Quality Analyzers, often referred to as Power Analyzers, make a digital recording of the voltage and current waveform (typically either one phase or three phase) and accurately calculate true power (watts), apparent power (VA) power factor, AC voltage, AC current, DC voltage, DC current, frequency, IEC61000-3-2/3-12 Harmonic measurement, IEC61000-3-3/3-11 flicker measurement, individual phase voltages in delta applications where there is no neutral line, total harmonic distortion, phase and amplitude of individual voltage or current harmonics, etc 

Mnemonics
English-language power engineering students are advised to remember:
ELI the ICE man or ELI on ICE – the voltage E, leads the current I, in an inductor L  The current I leads the voltage E in a capacitor C 
Another common mnemonic is CIVIL – in a capacitor (C) the current (I) leads voltage (V), voltage (V) leads current (I) in an inductor (L) 
Passage 2:
Womersley number
The Womersley number (
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
   or 
  
    
      
        
          Wo
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\text{Wo}}}
  ) is a dimensionless number in biofluid mechanics and biofluid dynamics  It is a dimensionless expression of the pulsatile flow frequency in relation to viscous effects  It is named after John R  Womersley (1907–1958) for his work with blood flow in arteries  The Womersley number is important in keeping dynamic similarity when scaling an experiment  An example of this is scaling up the vascular system for experimental study  The Womersley number is also important in determining the thickness of the boundary layer to see if entrance effects can be ignored 
The square root of this number is also referred to as Stokes number, 
  
    
      
        
          Stk
        
        =
        
          
            Wo
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\text{Stk}}={\sqrt {\text{Wo}}}}
  , due to the pioneering work done by Sir George Stokes on the Stokes second problem 

Derivation
The Womersley number, usually denoted 
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
  , is defined by the relation

where 
  
    
      
        L
      
    
    {\displaystyle L}
   is an appropriate length scale (for example the radius of a pipe), 
  
    
      
        ω
      
    
    {\displaystyle \omega }
   is the angular frequency of the oscillations, and 
  
    
      
        ν
      
    
    {\displaystyle \nu }
  , 
  
    
      
        ρ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \rho }
  , 
  
    
      
        μ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mu }
   are the kinematic viscosity, density, and dynamic viscosity of the fluid, respectively  The Womersley number is normally written in the powerless form

In the cardiovascular system, the pulsation frequency, density, and dynamic viscosity are constant, however the Characteristic length, which in the case of blood flow is the vessel diameter, changes by three orders of magnitudes (OoM) between the aorta and fine capillaries  The Womersley number thus changes due to the variations in vessel size across the vasculature system  The Womersley number of human blood flow can be estimated as follows:

  
    
      
        α
        =
        L
        
          
            (
            
              
                
                  ω
                  ρ
                
                μ
              
            
            )
          
          
            
              1
              2
            
          
        
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha =L\left({\frac {\omega \rho }{\mu }}\right)^{\frac {1}{2}}\, }
  
Below is a list of estimated Womersley numbers in different human blood vessels:

It can also be written in terms of the dimensionless Reynolds number (Re) and Strouhal number (St):

The Womersley number arises in the solution of the linearized Navier–Stokes equations for oscillatory flow (presumed to be laminar and incompressible) in a tube   It expresses the ratio of the transient or oscillatory inertia force to the shear force  When 
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
   is small (1 or less), it means the frequency of pulsations is sufficiently low that a parabolic velocity profile has time to develop during each cycle, and the flow will be very nearly in phase with the pressure gradient, and will be given to a good approximation by Poiseuille's law, using the instantaneous pressure gradient   When 
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
   is large (10 or more), it means the frequency of pulsations is sufficiently large that the velocity profile is relatively flat or plug-like, and the mean flow lags the pressure gradient by about 90 degrees  Along with the Reynolds number, the Womersley number governs dynamic similarity The boundary layer thickness 
  
    
      
        δ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta }
   that is associated with the transient acceleration is inversely related to the Womersley number  This can be seen by recognizing the Womersley number as the square root of the Stokes number 
where 
  
    
      
        L
      
    
    {\displaystyle L}
   is a characteristic length 

Biofluid mechanics
In a flow distribution network that progresses from a large tube to many small tubes (e g  a blood vessel network), the frequency, density, and dynamic viscosity are (usually) the same throughout the network, but the tube radii change  Therefore, the Womersley number is large in large vessels and small in small vessels  As the vessel diameter decreases with each division the Womersley number soon becomes quite small  The Womersley numbers tend to 1 at the level of the terminal arteries  In the arterioles, capillaries, and venules the Womersley numbers are less than one  In these regions the inertia force becomes less important and the flow is determined by the balance of viscous stresses and the pressure gradient  This is called microcirculation Some typical values for the Womersley number in the cardiovascular system for a canine at a heart rate of 2 Hz are:
Ascending aorta – 13 2
Descending aorta – 11 5
Abdominal aorta – 8
Femoral artery – 3 5
Carotid artery – 4 4
Arterioles – 0 04
Capillaries – 0 005
Venules – 0 035
Inferior vena cava – 8 8
Main pulmonary artery – 15It has been argued that universal biological scaling laws (power-law relationships that describe variation of quantities such as metabolic rate, lifespan, length, etc , with body mass) are a consequence of the need for energy minimization, the fractal nature of vascular networks, and the crossover from high to low Womersley number flow as one progresses from large to small vessels 
Passage 3:
Weissenberg number
The Weissenberg number (Wi) is a dimensionless number used in the study of viscoelastic flows  It is named after Karl Weissenberg  The dimensionless number compares the elastic forces to the viscous forces  It can be variously defined, but it is usually given by the relation of stress relaxation time of the fluid and a specific process time  For instance, in simple steady shear, the Weissenberg number, often abbreviated as Wi or We, is defined as the shear rate 
  
    
      
        
          
            
              γ
              ˙
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\dot {\gamma }}}
   times the relaxation time 
  
    
      
        λ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \lambda }
    Using the Maxwell model and the Oldroyd-B model, the elastic forces can be written as the first Normal force (N1) 

  
    
      
        
          Wi
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                elastic forces
              
              
                viscous forces
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                τ
                
                  x
                  x
                
              
              −
              
                τ
                
                  y
                  y
                
              
            
            
              τ
              
                x
                y
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              2
              λ
              μ
              
                
                  
                    
                      γ
                      ˙
                    
                  
                
                
                  2
                
              
            
            
              μ
              
                
                  
                    γ
                    ˙
                  
                
              
            
          
        
        =
        2
        
          
            
              γ
              ˙
            
          
        
        λ
         
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\text{Wi}}={\dfrac {\mbox{elastic forces}}{\mbox{viscous forces}}}={\frac {\tau _{xx}-\tau _{yy}}{\tau _{xy}}}={\frac {2\lambda \mu {\dot {\gamma }}^{2}}{\mu {\dot {\gamma }}}}=2{\dot {\gamma }}\lambda  \,}
  Since this number is obtained from scaling the evolution of the stress, it contains choices for the shear or elongation rate, and the length-scale  Therefore the exact definition of all non dimensional numbers should be given as well as the number itself 
While Wi is similar to the Deborah number and is often confused with it in technical literature, they have different physical interpretations  The Weissenberg number indicates the degree of anisotropy or orientation generated by the deformation, and is appropriate to describe flows with a constant stretch history, such as simple shear  In contrast, the Deborah number should be used to describe flows with a non-constant stretch history, and physically represents the rate at which elastic energy is stored or released 
Passage 4:
Ericksen number
In the study of liquid crystals, the Ericksen number (Er) is a dimensionless number used to describe the deformation of the director field under flow  It is defined as the ratio of the viscous to elastic forces  In the limit of low Ericksen number the elastic forces will exceed the viscous forces and so the director field will not be strongly affected by the flow field  The Ericksen number is named after American mathematics professor Jerald Ericksen of the University of Minnesota   The number is defined:

  
    
      
        
          
            E
            r
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              μ
              v
              L
            
            K
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mathit {Er}}={\frac {\mu vL}{K}}}
  where

  
    
      
        μ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mu }
   is the fluid's dynamic viscosity,

  
    
      
        v
      
    
    {\displaystyle v}
   is a characteristic scale for the fluid's velocity,

  
    
      
        L
      
    
    {\displaystyle L}
   is a characteristic scale length for the fluid flow,

  
    
      
        K
      
    
    {\displaystyle K}
   is an elasticity force, for example the elasticity modulus times an area 
Passage 5:
Qualified Person for Pharmacovigilance
In the European Union, the Qualified Person Responsible For Pharmacovigilance (QPPV) is an individual, usually an employee of a pharmaceutical company, who is personally responsible for the safety of the human pharmaceutical products marketed by that company in the EU  This function was established in 2004 by article 23 of regulation (EC) No 726/2004  The article establishes that the holder of a marketing authorization for a drug for human use must have a QPPV  When a company submits an application for permission to bring a medicinal product onto the market, the company submits a description of its system for monitoring the safety of the product in actual use (a pharmacovigilance system) and proof that the services of a QPPV are in place "The holder of an authorisation for a medicinal product for human use granted in accordance with the provisions of this Regulation shall have permanently and continuously at his disposal an appropriately qualified person responsible for pharmacovigilance "

Responsibilities
Per Article 23, the QPPV is responsible for:

Establishing and maintaining a pharmacovigilance system
Preparing pharmacovigilance reports as defined by regulations
Answering requests from Health Authorities
Providing Health Authorities with any other information relevant to product safetyThe Good Pharmacovigilance Practices (GVP) provide further guidance regarding these responsibilities of the QPPV (Module I, Section I C 1 3: Role of the qualified person responsible for pharmacovigilance in the EU  Per GVP, the QPPV is responsible for the establishment and maintenance of the marketing authorisation holder's pharmacovigilance system and therefore shall have sufficient authority to influence the performance of the quality system and the pharmacovigilance activities and to promote, maintain and improve compliance with the legal requirements  The QPPV is specifically responsible for:

Establishing and maintaining/managing the pharmaceutical company's pharmacovigilance system
Having an overview of the safety profiles and any emerging safety concerns for the company's drugs
Acting as a single contact point for the Health Authorities on a 24-hour basis

Criteria for QPPV role
The QPPV must reside in the EU, and should be permanently and continuously at the disposal of the MAH  Each company (i e  Applicant/Marketing Authorisation Holder or group of Marketing Authorisation Holders using a common pharmacovigilance system) should appoint one QPPV responsible for overall pharmacovigilance for all medicinal products for which the company holds marketing authorisations within the EU 
Detailed information on the role and responsibilities of the QPPV, and guidance for a Marketing Authorisation Holder on how to adequately support the QPPV are specified in Guideline on good pharmacovigilance practices (GVP; Module I – Pharmacovigilance systems and their quality systems) "   At a minimum the QPPV should be appropriately qualified, with documented experience in all aspects of pharmacovigilance in order to fulfil the responsibilities and tasks of the post  If the QPPV is not medically qualified, access to a medically qualified person should be available 
In addition, there are national regulations in some EU member states that also require a nominated individual in that country who has specific legal obligations as a QPPV at a national level 

See also
Pharmacovigilance
European Medicines Agency
Passage 6:
Joseph Fourier
Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier (; French: [fuʁje]; 21 March 1768 – 16 May 1830) was a French mathematician and physicist born in Auxerre and best known for initiating the investigation of Fourier series, which eventually developed into Fourier analysis and harmonic analysis, and their applications to problems of heat transfer and vibrations  The Fourier transform and Fourier's law of conduction are also named in his honour  Fourier is also generally credited with the discovery of the greenhouse effect 

Biography
Fourier was born in Auxerre (now in the Yonne département of France), the son of a tailor  He was orphaned at the age of nine  Fourier was recommended to the Bishop of Auxerre and, through this introduction, he was educated by the Benedictine Order of the Convent of St  Mark  The commissions in the scientific corps of the army were reserved for those of good birth, and being thus ineligible, he accepted a military lectureship on mathematics  He took a prominent part in his own district in promoting the French Revolution, serving on the local Revolutionary Committee  He was imprisoned briefly during the Terror but, in 1795, was appointed to the École Normale and subsequently succeeded Joseph-Louis Lagrange at the École Polytechnique 
Fourier accompanied Napoleon Bonaparte on his Egyptian expedition in 1798, as scientific adviser, and was appointed secretary of the Institut d'Égypte  Cut off from France by the British fleet, he organized the workshops on which the French army had to rely for their munitions of war  He also contributed several mathematical papers to the Egyptian Institute (also called the Cairo Institute) which Napoleon founded at Cairo, with a view of weakening British influence in the East  After the British victories and the capitulation of the French under General Menou in 1801, Fourier returned to France 

In 1801, Napoleon appointed Fourier Prefect (Governor) of the Department of Isère in Grenoble, where he oversaw road construction and other projects  However, Fourier had previously returned home from the Napoleon expedition to Egypt to resume his academic post as professor at École Polytechnique when Napoleon decided otherwise in his remark

    the Prefect of the Department of Isère having recently died, I would like to express my confidence in citizen Fourier by appointing him to this place 
Hence being faithful to Napoleon, he took the office of Prefect  It was while at Grenoble that he began to experiment on the propagation of heat  He presented his paper On the Propagation of Heat in Solid Bodies to the Paris Institute on 21 December 1807  He also contributed to the monumental Description de l'Égypte In 1822, Fourier succeeded Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre as Permanent Secretary of the French Academy of Sciences  In 1830, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 
Fourier never married In 1830, his diminished health began to take its toll:

Fourier had already experienced, in Egypt and Grenoble, some attacks of aneurysm of the heart  At Paris, it was impossible to be mistaken with respect to the primary cause of the frequent suffocations which he experienced  A fall, however, which he sustained on the 4th of May 1830, while descending a flight of stairs, aggravated the malady to an extent beyond what could have been ever feared 
Shortly after this event, he died in his bed on 16 May 1830 
Fourier was buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, a tomb decorated with an Egyptian motif to reflect his position as secretary of the Cairo Institute, and his collation of Description de l'Égypte  His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower 
A bronze statue was erected in Auxerre in 1849, but it was melted down for armaments during World War II  Joseph Fourier University in Grenoble was named after him 

The Analytic Theory of Heat
In 1822, Fourier published his work on heat flow in Théorie analytique de la chaleur (The Analytical Theory of Heat),  in which he based his reasoning on Newton's law of cooling, namely, that the flow of heat between two adjacent molecules is proportional to the extremely small difference of their temperatures  This book was translated, with editorial 'corrections', into English 56 years later by Freeman (1878)  The book was also edited, with many editorial corrections, by Darboux and republished in French in 1888 There were three important contributions in this work, one purely mathematical, two essentially physical  In mathematics, Fourier claimed that any function of a variable, whether continuous or discontinuous, can be expanded in a series of sines of multiples of the variable  Though this result is not correct without additional conditions, Fourier's observation that some discontinuous functions are the sum of infinite series was a breakthrough  The question of determining when a Fourier series converges has been fundamental for centuries  Joseph-Louis Lagrange had given particular cases of this (false) theorem, and had implied that the method was general, but he had not pursued the subject  Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet  was the first to give a satisfactory demonstration of it with some restrictive conditions  This work provides the foundation for what is today known as the Fourier transform 
One important physical contribution in the book was the concept of dimensional homogeneity in equations; i e  an equation can be formally correct only if the dimensions match on either side of the equality; Fourier made important contributions to dimensional analysis  The other physical contribution was Fourier's proposal of his partial differential equation for conductive diffusion of heat  This equation is now taught to every student of mathematical physics 

Real roots of polynomials
Fourier left an unfinished work on determining and locating real roots of polynomials, which was edited by Claude-Louis Navier and published in 1831  This work contains much original matter—in particular, Fourier's theorem on polynomial real roots, published in 1820  Fourier's theorem on real roots of polynomials states that a polynomial with real coefficients has a real root between any two consecutive zeros of its derivative  François Budan, in 1807 and 1811, had published independently his theorem (also known by the name of Fourier), which is very close to Fourier's theorem (each theorem is a corollary of the other)  Fourier's proof is the one that was usually given, during 19th century, in textbooks on the theory of equations  A complete solution of the problem was given in 1829 by Jacques Charles François Sturm 

Discovery of the greenhouse effect
In the 1820s, Fourier calculated that an object the size of the Earth, and at its distance from the Sun, should be considerably colder than the planet actually is if warmed by only  the effects of incoming solar radiation  He examined various possible sources of the additional observed heat in articles published in 1824 and 1827  However, in the end, because of the large 33-degree difference between his calculations and observations, Fourier mistakenly believed that there is a significant contribution of radiation from interstellar space  Still, Fourier's consideration of the possibility that the Earth's atmosphere might act as an insulator of some kind is widely recognized as the first proposal of what is now known as the greenhouse effect, although Fourier never called it that In his articles, Fourier referred to an experiment by de Saussure, who lined a vase with blackened cork  Into the cork, he inserted several panes of transparent glass, separated by intervals of air  Midday sunlight was allowed to enter at the top of the vase through the glass panes  The temperature became more elevated in the more interior compartments of this device  Fourier concluded that gases in the atmosphere could form a stable barrier like the glass panes  This conclusion may have contributed to the later use of the metaphor of the "greenhouse effect" to refer to the processes that determine atmospheric temperatures  Fourier noted that the actual mechanisms that determine the temperatures of the atmosphere included convection, which was not present in de Saussure's experimental device 

Works
See also
Fourier analysis
Fourier–Deligne transform
Heat equation
Least-squares spectral analysis
List of things named after Joseph Fourier
Passage 7:
Morton number
In fluid dynamics, the Morton number (Mo) is a dimensionless number used together with the Eötvös number or Bond number to characterize the shape of bubbles or drops moving in a surrounding fluid or continuous phase, c 
It is named after Rose Morton, who described it with W  L  Haberman in 1953 

Definition
The Morton number is defined as

  
    
      
        
          M
          o
        
        =
        
          
            
              g
              
                μ
                
                  c
                
                
                  4
                
              
              
              Δ
              ρ
            
            
              
                ρ
                
                  c
                
                
                  2
                
              
              
                σ
                
                  3
                
              
            
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Mo} ={\frac {g\mu _{c}^{4}\,\Delta \rho }{\rho _{c}^{2}\sigma ^{3}}},}
  where g is the acceleration of gravity, 
  
    
      
        
          μ
          
            c
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mu _{c}}
   is the viscosity of the surrounding fluid, 
  
    
      
        
          ρ
          
            c
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \rho _{c}}
   the density of the surrounding fluid, 
  
    
      
        Δ
        ρ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Delta \rho }
   the difference in density of the phases, and 
  
    
      
        σ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \sigma }
   is the surface tension coefficient   For the case of a bubble with a negligible inner density the Morton number can be simplified to 

  
    
      
        
          M
          o
        
        =
        
          
            
              g
              
                μ
                
                  c
                
                
                  4
                
              
            
            
              
                ρ
                
                  c
                
              
              
                σ
                
                  3
                
              
            
          
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Mo} ={\frac {g\mu _{c}^{4}}{\rho _{c}\sigma ^{3}}} }

Relation to other parameters
The Morton number can also be expressed by using a combination of the Weber number, Froude number and Reynolds number,

  
    
      
        
          M
          o
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                W
                e
              
              
                3
              
            
            
              
                
                  F
                  r
                
                
                  2
                
              
              
              
                
                  R
                  e
                
                
                  4
                
              
            
          
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Mo} ={\frac {\mathrm {We} ^{3}}{\mathrm {Fr} ^{2}\,\mathrm {Re} ^{4}}} }
  The Froude number in the above expression is defined as

  
    
      
        
          F
          
            r
            
              2
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              V
              
                2
              
            
            
              g
              d
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Fr^{2}} ={\frac {V^{2}}{gd}}}
  where V is a reference velocity and d is the equivalent diameter of the drop or bubble 
Passage 8:
Kapitza number
The Kapitza number (Ka) is a dimensionless number named after the prominent Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitsa (Peter Kapitza)  He provided the first extensive study of the ways in which a thin film of liquid flows down inclined surfaces  Expressed as the ratio of surface tension forces to inertial forces, the Kapitza number acts as an indicator of the hydrodynamic wave regime in falling liquid films  Liquid film behavior represents a subset of the more general class of free boundary problems  and is important in a wide range of engineering and technological applications such as evaporators, heat exchangers, absorbers, microreactors, small-scale electronics/microprocessor cooling schemes, air conditioning and gas turbine blade cooling 
After World War II Kapitza was removed from all his positions, including director of his Institute for Physical Problems, for refusing to work on nuclear weapons  He was at his country house and devised experiments to work on there, including his experiments on falling films of liquid Unlike most dimensionless numbers used in the study of fluid mechanics, the Kapitza number represents a material property, as it is formed by combining powers of the surface tension, density, gravitational acceleration and kinematic viscosity 

  
    
      
        K
        a
        =
        
          
            σ
            
              ρ
              (
              g
              sin
              ⁡
              β
              
                )
                
                  1
                  
                    /
                  
                  3
                
              
              
                ν
                
                  4
                  
                    /
                  
                  3
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle Ka={\frac {\sigma }{\rho (g\sin \beta )^{1/3}\nu ^{4/3}}}}
  where σ is the surface tension (SI units: N/m), g is gravitational acceleration (m/s2), ρ is density (kg/m3), β is inclination angle (rad), and ν is kinematic viscosity (m2/s) 

Notes
Passage 9:
Fourier number
In the study of heat conduction, the Fourier number,  is the ratio of time, t, to a characteristic time scale for heat diffusion, td  This dimensionless group is named in honor of J B J  Fourier, who formulated the modern understanding of heat conduction  The time scale for diffusion characterizes the time needed for heat to diffuse over a distance, L  For a medium with thermal diffusivity, α, this time scale is td = L2/α, so that the Fourier number is t/td = αt/L2  The Fourier number is often denoted as Fo or FoL The Fourier number can also be used in the study of mass diffusion, if the thermal diffusivity is replaced by a mass diffusivity 
The Fourier number is used in analysis of time dependent transport phenomena, generally in conjunction with the Biot number if convection is present  The Fourier number arises naturally in nondimensionalization of the heat equation 

Definition
The general definition of the Fourier number, Fo, is:
For heat diffusion with a characteristic length scale L in a medium of thermal diffusivity, α,  the diffusion time scale is td =L2/α, so that

where:

α is the thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
t is the time (s)
L is the characteristic length through which conduction occurs (m)

Interpretation of the Fourier number
Consider transient heat conduction in  a slab of thickness L that is initially at a uniform temperature, T0  One side of the slab is heated to higher temperature, Th at time t = 0   The other side is adiabatic  The time needed for the other side of the object to show significant temperature change is the diffusion time, td   
When Fo ≪ 1, not enough time has passed for the other side to change temperature  In this case, significant temperature change only occurs close to the heated side, and most of the slab remains at T0 
When Fo ≅ 1, significant temperature change occurs all the way through the thickness L  None of the slab remains at temperature T0 
When Fo ≫ 1, enough time has passed for the slab to approach steady state  The entire slab approaches temperature Th 

Derivation and usage
The Fourier number can be derived by nondimenionalizing the time-dependent diffusion equation   As an example, consider a rod of length L that is being heated from an initial temperature, T0, by the imposition at time t = 0 of a higher temperature at x = L, TL (with x along the axis of the rod)  The heat equation in one spatial dimension, x, can be applied 

where T is the temperature for 0 < x < L and t > 0  The differential equation can be scaled into a dimensionless form  A dimensionless temperature may be defined as Θ = (T - TL)/(T0 - TL), and the equation may be divided through by α/L2:

The resulting dimensionless time variable is the Fourier number, FoL = αt/L2  The characteristic time scale for diffusion, td =L2/α, comes directly from this scaling of the heat equation  
The Fourier number is frequently used as the nondimensional time in studying transient heat conduction in solids    A second parameter, the Biot number arises in nondimensionalization when convective boundary conditions are applied to the heat equation  Together, the Fourier number and the Biot number determine the temperature response of a solid subjected to convective heating or cooling 

Application to mass transfer
An analogous Fourier number can be derived by nondimensionalization of Fick's second law of diffusion  The result is a mass transfer Fourier number, Fom defined as:
where:

Fom is the mass transfer Fourier number
D is the mass diffusivity (m2/s)
t is the time (s)
L is the length scale of interest (m)The mass transfer Fourier number can be applied to the study of certain time-dependent mass diffusion problems 

See also
Biot number
Convection
Heat conduction
Heat equation
Molecular diffusion



ground_truth: French mathematician and physicist