prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How long is the river The Atherton Bridge spans?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Pit River Bridge
The Pit River Bridge (officially the Veterans of Foreign Wars Memorial Bridge) is a double deck, deck truss, road and rail bridge over Shasta Lake in Shasta County, California  The bridge, carrying Interstate 5 on its upper deck and Union Pacific Railroad on its lower deck, was built in 1942 as part of the construction of the Shasta Dam/Shasta Lake reservoir system  The Pit River Bridge was constructed to replace the Lower Pit River Bridge, as the rising waters of the Shasta Lake reservoir would have put the older bridge underwater  The entire bridge spans 3,588 feet (1,094 m) long on the upper deck and 2,754 feet (839 m) on the lower deck  With a height of 500 feet (150 m) above the old Pit River bed, it is structurally the highest double decked bridge in the United States; however, today the bridge sits only about 40 feet (12 m) above the water when Shasta Lake is full  The bridge is Interstate 5's halfway point  
At the time it was built, the highway on the bridge was signed as U S  Route 99 and the rail line was owned by Southern Pacific  The Coast Starlight, the passenger train line operated by Amtrak that runs between Los Angeles and Seattle, also uses the bridge The bridge is officially known as the Veterans of Foreign Wars Memorial Bridge, to honor military veterans from California who have fought in foreign wars The Pit River Bridge was the subject of the 1954 Pulitzer Prize for Photography winner entitled "Rescue on Pit River Bridge", taken by Virginia Schau 

See also
 Transport portal
 Engineering portal
 California portal
Passage 2:
Atherton Bridge
The Atherton Bridge is a historic iron truss bridge in Lancaster, Massachusetts, spanning the South Branch of the Nashua River  It is a rare example of a hybrid pony truss that is similar to the 19th century truss design of Simeon S  Post  It was built by J  H  Cofrode & Co  of Philadelphia in 1870  It was the first iron bridge to be constructed in the town  The bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 
The bridge formerly carried Bolton Road, but was closed to vehicular traffic in 1975 and bypassed by a modern highway bridge in the 1980s 
The bridge remained open to pedestrian traffic until April 2020, when a flash flood damaged the bridge's wooden deck and it was closed to all traffic  The long-term future of the bridge is uncertain The sign commemorating Atherton Bridge states:

 ATHERTON BRIDGE
There has been a bridge at this location since early settlement  It is named for 
James Atherton, one of the signers of the petition for incorporation of the town in 1652  The 1794 map lists the bridge as 90 feet long on a county way Lancaster’s first iron bridge was placed here in 1870 

Technical information
The Atherton Bridge has iron compression posts that incline inward towards the center of the span and diagonal tension rods that incline outward towards the abutments  Unusual features include double end posts with adjustable turnbuckles, channeled castings to join the lower chord bars, and patented Phoenix columns for all inclined posts  This bridge does not make use of Simeon Post's patented joints  The floor beams support a wood plank deck 
The bridge is 72 feet (22 m) long and 18 5 feet (5 6 m) feet wide, and is composed of eight panels  It rests on granite abutments 
The bridge was photographed in 1979 by Jet Lowe of the Historic American Engineering Record, and documented in 1990 as part of the Massachusetts Historic Bridge Project  At that time, it was one of only two known examples of the Post type of truss still surviving 

See also
Ponakin Bridge
National Register of Historic Places listings in Worcester County, Massachusetts
List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in Massachusetts
List of bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
Passage 3:
Walnut Street Bridge (Chattanooga)
Built in 1890, the 2,376-foot-long (724 m) Walnut Street Bridge connects Chattanooga, Tennessee's downtown with North Chattanooga  The bridge's main spans are pin-connected Pennsylvania through truss spans  The top chord of these truss spans are configured in five sections, making the spans similar to the Camelback truss design  The bridge is historically significant as an extremely long and old example of its type; according to the Historic American Engineering Record: "The bridge was apparently the first non-military highway bridge across the Tennessee River "

History
According to a plaque on the bridge, Edwin Thacher was the chief engineer for the bridge  The bridge's superstructure was assembled by the Smith Bridge Company of Toledo, Ohio, which was a prolific late 19th-century bridge builder  The bridge's substructure was constructed by Neeley, Smith, and Company of Chattanooga  Most of the parts for the bridge were manufactured by Manly Jail Works of Dalton, Georgia and then shipped to the site by rail  
A former Union officer from Ann Arbor, Michigan, William Andrew Slayton (1854–1935) was the stone contractor  Slayton lived in a stone house at 533 Barton Avenue, the house known for years by later inhabitants as the location of the "Little Art Shop"  It is not known if he built this house, but similarly to Washington Roebling and the Brooklyn Bridge, he could overlook the project from his window  Many of the low stone walls in North Chattanooga are made up of the remnants of stones deemed too small for use in the piers  Subdivision plats in Chattanooga suggest that Slayton developed some areas to facilitate the hauling of materials from quarries in northeastern Alabama, and Slayton Street and Slayton Avenue are found near the current public library location on Broad Street 
The "county bridge", as the Walnut Street Bridge was once known, connected the predominantly white city on the south side of the Tennessee River with the large black work force on the north side ("North Shore") in Hill City, a town that was annexed by Chattanooga in 1912 
The bridge also carried trolleys of the Chattanooga Traction Company to Signal Mountain Two black men were lynched on the bridge: Alfred Blount on February 14, 1893, was hanged from the first span for allegedly attacking a white woman; Ed Johnson on March 19, 1906, was hanged from the second span, also for allegedly attacking a white woman  Johnson's lynching initiated a court case (United States v  Shipp) before the Supreme Court that is notable for being the only criminal trial in its history 

Reconstruction
The bridge was closed to motor vehicles in 1978 and sat in disuse and disrepair for nearly a decade  Repairs and structural modifications have been made to turn the bridge into what is now a pedestrian walkway  The Walnut Street Bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places on February 23, 1990  The 2,376-foot-long (724 m) pedestrian bridge sits near the heart of a massive and recently completed urban renewal project 
From December 2009 to May 2010, the bridge's deteriorating asphalt surface was replaced with wood planking  The City Council awarded a $1 3 million contract to Tower Construction for the bridge repair work The Walnut Street Bridge fund was started by Chattanooga Venture, a community group, to receive funds to be used by the city toward restoration of the bridge  Once the campaign was finished, the remaining funds were used for additional improvements to the bridge  These funds led to the replacement of original plaques which had been damaged, vandalized, or stolen  The original plaques have been renamed to The Parks Foundation, an organization committed to enhancements, improvements and programming to extend the utilization of all our parks and public space to the greatest number of people  The foundation is offering new plaques to donors that strive for the same mission 

Community events
Wine over Water is a wine tasting event that takes place on the Walnut Street Bridge  The event started in 1994  Over 150 wines from all over the world get tasted  During the festival, local restaurants offer different tasting plates for purchase  Regional musicians and bands come to play jazz and classic bluegrass  The event is not free and tickets are sold quickly due to popularity  
Every summer, Chattanooga hosts the Riverbend Festival where country music and rock bands come and play for the city  On the last night of the festival, fireworks are shot off for the spectators  The bridge is used to display a bright waterfall of fireworks, which fall down into the river below  The fireworks are displayed at the middle of the bridge, and boaters are not allowed within several hundred feet  
The Seven Bridges Marathon takes place in Chattanooga, and the participants use the Walnut Street Bridge as part of the course  Participants, local Chattanoogans as well as tourists, enjoy the views from the bridge that extend up and down the river  
Ironman is a world-renowned triathlon with events scheduled throughout the year all over the planet  Chattanooga has hosted Ironman in 2014, 2015 and hosted the Ironman world championship in 2017  Athletes use the Walnut Street bridge during the running portion of the race 

See also
List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in Tennessee
Passage 4:
Nashua River
The Nashua River, 37 5 miles (60 4 km) long, is a tributary of the Merrimack River in Massachusetts and New Hampshire in the United States  It is formed in eastern Worcester County, Massachusetts, at the confluence of the North Nashua River and South Nashua River, and flows generally north-northeast past Groton to join the Merrimack at Nashua, New Hampshire  The Nashua River watershed occupies a major portion of north-central Massachusetts and a much smaller portion of southern New Hampshire 
The North Nashua River rises west of Fitchburg and Westminster  It flows about 30 miles (48 km) generally southeast past Fitchburg, and joins the South Nashua River, shown on USGS topographic maps as the main stem of the Nashua River, about 5 miles (8 km) below its issuance from the Wachusett Reservoir 

History
The river's name derives from an Algonkian word meaning "beautiful river with a pebbly bottom "The Nashua River was heavily used for industry during the colonial period and the early years of the United States  During the late 18th century and early 19th century, the heavy concentration of paper mills and the use of dyes near Fitchburg resulted in pollution that notoriously turned the river various colors downstream from the factories 
In the mid-1960s, Marion Stoddart started a campaign to restore the Nashua River and its tributaries  She built coalitions with labor leaders and business leaders, in particular the paper companies who were the worst polluters of the river  With federal help, eight treatment plants were built or upgraded along the river  A broad conservation buffer was created along about half the river and its two main tributaries  By the early-1990s, most of the industry was still located along the river, but many parts of the river were once again safe for swimming  Her work is the subject of a 30-minute documentary movie titled Marion Stoddart: Work of 1000 Recovery has sparked recreational use of the river at places like Mine Falls Park in Nashua 
The largely volunteer Nashua River Watershed Association, based in Groton, Massachusetts, oversees the condition of the river In 2013, Public Law 116–9 designated 27 mi (43 km) of the Nashua River as a National Wild and Scenic River  The legislation was sponsored by Rep  Niki Tsongas (D, MA-3), supported by the Nashua River Watershed Association and The Wilderness Society 

Watershed
From its impoundment at the Wachusett Reservoir in Clinton, Massachusetts, the South Nashua River flows north and joins the North Nashua River in Lancaster  The North Nashua River flows southeast from Fitchburg and Leominster to Lancaster  The Nashua River flows northward from Lancaster, meandering its way through the north-central Massachusetts towns of Harvard, Groton, Dunstable, and Pepperell, before eventually emptying into the Merrimack River at Nashua, New Hampshire  The Nashua River watershed has a total drainage area of approximately 538 square miles (1,390 km2), with 454 square miles (1,180 km2) of the watershed occurring in Massachusetts and 74 square miles (190 km2) in New Hampshire  The Nashua River flows for approximately 56 miles (90 km), with approximately 46 of those miles (74 km) flowing through Massachusetts  The Squannacook, Nissitissit, Stillwater, Quinapoxet, North Nashua, and South Nashua rivers feed it  The watershed encompasses all or part of 31 communities, 7 in southern New Hampshire and 24 in central Massachusetts  The watershed's largest water body is the Wachusett Reservoir, which provides drinking water to two-thirds of the Commonwealth's population 

Major watershed components
Wachusett Reservoir is the largest water body 
The Stillwater River feeds Wachusett Reservoir from the northwest 
The Quinapoxet River feeds Wachusett Reservoir from the west 
Wachusett Reservoir Dam impounds the South Nashua River 
The North Nashua River joins the South Nashua River at Lancaster from the northwest 
The Squannacook River joins the Nashua River from the northwest at the junction of the town boundaries of Shirley, Groton, and Ayer 
The Nissitissit River joins the Nashua River from the northwest at Pepperell 

Major tributaries
See also
List of rivers of Massachusetts
List of rivers of New Hampshire
Nashua River Rail Trail
Nashaway people
Passage 5:
Colorado River Bridge at Bastrop
The Colorado River Bridge at Bastrop is a 1,285-foot (392 m)-long bridge with three steel truss spans and concrete piers that crosses the Colorado River as part of Loop 150 through Bastrop, Texas  The three bridge spans over the river consist of identical Parker through trusses, each 192 feet (59 m) in length, supported on concrete piers  The bridge is one of the earliest surviving uses of the Parker truss in Texas 
The Colorado River Bridge was the second bridge crossing at this location  The first bridge at the crossing was built from 1889 to 1890 at a cost of $45,000  This bridge replaced the ferries across the river, which had been in use since the 1830s  The bridge was 1,268 feet (386 m) in length  It was originally a toll bridge, but was later purchased by the county and the tolls were removed 

With automobiles becoming the dominant form of transportation in the United States after World War I, a new bridge was needed to handle the increasing traffic between Houston and Austin  The original estimate of the cost of the Colorado River Bridge was $40,000 and was partially financed by bonds issued by Bastrop County  The rest was paid for with federal funds disbursed by the Texas State Highway Department  Bids on the project were solicited and the Kansas City Bridge Co  was selected as contractor  The final cost of the bridge's construction was $167,500  The bridge was completed in 1923 and opened for use in January 1924  The original bridge was sold and torn down in the early 1930s Ownership of the Colorado River Bridge probably passed from the county to the state during the Great Depression, as the local governments did not have the funds to maintain their road systems 
Growth in Bastrop in the 1990s strained the capacity of the narrow two-lane bridge  A wider concrete beam bridge was built parallel to the Colorado River Bridge  The State of Texas transferred ownership of the truss bridge to the City of Bastrop and the bridge became a pedestrian walkway  The bridge is also used for special events such as the annual "Art on the Bridge" art show and sale  The bridge was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on July 19, 1990 

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Bastrop County, Texas
List of bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in Texas
List of crossings of the Colorado River
Passage 6:
Miami Bridge
The Miami Bridge, also known as the McDaniel Memorial Bridge, is a new concrete girder bridge that was built to replace a cantilever through truss bridge over the Missouri River at Miami, Missouri between Saline County, Missouri and Carroll County, Missouri   The Miami Bridge carries Route 41   The Miami Bridge was built in 1939, and its deck was replaced in 1983 as part of a rehabilitation project  The old bridge's main cantilever span was 474 7 feet, while the two anchor spans  were each 415 feet in length, resulting in a total cantilever truss length of 1304 7 feet  There were 11 approach spans, including four Warren deck truss spans, three on the northern approach and one on the southern approach  All remaining approach spans were steel stringer (multi-beam/girder) spans  Total bridge length including approach spans is 2,071 9 feet   The bridge's deck width is 23 0 feet and it has vertical clearance of 16 5 feet 
The bridge was constructed with the assistance of the Federal Administration of Public Works also known as the Public Works Administration  Sverdrup and Parcel were consulting engineers for the structure, and Massman Construction Company was the contractor  The original plans for the bridge show plans for the original wooden toll building that was once located on the bridge  According to the plans, the toll building was painted white, featured wooden Slow and Stop signs, and included a cast iron stove for heating 
The Miami Bridge has been listed as eligible for the National Register of Historic Places  According to Clayton B Fraser who conducted Missouri's 1992 Historic Bridge Inventory, the Miami Bridge was eligible for the National Register of Historic Places as an "outstanding, large-scale example of steel truss construction, located on important great river crossing " Despite its historic significance, Missouri Department of Transportation decided against rehabilitating the bridge and instead has decided to demolish the bridge's superstructure and erect a new bridge using the piers and abutment of the old bridge  The project will begin with the bridge's closure, scheduled for October 5, 2009 

See also
List of crossings of the Missouri River
Passage 7:
Monocacy River bridge and viaduct
The Monocacy River Railroad Bridge and Viaduct is a 326-foot (99 m) open deck steel girder bridge with two main spans crossing the river and two viaduct sections crossing the floodplain, south of Walkersville, Maryland  Originally constructed by the Frederick and Pennsylvania Line Railroad Company (F&PL)  Construction began in late 1871, and continued until July 1872 when the railroad opened that year  It was rebuilt by the Pennsylvania Railroad prior first in 1900-1905 as an open deck riveted iron plate under girder bridge  In 1915, the bridge was surveyed as part of the Interstate Commerce Commission's ("ICC") effort to establish freight rates for the Parent railroad  In 1927, the Pennsylvania Railroad rebuilt the bridge again using deeper and thicker steel girders, but leaving the masonry piers intact  In 1972, the two 85 foot river spans were washed out by Hurricane Agnes  In 1982, the State of Maryland purchased the bridge as part of the railroad line  In 1995, the State rebuilt the river spans and Pier 3 which is located in the middle of the river crossing was completely reconstructed using concrete to replace the original masonry foundations   In 2015, the State performed minor maintenance on the structure and painted some spans   
As of 2016, the bridge is in active rail service, operated by the Walkersville Southern RR 

History
Construction
Bollman Iron Bridge
The original bridge was a "Bollman suspension truss"  The Monocacy river bridge and viaduct structures were a mixture of wrought iron tension members and cast iron compression members, including other decorative elements, such as Doric styled vertical members and end towers, all cast iron and detailed  In 1872, Bollman's firm, Patapsco Bridge and Iron Works completed the bridge and viaducts with a total length of 326 feet 

Pennsylvania Railroad Rebuilds
The ICC survey work papers  indicate two rebuilds were performed on the Monocacy bridge after the 1872 construction but prior to the 1915 inspection:

The Bollman iron truss bridge of unknown span lengths for the Monocacy crossing was replaced by the Pennsylvania railroad in 1900 as part of a major rebuild of the bridge which included the abutments In 1900, Pennsylvania replaced the river trusses with a steel under girder, open deck bridge of four spans  At that time, the abutment and pier masonry was augmented  Five years later in 1905, the Pennsylvania railroad replaced the remaining two spans that were erected by Bollman in 1872 
Later in 1927, Pennsylvania rebuilt the entire bridge using steel plate girders of half-inch thickness and measuring 85 inches in depth 
No later rebuild by PRR was made after 1927 and prior to 1982 when the bridge was conveyed to the State of Maryland  

United States Railway Administration (USRA) Rebuild
No known USRA rebuild scope has been identified for this bridge 

State Railroad Administration (SRA 1995 - )
Subsequent to the conveyance of the railroad from Conrail to the State of Maryland in 1982, State Railroad Administration or (SRA,1978-92), developed a Maryland State Rail Plan  
The SRA rebuilt the two 85 foot spans over the river that were damaged by Hurricane Agnes in 1972, as well as Pier 3 which was in the river in 1995   Currently, the Department of Transportation, Maryland Transit Administration (MTA), (2001-) owns and maintains the bridge  In 2015, MTA performed additional maintenance on the spans and painted two of the four spans as well 

Notes
Passage 8:
Port Mann Bridge
The Port Mann Bridge is a 10-lane cable-stayed bridge, 100 km/hr speed limit, in British Columbia, Canada that opened to traffic in 2012  It carries 10 lanes of traffic with space reserved for a light rail line The cable-stayed bridge replaced a steel arch bridge that spanned the Fraser River, connecting Coquitlam to Surrey in British Columbia in the Vancouver metro area  After its successor was opened to traffic, the old bridge was demolished by reverse construction, a process which took three years to complete 

History
The original Port Mann Bridge opened on June 12, 1964  It was named after the community of Port Mann, through which the south end of the bridge passed  The old bridge consisted of three spans with an orthotropic deck carrying five lanes (originally four lanes) of Trans-Canada Highway traffic, with approach spans of three steel plate girders and concrete deck  The total length of the arch bridge was 2,093 m (6,867 ft), including approach spans  The main span was 366 m (1,201 ft), plus the two 110 m (360 ft) spans on either side  Volume on the old bridge was 127,000 trips per day  Approximately 8 percent of the traffic on the Port Mann bridge was truck traffic   The old bridge was the longest arch bridge in Canada and third-longest in the world at the time of its inauguration 
At the time of construction, it was the most expensive piece of highway in Canada  The first "civilian" to drive across the bridge was CKNW reporter Marke Raines  He was not authorized to cross, so he drove quickly In 2001 an eastbound HOV lane was added by moving the centre divider and by cantilevering the bridge deck outwards in conjunction with a seismic upgrade 

Replacement
On January 31, 2006, the British Columbia Ministry of Transportation introduced the Gateway Program as a means to address growing congestion  The project originally envisioned twinning the Port Mann Bridge by building a second bridge adjacent to it, but the project was changed to building a 10-lane replacement bridge, planned to be the widest in the world, and demolishing the original bridge  While the old bridge was found to be in "excellent shape, it is a fracture-critical structure with a tension member that runs the full length of the bridge  If that fractures anywhere, the bridge’s structural safety can be compromised heavily   There is no built-in redundancy [in this type of bridge]  It only takes a little undetected fatigue crack to grow for 10 years and then a member eventually just snaps through one cold morning when the wrong size truck rolls over it” 

Opposition to twinning plan
A number of groups lobbied to improve public transit rather than build a new bridge  Burnaby city council, Vancouver city council, and directors of the GVRD (now Metro Vancouver) passed resolutions opposing the Port Mann / Highway 1 expansion  Opponents of the expansion included local environmental groups, urban planners, and Washington state's Sightline Institute Opponents argued that increasing highway capacity would increase greenhouse gas emissions and only relieve congestion for a few years before increased traffic congested the area again, and that expanding road capacity would encourage suburban sprawl  The Livable Region Coalition urged the Minister of Transportation,  Kevin Falcon, to consider rapid transit lines and improved bus routes instead of building the new bridge  The David Suzuki Foundation claimed the plan violated the goals of Metro Vancouver's Livable Region Strategic Plan 

Construction and cost
The Port Mann / Highway 1 project added another HOV lane and will provide cycling and pedestrian access  The multi-use pedestrian/bicycle path opened July 1, 2015  A bus service was reintroduced over the Port Mann Bridge for the first time in over 20 years  However, critics claimed that the new bridge only delayed the reintroduction of bus service on the bridge  The new bus rapid transit service is now operated in the HOV lanes along Highway 1 from Langley to Burnaby The estimated construction cost was $2 46 billion, including the cost of the Highway 1 upgrade, a total of 37 kilometres (23 mi)  Of this, the bridge itself comprised roughly a third ($820 million)   The total cost, including operation and maintenance, was expected to be $3 3 billion  Now that the new bridge is completed, the existing bridge, which was more than 45 years old, has been taken down The project was intended to be funded by using a public-private partnership, and Connect B C  Development Group was chosen as the preferred developer  The Connect B C  Group included the Macquarie Group, Transtoll Inc , Peter Kiewit Sons Co , and Flatiron Constructors  Although a memorandum of understanding had been signed by the province, final terms could not be agreed upon  As a consequence, the province decided to fund the entire cost of replacement On September 18, 2012, the new Port Mann Bridge opened to eastbound traffic  At 65 metres (213 ft) wide, it was the world's widest long-span bridge, according to the Guinness World Records, overtaking the world-famous Sydney Harbour Bridge, which, at 49 metres (161 ft), held the record since 1932  The Port Mann Bridge was overtaken by the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge in 2013 

Dismantling of original bridge
Work to dismantle the old Port Mann Bridge began in December 2012  Crews removed sections of the bridge piece by piece in opposite order in which they were originally constructed, starting with the road deck, followed by the bridge approach's girders, and concluding with the steel arch  It was fully removed by October 21, 2015 

New bridge
The new bridge is 2 02 kilometres (1 26 mi) long, up to 65 metres (213 ft) wide, carries 10 lanes of traffic, and has a 42 metres (138 ft) clearance above the river's high water level (the same length and clearance as the old bridge)  The towers are approximately 75 metres (246 ft) tall above deck level, with the total height approximately 163 metres (535 ft) from top of footing  The main span (between the towers) is 470 metres (1,540 ft) long, the second longest cable-stayed span in the western hemisphere  The main bridge (between the end of the cables) has a length of 850 metres (2,790 ft) with two towers and 288 cables  The new bridge was built to accommodate the future installation of light rapid transit 

Issues
On February 10, 2012, during construction of the replacement bridge, an overhead gantry crane collapsed, causing a 90-tonne concrete box-girder segment to drop into the water below  While no one was injured, the accident delayed subsequent construction  WorkSafeBC inspectors evaluated the safety practices on the construction site 
On December 19, 2012, cold weather caused ice to accumulate on the supporting cables, periodically dropping to the car deck below, dubbed "ice bombs"  ICBC, the vehicle insurance entity in British Columbia, reported 60 separate claims of ice damage during the incident  In addition, one driver required an ambulance due to injuries  The RCMP closed the bridge between 1:30 p m  and 6 p m  while engineers investigated  The Government installed collars on the cables that are manually released when conditions for ice accumulation are expected  They are installed on the tops of the cables on the towers and are released, falling down the cables by gravity to remove any snow build up During December 2016, "slush bombs" affected the bridge again though the BC Government stated that these weren't as severe as the 2012 "ice bombs " During December, the bridge was closed due to the threat of falling snow off of the cables and possible icy conditions 

Tolling (2012–2017)
In order to recover construction and operating costs, the bridge was electronically tolled when originally built  The toll rates increased to $1 60 for motorcycle, $3 15 for cars, $6 30 for small trucks and $9 45 for large trucks on August 15, 2015   Through increased prices and greater traffic, Transportation Investment Corporation (TI Corp), the public Crown corporation responsible for toll operations on the Port Mann Bridge, forecast its revenue would grow by 85% between fiscal years 2014 and 2017  These fees were assessed using radio-frequency identification (RFID) decals or licence plate photos  A B C  licensed driver who owes more than $25 in tolls outstanding 90 days is penalized $20 and is unable to purchase vehicle insurance or renew drivers permits without payment of the debt  Out-of-province drivers were also contacted for payment by a US-based contractor  A licence plate processing fee of $2 30 per trip was added to the toll rate for unregistered users who did not pay their toll within seven days of their passage  Monthly passes, which allowed unlimited crossing on the bridge, were available for purchase  Users may have set up an account for online payment of tolls  Users who opted for this method received a decal with an embedded RFID to place on their vehicle's windshield or headlight and avoid paying a processing fee  Tolls were expected to be removed by the year of 2050 or after collecting $3 3 billion  As announced by B C  Premier John Horgan in August 2017, all tolls on the Port Mann Bridge were removed on September 1, 2017   Debt service was transferred to the province of British Columbia at a cost of $135 million per year 

Traffic volumes
Monthly mean weekday traffic
As of January 2019

Total monthly traffic (in millions)
As of January 2019

See also

List of crossings of the Fraser River
List of bridges in Canada
Tallest structures in Canada
Passage 9:
Columbia River Bridge (Bridgeport, Washington)
The Columbia River Bridge, also known as the Bridgeport Bridge, at Bridgeport, Washington, was built to span the Columbia River in 1950  Composed of three spans, the bridge is a steel continuous riveted deck truss carrying Washington State Route 17 on a 26-foot-wide (7 9 m) roadway and two 3-foot (0 91 m) sidewalks  The center portion of the bridge spans 300 feet (91 m), flanked by 250-foot (76 m) end spans  The 70-foot (21 m) north approach span and the 100-foot (30 m) south approach span are supported by steel plate girders  The bridge played a significant role in the construction of the Chief Joseph Dam just upstream, as no bridge crossing had previously existed in the area  Construction on the dam started in 1945 and was completed, apart from the powerplant, in 1955  The bridge was designed and built by the U S  Army Corps of Engineers as part of the Chief Joseph Dam project, and is significant for its association with the project and as a major crossing of the Columbia The bridge was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 31, 1995 

See also
List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in Washington (state)
Passage 10:
Maiden Lane Bridge
The Maiden Lane Bridge was a railroad bridge across the Hudson River between the city of Albany and Rensselaer County, New York  It was designed by Kellogg, Clark & Co , and was one of the largest bridges they designed  The bridge was owned and built by the Hudson River Bridge Company, which was owned jointly by the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad Company which owned 3/4, and the Boston and Albany Railroad Company which owned 1/4  The Maiden Lane Bridge was often referred to as the "South Bridge", while the Livingston Avenue Bridge was referred to as the "North Bridge"  The Livingston Ave  Bridge was used for freight (and through-traffic passenger trains) while passenger trains used the Maiden Lane Bridge for access to Union Station, which was completed less than 10 months later  The state of New York authorized construction on May 10, 1869, construction began in May 1870, and the first train crossed on December 28, 1871  The bridge consisted of four 185 5-foot (56 5 m) long fixed spans, one 274-foot (84 m) long draw span, seven 73-foot (22 m) long spans over the Albany Basin, one 110-foot (34 m) long span over Quay Street, and one 63-foot (19 m) long span over Maiden Lane  All the spans except the one over Maiden Lane were double tracked, through, and pin connected; the span over Maiden Lane was also double tracked, but was a deck and plate girder span  A reconstruction of the bridge, except for the draw span, was done in 1899 by Pencoyd Bridge Company and finished by January 3, 1900  The bridge lasted until the 1960s, when the Albany–Rensselaer Amtrak station was built on the east side of the Hudson in the city of Rensselaer and Interstate 787 was built along the west side in Albany, thereby eliminating the need of the bridge 

See also
History of Albany, New York
Downtown Albany Historic District
List of fixed crossings of the Hudson River
Context 2: Passage 1:
Stones into Schools
Stones into Schools: Promoting Peace with Books, Not Bombs, in Afghanistan and Pakistan is a New York Times bestselling book by Greg Mortenson published by Viking in 2009   The book is the sequel to the bestselling book Three Cups of Tea and tells the story of Mortenson's humanitarian efforts to build schools in Pakistan and Afghanistan with his non-profit charity organization, Central Asia Institute (CAI)   CAI reports that as of 2010, it has overseen the building over 171 schools in the two countries  These schools reportedly provide education to over 64,000 children, including 54,000 girls, where few education opportunities existed before in the remote regions of Pakistan and Afghanistan 

Summary
Stones into Schools picks up where Three Cups of Tea left off in late 2003   Tracing the efforts of CAI to work in the northeast corner of Afghanistan, the book describes how the book's author and Sarfraz Khan worked to establish the first schools in the area   Mortenson and Khan's efforts were thwarted for a time when a devastating earthquake hit the Azad Kashmir region of Pakistan   CAI assisted with relief efforts in the region by setting up temporary tent schools and later build several earthquake-proof schools   After CAI's relief efforts were completed, the non-profit charity organization then opens schools in areas controlled by the Taliban and Mortenson assists the US military to formulate strategic plans in the region 

Advice solicited by US Military in Afghanistan
Due to attention paid to Mortenson's books first by their wives,  US military leaders in Afghanistan have sought Mortenson's advice on how to work with the elders of local Afghan communities since 2007   Seeking his knowledge on dealing with Afghan elders, the military has also included Mortenson as an active participant in meetings between the elders and US military commanders   He has not, however, accepted any payment for his services, nor does he have any contractual or other formal relationship with the US military 

Criticism
Allegations
On the April 17, 2011 broadcast of CBS News' 60 Minutes, correspondent Steve Kroft alleged inaccuracies in Stones into Schools and its prequel, Three Cups of Tea   In particular, CBS News disputed  Mortenson's claim that he got lost near K2 and ended up in Korphe; that he was captured by the Taliban in 1996; whether the number of schools built and supported by CAI is accurate; and the propriety in the use of CAI funds for Mortenson's book tours  60 Minutes asked Mortenson for an interview prior to their broadcast, but Mortenson did not respond to their requests Jon Krakauer, a former financial supporter of CAI, has also questioned Mortenson's accounts separately and was interviewed for the 60 Minutes segment  The day after the broadcast, Krakauer released his allegations in a lengthy online article, Three Cups of Deceit - How Greg Mortenson, Humanitarian Hero, Lost His Way Mansur Khan Mahsudhe, a tribesmen Greg Mortenson describes as a kidnapper in Stones into Schools, states he is "looking into how to sue" Greg Mortenson for what he claims are lies about him 

Response to allegations
In response to the allegations made against him and his books, Mortenson wrote a statement that was published in the Bozeman Chronicle: "I stand by the information conveyed in my book, and by the value of CAI's work in empowering local communities to build and operate schools that have educated more than 60,000 students " Mortenson further stated, "The time about our final days on K2 and ongoing journey to Korphe village and Skardu is a compressed version of events that took place in the fall of 1993   "Scott Darsney, a respected mountaineer and friend of Greg Mortenson, wrote an email subsequently turned into an exclusive article for Outside magazine's online version as a response to the allegations against Mortenson  Darnsey questioned the accuracy and fairness of both the Krakauer piece and the 60 Minutes report  Darnsey had been interviewed by Krakauer, and maintained that Krakauer either misquoted or misunderstood what he said 
As a response to Krakauer's allegations, CAI produced a comprehensive list of projects completed over a period of years and projects CAI is currently working on  The list was released in December, 2011 (see external links below) 
Passage 2:
Socrates
Socrates (; Greek: Σωκράτης; c  470–399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought  An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no texts and is known mainly through the posthumous accounts of classical writers, particularly his students Plato and Xenophon  These accounts are written as dialogues, in which Socrates and his interlocutors examine a subject in the style of question and answer; they gave rise to the Socratic dialogue literary genre  Contradictory accounts of Socrates make a reconstruction of his philosophy nearly impossible, a situation known as the Socratic problem  Socrates was a polarizing figure in Athenian society  In 399 BC, he was accused of impiety and corrupting the youth  After a trial that lasted a day, he was sentenced to death  He spent his last day in prison, refusing offers to help him escape 
Plato's dialogues are among the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity  They demonstrate the Socratic approach to areas of philosophy including epistemology and ethics  The Platonic Socrates lends his name to the concept of the Socratic method, and also to Socratic irony  The Socratic method of questioning, or elenchus, takes shape in dialogue using short questions and answers, epitomized by those Platonic texts in which Socrates and his interlocutors examine various aspects of an issue or an abstract meaning, usually relating to one of the virtues, and find themselves at an impasse, completely unable to define what they thought they understood  Socrates is known for proclaiming his total ignorance; he used to say that the only thing he was aware of was his ignorance, seeking to imply that the realization of our ignorance is the first step in philosophizing 
Socrates exerted a strong influence on philosophers in later antiquity and has continued to do so in the modern era  He was studied by medieval and Islamic scholars and played an important role in the thought of the Italian Renaissance, particularly within the humanist movement  Interest in him continued unabated, as reflected in the works of Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche  Depictions of Socrates in art, literature, and popular culture have made him a widely known figure in the Western philosophical tradition 

Sources and the Socratic problem
Socrates did not document his teachings  All that is known about him comes from the accounts of others: mainly the philosopher Plato and the historian Xenophon, who were both his pupils; the Athenian comic dramatist Aristophanes (Socrates's contemporary); and Plato's pupil Aristotle, who was born after Socrates's death  The often contradictory stories from these ancient accounts only serve to complicate scholars' ability to reconstruct Socrates's true thoughts reliably, a predicament known as the Socratic problem  The works of Plato, Xenophon, and other authors who use the character of Socrates as an investigative tool, are written in the form of a dialogue between Socrates and his interlocutors and provide the main source of information on Socrates's life and thought  Socratic dialogues (logos sokratikos) was a term coined by Aristotle to describe this newly formed literary genre  While the exact dates of their composition are unknown, some were probably written after Socrates's death  As Aristotle first noted, the extent to which the dialogues portray Socrates authentically is a matter of some debate 

Plato and Xenophon
An honest man, Xenophon was no trained philosopher  He could neither fully conceptualize nor articulate Socrates's arguments  He admired Socrates for his intelligence, patriotism, and courage on the battlefield  He discusses Socrates in four works: the Memorabilia, the Oeconomicus, the Symposium, and the Apology of Socrates  He also mentions a story featuring Socrates in his Anabasis  Oeconomicus recounts a discussion on practical agricultural issues  Like Plato's Apology, Xenophon's Apologia describes the trial of Socrates, but the works diverge substantially and, according to W  K  C  Guthrie, Xenophon's account portrays a Socrates of "intolerable smugness and complacency"  Symposium is a dialogue of Socrates with other prominent Athenians during an after-dinner discussion, but is quite different from Plato's Symposium: there is no overlap in the guest list  In Memorabilia, he defends Socrates from the accusations of corrupting the youth and being against the gods; essentially, it is a collection of various stories gathered together to construct a new apology for Socrates Plato's representation of Socrates is not straightforward  Plato was a pupil of Socrates and outlived him by five decades  How trustworthy Plato is in representing the attributes of Socrates is a matter of debate; the view that he did not represent views other than Socrates's own is not shared by many contemporary scholars  A driver of this doubt is the inconsistency of the character of Socrates that he presents  One common explanation of this inconsistency is that Plato initially tried to accurately represent the historical Socrates, while later in his writings he was happy to insert his own views into Socrates's words  Under this understanding, there is a distinction between the Socratic Socrates of Plato's earlier works and the Platonic Socrates of Plato's later writings, although the boundary between the two seems blurred Xenophon's and Plato's accounts differ in their presentations of Socrates as a person  Xenophon's Socrates is duller, less humorous and less ironic than Plato's  Xenophon's Socrates also lacks the philosophical features of Plato's Socrates—ignorance, the Socratic method or elenchus—and thinks enkrateia (self-control) is of pivotal importance, which is not the case with Plato's Socrates  Generally, logoi Sokratikoi cannot help us to reconstruct the historical Socrates even in cases where their narratives overlap, as authors may have influenced each other's accounts 

Aristophanes and other sources
Writers of Athenian comedy, including Aristophanes, also commented on Socrates  Aristophanes's most important comedy with respect to Socrates is The Clouds, in which Socrates is a central character  In this drama, Aristophanes presents a caricature of Socrates that leans towards sophism, ridiculing Socrates as an absurd atheist  Socrates in Clouds is interested in natural philosophy, which conforms to Plato's depiction of him in Phaedo  What is certain is that by the age of 45, Socrates had already captured the interest of Athenians as a philosopher  It is not clear whether Aristophanes's work is useful in reconstructing the historical Socrates Other ancient authors who wrote about Socrates were Aeschines of Sphettus, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Bryson, Cebes, Crito, Euclid of Megara, Phaedo and Aristotle, all of whom wrote after Socrates's death  Aristotle was not a contemporary of Socrates; he studied under Plato at the latter's Academy for twenty years  Aristotle treats Socrates without the bias of Xenophon and Plato, who had an emotional tie with Socrates, and he scrutinizes Socrates's doctrines as a philosopher  Aristotle was familiar with the various written and unwritten stories of Socrates  His role in understanding Socrates is limited  He does not write extensively on Socrates; and, when he does, he is mainly preoccupied with the early dialogues of Plato  There are also general doubts on his reliability on the history of philosophy  Still, his testimony is vital in understanding Socrates 

The Socratic problem
In a seminal work titled "The Worth of Socrates as a Philosopher" (1818), the philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher attacked Xenophon's accounts; his attack was widely accepted and gave rise to the Socratic problem  Schleiermacher criticized Xenophon for his naïve representation of Socrates  Xenophon was a soldier, argued Schleiermacher, and was therefore not well placed to articulate Socratic ideas  Furthermore, Xenophon was biased in his depiction of his former friend and teacher: he believed Socrates was treated unfairly by Athens, and sought to prove his point of view rather than to provide an impartial account  The result, said Schleiermacher, was that Xenophon portrayed Socrates as an uninspiring philosopher  By the early 20th century, Xenophon's account was largely rejected The philosopher Karl Joel, basing his arguments on Aristotle's interpretation of logos sokratikos, suggested that the Socratic dialogues are mostly fictional: according to Joel, the dialogues' authors were just mimicking some Socratic traits of dialogue  In the mid-20th century, philosophers such as Olof Gigon and Eugène Dupréel, based on Joel's arguments, proposed that the study of Socrates should focus on the various versions of his character and beliefs rather than aiming to reconstruct a historical Socrates  Later, ancient philosophy scholar Gregory Vlastos suggested that the early Socratic dialogues of Plato were more compatible with other evidence for a historical Socrates than his later writings, an argument that is based on inconsistencies in Plato's own evolving depiction of Socrates  Vlastos totally disregarded Xenophon's account except when it agreed with Plato's  More recently, Charles H  Kahn has reinforced the skeptical stance on the unsolvable Socratic problem, suggesting that only Plato's Apology has any historical significance 

Biography
Socrates was born in 470 or 469 BC to Sophroniscus and Phaenarete, a stoneworker and a midwife, respectively, in the Athenian deme of Alopece; therefore, he was an Athenian citizen, having been born to relatively affluent Athenians  He lived close to his father's relatives and inherited, as was customary, part of his father's estate, securing a life reasonably free of financial concerns  His education followed the laws and customs of Athens  He learned the basic skills of reading and writing and, like most wealthy Athenians, received extra lessons in various other fields such as gymnastics, poetry and music  He was married twice (which came first is not clear): his marriage to Xanthippe took place when Socrates was in his fifties, and another marriage was with a daughter of Aristides, an Athenian statesman  He had three sons with Xanthippe  Socrates fulfilled his military service during the Peloponnesian War and distinguished himself in three campaigns, according to Plato Another incident that reflects Socrates's respect for the law is the arrest of Leon the Salaminian  As Plato describes in his Apology, Socrates and four others were summoned to the Tholos and told by representatives of the Thirty Tyrants (which began ruling in 404 BC) to arrest Leon for execution  Again Socrates was the sole abstainer, choosing to risk the tyrants' wrath and retribution rather than to participate in what he considered to be a crime Socrates attracted great interest from the Athenian public and especially the Athenian youth  He was notoriously ugly, having a flat turned-up nose, bulging eyes and a large belly; his friends joked about his appearance  Socrates was indifferent to material pleasures, including his own appearance and personal comfort  He neglected personal hygiene, bathed rarely, walked barefoot, and owned only one ragged coat  He moderated his eating, drinking, and sex, although he did not practice full abstention  Although Socrates was attracted to youth, as was common and accepted in ancient Greece, he resisted his passion for young men because, as Plato describes, he was more interested in educating their souls  Socrates did not seek sex from his disciples, as was often the case between older and younger men in Athens  Politically, he did not take sides in the rivalry between the democrats and the oligarchs in Athens; he criticized both  The character of Socrates as exhibited in Apology, Crito, Phaedo and Symposium concurs with other sources to an extent that gives confidence in Plato's depiction of Socrates in these works as being representative of the real Socrates Socrates died in Athens in 399 BC after a trial for impiety and the corruption of the young that lasted for only a day  He spent his last day in prison among friends and followers who offered him a route to escape, which he refused  He died the next morning, in accordance with his sentence, after drinking poison hemlock  He had never left Athens, except during the military campaigns which he had participated in 

Trial of Socrates
In 399 BC, Socrates went on trial for corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, and for impiety  Socrates defended himself unsuccessfully  He was found guilty by a majority vote cast by a jury of hundreds of male Athenian citizens and, according to the custom, proposed his own penalty: that he should be given free food and housing by the state, for the services he rendered to the city  In the alternative, he proposed that he be fined one mina of silver (according to him, all he had)  The jurors declined his offer and ordered the death penalty  The official charges were: (1) corrupting youth; (2) worshipping false gods; and (3) not worshipping the state religion Socrates was charged in a politically tense climate  In 404 BC, the Athenians had been crushed by Spartans at the decisive naval Battle of Aegospotami, and subsequently, the Spartans laid siege to Athens  They replaced the democratic government with a new, pro-oligarchic government, named the Thirty Tyrants  Because of their tyrannical measures, some Athenians organized to overthrow the Tyrants—and, indeed, they managed to do so briefly—until a Spartan request for aid from the Thirty arrived and a compromise was sought  When the Spartans left again, however, democrats seized the opportunity to kill the oligarchs and reclaim the government of Athens The accusations against Socrates were initiated by a poet, Meletus, who asked for the death penalty in accordance with the charge of asebeia  Other accusers were Anytus and Lycon  After a month or two, in late spring or early summer, the trial started and likely went on for most of one day  There were two main sources for the religion-based accusations  First, Socrates had rejected the anthropomorphism of traditional Greek religion by denying that the gods did bad things like humans do  Second, he seemed to believe in a daimonion—an inner voice with, as his accusers suggested, divine origin Plato's Apology starts with Socrates answering the various rumours against him that have given rise to the indictment  First, Socrates defends himself against the rumour that he is an atheist naturalist philosopher, as portrayed in Aristophanes's The Clouds; or a sophist  Against the allegations of corrupting the youth, Socrates answers that he has never corrupted anyone intentionally, since corrupting someone would carry the risk of being corrupted back in return, and that would be illogical, since corruption is undesirable  On the second charge, Socrates asks for clarification  Meletus responds by repeating the accusation that Socrates is an atheist  Socrates notes the contradiction between atheism and worshipping false gods  He then claims that he is "God's gift" to the Athenians, since his activities ultimately benefit Athens; thus, in condemning him to death, Athens itself will be the greatest loser  After that, he says that even though no human can reach wisdom, seeking it is the best thing someone can do, implying money and prestige are not as precious as commonly thought 

Socrates was given the chance to offer alternative punishments for himself after being found guilty  He could have requested permission to flee Athens and live in exile, but he did not do so  Instead, according to Plato, he requested that a fine should be imposed on him and also suggested that free meals should be provided for him daily in recognition of his worth to Athens  According to Xenophon, however, Socrates made no proposals  The jurors favoured the death penalty by making him drink a cup of hemlock (a poisonous liquid)  In return, Socrates warned jurors and Athenians that criticism of them by his many disciples was inescapable, unless they became good men  After a delay caused by Athenian religious ceremonies, Socrates spent his last day in prison  His friends visited him and offered him an opportunity to escape, which he declined The question of what motivated Athenians to convict Socrates remains controversial among scholars  There are two theories  The first is that Socrates was convicted on religious grounds; the second, that he was accused and convicted for political reasons  Another, more recent, interpretation synthesizes the religious and political theories, arguing that religion and state were not separate in ancient Athens The argument for religious persecution is supported by the fact that Plato's and Xenophon's accounts of the trial mostly focus on the charges of impiety  In those accounts, Socrates is portrayed as making no effort to dispute the fact that he did not believe in the Athenian gods  Against this argument stands the fact that many skeptics and atheist philosophers during this time were not prosecuted  According to the argument for political persecution, Socrates was targeted because he was perceived as a threat to democracy  It was true that Socrates did not stand for democracy during the reign of the Thirty Tyrants and that most of his pupils were against the democrats  The case for it being a political persecution is usually challenged by the existence of an amnesty that was granted to Athenian citizens in 403 BC to prevent escalation to civil war after the fall of the Thirty  However, as the text from Socrates's trial and other texts reveal, the accusers could have fuelled their rhetoric using events prior to 403 BC 

Philosophy
Socratic method
A fundamental characteristic of Plato's Socrates is the Socratic method, or the method of refutation (elenchus)  It is most prominent in the early works of Plato, such as Apology, Crito, Gorgias, Republic I, and others  The typical elenchus proceeds as follows  Socrates initiates a discussion about a topic with a known expert on the subject, usually in the company of some young men and boys, and by dialogue proves the expert's beliefs and arguments to be contradictory  Socrates initiates the dialogue by asking his interlocutor for a definition of the subject  As he asks more questions, the interlocutor's answers eventually contradict the first definition  The conclusion is that the expert did not really know the definition in the first place  The interlocutor may come up with a different definition  That new definition, in turn, comes under the scrutiny of Socratic questioning  With each round of question and answer, Socrates and his interlocutor hope to approach the truth  More often, they continue to reveal their ignorance  Since the interlocutors' definitions most commonly represent the mainstream opinion on a matter, the discussion places doubt on the common opinion Socrates also tests his own opinions through the Socratic method  Thus Socrates does not teach a fixed philosophical doctrine  Rather, he acknowledges his own ignorance while searching for truth with his pupils and interlocutors Scholars have questioned the validity and the exact nature of the Socratic method, or indeed if there even was a Socratic method  In 1982, the scholar of ancient philosophy Gregory Vlastos claimed that the Socratic method could not be used to establish the truth or falsehood of a proposition  Rather, Vlastos argued, it was a way to show that an interlocutor's beliefs were inconsistent  There have been two main lines of thought regarding this view, depending on whether it is accepted that Socrates is seeking to prove a claim wrong  According to the first line of thought, known as the constructivist approach, Socrates indeed seeks to refute a claim by this method, and the method helps in reaching affirmative statements  The non-constructivist approach holds that Socrates merely wants to establish the inconsistency between the premises and conclusion of the initial argument 

Socratic priority of definition
Socrates starts his discussions by prioritizing the search for definitions  In most cases, Socrates initiates his discourse with an expert on a subject by seeking a definition—by asking, for example, what virtue, goodness, justice, or courage is  To establish a definition, Socrates first gathers clear examples of a virtue and then seeks to establish what they had in common  According to Guthrie, Socrates lived in an era when sophists had challenged the meaning of various virtues, questioning their substance; Socrates's quest for a definition was an attempt to clear the atmosphere from their radical skepticism Some scholars have argued that Socrates does not endorse the priority of definition as a principle, because they have identified cases where he does not do so  Some have argued that this priority of definition comes from Plato rather than Socrates  Philosopher Peter Geach, accepting that Socrates endorses the priority of definition, finds the technique fallacious  Αccording to Geach, one may know a proposition even if one cannot define the terms in which the proposition is stated 

Socratic ignorance
Plato's Socrates often claims that he is aware of his own lack of knowledge, especially when discussing ethical concepts such as arete (i e , goodness, courage) since he does not know the nature of such concepts  For example, during his trial, with his life at stake, Socrates says: "I thought Evenus a happy man, if he really possesses this art (technē), and teaches for so moderate a fee  Certainly I would pride and preen myself if I knew (epistamai) these things, but I do not know (epistamai) them, gentlemen"  In some of Plato's dialogues, Socrates appears to credit himself with some knowledge, and can even seem strongly opinionated for a man who professes his own ignorance There are varying explanations of the Socratic inconsistency (other than that Socrates is simply being inconsistent)  One explanation is that Socrates is being either ironic or modest for pedagogical purposes: he aims to let his interlocutor to think for himself rather than guide him to a prefixed answer to his philosophical questions  Another explanation is that Socrates holds different interpretations of the meaning of "knowledge"  Knowledge, for him, might mean systematic understanding of an ethical subject, on which Socrates firmly rejects any kind of mastery; or might refer to lower-level cognition, which Socrates may accept that he possesses  In any case, there is consensus that Socrates accepts that acknowledging one's lack of knowledge is the first step towards wisdom Socrates is known for disavowing knowledge, a claim encapsulated in the saying "I know that I know nothing"  This is often attributed to Socrates on the basis of a statement in Plato's Apology, though the same view is repeatedly found elsewhere in Plato's early writings on Socrates  In other statements, though, he implies or even claims that he does have knowledge  For example, in Plato's Apology Socrates says: "   but that to do injustice and disobey my superior, god or man, this I know to be evil and base   " (Apology, 29b6–7)  In his debate with Callicles, he says: "   I know well that if you will agree with me on those things which my soul believes, those things will be the very truth   "Whether Socrates genuinely thought he lacked knowledge or merely feigned a belief in his own ignorance remains a matter of debate  A common interpretation is that he was indeed feigning modesty  According to Norman Gulley, Socrates did this to entice his interlocutors to speak with him  On the other hand, Terence Irwin claims that Socrates's words should be taken literally Gregory Vlastos argues that there is enough evidence to refute both claims  On his view, for Socrates, there are two separate meanings of "knowledge": Knowledge-C and Knowledge-E (C stands for "certain", and E stands for elenchus, i e  the Socratic method)  Knowledge-C is something unquestionable whereas Knowledge-E is the knowledge derived from Socrates's elenchus  Thus, Socrates speaks the truth when he says he knows-C something, and he is also truthful when saying he knows-E, for example that it is evil for someone to disobey his superiors, as he claims in Apology  Not all scholars have agreed with this semantic dualism  James H  Lesher has argued that Socrates claimed in various dialogues that one word is linked to one meaning (i e  in Hippias Major, Meno, and Laches)  Lesher suggests that although Socrates claimed that he had no knowledge about the nature of virtues, he thought that in some cases, people can know some ethical propositions 

Socratic irony
There is a widespread assumption that Socrates was an ironist, mostly based on the depiction of Socrates by Plato and Aristotle  Socrates's irony is so subtle and slightly humorous that it often leaves the reader wondering if Socrates is making an intentional pun  Plato's Euthyphro is filled with Socratic irony  The story begins when Socrates is meeting with Euthyphro, a man who has accused his own father of murder  When Socrates first hears the details of the story, he comments, "It is not, I think, any random person who could do this [prosecute one's father] correctly, but surely one who is already far progressed in wisdom"  When Euthyphro boasts about his understanding of divinity, Socrates responds that it is "most important that I become your student"  Socrates is commonly seen as ironic when using praise to flatter or when addressing his interlocutors Scholars are divided on why Socrates uses irony  According to an opinion advanced since the Hellenistic period, Socratic irony is a playful way to get the audience's attention  Another line of thought holds that Socrates conceals his philosophical message with irony, making it accessible only to those who can separate the parts of his statements which are ironic from those which are not  Gregory Vlastos has identified a more complex pattern of irony in Socrates  On Vlastos's view, Socrates's words have a double meaning, both ironic and not  One example is when he denies having knowledge  Vlastos suggests that Socrates is being ironic when he says he has no knowledge (where "knowledge" means a lower form of cognition); while, according to another sense of "knowledge", Socrates is serious when he says he has no knowledge of ethical matters  This opinion is not shared by many other scholars 

Socratic eudaimonism and intellectualism
For Socrates, the pursuit of eudaimonia motivates all human action, directly or indirectly  Virtue and knowledge are linked, in Socrates's view, to eudaimonia, but how closely he considered them to be connected is still debated  Some argue that Socrates thought that virtue and eudaimonia are identical  According to another view, virtue serves as a means to eudaimonia (the "identical" and "sufficiency" theses, respectively)  Another point of debate is whether, according to Socrates, people desire what is in fact good—or, rather, simply what they perceive as good Moral intellectualism refers to the prominent role Socrates gave to knowledge  He believed that all virtue was based on knowledge (hence Socrates is characterized as a virtue intellectualist)  He also believed that humans were guided by the cognitive power to comprehend what they desire, while diminishing the role of impulses (a view termed motivational intellectualism)  In Plato's Protagoras (345c4–e6), Socrates implies that "no one errs willingly", which has become the hallmark of Socratic virtue intellectualism  In Socratic moral philosophy, priority is given to the intellect as being the way to live a good life; Socrates deemphasizes irrational beliefs or passions  Plato's dialogues that support Socrates's intellectual motivism—as this thesis is named—are mainly the Gorgias (467c–8e, where Socrates discusses the actions of a tyrant that do not benefit him) and Meno (77d–8b, where Socrates explains to Meno his view that no one wants bad things, unless they do not know what is good and bad in the first place)  Scholars have been puzzled by Socrates's view that akrasia (acting because of one's irrational passions, contrary to one's knowledge or beliefs) is impossible  Most believe that Socrates left no space for irrational desires, although some claim that Socrates acknowledged the existence of irrational motivations, but denied they play a primary role in decision-making 

Religion
Socrates's religious nonconformity challenged the views of his times and his critique reshaped religious discourse for the coming centuries  In Ancient Greece, organized religion was fragmented, celebrated in a number of festivals for specific gods, such as the City Dionysia, or in domestic rituals, and there were no sacred texts  Religion intermingled with the daily life of citizens, who performed their personal religious duties mainly with sacrifices to various gods  Whether Socrates was a practicing man of religion or a 'provocateur atheist' has been a point of debate since ancient times; his trial included impiety accusations, and the controversy has not yet ceased Socrates discusses divinity and the soul mostly in Alcibiades, Euthyphro, and Apology  In Alcibiades Socrates links the human soul to divinity, concluding "Then this part of her resembles God, and whoever looks at this, and comes to know all that is divine, will gain thereby the best knowledge of himself " His discussions on religion always fall under the lens of his rationalism  Socrates, in Euthyphro, reaches a conclusion which takes him far from the age's usual practice: he considers sacrifices to the gods to be useless, especially when they are driven by the hope of receiving a reward in return  Instead he calls for philosophy and the pursuit of knowledge to be the principal way of worshipping the gods  His rejection of traditional forms of piety, connecting them to self-interest, implied that Athenians should seek religious experience by self-examination Socrates argued that the gods were inherently wise and just, a perception far from traditional religion at that time  In Euthyphro, the Euthyphro dilemma arises  Socrates questions his interlocutor about the relationship between piety and the will of a powerful god: Is something good because it is the will of this god, or is it the will of this god because it is good? In other words, does piety follow the good, or the god? The trajectory of Socratic thought contrasts with traditional Greek theology, which took lex talionis (the eye for an eye principle) for granted  Socrates thought that goodness is independent from gods, and gods must themselves be pious Socrates affirms a belief in gods in Plato's Apology, where he says to the jurors that he acknowledges gods more than his accusers  For Plato's Socrates, the existence of gods is taken for granted; in none of his dialogues does he probe whether gods exist or not  In Apology, a case for Socrates being agnostic can be made, based on his discussion of the great unknown after death, and in Phaedo (the dialogue with his students in his last day) Socrates gives expression to a clear belief in the immortality of the soul  He also believed in oracles, divinations and other messages from gods  These signs did not offer him any positive belief on moral issues; rather, they were predictions of unfavorable future events In Xenophon's Memorabilia, Socrates constructs an argument close to the contemporary teleological intelligent-design argument  He claims that since there are many features in the universe that exhibit "signs of forethought" (e g , eyelids), a divine creator must have created the universe  He then deduces that the creator should be omniscient and omnipotent and also that it created the universe for the advance of humankind, since humans naturally have many abilities that other animals do not  At times, Socrates speaks of a single deity, while at other times he refers to plural "gods"  This has been interpreted to mean that he either believed that a supreme deity commanded other gods, or that various gods were parts, or manifestations, of this single deity It has been a source of puzzlement how Socrates's religious beliefs can be consistent with his strict adherence to rationalism  Philosophy professor Mark McPherran suggests that Socrates interpreted every divine sign through secular rationality for confirmation  Professor of ancient philosophy A  A  Long suggests that it is anachronistic to suppose that Socrates believed the religious and rational realms were separate 

Socratic daimonion
In several texts (e g , Plato's Euthyphro 3b5; Apology 31c–d; Xenophon's Memorabilia 1 1 2) Socrates claims he hears a daimōnic sign—an inner voice heard usually when he was about to make a mistake  Socrates gave a brief description of this daimonion at his trial (Apology 31c–d): "  



ground_truth: 37.5

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The "New York Times" bestselling book "The 50th Law" contains lessons and anecdotes from this historical figure who was a classical Greek (Athenian) philosopher who is known mainly through the writings of which philosopher?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: The reason for this is something you have heard me frequently mention in different places—namely, the fact that I experience something divine and daimonic, as Meletus has inscribed in his indictment, by way of mockery  It started in my childhood, the occurrence of a particular voice  Whenever it occurs, it always deters me from the course of action I was intending to engage in, but it never gives me positive advice  It is this that has opposed my practicing politics, and I think its doing so has been absolutely fine " Modern scholarship has variously interpreted this Socratic daimōnion as a rational source of knowledge, an impulse, a dream or even a paranormal experience felt by an ascetic Socrates 

Virtue and knowledge
Socrates's theory of virtue states that all virtues are essentially one, since they are a form of knowledge  For Socrates, the reason a person is not good is because they lack knowledge  Since knowledge is united, virtues are united as well  Another famous dictum—"no one errs willingly"—also derives from this theory  In Protagoras, Socrates argues for the unity of virtues using the example of courage: if someone knows what the relevant danger is, they can undertake a risk  Aristotle comments: "     Socrates the elder thought that the end of life was knowledge of virtue, and he used to seek for the definition of justice, courage, and each of the parts of virtue, and this was a reasonable approach, since he thought that all virtues were sciences, and that as soon as one knew [for example] justice, he would be just   "

Love
Some texts suggest that Socrates had love affairs with Alcibiades and other young persons; others suggest that Socrates's friendship with young boys sought only to improve them and were not sexual  In Gorgias, Socrates claims he was a dual lover of Alcibiades and philosophy, and his flirtatiousness is evident in Protagoras, Meno (76a–c) and Phaedrus (227c–d)  However, the exact nature of his relationship with Alcibiades is not clear; Socrates was known for his self-restraint, while Alcibiades admits in the Symposium that he had tried to seduce Socrates but failed The Socratic theory of love is mostly deduced from Lysis, where Socrates discusses love at a wrestling school in the company of Lysis and his friends  They start their dialogue by investigating parental love and how it manifests with respect to the freedom and boundaries that parents set for their children  Socrates concludes that if Lysis is utterly useless, nobody will love him—not even his parents  While most scholars believe this text was intended to be humorous, it has also been suggested that Lysis shows Socrates held an egoistic view of love, according to which we only love people who are useful to us in some way  Other scholars disagree with this view, arguing that Socrates's doctrine leaves room for non-egoistic love for a spouse; still others deny that Socrates suggests any egoistic motivation at all  In Symposium, Socrates argues that children offer the false impression of immortality to their parents, and this misconception yields a form of unity among them  Scholars also note that for Socrates, love is rational It is notable that Socrates, who claims to know only that he does not know, makes an exception (in Plato's Symposium), where he says he will tell the truth about Love, which he learned from a 'clever woman'  Classicist Armand D'Angour has made the case that Socrates was in his youth close to Aspasia, and that Diotima, to whom Socrates attributes his understanding of love in Symposium, is based on her; however, it is also possible that Diotima really existed 

Socratic philosophy of politics
While Socrates was involved in public political and cultural debates, it is hard to define his exact political philosophy  In Plato's Gorgias, he tells Callicles: "I believe that I'm one of a few Athenians—so as not to say I'm the only one, but the only one among our contemporaries—to take up the true political craft and practice the true politics  This is because the speeches I make on each occasion do not aim at gratification but at what's best " His claim illustrates his aversion for the established democratic assemblies and procedures such as voting—since Socrates saw politicians and rhetoricians as using tricks to mislead the public  He never ran for office or suggested any legislation  Rather, he aimed to help the city flourish by "improving" its citizens  As a citizen, he abided by the law  He obeyed the rules and carried out his military duty by fighting wars abroad  His dialogues, however, make little mention of contemporary political decisions, such as the Sicilian Expedition Socrates spent his time conversing with citizens, among them powerful members of Athenian society, scrutinizing their beliefs and bringing the contradictions of their ideas to light  Socrates believed he was doing them a favor since, for him, politics was about shaping the moral landscape of the city through philosophy rather than electoral procedures  There is a debate over where Socrates stood in the polarized Athenian political climate, which was divided between oligarchs and democrats  While there is no clear textual evidence, one widely held theory holds that Socrates leaned towards democracy: he disobeyed the one order that the oligarchic government of the Thirty Tyrants gave him; he respected the laws and political system of Athens (which were formulated by democrats); and, according to this argument, his affinity for the ideals of democratic Athens was a reason why he did not want to escape prison and the death penalty  On the other hand, there is some evidence that Socrates leaned towards oligarchy: most of his friends supported oligarchy, he was contemptuous of the opinion of the many and was critical of the democratic process, and Protagoras shows some anti-democratic elements  A less mainstream argument suggests that Socrates favoured democratic republicanism, a theory that prioritizes active participation in public life and concern for the city Yet another suggestion is that Socrates endorsed views in line with liberalism, a political ideology formed in the Age of Enlightenment  This argument is mostly based on Crito and Apology, where Socrates talks about the mutually beneficial relationship between the city and its citizens  According to Socrates, citizens are morally autonomous and free to leave the city if they wish—but, by staying within the city, they also accept the laws and the city's authority over them  On the other hand, Socrates has been seen as the first proponent of civil disobedience  Socrates's strong objection to injustice, along with his refusal to serve the Thirty Tyrants' order to arrest Leon, are suggestive of this line  As he says in Critias, "One ought never act unjustly, even to repay a wrong that has been done to oneself " Ιn the broader picture, Socrates's advice would be for citizens to follow the orders of the state, unless, after much reflection, they deem them to be unjust 

Legacy
Hellenistic era
Socrates's impact was immense in philosophy after his death  With the exception of the Epicureans and the Pyrrhonists, almost all philosophical currents after Socrates traced their roots to him: Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum, the Cynics, and the Stoics  Interest in Socrates kept increasing until the third century AD  The various schools differed in response to fundamental questions such as the purpose of life or the nature of arete (virtue), since Socrates had not handed them an answer, and therefore, philosophical schools subsequently diverged greatly in their interpretation of his thought  He was considered to have shifted the focus of philosophy from a study of the natural world, as was the case for pre-Socratic philosophers, to a study of human affairs Immediate followers of Socrates were his pupils, Euclid of Megara, Aristippus, and Antisthenes, who drew differing conclusions among themselves and followed independent trajectories  The full doctrines of Socrates's pupils are difficult to reconstruct  Antisthenes had a profound contempt of material goods  According to him, virtue was all that mattered  Diogenes and the Cynics continued this line of thought  On the opposite end, Aristippus endorsed the accumulation of wealth and lived a luxurious life  After leaving Athens and returning to his home city of Cyrene, he founded the Cyrenaic philosophical school which was based on hedonism, and endorsing living an easy life with physical pleasures  His school passed to his grandson, bearing the same name  There is a dialogue in Xenophon's work in which Aristippus claims he wants to live without wishing to rule or be ruled by others  In addition, Aristippus maintained a skeptical stance on epistemology, claiming that we can be certain only of our own feelings  This view resonates with the Socratic understanding of ignorance  Euclid was a contemporary of Socrates  After Socrates's trial and death, he left Athens for the nearby town of Megara, where he founded a school, named the Megarians  His theory was built on the pre-Socratic monism of Parmenides  Euclid continued Socrates's thought, focusing on the nature of virtue 
The Stoics relied heavily on Socrates  They applied the Socratic method as a tool to avoid inconsistencies  Their moral doctrines focused on how to live a smooth life through wisdom and virtue  The Stoics assigned virtue a crucial role in attaining happiness and also prioritized the relation between goodness and ethical excellence, all of which echoed Socratic thought  At the same time, the philosophical current of Platonism claimed Socrates as its predecessor, in ethics and in its theory of knowledge  Arcesilaus, who became the head of the Academy about 80 years after its founding by Plato, radically changed the Academy's doctrine to what is now known as Academic Skepticism, centered on the Socratic philosophy of ignorance  The Academic Skeptics competed with the Stoics over who was Socrates's true heir with regard to ethics  While the Stoics insisted on knowledge-based ethics, Arcesilaus relied on Socratic ignorance  The Stoics' reply to Arcesilaus was that Socratic ignorance was part of Socratic irony (they themselves disapproved the use of irony), an argument that ultimately became the dominant narrative of Socrates in later antiquity While Aristotle considered Socrates an important philosopher, Socrates was not a central figure in Aristotelian thought  One of Aristotle's pupils, Aristoxenus even authored a book detailing Socrates's scandals 
The Epicureans were antagonistic to Socrates  They attacked him for superstition, criticizing his belief in his daimonion and his regard for the oracle at Delphi  They also criticized Socrates for his character and various faults, and focusing mostly on his irony, which was deemed inappropriate for a philosopher and unseemly for a teacher The Pyrrhonists were also antagonistic to Socrates, accusing him of being a prater about ethics, who engaged in mock humility, and who sneered at and mocked people 

Medieval world
Socratic thought found its way to the Islamic Middle East alongside that of Aristotle and the Stoics  Plato's works on Socrates, as well as other ancient Greek literature, were translated into Arabic by early Muslim scholars such as Al-Kindi, Jabir ibn Hayyan, and the Muʿtazila  For Muslim scholars, Socrates was hailed and admired for combining his ethics with his lifestyle, perhaps because of the resemblance in this regard with Muhammad's personality  Socratic doctrines were altered to match Islamic faith: according to Muslim scholars, Socrates made arguments for monotheism and for the temporality of this world and rewards in the next life  His influence in the Arabic-speaking world continues to the present day In medieval times, little of Socrates's thought survived in the Christian world as a whole; however, works on Socrates from Christian scholars such as Lactantius, Eusebius and Augustine were maintained in the Byzantine Empire, where Socrates was studied under a Christian lens  After the fall of Constantinople, many of the texts were brought back into the world of Roman Christianity, where they were translated into Latin  Overall, ancient Socratic philosophy, like the rest of classical literature before the Renaissance, was addressed with skepticism in the Christian world at first During the early Italian Renaissance, two different narratives of Socrates developed  On the one hand, the humanist movement revived interest in classical authors  Leonardo Bruni translated many of Plato's Socratic dialogues, while his pupil Giannozzo Manetti authored a well-circulated book, a Life of Socrates  They both presented a civic version of Socrates, according to which Socrates was a humanist and a supporter of republicanism  Bruni and Manetti were interested in defending secularism as a non-sinful way of life; presenting a view of Socrates that was aligned with Christian morality assisted their cause  In doing so, they had to censor parts of his dialogues, especially those which appeared to promote homosexuality or any possibility of pederasty (with Alcibiades), or which suggested that the Socratic daimon was a god  On the other hand, a different picture of Socrates was presented by Italian Neoplatonists, led by the philosopher and priest Marsilio Ficino  Ficino was impressed by Socrates's un-hierarchical and informal way teaching, which he tried to replicate  Ficino portrayed a holy picture of Socrates, finding parallels with the life of Jesus Christ  For Ficino and his followers, Socratic ignorance signified his acknowledgement that all wisdom is God-given (through the Socratic daimon) 

Modern times
In early modern France, Socrates's image was dominated by features of his private life rather than his philosophical thought, in various novels and satirical plays  Some thinkers used Socrates to highlight and comment upon controversies of their own era, like Théophile de Viau who portrayed a Christianized Socrates accused of atheism, while for Voltaire, the figure of Socrates represented a reason-based theist  Michel de Montaigne wrote extensively on Socrates, linking him to rationalism as a counterweight to contemporary religious fanatics In the 18th century, German idealism revived philosophical interest in Socrates, mainly through Hegel's work  For Hegel, Socrates marked a turning point in the history of humankind by the introduction of the principle of free subjectivity or self-determination  While Hegel hails Socrates for his contribution, he nonetheless justifies the Athenian court, for Socrates's insistence upon self-determination would be destructive of the Sittlichkeit (a Hegelian term signifying the way of life as shaped by the institutions and laws of the State)  Also, Hegel sees the Socratic use of rationalism as a continuation of Protagoras' focus on human reasoning (as encapsulated in the motto homo mensura: "man is the measure of all things"), but modified: it is our reasoning that can help us reach objective conclusions about reality  Also, Hegel considered Socrates as a predecessor of later ancient skeptic philosophers, even though he never clearly explained why Søren Kierkegaard considered Socrates his teacher, and authored his master's thesis on him, The Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates  There he argues that Socrates is not a moral philosopher but is purely an ironist  He also focused on Socrates's avoidance of writing: for Kierkegaard, this avoidance was a sign of humility, deriving from Socrates's acceptance of his ignorance  Not only did Socrates not write anything down, according to Kierkegaard, but his contemporaries misconstrued and misunderstood him as a philosopher, leaving us with an almost impossible task in comprehending Socratic thought  Only Plato's Apology was close to the real Socrates, in Kierkegaard's view  In his writings, he revisited Socrates quite frequently; in his later work, Kierkegaard found ethical elements in Socratic thought  Socrates was not only a subject of study for Kierkegaard, he was a model as well: Kierkegaard paralleled his task as a philosopher to Socrates  He writes, "The only analogy I have before me is Socrates; my task is a Socratic task, to audit the definition of what it is to be a Christian", with his aim being to bring society closer to the Christian ideal, since he believed that Christianity had become a formality, void of any Christian essence  Kierkegaard denied being a Christian, as Socrates denied possessing any knowledge Friedrich Nietzsche resented Socrates's contributions to Western culture  In his first book, The Birth of Tragedy (1872), Nietzsche held Socrates responsible for what he saw as the deterioration of ancient Greek civilization during the 4th century BC and after  For Nietzsche, Socrates turned the scope of philosophy from pre-Socratic naturalism to rationalism and intellectualism  He writes: "I conceive of [the Presocratics] as precursors to a reformation of the Greeks: but not of Socrates"; "with Empedocles and Democritus the Greeks were well on their way towards taking the correct measure of human existence, its unreason, its suffering; they never reached this goal, thanks to Socrates"  The effect, Nietzsche proposed, was a perverse situation that had continued down to his day: our culture is a Socratic culture, he believed  In a later publication, The Twilight of the Idols (1887), Nietzsche continued his offensive against Socrates, focusing on the arbitrary linking of reason to virtue and happiness in Socratic thinking  He writes: "I try to understand from what partial and idiosyncratic states the Socratic problem is to be derived: his equation of reason = virtue = happiness  It was with this absurdity of a doctrine of identity that he fascinated: ancient philosophy never again freed itself [from this fascination]"  From the late 19th century until the early 20th, the most common explanation of Nietzsche's hostility towards Socrates was his anti-rationalism; he considered Socrates the father of European rationalism  In the mid-20th century, philosopher Walter Kaufmann published an article arguing that Nietzsche admired Socrates  Current mainstream opinion is that Nietzsche was ambivalent towards Socrates 

Continental philosophers Hannah Arendt, Leo Strauss and Karl Popper, after experiencing the horrors of World War II, amidst the rise of totalitarian regimes, saw Socrates as an icon of individual conscience  Arendt, in Eichmann in Jerusalem (1963), suggests that Socrates's constant questioning and self-reflection could prevent the banality of evil  Strauss considers Socrates's political thought as paralleling Plato's  He sees an elitist Socrates in Plato's Republic as exemplifying why the polis is not, and could not be, an ideal way of organizing life, since philosophical truths cannot be digested by the masses  Popper takes the opposite view: he argues that Socrates opposes Plato's totalitarian ideas  For Popper, Socratic individualism, along with Athenian democracy, imply Popper's concept of the "open society" as described in his Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) 

See also
Bibliography of Socrates
De genio Socratis
List of cultural depictions of Socrates
List of speakers in Plato's dialogues
Socratic fallacy
Socratic Letters

Notes
Sources
Further reading
Brun, Jean (1978)  Socrate (in French) (6th ed )  Presses universitaires de France  pp  39–40  ISBN 978-2-13-035620-2 
Benson, Hugh (1992)  Essays on the philosophy of Socrates  New York: Oxford University Press  ISBN 978-0-19-506757-6  OCLC 23179683 
Rudebusch, George (2009)  Socrates  Chichester, UK; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell  ISBN 978-1-4051-5085-9  OCLC 476311710 
Taylor, C  C  W  (1998)  Socrates  Oxford University Press  ISBN 978-0-19-287601-0 
Taylor, C  C  W  (2019)  Socrates: A Very Short Introduction  Oxford University Press  ISBN 978-0-19-883598-1 
Vlastos, Gregory (1994)  Socratic Studies  Cambridge University Press  ISBN 978-0-521-44735-5 

External links

Socrates at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
The Dialogues of Plato at Project Gutenberg
Passage 3:
The 50th Law
The 50th Law is a New York Times bestselling book on strategy and fearlessness written collaboratively by rapper 50 Cent and author Robert Greene  The book is a semi-autobiographical account detailing 50 Cent's rise as both a young urban hustler and as an up-and-coming musician with lessons and anecdotes from historical figures such as Abraham Lincoln, Sun Tzu, Socrates, Napoleon, Malcolm X, and James Baldwin 

Origins
The 50th Law grew out of the friendship and mutual admiration between 50 Cent and Robert Greene  Greene's book The 48 Laws of Power, which has long been a staple in the hip hop world, came to the attention of 50 Cent, who asked his manager to arrange a meeting  Greene said that he was surprised by 50 Cent's persona and was impressed by his "Zen-like calmness" and eye for strategy  The two began to work on a book project that would combine their two worlds According to Greene, 50 Cent is an example of what Machiavelli called a New Prince, a leader who emerges in a time of chaos or turmoil and rewrites the rules  According to 50 Cent, Greene's books describe the laws and strategies used by hustlers on the street, even if they might not know the "technical terms" for what they were doing 

Synopsis
Each of the 10 chapters in the book explains a factor of fearlessness and begins by telling how 50 Cent learned this Fearless Philosophy in Southside Queens  The 50th Law illustrates the laws of the book by supplementing anecdotes from 50 Cent's life with historical examples from Malcolm X, Miles Davis, Sun Tzu, François de La Rochefoucauld, Machiavelli, Richard Wright, James Baldwin, Thucydides, Dostoyevsky, Charlie Parker, and the Baron de Montesquieu 

Reception
The book debuted at #5 on The New York Times Bestseller list and was a USA Today bestseller  The book was met with positive reviews, with the New York Post calling The 50th Law "a modern day Art of War," The Guardian referring to the book as "a manual on power similar to the works of Machiavelli and Sun Tzu," and Library Journal stating that The 50th Law is written for "anyone interested in how to succeed in business and the game of life "The book was also featured in The New York Times, MSNBC, Huffington Post, The Sun, The New York Daily News, Forbes, Business Insider, Fast Company, The Telegraph, MTV, Vibe and Billboard  In promotion of the book, Greene and 50 Cent appeared on The Today Show, CNBC, ABC, BBC and MTV News  The 50th Law was also published as a 60-page comic book 
Passage 4:
Trust Me, I'm Lying
Trust Me, I'm Lying: Confessions of a Media Manipulator is a book by Ryan Holiday chronicling  his time working as a media strategist for clients including  Tucker Max, Robert Greene, and Dov Charney 

Background and description
Trust Me, I'm Lying was billed as an exposé of the  online journalism system that rose to prominence in the decade before the book's 2012 publication 
Holiday is the former Director of Marketing for American Apparel, where he created controversial campaigns that garnered widespread publicity  Holiday has also done publicity work for Tucker Max, including marketing for the film adaptation of I Hope They Serve Beer in Hell and a media stunt about Max's failed attempt to donate $500,000 to Planned Parenthood The book is split into two parts: the first explains why blogs matter, how they drive the news, and how they can be manipulated, while the second shows what happens when this is done, how it backfires, and the consequences of the current media system As an example of his argument that blogs shape the news, Holiday outlines how the political blog Politico dedicated significant coverage to the campaign of Tim Pawlenty two years before the 2012 elections in order to generate pageviews for advertisers  Although Pawlenty did not yet have an official campaign, this kickstarted the media cycle which painted Pawlenty as a serious presidential candidate  As an example of the pageview-intensive blogosphere, Holiday uses the example of Jezebel writer Irin Carmon's attack on Jon Stewart and The Daily Show with misleading claims of "The Daily Show's Woman Problem " The book is also the source of a marketing and media concept now referred to as "trading up the chain", in which news is broken on small blogs and passed to successively larger and more influential media outlets 

Release
In 2011, it was reported that Holiday received a $500,000 advance for a tell-all exposé about these clients and the modern media system from Portfolio, a subsidiary of Penguin Books  However, some outlets later accused the advance of being a strategic marketing stunt engineered by Holiday Trust Me, I'm Lying debuted on the Wall Street Journal bestseller list  Publishers Weekly stated that "Media students and bloggers would do well to heed Holiday's informative, timely, and provocative advice " Kirkus Reviews called Trust Me, I'm Lying "[a] sharp and disturbing look into the world of online reality "In anticipation of the book's release, Holiday infiltrated the public relations service Help a Reporter Out and posed as an "expert" on various issues to show that journalists will print statements without fact checking  Holiday made decoy claims to prove the point; some of those were subsequently quoted in articles about subjects ranging from boating upkeep to insomnia to vinyl records in outlets such as The New York Times, MSNBC, and ABC, and the story was profiled in Forbes and Yahoo! News In 2013, The Edmonton Journal named Trust Me, I'm Lying one of their “favourite books of the year ”
Passage 5:
Bianca Bosker
Bianca Bosker is an American journalist and bestselling author  Her nonfiction book on sommelier training,  Cork Dork, was a New York Times bestseller  Her work has appeared in publications including The Wall Street Journal, Fast Company, The Atlantic, Food & Wine, The New York Times, Far Eastern Economic Review, and  The Oregonian Bosker is the author of Original Copies: Architectural Mimicry in Contemporary China  She is an alumna of Princeton University, and co-founder of the Huffington Post Technology section 
Passage 6:
The Nasty Bits
The Nasty Bits: Collected Varietal Cuts, Usable Trim, Scraps, and Bones, is a largely nonfiction New York Times bestselling book by Anthony Bourdain, published in 2006  The book is a collection of 37 exotic, provocative, and humorous anecdotes and essays, many of them centered around food, followed by a 30-page fiction piece ("A Chef's Christmas")  The book concludes with an appendix of commentaries on the various pieces, including when and why they were written The essays range from descriptions of restaurant-kitchen life; to various rants about places, people, and things Bourdain objects to; to lively accounts of far-flung world travels and remote ethnic life and food; to accolades of the unsung Latinos who cook most fine-dining restaurant food in America; to glowing reports of cutting-edge chefs like Ferran Adrià; to details of Bourdain's obsessions and pursuits when he is not working; to opinions and anecdotes on various other subjects 
Bourdain organized the various essays and anecdotes into sections named for each of the five traditional flavors:

Salty
Sweet
Sour
Bitter
UmamiThe book is, according to Bourdain, basically a collection of the best of his magazine and newspaper writings during the previous few years  As he says in the preface:

I've done a lot of writing for magazines and newspapers in the last few years, and it's the better morsels (I hope) from that work that follow       I've been writing this stuff for much the same reason behind my frenetic traveling: Because I can  Because there's so little time  Because there's been so much to see and remember      It's an irritating reality that many places and events defy description  Angkor Wat and Machu Picchu, for instance, seem to demand silence, like a love affair you can never talk about  For a while after, you fumble for words, trying vainly to assemble a private narrative, an explanation, a comfortable way to frame where you've been and what's happened  In the end, you're just happy you were there—with your eyes open—and lived to see it 
Passage 7:
Andrew Ross Sorkin
Andrew Ross Sorkin (born February 19, 1977) is an American journalist and author   He is a financial columnist for The New York Times and a co-anchor of CNBC's Squawk Box  He is also the founder and editor of DealBook, a financial news service published by The New York Times  He wrote the bestselling book Too Big to Fail and co-produced a movie adaptation of the book for HBO Films  He is also a co-creator of the Showtime series Billions 

Early life and education
Sorkin was born in New York, the son of Joan Ross Sorkin, a playwright, and Laurence T  Sorkin, a partner at the law firm Cahill Gordon & Reindel  Sorkin graduated from Scarsdale High School in 1995 and earned a Bachelor of Science in communications from Cornell University in 1999 where he was a member of Sigma Pi fraternity  He is not related to writer Aaron Sorkin nor defense lawyer Ira Lee Sorkin  His family heritage and religion are Jewish 

Career
Journalist
Sorkin first joined The New York Times as a student intern during his senior year in high school  He also worked for the paper while he was in college, publishing 71 articles before he graduated  He began by writing media and technology articles while assisting the advertising columnist, Stuart Elliott  Sorkin spent the summer of 1996 working for Businessweek, before returning to The New York Times   He moved to London for part of 1998  While there, he wrote about European business and technology for The New York Times and then returned to Cornell to complete his studies  At Cornell, he was vice president of the Sigma Pi fraternity 

Mergers and acquisitions reporter
Sorkin joined The New York Times full-time in 1999 as the newspaper's European mergers and acquisitions reporter, and was based in London  In 2000, Sorkin became the paper's chief mergers and acquisitions reporter, based in New York, a position he still holds  In 2001, Sorkin founded "DealBook," an online daily financial report published by the Times  As Editor-at-Large of "DealBook," Sorkin writes a weekly column of the same name  Sorkin is also an assistant editor of business and finance news for the paper Sorkin has broken news of major mergers and acquisitions, including Chase's acquisition of J P  Morgan and Hewlett-Packard's acquisition of Compaq  He also led The New York Times' coverage of the largest takeover in history, Vodafone's $183 billion hostile bid for Mannesmann  Additionally, he broke the news of IBM's sale of its PC business to Lenovo, Boston Scientific's $25 billion acquisition of Guidant and Symantec's $13 billion deal for Veritas Software, and reported on News Corp 's acquisition of Dow Jones and The Wall Street Journal 
Sorkin has reported on the Wall Street financial crisis, including the collapse of Bear Stearns and Lehman Brothers, and the government bailout of other major investment banks and AIG  He has also written about the troubled American auto industry 
In 2007, Sorkin was one of the first journalists to identify and criticize a tax loophole for private equity firms and hedge funds  He first wrote about the topic in a column in March 2007, calling the tax treatment a "charade", and later wrote about it on the front page of The New York Times  He has written at least a half dozen articles critiquing the tax practice by private equity firms and advocated for the government to end the loophole In 2014, Sorkin wrote a series of columns criticizing American corporations for trying to lower their US tax bill by merging with smaller foreign companies in a transaction known as an "inversion"  He also criticized the Wall Street banks that advised US companies to pursue such deals, describing the banks as "corporate co-conspirators"  Sorkin called on the government to end the practice  On September 22, 2014, the Obama Administration changed the tax laws to make it more difficult for US companies to merge to avoid taxes On the PRISM surveillance program and Edward Snowden situation, Sorkin said, "I would arrest him and now I'd almost arrest Glenn Greenwald, the journalist who seems to be out there, he wants to help him get to Ecuador " The next day, Sorkin apologized for the comment; Greenwald accepted, tweeting "Thank you: accepted & appreciated" 

DealBook
In October 2001, while a journalist at The New York Times, Sorkin started DealBook, a newsletter about deal-making and Wall Street  DealBook was one of the first financial news aggregation services on the Internet  In March 2006, Sorkin introduced a companion website published on The New York Times, with updated news and original analysis throughout the day  In 2007, DealBook won a Webby Award for Best Business Blog and it won a SABEW award for overall excellence  In 2008, the site won an EPpy Award for Best Business Blog 

Television
In July 2011, Sorkin became a co-anchor on CNBC's Squawk Box in addition to his duties at The New York Times  Sorkin has appeared on NBC's Today show, Charlie Rose and The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer on PBS, MSNBC's Hardball and Morning Joe, ABC's Good Morning America, The Chris Matthews Show, HBO's Real Time with Bill Maher, the BBC World Service, Comedy Central's The Daily Show and The Colbert Report, and was a frequent guest host of CNBC's Squawk Box before joining the ensemble  Sorkin also hosted a weekly seven-part, half-hour PBS talk-show series called It's the Economy, NY, which focused on how the evolving economic crisis was affecting New Yorkers Along with Brian Koppelman and David Levien, Sorkin is a co-creator of the Showtime series Billions, an American television drama series starring Paul Giamatti and Damian Lewis  The series is loosely based on crusading federal prosecutor of financial crimes, Preet Bharara, the former U S  Attorney for the Southern District of New York  The show premiered in January 2016 

Too Big to Fail
Sorkin's book on the Wall Street banking crisis, Too Big to Fail: The Inside Story of How Wall Street and Washington Fought to Save the Financial System—and Themselves, was published by Viking on October 20, 2009  It won the 2010 Gerald Loeb Award for best business book of the year, was on the shortlist for the 2010 Samuel Johnson Prize, shortlisted for the 2010 Financial Times and Goldman Sachs Business Book of the Year Award, and was on The New York Times Best Seller list (non-fiction hardcover and paperback) for six months 
The book was adapted as a movie by HBO Films and premiered on HBO on May 23, 2011  The film was directed by Curtis Hanson and the screenplay was written by Peter Gould  The cast included William Hurt as Hank Paulson, the Treasury Secretary; Paul Giamatti as Ben Bernanke, the chairman of the Federal Reserve;  Billy Crudup as Timothy Geithner, the then-president of the New York Federal Reserve Bank; James Woods as Richard Fuld, the CEO of Lehman Brothers; Edward Asner as Warren Buffett, the CEO of Berkshire Hathaway; Cynthia Nixon as Michele Davis, assistant secretary for public affairs at Treasury; Bill Pullman as Jamie Dimon, CEO of JPMorgan Chase; as well as Topher Grace as Jim Wilkinson, Chief of Staff to the Treasury Secretary  Sorkin was a co-producer of the film and had a cameo appearance as a reporter 

Awards
Sorkin shared the Gerald Loeb Award in 2005 for Deadline Writing and earned another for Business Book in 2010 for his book Too Big to Fail  He also won a Society of American Business Editors and Writers Award for breaking news in 2005 and again in 2006  In 2007, the World Economic Forum named him a Young Global Leader  Also in 2007, SiliconAlleyInsider com named Sorkin one of New York's "most influential scribes " In 2008, Vanity Fair magazine named Sorkin as one of 40 new members of the "Next Establishment," and he appeared on the UJA Federation's 2013 list of 40 under 40 top "movers and shakers" in the Jewish community  He is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations  In 2022, Sorkin won an Emmy Award for his New York Times interview with WeWork founder Adam Neumann 

In popular culture
In the penultimate episode of Breaking Bad, called "Granite State," Sorkin is briefly referenced  He is said to have written an op-ed in The New York Times accusing fictional entrepreneurs Gretchen and Elliott Schwartz of making donations to drug rehabilitation centers in the hopes of cleansing their company's image after the Walter White scandal  Sorkin later wrote the entire fictional article 

Personal life
Sorkin married Pilar Jenny Queen on June 9, 2007 Sorkin has a coloboma in his left eye that sometimes makes it appear as if he has two different colored eyes 

See also
New Yorkers in journalism
Passage 8:
G-Unit Books
G-Unit Books was an American book publishing imprint started by rapper 50 Cent in partnership with MTV/Pocketbooks on January 4, 2007, following a prior relationship with the company dating back to the publication of his memoir in 2005  He launched  G-Unit Books at the Time Warner Building in New York In addition to his memoir, 50 also co-wrote The Ski Mask Way, a novel about a small-time drug dealer who attempts to rob his employers   All G-Unit books were meant to be street fiction encouraging reading at a younger age G-Unit Books released its last books in 2011 

Bibliography
From Pieces To Weight : Once Upon A Time In Southside Queens (Release Date : August 15, 2006)
Baby Brother (Release Date : January 9, 2007)
Death Before Dishonor (Release Date : January 9, 2007)
The Ski Mask Way (Release Date : January 9, 2007)
Blow (Release Date : July 12, 2007)
Derelict (Release Date : July 12, 2007)
Harlem Heat (Release Date : July 24, 2007)
Heaven's Fury (Release Date : November 20, 2007)
The Diamond District (Release Date : March 25, 2008)
Tia's Diary : Deeper Than Rap (Release Date : May 25, 2009)
The 50th Law (Released : September 8, 2009)
Playground (Released : November 1, 2011)



ground_truth: Plato

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What organization does Sandra Pizzarello and Doctorate have in common?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: Passage 1:
John C  Sigler
John C  Sigler  (born 1945) is an American lawyer, gun rights activist, former chair of the Republican State Committee of Delaware and former president of the National Rifle Association (NRA) 
Sigler graduated from Milford High School in 1964 and attended Appalachian State Teacher's College  He earned a bachelors degree in criminal justice administration from Wilmington College in 1981, a Master of Business Administration from Central Michigan University, and a Juris Doctor from Widener University School of Law in 1987  He served in the United States Navy from 1967 to 1971 on the USS George Bancroft (SSBN-643) and USS Hardhead (SS-365), and worked for the police department in Dover, Delaware from 1972 to 1991  He retired as a captain and subsequently worked as a lawyer 
Sigler joined the NRA in 1970 and was elected to the board of directors in 1996  He was named president at the 2007 annual meeting in St  Louis, succeeding Sandra Froman to become the 59th president of the organization  He served two terms and was succeeded by Ron Schmeits in 2009 
In 2013, Sigler abruptly resigned as chair of the Delaware Republican Party 
Passage 2:
Jubilee doctor
A jubilee doctor (Swedish: jubeldoktor, Finnish: riemutohtori, Latin: doctor jubilaris) or golden doctor (German: Goldene Doktor) is in some countries a person who has held a doctorate for 50 years or more  When 50 years have passed, the doctor is invited again by his or her university to the ceremony where the doctorates are conferred and is made jubilee/golden doctor and celebrated as a guest of honour  This custom is common in Germany, Sweden and Finland  In Germany, this ceremony is referred to as the "Golden Promotion" (Goldene Promotion)  In Sweden, a person so honoured who holds, for instance, a doctorate of philosophy, may use the academic title fil jubeldr instead of the regular fil dr 
Passage 3:
Doctorate
A doctorate (from Latin docere, "to teach"), doctor's degree (from Latin doctor, "teacher"), or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi ("licence to teach")  In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific profession  There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to scientific disciplines 
In the United States and some other countries, there are also professional degrees that include "doctor" in their name and are classified as doctorates  
Many universities also award honorary doctorates to individuals deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or  other contributions to the university or society 

History
Middle Ages
The term doctor derives from Latin, meaning "teacher" or "instructor"  The doctorate (Latin: doctoratus) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin (licentia docendi) at a university  Its roots can be traced to the early church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers, and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible The right to grant a licentia docendi (i e  the doctorate) was originally reserved to the Catholic Church, which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance, and pay a fee  The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed access—at that time essentially free of charge—to all able applicants  Applicants were tested for aptitude  This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the universities, slowly distancing themselves from the Church  In 1213 the right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris, where it became a universal license to teach (licentia ubique docendi)  However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (baccalaureus), the latter was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the master's degree (magister) and doctorate, both of which now became the accepted teaching qualifications  According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150 by the University of Paris George Makdisi theorizes that the ijazah issued in early Islamic madrasahs was the origin of the doctorate later issued in medieval European universities  Alfred Guillaume and Syed Farid al-Attas agree that there is a resemblance between the ijazah and the licentia docendi  However, Toby Huff and others reject Makdisi's theory  Devin J  Stewart notes a difference in the granting authority (individual professor for the ijzazah and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate) 

17th and 18th centuries
The doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century (likely c  1652)  The term "philosophy" does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy  Still, it is used in a broader sense under its original Greek meaning: "love of wisdom"  In most of Europe, all fields (history, philosophy, social sciences, mathematics, and natural philosophy/natural sciences) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as the "faculty of philosophy"  The Doctorate of Philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though most degrees are not for the study of philosophy  Chris Park explains that it was not until formal education and degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the Doctorate of Philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree, abbreviated as Dr  phil  (similar to Ph D  in Anglo-American countries)  Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in philosophy and doctorates in the natural sciences, abbreviated as Dr  rer  nat  and also doctorates in the social/political sciences, abbreviated as Dr  rer  pol , similar to the other traditional doctorates in medicine (Dr  med ) and law (Dr  jur ) 
University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild  The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations  Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree 
University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men  The first women to be granted doctorates were Juliana Morell in 1608 at Lyons or maybe Avignon (she "defended theses" in 1606 or 1607, although claims that she received a doctorate in canon law in 1608 have been discredited), Elena Cornaro Piscopia in 1678 at the University of Padua, Laura Bassi in 1732 at Bologna University, Dorothea Erxleben in 1754 at Halle University and  María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda in 1785 at Complutense University, Madrid 

Modern times
The use and meaning of the doctorate have changed over time and are subject to regional variations  For instance, until the early 20th century, few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders  After that time, the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread  Universities' shift to research-oriented education (based upon the scientific method, inquiry, and observation) increased the doctorate's importance  Today, a research doctorate (PhD) or its equivalent (as defined in the US by the NSF) is generally a prerequisite for an academic career  However, many recipients do not work in academia 

Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward  The first professional doctorate offered in the United States was the M D  at Kings College (now Columbia University) after the medical school's founding in 1767  However, this was not a professional doctorate in the modern American sense  It was awarded for further study after the qualifying Bachelor of Medicine (M B ) rather than a qualifying degree  The MD became the standard first degree in medicine in the US during the 19th century, but as a three-year undergraduate degree  It did not become established as a graduate degree until 1930  As the standard qualifying degree in medicine, the MD gave that profession the ability (through the American Medical Association, established in 1847 for this purpose) to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice In the shape of the German-style PhD, the modern research degree was first awarded in the US in 1861, at Yale University  This differed from the MD in that the latter was a vocational "professional degree" that trained students to apply or practice knowledge rather than generate it, similar to other students in vocational schools or institutes  In the UK, research doctorates initially took higher doctorates in Science and Letters, first introduced at Durham University in 1882  The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada and was instituted at all British universities from 1917  The first (titled a DPhil) was awarded at the University of Oxford Following the MD, the next professional doctorate in the US, the Juris Doctor (JD), was established by the University of Chicago in 1902  However, it took a long time to be accepted, not replacing the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) until the 1960s, by which time the LLB was generally taken as a graduate degree  Notably, the JD and LLB curriculum were identical, with the degree being renamed as a doctorate, and it (like the MD) was not equivalent to the PhD, raising criticism that it was "not a 'true Doctorate'"  When professional doctorates were established in the UK in the late 1980s and early 1990s, they did not follow the US model  Still, they were set up as research degrees at the same level as PhDs but with some taught components and a professional focus for research work Now usually called higher doctorates in the United Kingdom, the older-style doctorates take much longer to complete since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects  These doctorates are less common than the PhD in some countries and are often awarded honoris causa  The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU   It involves either a long new thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications  The habilitation (highest available degree) demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate supportive funding  The habilitation follows the research doctorate, and in Germany, it can be a requirement for appointment as a Privatdozent or professor 

Types
Since the Middle Ages, the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities have proliferated throughout the world  Practice varies from one country to another  While a doctorate usually entitles a person to be addressed as "doctor", the use of the title varies widely depending on the type and the associated occupation 

Research doctorate
Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of publishable academic research, at least in principle, in a peer-reviewed academic journal  The best-known research degree title in the English-speaking world, is Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated Ph D , PhD or, at some British universities, DPhil) awarded in many countries throughout the world  In the U S , for instance, although the most typical research doctorate is the PhD, accounting for about 98% of the research doctorates awarded, there are more than 15 other names for research doctorates  Other research-oriented doctorates (some having a professional practice focus) include the Doctor of Education (Ed D  or EdD), the Doctor of Science (D Sc  or Sc D ),
Doctor of Arts (D A ), Doctor of Juridical Science (J S D  or S J D ), Doctor of Musical Arts (D M A ), Doctor of Professional Studies/Professional Doctorate (ProfDoc or DProf), Doctor of Public Health (Dr P H ), Doctor of Social Science (D S Sc  or DSocSci), Doctor of Management (D M  or D Mgt ), Doctor of Business Administration (D B A   or DBA), the UK Doctor of Management (DMan), various doctorates in engineering, such as the US Doctor of Engineering (D Eng , D E Sc  or D E S , also awarded in Japan and South Korea), the UK Engineering Doctorate (EngD), the German engineering doctorate Doktoringenieur (Dr -Ing ) the German natural science doctorate Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr  rer  nat ) and the economics and social science doctorate Doctor rerum politicarum (Dr  rer  pol )  The UK Doctor of Medicine (MD or MD (Res)) and Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) are research doctorates  The Doctor of Theology (Th D , D Th  or ThD), Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT) and the Doctor of Sacred Theology (S T D , or D S Th ) are research doctorates in theology Criteria for research doctorates vary but typically require completion of a substantial body of original research, which may be presented as a single thesis or dissertation, or as a portfolio of shorter project reports (thesis by publication)  The submitted dissertation is assessed by a committee of, typically, internal, and external examiners  It is then typically defended by the candidate during an oral examination (called viva (voce) in the UK and India) by the committee, which then awards the degree unconditionally, awards the degree conditionally (ranging from corrections in grammar to additional research), or denies the degree  Candidates may also be required to complete graduate-level courses in their field and study research methodology 
Criteria for admission to doctoral programs vary  Students may be admitted with a bachelor's degree in the U S  and the U K   However, elsewhere, e g  in Finland and many other European countries, a master's degree is required  The time required to complete a research doctorate varies from three years, excluding undergraduate study, to six years or more 

Licentiate
Licentiate degrees vary widely in their meaning, and in a few countries are doctoral-level qualifications  Sweden awards the licentiate degree as a two-year qualification at the doctoral level and the doctoral degree (PhD) as a four-year qualification  Sweden originally abolished the Licentiate in 1969 but reintroduced it in response to demands from business  Finland also has a two-year doctoral level licentiate degree, similar to Sweden's  Outside of Scandinavia, the licentiate is usually a lower-level qualification  In Belgium, the licentiate was the basic university degree prior to the Bologna Process and was equivalent to a bachelor's degree  In France and other countries, it is the bachelor's-level qualification in the Bologna process  In the Pontifical system, the Licentiate in Sacred Theology (STL) is equivalent to an advanced master's degree, or the post-master's coursework required in preparation for a doctorate (i e  similar in level to the Swedish/Finnish licentiate degree)  While other licences (such as the Licence in Canon Law) are at the level of master's degrees 

Higher doctorate and post-doctoral degrees
A higher tier of research doctorates may be awarded based on a formally submitted portfolio of published research of an exceptionally high standard  Examples include the Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD), Doctor of Divinity (DD), Doctor of Letters (DLitt or LittD), Doctor of Law or Laws (LLD), and Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the traditional doctorates in Scandinavia 
The habilitation teaching qualification (facultas docendi or "faculty to teach") under a university procedure with a thesis and an exam is commonly regarded as belonging to this category in Germany, Austria, France, Liechtenstein, Switzerland, Poland, etc  The degree developed in Germany in the 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation"  In many federal states of Germany, the habilitation results in an award of a formal "Dr  habil " degree or the holder of the degree may add "habil " to their research doctorate such as "Dr  phil  habil " or "Dr  rer  nat  habil " In some European universities, especially in German-speaking countries, the degree is insufficient to have teaching duties without professor supervision (or teaching and supervising PhD students independently) without an additional teaching title such as Privatdozent   In Austria, the habilitation bestows the graduate with the facultas docendi, venia legendi  Since 2004, the honorary title of "Privatdozent" (before this, completing the habilitation resulted in appointment as a civil servant)  In many Central and Eastern Europe countries, the degree gives venia legendi, Latin for "the permission to lecture", or ius docendi, "the right to teach", a specific academic subject at universities for a lifetime  The French academic system used to have a higher doctorate, called the "state doctorate" (doctorat d'État), but, in 1984, it was superseded by the habilitation (Habilitation à diriger des recherches, "habilitation to supervise (doctoral and post-doctoral) research", abbreviated HDR) which is the prerequisite to supervise PhDs and to apply to Full Professorships 
While this section has focused on earned qualifications conferred in virtue of published work or the equivalent, a higher doctorate may also be presented on an honorary basis by a university — at its own initiative or after a nomination — in recognition of public prestige, institutional service, philanthropy, or professional achievement  In a formal listing of qualifications, and often in other contexts, an honorary higher doctorate will be identified using language like "DCL, honoris causa", "HonLLD", or "LittD h c " 

Professional doctorate
Depending on the country, professional doctorates may also be research degrees at the same level as PhDs  The relationship between research and practice is considered important and professional degrees with little or no research content are typically aimed at professional performance  Many professional doctorates are named "Doctor of [subject name] and abbreviated using the form "D[subject abbreviation]" or "[subject abbreviation]D", or may use the more generic titles "Professional Doctorate", abbreviated "ProfDoc" or "DProf", "Doctor of Professional Studies" (DPS)  or "Doctor of Professional Practice" (DPP) In the US, professional doctorates (formally "doctor's degree – professional practice" in government classifications) are defined by the US Department of Education's National Center for Educational Statistics as degrees that require a minimum of six years of university-level study (including any pre-professional bachelor's or associate degree) and meet the academic requirements for professional licensure in the discipline  The definition for a professional doctorate does not include a requirement for either a dissertation or study beyond master's level, in contrast to the definition for research doctorates ("doctor's degree – research/scholarship")  However, individual programs may have different requirements  There is also a category of "doctor's degree – other" for doctorates that do not fall into either the "professional practice" or "research/scholarship" categories  All of these are considered doctoral degrees In contrast to the US, many countries reserve the term "doctorate" for research degrees  If, as in Canada and Australia, professional degrees bear the name "Doctor of    ", etc , it is made clear that these are not doctorates  Examples of this include Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD), Doctor of Medicine (MD), Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP), and Juris Doctor (JD)  Contrariwise, for example, research doctorates like Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Education (EdD) and Doctor of Social Science (DSS) qualify as full academic doctorates in Canada though they normally incorporate aspects of professional practice in addition to a full dissertation  In the Philippines, the University of the Philippines Open University offers a Doctor of Communication (DComm) professional doctorate All doctorates in the UK and Ireland are third cycle qualifications in the Bologna Process, comparable to US research doctorates  Although all doctorates are research degrees, professional doctorates normally include taught components, while the name PhD/DPhil is normally used for doctorates purely by thesis  Professional, practitioner, or practice-based doctorates such as the DClinPsy, MD, DHSc, EdD, DBA, EngD and DAg are full academic doctorates  They are at the same level as the PhD in the national qualifications frameworks; they are not first professional degrees but are "often post-experience qualifications" in which practice is considered important in the research context  In 2009 there were 308 professional doctorate programs in the UK, up from 109 in 1998, with the most popular being the EdD (38 institutions), DBA (33), EngD/DEng (22), MD/DM (21), and DClinPsy/DClinPsych/ClinPsyD (17)  Similarly, in Australia, the term "professional doctorate" is sometimes applied to the Scientiae Juridicae Doctor (SJD), which, like the UK professional doctorates, is a research degree 

Honorary doctorate
When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or philanthropic efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree honoris causa ('for the sake of the honor'), waiving the usual requirements for granting the degree  Some universities do not award honorary degrees, for example, Cornell University, the University of Virginia, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

National variations
Argentina
In Argentina the doctorate (doctorado) is the highest academic degree  The intention is that candidates produce original contributions in their field knowledge within a frame of academic excellence  A dissertation or thesis is prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director  It is reviewed by a Doctoral Committee composed of examiners external to the program and at least one examiner external to the institution  The degree is conferred after a successful dissertation defence  In 2006, there were approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees  Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation, an agency in Argentina's Ministry of Education, Science and Technology 

Brazil
Doctoral candidates are normally required to have a master's degree in a related field  Exceptions are based on their individual academic merit  A second and a third foreign language are other common requirements, although the requirements regarding proficiency commonly are not strict  The admissions process varies by institution  Some require candidates to take tests while others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview only  In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant 
Requirements usually include satisfactory performance in advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam and submitting a thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge  The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external  After completion, which normally consumes 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of Doutor (Doctor) followed by the main area of specialization, e g  Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Ciências da Computação (Doctor of Computer Sciences), Doutor em Filosofia (Doctor of Philosophy), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering) or Doutor em Medicina (Doctor of Medicine)  The generic title of Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences) is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i e  Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc )
All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free (mandated by the Brazilian constitution)  Some graduate students are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico) and CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior)  Personal scholarships are provided by the various FAP's (Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa) at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of São Paulo, FAPERJ in the state of Rio de Janeiro and FAPEMIG in the state of Minas Gerais  Competition for graduate financial aid is intense and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies  The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil is between US$500 and $1000 
A degree of Doutor usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to a US assistant professor  Progression to full professorship, known as Professor Titular requires that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes additional years  In the federal university system, doctors who are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to the rank of associate professor, then become eligible to take the competitive exam for vacant full professorships  In São Paulo state universities, associate professorships and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship are conditioned on the qualification of Livre-docente and requires, in addition to a doctorate, a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications, a public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and a written exam 
In recent years some initiatives as jointly supervised doctorates (e g  "cotutelles") have become increasingly common in the country, as part of the country's efforts to open its universities to international students 

Denmark
Denmark offers four levels of degrees:

A three-year bachelor's degree program (e g  Bachelor of Arts)
A subsequent, two-year master's degree program (e g  Master of Arts) – in Danish traditionally referred to as a "kandidatgrad", i e  a candidate's degree (e g  cand mag : Candidatus/Candidata Magisterii); usually, both titles appear on the diplomas issued 
A three-year ph d  degree program, which replaced the equivalent licentiat in 1992, and does not grant the holder the right to the title dr  or doktor  At the same time, a minor, two-year research training program, leading to a title of "magister", was phased out to meet the international standards of the Bologna Process 
A 'full' doctor's degree (e g  dr phil , Doctor Philosophiae, for humanistic and STEM subjects) – the higher doctorate – introduced in 1479  The second part of the title communicates the field of study – e g  dr scient (in the sciences), dr jur (in law), dr theol (in theology) For the ph d  degree, the candidates (ph d  students or fellows) – who are required to have a master's degree – enroll at a ph d  school at a university and participate in a research training program, at the end of which they each submit a thesis and defend it orally at a formal disputation  In the disputation, the candidates defend their theses against three official opponents, and may take opponents or questions from those present in the auditorium (ex auditorio) 
For the higher doctorate, the candidate (referred to as præses) is required to submit a thesis of major scientific significance, and to proceed to defend it orally against two official opponents, as well as against any and all opponents from the auditorium (ex auditorio) – no matter how long the proceedings take  The official opponents are required to be full professors  The candidate is required to have a master's degree, but not necessarily a ph d 
The ph d  was introduced as a separate title from the higher doctorate in 1992 as part of the transition to a new degree structure, since the changes in the degree system would otherwise leave a significant amount of academics without immediately recognizable qualifications in international settings  The original vision was purported to be to phase out the higher doctorate in favor of the ph d  (or merge the two), but so far, there are no signs of this happening  Many Danish academics with permanent positions wrote ph d  dissertations in the 90s when the system was new, since at that time, a ph d  degree or equivalent qualifications began to be required for certain academic positions in Denmark  Until the late 20th century, the higher doctorate was a condition for attaining full professorship; it is no longer required per se for any positions, but is considered amply equivalent to the ph d  when applying for academic positions 

Egypt
In Egypt, the highest degree doctorate is awarded by Al-Azhar University est  970, which grants ( العالمية Ālimiyya\ Habilitation) 
The Medical doctorate (abbreviated as M D ) is equivalent to the Ph D  degree  To earn an M D  in a science specialty, one must have a master's degree (M Sc ) (or two diplomas before the introduction of M Sc  degree in Egypt) before applying  The M D  degree involves courses in the field and defending a dissertation  It takes on average three to five years 
Many postgraduate medical and surgical specialties students earn a doctorate  After finishing a 6-year medical school and one-year internship (house officer), physicians and surgeons earn the M B  B Ch  degree, which is equivalent to a US MD degree  They can then apply to earn a master's degree or a speciality diploma, then an MD degree in a specialty 
The Egyptian M D  degree is written using the name of one's specialty  For example, M D  (Geriatrics) means a doctorate in Geriatrics, which is equivalent to a Ph D  in Geriatrics 

Finland
The Finnish requirement for the entrance into doctoral studies is a master's degree or equivalent  All universities have the right to award doctorates  The ammattikorkeakoulu institutes (institutes of higher vocational education that are not universities but often called "Universities of Applied Sciences" in English) do not award doctoral or other academic degrees  The student must:

Demonstrate understanding of their field and its meaning, while preparing to use scientific or scholarly study in their field, creating new knowledge 
Obtain a good understanding of development, basic problems and research methods
Obtain such understanding of the general theory of science and letters and such knowledge of neighbouring research fields that they are able to follow the development of these fields The way to show that these general requirements have been met is:

Complete graduate coursework 
Demonstrate critical and independent thought
Prepare and publicly defend a dissertation (a monograph or a compilation thesis of peer-reviewed articles)  In fine arts, the dissertation may be substituted by works and/or performances as accepted by the faculty Entrance to a doctoral program is available only for holders of a master's degree; there is no honors procedure for recruiting Bachelors  Entrance is not as controlled as in undergraduate studies, where a strict numerus clausus is applied  Usually, a prospective student discusses their plans with a professor  If the professor agrees to accept the student, the student applies for admission  The professor may recruit students to their group  Formal acceptance does not imply funding  The student must obtain funding either by working in a research unit or through private scholarships  Funding is more available for natural and engineering sciences than in letters  Sometimes, normal work and research activity are combined Prior to introduction of the Bologna process, Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1,800 hours) of formal coursework  The requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision to individual universities, which may delegate the authority to faculties or individual professors  In Engineering and Science, required coursework varies between 40 and 70 ECTS 
The duration of graduate studies varies  It is possible to graduate three years after the master's degree, while much longer periods are not uncommon  The study ends with a dissertation, which must present substantial new scientific/scholarly knowledge  The dissertation can either be a monograph or it an edited collection of 3 to 7 journal articles  Students unable or unwilling to write a dissertation may qualify for a licentiate degree by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually summarizing one year of research 
When the dissertation is ready, the faculty names two expert pre-examiners with doctoral degrees from the outside the university  During the pre-examination process, the student may receive comments on the work and respond with modifications  After the pre-examiners approve, the doctoral candidate applies the faculty for permission to print the thesis  When granting this permission, the faculty names the opponent for the thesis defence, who must also be an outside expert, with at least a doctorate  In all Finnish universities, long tradition requires that the printed dissertation hang on a cord by a public university noticeboard for at least ten days prior to for the dissertation defence The doctoral dissertation takes place in public  The opponent and the candidate conduct a formal debate, usually wearing white tie, under the supervision of the thesis supervisor  Family, friends, colleagues and the members of the research community customarily attend the defence  After a formal entrance, the candidate begins with an approximately 20-minute popular lecture (lectio praecursoria), that is meant to introduce laymen to the thesis topic  The opponent follows with a short talk on the topic, after which the pair critically discuss the dissertation  The proceedings take two to three hours  At the end the opponent presents their final statement and reveals whether he/she will recommend that the faculty accept it  Any member of the public then has an opportunity to raise questions, although this is rare  Immediately after the defence, the supervisor, the opponent and the candidate drink coffee with the public  Usually, the attendees of the defence are given the printed dissertation  In the evening, the passed candidate hosts a dinner (Finnish: karonkka) in honour of the opponent  Usually, the candidate invites their family, colleagues and collaborators Doctoral graduates are often Doctors of Philosophy (filosofian tohtori), but many fields retain their traditional titles: Doctor of Medicine (lääketieteen tohtori), Doctor of Science in Technology (tekniikan tohtori), Doctor of Science in Arts (Art and Design), etc 
The doctorate is a formal requirement for a docenture or professor's position, although these in practice require postdoctoral research and further experience  Exceptions may be granted by the university governing board, but this is uncommon, and usually due to other work and expertise considered equivalent 

France
HistoryBefore 1984 three research doctorates existed in France: the State doctorate (doctorat d'État, "DrE", the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (Doctorat de troisième cycle, also called doctorate of specialty, Doctorat de spécialité, created in 1954 and shorter than the State doctorate) and the diploma of doctor-engineer (diplôme de docteur-ingénieur created in 1923), for technical research 
During the first half of the 20th century, following the submission of two theses (primary thesis, thèse principale, and secondary thesis, thèse complémentaire) to the Faculty of Letters (in France, "letters" is equivalent to "humanities") at the University of Paris, the doctoral candidate was awarded the Doctorat ès lettres  There was also the less prestigious "university doctorate" Doctorat d'université which could be received for the submission of a single thesis 
In the 1950s, the Doctorat ès lettres was renamed to Doctorat d'État  In 1954 (for the sciences) and 1958 (for letters and human sciences), the less demanding Doctorat de troisième cycle degree was created on the model of the American Ph D  with the purpose to lessen what had become an increasingly long period of time between the typical students' completion of their Diplôme d'études supérieures, roughly equivalent to a Master of Arts) and their Doctorat d'État After 1984, only one type of doctoral degree remained: the "doctorate" (Doctorat)  A special diploma was created called the "accreditation to supervise research" (Habilitation à diriger des recherches), a professional qualification to supervise doctoral work  (This diploma is similar in spirit to the older State doctorate, and the requirements for obtaining it are similar to those necessary to obtain tenure in other systems ) Before only professors or senior full researchers of similar rank were normally authorized to supervise a doctoral candidate's work  Now habilitation is a prerequisite to the title of professor in university (Professeur des universités) and to the title of Research Director (Directeur de recherche) in national public research agency such as CNRS, INRIA, or INRAE 

AdmissionToday, the doctorate (doctorat) is a research-only degree  It is a national degree and its requirements are fixed by the minister of higher education and research  Only public institutions award the doctorate  It can be awarded in any field of study  The master's degree is a prerequisite  The normal duration is three years  The writing of a comprehensive thesis constitutes the bulk of the doctoral work  While the length of the thesis varies according to the discipline, it is rarely less than 150 pages, and often substantially more  Some 15,000 new doctoral matriculations occur every year and ~10,000 doctorates are awarded Doctoral candidates can apply for a three-year fellowship  The most well known is the Contrat Doctoral (4,000 granted every year with a gross salary of 1758 euros per month as of September 2016) 
Since 2002 candidates follow in-service training, but there is no written examination for the doctorate  The candidate has to write a thesis that is read by two external reviewers  The head of the institution decides whether the candidate can defend the thesis, after considering the external reviews  The jury members are designated by the head of the institution  The candidate's supervisor and the external reviewers are generally jury members  The maximum number of jury members is 8  The defense generally lasts 45 minutes in scientific fields, followed by 1 – 2 and a half hours of questions from the jury or other doctors present  The defense and questions are public  The jury then deliberates in private and then declares the candidate admitted or "postponed"  The latter is rare  New regulations were set in 2016 and do not award distinctions 
The title of doctor (docteur) can also be used by medical and pharmaceutical practitioners who hold a doctor's State diploma (diplôme d'État de docteur, distinct from the doctorat d'État mentioned above)  The diploma is a first-degree 
A guidelines with good practices and legal analysis has been published in 2018 by Association nationale des docteurs (ANDès) & Confédération des Jeunes Chercheurs (CJC) with funding of french Ministry of research 

Germany
Doctoral degrees in Germany are research doctorates and are awarded by a process called Promotion  The concept of a US-style professional doctorate as an entry-level professional qualification does not exist  Most doctorates are awarded with specific Latin designations for the field of research (except for engineering, where the designation is German), instead of a general name for all fields (such as the Ph D )  The most important degrees are:

Dr  rer  nat  (rerum naturalium; natural and formal sciences, i e  physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, computer science and information technology, or psychology);
Dr  phil  (philosophiae; humanities such as philosophy, philology, history, and social sciences such as sociology, political science, or psychology as well);
Dr  iur  (iuris; law);
Dr  oec  (oeconomiae; economics);
Dr  rer  pol  (rerum politicarum; economics, business administration, political science);
Dr  theol  (theologiae; theology);
Dr  med  (medicinae; medicine);
Dr  med  dent  (medicinae dentariae; dentistry);
Dr  med  vet  (medicinae veterinariae; veterinary medicine);
Dr -Ing  (engineering) In medicine, "doctoral" dissertations are often written alongside undergraduate study therefore, European Research Council decided in 2010 that such Dr  med  degrees do not meet the international standards of a Ph D  research degree  The duration of the doctorate depends on the field: a doctorate in medicine may take less than a full-time year to complete; those in other fields, two to six years 
Over fifty doctoral designations exist, many of them rare or no longer in use  As a title, the degree is commonly written in front of the name in abbreviated form, e g , Dr  rer  nat  Max Mustermann or Dr  Max Mustermann, dropping the designation entirely  However, leaving out the designation is only allowed when the doctorate degree is not an honorary doctorate, which must be indicated by Dr  h c  (from Latin honoris causa)  Although the honorific does not become part of the name, holders can demand that the title appear in official documents  The title is not mandatory  The honorific is commonly used in formal letters  For holders of other titles, only the highest title is mentioned  Multiple holders of doctorate degrees can be addressed as Dres  (from Latin doctores)  Professional doctorates obtained in other countries, not requiring a thesis or not being third cycle qualifications under the Bologna process, can only be used postnominally, e g , "Max Mustermann, MD", and do not allow the use of the title Dr  In contrast to English, in which a person's name is preceded by at most one title (except in very ceremonious usage), the formal German mode of address permits several titles in addition to "Herr" or "Frau" (which, unlike "Mr" or "Ms", is not considered a title at all, but an Anrede or "address"), including repetitions in the case of multiple degrees, as in "Frau Prof  Dr  Dr  Schmidt", for a person who would be addressed as "Prof  Schmidt" in English 
In the German university system it is common to write two doctoral theses, the inaugural thesis (Inauguraldissertation), completing a course of study, and the habilitation thesis (Habilitationsschrift), which opens the road to a professorship  Upon completion of the habilitation thesis, a Habilitation is awarded, which is indicated by appending habil  (habilitata/habilitatus) to the doctorate, e g , Dr  rer  nat  habil  Max Mustermann  It is considered as an additional academic qualification rather than an academic degree formally  It qualifies the owner to teach at German universities (facultas docendi)  The holder of a Habilitation receives the authorization to teach a certain subject (venia legendi)  This has been the traditional prerequisite for attaining Privatdozent (PD) and employment as a full university professor  With the introduction of Juniorprofessuren—around 2005—as an alternative track towards becoming a professor at universities (with tenure), Habilitation is no longer the only university career track 

India
In India, doctorates are offered by universities  Entry requirements include master's degree  Some universities consider undergraduate degrees in professional areas such as engineering, medicine or law as qualifications for pursuing doctorate level degrees  Entrance examinations are held for almost all programs  In most universities, coursework duration and thesis is 5–6 years  The most common doctoral degree is Ph D 

Italy
Until the introduction of the dottorato di ricerca in the mid-1980s, the laurea generally constituted the highest academic degree obtainable in Italy  The first institution in Italy to create a doctoral program was Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1927 under the historic name "Diploma di Perfezionamento"  Further, the dottorato di ricerca was introduced by law and presidential decree in 1980, in a reform of academic teaching, training and experimentation in organisation and teaching methods Italy uses a three-level degree system following the Bologna Process  The first-level degree, called a laurea (Bachelor's degree), requires three years and a short thesis  The second-level degree, called a laurea magistrale (Master's degree), is obtained after two additional years, specializing in a branch of the field  This degree requires more advanced thesis work, usually involving academic research or an internship  The final degree is called a dottorato di ricerca (Ph D ) and is obtained after three years of academic research on the subject and a thesis 
Alternatively, after obtaining the laurea or the laurea magistrale, one can complete a "Master's" (first-level Master's after the laurea; second-level Master's after the laurea magistrale) of one or two years, usually including an internship  An Italian "Master's" is not the same as a master's degree; it is intended to be more focused on professional training and practical experience 
Regardless of the field of study, the title for Bachelors Graduate students is Dottore/Dottoressa (abbrev  Dott /Dott ssa, or as Dr ), not to be confused with the title for the Ph D , which is instead Dottore/Dottoressa di Ricerca  A laurea magistrale grants instead the title of Dottore/Dottoressa magistrale  Graduates in the fields of Education, Art and Music are also called Dr  Prof  (or simply Professore) or Maestro  Many professional titles, such as ingegnere (engineer) are awarded only upon passing a post-graduation examination (esame di stato), and registration in the relevant professional association 
The Superior Graduate Schools in Italy (Italian: Scuola Superiore Universitaria), also called Schools of Excellence (Italian: Scuole di Eccellenza) such as Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa and Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies keep their historical "Diploma di Perfezionamento" title by law and MIUR Decree 

Japan
Dissertation-only
Until the 1990s, most natural science and engineering doctorates in Japan were earned by industrial researchers in Japanese companies  These degrees were awarded by the employees' former university, usually after years of research in industrial laboratories  The only requirement is submission of a dissertation, along with articles published in well-known journals  This program is called ronbun hakase (論文博士)  It produced the majority of engineering doctoral degrees from national universities  University-based doctoral programs called katei hakase (課程博士), are gradually replacing these degrees  By 1994, more doctoral engineering degrees were earned for research within university laboratories (53%) than industrial research laboratories (47%)  Since 1978, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) has provided tutorial and financial support for promising researchers in Asia and Africa  The program is called JSPS RONPAKU 

Professional degree
The only professional doctorate in Japan is the Juris Doctor, known as Hōmu Hakushi (法務博士) The program generally lasts two or three years  This curriculum is professionally oriented, but unlike in the US the program does not provide education sufficient for a law license  All candidates for a bar license must pass the bar exam (Shihou shiken), attend the Legal Training and Research Institute and pass the practical exam (Nikai Shiken or Shihou Shushusei koushi) 

Netherlands and Flanders
The traditional academic system of the Netherlands provided basic academic diploma: propaedeuse and three academic degrees: kandidaat (the lowest degree), depending on gender doctorandus or doctoranda (drs ) (with equivalent degrees in engineering – ir  and law – mr ) and doctor (dr )  After successful completion of the first year of university, the student was awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree)  In some fields, this diploma was abolished in the 1980s  In physics and mathematics, the student could directly obtain a kandidaats (candidate) diploma in two years  The candidate diploma was all but abolished by 1989  It used to be attained after completion of the majority of courses of the academic study (usually after completion of course requirements of the third year in the program), after which the student was allowed to begin work on their doctorandus thesis  The successful completion of this thesis conveyed the doctoranda/us title, implying that the student's initial studies were finished  In addition to these 'general' degrees, specific titles equivalent to the doctorandus degree were awarded for law: meester (master) (mr ), and for engineering: ingenieur (engineer)(ir )  Following the Bologna protocol the Dutch adopted the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees  The old candidate's degree was revived to become the bachelor's degree and the doctorandus' (mr and ir degree) were replaced by master's degrees 
Students can only enroll in a doctorate system after completing a research university level master's degree; although dispensation can be granted on a case-by-case basis after scrutiny of the individual's portfolio  The most common way to conduct doctoral studies is to work as promovendus/assistent in opleiding (aio)/onderzoeker in opleiding (oio) (research assistant with additional courses and supervision), perform extensive research and write a dissertation consisting of published articles (over a period of four or more years, averaging about 5 5 to 6)  Research can also be conducted without official research assistant status, for example through a business-sponsored research laboratory 
Every Ph D  thesis has to be promoted by a full university professor or an associate professor  who has the role of principal advisor and holds the right to do so (ius promovendi)  The promotor (professor) determines whether the thesis quality suffices and can be submitted to the committee of experts  A committee of experts in the field review the thesis  Failures at this stage are rare because supervisors withhold inadequate work  The supervisors and promotor lose prestige among their colleagues should they allow a substandard thesis to be submitted 
After reviewer approval, the candidate publishes the thesis (generally more than 100 copies) and sends it to colleagues, friends and family with an invitation to the public defense  The degree is awarded in a formal, public, defense session, in which the thesis is defended against critical questions of the "opposition" (the review committee)  Failure during this session is possible, but rare  Before the defense there may or may not be a public presentation, lasting 10 minutes (e g  Eindhoven University of Technology) to exactly half hour (e g  Delft University of Technology)  The actual defense lasts exactly the assigned time slot (45 minutes to 1 hour exactly depending on the university) after which the defense is stopped by the bedel who closes the process 
The doctor's title is the highest academic title in the Netherlands  In research doctorates the degree is always Ph D  or dr  with no distinction between disciplines  Three Dutch universities of technology (Eindhoven University of Technology, Delft University of Technology, and University of Twente) also award a 2-year (industry oriented) Professional Doctorate in Engineering (PDEng), named EngD from September 2022 onwards  Those who obtained a degree in a foreign country can only use one of the Dutch titles drs , mr , ir , or dr if approved by the Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs though according to the opportunity principle, little effort monitors such frauds  Dutch doctors may use PhD behind their name instead of the uncapitalized shortcut dr  before their name Those who have multiple doctor (dr ) titles may use the title dr mult  Those who have received honoris causa doctorates may use dr h c  before their own name In Belgium's Flemish Community the doctorandus title was only used by those who actually started their doctoral work  Doctorandus is still used as a synonym for a Ph D  student  The licentiaat (licensee) title was in use for a regular graduate until the Bologna reform changed the licentiaat degree to the master's degree (the Bologna reform abolished the two-year kandidaat degree and introduced a three-year academic bachelor's degree instead) 

Russia
In the Russian Empire the academic degree "doctor of the sciences" (doktor nauk) marked the highest academic degree that can be achieved by an examination  (The "doctor nauk" degree was introduced in Russia in 1819, abolished in 1917, and revived in the USSR in 1934 ) This system was generally adopted by the USSR/Russia and many post-Soviet countries  A lower degree, "candidate [doctor] of the sciences" (kandidat nauk; first introduced in the USSR on January 13, 1934, by a decision of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR), is, roughly, the Russian equivalent to the research doctorate in other countries 

Spain
Doctoral degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R D  778/1998), Real Decreto (in Spanish)  They are granted by the university on behalf of the king  Its diploma has the force of a public document  The Ministry of Science keeps a national registry of theses called TESEO  According to the National Institute of Statistics (INE), fewer than 5% of M Sc  degree holders are admitted to Ph D  programmes 

All doctoral programs are research-oriented  A minimum of 4 years of study is required, divided into 2 stages:

A 2-year (or longer) period of studies concludes with a public dissertation presented to a panel of 3 Professors  Upon approval from the university, the candidate receives a Diploma de Estudios Avanzados (part qualified doctor, equivalent to M Sc )  From 2008 it is possible to substitute the former diploma by a recognized master program 
A 2-year (or longer) research period includes extensions for up to 10 years  The student must present a thesis describing a discovery or original contribution  If approved by their thesis director, the study is presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars  Any Doctor attending the public defense is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions  If approved, the candidate receives the doctorate  Four marks used to be granted: Unsatisfactory (Suspenso), Pass (Aprobado), Remarkable (Notable), "Cum laude" (Sobresaliente), and "Summa cum laude" (Sobresaliente Cum Laude)  Those Doctors granted their degree "Summa Cum Laude" were allowed to apply for an "Extraordinary Award" Since September 2012 and regulated by Royal Decree (R D  99/2011) (in Spanish), three marks can be granted: Unsatisfactory (No apto), Pass (Apto) and "Cum laude" (Apto Cum Laude) as maximum mark  In the public defense the doctor is notified if the thesis has passed or not passed  The Apto Cum Laude mark is awarded after the public defense as the result of a private, anonymous vote  Votes are verified by the university  A unanimous vote of the reviewers nominates Doctors granted Apto Cum Laude for an "Extraordinary Award" (Premio Extraordinario de Doctorado) 
In the same Royal Decree the initial 3-year study period was replaced by a Research master's degree (one or two years; Professional master's degrees do not grant direct access to Ph D  Programs) that concludes with a public dissertation called Trabajo de Fin de Máster or Proyecto de Fin de Máster  An approved project earns a master's degree that grants access to a Ph D  program and initiates the period of research 
A doctorate is required in order to teach at the university Only Ph D  holders, Grandees and Dukes can sit and cover their heads in the presence of the King From 1857, Complutense University was the only one in Spain authorised to confer the doctorate  This law remained in effect until 1954, when the University of Salamanca joined in commemoration of its septcentenary  In 1970, the right was extended to all Spanish universities All doctorate holders are reciprocally recognised as equivalent in Germany and Spain (according to the "Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994") 

United Kingdom
History of the UK doctorate
The doctorate has long existed in the UK as, originally, the second degree in divinity, law, medicine and music  But it was not until the late 19th century that the research doctorate, now known as the higher doctorate, was introduced  The first higher doctorate was the Doctor of Science at Durham University, introduced in 1882  This was soon followed by other universities, including the University of Cambridge establishing its ScD in the same year, the University of London transforming its DSc from an advanced study course to a research degree in 1885, and the University of Oxford establishing its Doctor of Letters (DLitt) in 1900 

The PhD was adopted in the UK following a joint decision in 1917 by British universities, although it took much longer for it to become established  Oxford became the first university to institute the new degree, although naming it the DPhil  The PhD was often distinguished from the earlier higher doctorates by distinctive academic dress  At Cambridge, for example, PhDs wear a master's gown with scarlet facings rather than the full scarlet gown of the higher doctors, while the University of Wales gave PhDs crimson gowns rather than scarlet  Professional doctorates were introduced in Britain in the 1980s and 1990s  The earliest professional doctorates were in the social sciences, including the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Education (EdD) and Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy) 

British doctorates today
Today, except for those awarded honoris causa (honorary degrees), all doctorates granted by British universities are research doctorates, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of an extensive and substantial thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university   UK doctorates are categorised as:
Junior doctorates

Subject specialist doctorates – normally PhD/DPhil; the most common form of doctorate
Integrated subject specialist doctorates – integrated PhDs including teaching at master's level
Doctorates by publication – PhD by Published Works; only awarded infrequently
Professional / practice-based / practitioner doctorates – e g  EdD, ProfDoc/DProf, EngD, etc ; usually include taught elements and have an orientation that combines professional and academic aspectsHigher doctorates
e g  DD, LLD, DSc, DLitt; higher level than junior doctorates, usually awarded either for a substantial body of work over an extended period or as honorary degrees The Quality Assurance Agency states in the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies (which covers junior doctorates but not higher doctorates) that:
Doctoral degrees are awarded to students who have demonstrated:
the creation and interpretation of new knowledge, through original research or other advanced scholarship, of a quality to satisfy peer review, extend the forefront of the discipline, and merit publication
a systematic acquisition and understanding of a substantial body of knowledge which is at the forefront of an academic discipline or area of professional practice
the general ability to conceptualise, design and implement a project for the generation of new knowledge, applications or understanding at the forefront of the discipline, and to adjust the project design in the light of unforeseen problems
a detailed understanding of applicable techniques for research and advanced academic enquiry
In the UK, the (junior) doctorate is a qualification awarded at FHEQ level 8/level 12 of the FQHEIS on the national qualifications frameworks  The higher doctorates are stated to be "A higher level of award", which is not covered by the qualifications frameworks 

Subject specialist doctorates
These are the most common doctorates in the UK and are normally awarded as PhDs  While the master/apprentice model was traditionally used for British PhDs, since 2003 courses have become more structured, with students taking courses in research skills and receiving training for professional and personal development  However, the assessment of the PhD remains based on the production of a thesis or equivalent and its defence at a viva voce oral examination, normally held in front of at least two examiners, one internal and one external  Access to PhDs normally requires an upper second class or first class bachelor's degree, or a master's degree  Courses normally last three years, although it is common for students to be initially registered for MPhil degrees and then formally transferred onto the PhD after a year or two  Students who are not considered likely to complete a PhD may be offered the opportunity to complete an MPhil instead Integrated doctorates, originally known as 'New Route PhDs', were introduced from 2000 onwards  These integrate teaching at master's level during the first one or two years of the degree, either alongside research or as a preliminary to starting research  These courses usually offer a master's-level exit degree after the taught courses are completed  While passing the taught elements is often required, examination of the final doctorate is still by thesis (or equivalent) alone  The duration of integrated doctorates is a minimum of four years, with three years spent on the research component In 2013, Research Councils UK issued a 'Statement of Expectations for Postgraduate Training', which lays out the expectations for training in PhDs funded by the research councils  In the latest version (2016), issued together with Cancer Research UK, the Wellcome Trust and the British Heart Foundation, these include the provision of careers advice, in-depth advanced training in the subject area, provision of transferable skills, training in experimental design and statistics, training in good research conduct, and training for compliance with legal, ethical and professional frameworks  The statement also encourages peer-group development through cohort training and/or Graduate schools 

Higher doctorates
Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body of original research undertaken over the course of many years  Typically the candidate submits a collection of previously published, peer-refereed work, which is reviewed by a committee of internal and external academics who decide whether the candidate deserves the doctorate  The higher doctorate is similar in some respects to the habilitation in some European countries  However, the purpose of the award is significantly different  While the habilitation formally determines whether an academic is suitably qualified to be a university professor, the higher doctorate does not qualify the holder for a position but rather recognises their contribution to research Higher doctorates were defined by the UK Council for Graduate Education (UKCGE) in 2013 as:
an award that is at a level above the PhD (or equivalent professional doctorate in the discipline), and that is typically gained not through a defined programme of study but rather by submission of a substantial body of research-based work 
In terms of number of institutions offering the awards, the most common doctorates of this type in UKCGE surveys carried out in 2008 and 2013 were the Doctor of Science (DSc), Doctor of Letters (DLitt), Doctor of Law (LLD), Doctor of Music (DMus) and Doctor of Divinity (DD); in the 2008 survey the Doctor of Technology (DTech) tied with the DD  The DSc was offered by all 49 responding institutions in 2008 and 15 out of 16 in 2013 and the DLitt by only one less in each case, while the DD was offered in 10 responding institutions in 2008 and 3 in 2013  In terms of number of higher doctorates awarded (not including honorary doctorates) the DSc was most popular, but the number of awards was very low: the responding institutions had averaged an award of at most one earned higher doctorate per year over the period 2003–2013 

Honorary degrees
Most British universities award degrees honoris causa to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field  Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending on the candidate's achievements  However, some universities differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates, using the degree of Doctor of the University (D Univ ) for these purposes, and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research 

United States
U S  research doctorates are awarded for advanced study followed by successfully completing and defending independent research presented in the form of a dissertation  Professional degrees may use the term "doctor" in their titles, such as Juris Doctor and Doctor of Medicine, but these degrees rarely contain an independent research component and are not research doctorates  Law school graduates, although awarded the J D  degree, are not normally addressed as "doctor"  In legal studies, the  Doctor of Juridical Science is considered the equivalent to a Ph D 
Many universities offer Ph D /D Phil  followed by a professional doctorate or joint Ph D /D Phil  with a professional degree  Often, Ph D  work is sequential to the professional degree, e g , Ph D /D Phil  in law after a J D  or equivalent in physical therapy after DPT, in pharmacy after Pharm D  Such professional degrees are referred to as an entry level doctorate program and Ph D  as a post-professional doctorate 

Research degrees
The most common research doctorate is the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph D  or D Phil )  This degree was first awarded in the U S  at the 1861 Yale University commencement  The University of Pennsylvania followed in 1871, with Cornell (1872), Harvard (1873), Michigan (1876)   and Princeton (1879) following suit  Controversy and opposition followed the introduction of the Ph D  into the U S  educational system, lasting into the 1950s, as it was seen as an unnecessary artificial transplant from a foreign (Germany) educational system, which corrupted a system based on England's Oxbridge model Ph D s and other research doctorates in the U S  typically entail successful completion of coursework, passing a comprehensive examination, and defending a dissertation The median number of years for completion of U S  doctoral degrees is seven  Doctoral applicants were previously required to have a master's degree, but many programs accept students immediately following undergraduate studies  Many programs gauge the potential of applicants to their program and grant a master's degree upon completion of the necessary course work  When so admitted, the student is expected to have mastered the material covered in the master's degree despite not holding one, though this tradition is under heavy criticism  Successfully finishing Ph D  qualifying exams confers Ph D  candidate status, allowing dissertation work to begin 
The International Affairs Office of the U S  Department of Education has listed 18 frequently awarded research doctorate titles identified by the National Science Foundation (NSF) as representing degrees equivalent in research content to the Ph D 

Professional degrees
Many fields offer professional doctorates (or professional master's) such as engineering, pharmacy, medicine, public health, dentistry, optometry, psychology, speech–language pathology,  physical therapy, occupational therapy, health science, advanced practice registered nurse, chiropractic, naturopathic medicine, law, architecture, education, teaching, business, management, and others that require such degrees for professional practice or licensure  Some of these degrees are also termed "first professional degrees", since they are the first field-specific master's or doctoral degrees 
A Doctor of Engineering (DEng) is a professional degree  In contrast to a PhD in Engineering where students usually conduct original theory-based research, DEng degrees are built around applied coursework and a practice-led project and thus designed for working engineers in the industry  DEng students defend their thesis at the end of their study before a thesis committee in order to be conferred a degree 
A Doctor of Pharmacy is awarded as the professional degree in pharmacy replacing a bachelor's degree  It is the only professional pharmacy degree awarded in the US  Pharmacy programs vary in length between 4 years for matriculants with a B S /B A  to 6 years for others 
In the twenty-first century professional doctorates appeared in other fields, such as the Doctor of Audiology in 2007  Advanced Practice Registered Nurses were expected to completely transition to the Doctor of Nursing Practice by 2015, and physical therapists to the Doctor of Physical Therapy by 2020  Professional associations play a central role in this transformation amid criticisms on the lack of proper criteria to assure appropriate rigor  In many cases Masters level programs were relabeled as doctoral programs 

Revocation
A doctoral degree can be revoked or rescinded by the university that awarded it  Possible reasons include plagiarism, criminal or unethical activities of the holder, or malfunction or manipulation of academic evaluation processes 

See also
Postdoctoral researcher
Compilation thesis
Habilitation thesis
Doctor (title)
Eurodoctorate
List of fields of doctoral studies
Passage 4:
Sandra Pizzarello
Sandra Pizzarello, D Bi Sc  was a Venetian biochemist known for her co-discovery of amino acid enantiomeric excess in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites  Her research interests concerned the characterization of meteoritic organic compounds in elucidating the evolution of planetary homochirality  Pizzarello was a project collaborator and co-investigator for the NASA Astrobiology Institute (NAI), the president of the International Society for the Study of the Origin of Life (2014-2017), and an emerita professor at Arizona State University (ASU) 

Early life and education
Sandra Pizzarello was born in Venice, Italy in 1933  In 1955, she graduated summa cum laude from the University of Padua earning her Doctor of Biological Sciences degree under her adviser Professor Roncato  Pizzarello went on to work as a research associate developing tranquilizers for Farmitalia Research Laboratories in the Department of Neuropharmacology  Over the course of several years, Pizzarello transitioned from research to raising a family  Following a career opportunity for her husband, an aeronautical engineer and computer scientist, she moved her family to Phoenix, Arizona in 1970 
Once Pizzarello's youngest of four children finished primary school, her focus returned to her career after a decade away from scientific research  She audited a graduate biochemistry seminar course at ASU where she met Professor John Cronin, future co-discoverer of amino acid enantiomeric excess in meteorites  Due to her outstanding performance in the course, she was offered a job to work with Cronin at the university as a research professor in analyzing the recently recovered Murchison meteorite 
Sandra Pizzarello died on October 24, 2021 

Research
Sandra Pizzarello's research over the last forty years involved the analysis of organic compounds in several carbonaceous chondrites, particularly molecular, chiral, and isotopic characterization of amino acids  Because the formation of these organic-rich meteorites pre-date the origin of life, they had been under investigation as potential sites of primal organic compounds which could shed light on abiogenesis, specifically the origin of biological homochirality  Such studies, however, had been inconclusive until 1997 when Cronin and Pizzarello detected 7-9% L-enantiomeric excesses of three abiological amino acids while analyzing the Murchison meteorite Given Earth's history of meteoric impacts and the observation that meteors contain an excess of the biologically relevant L-stereoisomer of certain amino acids, Pizzarello studied the effect of meteoritic amino acids in enantiomeric excess on the formation of other biological molecules  In one study, Pizzarello found that nonracemic solutions of abiological isovaline and proteinogenic alanine can direct the condensation of  glycolaldehyde to produce nonracemic solutions of threose and erythrose via an aldol reaction concluding that amino acids can act as asymmetric catalysts in carbohydrate synthesis  These findings support the origin of life hypothesis that homochirality originated prior to life and from extraterrestrial origins  However, Pizzarello's theoretical inquiries into cosmochemical evolution remain debated based on suspect analytical evidence of meteoritic enantiomeric excesses 

External links
# https://nai nasa gov/directory/pizzarello-sandra/ NASA gov
https://webapp4 asu edu/directory/person/274781
Passage 5:
Sandra Eades
Sandra Eades  (born 1967) is a Noongar physician, researcher and professor, and the first Aboriginal medical practitioner to be awarded a Doctorate of Philosophy in 2003  As of March 2020 she is Dean of Medicine at Curtin University 

Early life and education
Sandra Eades was born in Mount Barker, Western Australia and at the age of 12 moved to Perth with her family  In primary school she wanted to be a doctor but thought she would not have that opportunity as an Aboriginal girl  In 1985, at the age of 17, she arrived at University of Newcastle as one of four Aboriginal students selected for a special program to study medicine  She graduated from the University of Western Australia with a PhD in 2003 

Career
Eades worked in the public hospital system after graduating from medical school, and was a general practitioner with the Aboriginal Medical Service for seven years  She began her career researching the epidemiology of Indigenous child health in Australia at the Telethon Institute for Child Health Research  Her first research opportunity into causes of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) in Aboriginal infants in Western Australia, was introduced to her by 2003 Australian of the Year, Fiona Stanley  She has been recognised for "identifying links between social factors such as housing and infant health" As Head of Indigenous Maternal and Child Health, and Associate Head of Preventative Health Research at Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Eades won a number of grants for research in Indigenous health studies  She was senior research fellow at The Sax Institute in Sydney from 2004 to 2008, and an Adjunct Senior Lecturer in the School of Public Health at the University of Sydney from 2012 to 2013  Moving to Melbourne in mid-2008 she joined the Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute and in 2018 she became Associate Dean Indigenous at the University of Melbourne Eades was appointed Dean of the Curtin Medical School in March 2020 

Awards and honours
Eades's work in pediatric and perinatal epidemiology has improved the lives of Aboriginal women and children 
2005: Deadly award for Outstanding Achievement in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health, which she dedicated to her three-year-old child 
2006: NSW Woman of the Year  Nominated by Frank Sartor, the Minister for Science and Medical Research 
2014: Elected Fellow of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences (FAHMS) 
2015: Inaugural winner, Lowitja Institute Cranlana Award
2020: Elected Fellow of the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia (FASSA) 
2022: Officer of the Order of Australia for "distinguished service to medical research, to Indigenous health, and to professional organisations"
Passage 6:
Herbert A  Shepard
Herbert Allen Shepard (1919–1985) was a Canadian-born American organization behaviorist and economist who made a significant contribution to Organization Development He held faculty posts at several universities including M I T , where he received his doctorate in Industrial Economics  He founded and directed the first doctoral program in Organization Development at Case Western Reserve; developed a residency in administrative psychiatry at Yale University School of Medicine, and was also President of The Gestalt Institute of Cleveland and The Professional Development Institute 
Shepard conducted the first large-scale experiments in Organization Development, while at Esso in the late fifties, and served as principal consultant to TRW Systems in the applications of behavioral science to organizations and teams  He has published widely and was chairman of the Douglas Memorial Award Committee of the Journal of Applied Behavioral Science  His research advanced our understanding of human behavior and social systems from dyads (doctor-patient or consultant-client) to organizations (synergy, alternative dispute resolution, structure, building consensus and caring about the powerless)  It opened the way for further developments in the psychology of teams, leadership and  interpersonal compatibility; cognitive behavior therapy, social cognitive theory (educational psychology); choice theory;"Principled Negotiation"  26 September 2022 , positive psychology and organization development 
In management consulting, Shepard's clients included Bell-Northern Research, Syncrude, Esso, TRW, Connecticut General Life Insurance Company, Union Carbide, USAID and most of the departments of the federal governments of the U S A  and Canada 



ground_truth: University