prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Roger Stuart Woolhouse is a biographer of a philosopher commonly known as what ?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Philip Carlo
Philip Carlo (April 18, 1949 – November 8, 2010) was an American journalist and best selling biographer of Thomas Pitera, Richard Kuklinski, Anthony Casso, and Richard Ramirez  Carlo had amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), commonly known as "Lou Gehrig's Disease" 
He was diagnosed in 2005 and reliant on a wheelchair with respirator, but retained his ability to speak and continued to write until his death  He died of the disease on November 8, 2010, at age 61 

Early life
Philip Carlo was born in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn, New York  From an early age, he was involved in gang activity  Raised on the streets of Brooklyn, New York  In 1964 when Carlo was 15 years old, he witnessed a close friend shot to death in broad daylight by hit men from the Colombo crime family  Moving toward induction into an organized crime mob family, Carlo found himself in trouble with the law  At the age of 17, he was involved in a gang fight and shot in the forehead by a  22 caliber gun 

Career
Carlo's passion for books ultimately steered him from the criminal path  The works of John Steinbeck, Ernest Hemingway, and Charles Dickens, among others, helped Carlo out of Brooklyn  At 19, he moved to Manhattan and secured a job as a real estate agent on the Upper West Side, Manhattan  Although successful, Carlo walked away from the business after nine years with the goal of ultimately becoming a professional writer  Despite his illness, in early November 2009, Carlo was able to appear on Shovio's Talk Back TV, to take questions about his research Carlo's first book was about a killer in a hospital ward  He got the idea while hospitalized at Bellevue and a woman was murdered there  The book received 125 rejection letters and was never published  His second book was about an American child kidnapped and forced into the sex trade  He got the idea while visiting Amsterdam  Carlo was shocked to see children performing sex shows in shop windows  Dutton published it as Stolen Flower in 1986  Universal Pictures optioned the book for Robert De Niro His last three books were written with the help of Kelsey Osgood, a Columbia University graduate from Brooklyn, who took notes for him due to his ALS  His last book, The Killer Within: In the Company of Monsters (which deals with his battle against ALS), was released posthumously in January 2011 

Personal life
Philip Carlo married Laura Garofalo in December 2009  The two met in August 2006 after Carlo mentioned that one of his childhood friends, Manny Garofalo, had a brother, Eddie, who had been killed on orders of the Gambino underboss Salvatore Gravano, known as Sammy the Bull  Carlo and Manny reunited, along with Manny's niece, Eddie's daughter, Laura Garofalo 

Works
Non-fiction

The Night Stalker: The Life and Crimes of Richard Ramirez (The True Story of America's Most Feared Serial Killer), Kensington (1996) ISBN 1-57566-030-X
The Ice Man: Confessions of a Mafia Contract Killer, St  Martin's Press (2006) ISBN 0-312-34928-9
Gaspipe: Confessions of a Mafia Boss, William Morrow Press (2008) ISBN 978-0-06-142984-2
The Butcher: Anatomy of a Mafia Psychopath, William Morrow Press (2009) ISBN 978-0-06-174465-5
The Killer Within: In the Company of Monsters, Overlook Press (2011) ISBN 978-1-59020-431-3Novels

Stolen Flower  (1988) ISBN 0-525-24484-0
Predators and Prayers  (2005) ISBN 0-8439-5576-7
Smiling Wolf  (2006) ISBN 0-8439-5678-X
Passage 2:
John Locke
John Locke  (; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "father of liberalism"  Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, Locke is equally important to social contract theory  His work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy  His writings influenced Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American Revolutionaries  His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence  Internationally, Locke's political-legal principles continue to have a profound influence on the theory and practice of limited representative government and the protection of basic rights and freedoms under the rule of law Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant 
He postulated that, at birth, the mind was a blank slate, or tabula rasa  Contrary to Cartesian philosophy based on pre-existing concepts, he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived from sense perception, a concept now known as empiricism 

Early life
Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a small thatched cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, about 12 miles from Bristol  He was baptised the same day, as both of his parents were Puritans  Locke's father, also called John, was an attorney who served as clerk to the Justices of the Peace in Chew Magna and as a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian forces during the early part of the English Civil War  His mother was Agnes Keene  Soon after Locke's birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton 
In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Popham, a member of Parliament and John Sr 's former commander  At the age of 16 he was at school just half a mile away from the execution of Charles I; however, the boys were not allowed to go and watch  After completing studies at Westminster, he was admitted to Christ Church, Oxford, in the autumn of 1652 at the age of 20  The dean of the college at the time was John Owen, vice-chancellor of the university  Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time  He found the works of modern philosophers, such as René Descartes, more interesting than the classical material taught at the university  Through his friend Richard Lower, whom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced to medicine and the experimental philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the Royal Society, of which he eventually became a member Locke was awarded a bachelor's degree in February 1656 and a master's degree in June 1658  He obtained a bachelor of medicine in February 1675, having studied the subject extensively during his time at Oxford and, in addition to Lower, worked with such noted scientists and thinkers as Robert Boyle, Thomas Willis and Robert Hooke  In 1666, he met Anthony Ashley Cooper, Lord Ashley, who had come to Oxford seeking treatment for a liver infection  Ashley was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue 

Career
Work
Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667 moved into Ashley's home at Exeter House in London, to serve as his personal physician  In London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham  Sydenham had a major effect on Locke's natural philosophical thinking—an effect that would become evident in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 
Locke's medical knowledge was put to the test when Ashley's liver infection became life-threatening  Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Ashley to undergo surgery (then life-threatening in itself) to remove the cyst  Ashley survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life 
During this time, Locke served as Secretary of the Board of Trade and Plantations and Secretary to the Lords Proprietors of Carolina, which helped to shape his ideas on international trade and economics Ashley, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Locke's political ideas  Locke became involved in politics when Ashley became Lord Chancellor in 1672 (Ashley being created 1st Earl of Shaftesbury in 1673)  Following Shaftesbury's fall from favour in 1675, Locke spent some time travelling across France as a tutor and medical attendant to Caleb Banks  He returned to England in 1679 when Shaftesbury's political fortunes took a brief positive turn  Around this time, most likely at Shaftesbury's prompting, Locke composed the bulk of the Two Treatises of Government  While it was once thought that Locke wrote the Treatises to defend the Glorious Revolution of 1688, recent scholarship has shown that the work was composed well before this date  The work is now viewed as a more general argument against absolute monarchy (particularly as espoused by Robert Filmer and Thomas Hobbes) and for individual consent as the basis of political legitimacy  Although Locke was associated with the influential Whigs, his ideas about natural rights and government are today considered quite revolutionary for that period in English history 

The Netherlands
Locke fled to the Netherlands in 1683, under strong suspicion of involvement in the Rye House Plot, although there is little evidence to suggest that he was directly involved in the scheme  The philosopher and novelist Rebecca Newberger Goldstein argues that during his five years in Holland, Locke chose his friends "from among the same freethinking members of dissenting Protestant groups as Spinoza's small group of loyal confidants  [Baruch Spinoza had died in 1677 ] Locke almost certainly met men in Amsterdam who spoke of the ideas of that renegade Jew who    insisted on identifying himself through his religion of reason alone " While she says that "Locke's strong empiricist tendencies" would have "disinclined him to read a grandly metaphysical work such as Spinoza's Ethics, in other ways he was deeply receptive to Spinoza's ideas, most particularly to the rationalist's well thought out argument for political and religious tolerance and the necessity of the separation of church and state " In the Netherlands, Locke had time to return to his writing, spending a great deal of time working on the Essay Concerning Human Understanding and composing the Letter on Toleration 

Return to England
Locke did not return home until after the Glorious Revolution  Locke accompanied Mary II back to England in 1689  The bulk of Locke's publishing took place upon his return from exile—his aforementioned Essay Concerning Human Understanding, the Two Treatises of Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration all appearing in quick succession 
Locke's close friend Lady Masham invited him to join her at Otes, the Mashams' country house in Essex  Although his time there was marked by variable health from asthma attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the Whigs  During this period he discussed matters with such figures as John Dryden and Isaac Newton 

Death
He died on 28 October 1704, and is buried in the churchyard of the village of High Laver, east of Harlow in Essex, where he had lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since 1691  Locke never married nor had children 
Events that happened during Locke's lifetime include the English Restoration, the Great Plague of London, the Great Fire of London, and the Glorious Revolution  He did not quite see the Act of Union of 1707, though the thrones of England and Scotland were held in personal union throughout his lifetime  Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy were in their infancy during Locke's time 

Philosophy
In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Locke's Two Treatises were rarely cited  Historian Julian Hoppit said of the book, "except among some Whigs, even as a contribution to the intense debate of the 1690s it made little impression and was generally ignored until 1703 (though in Oxford in 1695 it was reported to have made 'a great noise') " John Kenyon, in his study of British political debate from 1689 to 1720, has remarked that Locke's theories were "mentioned so rarely in the early stages of the [Glorious] Revolution, up to 1692, and even less thereafter, unless it was to heap abuse on them" and that "no one, including most Whigs, [was] ready for the idea of a notional or abstract contract of the kind adumbrated by Locke" : 200  In contrast, Kenyon adds that Algernon Sidney's Discourses Concerning Government were "certainly much more influential than Locke's Two Treatises ": 51 In the 50 years after Queen Anne's death in 1714, the Two Treatises were reprinted only once (except in the collected works of Locke)  However, with the rise of American resistance to British taxation, the Second Treatise of Government gained a new readership; it was frequently cited in the debates in both America and Britain  The first American printing occurred in 1773 in Boston 
Locke exercised a profound influence on political philosophy, in particular on modern liberalism  Michael Zuckert has argued that Locke launched liberalism by tempering Hobbesian absolutism and clearly separating the realms of Church and State  He had a strong influence on Voltaire, who called him "le sage Locke"  His arguments concerning liberty and the social contract later influenced the written works of Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and other Founding Fathers of the United States  In fact, one passage from the Second Treatise is reproduced verbatim in the Declaration of Independence, the reference to a "long train of abuses"  Such was Locke's influence that Thomas Jefferson wrote:Bacon, Locke and Newton… I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences However, Locke's influence may have been even more profound in the realm of epistemology  Locke redefined subjectivity, or self, leading intellectual historians such as Charles Taylor and Jerrold Seigel to argue that Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689/90) marks the beginning of the modern Western conception of the self Locke's theory of association heavily influenced the subject matter of modern psychology  At the time, Locke's recognition of two types of ideas, simple and complex—and, more importantly, their interaction through association—inspired other philosophers, such as David Hume and George Berkeley, to revise and expand this theory and apply it to explain how humans gain knowledge in the physical world Locke thought the state's borders and the functioning and enforcement of the existence of the state and its constitution were metaphysically tied to "the natural rights of the individual", and this inspired future liberal politicians and philosophers 

Religious tolerance
Writing his Letters Concerning Toleration (1689–1692) in the aftermath of the European wars of religion, Locke formulated a classic reasoning for religious tolerance, in which three arguments are central:
earthly judges, the state in particular, and human beings generally, cannot dependably evaluate the truth-claims of competing religious standpoints;
even if they could, enforcing a single 'true religion' would not have the desired effect, because belief cannot be compelled by violence;
coercing religious uniformity would lead to more social disorder than allowing diversity With regard to his position on religious tolerance, Locke was influenced by Baptist theologians like John Smyth and Thomas Helwys, who had published tracts demanding freedom of conscience in the early 17th century  Baptist theologian Roger Williams founded the colony of Rhode Island in 1636, where he combined a democratic constitution with unlimited religious freedom  His tract, The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience (1644), which was widely read in the mother country, was a passionate plea for absolute religious freedom and the total separation of church and state  Freedom of conscience had had high priority on the theological, philosophical, and political agenda, as Martin Luther refused to recant his beliefs before the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire at Worms in 1521, unless he would be proved false by the Bible 

Slavery and child labour
Locke's views on slavery were multifaceted and complex  Although he wrote against slavery in general, Locke was an investor and beneficiary of the slave trading Royal Africa Company  In addition, while secretary to the Earl of Shaftesbury, Locke participated in drafting the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina, which established a quasi-feudal aristocracy and gave Carolinian planters absolute power over their enslaved chattel property; the constitutions pledged that "every freeman of Carolina shall have absolute power and authority over his negro slaves"  Philosopher Martin Cohen notes that Locke, as secretary to the Council of Trade and Plantations and a member of the Board of Trade, was "one of just half a dozen men who created and supervised both the colonies and their iniquitous systems of servitude" 
According to American historian James Farr, Locke never expressed any thoughts concerning his contradictory opinions regarding slavery, which Farr ascribes to his personal involvement in the slave trade  Locke's positions on slavery have been described as hypocritical, and laying the foundation for the Founding Fathers to hold similarly contradictory thoughts regarding freedom and slavery Historian Holly Brewer has argued, however, that Locke's role in the Constitution of Carolina has been exaggerated and that he was merely paid to revise and make copies of a document that had already been partially written before he became involved; she compares Locke's role to a lawyer writing a will  She further says that Locke was paid in Royal African Company stock in lieu of money for his work as a secretary for a governmental sub-committee and that he sold the stock after a few years  Brewer likewise argues that Locke actively worked to undermine slavery in Virginia while heading a Board of Trade created by William of Orange following the Glorious Revolution  He specifically attacked colonial policy granting land to slave owners and encouraged the baptism and Christian education of the children of enslaved Africans to undercut a major justification of slavery—that they were heathens that possessed no rights  In his Two Treatises of Government, Locke provided a justification for slavery that could never actually be met, thus rendering all forms of slavery as it actually existed invalid  Moreover, as one may not submit to slavery, in Locke's view there is a moral injunction to attempt to throw off and escape it whenever it looms 
Locke also supported child labour, which was an intrinsic part of all pre-industrial societies  In his "Essay on the Poor Law", he turns to the education of the poor; he laments that "the children of labouring people are an ordinary burden to the parish, and are usually maintained in idleness, so that their labour also is generally lost to the public till they are 12 or 14 years old" : 190  He suggests, therefore, that "working schools" be set up in each parish in England for poor children so that they will be "from infancy [three years old] inured to work" : 190  He goes on to outline the economics of these schools, arguing not only that they will be profitable for the parish, but also that they will instill a good work ethic in the children : 191

Government
Locke's political theory was founded upon that of social contract  Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature is characterised by reason and tolerance  Like Hobbes, however, Locke believed that human nature allows people to be selfish  This is apparent with the introduction of currency  In a natural state, all people were equal and independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend his "life, health, liberty, or possessions" : 198  Most scholars trace the phrase "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness" in the American Declaration of Independence to Locke's theory of rights, although other origins have been suggested Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to defend in the state of nature was not enough, so people established a civil society to resolve conflicts in a civil way with help from government in a state of society  However, Locke never refers to Hobbes by name and may instead have been responding to other writers of the day  Locke also advocated governmental separation of powers and believed that revolution is not only a right but an obligation in some circumstances  These ideas would come to have profound influence on the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States 

Accumulation of wealth
According to Locke, unused property is wasteful and an offence against nature, but, with the introduction of "durable" goods, men could exchange their excessive perishable goods for those which would last longer and thus not offend the natural law  In his view, the introduction of money marked the culmination of this process, making possible the unlimited accumulation of property without causing waste through spoilage  He also includes gold or silver as money because they may be "hoarded up without injury to anyone", as they do not spoil or decay in the hands of the possessor  In his view, the introduction of money eliminates limits to accumulation  Locke stresses that inequality has come about by tacit agreement on the use of money, not by the social contract establishing civil society or the law of land regulating property  Locke is aware of a problem posed by unlimited accumulation, but does not consider it his task  He just implies that government would function to moderate the conflict between the unlimited accumulation of property and a more nearly equal distribution of wealth; he does not identify which principles that government should apply to solve this problem  However, not all elements of his thought form a consistent whole  For example, the labour theory of value in the Two Treatises of Government stands side by side with the demand-and-supply theory of value developed in a letter he wrote titled Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money  Moreover, Locke anchors property in labour but, in the end, upholds unlimited accumulation of wealth 

Ideas
Economics
On price theory
Locke's general theory of value and price is a supply-and-demand theory, set out in a letter to a member of parliament in 1691, titled Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money  In it, he refers to supply as quantity and demand as rent: "The price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyers and sellers" and "that which regulates the price…[of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent "
The quantity theory of money forms a special case of this general theory  His idea is based on "money answers all things" (Ecclesiastes) or "rent of money is always sufficient, or more than enough" and "varies very little"  Locke concludes that, as far as money is concerned, the demand for it is exclusively regulated by its quantity, regardless of whether the demand is unlimited or constant  He also investigates the determinants of demand and supply  For supply, he explains the value of goods as based on their scarcity and ability to be exchanged and consumed  He explains demand for goods as based on their ability to yield a flow of income  Locke develops an early theory of capitalisation, such as of land, which has value because "by its constant production of saleable commodities it brings in a certain yearly income"  He considers the demand for money as almost the same as demand for goods or land: it depends on whether money is wanted as medium of exchange  As a medium of exchange, he states, "money is capable by exchange to procure us the necessaries or conveniences of life" and, for loanable funds, "it comes to be of the same nature with land by yielding a certain yearly income…or interest" 

Monetary thoughts
Locke distinguishes two functions of money: as a counter to measure value, and as a pledge to lay claim to goods  He believes that silver and gold, as opposed to paper money, are the appropriate currency for international transactions  Silver and gold, he says, are treated to have equal value by all of humanity and can thus be treated as a pledge by anyone, while the value of paper money is only valid under the government which issues it 
Locke argues that a country should seek a favourable balance of trade, lest it fall behind other countries and suffer a loss in its trade  Since the world money stock grows constantly, a country must constantly seek to enlarge its own stock  Locke develops his theory of foreign exchanges, in addition to commodity movements, there are also movements in country stock of money, and movements of capital determine exchange rates  He considers the latter less significant and less volatile than commodity movements  As for a country's money stock, if it is large relative to that of other countries, he says it will cause the country's exchange to rise above par, as an export balance would do 
He also prepares estimates of the cash requirements for different economic groups (landholders, labourers, and brokers)  In each group he posits that the cash requirements are closely related to the length of the pay period  He argues the brokers—the middlemen—whose activities enlarge the monetary circuit and whose profits eat into the earnings of labourers and landholders, have a negative influence on both personal and the public economy to which they supposedly contribute 

Theory of value and property
Locke uses the concept of property in both broad and narrow terms: broadly, it covers a wide range of human interests and aspirations; more particularly, it refers to material goods  He argues that property is a natural right that is derived from labour  In Chapter V of his Second Treatise, Locke argues that the individual ownership of goods and property is justified by the labour exerted to produce such goods—"at least where there is enough [land], and as good, left in common for others" (para  27)—or to use property to produce goods beneficial to human society Locke states in his Second Treatise that nature on its own provides little of value to society, implying that the labour expended in the creation of goods gives them their value  From this premise, understood as a labour theory of value, Locke developed a labour theory of property, whereby ownership of property is created by the application of labour  In addition, he believed that property precedes government and government cannot "dispose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily"  Karl Marx later critiqued Locke's theory of property in his own social theory 

The human mind
The self
Locke defines the self as "that conscious thinking thing, (whatever substance, made up of whether spiritual, or material, simple, or compounded, it matters not) which is sensible, or conscious of pleasure and pain, capable of happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself, as far as that consciousness extends"  He does not, however, wholly ignore "substance", writing that "the body too goes to the making the man" In his Essay, Locke explains the gradual unfolding of this conscious mind  Arguing against both the Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and the Cartesian position, which holds that man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an 'empty mind', a tabula rasa, which is shaped by experience; sensations and reflections being the two sources of all of our ideas  He states in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding:

This source of ideas every man has wholly within himself; and though it be not sense, as having nothing to do with external objects, yet it is very like it, and might properly enough be called 'internal sense '
Locke's Some Thoughts Concerning Education is an outline on how to educate this mind  Drawing on thoughts expressed in letters written to Mary Clarke and her husband about their son, he expresses the belief that education makes the man—or, more fundamentally, that the mind is an "empty cabinet":I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education Locke also wrote that "the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences"  He argues that the "associations of ideas" that one makes when young are more important than those made later because they are the foundation of the self; they are, put differently, what first mark the tabula rasa  In his Essay, in which both these concepts are introduced, Locke warns, for example, against letting "a foolish maid" convince a child that "goblins and sprites" are associated with the night, for "darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the other" This theory came to be called associationism, going on to strongly influence 18th-century thought, particularly educational theory, as nearly every educational writer warned parents not to allow their children to develop negative associations  It also led to the development of psychology and other new disciplines with David Hartley's attempt to discover a biological mechanism for associationism in his Observations on Man (1749) 

Dream argument
Locke was critical of Descartes's version of the dream argument, with Locke making the counter-argument that people cannot have physical pain in dreams as they do in waking life 

Religion
Religious beliefs
Some scholars have seen Locke's political convictions as being based from his religious beliefs  Locke's religious trajectory began in Calvinist trinitarianism, but by the time of the Reflections (1695) Locke was advocating not just Socinian views on tolerance but also Socinian Christology  However Wainwright (1987) notes that in the posthumously published Paraphrase (1707) Locke's interpretation of one verse, Ephesians 1:10, is markedly different from that of Socinians like Biddle, and may indicate that near the end of his life Locke returned nearer to an Arian position, thereby accepting Christ's pre-existence 
Locke was at times not sure about the subject of original sin, so he was accused of Socinianism, Arianism, or Deism  Locke argued that the idea that "all Adam's Posterity [are] doomed to Eternal Infinite Punishment, for the Transgression of Adam" was "little consistent with the Justice or Goodness of the Great and Infinite God", leading Eric Nelson to associate him with Pelagian ideas  However, he did not deny the reality of evil  Man was capable of waging unjust wars and committing crimes  Criminals had to be punished, even with the death penalty With regard to the Bible, Locke was very conservative  He retained the doctrine of the verbal inspiration of the Scriptures  The miracles were proof of the divine nature of the biblical message  Locke was convinced that the entire content of the Bible was in agreement with human reason (The Reasonableness of Christianity, 1695)  Although Locke was an advocate of tolerance, he urged the authorities not to tolerate atheism, because he thought the denial of God's existence would undermine the social order and lead to chaos  That excluded all atheistic varieties of philosophy and all attempts to deduce ethics and natural law from purely secular premises  In Locke's opinion the cosmological argument was valid and proved God's existence  His political thought was based on Protestant Christian views  Additionally, Locke advocated a sense of piety out of gratitude to God for giving reason to men 

Philosophy from religion
Locke's concept of man started with the belief in creation  Like philosophers Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf, Locke equated natural law with the biblical revelation  Locke derived the fundamental concepts of his political theory from biblical texts, in particular from Genesis 1 and 2 (creation), the Decalogue, the Golden Rule, the teachings of Jesus, and the letters of Paul the Apostle  The Decalogue puts a person's life, reputation and property under God's protection 
Locke's philosophy on freedom is also derived from the Bible  Locke derived from the Bible basic human equality (including equality of the sexes), the starting point of the theological doctrine of Imago Dei  To Locke, one of the consequences of the principle of equality was that all humans were created equally free and therefore governments needed the consent of the governed  Locke compared the English monarchy's rule over the British people to Adam's rule over Eve in Genesis, which was appointed by God Following Locke's philosophy, the American Declaration of Independence founded human rights partially on the biblical belief in creation  Locke's doctrine that governments need the consent of the governed is also central to the Declaration of Independence 

Library
Manuscripts, books and treatises
Locke was an assiduous book collector and notetaker throughout his life  By his death in 1704, Locke had amassed a library of more than 3,000 books, a significant number in the seventeenth century  Unlike some of his contemporaries, Locke took care to catalogue and preserve his library, and his will made specific provisions for how his library was to be distributed after his death  Locke's will offered Lady Masham the choice of "any four folios, eight quartos and twenty books of less volume, which she shall choose out of the books in my Library " Locke also gave six titles to his "good friend" Anthony Collins, but Locke bequeathed the majority of his collection to his cousin Peter King (later Lord King) and to Lady Masham's son, Francis Cudworth Masham Francis Masham was promised one "moiety" (half) of Locke's library when he reached "the age of one and twenty years " The other "moiety" of Locke's books, along with his manuscripts, passed to his cousin King  Over the next two centuries, the Masham portion of Locke's library was dispersed  The manuscripts and books left to King, however, remained with King's descendants (later the Earls of Lovelace), until most of the collection was bought by the Bodleian Library, Oxford in 1947  Another portion of the books Locke left to King was discovered by the collector and philanthropist Paul Mellon in 1951  Mellon supplemented this discovery with books from Locke's library which he bought privately, and in 1978, he transferred his collection to the Bodleian  The holdings in the Locke Room at the Bodleian have been a valuable resource for scholars interested in Locke, his philosophy, practices for information management, and the history of the book 
Many of the books still contain Locke's signature, which he often made on the pastedowns of his books  Many also include Locke's marginalia 

The printed books in Locke's library reflected his various intellectual interests as well as his movements at different stages of his life  Locke travelled extensively in France and the Netherlands during the 1670s and 1680s, and during this time he acquired many books from the continent  Only half of the books in Locke's library were printed in England, while close to 40% came from France and the Netherlands  These books cover a wide range of subjects  According to John Harrison and Peter Laslett, the largest genres in Locke's library were theology (23 8% of books), medicine (11 1%), politics and law (10 7%), and classical literature (10 1%)  The Bodleian library currently holds more than 800 of the books from Locke's library  These include Locke's copies of works by several of the most influential figures of the seventeenth century, including

The Quaker William Penn: An address to Protestants of all perswasions (Bodleian Locke 7 69a)
The explorer Francis Drake: The world encompassed by Sir Francis Drake (Bodleian Locke 8 37c)
The scientist Robert Boyle: A discourse of things above reason (Bodleian Locke 7 272)
The bishop and historian Thomas Sprat: The history of the Royal-Society of London (Bodleian Locke 9 10a)In addition to books owned by Locke, the Bodleian also possesses more than 100 manuscripts related to Locke or written in his hand  Like the books in Locke's library, these manuscripts display a range of interests and provide different windows into Locke's activity and relationships  Several of the manuscripts include letters to and from acquaintances like Peter King (MS Locke b  6) and Nicolas Toinard (MS Locke c  45)  MS Locke f  1–10 contain Locke's journals for most years between 1675 and 1704  Some of the most significant manuscripts include early drafts of Locke's writings, such as his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (MS Locke f  26)  The Bodleian also holds a copy of Robert Boyle's General History of the Air with corrections and notes Locke made while preparing Boyle's work for posthumous publication (MS Locke c  37 )  Other manuscripts contain unpublished works  Among others, MS  Locke e  18 includes some of Locke's thoughts on the Glorious Revolution, which Locke sent to his friend Edward Clarke but never published One of the largest categories of manuscript at the Bodleian comprises Locke's notebooks and commonplace books  The scholar Richard Yeo calls Locke a "Master Note-taker" and explains that "Locke's methodical note-taking pervaded most areas of his life " In an unpublished essay "Of Study," Locke argued that a notebook should work like a "chest-of-drawers" for organizing information, which would be a "great help to the memory and means to avoid confusion in our thoughts " Locke kept several notebooks and commonplace books, which he organized according to topic  MS Locke c  43 includes Locke's notes on theology, while MS Locke f  18–24 contain medical notes  Other notebooks, such as MS c  43, incorporate several topics in the same notebook, but separated into sections 
These commonplace books were highly personal and were designed to be used by Locke himself rather than accessible to a wide audience  Locke's notes are often abbreviated and are full of codes which he used to reference material across notebooks  Another way Locke personalized his notebooks was by devising his own method of creating indexes using a grid system and Latin keywords  Instead of recording entire words, his indexes shortened words to their first letter and vowel  Thus, the word "Epistle" would be classified as "Ei"  Locke published his method in French in 1686, and it was republished posthumously in English in 1706 
Some of the books in Locke's library at the Bodleian are a combination of manuscript and print  Locke had some of his books interleaved, meaning that they were bound with blank sheets in-between the printed pages to enable annotations  Locke interleaved and annotated his five volumes of the New Testament in French, Greek, and Latin (Bodleian Locke 9 103-107)  Locke did the same with his copy of Thomas Hyde's Bodleian Library catalogue (Bodleian Locke 16 17), which Locke used to create a catalogue of his own library 

Writing
List of major works
1689  A Letter Concerning Toleration 
1690  A Second Letter Concerning Toleration
1692  A Third Letter for Toleration
1689/90  Two Treatises of Government (published throughout the 18th century by London bookseller Andrew Millar by commission for Thomas Hollis)
1689/90  An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
1691  Some Considerations on the consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money
1693  Some Thoughts Concerning Education
1695  The Reasonableness of Christianity, as Delivered in the Scriptures
1695  A Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity

Major posthumous manuscripts
1660  First Tract of Government (or the English Tract)
c 1662  Second Tract of Government (or the Latin Tract)
1664  Questions Concerning the Law of Nature 
1667  Essay Concerning Toleration
1706  Of the Conduct of the Understanding
1707  A paraphrase and notes on the Epistles of St  Paul to the Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans, Ephesians

See also
List of liberal theorists
Passage 3:
Stuart's Stranglers
Stuart's Stranglers was a well-known vigilante group in Montana that was founded in 1884 and led by Granville Stuart in response to widespread livestock theft at that time  They were also less commonly known as the "Montana Stranglers "

History
Background
Cattle thieves posed a significant threat to the profits of ranchers in Montana Territory  The rustlers operated well-organized networks that stole stock in one region and sold it in another, often across the Canadian border  By the late 1870s, ranchers began to form stockgrowers' associations to lobby the territorial legislature for legislation to curb the theft  At the 1883 legislative session, the cattlemen successfully lobbied for a bill that placed a bounty on predators such as coyotes and wolves  But the bill they desired most failed  House Bill 49 would have created a board of five livestock commissioners and hired six inspectors  Further, it would have invested the inspectors with the power to arrest suspected livestock thieves without a warrant  Governor John Schuyler Crosby vetoed the bill on the grounds that it unfairly taxed all property and that it gave too much freedom to inspectors  Faced with a rustling industry unchecked by legal means, many ranchers felt they had no alternative but to take the law into their own hands 
Granville Stuart originally organized a group of ranchers and cowboys in response to the theft of his stallion and 35 steers   The 14 men who gathered at his ranch in the Musselshell region called themselves a "Vigilante Committee," akin to the vigilance committees that formed in the mining camps of western Montana   They became known as "Stuart's Stranglers "

Activities
Their missions were directly led by William "Floppin Bill" Cantrell  Throughout their short existence their membership during chases would fluctuate between 17 and 40 men, depending on the location of the thieves and the day of the week Stuart's Stranglers tracked down livestock thieves in Montana  The men they caught were either shot in a gun fight or lynched  Many of the bodies they hung were found with placards on their person that usually read "Horse Thief" or "Cattle Thief " They were known for being extremely deadly and efficient  Not only did the group kill rustlers and thieves during their search, but also (allegedly) illegal range squatters scattered throughout the frontier which would become a Montana range war 

Battle of Bates Point
On July 8, Stuart and his group were hunting down Stringer Jack and his gang of rustlers in Musselshell River  Jack's gang managed to get across the river with some stolen horses, and the Stranglers were hotly and stealthily in pursuit  As the gang rested in a log cabin owned by Old Man James, the Stranglers surrounded the place, released the horses so the men inside couldn't escape, and promptly demanded their surrender  The gang however, remained defiant, and a bloody gunfight soon erupted  During the heat of the battle, the Stranglers set fire to the cabin, resulting in nine rustlers dead in the ensuing shootout  Stuart described the battle:

Two of the vigilantes crawled up and set fire to the hay stack and the cabin  The men inside stationed themselves at port holes and kept up the fight until they were all killed or burned up  The cabin burned to the ground  The tent was near the river bank and almost surrounded by thick brush and it was easier to escape from it than to get out of the cabin  Stringer Jack crawled under the tent and reached a dense clump of willows from which he made his last stand 
Dixie Burr, his arm smashed by a rifle bullet, hid in an old dry well until dark and then made his escape  Rose, Nickerson, Edwards and Swift Bill also slipped out of the tent and got away in the dark  Every one of the outlaws in the gun battle at Bates Point was either killed or wounded with the exception of Edwards and Nickerson, who—for the time being—got away unscathed "

Final activities
After they staged their final attack at  Bates Point where 160 head of cattle was being held, there were 69 remaining after Stuart and his men retrieved their own cattle  Stuart brought them all to his ranch and advertised for all the remaining animals to be picked up by their owners  Shortly afterwards they dissolved the group  In just a few months they had returned over 300 horses to their owners  In 1884, Stuart's group  killed up to 20 rustlers  Regional newspapers rumored and speculated they may have killed up to 75-100 rustlers and squatters, but there's no historical evidence to support that speculation  In 1885, Granville Stuart was elected President of the stockgrowers association 
Stuart's Stranglers gained so much notoriety during their time that Theodore Roosevelt had requested to join them  Granville Stuart turned him down though, he was afraid that the group would receive much unwanted public attention 

Controversies
Stuart's Stranglers, like other vigilante groups, have been criticized by some historians for the extrajudicial justice they meted out without due process of law  There is also debate about whether  they actually were effective at reducing the overall rate of horse and cattle theft 
Passage 4:
Ninian Crichton Stuart
Lieutenant-Colonel Lord Ninian Edward Crichton-Stuart (15 May 1883 – 2 October 1915) was a Scottish senior officer in the British Army and Member of Parliament  He was killed in action in the First World War  The second son of the Honourable Gwendolen Mary Anne Fitzalan-Howard and John Crichton-Stuart, 3rd Marquess of Bute, he entered the army in 1903 and served in the Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders and the Scots Guards as a lieutenant  After marrying he began a career in politics, serving first as a councillor on Fife County Council, Scotland  His family having close connections to the city of Cardiff in Wales, he fought and lost the January 1910 election there as a Liberal Unionist candidate  The resulting hung parliament led to a second election in December 1910, in which Crichton-Stuart won the seat 
In 1912, he took command of the 6th (Glamorgan) Battalion, The Welch Regiment  Upon the outbreak of the First World War, he volunteered his unit for service and joined the British Expeditionary Force on the Western Front  After eleven months on the front line, he was shot in the head and killed when leading his men in an attempt to repel a German counter-attack on 2 October 1915 during the Battle of Loos  He was one of 22 MPs that were killed during the conflict and the only serving MP from Wales to be killed 
The home ground of Cardiff City F C  was named Ninian Park after Crichton-Stuart offered to be a guarantor for the football club's rental of the site  After his death, a statue of Crichton-Stuart was erected in Cathays Park in Cardiff 

Early life
Crichton-Stuart was born at Dumfries House in Ayrshire, Scotland  He was the second son of John Crichton-Stuart, 3rd Marquess of Bute, and his wife, the Honourable Gwendolen Mary Anne Fitzalan Howard, daughter of Edward Fitzalan-Howard, 1st Baron Howard of Glossop  Through his father, he was an illegitimate descendant of the House of Stuart He was educated at Harrow School, showing promise in mathematics and foreign languages, and was expected to enter the diplomatic service  To further his studies, he travelled to Kiev in the Russian Empire and became a proficient Russian speaker  However, he was forced to return home after contracting a severe fever and instead attended Christ Church, Oxford once he had recovered  His family's estate included numerous properties and considerable land in Cardiff, including Cardiff Castle, and Crichton-Stuart frequently visited the city, including accompanying his father on visits to Bute docks  He also learnt to speak Welsh  Crichton-Stuart later chose to enter the army and was commissioned in 1903 into the 3rd Battalion of the Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders and then served for two years in the 1st Battalion, the Scots Guards as a 2nd lieutenant 

Marriage, philanthropy and political career
In 1905, Crichton-Stuart met the Honourable Ismay Preston, the only daughter of Jenico Preston, 14th Viscount Gormanston and Georgina Jane Connelan, at the wedding of his brother John Crichton-Stuart and Augusta Bellingham where he was best man and Preston was a bridesmaid  The couple announced their engagement in January 1906 and married six months later, on 16 June, at her family estate at Gormanston Castle  Following their marriage, Crichton-Stuart transferred into the Army Reserve and decided to enter politics in order to be closer to his wife and manage his family's estate in Falkland, Fife Crichton-Stuart first served on Fife County Council in his native Scotland and took a keen interest in local agriculture, becoming president of Fife Agricultural Society  He was later named as a member of a committee appointed by the president of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries to study the rights of tenant farmers when their land was sold or their landlords died  Crichton-Stuart also held the office of Justice of the Peace (JP) for Fife Crichton-Stuart's family had a history of serving in parliament for the Cardiff area, his great uncle Lord Patrick Crichton-Stuart having held the post on two occasions  In August 1907, at a meeting of the Cardiff Conservative Association, Crichton-Stuart was invited by Herbert Cory and his supporting panel to be the Unionist candidate for the United Boroughs of Cardiff, Cowbridge and Llantrisant  Soon after his selection, he and his wife had their first child, named Ninian Patrick Crichton-Stuart, on 31 October 1907 Lord Ninian's campaign for election was based on reform of the poor law and extending the age range of the old age pension  He also stated of his desire of preserving and strengthening the military forces of Britain  He lost the election to Liberal candidate David Alfred Thomas in January 1910 but did manage to reduce the majority by half from the previous election in 1906  Despite his defeat, his popularity among voters was increasing and at the end of the election campaign a crowd of thousands of people came to see Crichton-Stuart and his wife travel to the train station  The crowd gathered outside the Angel Hotel where the couple were staying and, when they left, their carriage was pulled by around 60 volunteers  The procession stopped briefly outside Cardiff Conservative Club where Crichton-Stuart shook hands with numerous people and gave a short speech before continuing to the station  The Evening Express remarked on the procession, stating "never before has a parliamentary candidate, victorious or defeated, been so honoured by the people of Cardiff"  On the polling day, Lord Ninian's son caught a chill being driven around Cardiff and later died  He was buried near Falkland Palace in Fife  Crichton-Stuart and his family did not permanently reside in Cardiff until he and his wife moved there in April 1910, moving into Penylan Court which had previously been the residence of William Tatem, 1st Baron Glanely  A second election was held in December 1910 following a hung parliament, in which Crichton-Stuart was successful, taking the seat from the Liberal candidate Clarendon Hyde, with a majority of 299 votes, a turnaround of 1,800 votes in the space of ten months  With a history in the military, the majority of the issues he raised before parliament concerned the armed forces, including the high costs officers were faced with during manoeuvres and a petition to improve the weaponry provided to the British cavalry units Crichton-Stuart became a well-known figure in Cardiff and was instrumental in promoting sport in the area  A keen sportsman himself, being proficient in shooting, fishing and motoring, he stabled horses in Cardiff and entered them into steeplechase competitions and races at Ely Racecourse  In 1910, Cardiff City Football Club had secured the lease of a plot of land in order to build a new stadium  During development, one of the guarantors for the club pulled out and Crichton-Stuart instead offered his support of the project and acted as a guarantor for the £90 annual rent that the club had agreed to  In recognition of his role in the building of the ground, the club dropped the original planned name of the ground, Sloper Park, and instead named it Ninian Park  The ground was officially opened on 1 September 1910 and Crichton-Stuart performed the kick-off for a friendly match between Cardiff and Football League First Division side Aston Villa  He was also a patron of the Lord Ninian Stuart Cup, a competition for local football teams 

First World War
On 9 March 1911, Crichton-Stuart was promoted as lieutenant-colonel of the 6th (Glamorgan) Battalion, The Welch Regiment and took command of the battalion the following year  It was an experienced unit, being the oldest Swansea volunteer corps, that were often used as a guard of honour during royal visits and Crichton-Stuart's wife Ismay chose the battalion colours of scarlet, silver and green  Following the outbreak of the First World War, he volunteered his battalion for service and they were shipped to France as part of the British Expeditionary Force, with 812 troops, 30 officers and 500 horses, becoming one of the first territorial battalions to join the war  At the battalion drill hall in Swansea prior to their departure, Crichton-Stuart addressed the unit, stating "The greatest honour a man can receive is that he has been provided with a chance to give, if need be, the greatest that he has, which is his life, for his country  I do not doubt every man on this parade will give it and give it as willingly as I mean to give it myself "On their arrival on the Western Front, the 6th were initially used to support lines of communication for guard and fatigue duties, first in Boulogne-sur-Mer before moving to Saint-Omer  The posting greatly frustrated Crichton-Stuart who was eager to join the fighting  In July 1915, they were transferred to the front and took part in operations at Heuvelland where they were labelled "the lucky 6th" by other units due to their relatively low number of wounded and Crichton-Stuart gained a reputation as a leader who was "always concerned with the welfare of his men" 

Death
On the night of 1 October 1915, during the Battle of Loos, the 6th Battalion was part of a force that successfully charged and captured a set of enemy trenches at the Hohenzollern Redoubt, near La Bassée, despite suffering heavy losses  Prior to the battle, the 6th had not slept for two days and had marched for 16 hours to reach the location  The following morning, the German troops launched a counter-attack to retake the trenches and the two Welsh battalions that were holding them were split from each other  Crichton-Stuart ordered the digging of a sap trench in order to reach the other units but prolonged attacks from three sides left the unit short of ammunition and other supplies and the order was given to abandon the trench and retreat  During the start of the evacuation of the trench, he was shot in the head by a German sniper after firing his revolver over the trench parapet and died at the age of 32, the only serving Welsh MP to be killed during the conflict His body was returned to battalion headquarters and placed in a zinc-lined coffin in a church in the town of Sailly-Labourse  The coffin was held in the church vault until spring 1918 with the intention of returning it to Britain at the end of the war but a German artillery bombardment damaged the vaults and his body was buried in the grounds of the Béthune Town Cemetery in a Catholic ceremony  Several reports state that he may have been attempting to rally his troops in order to mount a search party to locate his close friend Major Reginald C  Browning, who was last seen in a trench that had been overrun by German troops  An officer in his regiment reported that Crichton-Stuart "was to be found wherever danger threatened" and that his death had "cast a gloom" over the battalion  Crichton-Stuart had served for eleven months on the front line before his death  Of the 842 members of the 6th Battalion that had begun the war, only 30 survived  There was an outpouring of grief when his death was announced and his wife Ismay received numerous letters of condolence, including one from Margaret Lloyd George, the wife of David Lloyd George On 30 April 1917 Crichton-Stuart's widow, Ismay, married Captain Archibald Henry Maule Ramsay (4 May 1894 – 11 March 1955), later a Scottish Unionist MP for Peebles and South Midlothian 1931–1945  Together they had four sons  Ismay died on 16 February 1975 aged 92, and was survived by six of her eight children 

Legacy
Crichton-Stuart is commemorated on Panel 8 of the Parliamentary War Memorial in Westminster Hall, one of 22 MPs and officers of the House of Commons who died during the First World War to be named on that memorial  Crichton-Stuart is one of 19 MPs who fell in the war who are commemorated by heraldic shields in the Commons Chamber  A further act of commemoration came with the unveiling in 1932 of a manuscript-style illuminated book of remembrance for the House of Commons, which includes a short biographical account of his life and death A statute of Crichton-Stuart was commissioned soon after his death  Sculpted by Sir William Goscombe John, the statue was placed in Gorsedd Gardens in Cathays Park and depicts Crichton-Stuart in military uniform with binoculars in his right hand and papers in his left in a design intended to show him surveying the battlefield  Ninian Road in Roath Park, one of the Bute estate developments from the early twentieth century, continues to bear his name  Ninian Park maintained its name until it was closed and demolished in 2009 following the construction of the Cardiff City's new ground, the Cardiff City Stadium, although one side of the new ground was named the Ninian Stand  A housing estate was built on the site of the former ground and retained the name Ninian Park  The nearby Ninian Park railway station and Ninian Park primary school also bear his name  A chapel commissioned to be built on the family estate in Falkland as a memorial to Crichton-Stuart's son who died at the age of two still stands partially built after work was abandoned following Crichton-Stuart's death 

Family
Crichton-Stuart and his wife Ismay had four children:

Ninian Patrick Crichton-Stuart (31 October 1907 – 4 February 1910)
Ismay Catherine Crichton-Stuart (23 December 1909 - 1989); her first marriage, on 1 October 1930, was to John Anthony Hardinge Giffard, 3rd Earl of Halsbury; together they had one son Adam (1934–2010)  They divorced in 1936  Her second marriage was to Donald Walter Munro Ross on 30 August 1937 
Claudia Miriam Joanna Crichton-Stuart (24 June 1913 – 19 June 1985)
Major Michael Duncan David Crichton-Stuart MC (14 March 1915 – 1981); he married Barbara Symes, daughter of Sir George Stewart Symes, on 1 March 1941  His son – Ninian Stuart – is the Hereditary Keeper of Falkland Palace, has one son and one daughter by his late wife 
Passage 5:
Roger Thatcher
Arthur Roger Thatcher  (22 October 1926 – 13 February 2010), commonly known as Roger Thatcher or sometimes as A  Roger Thatcher, was a British statistician  Thatcher was born in Birmingham and spent his formative early years in Wilmslow, Cheshire  He attended The Leys School in Cambridge and went on to university at St John's College, Cambridge, where he concentrated his studies in statistics, economics, and mathematics  After brief training in meteorology as part of his national service, he instructed Royal Navy pilots in weather patterns  He married his wife Mary in 1950; they had two children 
He served in the North Western Gas Board before moving into the area of government statistics in 1952  He worked for the Admiralty and then Central Statistics Office, where under Lionel Robbins he worked on the Robbins Report  By 1971 he was deputy director of statistics for the Ministry of Labour, and wrote British Labour Statistics: Historical Abstract 1886–1968  He became director of the Department of Employment and Productivity, serving under leaders including William Whitelaw, 1st Viscount Whitelaw, Barbara Castle, Baroness Castle of Blackburn, and Michael Foot 
He became registrar general for England and Wales and the director of the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys in 1978  He worked on the 1981 census in the United Kingdom and reported directly to Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Margaret Thatcher, who had him remove three questions from the census to trim it down  He became interested in research into centenarians in this role, and found in 1981 that their numbers in the United Kingdom had increased significantly from prior 1971 data  He served as director at the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys until 1986 
Thatcher compiled research into population data and centenarians and contributed a significant body of scholarly work in addition to his government statistics duties  He predicted a good number of those born during the post–World War II baby boom would live beyond the age of 116  His work on the Kannisto-Thatcher Database on Old Age Mortality is held by the Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research and regarded as one of its most vital collections  The Journal of the Royal Statistical Society called him one of the "stalwarts" within the field of statistics  He died in 2010 at the age of 83, and remained active within his field of academia corresponding with other scholars until shortly before his death 

Early life and family
He was born as Arthur Roger Thatcher on 22 October 1926 in Birmingham to Arthur Thatcher and Edith (née Dobson)  Thatcher spent his formative years in Wilmslow, Cheshire  He attended The Leys School in Cambridge for his secondary education  He went on to attend St John's College, Cambridge, and while there focused his academic concentration on the three areas of statistics, economics, and mathematics  By his third-year of studies at the college in 1946, he had attained high honours  He was mobilised as part of national service, instructed briefly in meteorology, and went to assist pilots in the Royal Navy with weather analysis  In 1950 he married his wife Mary; they subsequently had two children: Susan and Jill 

Statistics career
Government service
Subsequent to his departure from national service, Thatcher was hired by the North Western Gas Board  He transferred from this agency to government statistics in 1952, and was first employed by the Admiralty and then afterwards by the Central Statistics Office two years later  He worked on the Robbins Report under Lionel Robbins while in this office, compiling information about higher education Thatcher served as deputy director of statistics for the Ministry of Labour, where in 1971 he put together the original version of the publication, British Labour Statistics: Historical Abstract 1886–1968  Under the newly formed version of the same agency in 1968, subsequently titled the Department of Employment and Productivity, Thatcher served as director  In this role he worked under agency leaders including William Whitelaw, 1st Viscount Whitelaw, Barbara Castle, Baroness Castle of Blackburn, and Michael Foot In 1978, Thatcher became registrar general for England and Wales and the director of the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys  His work on the 1981 census in the United Kingdom in this role proved to be a difficult task, primarily due to the sheer size of total effort required for the operation  Thatcher was required to delete three queries from the census after personally meeting to discuss the matter with then-Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Margaret Thatcher  In 1981, Thatcher found that over the prior thirty-year-period, the number of individuals alive to reach the age of 100 had increased by a figure of sixfold  At a 1981 meeting in Sussex held by the Medical Journalists Association, Thatcher presented the findings from his research and called the results "spectacular"  He reported that in 1971 there were less than 300 people in the United Kingdom over 100 years of age, and that this number had risen to 1800 total people of the same age range by 1981  Thatcher served as director of the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys until 1986 

Population research
He subsequently was drawn into researching discrepancies between the 1981 census and a prior version completed in 1971, specifically on data involving centenarians  During the course of this research, he found that there was a lack of study regarding the well-being of centenarians in the United Kingdom  Thatcher posited that the increase in longevity amongst those individuals that actually get to one-hundred was likely attributable to lack of stress in these older years  Thatcher found that contributing factors towards this progress in longevity also included better overall healthcare and an ever-increasing total population size in general  According to his research, Thatcher predicted that in the decade of the 2080s, each year the United Kingdom would see one individual reach the age of 116  He asserted that a fair number of individuals born between the 1950s–1960s attributed to the post–World War II baby boom would see a life expectancy age range between 116–123 total years In addition to his roles within government Thatcher contributed to the field of statistics through writings collaborated upon with other academics  His 1983 article "How Many People Have Ever Lived On Earth?", a publication of the International Statistical Institute, disproved the notion that the number of people living in the 20th century was in actuality much less than the total number of individuals previously in existence  His work on the Kannisto-Thatcher Database on Old Age Mortality is held by the Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research and regarded as one of its most vital collections  The database contains information from over 30 sovereign states on mortality and population size for males and females older than the age of 80  Their research was entered into computer format by the medical school at Odense University in the early part of the 1990s  Academic scholars James Vaupel and Väinö Kannisto helped him co-author the book The Force of Mortality at Ages 80 to 120, which was first published in 1998  Writing in the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society in 2000, Douglas Liddell placed Thatcher amongst "stalwarts" within the field of statistics, and compared him to others influential within the field including fellow statistician Michael Healy 

Death
Thatcher remained active within the field of statistics throughout his old age, communicating with academics in Asia, the United States, and Europe  Until the day he died, he was enthusiastically involved in research within the field of demographics  He died at the age of 83 on 13 February 2010  He was outlived by his wife and two children 

See also
Founders of statistics
List of actuaries
List of mathematical probabilists
List of mathematicians
List of statisticians
Passage 6:
Roger Guerreiro
Roger Guerreiro (Brazilian Portuguese: [ˈʁoʒeʁ ɡeˈʁejɾu], Polish pronunciation: [ˈrɔʐɛr ɡɛˈrɛjrɔ]; born on 25 May 1982), commonly known as Roger,  is a Polish former footballer who last played for Rio Verde as an attacking midfielder  Brazilian-born Roger was granted Polish citizenship 

Club career
AEK Athens
On 27 August 2009, Guerreiro signed a four-year contract with AEK Athens  He made his debut for AEK against Iraklis on 13 September 2009 
Guerreiro was a regular for AEK until he fell out of favor with coach Dušan Bajević and was not included in any squads  In the transfer period, Guerreiro was for sale and was offered to many European clubs  After the transfer period ended, Guerreiro apologized to Bajevic and was given another chance  Guerreiro's first match of the 2010–11 season was an away game against Aris, the match ended 0–4 to AEK Athens 
Guerreiro scored his first goal for AEK against Atromitos scoring the only goal of the match giving AEK the 1–0 win  His contract ended in 2013 and did not get renewed 

International career
He was granted Polish citizenship on 17 April 2008 
Roger received the citizenship in a speedy procedure, and was guaranteed a place in the Poland's football team for the 2008 European Championships (coached by Leo Beenhakker)  He made his debut in a Poland shirt in the game versus Albania on 27 May 2008 

Euro 2008
On 12 June, he scored his first goal for the Poland national team with a 30th-minute shot against Austria in both teams' second Group B match of Euro 2008  For this game, UEFA awarded him man of the match  It was Poland's first-ever goal in the European Championship 

Statistics
Career total
Honours
Legia Warsaw
Ekstraklasa: 2005–06
Polish SuperCup: 2008
Polish Cup: 2008

AEK Athens
Greek Cup: 2010–11
Passage 7:
Roger Woolhouse
Roger Stuart Woolhouse (1940–2011) was an English philosopher, an expert on empiricism and rationalism and a biographer of John Locke 
He was born in Wath-upon-Dearne and educated at Saltburn Primary School, Sir William Turner's Grammar School, London University (Philosophy) and then Selwyn College, Cambridge for his Doctorate From 1969 until his retirement in 2001, Woolhouse worked in the Department of Philosophy at the University of York Cambridge University Press requested Woolhouse write a biography of Locke, the last major biography being Maurice Cranston's 1957 work  Woolhouse's biography appeared in 2007 
After his death, York's Department of Philosophy founded the Roger Woolhouse Prize, an annual £500 prize awarded to MA Philosophy students 

Works
Locke (Prentice Hall / Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1984) 
The Empiricists (Oxford University Press, 1988) 
Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz: The Concept of Substance in Seventeenth Century Metaphysics (Routledge, 1993) 
Locke: A Biography (Cambridge University Press, 2007) 
Starting with Leibniz (Continuum, 2010) 


== Notes ==
Context 2: Passage 1:
You're the Apple of My Eye
"You're the Apple of My Eye" is a song written by Otis Blackwell and initially recorded and released as a single in 1956 by The Four Lovers, the precursor to The Four Seasons  Recorded after they were denied the opportunity to record another Blackwell song, "Don't Be Cruel", "You're the Apple of My Eye" was The Four Lovers' first exposure to U S  national publicity, reaching the #62 position on the Billboard Hot 100 and earning the quartet an appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show  One of two Four Lovers singles that RCA Victor Records released simultaneously, it was the quartet's only foray onto the Hot 100 before the formation of The Four Seasons five years later 

Background
The Four Lovers (1956 personnel: Frankie Valli, Nick and Tommy DeVito, and Hank Majewski) was the eventual result of Valli joining The Variety Trio in 1954 to form The Variatones (which briefly included mutual friends on a part-time basis)  The group performed at various New Jersey clubs and lounges and established a reputation for its musical versatility, incorporating country music, pop music, doo wop, Broadway standards, rhythm and blues, and an occasional foray into Italian love songs 
An RCA Records executive saw a Four Lovers performance and was impressed with the presentation enough to recommend the quartet to the company's artists and repertoire department  They were signed to the RCA Victor label for a series of records to be released in 1956 and 1957  In May 1956, "You're the Apple of My Eye"/"The Girl of My Dreams" and "Lovey Dovey"/"Please Don't Love Me" were released simultaneously by RCA  The four sides were recorded in a single April session (with two other songs that were released as a single in January 1957) 

Legacy
The song was featured in the jukebox musical: Jersey Boys as well as the film version 

"You're the Apple of My Eye"/"The Girl of My Dreams"
RCA Victor 47-6518  "You're the Apple of My Eye" was a last-minute substitution for another song that Frankie Valli and the group was preparing to do in the recording session, "Don't Be Cruel"  Accounts differ as to the precise mechanism behind their not recording the Otis Blackwell song  Some sources indicate that The Four Lovers were told not to record the song as Elvis Presley expressed a desire to record the song himself; other sources indicate that Blackwell himself requested that the Four Lovers not record the song so he could "shop around" for a bigger act (and a better royalty deal) for the song (and succeeded when Presley's manager approached Blackwell with the idea of Presley recording "Don't Be Cruel") 
Blackwell later apologized for "taking the song away from" The Four Lovers and offered a different original composition for the quartet to record  Produced by Blackwell, "You're the Apple of My Eye" was composed as a "traditional" rhythm-and-blues song, but the Four Lovers gave it more of a rock'n'roll interpretation (some music critics referred to it as so "over the top" as to be close in style to burlesque) 
The single was the group's first attempt into national publicity, with sales and airplay sufficient for the record to enter the Hot 100 and to generate enough interest for Ed Sullivan to invite the group onto his weekly television program  "Apple of My Eye" was the only Four Lovers Single to achieve chart status as the other six successive singles sank without a trace in 1956 and 1957 
After the Four Lovers became The Four Seasons in 1961, "You're the Apple of My Eye" was re-recorded (as "Apple of My Eye") for the Sherry and 11 Others album (1962)  The re-recording was released as a single in October 1964 and appeared briefly on the Billboard Bubbling Under the Hot 100 record chart 
The B-side of The Four Lovers single, "The Girl of My Dreams", is a cover of a song composed by Maxwell Davis, Joe Josea, Jules Taub, and Sam Ling  Jessie Belvin and Eugene Church recorded and released a recording of the song in 1956 as The Cliques 

"Honey Love"/"Please Don't Leave Me"
RCA Victor 47-6519  Released the same day as "You're the Apple of My Eye", The Four Lovers' second single featured covers of two rhythm-and-blues hits from the mid-1950s  The A-side, "Honey Love", was a considerable R&B hit for The Drifters in 1956  It was composed by Drifters lead singer Clyde McPhatter and Atlantic Records producer Jerry Wexler  The Four Lovers' version was similar in style to the original, but didn't come close to attaining the level of success of either the original or "You're the Apple of Your Eye" 
The B-side of the group's second single, "Please Don't Leave Me", was composed by Antoine "Fats" Domino and was originally recorded by him in 1953  It is one of the more blues-based songs in the Fats Domino catalog — and one of the most blues-based songs ever recorded by Frankie Valli and his friends, regardless of the name or membership of the group 

After "Apple" and "Honey"
The management or RCA Victor and The Four Lovers were encouraged by the success of "You're the Apple of My Eye" to make arrangements for recording an album for release for Christmas sales  The result, Joyride, had a collection of rhythm-and-blues and western covers, with a few pop standards and a handful of never-before-released songs, complete with a rollicking version of "White Christmas", patterned similar to the Drifters' version from 1955  In addition, RCA was releasing Four Lovers' singles roughly every two weeks, including covers of Hank Williams' "Jambalaya", Faye Adams' "Shake a Hand", and an early vocal version of "Night Train" 
Joyride and the last five RCA Victor Four Lovers singles failed to chart and failed to sell  Today, they are collector's items, with the album being worth up to $400 (US) in near mint condition and some of the singles at roughly one-third that  The group's last single, "My Life for You Love"/"Pucker Up", sold so few that the relative handful of existing copies are now selling for up to $3000 each 
By the end of 1957, The Four Lovers had no recording contract and returned to performing in clubs and lounges before being put "on hiatus", albeit briefly before a new artists contract with Bob Crewe's Peri Records gave the group a new purpose for its existence, that of supporting musicians with the occasional opportunity to record songs on their own (which they did — and release under a variety of names between 1958 and 1961)  This began a sequence of events which, in four years, resulted in the group becoming The Four Seasons 
Passage 2:
Dawn (Go Away)
"Dawn (Go Away)" is a song written by Bob Gaudio and Sandy Linzer and recorded by The Four Seasons in November 1963   
The song hit No  3 in the early part of 1964  According to Billboard, it was the 25th biggest hit single of the year, placing behind "Rag Doll", another Four Seasons hit, which was No  24 

Background
It was recorded as the Four Seasons were involved in a royalty dispute with Vee-Jay Records  As the lawsuit proceeded, the group recorded "Dawn" and a handful of other songs and withheld the master tapes from Vee-Jay, which then claimed breach of contract  The dispute was not settled until 1965, a year after the Four Seasons officially left Vee-Jay 
The group signed with Philips Records, a subsidiary of Mercury Records, shortly thereafter  "Dawn (Go Away)" was released in January 1964  It took four weeks to climb the Billboard Hot 100 chart to number 3 on February 29, 1964, prevented from going higher by The Beatles' "I Want to Hold Your Hand" and "She Loves You", which became the top two singles of 1964  "Dawn" remained at number 3 for three weeks, then dropped to make way for two further Beatles singles ("Twist and Shout" and "Please Please Me")  During its six-week run in the Top Ten, only Beatles hits ranked above it in the chart Cash Box said that the song "is delivered with that stompin', falsetto-highlighted money-making touch of the Four Seasons" and praised the arrangement and conducting by Charles Calello Originally written as a folk song, arranger Charles Calello sped it up and, at Valli's suggestion, added a galloping rhythm guitar borrowed from Kai Winding's version of "More"  Drummer Buddy Saltzman accented the recording with bombastic around-the-kit fills and ghost notes without using any cymbals The single version, with a two-line sung introduction, was never recorded in true stereo  Early "stereo" album releases were rechanneled (with the high and low frequencies on one channel and the midrange on the other); later stereo issues, from the Edizione d'Oro greatest hits album onward, include different takes of the recording  One begins with a short drum intro, featuring a louder and more frantic drum backing by Saltzman, and slightly different vocals  Both versions are listed as 2 minutes 11 seconds long, but the stereo "Dawn" is 2 minutes 30 seconds, and the mono version with the "Pretty as midsummer's morn  They called her Dawn" intro is 2 minutes 45 seconds "Dawn (Go Away)" was the only Philips single crediting the Four Seasons that did not have the notation "featuring the 'sound' of Frankie Valli" 
Passage 3:
Watch the Flowers Grow
"Watch the Flowers Grow" is a song composed by L  Russell Brown and Raymond Bloodworth and popularized by The Four Seasons in 1967  The single was released in the wake of The Beach Boys' Pet Sounds and The Beatles' Sgt  Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, "Watch the Flowers Grow" struggled up the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at #30, as The Four Seasons' music was rapidly falling out of favor with the American record-buying public (the Four Seasons' next single, a cover of The Shirelles' #1 hit "Will You Love Me Tomorrow" did slightly better, reaching #24 as the last Top 40 Four Seasons hit until "Who Loves You" in 1975) 
Billboard described the single as a "timely, easy-beat ballad" that was one of the Four Seasons' "most unusual entries "  Cash Box said  that it's "gently pulsing, melodic, romp "Songwriter L  Russell Brown would compose (or co-compose) a string of hit records in the 1970s, including several recorded by Dawn featuring Tony Orlando 
Passage 4:
Gloaming (horse)
Gloaming (September 1915 – 5 May 1932) was an outstanding Thoroughbred racehorse, owned, trained, and based in New Zealand  He set many records which included the Australasian record (jointly held with Desert Gold, Black Caviar and Winx) of 19 successive wins, many in Principal Races  Gloaming was unusual in that he was a champion who won many major races in both Australia and New Zealand  Gloaming still holds the Australasian record of 45 seconds for four furlongs 

Breeding
He was a robust bay gelding standing 15 hands 3 inches high with a good length of rein  Gloaming was sired by the good imported racehorse and sire, The Welkin (GB) out of the unplaced mare, Light (GB), by the good sire, Eager  His paternal grandsire was the English Triple Crown champion, Flying Fox  Gloaming was a brother to seven other named horses, all by The Welkin, including Gloaming's Sister (won AJC Kirkham Stakes), but none were nearly so successful as him  Light was inbred in the third generation (3x3) to Sterling Gloaming was sold as a yearling in 1916 for 230 guineas to  H  Chisholm acting on behalf of George D  Greenwood, of Teviotdale in the Canterbury region, New Zealand  Following the sale he made his first of 15 crossings of the Tasman Sea 

Racing record
Gloaming had a long career, racing from age three to nine years, which included victories over other champion racehorses such as Desert Gold, Beauford, Kennaquhair, Whittier and The Hawk  He was successful at distances from four furlongs to a mile and a half He was put into work as a two-year-old, but became shin-sore, and was gelded before being spelled  In June 1918 he was shipped to Sydney, after he had showed promise in track work in New Zealand 

1922 Racebook
At three years: 1918-19
At his first start, in the Sydney Tattersall's Chelmsford Stakes, over nine furlongs, he ran a race record time to defeat a class field that included the imported five-year-old Rebus and Kennaquhair  This was the first time this race had been won by a three-year-old having their first start  In his first season's racing Gloaming went on to win three Derbies, the AJC Australian Derby, the New Zealand Derby Stakes, and also the Great Northern Derby in New Zealand  In addition he 

won the 1918 Wellington R C  (WRC) Champion Plate weight for age (w f a ) over 10 furlongs by 21⁄2 lengths
2nd in G  G  Stead Memorial Stakes (w f a ) (defeated by the New Zealand Cup winner, Sasanof) 
won Auckland Racing Club (ARC) Islington Plate (w f a ) 1 mile 
won Wellington Stakes 5 furlongs in 58 3/5 seconds (race record)
won WeRC  Kelburn Plate (w f a )  4 fur  (defeating Surveyor)
2nd  in Taranaki Stakes (defeated by Desert Gold) 
won Egmont Stakes (defeating Desert Gold) 
won Hawera Stakes (defeating Desert Gold)
won WangJC Wanganui Jackson Stakes (w f a ) 6 fur 
won WangJC Wanganui Guineas, 1 mile
won Canterbury Jockey Club (CJC) Challenge Stakes, 7 fur  (defeating Surveyor) 
fell in the North Island Challenge Stakes (which was won by Warplane who was in receipt of 31 lb ) 

At four years: 1919-20
Gloaming won all but one of his starts during this season  All of his starts for this season are listed below:

won Rosehill Spring Stakes (w f a ) 1 mile (defeating Wolaroi and Prince Viridis) 
2nd in Australian Jockey Club (AJC) Spring Stakes (w f a ) (beaten a head by Poitrel; Cetigne 3rd), 12 furlongs
won AJC Craven Plate (w f a ) 10 furlongs (defeating Wolaroi and, Rebus 3rd, Sasanof) 
won Wellington (N Z ) Champion Plate (w f a ) 10 f (defeating Affectation, Mascot, Vagabond, and Desert Gold) 
won G  G  Stead Memorial Gold Cup, 10 f (defeating Rossini and Desert Gold) 
won ARC Islington Plate (w f a ) 1 mile
won ARC  Royal Park Stakes, 6 furlongs in 1:13 (race record)

At five years: 1920-21
As a five-year-old Gloaming had 15 race starts and won all of them including these principal races:

1920 ARC Islington Plate (w f a ) 8 f
1920 ARC Royal Stakes 6 f
1921 ARC Auckland Plate (w f a ) 12 f
1921 CJC Challenge Stakes 7 f
1921 TaraJC Taranaki Stakes 6 f
1921 WangJC Jackson Stakes (w f a ) 6 f

At six years: 1921-22
As a six-year-old Gloaming had 12 race starts and won all but one, in which he ran second  The principal races he won were:

1922 ARC Auckland Plate 12 furlongs
1922 TaraJC Taranaki Stakes 6 furlongs
1922 WangJC Jackson Stakes (w f a ) 6 furlongs, in 1:11 4/5, a race record
1922 WRC North Island Challenge Stakes 7 furlongs
1922 CJC Challenge Stakes 7 furlongs
1922 HBJC Ormond Memorial Gold Cup 8 furlongs 

At seven years: 1922-23
As a seven-year-old Gloaming had 5 starts for 3 wins and 2 seconds  The principal races he won were:

1922 RRC The Hill Stakes 10 f by 11⁄4 lengths from Beauford
1922 AJC Craven Plate Pr 10 f by 3 lengths from Beauford
1922 WRC Champion Plate (w f a ) 10 f with 9 st  4 lbs  (59 kg) in 2:6 1/5 a race record 

At eight years: 1923-24
As an eight-year-old Gloaming had 5 starts for 4 wins and 1 second  The principal races he won were:

1924 WangJC Jackson Stakes (w f a ) 6 f
1924 WeRC North Island Challenge Stakes with 10 1 (defeating Quiescent 6 12 by 6 lengths), 7 fur  in 1:27 4/5 

At nine years: 1924-25
As a nine-year-old Gloaming had 10 starts for 8 wins and 2 seconds  The principal races he won were:

1924 AJC Spring Stakes over 12 furlongs (defeating David, Ballymena, and Rivoli) 
1924 AJC Craven Plate over 10 f (defeating Ballymena, David, and Nigger Ministrel) 
1924 VRC Melbourne Stakes (w f a ) 10 f 
1925 Canterbury (N Z ) Middle Park Plate, 6 fur  with 9 st  10 lb  by 5 lengths with the 3rd horse a further 3 lengths away 
1925 WRC North Island Challenge Stakes 7 f  with 10 1 (Inferno 8 13, and), 7 fur  in 1 26 
1925 CJC Challenge Stakes 7 f  with 9 11
1925 HBJC Ormond Memorial Gold Cup 8 furlongs with 9 10 (beating The Hawk 9 10)

Summary
Gloaming had 67 race starts, won 57 (including 39 Principal Races) and was second 9 times  Gloaming fell in his only other race start, at barrier rise in the North Island Challenge Stakes which was a race he later won three times  When he retired he was the leading Australian racing stakes winner  He was the first horse to defeat the great mare, Desert Gold over a mile and he still holds the Australasian record of 45 seconds for four furlongs  He jointly held the Australasian record of 19 wins in succession with Desert Gold, who he met five times and defeated four times  The record is now held at 33 wins by Winx When Gloaming was retired from the turf to his owner's property at Teviotdale, he was the leading stakes-winner in Australasia with fifty-seven wins and £43,100 in prize-money  He died on 5 May 1932 

Honours
Gloaming has had his portrait painted by the noted equine artist, Martin Stainforth and it was reproduced in Racehorses in Australia Gloaming was one of five inaugural inductees into the New Zealand Racing Hall of Fame, alongside Carbine, Kindergarten, Phar Lap and Sunline  The Group Three Gloaming Stakes (1,800m) contested at Sydney's Rosehill Gardens Racecourse is named in his honour 

See also
List of historical horses
List of leading Thoroughbred racehorses
Repeat winners of horse races
Passage 5:
Four Seasons of Love
Four Seasons of Love is the fourth studio album by American singer-songwriter Donna Summer  Released on October 11, 1976, this  concept album became her third consecutive successful album to be certified gold in the US  It peaked at #29 on the Billboard 200  In addition, all the cuts on this album went to number one on the disco chart 

Overview
This was the third concept album Summer had made, though unlike the previous two which had contained one long track on side one and a small selection of slightly shorter ones on side two, Four Seasons of Love was more equally balanced  The album told the story of a love affair by relating it to the four seasons  Side one contained "Spring Affair" and "Summer Fever", both disco tracks, and side two contained "Autumn Changes" (a slightly slower disco number) and "Winter Melody" (which had an even slower beat), plus a reprise of "Spring Affair"  This concept was reflected in the four photos of Summer, one for each season of the year, in a pull-out 1977 calendar included with the original LP album  The photo on the cover was, fittingly, the Summer pic  Summer's "first lady of love" image came across strongly on this album, though her trademark moans and groans were slightly less evident than on previous work  Pics included "Winter" in a fur with a tear on her cheek; "Spring" in a Scarlett O'Hara style hoop skirt on a swing; and "Autumn" re-enacting Marilyn Monroe's famous scene from The Seven Year Itch with the billowing white dress over the subway grate  This is an allusion to her song "Love to Love You Baby", for which she cites Monroe as an inspiration As with the previous two albums, Four Seasons of Love was distributed by different record labels in different countries, including Casablanca Records in the U S  Edited versions of "Spring Affair" and "Winter Melody" were released in various places, but neither had a big impact on any charts (although the latter made the Top 30 on the UK singles chart)  The album was also released as a Club Special Edition / Club Sonderauflage in West Germany on the Atlantic Records Label 

Critical reception
Michael Freedberg of AllMusic called the album "rapture indeed", noting that "the rhythms push and go poof as delicately as ever", "the horn section mutes and jazzes the melody", the beats stop, run, and stop again whenever they damn please", and "Summer expresses private rapture in falsetto as she smooches, oohs, and ahs onto the mix like lipstick traces" Cashbox magazine reviewer stated that since there are only five songs on this album, at "first glance it seems a
little slim", but "each tune, based on a season of the year, is pure Summer (Donna)"  On the album, "accompanied by the Munich Machine, the sultry songstress runs the gamut of emotions, from lust to lustier", "the string parts are super-slick", and "the production makes full use of Summer's vocal abilities" 

Track listing
Personnel
Donna Summer – lead vocals
Thor Baldursson – keyboards, string and horn arrangements
Keith Forsey – drums, percussion
Nick Woodland – guitar
Les Hurdle – bass guitar
Dino Solera – saxophone
Geoff Bastow – synthesizer
Madeline Bell, Sue & Sunny – backing vocalsTechnicalMixed by Giorgio Moroder
Engineered by Jürgen Koppers
Album Cover Concept by Susan Munao, Joyce Bogart & Donna Summer
Design by Henry Vizcarra & Gribbitt!
Art Direction by Gribbitt! & Chris Whorf
Photography – Mario Casilli

Charts
Certifications and sales
Passage 6:
The Wonder Who?
The Wonder Who? was a nom de disque of The Four Seasons for four single records released from 1965 to 1967   It was one of a handful of "names" used by the group at that time, including Frankie Valli (as a "solo" artist even though the Four Seasons were present on the record) and The Valli Boys  Wonder Who? recordings generally feature the falsetto singing by Valli, but with a softer falsetto than on "typical" Four Seasons recordings 

Background
The Four Lovers
The Four Seasons evolved from The Four Lovers, which recorded under a variety of names between 1956 and 1960  Lead singer Valli had himself recorded under several pseudonyms as well, including Frankie Tyler and Frankie Valley  Songwriter/guitarist/keyboardist Bob Gaudio did the same (as Turner Disentri, i e , "Turn of the Century") and bassist/arranger Nick Massi (as Alex Alda) after they joined the Four Lovers in 1959 Aside from the first Four Lovers single, "You're the Apple of My Eye" in 1956, the group's (and Valli's) records failed to chart  In 1958, The Four Lovers obtained a three-year artist contract with producer Bob Crewe, which gave the group a steady stream of session work (Valli can be heard singing in the background of "Rock and Roll Is Here to Stay" by Danny and the Juniors) in addition to recording for Crewe's Peri Records Since the beginning of The Four Lovers, the group performed in clubs and lounges in New Jersey and offered songs in a variety of styles, from country and western to pop to doo wop to rockabilly to Broadway tunes, with a sprinkling of Italian love songs thrown in 

The Four Seasons hit factory
In 1960, The Four Lovers became The 4 Seasons (named after the bowling lane)  The session work (and recording under various names) continued, but now with Valli, Gaudio, and Crewe trying to sell both Gaudio compositions and Four Seasons recordings, the group finally achieved national distribution under its own name for the first time in four years  While the first single failed to sell, the second one, "Sherry", started a string of successes for The Four Seasons   From 1962 to 1966, it has been estimated that The Four Seasons had sold about 50 million records, more than any recording act except The Beatles In the midst of a royalty dispute with Vee-Jay Records in late 1963, the Four Seasons left the label for Philips  While Vee-Jay started recycling Four Seasons product in 1964, Phillips started releasing new Four Seasons records with increasing frequency as the British invasion began  With the blessing of Philips officials, Valli rekindled his "solo" career in the latter part of 1965, releasing records that were credited to him and having the group as backing musicians  In 1966 and 1967, Four Seasons records and Frankie Valli singles were listed on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, with both names appearing simultaneously in the chart in several issues of the magazine 

The Wonder Who? history and beyond
On the heels of recording a live album of Broadway tunes (to complete the settlement of the group's lawsuit with Vee-Jay), Valli, Crewe, and Gaudio had planned on recording an album consisting entirely of songs written by Bob Dylan, but as recording progressed, the concept was modified to include songs by Burt Bacharach and Hal David  Valli was not happy with his vocals on the various takes of "Don't Think Twice, It's All Right" when he decided to record the song with a "joke" falsetto vocal (an impression of jazz musician Rose Murphy) to reduce the tension in the studio An executive of Philips Records heard a replay of the recording with a "joke" vocal and wanted it to be released as a single — Two years earlier, Peter, Paul, and Mary had reached the #9 position on the Hot 100 with their version of the song — but the recording by Valli and the band could not be released as either a Valli "solo" single or a Four Seasons single  Sold in a picture sleeve with a connect the dots puzzle, the record with the truncated name ("Don't Think Twice") was released as by "The Wonder Who?" in November 1965  It reached No  12 on the Hot 100, and as it was sliding down the chart in January 1966, a Frankie Valli "solo" single ("(You're Gonna) Hurt Yourself") and a Four Seasons single ("Working My Way Back to You") were also in the upper half of the chart, giving three simultaneous hit records by the group under different guises In the wake of "Don't Think Twice", Vee-Jay reissued a Four Seasons recording, "Peanuts" (originally a 1957 hit by Little Joe and the Thrillers), as by "The Wonder Who" (without the question mark)  As was the case with previous Four Seasons releases of the song, the "Wonder Who" single didn't sell and didn't chart 
Two more "Wonder Who?" singles were released by Philips  Three of the four sides made it onto the lower reaches of the Hot 100 "Don't Think Twice" and the other charting "Wonder Who?" recordings were included on Four Seasons albums, which, in their original releases, made no mention of the name that was created for single release 
While "Lonesome Road" became the last "Wonder Who?" single, the group continued to release both Four Seasons and Frankie Valli "solo" singles until 1975, when Valli had recorded "Swearin' to God" without any participation from the group (his previous hit, "My Eyes Adored You" was recorded as a Four Seasons recording, but was released as a "solo" record) 

Members
Frankie Valli
Tommy DeVito (died 2020)
Bob Gaudio
Nick Massi (died 2000)
Joe Long (died 2021)

Singles by "The Wonder Who?"
All "Wonder Who?" singles were produced by Bob Crewe 

"Don't Think Twice"/"Sassy"
Philips 40324, released October 1965  "Don't Think Twice" was originally recorded by composer Bob Dylan (as "Don't Think Twice, It's All Right") on his 1963 album, The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan   Peter, Paul, and Mary released the most commercially successful version of the song in September 1963  It reached No  9 on the Hot 100 singles chart  The "Wonder Who?" version peaked at No  12 in December 1965 
"Sassy" was an original instrumental by the Four Seasons  Composing credit was given to Bob Gaudio and Bob Crewe 

"On the Good Ship Lollipop"/"You're Nobody till Somebody Loves You"
Philips 40380, released June 1966  Composed by Richard A  Whiting and Sidney Clare, "On the Good Ship Lollipop" made its debut in the 1934 Shirley Temple motion picture Bright Eyes and is most identified with Temple singing it, but the most successful commercial release of the song was by Rudy Vallee,  reaching No  4 on the Billboard chart in 1935  The Four Seasons/Wonder Who version barely made a dent on the Hot 100, reaching the #87 position 
"You're Nobody till Somebody Loves You" was another chestnut, having been a hit for Russ Morgan in 1946 and recorded by numerous artists since then  It was composed by Morgan, Larry Stock, and Harry Cavanaugh  When the version credited to "The Wonder Who?" appeared on the Hot 100 at the #96 position, it marked the only time that two positions were simultaneously occupied by the fictitious group, and only "Wonder Who?" single that had both sides chart 

"The Lonesome Road"/"Around and Around (andaroundandaroundandaroundandaround)"
Philips 40471, released July 1967  Composed by Gene Austin and Nathaniel Shilkret, "Lonesome Road" was first recorded by Austin, accompanied by Shilkret directing the Victor Orchestra, in 1927 and has since been recorded by over two hundred famous artists  It was used in five motion pictures, including  the motion picture Show Boat   The version by "The Wonder Who?" reached No  89 in its brief appearance on the Hot 100 
"Around and Around" was a Four Seasons original composed by Gaudio and Crewe  While it appeared on this single as a song by "The Wonder Who?", the same take later appeared on the B-side of the 1968 Four Seasons single "Will You Love Me Tomorrow" and credited to the group 

"Peanuts"/"My Sugar" (as The Wonder Who)
Vee-Jay 717, released March 1966  Composed by "Little Joe" Cook, "Peanuts" was originally a #22 hit for Little Joe and the Thrillers in 1957 (their only chart recording)  In January 1963, Vee-Jay Records released a Four Seasons single with "Peanuts" as the A-side and "Stay" as the B-side  After various disk jockeys started playing "Stay" on the radio, Vee-Jay superseded the release, issuing new singles with "Stay" on the A-side and "Goodnight My Love" as the B-side  Several subsequent reissues with "Peanuts" as the A-side failed to sell or chart, including the one "credited" to "The Wonder Who" (without the question mark) 
"My Sugar" is a Gaudio-Crewe composition that made its first appearance on the 1963 Four Seasons album Big Girls Don't Cry and Twelve Others  This marks the first release of this recording on a Four Seasons (or "Wonder Who") single 

See also
List of U S  singles by Frankie Valli and The Four Seasons
The Four Seasons
Frankie Valli
Passage 7:
Donna Summer
Donna Adrian Gaines (December 31, 1948 – May 17, 2012), known professionally as Donna Summer, was an American singer and songwriter  She gained prominence during the disco era of the 1970s and became known as the "Queen of Disco", while her music gained a global following Influenced by the counterculture of the 1960s, Summer became the lead singer of a psychedelic rock band named Crow and moved to New York City  In 1968, she joined a German adaptation of the musical Hair in Munich, where she spent several years living, acting, and singing  There, she met music producers Giorgio Moroder and Pete Bellotte, and they went on to record influential disco hits together such as "Love to Love You Baby" and "I Feel Love", marking Summer's breakthrough into international music markets  Summer returned to the United States in 1976, and more hits such as "Last Dance", her version of "MacArthur Park", "Heaven Knows", "Hot Stuff", "Bad Girls", "Dim All the Lights", "No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)" with Barbra Streisand, and "On the Radio" followed 
Summer amassed a total of 32 chart singles on the US Billboard Hot 100 in her lifetime, including 14 top ten singles and four number one singles  She claimed a top-40 hit every year between 1976 and 1984, and from her first top-ten hit in 1976, to the end of 1982, she had 12 top-ten hits (10 were top-five hits), more than any other act during that time period  She returned to the Hot 100's top five in 1983, and claimed her final top-ten hit in 1989 with "This Time I Know It's for Real"  She was the first artist to have three consecutive double albums reach the top of the US Billboard 200 chart and charted four number-one singles in the US within a 12-month period  She also charted two number-one singles on the R&B Singles chart in the US and a number-one single in the United Kingdom  Her last Hot 100 hit came in 1999 with "I Will Go with You (Con te partirò)"  While her fortunes on the Hot 100 waned in subsequent decades, Summer remained a force on the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart throughout her entire career 
Summer died in 2012 from lung cancer, at her home in Naples, Florida  She sold over 100 million records worldwide, making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time  She won five Grammy Awards  In her obituary in The Times, she was described as the "undisputed queen of the Seventies disco boom" who reached the status of "one of the world's leading female singers " Moroder described Summer's work on the song "I Feel Love" as "really the start of electronic dance" music  In 2013, Summer was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame  In December 2016, Billboard ranked her sixth on its list of the "Greatest of All Time Top Dance Club Artists" 

Early life
Donna Adrian Gaines was born on December 31, 1948, in Boston, Massachusetts, to Andrew and Mary Gaines, and was third of seven children  She was raised in the Boston neighborhood of Mission Hill  Her father was a butcher, and her mother was a schoolteacher Summer's performance debut occurred at church when she was ten years old, replacing a vocalist who failed to appear  She attended Boston's Jeremiah E  Burke High School where she performed in school musicals and was considered popular  In 1967, just weeks before graduation, Summer left for New York City, where she joined the blues rock band Crow  After a record label passed on signing the group since it was only interested in the band's lead singer, the group agreed to dissolve Summer stayed in New York and auditioned for a role in the counterculture musical, Hair  She landed the part of Sheila and agreed to take the role in the Munich production of the show, moving there in August 1968 after getting her parents' reluctant approval  She eventually became fluent in German, singing various songs in that language, and participated in the musicals Ich bin ich (the German version of The Me Nobody Knows), Godspell, and Show Boat  Within three years, she moved to Vienna, Austria, and joined the Vienna Volksoper  She briefly toured with an ensemble vocal group called FamilyTree, the creation of producer Günter "Yogi" Lauke In 1968, Summer released (as Donna Gaines) on Polydor her first single, a German version of the title "Aquarius" from the musical Hair, followed in 1971 by a second single, a remake of the Jaynetts' 1963 hit, "Sally Go 'Round the Roses", from a one-off European deal with Decca Records  In 1969, she issued the single "If You Walkin' Alone" on Philips Records She married Austrian actor Helmuth Sommer in 1973, and gave birth to their daughter Natalia Pia Melanie "Mimi" Sommer, the same year  She provided backing vocals for producer-keyboardist Veit Marvos on his Ariola Records release Nice to See You, credited as "Gayn Pierre"  Several subsequent singles included Donna performing with the group, and the name "Gayn Pierre" was used while performing in Godspell with Helmuth Sommer during 1972  Their marriage subsequently ended in divorce, and she married singer-guitarist Bruce Sudano in 1980 

Music career
1974–1979: Initial success
While working as a model part-time and backing singer in Munich, Summer met producer Giorgio Moroder and Pete Bellotte during a recording session for Three Dog Night at Musicland Studios  The trio forged a working partnership, and Donna was signed to their Oasis label in 1974
Context 3: Passage 1:
Vaccine
A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious or malignant disease  The safety and effectiveness of vaccines has been widely studied and verified  A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins  The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and to further recognize and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future 
Vaccines can be prophylactic (to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by a natural or "wild" pathogen), or therapeutic (to fight a disease that has already occurred, such as cancer)  Some vaccines offer full sterilizing immunity, in which infection is prevented completely The administration of vaccines is called vaccination  Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases; widespread immunity due to vaccination is largely responsible for the worldwide eradication of smallpox and the restriction of diseases such as polio, measles, and tetanus from much of the world  The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that licensed vaccines are currently available for twenty-five different preventable infections The first recorded use of Inoculation to prevent smallpox occurred in the 16th century in China, with the earliest hints of the practice in China coming during the 10th century   It was also the first disease for which a vaccine was produced The folk practice of inoculation against smallpox was brought from Turkey to Britain in 1721 by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu 
The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae vaccinae (smallpox of the cow), the term devised by Edward Jenner (who both developed the concept of vaccines and created the first vaccine) to denote cowpox  He used the phrase in 1798 for the long title of his Inquiry into the Variolae vaccinae Known as the Cow Pox, in which he described the protective effect of cowpox against smallpox  In 1881, to honor Jenner, Louis Pasteur proposed that the terms should be extended to cover the new protective inoculations then being developed  The science of vaccine development and production is termed vaccinology 

Effects
There is overwhelming scientific consensus that vaccines are a very safe and effective way to fight and eradicate infectious diseases  The immune system recognizes vaccine agents as foreign, destroys them, and "remembers" them  When the virulent version of an agent is encountered, the body recognizes the protein coat on the agent, and thus is prepared to respond, by first neutralizing the target agent before it can enter cells, and secondly by recognizing and destroying infected cells before that agent can multiply to vast numbers Limitations to their effectiveness, nevertheless, exist  Sometimes, protection fails for vaccine-related reasons such as failures in vaccine attenuation, vaccination regimens or administration Failure may also occur for host-related reasons if the host's immune system does not respond adequately or at all  Host-related lack of response occurs in an estimated 2-10% of individuals, due to factors including genetics, immune status, age, health and nutritional status  One type of primary immunodeficiency disorder resulting in genetic failure is X-linked agammaglobulinemia, in which the absence of an enzyme essential for B cell development prevents the host's immune system from generating antibodies to a pathogen Host–pathogen interactions and responses to infection are dynamic processes involving multiple pathways in the immune system  A host does not develop antibodies instantaneously: while the body's innate immunity may be activated in as little as twelve hours, adaptive immunity can take 1–2 weeks to fully develop  During that time, the host can still become infected Once antibodies are produced, they may promote immunity in any of several ways, depending on the class of antibodies involved  Their success in clearing or inactivating a pathogen will depend on the amount of antibodies produced and on the extent to which those antibodies are effective at countering the strain of the pathogen involved, since different strains may be differently susceptible to a given immune reaction  
In some cases vaccines may result in partial immune protection (in which immunity is less than 100% effective but still reduces risk of infection) or in temporary immune protection (in which immunity wanes over time) rather than full or permanent immunity  They can still raise the reinfection threshold for the population as a whole and make a substantial impact  They can also mitigate the severity of infection, resulting in a lower mortality rate, lower morbidity, faster recovery from illness, and a wide range of other effects Those who are older often display less of a response than those who are younger, a pattern known as Immunosenescence Adjuvants commonly are used to boost immune response, particularly for older people whose immune response to a simple vaccine may have weakened The efficacy or performance of the vaccine is dependent on several factors:

the disease itself (for some diseases vaccination performs better than for others)
the strain of vaccine (some vaccines are specific to, or at least most effective against, particular strains of the disease)
whether the vaccination schedule has been properly observed 
idiosyncratic response to vaccination; some individuals are "non-responders" to certain vaccines, meaning that they do not generate antibodies even after being vaccinated correctly 
assorted factors such as ethnicity, age, or genetic predisposition If a vaccinated individual does develop the disease vaccinated against (breakthrough infection), the disease is likely to be less virulent than in unvaccinated cases Important considerations in an effective vaccination program:
careful modeling to anticipate the effect that an immunization campaign will have on the epidemiology of the disease in the medium to long term
ongoing surveillance for the relevant disease following introduction of a new vaccine
maintenance of high immunization rates, even when a disease has become rareIn 1958, there were 763,094 cases of measles in the United States; 552 deaths resulted  After the introduction of new vaccines, the number of cases dropped to fewer than 150 per year (median of 56)  In early 2008, there were 64 suspected cases of measles  Fifty-four of those infections were associated with importation from another country, although only thirteen percent were actually acquired outside the United States; 63 of the 64 individuals either had never been vaccinated against measles or were uncertain whether they had been vaccinated Vaccines led to the eradication of smallpox, one of the most contagious and deadly diseases in humans  Other diseases such as rubella, polio, measles, mumps, chickenpox, and typhoid are nowhere near as common as they were a hundred years ago thanks to widespread vaccination programs  As long as the vast majority of people are vaccinated, it is much more difficult for an outbreak of disease to occur, let alone spread  This effect is called herd immunity  Polio, which is transmitted only among humans, is targeted by an extensive eradication campaign that has seen endemic polio restricted to only parts of three countries (Afghanistan, Nigeria, and Pakistan)  However, the difficulty of reaching all children, cultural misunderstandings, and disinformation have caused the anticipated eradication date to be missed several times Vaccines also help prevent the development of antibiotic resistance  For example, by greatly reducing the incidence of pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, vaccine programs have greatly reduced the prevalence of infections resistant to penicillin or other first-line antibiotics The measles vaccine is estimated to prevent a million deaths every year 

Adverse effects
Vaccinations given to children, adolescents, or adults are generally safe  Adverse effects, if any, are generally mild  The rate of side effects depends on the vaccine in question  Some common side effects include fever, pain around the injection site, and muscle aches  Additionally, some individuals may be allergic to ingredients in the vaccine  MMR vaccine is rarely associated with febrile seizures Host-("vaccinee")-related determinants that render a person susceptible to infection, such as genetics, health status (underlying disease, nutrition, pregnancy, sensitivities or allergies), immune competence, age, and economic impact or cultural environment can be primary or secondary factors affecting the severity of infection and response to a vaccine  Elderly (above age 60), allergen-hypersensitive, and obese people have susceptibility to compromised immunogenicity, which prevents or inhibits vaccine effectiveness, possibly requiring separate vaccine technologies for these specific populations or repetitive booster vaccinations to limit virus transmission Severe side effects are extremely rare  Varicella vaccine is rarely associated with complications in immunodeficient individuals, and rotavirus vaccines are moderately associated with intussusception At least 19 countries have no-fault compensation programs to provide compensation for those with severe adverse effects of vaccination  The United States' program is known as the National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act, and the United Kingdom employs the Vaccine Damage Payment 

Types
Vaccines typically contain attenuated, inactivated or dead organisms or purified products derived from them  There are several types of vaccines in use  These represent different strategies used to try to reduce the risk of illness while retaining the ability to induce a beneficial immune response 

Attenuated
Some vaccines contain live, attenuated microorganisms  Many of these are active viruses that have been cultivated under conditions that disable their virulent properties, or that use closely related but less dangerous organisms to produce a broad immune response  Although most attenuated vaccines are viral, some are bacterial in nature  Examples include the viral diseases yellow fever, measles, mumps, and rubella, and the bacterial disease typhoid  The live Mycobacterium tuberculosis vaccine developed by Calmette and Guérin is not made of a contagious strain but contains a virulently modified strain called "BCG" used to elicit an immune response to the vaccine  The live attenuated vaccine containing strain Yersinia pestis EV is used for plague immunization  Attenuated vaccines have some advantages and disadvantages  Attenuated, or live, weakened, vaccines typically provoke more durable immunological responses  But they may not be safe for use in immunocompromised individuals, and on rare occasions mutate to a virulent form and cause disease 

Inactivated
Some vaccines contain inactivated, but previously virulent, micro-organisms that have been destroyed with chemicals, heat, or radiation – "ghosts", with intact but empty bacterial cell envelopes  They are considered an intermediate phase between the inactivated and attenuated vaccines  Examples include IPV (polio vaccine), hepatitis A vaccine, rabies vaccine and most influenza vaccines 

Toxoid
Toxoid vaccines are made from inactivated toxic compounds that cause illness rather than the micro-organism  Examples of toxoid-based vaccines include tetanus and diphtheria  Not all toxoids are for micro-organisms; for example, Crotalus atrox toxoid is used to vaccinate dogs against rattlesnake bites 

Subunit
Rather than introducing an inactivated or attenuated micro-organism to an immune system (which would constitute a "whole-agent" vaccine), a subunit vaccine uses a fragment of it to create an immune response  One example is the subunit vaccine against hepatitis B, which is composed of only the surface proteins of the virus (previously extracted from the blood serum of chronically infected patients but now produced by recombination of the viral genes into yeast)  Another example is edible algae vaccines, such as the virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine against human papillomavirus (HPV), which is composed of the viral major capsid protein  Another example is the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase subunits of the influenza virus  A subunit vaccine is being used for plague immunization 

Conjugate
Certain bacteria have a polysaccharide outer coat that is poorly immunogenic  By linking these outer coats to proteins (e g , toxins), the immune system can be led to recognize the polysaccharide as if it were a protein antigen  This approach is used in the Haemophilus influenzae type B vaccine 

Outer membrane vesicle
Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are naturally immunogenic and can be manipulated to produce potent vaccines  The best known OMV vaccines are those developed for serotype B meningococcal disease 

Heterotypic
Heterologous vaccines also known as "Jennerian vaccines", are vaccines that are pathogens of other animals that either do not cause disease or cause mild disease in the organism being treated  The classic example is Jenner's use of cowpox to protect against smallpox  A current example is the use of BCG vaccine made from Mycobacterium bovis to protect against tuberculosis 

Genetic vaccine
The subgroup of genetic vaccines encompass viral vector vaccines, RNA vaccines and DNA vaccines 

Viral vector
Viral vector vaccines use a safe virus to insert pathogen genes in the body to produce specific antigens, such as surface proteins, to stimulate an immune response 

RNA
An mRNA vaccine (or RNA vaccine) is a novel type of vaccine which is composed of the nucleic acid RNA, packaged within a vector such as lipid nanoparticles  Among the COVID-19 vaccines are a number of RNA vaccines to combat the COVID-19 pandemic and some have been approved or have received emergency use authorization in some countries  For example, the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine and Moderna mRNA vaccine are approved for use in adults and children in the US 

DNA
DNA vaccination – The proposed mechanism is the insertion and expression of viral or bacterial DNA in human or animal cells (enhanced by the use of electroporation), triggering immune system recognition  Some cells of the immune system that recognize the proteins expressed will mount an attack against these proteins and cells expressing them  Because these cells live for a very long time, if the pathogen that normally expresses these proteins is encountered at a later time, they will be attacked instantly by the immune system  One potential advantage of DNA vaccines is that they are very easy to produce and store 
In August 2021, Indian authorities gave emergency approval to ZyCoV-D  Developed by Cadila Healthcare, it is the first DNA vaccine approved for humans 

Experimental
Many innovative vaccines are also in development and use 

Dendritic cell vaccines combine dendritic cells with antigens to present the antigens to the body's white blood cells, thus stimulating an immune reaction  These vaccines have shown some positive preliminary results for treating brain tumors and are also tested in malignant melanoma 
Recombinant vector – by combining the physiology of one micro-organism and the DNA of another, immunity can be created against diseases that have complex infection processes  An example is the RVSV-ZEBOV vaccine licensed to Merck that is being used in 2018 to combat ebola in Congo 
T-cell receptor peptide vaccines are under development for several diseases using models of Valley Fever, stomatitis, and atopic dermatitis  These peptides have been shown to modulate cytokine production and improve cell-mediated immunity 
Targeting of identified bacterial proteins that are involved in complement inhibition would neutralize the key bacterial virulence mechanism 
The use of plasmids has been validated in preclinical studies as a protective vaccine strategy for cancer and infectious diseases  However, in human studies, this approach has failed to provide clinically relevant benefit  The overall efficacy of plasmid DNA immunization depends on increasing the plasmid's immunogenicity while also correcting for factors involved in the specific activation of immune effector cells 
Bacterial vector – Similar in principle to viral vector vaccines, but using bacteria instead 
Antigen-presenting cellWhile most vaccines are created using inactivated or attenuated compounds from micro-organisms, synthetic vaccines are composed mainly or wholly of synthetic peptides, carbohydrates, or antigens 

Valence
Vaccines may be monovalent (also called univalent) or multivalent (also called polyvalent)  A monovalent vaccine is designed to immunize against a single antigen or single microorganism  A multivalent or polyvalent vaccine is designed to immunize against two or more strains of the same microorganism, or against two or more microorganisms  The valency of a multivalent vaccine may be denoted with a Greek or Latin prefix (e g , bivalent, trivalent, or tetravalent/quadrivalent)  In certain cases, a monovalent vaccine may be preferable for rapidly developing a strong immune response 

Interactions
When two or more vaccines are mixed in the same formulation, the two vaccines can interfere  This most frequently occurs with live attenuated vaccines, where one of the vaccine components is more robust than the others and suppresses the growth and immune response to the other components 
This phenomenon was first noted in the trivalent Sabin polio vaccine, where the amount of serotype 2 virus in the vaccine had to be reduced to stop it from interfering with the "take" of the serotype 1 and 3 viruses in the vaccine  It was also noted in a 2001 study to be a problem with dengue vaccines, where the DEN-3 serotype was found to predominate and suppress the response to DEN-1, -2 and -4 serotypes 

Other contents
Adjuvants
Vaccines typically contain one or more adjuvants, used to boost the immune response  Tetanus toxoid, for instance, is usually adsorbed onto alum  This presents the antigen in such a way as to produce a greater action than the simple aqueous tetanus toxoid  People who have an adverse reaction to adsorbed tetanus toxoid may be given the simple vaccine when the time comes for a booster In the preparation for the 1990 Persian Gulf campaign, the whole cell pertussis vaccine was used as an adjuvant for anthrax vaccine  This produces a more rapid immune response than giving only the anthrax vaccine, which is of some benefit if exposure might be imminent 

Preservatives
Vaccines may also contain preservatives to prevent contamination with bacteria or fungi  Until recent years, the preservative thiomersal (a k a  Thimerosal in the US and Japan) was used in many vaccines that did not contain live viruses  As of 2005, the only childhood vaccine in the U S  that contains thiomersal in greater than trace amounts is the influenza vaccine, which is currently recommended only for children with certain risk factors  Single-dose influenza vaccines supplied in the UK do not list thiomersal in the ingredients  Preservatives may be used at various stages of the production of vaccines, and the most sophisticated methods of measurement might detect traces of them in the finished product, as they may in the environment and population as a whole Many vaccines need preservatives to prevent serious adverse effects such as Staphylococcus infection, which in one 1928 incident killed 12 of 21 children inoculated with a diphtheria vaccine that lacked a preservative  Several preservatives are available, including thiomersal, phenoxyethanol, and formaldehyde  Thiomersal is more effective against bacteria, has a better shelf-life, and improves vaccine stability, potency, and safety; but, in the U S , the European Union, and a few other affluent countries, it is no longer used as a preservative in childhood vaccines, as a precautionary measure due to its mercury content  Although controversial claims have been made that thiomersal contributes to autism, no convincing scientific evidence supports these claims  Furthermore, a 10–11-year study of 657,461 children found that the MMR vaccine does not cause autism and actually reduced the risk of autism by seven percent 

Excipients
Beside the active vaccine itself, the following excipients and residual manufacturing compounds are present or may be present in vaccine preparations:
Aluminum salts or gels are added as adjuvants  Adjuvants are added to promote an earlier, more potent response, and more persistent immune response to the vaccine; they allow for a lower vaccine dosage 
Antibiotics are added to some vaccines to prevent the growth of bacteria during production and storage of the vaccine 
Egg protein is present in the influenza vaccine and yellow fever vaccine as they are prepared using chicken eggs  Other proteins may be present 
Formaldehyde is used to inactivate bacterial products for toxoid vaccines  Formaldehyde is also used to inactivate unwanted viruses and kill bacteria that might contaminate the vaccine during production 
Monosodium glutamate (MSG) and 2-phenoxyethanol are used as stabilizers in a few vaccines to help the vaccine remain unchanged when the vaccine is exposed to heat, light, acidity, or humidity 
Thiomersal is a mercury-containing antimicrobial that is added to vials of vaccines that contain more than one dose to prevent contamination and growth of potentially harmful bacteria  Due to the controversy surrounding thiomersal, it has been removed from most vaccines except multi-use influenza, where it was reduced to levels so that a single dose contained less than a microgram of mercury, a level similar to eating ten grams of canned tuna 

Nomenclature
Various fairly standardized abbreviations for vaccine names have developed, although the standardization is by no means centralized or global  For example, the vaccine names used in the United States have well-established abbreviations that are also widely known and used elsewhere  An extensive list of them provided in a sortable table and freely accessible is available at a US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention web page  The page explains that "The abbreviations [in] this table (Column 3) were standardized jointly by staff of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, ACIP Work Groups, the editor of the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), the editor of Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (the Pink Book), ACIP members, and liaison organizations to the ACIP "Some examples are "DTaP" for diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis vaccine, "DT" for diphtheria and tetanus toxoids, and "Td" for tetanus and diphtheria toxoids  At its page on tetanus vaccination, the CDC further explains that "Upper-case letters in these abbreviations denote full-strength doses of diphtheria (D) and tetanus (T) toxoids and pertussis (P) vaccine  Lower-case "d" and "p" denote reduced doses of diphtheria and pertussis used in the adolescent/adult-formulations  The 'a' in DTaP and Tdap stands for 'acellular', meaning that the pertussis component contains only a part of the pertussis organism "Another list of established vaccine abbreviations is at the CDC's page called "Vaccine Acronyms and Abbreviations", with abbreviations used on U S  immunization records



ground_truth: Father of Liberalism

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How many records did the singer who sang "Four Seasons of Love" sell worldwide?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  A demo tape of Summer's work with Moroder and Bellotte led to a deal with the European-distributed label Groovy Records  Due to an error on the record cover, Donna Sommer became Donna Summer; the name stuck  Summer's first album was Lady of the Night  It became a hit in the Netherlands, Sweden, Germany and Belgium on the strength of two songs, "The Hostage" and the title track "Lady of the Night"  "The Hostage" reached the top of the charts in France, but was removed from radio playlists in Germany because of the song's subject matter: a high ranking politician that had recently been kidnapped and held for ransom  One of her first TV appearances was in the television show, Van Oekel's Discohoek, which started the breakthrough of "The Hostage", and in which she gracefully went along with the scripted absurdity and chaos in the show 
In 1975, Summer passed on an idea for a song to Moroder who was working with another artist; a song that would be called "Love To Love You Baby"  Summer, Moroder and Bellotte wrote the song together, and together they worked on a demo version with Summer singing the song  Moroder decided that Summer's version should be released  Seeking an American release for the song, it was sent to Casablanca Records president Neil Bogart  Bogart played the song at one of his extravagant industry parties, where it was so popular with the crowd, they insisted that it be played over and over, each time it ended  Bogart requested that Moroder produce a longer version for discothèques  Moroder, Bellotte, and Summer returned with a 17-minute version  Bogart tweaked the title and Casablanca signed Summer, releasing the single in November 1975  The shorter 7" version of the single was promoted by radio stations, while clubs regularly played the 17-minute version (the longer version would also appear on the album) 
By early 1976, "Love to Love You Baby" had reached No  2 on the US Hot 100 chart and had become a Gold single, while the album had sold over a million copies  The song generated controversy due to Summer's moans and groans, which emulated lovemaking, and some American stations, like those in Europe with the initial release, refused to play it  Despite this, "Love to Love You Baby" found chart success in several European countries, and made the Top 5 in the United Kingdom despite the BBC ban  Casablanca Records wasted no time releasing the follow-up album A Love Trilogy, featuring "Try Me, I Know We Can Make It" 

In 1977, Summer released the concept album I Remember Yesterday  The song "I Feel Love", reached No  6 on the Hot 100 chart  and No  1 in the UK  She received her first American Music Award nomination for Favorite Soul/R&B Female Artist  The single would attain Gold status and the album went Platinum in the US  Another concept album, also released in 1977, was Once Upon a Time, a double album which told of a modern-day Cinderella "rags to riches" story  This album would attain Gold status  Summer recorded the song "Down Deep Inside" as the theme song for the 1977 film The Deep  In 1978, Summer acted in the film Thank God It's Friday, the film met with modest success; the song "Last Dance", reached No  3 on the Hot 100  The soundtrack and single both went Gold and resulted in Summer winning her first Grammy Award, for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance  Its writer, Paul Jabara, won both an Academy Award and Golden Globe Award for the composition  Summer also had "With Your Love" and "Je t'aime    moi non plus", on the soundtrack  Her version of the Jimmy Webb ballad, "MacArthur Park", became her first No  1 hit on the Hot 100 chart  It was also the only No  1 hit for songwriter Jimmy Webb; the single went Gold and topped the charts for three weeks  She received a Grammy nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance  The song was featured on Summer's first live album, Live and More, which also became her first album to hit number one on the US Billboard 200 chart and went double-Platinum, selling over 2 million copies  The week of November 11, 1978, Summer became the first female artist of the modern rock era to have the No  1 single on the Hot 100 and album on the Billboard 200 charts, simultaneously  The song "Heaven Knows", which featured Brooklyn Dreams singer Joe "Bean" Esposito; reached No  4 on the Hot 100 and became another Gold single 
In 1979, Summer won three American Music Awards for Single, Album and Female Artist, in the Disco category at the awards held in January  Summer performed at the world-televised Music for UNICEF Concert, joining contemporaries such as ABBA; Olivia Newton-John; the Bee Gees; Andy Gibb; Rod Stewart; John Denver; Earth, Wind & Fire; Rita Coolidge; and Kris Kristofferson for a TV special that raised funds and awareness for the world's children  Artists donated royalties of certain songs, some in perpetuity, to benefit the cause  Summer began work on her next project with Moroder and Bellotte, Bad Girls  Moroder brought in Harold Faltermeyer, with whom he had collaborated on the soundtrack of film Midnight Express, to be the album's arranger 
In 1979, Summer gained 5 big hits such as "Hot Stuff" and "Bad Girls", "Heaven Knows", "Dim All the Lights", and No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)"  The week of June 16, 1979, Summer would again have the number-one single on the Hot 100 chart, and the number-one album on the Billboard 200 chart; when "Hot Stuff" regained the top spot on the Hot 100 chart  The following week, "Bad Girls" would be on top of the US Top R&B albums chart 

1980–1985: She Works Hard For The Money, unreleased album, new record label
Summer received four nominations for the 7th Annual American Music Awards in 1980, and took home awards for Female Pop/Rock and Female Soul/R&B Artist; and well as Pop/Rock single for "Bad Girls"  In 1980, her single "On the Radio", reached No  5, selling over a million copies in the US alone, making it a Gold single  "The Wanderer" reached #3 on the Hot 100  Summer would again receive a Grammy nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance  Just over a week after the awards, Summer had her own nationally televised special, The Donna Summer Special, which aired on ABC network on January 27, 1980  After the release of the On the Radio album, Summer wanted to branch out into other musical styles, which led to tensions between her and Casablanca Records  Casablanca wanted her to continue to record disco only  Summer was upset with President Neil Bogart over the early release of the single "No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)", because Casablanca didn't wait until her previous single, "Dim All the Lights", had peaked; she had penned "Dim All the Lights" alone, and was hoping for a number-one hit as a songwriter  Summer and the label parted ways in 1980, and she signed with Geffen Records, the new label started by David Geffen  Summer filed a $10 million lawsuit against Casablanca; the label counter-sued  In the end, she did not receive any money, but won the rights to her own lucrative song publishing Summer's first Geffen album, The Wanderer, featured an eclectic mixture of sounds, bringing elements of rock, rockabilly, new wave, and gospel music  The Wanderer was rushed to market; the producers of the album wanted more production time  The album continued Summer's streak of Gold albums with the "title track" peaking at No  3 on the Hot 100 chart  Its follow-up singles were, "Cold Love", No  33; and "Who Do You Think You're Foolin'", No  40  Summer was nominated for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance for "Cold Love", and Best Inspirational Performance for "I Believe in Jesus" at the 1981 Grammy Awards 
She would soon be working on her next album  It was to be another double album set  When David Geffen stopped by the studio for a preview, he was warned that it was a work in progress, but it was almost done  That was a mistake, because only a few tracks had been finished, and most of them were in demo phase  He heard enough to tell producers that it was not good enough; the project was canceled  It would be released years later in 1996, under the title I'm a Rainbow  Over the years, a few of the tracks would be released  The song "Highway Runner" appears on the soundtrack for the film Fast Times at Ridgemont High  "Romeo" appears on the Flashdance soundtrack  Both, "I'm a Rainbow" and "Don't Cry for Me Argentina" would be on her 1993 anthology album 
David Geffen hired top R&B and pop producer Quincy Jones to produce Summer's next album, the eponymously titled Donna Summer  The album took over six months to record as Summer, who was pregnant at the time, found it hard to sing  During the recording of the project, Neil Bogart died of cancer in May 1982 at age 39  Summer would sing at his funeral  The album included the top-ten hit "Love Is in Control (Finger on the Trigger)"; for which she received a Grammy nomination for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance  Summer was also nominated for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance for "Protection", penned for her by Bruce Springsteen  Other singles included a cover of the Jon and Vangelis song "State of Independence" (No  41 pop) and "The Woman in Me" (No  33 pop) 
By then Geffen Records had been notified by Polygram Records, which now owned Casablanca, that Summer still needed to deliver to them one more album to fulfill her contract  Summer had her biggest success in the 1980s while on Geffen's roster with her next album She Works Hard for the Money and its title song—which were released by Mercury Records in a one-off arrangement to settle Summer's split with the soon-to-be-defunct Casablanca Records, whose catalogue now resided with Mercury and Casablanca's parent company PolyGram 
Summer recorded and delivered the album She Works Hard for the Money and Polygram released it on its Mercury imprint in 1983  The title song became a major hit, reaching No  3 on the US Hot 100, as well as No  1 on Billboard's R&B chart for three weeks  It also garnered Summer another Grammy nomination, for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance  "Unconditional Love", which featured the British group Musical Youth, and "Love Has a Mind of Its Own" did not crack the top 40  The album itself was certified Gold, and climbed to No  9 on the Billboard 200 chart; the highest chart position of any female artist in male-dominated 1983  The song "He's a Rebel" would win Summer her third Grammy Award, this time for Best Inspirational Performance 
British director Brian Grant was hired to direct Summer's video for "She Works Hard for the Money"  The video was a success, being nominated for Best Female Video and Best Choreography at the 1984 MTV Music Video Awards; Summer became one of the first African-American artists, and the first African-American female artist to have her video played in heavy rotation on MTV  Grant would also be hired to direct Summer's Costa Mesa HBO concert special, A Hot Summers Night  Grant, who was a fan of the song "State of Independence", had an idea for a grand finale  He wanted a large chorus of children to join Summer on stage at the ending of the song  His team looked for local school children in Orange County, to create a chorus of 500 students  On the final day of rehearsals, the kids turned up and they had a full rehearsal  According to Grant, "It looked and sounded amazing  It was a very emotional, very tearful experience for everyone who was there " He thought if this was that kind of reaction in rehearsal, then what an impact it would have in the concert  After the rehearsal Grant was informed that he could not use the kids because the concert would end after 10 pm; children could not be licensed to be on stage at such a late hour (California had strict child labor laws in 1983)  "It's a moment that I regret immensely: a grand finale concept I came up with that couldn't be filmed in the end"  When the final sequence was filmed, Summer's daughter Mimi and her family members joined her on stage for "State of Independence" 
In late 1983, David Geffen enlisted "She Works Hard for the Money's" producer Michael Omartian to produce Cats Without Claws  Summer was happy that Geffen and his executives stayed out of the studio during the recording and thanked him in the album's liner notes, but her request for the lead single would be rejected  The album failed to attain Gold status in the US, her first album not to do so  It was first album not to yield a top-ten hit, since 1977's Once Upon a Time  The Drifters cover "There Goes My Baby" reached No  21 and "Supernatural Love" went to No  75  She would win another Grammy for Best Inspirational Performance for the song "Forgive Me" 

On January 19, 1985, she sang at the nationally televised 50th Presidential Inaugural Gala the day before the second inauguration of Ronald Reagan 

1986–1989: All Systems Go, Another Place and Time
In 1986, Harold Faltermeyer wrote the title song for a German ski movie called Fire and Ice, and thought Summer would be ideal to sing the song  He decided to reach out to Summer and, although she was not interested in singing the song, she was very much interested in working with Faltermeyer again  After a meeting with David Geffen he was on board with the project  Summer's main objective for the album was that it have stronger R&B influences; Faltermeyer who had just finished doing the soundtracks to Top Gun and Fletch, was after a tough FM-oriented sound  On completion, Geffen liked what he heard, but his executives did not think there were enough songs that could be deemed singles  They wanted Faltermeyer to produce "Dinner with Gershwin", but he was already busy with another project, so another producer was found  They also substituted a previous recording called "Bad Reputation", songs like "Fascination", fell by the wayside  Geffen had shared the vision of moving Summer into the R&B market as a veteran artist, but these expectations were not met  Faltermeyer, in a 2012 interview with Daeida Magazine, said, "She was an older artist by then and the label's priority may have been on the youth market  The decision was made afterward by executives who were looking for a radio hit for 1987 and not something that would perhaps last beyond then " The label's President Ed Rosenblatt would later admit: "The company never intended to focus on established superstars"  The album All Systems Go, did not achieve Gold status and became her lowest charting studio album in the US to date  The single "Dinner with Gershwin" (written by Brenda Russell) stalled at 48 in the US, though it became a hit in the UK, peaking at No  13  The album's title track, "All Systems Go", was released only in the UK, where it peaked at No  54 For Summer's next album, Geffen Records hired the British hit production team of Stock Aitken Waterman (or SAW), who enjoyed incredible success writing and producing for such acts as Kylie Minogue, Bananarama, and Rick Astley, among others  The SAW team describe the working experience as a labour of love, and said it was their favourite album of all that they had recorded  Geffen decided not to release the album Another Place and Time, and Summer and Geffen Records parted ways in 1988  The album was released in Europe in March 1989 on Warner Bros  Records, which had been Summer's label in Europe since 1982  The single "This Time I Know It's for Real" became a top ten hit in several countries in Europe, prompting Warner Bros ' sister company, Atlantic Records, to sign Summer in the US  The single peaked at No  7 on the US Hot 100 and became her 12th Gold single in America  She scored two more UK hits from the album, "I Don't Wanna Get Hurt" (UK No  7) and "Love's About to Change My Heart" (UK No  20) In 1989, Summer and her husband, Bruce Sudano, had been in talks to do a new kind of reality-based sitcom  It would be based on their own hectic household  At the time, they lived with their children Amanda, Brooklyn and Mimi, two sets of in-laws, and a maid  The television network started changing the premise of the show, making it less funny, says Sudano, "And because we were an interracial couple, they didn't want us to be married anymore"  In 1989, this was "an issue  So with that mentality we just backed out of it "

1990–1999: Mistaken Identity, acting, and Live & More Encore
In 1990, a Warner compilation, The Best of Donna Summer, was released (no US issue)  The album went Gold in the UK after the song "State of Independence" was re-released there to promote the album  The following year, Summer worked with producer Keith Diamond emerged with the album Mistaken Identity, which included elements of R&B as well as new jack swing  "When Love Cries" continued her success on the R&B charts, reaching No  18  However, the album was commercially unsuccessful, failing to enter the US Billboard 200 and any chart outside the United States  It only entered at number 97 on the US Top R&B Albums chart  In 1992, Summer embarked on a world tour and later that year received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame  She reunited with Giorgio Moroder, for the song "Carry On", which was included on the 1993, Polygram issued The Donna Summer Anthology, it contained 34 tracks of Summer's material with Casablanca and Mercury Records, and from her tenures with Atlantic and Geffen Summer signed with Mercury/Polygram that same year, and in 1994 she re-teamed with producer Michael Omartian to record a Christmas album, Christmas Spirit, which included classic Christmas songs such as "O Holy Night" and "White Christmas" and three Summer-penned songs, "Christmas is Here", "Lamb of God" and the album's title track  Summer was accompanied by the Nashville Symphony Orchestra  Another hits collection, Endless Summer: Donna Summer's Greatest Hits, was released featuring eighteen songs  There were two new tracks "Melody of Love (Wanna Be Loved)" and "Any Way at All"  In 1994, she also contributed to the Tribute to Edith Piaf album, singing "La Vie En Rose"  In 1995, "Melody of Love (Wanna Be Loved)" went No  1 on the US dance charts, and No  21 in the UK  In 1996, Summer recorded a duet with Bruce Roberts, "Whenever There Is Love", which appeared on the soundtrack to the film Daylight  In 1996, Summer also recorded "Does He Love You" with Liza Minnelli, which appeared Minnelli's Gently 
During this time, Summer had role on the sitcom Family Matters as Steve Urkel's (Jaleel White) Aunt Oona  She made two appearances, season 5's "Aunt Oona" and season 8's "Pound Foolish"  In 1998, Summer received the first Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording, after a remixed version of her 1992 collaboration with Giorgio Moroder, "Carry On", was released in 1997  In 1999, Summer was asked to do the Divas 2 concert, but when she went in and met with the producers, it was decided that they would do Donna in concert by herself  Summer taped a live television special for VH1 titled Donna Summer – Live & More Encore, producing the second-highest ratings for the network that year, after their annual Divas special  A CD of the event was released by Epic Records and featured two studio recordings, "I Will Go with You (Con te partirò)" and "Love Is the Healer", both of which reached No  1 on the US dance charts 

2000–2009: Later recordings and Crayons
In 2000, Summer participated in VH1's third annual Divas special, dedicated to Diana Ross; she sang the Supremes hit Reflections, and her own material for the show  "The Power of One" is a theme song for the movie Pokémon: The Movie 2000  The dramatic ballad was produced by David Foster and dance remixes were also issued to DJs and became another dance floor success for Summer, peaking at No  2 on the same chart in 2000  In 2003, Summer issued her autobiography, Ordinary Girl: The Journey, and released a best-of set titled The Journey: The Very Best of Donna Summer  In 2004, Summer was inducted into the Dance Music Hall of Fame as an artist, alongside the Bee Gees and Barry Gibb  Her classic song, "I Feel Love", was inducted that night as well  In 2004 and 2005, Summer's success on the dance charts continued with the songs "You're So Beautiful" and "I Got Your Love"  In 2004, Summer re-recorded 'No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)' with the Irish pop band Westlife (with a live performance) for the compilation album, DiscoMania 
In 2008, Summer released her first studio album of fully original material in 17 years, entitled Crayons  Released on the Sony BMG label Burgundy Records, it peaked at No  17 on the US Top 200 Album Chart, her highest placing on the chart since 1983  The songs "I'm a Fire", "Stamp Your Feet" and "Fame (The Game)" all reached No  1 on the US Billboard Dance Chart  The ballad "Sand on My Feet" was released to adult contemporary stations and reached No  30 on that chart  Summer said, "I wanted this album to have a lot of different directions on it  I did not want it to be any one baby  I just wanted it to be a sampler of flavors and influences from all over the world  There's a touch of this, a little smidgeon of that, a dash of something else, like when you're cooking " On December 11, 2009, Donna Summer appeared at the Nobel Peace Prize Concert for Barack Obama 

2010–present: Final recordings and posthumous releases
On July 29, 2010, Summer gave an interview with Allvoices com wherein she was asked if she would consider doing an album of standards  She said, "I actually am, probably in September  I will begin work on a standards album  I will probably do an all-out dance album and a standards album  I'm going to do both and we will release them however we're going to release them  We are not sure which is going first "In August 2010, Summer released the single "To Paris With Love", co-written with Bruce Roberts and produced by Peter Stengaard  The single went to No  1 on the US Billboard Dance Chart in October 2010  That month, Summer also appeared on the PBS television special Hitman Returns: David Foster and Friends  In it, Summer performed with Seal on a medley of the songs "Un-Break My Heart", "Crazy", and "On the Radio" before closing the show with "Last Dance" On September 15, 2010, Summer appeared as a guest celebrity, singing alongside contestant Prince Poppycock, on the television show America's Got Talent Also in 2010, Summer recorded a version of the Dan Fogelberg song "Nether Lands" for a Fogelberg tribute project  According to a comment on Fogelberg's website, the song had great personal significance for Summer 

On June 6, 2011, Summer was a guest judge on the show Platinum Hit, in an episode entitled "Dance Floor Royalty"  In July of that same year, Summer was working at Paramount Recording Studios in Los Angeles with her nephew, the rapper and producer O'Mega Red  Together they worked on a track titled "Angel" On December 11, 2012, after four prior nominations, Summer was posthumously announced to be one of the 2013 inductees to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and was inducted on April 18, 2013, at Los Angeles' Nokia Theater A remix album titled Love to Love You Donna, containing new remixes of some of Summer's classics, was released in October 2013  "MacArthur Park" was remixed by Laidback Luke for the remix collection; it was also remixed by Ralphi Rosario, which version was released to dance clubs all over America and successfully peaked at No  1, giving Summer her first posthumous number-one single, and her sixteenth number-one on the charts In 2021, Summer's estate released a reedited version of her ninth studio album I'm a Rainbow, subtitled Recovered & Recoloured  The new edition is reduced to 10 tracks (15 on vinyl and streaming releases), with each song remixed by contemporary producers and remixers Her self-titled album was re-released in 2022 by Summer's estate subtitled as 40th Anniversary Edition 
In 2023, Summer’s  “She Works Hard For The Money” album was re-released with additional mixes to commemorate the album’s 40th Anniversary  That same year, a documentary revolving around Summer and her career, Love to Love You, Donna Summer, directed by her daughter, Brooklyn Sudano and Roger Ross Williams had its world premiere at the 73rd Berlin International Film Festival in February 2023, and was released in May 2023, on HBO 

Controversy
In the mid-1980s, Summer was embroiled in a controversy when she allegedly made anti-gay remarks regarding the relatively new disease AIDS  Summer publicly denied she had ever made such comments and in a letter to the AIDS campaign group ACT UP in 1989 said it was "a terrible misunderstanding " In explaining why she had not responded to ACT UP sooner, Summer stated, "I was unknowingly protected by those around me from the bad press and hate letters  If I have caused you pain, forgive me " She closed her letter with Bible quotes (from Chapter 13 of 1 Corinthians) In 1989, Summer told The Advocate magazine, "A couple of the people I write with are gay, and they have been ever since I met them  What people want to do with their bodies is their personal preference"  A couple of years later, she filed a lawsuit against New York magazine when it printed an old story about the rumors as fact, just as she was about to release her album Mistaken Identity in 1991  According to a Biography television program dedicated to Summer in which she participated in 1995, the lawsuit was settled out of court, though neither side was able to divulge any details 

Personal life
Summer was raised in the African Methodist Episcopal Church  She married Austrian actor Helmuth Sommer in 1973 and gave birth to their daughter, Natalia Pia Melanie Sommer (called Mimi) the same year  The couple divorced in 1976, but Summer adopted the Anglicized version of her ex-husband's surname as her stage name Summer married Brooklyn Dreams singer Bruce Sudano on July 16, 1980  On January 5, 1981, she gave birth to their daughter Brooklyn Sudano (who is now an actress, singer and dancer), and on August 11, 1982, she gave birth to their daughter Amanda Sudano (who in 2005 became one half of the musical duo Johnnyswim, alongside Abner Ramirez)  Summer was also one of the founding members of Oasis Church in Los Angeles Summer and her family moved from the Sherman Oaks area of Los Angeles to Nashville, Tennessee, in 1995, where she took time off from show business to focus on painting, a hobby she had developed in the 1980s 

Death
Summer died on May 17, 2012, aged 63, at her home in Naples, Florida, from lung cancer  Being a nonsmoker, Summer theorized that her cancer had been caused by inhaling toxic fumes and dust from the September 11 attacks in New York City; she was in her apartment near Ground Zero when the attacks occurred  However, some reports have instead attributed the cancer to Summer's smoking during her younger years, her continued exposure to second-hand smoking while performing in clubs well after she had quit, and a predisposition to this disease in the family  Summer was survived by her husband, Bruce Sudano, and her three daughters Summer's funeral service was held in Christ Presbyterian Church in Nashville, Tennessee, on the afternoon of May 23, 2012  The exact location and time of the service were kept private  Several hundred of Summer's friends and relatives attended the funeral, according to CNN  The funeral was a private ceremony, and cameras were not allowed inside the church  She was interred in the Harpeth Hills Memory Gardens cemetery in Nashville 

Reaction
Singers and music industry professionals around the world reacted to Summer's death  Gloria Gaynor said she was "deeply saddened" and that Summer was "a fine lady and human being"  Liza Minnelli said, "She was a queen, The Queen Of Disco, and we will be dancing to her music forever " She said that her "thoughts and prayers are with her family always " Dolly Parton said, "Donna, like Whitney, was one of the greatest voices ever  I loved her records  She was the disco queen and will remain so  I knew her and found her to be one of the most likable and fun people ever  She will be missed and remembered " Janet Jackson wrote that Summer "changed the world of music with her beautiful voice and incredible talent " Barbra Streisand wrote, "I loved doing the duet with her  She had an amazing voice and was so talented  It's so sad " Quincy Jones wrote that Summer's voice was "the heartbeat and soundtrack of a generation "Aretha Franklin said, "It's so shocking to hear about the passing of Donna Summer  In the 1970s, she reigned over the disco era and kept the disco jumping  Who will forget 'Last Dance'? A fine performer and a very nice person " Chaka Khan said, "Donna and I had a friendship for over 30 years  She is one of the few black women I could speak German with and she is one of the few friends I had in this business " Gloria Estefan averred that "It's the end of an era", and posted a photo of herself with Summer  Mary J  Blige tweeted "RIP Donna Summer !!!!!!!! You were truly a game changer !!!" Lenny Kravitz wrote "Rest in peace Donna, You are a pioneer and you have paved the way for so many of us  You transcended race and genre  Respect  Lenny" Beyoncé wrote a personal note: "Donna Summer made music that moved me both emotionally and physically to get up and dance  You could always hear the deep passion in her voice  She was so much more than the queen of disco she became known for, she was an honest and gifted singer with flawless vocal talent  I've always been a huge fan and was honored to sample one of her songs  She touched many generations and will be sadly missed  My love goes out to her family during this difficult time  Love, B" David Foster said, "My wife and I are in shock and truly devastated  Donna changed the face of pop culture forever  There is no doubt that music would sound different today if she had never graced us with her talent  She was a super-diva and a true superstar who never compromised when it came to her career or her family  She always did it with class, dignity, grace and zero attitude  She lived in rare air     She was the most spectacular, considerate, constant, giving, generous and loving friend of 35 years  I am at a total loss trying to process this tragic news "US President Barack Obama said, "Michelle and I were saddened to hear about the passing of Donna Summer  A five-time Grammy Award winner, Donna truly was the 'Queen of Disco ' Her voice was unforgettable and the music industry has lost a legend far too soon  Our thoughts and prayers go out to Donna's family and her dedicated fans "Summer was honored at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards ceremony  Singer Natasha Bedingfield honored Summer, calling her "a remarkable woman who brought so much light and who inspired many women, including myself, through her music  And if we can remember her through her music, this will never really be the last dance " After her statement, she began to sing "Last Dance", Summer's Academy Award-winning song  As she sang the song, photos of Summer were displayed on a screen overhead Fans paid tribute to Summer by leaving flowers and memorabilia on her star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame  A few days after her death, her album sales increased by 3,277%, according to Nielsen SoundScan  Billboard magazine reported that the week before she died, Summer sold about 1,000 albums  After her death that number increased to 26,000 

Legacy
According to singer Marc Almond, Summer's collaboration with producer Giorgio Moroder "changed the face of music"  Summer was the first artist to have three consecutive double albums reach No  1 on Billboard's album chart: Live and More, Bad Girls and On the Radio: Greatest Hits Volumes I & II  She became a cultural icon and her prominence on the dance charts, for which she was referred to as the Queen of Disco, made her not just one of the defining voices of that era, but also an influence on pop artists from Madonna to Beyoncé  Unlike some other stars of disco who faded as the music became less popular in the early 1980s, Summer was able to grow beyond the genre and segued to a pop-rock sound  She had one of her biggest hits in the 1980s with "She Works Hard For the Money", which became another anthem, this time for women's rights  Summer was the first black woman to be nominated for an MTV Video Music Award  Summer remained a force on the Billboard Dance/Club Play Songs chart throughout her career and notched 16 number one singles  Her last studio album, 2008's Crayons, spun off three No  1 dance/club hits with "I'm a Fire", "Stamp Your Feet" and "Fame (The Game)"  In May 2012, it was announced that "I Feel Love" was included in the list of preserved recordings at the Library of Congress' National Recording Registry  Her Rock and Roll Hall of Fame page listed Summer as "the Diva De Tutte Dive, the first true diva of the modern pop era" In 2018, Summer: The Donna Summer Musical, a biographical musical featuring Summer's songs, began performances on Broadway at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre, following a 2017 world premiere at the La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego In the 2019 film How to Build a Girl, Donna Summer is among the figures featured in Johanna's wall collage In 2023, Rolling Stone ranked Summer at number 122 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time 

Concert tours
Discography
Filmography
Awards and nominations
Context 3:  The United States Adopted Name system has some conventions for the word order of vaccine names, placing head nouns first and adjectives postpositively  This is why the USAN for "OPV" is "poliovirus vaccine live oral" rather than "oral poliovirus vaccine" 

Licensing
A vaccine licensure occurs after the successful conclusion of the development cycle and further the clinical trials and other programs involved through Phases I–III demonstrating safety, immunoactivity, immunogenetic safety at a given specific dose, proven effectiveness in preventing infection for target populations, and enduring preventive effect (time endurance or need for revaccination must be estimated)  Because preventive vaccines are predominantly evaluated in healthy population cohorts and distributed among the general population, a high standard of safety is required  As part of a multinational licensing of a vaccine, the World Health Organization Expert Committee on Biological Standardization developed guidelines of international standards for manufacturing and quality control of vaccines, a process intended as a platform for national regulatory agencies to apply for their own licensing process  Vaccine manufacturers do not receive licensing until a complete clinical cycle of development and trials proves the vaccine is safe and has long-term effectiveness, following scientific review by a multinational or national regulatory organization, such as the European Medicines Agency (EMA) or the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Upon developing countries adopting WHO guidelines for vaccine development and licensure, each country has its own responsibility to issue a national licensure, and to manage, deploy, and monitor the vaccine throughout its use in each nation  Building trust and acceptance of a licensed vaccine among the public is a task of communication by governments and healthcare personnel to ensure a vaccination campaign proceeds smoothly, saves lives, and enables economic recovery  When a vaccine is licensed, it will initially be in limited supply due to variable manufacturing, distribution, and logistical factors, requiring an allocation plan for the limited supply and which population segments should be prioritized to first receive the vaccine 

World Health Organization
Vaccines developed for multinational distribution via the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) require pre-qualification by the WHO to ensure international standards of quality, safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy for adoption by numerous countries The process requires manufacturing consistency at WHO-contracted laboratories following Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)  When UN agencies are involved in vaccine licensure, individual nations collaborate by 1) issuing marketing authorization and a national license for the vaccine, its manufacturers, and distribution partners; and 2) conducting postmarketing surveillance, including records for adverse events after the vaccination program  The WHO works with national agencies to monitor inspections of manufacturing facilities and distributors for compliance with GMP and regulatory oversight Some countries choose to buy vaccines licensed by reputable national organizations, such as EMA, FDA, or national agencies in other affluent countries, but such purchases typically are more expensive and may not have distribution resources suitable to local conditions in developing countries 

European Union
In the European Union (EU), vaccines for pandemic pathogens, such as seasonal influenza, are licensed EU-wide where all the member states comply ("centralized"), are licensed for only some member states ("decentralized"), or are licensed on an individual national level  Generally, all EU states follow regulatory guidance and clinical programs defined by the European Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP), a scientific panel of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) responsible for vaccine licensure  The CHMP is supported by several expert groups who assess and monitor the progress of a vaccine before and after licensure and distribution 

United States
Under the FDA, the process of establishing evidence for vaccine clinical safety and efficacy is the same as for the approval process for prescription drugs  If successful through the stages of clinical development, the vaccine licensing process is followed by a Biologics License Application which must provide a scientific review team (from diverse disciplines, such as physicians, statisticians, microbiologists, chemists) and comprehensive documentation for the vaccine candidate having efficacy and safety throughout its development  Also during this stage, the proposed manufacturing facility is examined by expert reviewers for GMP compliance, and the label must have a compliant description to enable health care providers' definition of vaccine-specific use, including its possible risks, to communicate and deliver the vaccine to the public  After licensure, monitoring of the vaccine and its production, including periodic inspections for GMP compliance, continue as long as the manufacturer retains its license, which may include additional submissions to the FDA of tests for potency, safety, and purity for each vaccine manufacturing step 

India
Drugs Controller General of India is the head of department of the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization of the Government of India responsible for approval of licences of specified categories of drugs such as vaccines AND others like blood and blood products, IV fluids, and sera in India 

Postmarketing surveillance
Until a vaccine is in use for the general population, all potential adverse events from the vaccine may not be known, requiring manufacturers to conduct Phase IV studies for postmarketing surveillance of the vaccine while it is used widely in the public  The WHO works with UN member states to implement post-licensing surveillance  The FDA relies on a Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System to monitor safety concerns about a vaccine throughout its use in the American public 

Scheduling
In order to provide the best protection, children are recommended to receive vaccinations as soon as their immune systems are sufficiently developed to respond to particular vaccines, with additional "booster" shots often required to achieve "full immunity"  This has led to the development of complex vaccination schedules  Global recommendations of vaccination schedule are issued by Strategic Advisory Group of Experts and will be further translated by advisory committee at the country level with considering of local factors such as disease epidemiology, acceptability of vaccination, equity in local populations, and programmatic and financial constraint  In the United States, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, which recommends schedule additions for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, recommends routine vaccination of children against hepatitis A, hepatitis B, polio, mumps, measles, rubella, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, HiB, chickenpox, rotavirus, influenza, meningococcal disease and pneumonia The large number of vaccines and boosters recommended (up to 24 injections by age two) has led to problems with achieving full compliance  To combat declining compliance rates, various notification systems have been instituted and many combination injections are now marketed (e g , Pentavalent vaccine and MMRV vaccine), which protect against multiple diseases 
Besides recommendations for infant vaccinations and boosters, many specific vaccines are recommended for other ages or for repeated injections throughout life – most commonly for measles, tetanus, influenza, and pneumonia  Pregnant women are often screened for continued resistance to rubella  The human papillomavirus vaccine is recommended in the U S  (as of 2011) and UK (as of 2009)  Vaccine recommendations for the elderly concentrate on pneumonia and influenza, which are more deadly to that group  In 2006, a vaccine was introduced against shingles, a disease caused by the chickenpox virus, which usually affects the elderly Scheduling and dosing of a vaccination may be tailored to the level of immunocompetence of an individual and to optimize population-wide deployment of a vaccine when it supply is limited, e g  in the setting of a pandemic 

Economics of development
One challenge in vaccine development is economic: Many of the diseases most demanding a vaccine, including HIV, malaria and tuberculosis, exist principally in poor countries  Pharmaceutical firms and biotechnology companies have little incentive to develop vaccines for these diseases because there is little revenue potential  Even in more affluent countries, financial returns are usually minimal and the financial and other risks are great Most vaccine development to date has relied on "push" funding by government, universities and non-profit organizations  Many vaccines have been highly cost effective and beneficial for public health  The number of vaccines actually administered has risen dramatically in recent decades  This increase, particularly in the number of different vaccines administered to children before entry into schools may be due to government mandates and support, rather than economic incentive 

Patents
According to the World Health Organization, the biggest barrier to vaccine production in less developed countries has not been patents, but the substantial financial, infrastructure, and workforce requirements needed for market entry  Vaccines are complex mixtures of biological compounds, and unlike the case for prescription drugs, there are no true generic vaccines  The vaccine produced by a new facility must undergo complete clinical testing for safety and efficacy by the manufacturer  For most vaccines, specific processes in technology are patented  These can be circumvented by alternative manufacturing methods, but this required R&D infrastructure and a suitably skilled workforce  In the case of a few relatively new vaccines, such as the human papillomavirus vaccine, the patents may impose an additional barrier When increased production of vaccines was urgently needed during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021, the World Trade Organization and governments around the world evaluated whether to waive intellectual property rights and patents on COVID-19 vaccines, which would "eliminate all potential barriers to the timely access of affordable COVID-19 medical products, including vaccines and medicines, and scale up the manufacturing and supply of essential medical products" 

Production
Vaccine production is fundamentally different from other kinds of manufacturing – including regular pharmaceutical manufacturing – in that vaccines are intended to be administered to millions of people of whom the vast majority are perfectly healthy  This fact drives an extraordinarily rigorous production process with strict compliance requirements that go far beyond what is required of other products Depending upon the antigen, it can cost anywhere from US$50 to $500 million to build a vaccine production facility, which requires highly specialized equipment, clean rooms, and containment rooms  There is a global scarcity of personnel with the right combination of skills, expertise, knowledge, competence and personality to staff vaccine production lines  With the notable exceptions of Brazil, China, and India, many developing countries' educational systems are unable to provide enough qualified candidates, and vaccine makers based in such countries must hire expatriate personnel to keep production going Vaccine production has several stages  First, the antigen itself is generated  Viruses are grown either on primary cells such as chicken eggs (e g , for influenza) or on continuous cell lines such as cultured human cells (e g , for hepatitis A)  Bacteria are grown in bioreactors (e g , Haemophilus influenzae type b)  Likewise, a recombinant protein derived from the viruses or bacteria can be generated in yeast, bacteria, or cell cultures After the antigen is generated, it is isolated from the cells used to generate it  A virus may need to be inactivated, possibly with no further purification required  Recombinant proteins need many operations involving ultrafiltration and column chromatography  Finally, the vaccine is formulated by adding adjuvant, stabilizers, and preservatives as needed  The adjuvant enhances the immune response to the antigen, stabilizers increase the storage life, and preservatives allow the use of multidose vials  Combination vaccines are harder to develop and produce, because of potential incompatibilities and interactions among the antigens and other ingredients involved The final stage in vaccine manufacture before distribution is fill and finish, which is the process of filling vials with vaccines and packaging them for distribution  Although this is a conceptually simple part of the vaccine manufacture process, it is often a bottleneck in the process of distributing and administering vaccines Vaccine production techniques are evolving  Cultured mammalian cells are expected to become increasingly important, compared to conventional options such as chicken eggs, due to greater productivity and low incidence of problems with contamination  Recombination technology that produces genetically detoxified vaccines is expected to grow in popularity for the production of bacterial vaccines that use toxoids  Combination vaccines are expected to reduce the quantities of antigens they contain, and thereby decrease undesirable interactions, by using pathogen-associated molecular patterns 

Vaccine manufacturers
The companies with the highest market share in vaccine production are Merck, Sanofi, GlaxoSmithKline, Pfizer and Novartis, with 70% of vaccine sales concentrated in the EU or US (2013) : 42  Vaccine manufacturing plants require large capital investments ($50 million up to $300 million) and may take between 4 and 6 years to construct, with the full process of vaccine development taking between 10 and 15 years : 43  Manufacturing in developing countries is playing an increasing role in supplying these countries, specifically with regards to older vaccines and in Brazil, India and China : 47  The manufacturers in India are the most advanced in the developing world and include the Serum Institute of India, one of the largest producers of vaccines by number of doses and an innovator in processes, recently improving efficiency of producing the measles vaccine by 10 to 20-fold, due to switching to a MRC-5 cell culture instead of chicken eggs : 48  China's manufacturing capabilities are focused on supplying their own domestic need, with Sinopharm (CNPGC) alone providing over 85% of the doses for 14 different vaccines in China : 48  Brazil is approaching the point of supplying its own domestic needs using technology transferred from the developed world : 49

Delivery systems
One of the most common methods of delivering vaccines into the human body is injection 
The development of new delivery systems raises the hope of vaccines that are safer and more efficient to deliver and administer  Lines of research include liposomes and ISCOM (immune stimulating complex) Notable developments in vaccine delivery technologies have included oral vaccines  Early attempts to apply oral vaccines showed varying degrees of promise, beginning early in the 20th century, at a time when the very possibility of an effective oral antibacterial vaccine was controversial  By the 1930s there was increasing interest in the prophylactic value of an oral typhoid fever vaccine for example An oral polio vaccine turned out to be effective when vaccinations were administered by volunteer staff without formal training; the results also demonstrated increased ease and efficiency of administering the vaccines  Effective oral vaccines have many advantages; for example, there is no risk of blood contamination  Vaccines intended for oral administration need not be liquid, and as solids, they commonly are more stable and less prone to damage or spoilage by freezing in transport and storage  Such stability reduces the need for a "cold chain": the resources required to keep vaccines within a restricted temperature range from the manufacturing stage to the point of administration, which, in turn, may decrease costs of vaccines 
A microneedle approach, which is still in stages of development, uses "pointed projections fabricated into arrays that can create vaccine delivery pathways through the skin" An experimental needle-free vaccine delivery system is undergoing animal testing  A stamp-size patch similar to an adhesive bandage contains about 20,000 microscopic projections per square cm  This dermal administration potentially increases the effectiveness of vaccination, while requiring less vaccine than injection 

In veterinary medicine
Vaccinations of animals are used both to prevent their contracting diseases and to prevent transmission of disease to humans  Both animals kept as pets and animals raised as livestock are routinely vaccinated  In some instances, wild populations may be vaccinated  This is sometimes accomplished with vaccine-laced food spread in a disease-prone area and has been used to attempt to control rabies in raccoons 
Where rabies occurs, rabies vaccination of dogs may be required by law  Other canine vaccines include canine distemper, canine parvovirus, infectious canine hepatitis, adenovirus-2, leptospirosis, Bordetella, canine parainfluenza virus, and Lyme disease, among others 
Cases of veterinary vaccines used in humans have been documented, whether intentional or accidental, with some cases of resultant illness, most notably with brucellosis  However, the reporting of such cases is rare and very little has been studied about the safety and results of such practices  With the advent of aerosol vaccination in veterinary clinics, human exposure to pathogens not naturally carried in humans, such as Bordetella bronchiseptica, has likely increased in recent years  In some cases, most notably rabies, the parallel veterinary vaccine against a pathogen may be as much as orders of magnitude more economical than the human one 

DIVA vaccines
DIVA (Differentiation of Infected from Vaccinated Animals), also known as SIVA (Segregation of Infected from Vaccinated Animals) vaccines, make it possible to differentiate between infected and vaccinated animals  DIVA vaccines carry at least one epitope less than the equivalent wild microorganism  An accompanying diagnostic test that detects the antibody against that epitope assists in identifying whether the animal has been vaccinated or not The first DIVA vaccines (formerly termed marker vaccines and since 1999 coined as DIVA vaccines) and companion diagnostic tests were developed by J  T  van Oirschot and colleagues at the Central Veterinary Institute in Lelystad, The Netherlands  They found that some existing vaccines against pseudorabies (also termed Aujeszky's disease) had deletions in their viral genome (among which was the gE gene)  Monoclonal antibodies were produced against that deletion and selected to develop an ELISA that demonstrated antibodies against gE  In addition, novel genetically engineered gE-negative vaccines were constructed  Along the same lines, DIVA vaccines and companion diagnostic tests against bovine herpesvirus 1 infections have been developed The DIVA strategy has been applied in various countries to successfully eradicate pseudorabies virus from those countries  Swine populations were intensively vaccinated and monitored by the companion diagnostic test and, subsequently, the infected pigs were removed from the population  Bovine herpesvirus 1 DIVA vaccines are also widely used in practice  Considerable efforts are ongoing to apply the DIVA principle to a wide range of infectious diseases, such as classical swine fever, avian influenza, Actinobacillus pleuropneumonia and Salmonella infections in pigs 

History
Prior to the introduction of vaccination with material from cases of cowpox (heterotypic immunisation), smallpox could be prevented by deliberate variolation with smallpox virus  The earliest hints of the practice of variolation for smallpox in China come during the tenth century  The Chinese also practiced the oldest documented use of variolation, dating back to the fifteenth century  They implemented a method of "nasal insufflation" administered by blowing powdered smallpox material, usually scabs, up the nostrils  Various insufflation techniques have been recorded throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries within China : 60  Two reports on the Chinese practice of inoculation were received by the Royal Society in London in 1700; one by Martin Lister who received a report by an employee of the East India Company stationed in China and another by Clopton Havers 
Mary Wortley Montagu, who had witnessed variolation in Turkey, had her four-year-old daughter variolated in the presence of physicians of the Royal Court in 1721 upon her return to England  Later on that year, Charles Maitland conducted an experimental variolation of six prisoners in Newgate Prison in London  The experiment was a success, and soon variolation was drawing attention from the royal family, who helped promote the procedure  However, in 1783, several days after Prince Octavius of Great Britain was inoculated, he died  In 1796, the physician Edward Jenner took pus from the hand of a milkmaid with cowpox, scratched it into the arm of an 8-year-old boy, James Phipps, and six weeks later variolated the boy with smallpox, afterwards observing that he did not catch smallpox  Jenner extended his studies and, in 1798, reported that his vaccine was safe in children and adults, and could be transferred from arm-to-arm, which reduced reliance on uncertain supplies from infected cows  In 1804, the Spanish Balmis smallpox vaccination expedition to Spain's colonies Mexico and Philippines used the arm-to-arm transport method to get around the fact the vaccine survived for only 12 days in vitro  They used cowpox  Since vaccination with cowpox was much safer than smallpox inoculation, the latter, though still widely practiced in England, was banned in 1840 
Following on from Jenner's work, the second generation of vaccines was introduced in the 1880s by Louis Pasteur who developed vaccines for chicken cholera and anthrax, and from the late nineteenth century vaccines were considered a matter of national prestige  National vaccination policies were adopted and compulsory vaccination laws were passed  In 1931 Alice Miles Woodruff and Ernest Goodpasture documented that the fowlpox virus could be grown in embryonated chicken egg  Soon scientists began cultivating other viruses in eggs  Eggs were used for virus propagation in the development of a yellow fever vaccine in 1935 and an influenza vaccine in 1945  In 1959 growth media and cell culture replaced eggs as the standard method of virus propagation for vaccines Vaccinology flourished in the twentieth century, which saw the introduction of several successful vaccines, including those against diphtheria, measles, mumps, and rubella  Major achievements included the development of the polio vaccine in the 1950s and the eradication of smallpox during the 1960s and 1970s  Maurice Hilleman was the most prolific of the developers of the vaccines in the twentieth century  As vaccines became more common, many people began taking them for granted  However, vaccines remain elusive for many important diseases, including herpes simplex, malaria, gonorrhea, and HIV 

Generations of vaccines
First generation vaccines are whole-organism vaccines – either live and weakened, or killed forms  Live, attenuated vaccines, such as smallpox and polio vaccines, are able to induce killer T-cell (TC or CTL) responses, helper T-cell (TH) responses and antibody immunity  However, attenuated forms of a pathogen can convert to a dangerous form and may cause disease in immunocompromised vaccine recipients (such as those with AIDS)  While killed vaccines do not have this risk, they cannot generate specific killer T cell responses and may not work at all for some diseases Second generation vaccines were developed to reduce the risks from live vaccines  These are subunit vaccines, consisting of specific protein antigens (such as tetanus or diphtheria toxoid) or recombinant protein components (such as the hepatitis B surface antigen)  They can generate TH and antibody responses, but not killer T cell responses RNA vaccines and DNA vaccines are examples of third generation vaccines  In 2016 a DNA vaccine for the Zika virus began testing at the National Institutes of Health  Separately, Inovio Pharmaceuticals and GeneOne Life Science began tests of a different DNA vaccine against Zika in Miami  Manufacturing the vaccines in volume was unsolved as of 2016  Clinical trials for DNA vaccines to prevent HIV are underway  mRNA vaccines such as BNT162b2 were developed in the year 2020 with the help of Operation Warp Speed and massively deployed to combat the COVID-19 pandemic  In 2021, Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman received Columbia University's Horwitz Prize for their pioneering research in mRNA vaccine technology 

Trends
Since at least 2013, scientists have been trying to develop synthetic third-generation vaccines by reconstructing the outside structure of a virus; it was hoped that this will help prevent vaccine resistance Principles that govern the immune response can now be used in tailor-made vaccines against many noninfectious human diseases, such as cancers and autoimmune disorders  For example, the experimental vaccine CYT006-AngQb has been investigated as a possible treatment for high blood pressure  Factors that affect the trends of vaccine development include progress in translatory medicine, demographics, regulatory science, political, cultural, and social responses 

Plants as bioreactors for vaccine production
The idea of vaccine production via transgenic plants was identified as early as 2003  Plants such as tobacco, potato, tomato, and banana can have genes inserted that cause them to produce vaccines usable for humans



ground_truth: 140 million

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did the place in Canada where François Beaucourt (1740-1794) was mainly active acquired its present name?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  In 2005, bananas were developed that produce a human vaccine against hepatitis B 

Vaccine hesitancy
Vaccine hesitancy is a delay in acceptance, or refusal of vaccines despite the availability of vaccine services  The term covers outright refusals to vaccinate, delaying vaccines, accepting vaccines but remaining uncertain about their use, or using certain vaccines but not others  There is an overwhelming scientific consensus that vaccines are generally safe and effective  Vaccine hesitancy often results in disease outbreaks and deaths from vaccine-preventable diseases  The World Health Organization therefore characterized vaccine hesitancy as one of the top ten global health threats in 2019 

See also
Passage 2:
Marco Marcola
Marco Marcola (1740–1793) was an Italian painter, born and mainly active in Verona  He was initially apprenticed to his father Giovanni Battista Marcola  Among his pupils were Antonio Pachera, Bellino Bellini, and Domenico Zanconti  He is also known as Marco Marcuola  His sister Angela Marcola was also a painter 

Sources
Zannandreis, Diego (1891)   Giuseppe Biadego (ed )  Le vite dei pittori, scultori e architetti veronesi  Verona: Stabilimento Tipo-Litografico G  Franchini  p  478 
Passage 3:
Rue Lhomond
Rue Lhomond is a street in the 5th arrondissement of Paris, France  It is located in the quartier du Val-de-Grâce and has existed since the 15th century  It was once known as rue des Poteries after its Gallo-Roman pottery workshops (re-discovered in the 18th century), then from around 1600 as rue des Pots and finally rue des Postes  It was given its present name in 1867 after the priest, grammarian and scholar Charles François Lhomond (1727-1794) 

History
The street has housed several Catholic seminaries and convents, along with a British seminary established at number 22 by permission of Louis XIV of France in 1684 and active until 1790 Rue Lhomond features in the Georges Simenon novel ′Maigret Takes a Room′  In the novel Maigret takes a room in a boarding house to discover who shot his subordinate Janvier 

Buildings
Passage 4:
Vatos Locos
Vatos Locos is a Chicano slang term that means "crazy Dudes"  It is also used as the name of multiple small gangs around the USA, Canada and Mexico  Many "Vatos Locos" use the colors red, black, green or brown The film Blood In Blood Out (1993) which was written by poet Jimmy Santiago Baca, is based on the experiences of gang members of a fictional gang called Vatos Locos The video game Call of Juarez: The Cartel features a fictional Vatos Locos gang 

See also
List of gangs in Mexico
Passage 5:
Giuseppe Appiani
Giuseppe Appiani (1740 or 1754–1812) was an Italian painter of the Neoclassic periods  He was born in Vaprio d'Adda, near Milan, where he was mainly active  His parents moved to Monza, where his first mentor was the painter Giovanni Maria Gariboldi  At age 21, he moved to Milan, where he worked in the studios of Giorgi, and later Giuliano Traballesi  He was active in restoration of paintings  Another painter, Giuseppe Appiani (Porto, c  1700-Triefenstein, c  1785), was active in Germany 
Passage 6:
Massimiliano Soldani Benzi
Massimiliano Soldani or Massimiliano Soldani Benzi (15 July 1656 – 23 February 1740) was an Italian baroque sculptor and medallist, mainly active in Florence  Born at Montevarchi, the son of a Tuscan cavalry captain, Soldani was employed by the Medici for his entire career 

Name
He first went under the name Soldani but, claiming descent from the family of bishop Soldani of Fiesole and from the aristocratic Benzi family of Figline, he applied for and received, in 1693, an official letter acknowledging his nobility based on this ancestry  From this date forward, he called himself, and is referred to in many documents as, Soldani Benzi 

Life
Soldani began training in the Medici drawing school in Florence  He attracted the attention of Grand Duke Cosimo III de' Medici who sent Soldani to his grand-ducal academy in Rome to study under Ciro Ferri and Ercole Ferrata, and to train in coining  During his years in Rome (1678–81), he showed much promise and was asked by Queen Christina of Sweden to create several medals  He started this enterprise but left it unfinished as Cosimo transferred the artist to Paris to work with the famous medallist Joseph Roettiers While there in 1682, Soldani came into contact with Charles Le Brun and minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert  Learning that the artist was working on a medal portrait of Louis XIV, a courtier Soldani refers to the courtier as "Mons r Duca d'Homone"  (possibly Louis, duc d'Aumont who was very interested in the art of medals) introduced the young man to the king  The model for this medal of Louis XIV is now in the Art Gallery of Ontario in Toronto Grand Duke Cosimo in the meantime decided that it was time for Soldani to return to Florence and take charge of the Grand-ducal Mint, the job he was meant to occupy from the very start  Upon the death of the current director, Soldani was officially made Maestro dei Coni e Custode della Zecca in 1688  As such he had his workshop and living quarters in the Uffizi When he finally gave up work at the age of about 80, Soldani Benzi retired to his Villa Petrolo near Bucine where he died in 1740 

Work
Soldani developed into one of the finest bronze casters of his time in Europe  Though first specialising as a medallist, Soldani also produced bronze reliefs, bronze vases and free-standing figures and busts 
For Joseph Johann Adam, Prince of Liechtenstein, he produced a series of bronze copies of works of the Medici collection, mainly antique busts and figures but also after works by Michelangelo and Gianlorenzo Bernini Klaus Lankheit recognized in a small bronze Pietà attributed to Soldani at the Walters Art Museum a "balanced triangular composition" that is "almost a relief in form" and suggested that it had been composed first as a relief; A more elaborate version, with additional figures, in the Kress collection at the Seattle Art Museum, was identified as by Soldani by Ulrich Middeldorf  A second table bronze, Venus and the Wounded Adonis, on a richly-mounted ebony base raised on bronze paw feet, is also at the Walters Art Museum At rare intervals he exhibited terra cotta bozzetti at the irregularly staged exhibitions of the Accademia del Disegno, Florence: in 1715 a Pietà in terracotta by "Sig  M S " A highly finished terracotta relief, Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane, doubtless intended as a modello to be cast in bronze as a private devotional work, is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art A major document of his career is his autobiography, dated 1718, correspondence, and the inventory taken after his death A collection of his drawings is in the Uffizi in Florence 

Doccia
After his death, his heirs sold some of his wax models to marchese Carlo Ginori, who had them adapted by his chief modeller, Gaspero Bruschi, and reproduced in porcelain at his Doccia porcelain manufactory near Florence  Thus Soldani's Apollo in His Chariot, Venus Plucking the Wings of Cupid and Virtue Overpowering Vice all exist as Doccia porcelain groups 

Notes
Further reading
Klaus Lankheit, Soldani (Benzi), Massimiliano, Oxford Art Online

External links
(Fitzwilliam Museum) Leda and the Swan, bronze
Biografia em portugues
European sculpture and metalwork, a collection catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Benzi (see index)
Passage 7:
Francesco Corneliani
Francesco Corneliani (1740-1815) was an Italian painter, mainly active in a Neoclassic style in his native Milan 

He was born to Carlo Corneliani (or Corneliano), and was intended to become a jeweller  He  trained under Sangiorgi at the Accademia Ambrosiana  In 1760, influenced by the paintings of Anton Rafael Mengs, he left for Parma and worked under Carlo Calani  He returned to Milan where he painted lunette frescoes in the Casa Candiani 
He also painted the lunettes over the altars to the side of the chorus in the church of San Sebastiano  He made portraits of the family in the walls of the house of Castiglioni  He painted the four evangelists for the church of San Gervasio in Bergamo He was a close friend of Andrea Appiani and is described as a man alien to intrigue and vanity, pious without ostentation, he lived retired but always ready to work on works of art and piety He died in Milan 


== Sources ==
Passage 8:
François Beaucourt
François Beaucourt (1740–1794) is said to be the first native-born Canadian painter who studied in France with a professional reputation  He was active mainly in the Province of Quebec 

Career
François Malepart Beaucourt was born in Laprairie, Quebec  Paul Beaucourt, his father, was an amateur painter and military engineer  After he died, the family seems to have returned to France  In 1773, Beaucourt married the daughter of his painting master, Joseph Camagne, in Bordeaux, afterwards painting in France and Russia  He was accepted into the local academy in Bordeaux in 1784  In Canada, after 1786, he painted a wide variety of subjects, mostly portraits, including a self-portrait in the National Gallery of Canada  In 1792, he worked in Philadelphia but returned to Montreal that year  In 1794, he died in Montreal  One critic speaks of his "decorative and light provincial rococo" manner 
Passage 9:
Norman Newell
Norman Newell  (25 January 1919 – 1 December 2004) was an English record producer, who was mainly active in the 1950s and 1960s  He was also the co-writer of many notable songs  As an A&R manager for EMI, he worked with musicians such as Shirley Bassey, Dalida, Claude François, Vera Lynn, Russ Conway, Bette Midler, Judy Garland, Petula Clark, Jake Thackray, Malcolm Roberts, Bobby Crush and Peter and Gordon 
Newell was particularly known for his recorded productions of West End musicals  His songs have been covered by Judy Garland, Frank Sinatra, Celine Dion and Aretha Franklin  In 1999, Newell's song, "Portrait of My Love", originally recorded by Matt Monro in 1960, was honoured at the BMI Awards in London for having two million radio plays 

Early life
Newell was born in Plaistow, Essex (now part of Greater London) to a poor family  He aspired to be an actor, but expected to work for London Transport  During the Second World War, Newell befriended the variety performer Bill Waddington, and wrote lyrics to his music  Following the end of the war, Waddington found Newell a job selling sheet music at the Cinephonic Music Company on Charing Cross Road  He began his career as a songwriter for the London-based publisher 

Music producer
Newell joined EMI's Columbia label as a staff producer in 1949, and was head of the label for its most successful years  During this period, he produced records by Petula Clark, the French male voice choir Les Compagnons de la Chanson, Josef Locke, Ronnie Ronalde, The Beverley Sisters, Dorothy Squires and the bandleader Victor Silvester  He also discovered the singer Steve Conway, who recorded Newell's "My Thanks To You" (with music by Noel Gay) In 1953, Newell moved to the new Philips record label, and produced their first release by a British artist, Johnny Brandon  Newell asked Geoff Love to arrange the song, and this marked the start of their professional relationship, in which Love's albums as Manuel and his Music of the Mountains would be produced by Newell  Following six months working at MGM in America, Newell came back to EMI in 1954, whereupon he recorded the comedians Norman Wisdom and Joyce Grenfell  Although Newell "did not understand" rock 'n' roll, he produced albums of the television shows Drumbeat and 6 5 Special  He used Trevor Stanford as a rehearsal pianist, and began recording with him in 1957, under the name Russ Conway, the surname being a tribute to Steve Conway, who had died in 1952 Newell went freelance in 1965, and was then put under contract with EMI, where he produced the top selling single of 1965, "Tears", by comedian Ken Dodd 

Lyricist
Newell was also a much sought-after lyricist, sometimes writing under the pen-name David West, and responsible for co-writing songs that included "Portrait of My Love" (music by Cyril Ornadel), a UK Singles Chart hit for Matt Monro  In addition, he provided the English lyrics for "More" (the theme from the film Mondo Cane)  Newell also wrote the English lyrics of Shirley Bassey's 1961 No  1 hit "Reach for the Stars", (composed by Nini Oliviero and Riz Ortolani) and Bassey's "This Is My Life" ("La vita", written by Antonio Amurri and Bruno Canfora)  Commenting on the latter, Bassey said that "Norman knows more about me than I do "Further compositions by Newell were "The Importance of Your Love" ("Important C'est La Rose", by Gilbert Bécaud); "Born to Sing" ("Mourir Sur scène", by Dalida); "Monday Morning Again" ("Le Lundi au Soleil", by Claude François) and "Never, Never, Never" ("Grande grande grande"), which was a hit for Bassey in 1973  With the composer Philip Green, he co-wrote the United Kingdom's 1963 Eurovision Song Contest entry, "Say Wonderful Things", recorded by Ronnie Carroll  The song was later recorded in the United States by Patti Page He wrote the English lyrics to the German song "Sailor", a number one UK hit for Petula Clark and a top ten hit for Anne Shelton in 1961  In 1964, Newell produced Peter and Gordon's number one UK hit "A World Without Love", which also topped the charts in the United States and several other countries  The song "Forget Domani", from the film The Yellow Rolls-Royce (1964), with lyrics by Newell to music by Riz Ortolani, won a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song 
Newell wrote English-language lyrics to "The White Rose of Athens" for Nana Mouskouri, and Vicky Leandros's 1972 Eurovision Song Contest winning entry, "Après toi" ("Come What May")  "Come What May" reached No 2 on the UK and Republic of Ireland singles charts in 1972 
In his later years, Newell penned lyrics to Pietro Mascagni's "Intermezzo" from Cavalleria rusticana  The song, entitled "Pray For Love", was recorded by Vince Hill 
His numerous contacts in the music publishing industry in the United Kingdom assisted EMI in securing the rights for British recordings of cast albums for many American shows opening in London  Newell also wrote the lyrics for the West End musical Mister Venus (with music by Russ Conway), but the show was not a success  Despite starring Frankie Howerd, the show ran for just 16 performances at the Prince of Wales Theatre in 1958 

Later career
Newell continued working as a producer into the 1980s, including on Shirley Bassey's Gold selling album I Am What I Am, recorded with the London Symphony Orchestra  
He also wrote the English lyrics for the 1983 Julio Iglesias recording of "Hey", which featured in the Platinum selling album Julio He also produced several cast recordings of West End musicals for First Night Records: Seven Brides For Seven Brothers – Original London Cast (1986), Annie Get Your Gun – 1986 London Cast (starring Suzi Quatro and Eric Flynn), Kiss Me, Kate – 1987 Royal Shakespeare Company Cast (starring Paul Jones, Nichola McAuliffe and Fiona Hendley), and South Pacific – 1988 London Cast (starring Gemma Craven and Emile Belcourt)  George Martin said of Newell that he "always wanted to be a Stephen Sondheim," but noted that "his main strength came from his ability to handle big showbiz entertainers "Newell retired in 1990  However, he continued to write lyrics, and his final works were with Les Reed 

Honours
During his career, Norman Newell won a Grammy, an Emmy and three Ivor Novello Awards for his contribution to the entertainment industry, as well as six British Music Industry Awards  He was awarded an OBE in 2003 

Personal life and death
Newell, who was gay, lived in Rustington, West Sussex  After a series of debilitating strokes, he was moved to a local nursing home  He died on 1 December 2004, aged 85 
Passage 10:
Province of Quebec (1763–1791)
The Province of Quebec (French: Province de Québec) was a colony in British North America which comprised the former French colony of Canada  It was established by the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1763, following the conquest of New France by British forces during the Seven Years' War  As part of the Treaty of Paris, France gave up its claim to the colony; it instead negotiated to keep the small profitable island of Guadeloupe Following the Royal Proclamation of 1763, Canada was renamed the Province of Quebec, and from 1774 extended from the coast of Labrador on the Atlantic Ocean, southwest through the Saint Lawrence River Valley to the Great Lakes and beyond to the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers  Portions of its southwest, those areas south of the Great Lakes, were later ceded to the newly established United States in the Treaty of Paris (1783) at the conclusion of the American Revolution; although the British maintained a military presence there until 1796  In 1791, the territory north of the Great Lakes was reorganised and divided into Lower Canada and Upper Canada 

History
Under the Proclamation, Quebec included the cities of Quebec and Montreal, as well as a zone surrounding them, but did not extend as far west as the Great Lakes or as far north as Rupert's Land In 1774, the Parliament of Great Britain, Frederick North, Lord North, Prime Minister, passed the Quebec Act that allowed Quebec to restore the use of French customary law (Coutume de Paris) in private matters alongside the English common law system, and allowing the Catholic Church to collect tithes  The act also enlarged the boundaries of Quebec to include the Ohio Country and part of the Illinois Country, from the Appalachian Mountains on the east, south to the Ohio River, west to the Mississippi River and north to the southern boundary of lands owned by the Hudson's Bay Company, or Rupert's Land 
Prince Edward  Duke of Kent lived in Quebec City 
(Known as the Prince of Quebec)from 1791-1793 this was when Michigan territory was a part of Quebec and a member of Parliament  
Detroit was transferred to Quebec under the Quebec Act of 1774   
It was then the third-largest city in the Province of Quebec, after Montreal and Quebec  1792 Detroit, including settlements on both sides of the river, holds its first election, sending
three representatives to the Parliament of Upper Canada 
The Act Against Slavery, 1793, an anti-slavery act passed in Upper Canada  The Act was created partially in response to Loyalist refugees who brought slaves with them 
Michigan Territory was a part of Upper Canada from 1790-1796  British control of Detroit and Michigan after the American Revolution  When Quebec split into Lower and Upper Canada in 1791, Michigan was part of Kent County, Upper Canada  It held its first democratic elections in August 1792 to send delegates to the new provincial parliament at Newark (now  Niagara-on-the-Lake)  
Western District was one of four districts of the Province of Quebec created in 1788 in the western reaches of the Montreal District which were later detached in 1791 to create the new colony of Upper Canada  Known as Hesse District (named after Hesse in Germany) until 1792 
Through Quebec, the British Crown retained access to the Ohio and Illinois Countries after the Treaty of Paris (1783) ceded control of this land to the United States  By well-established trade and military routes across the Great Lakes, the British continued to supply not only their own troops but a wide alliance of Native American nations through Detroit, Fort Niagara, Fort Michilimackinac, and so on, until these posts were turned over to the United States following the Jay Treaty (1794) 
Quebec retained its seigneurial system after the conquest  Owing to an influx of Loyalist refugees from the American Revolutionary War, the demographics of Quebec came to shift and now included a substantial English-speaking Protestant element from the former Thirteen Colonies  These United Empire Loyalists settled mainly in the Eastern Townships, Montreal, and what was known then as the pays d'en haut west of the Ottawa River  The Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the colony in two at the Ottawa River, so that the western part (Upper Canada) could be under the English legal system, with English speakers in the majority  The eastern part was named Lower Canada 

Governors
In 1760, following the capitulation of Montreal, the colony was placed under military government, with civil government only instituted beginning in 1764  The following were the governors:

James Murray 1760–1766
Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester 1766–1778
Sir Frederick Haldimand 1778–1786
Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester 1786–1796There were also "lieutenant governors", but these were merely the deputies of the governors, and should not be confused with the subsequent to 1791 Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec 

Guy Carleton (lieutenant governor to James Murray)	1766–1768
Hector Theophilus de Cramahé (lieutenant governor to Guy Carleton)	1771–1782
Henry Hamilton (lieutenant governor to Frederick Haldimand)	1782–1785
Henry Hope (lieutenant governor to the Lord Dorchester)	1785–1788
Alured Clarke (lieutenant governor to the Lord Dorchester)	1790

Counsellors to the governor
The Province of Quebec did not have an elected legislature and was ruled directly by the governor with advice from counsellors  A council responsible to advise the governor (then James Murray) on all affairs of state was created in 1764  In 1774, the Quebec Act created a Council for the Affairs of the Province of Quebec to advise the governor on legislative affairs  The Legislative Council served as an advisory council to the governor until a legislative assembly was established after 1791 
The individuals James Murray called into the council from 1764 to 1766:

List of councillors under Carleton from 1766 to 1774:

Geography
Around 1763 to 1764, the province was divided into two judicial districts:

Montreal District – covering the western parts of Quebec along the St  Lawrence River including Montreal and much of Ontario (Eastern and Southern Ontario)
Quebec District – covering the eastern parts of Quebec along the St  Lawrence and LabradorIn 1790, the Trois-Rivières District was formed out of part of Quebec District 
The Trois-Rivières and Quebec districts continued after 1791 when Lower Canada came into existence, while Montreal District west of the Ottawa River became Upper Canada and east of the Ottawa River was partitioned into many electoral districts 

See also
Former colonies and territories in Canada
Territorial evolution of Canada after 1867



ground_truth: 1763