prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What was the nationality and profession of the person responsible for the concept of a dimensionless number in physics and engineering?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Power factor
In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC power system is defined as the ratio of the real power absorbed by the load to the apparent power flowing in the circuit   Real power is the average of the instantaneous product of voltage and current and represents the capacity of the electricity for performing work  Apparent power is the product of RMS current and voltage  Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power may be greater than the real power, so more current flows in the circuit than would be required to transfer real power alone  A power factor magnitude of less than one indicates the voltage and current are not in phase, reducing the average product of the two  A negative power factor occurs when the device (which is normally the load) generates real power, which then flows back towards the source 
In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred  The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system and require larger wires and other equipment  Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power factor 
Power-factor correction increases the power factor of a load, improving efficiency for the distribution system to which it is attached  Linear loads with a low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network of capacitors or inductors  Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system  In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor  The devices for correction of the power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or built into power-consuming equipment 

General case
The general expression for power factor is given by

  
    
      
        
          
            power factor
          
        
        =
        P
        
          /
        
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{power factor}}=P/P_{a}}
  

  
    
      
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
        =
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle P_{a}=I_{rms}V_{rms}}
  where 
  
    
      
        P
      
    
    {\displaystyle P}
   is the real power measured by an ideal wattmeter, 
  
    
      
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{rms}}
   is the rms current measured by an ideal ammeter, and 
  
    
      
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle V_{rms}}
   is the rms voltage measured by an ideal voltmeter   Apparent power, 
  
    
      
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle P_{a}}
  , is the product of the rms current and the rms voltage 
If the load is sourcing power back toward the generator, then 
  
    
      
        P
      
    
    {\displaystyle P}
   and 
  
    
      
        
          
            power factor
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{power factor}}}
   will be negative 

Periodic waveforms
If the waveforms are periodic with the same period which is much shorter than the averaging time of the physical meters, then the power factor can be computed by the following

  
    
      
        
          
            power factor
          
        
        =
        P
        
          /
        
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{power factor}}=P/P_{a}}
  

  
    
      
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
        =
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle P_{a}=I_{rms}V_{rms}}
  

  
    
      
        P
        =
        
          
            1
            T
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            
              t
              ′
            
          
          
            
              t
              ′
            
            +
            T
          
        
        i
        (
        t
        )
        v
        (
        t
        )
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle P={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{t'}^{t'+T}i(t)v(t)dt}
  

  
    
      
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          
            1
            T
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            
              t
              ′
            
          
          
            
              t
              ′
            
            +
            T
          
        
        
          
            i
            (
            t
            )
          
          
            2
          
        
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{rms}^{2}={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{t'}^{t'+T}{i(t)}^{2}dt}
  

  
    
      
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          
            1
            T
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            
              t
              ′
            
          
          
            
              t
              ′
            
            +
            T
          
        
        
          
            v
            (
            t
            )
          
          
            2
          
        
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle V_{rms}^{2}={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{t'}^{t'+T}{v(t)}^{2}dt}
  where 
  
    
      
        i
        (
        t
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle i(t)}
   is the instantaneous current, 
  
    
      
        v
        (
        t
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle v(t)}
   is the instantaneous voltage, 
  
    
      
        
          t
          ′
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle t'}
   is an arbitrary starting time, and 
  
    
      
        T
      
    
    {\displaystyle T}
   is the period of the waveforms 

Nonperiodic waveforms
If the waveforms are not periodic and the physical meters have the same averaging time, then the equations for the periodic case can be used with the exception that 
  
    
      
        T
      
    
    {\displaystyle T}
   is the averaging time of the meters instead of the waveform period 

Linear time-invariant circuits
Linear time-invariant circuits (referred to simply as linear circuits for the rest of this article), for example, circuits consisting of combinations of resistors, inductors and capacitors have a sinusoidal response to the sinusoidal line voltage  A linear load does not change the shape of the input waveform but may change the relative timing (phase) between voltage and current, due to its inductance or capacitance 
In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in step (or in phase), changing polarity at the same instant in each cycle  All the power entering the load is consumed (or dissipated) 
Where reactive loads are present, such as with capacitors or inductors, energy storage in the loads results in a phase difference between the current and voltage waveforms  During each cycle of the AC voltage, extra energy, in addition to any energy consumed in the load, is temporarily stored in the load in electric or magnetic fields then returned to the power grid a fraction of the period later 
Electrical circuits containing predominantly resistive loads (incandescent lamps, heating elements) have a power factor of almost 1, but circuits containing inductive or capacitive loads (electric motors, solenoid valves, transformers, fluorescent lamp ballasts, and others) can have a power factor well below 1 
In the electric power grid, reactive loads cause a continuous ebb and flow of nonproductive power   A circuit with a low power factor will use a greater amount of current to transfer a given quantity of real power than a circuit with a high power factor thus causing increased losses due to resistive heating in power lines, and requiring the use of higher-rated conductors and transformers 

Definition and calculation
AC power has two components:

Real power or active power (
  
    
      
        P
      
    
    {\displaystyle P}
  ) (sometimes called average power), expressed in watts (W)
Reactive power (
  
    
      
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q}
  ), usually expressed in reactive volt-amperes (var)Together, they form the complex power (
  
    
      
        S
      
    
    {\displaystyle S}
  ) expressed as volt-amperes (VA)  The magnitude of the complex power is the apparent power (
  
    
      
        
          |
        
        S
        
          |
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle |S|}
  ), also expressed in volt-amperes (VA) 
The VA and var are non-SI units mathematically identical to the watt, but are used in engineering practice instead of the watt to state what quantity is being expressed  The SI explicitly disallows using units for this purpose or as the only source of information about a physical quantity as used The power factor is defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power  As power is transferred along a transmission line, it does not consist purely of real power that can do work once transferred to the load, but rather consists of a combination of real and reactive power, called apparent power  The power factor describes the amount of real power transmitted along a transmission line relative to the total apparent power flowing in the line The power factor can also be computed as the cosine of the angle θ by which the current waveform lags or leads the voltage waveform, 

Power triangle
One can relate the various components of AC power by using the power triangle in vector space  Real power extends horizontally in the real axis and reactive power extends in the direction of the imaginary axis  Complex power (and its magnitude, apparent power) represents a combination of both real and reactive power, and therefore can be calculated by using the vector sum of these two components  We can conclude that the mathematical relationship between these components is:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                S
              
              
                
                =
                P
                +
                j
                Q
              
            
            
              
                
                  |
                
                S
                
                  |
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      P
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                    +
                    
                      Q
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
                
                  pf
                
              
              
                
                =
                cos
                ⁡
                
                  θ
                
                =
                
                  
                    P
                    
                      
                        |
                      
                      S
                      
                        |
                      
                    
                  
                
                =
                cos
                ⁡
                
                  
                    (
                    
                      arctan
                      ⁡
                      
                        
                          (
                          
                            
                              Q
                              P
                            
                          
                          )
                        
                      
                    
                    )
                  
                
              
            
            
              
                Q
              
              
                
                =
                P
                
                tan
                ⁡
                (
                arccos
                ⁡
                (
                
                  pf
                
                )
                )
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}S&=P+jQ\\|S|&={\sqrt {P^{2}+Q^{2}}}\\{\text{pf}}&=\cos {\theta }={\frac {P}{|S|}}=\cos {\left(\arctan {\left({\frac {Q}{P}}\right)}\right)}\\Q&=P\,\tan(\arccos({\text{pf}}))\end{aligned}}}
  As the angle θ increases with fixed total apparent power, current and voltage are further out of phase with each other  Real power decreases, and reactive power increases 

Lagging, leading and unity power factors
Power factor is described as leading if the current waveform is advanced in phase with respect to voltage, or lagging when the current waveform is behind the voltage waveform  A lagging power factor signifies that the load is inductive, as the load will consume reactive power  The reactive component 
  
    
      
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q}
   is positive as reactive power travels through the circuit and is consumed by the inductive load  A leading power factor signifies that the load is capacitive, as the load supplies reactive power, and therefore the reactive component 
  
    
      
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q}
   is negative as reactive power is being supplied to the circuit 

If θ is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power factor is equal to the cosine of the angle, 
  
    
      
        cos
        ⁡
        θ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \cos \theta }
  :

  
    
      
        
          |
        
        P
        
          |
        
        =
        
          |
        
        S
        
          |
        
        cos
        ⁡
        θ
      
    
    {\displaystyle |P|=|S|\cos \theta }
  Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless number between -1 and 1  When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle  When the power factor is 1, referred to as unity power factor, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load  Power factors are usually stated as leading or lagging to show the sign of the phase angle  Capacitive loads are leading (current leads voltage), and inductive loads are lagging (current lags voltage) 
If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply, current and voltage will change polarity in step, the power factor will be 1, and the electrical energy flows in a single direction across the network in each cycle  Inductive loads such as induction motors (any type of wound coil) consume reactive power with the current waveform lagging the voltage  Capacitive loads such as capacitor banks or buried cables generate reactive power with the current phase leading the voltage  Both types of loads will absorb energy during part of the AC cycle, which is stored in the device's magnetic or electric field, only to return this energy back to the source during the rest of the cycle 
For example, to get 1 kW of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 1 = 1 kVA)  At low values of power factor, more apparent power needs to be transferred to get the same real power  To get 1 kW of real power at 0 2 power factor, 5 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 0 2 = 5 kVA)  This apparent power must be produced and transmitted to the load and is subject to losses in the production and transmission processes 
Electrical loads consuming alternating current power consume both real power and reactive power  The vector sum of real and reactive power is the complex power, and its magnitude is the apparent power  The presence of reactive power causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the electric load has a power factor of less than 1 
A negative power factor (0 to −1) can result from returning active power to the source, such as in the case of a building fitted with solar panels when surplus power is fed back into the supply 

Power factor correction of linear loads
A high power factor is generally desirable in a power delivery system to reduce losses and improve voltage regulation at the load  Compensating elements near an electrical load will reduce the apparent power demand on the supply system  Power factor correction may be applied by an electric power transmission utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the network  Individual electrical customers who are charged by their utility for low power factor may install correction equipment to increase their power factor so as to reduce costs 
Power factor correction brings the power factor of an AC power circuit closer to 1 by supplying or absorbing reactive power, adding capacitors or inductors that act to cancel the inductive or capacitive effects of the load, respectively  In the case of offsetting the inductive effect of motor loads, capacitors can be locally connected  These capacitors help to generate reactive power to meet the demand of the inductive loads  This will keep that reactive power from having to flow all the way from the utility generator to the load  In the electricity industry, inductors are said to consume reactive power and capacitors are said to supply it, even though reactive power is just energy moving back and forth on each AC cycle 
The reactive elements in power factor correction devices can create voltage fluctuations and harmonic noise when switched on or off  They will supply or sink reactive power regardless of whether there is a corresponding load operating nearby, increasing the system's no-load losses  In the worst case, reactive elements can interact with the system and with each other to create resonant conditions, resulting in system instability and severe overvoltage fluctuations  As such, reactive elements cannot simply be applied without engineering analysis 

An automatic power factor correction unit consists of a number of capacitors that are switched by means of contactors  These contactors are controlled by a regulator that measures power factor in an electrical network  Depending on the load and power factor of the network, the power factor controller will switch the necessary blocks of capacitors in steps to make sure the power factor stays above a selected value 
In place of a set of switched capacitors, an unloaded synchronous motor can supply reactive power  The reactive power drawn by the synchronous motor is a function of its field excitation  It is referred to as a synchronous condenser  It is started and connected to the electrical network  It operates at a leading power factor and puts vars onto the network as required to support a system's voltage or to maintain the system power factor at a specified level 
The synchronous condenser's installation and operation are identical to those of large electric motors  Its principal advantage is the ease with which the amount of correction can be adjusted; it behaves like a variable capacitor  Unlike with capacitors, the amount of reactive power supplied is proportional to voltage, not the square of voltage; this improves voltage stability on large networks   Synchronous condensers are often used in connection with high-voltage direct-current transmission projects or in large industrial plants such as steel mills 
For power factor correction of high-voltage power systems or large, fluctuating industrial loads, power electronic devices such as the static VAR compensator or STATCOM are increasingly used  These systems are able to compensate sudden changes of power factor much more rapidly than contactor-switched capacitor banks and, being solid-state, require less maintenance than synchronous condensers 

Non-linear loads
Examples of non-linear loads on a power system are rectifiers (such as used in a power supply), and arc discharge devices such as fluorescent lamps, electric welding machines, or arc furnaces  Because current in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the current contains frequency components that are multiples of the power system frequency  Distortion power factor is a measure of how much the harmonic distortion of a load current decreases the average power transferred to the load 

Non-sinusoidal components
In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power factor arises only from the difference in phase between the current and voltage  This is displacement power factor Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some other form  Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental frequency) AC current  This is of importance in practical power systems that contain non-linear loads such as rectifiers, some forms of electric lighting, electric arc furnaces, welding equipment, switched-mode power supplies, variable speed drives and other devices  Filters consisting of linear capacitors and inductors can prevent harmonic currents from entering the supplying system 
To measure the real power or reactive power, a wattmeter designed to work properly with non-sinusoidal currents must be used 

Distortion power factor
The distortion power factor is the distortion component associated with the harmonic voltages and currents present in the system 

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                
                  
                    distortion power factor
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      I
                      
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      I
                      
                        r
                        m
                        s
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      I
                      
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        I
                        
                          1
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      
                        I
                        
                          2
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      
                        I
                        
                          3
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      
                        I
                        
                          4
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      ⋯
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    1
                    
                      1
                      +
                      
                        
                          
                            
                              I
                              
                                2
                              
                              
                                2
                              
                            
                            +
                            
                              I
                              
                                3
                              
                              
                                2
                              
                            
                            +
                            
                              I
                              
                                4
                              
                              
                                2
                              
                            
                            +
                            ⋯
                          
                          
                            I
                            
                              1
                            
                            
                              2
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    1
                    
                      1
                      +
                      T
                      H
                      
                        D
                        
                          i
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\mbox{distortion power factor}}&={\frac {I_{1}}{I_{rms}}}\\&={\frac {I_{1}}{\sqrt {I_{1}^{2}+I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }}}\\&={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+{\frac {I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }{I_{1}^{2}}}}}}\\&={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+THD_{i}^{2}}}}\\\end{aligned}}}
  
  
    
      
        
          
            
              THD
            
          
          
            i
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{THD}}_{i}}
   is the total harmonic distortion of the load current  

  
    
      
        T
        H
        
          D
          
            i
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                
                  ∑
                  
                    h
                    =
                    2
                  
                  
                    ∞
                  
                
                
                  I
                  
                    h
                  
                  
                    2
                  
                
              
            
            
              I
              
                1
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                I
                
                  2
                
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              
                I
                
                  3
                
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              
                I
                
                  4
                
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              ⋯
            
            
              I
              
                1
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle THD_{i}={\frac {\sqrt {\displaystyle \sum _{h=2}^{\infty }I_{h}^{2}}}{I_{1}}}={\frac {\sqrt {I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }}{I_{1}}}}
  
  
    
      
        
          I
          
            1
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{1}}
   is the fundamental component of the current and 
  
    
      
        
          I
          
            
              rms
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{\mbox{rms}}}
   is the total current – both are root mean square-values (distortion power factor can also be used to describe individual order harmonics, using the corresponding current in place of total current)  This definition with respect to total harmonic distortion assumes that the voltage stays undistorted (sinusoidal, without harmonics)  This simplification is often a good approximation for stiff voltage sources (not being affected by changes in load downstream in the distribution network)  Total harmonic distortion of typical generators from current distortion in the network is on the order of 1–2%, which can have larger scale implications but can be ignored in common practice The result when multiplied with the displacement power factor (DPF) is the overall, true power factor or just power factor (PF):

  
    
      
        
          
            PF
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              cos
              ⁡
              
                φ
              
            
            
              1
              +
              T
              H
              
                D
                
                  i
                
                
                  2
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{PF}}={\frac {\cos {\varphi }}{\sqrt {1+THD_{i}^{2}}}}}

Distortion in three-phase networks
In practice, the local effects of distortion current on devices in a three-phase distribution network rely on the magnitude of certain order harmonics rather than the total harmonic distortion 
For example, the triplen, or zero-sequence, harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc ) have the property of being in-phase when compared line-to-line  In a delta-wye transformer, these harmonics can result in circulating currents in the delta windings and result in greater resistive heating  In a wye-configuration of a transformer, triplen harmonics will not create these currents, but they will result in a non-zero current in the neutral wire  This could overload the neutral wire in some cases
and create error in kilowatt-hour metering systems and billing revenue   The presence of current harmonics in a transformer also result in larger eddy currents in the magnetic core of the transformer  Eddy current losses generally increase as the square of the frequency, lowering the transformer's efficiency, dissipating additional heat, and reducing its service life Negative-sequence harmonics (5th, 11th, 17th, etc ) combine 120 degrees out of phase, similarly to the fundamental harmonic but in a reversed sequence   In generators and motors, these currents produce magnetic fields which oppose the rotation of the shaft and sometimes result in damaging mechanical vibrations 

Switched-mode power supplies
A particularly important class of non-linear loads is the millions of personal computers that typically incorporate switched-mode power supplies (SMPS) with rated output power ranging from a few watts to more than 1 kW  Historically, these very-low-cost power supplies incorporated a simple full-wave rectifier that conducted only when the mains instantaneous voltage exceeded the voltage on the input capacitors   This leads to very high ratios of peak-to-average input current, which also lead to a low distortion power factor and potentially serious phase and neutral loading concerns 
A typical switched-mode power supply first converts the AC mains to a DC bus by means of a bridge rectifier  The output voltage is then derived from this DC bus  The problem with this is that the rectifier is a non-linear device, so the input current is highly non-linear  That means that the input current has energy at harmonics of the frequency of the voltage  This presents a problem for power companies, because they cannot compensate for the harmonic current by adding simple capacitors or inductors, as they could for the reactive power drawn by a linear load  Many jurisdictions are beginning to require power factor correction for all power supplies above a certain power level 
Regulatory agencies such as the EU have set harmonic limits as a method of improving power factor  Declining component cost has hastened implementation of two different methods  To comply with current EU standard EN61000-3-2, all switched-mode power supplies with output power more than 75 W must at least include passive power factor correction  80 Plus power supply certification requires a power factor of 0 9 or more 

Power factor correction (PFC) in non-linear loads
Passive PFC
The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter that passes current only at line frequency (50 or 60 Hz)  The filter consists of capacitors or inductors and makes a non-linear device look more like a linear load  An example of passive PFC is a valley-fill circuit 
A disadvantage of passive PFC is that it requires larger inductors or capacitors than an equivalent power active PFC circuit  Also, in practice, passive PFC is often less effective at improving the power factor 

Active PFC
Active PFC is the use of power electronics to change the waveform of current drawn by a load to improve the power factor   Some types of the active PFC are buck, boost, buck-boost and synchronous condenser   Active power factor correction can be single-stage or multi-stage 
In the case of a switched-mode power supply, a boost converter is inserted between the bridge rectifier and the main input capacitors  The boost converter attempts to maintain a constant voltage at its output while drawing a current that is always in phase with and at the same frequency as the line voltage  Another switched-mode converter inside the power supply produces the desired output voltage from the DC bus  This approach requires additional semiconductor switches and control electronics but permits cheaper and smaller passive components  It is frequently used in practice 
For a three-phase SMPS, the Vienna rectifier configuration may be used to substantially improve the power factor 
SMPSs with passive PFC can achieve power factor of about 0 7–0 75, SMPSs with active PFC, up to 0 99 power factor, while a SMPS without any power factor correction have a power factor of only about 0 55–0 65 Due to their very wide input voltage range, many power supplies with active PFC can automatically adjust to operate on AC power from about 100 V (Japan) to 240 V (Europe)  That feature is particularly welcome in power supplies for laptops 

Dynamic PFC
Dynamic power factor correction (DPFC), sometimes referred to as real-time power factor correction, is used for electrical stabilization in cases of rapid load changes (e g  at large manufacturing sites)  DPFC is useful when standard power factor correction would cause over or under correction   DPFC uses semiconductor switches, typically thyristors, to quickly connect and disconnect capacitors or inductors to improve power factor 

Importance in distribution systems
Power factors below 1 0 require a utility to generate more than the minimum volt-amperes necessary to supply the real power (watts)  This increases generation and transmission costs  For example, if the load power factor were as low as 0 7, the apparent power would be 1 4 times the real power used by the load  Line current in the circuit would also be 1 4 times the current required at 1 0 power factor, so the losses in the circuit would be doubled (since they are proportional to the square of the current)  Alternatively, all components of the system such as generators, conductors, transformers, and switchgear would be increased in size (and cost) to carry the extra current  When the power factor is close to unity, for the same kVA rating of the transformer more load current can be supplied Utilities typically charge additional costs to commercial customers who have a power factor below some limit, which is typically 0 9 to 0 95   Engineers are often interested in the power factor of a load as one of the factors that affect the efficiency of power transmission 
With the rising cost of energy and concerns over the efficient delivery of power, active PFC has become more common in consumer electronics  Current Energy Star guidelines for computers call for a power factor of ≥ 0 9 at 100% of rated output in the PC's power supply  According to a white paper authored by Intel and the U S  Environmental Protection Agency, PCs with internal power supplies will require the use of active power factor correction to meet the ENERGY STAR 5 0 Program Requirements for Computers In Europe, EN 61000-3-2 requires power factor correction be incorporated into consumer products 
Small customers, such as households, are not usually charged for reactive power and so power factor metering equipment for such customers will not be installed 

Measurement techniques
The power factor in a single-phase circuit (or balanced three-phase circuit) can be measured with the wattmeter-ammeter-voltmeter method, where the power in watts is divided by the product of measured voltage and current  The power factor of a balanced polyphase circuit is the same as that of any phase  The power factor of an unbalanced polyphase circuit is not uniquely defined 
A direct reading power factor meter can be made with a moving coil meter of the electrodynamic type, carrying two perpendicular coils on the moving part of the instrument  The field of the instrument is energized by the circuit current flow  The two moving coils, A and B, are connected in parallel with the circuit load   One coil, A, will be connected through a resistor and the second coil, B, through an inductor, so that the current in coil B is delayed with respect to current in A  At unity power factor, the current in A is in phase with the circuit current, and coil A provides maximum torque, driving the instrument pointer toward the 1 0 mark on the scale  At zero power factor, the current in coil B is in phase with circuit current, and coil B provides torque to drive the pointer towards 0  At intermediate values of power factor, the torques provided by the two coils add and the pointer takes up intermediate positions Another electromechanical instrument is the polarized-vane type  In this instrument a stationary field coil produces a rotating magnetic field, just like a polyphase motor  The field coils are connected either directly to polyphase voltage sources or to a phase-shifting reactor if a single-phase application   A second stationary field coil, perpendicular to the voltage coils, carries a current proportional to current in one phase of the circuit  The moving system of the instrument consists of two vanes that are magnetized by the current coil  In operation, the moving vanes take up a physical angle equivalent to the electrical angle between the voltage source and the current source  This type of instrument can be made to register for currents in both directions, giving a four-quadrant display of power factor or phase angle 
Digital instruments exist that directly measure the time lag between voltage and current waveforms  Low-cost instruments of this type measure the peak of the waveforms  More sophisticated versions measure the peak of the fundamental harmonic only, thus giving a more accurate reading for phase angle on distorted waveforms  Calculating power factor from voltage and current phases is only accurate if both waveforms are sinusoidal Power Quality Analyzers, often referred to as Power Analyzers, make a digital recording of the voltage and current waveform (typically either one phase or three phase) and accurately calculate true power (watts), apparent power (VA) power factor, AC voltage, AC current, DC voltage, DC current, frequency, IEC61000-3-2/3-12 Harmonic measurement, IEC61000-3-3/3-11 flicker measurement, individual phase voltages in delta applications where there is no neutral line, total harmonic distortion, phase and amplitude of individual voltage or current harmonics, etc 

Mnemonics
English-language power engineering students are advised to remember:
ELI the ICE man or ELI on ICE – the voltage E, leads the current I, in an inductor L  The current I leads the voltage E in a capacitor C 
Another common mnemonic is CIVIL – in a capacitor (C) the current (I) leads voltage (V), voltage (V) leads current (I) in an inductor (L) 
Passage 2:
Womersley number
The Womersley number (
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
   or 
  
    
      
        
          Wo
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\text{Wo}}}
  ) is a dimensionless number in biofluid mechanics and biofluid dynamics  It is a dimensionless expression of the pulsatile flow frequency in relation to viscous effects  It is named after John R  Womersley (1907–1958) for his work with blood flow in arteries  The Womersley number is important in keeping dynamic similarity when scaling an experiment  An example of this is scaling up the vascular system for experimental study  The Womersley number is also important in determining the thickness of the boundary layer to see if entrance effects can be ignored 
The square root of this number is also referred to as Stokes number, 
  
    
      
        
          Stk
        
        =
        
          
            Wo
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\text{Stk}}={\sqrt {\text{Wo}}}}
  , due to the pioneering work done by Sir George Stokes on the Stokes second problem 

Derivation
The Womersley number, usually denoted 
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
  , is defined by the relation

where 
  
    
      
        L
      
    
    {\displaystyle L}
   is an appropriate length scale (for example the radius of a pipe), 
  
    
      
        ω
      
    
    {\displaystyle \omega }
   is the angular frequency of the oscillations, and 
  
    
      
        ν
      
    
    {\displaystyle \nu }
  , 
  
    
      
        ρ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \rho }
  , 
  
    
      
        μ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mu }
   are the kinematic viscosity, density, and dynamic viscosity of the fluid, respectively  The Womersley number is normally written in the powerless form

In the cardiovascular system, the pulsation frequency, density, and dynamic viscosity are constant, however the Characteristic length, which in the case of blood flow is the vessel diameter, changes by three orders of magnitudes (OoM) between the aorta and fine capillaries  The Womersley number thus changes due to the variations in vessel size across the vasculature system  The Womersley number of human blood flow can be estimated as follows:

  
    
      
        α
        =
        L
        
          
            (
            
              
                
                  ω
                  ρ
                
                μ
              
            
            )
          
          
            
              1
              2
            
          
        
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha =L\left({\frac {\omega \rho }{\mu }}\right)^{\frac {1}{2}}\, }
  
Below is a list of estimated Womersley numbers in different human blood vessels:

It can also be written in terms of the dimensionless Reynolds number (Re) and Strouhal number (St):

The Womersley number arises in the solution of the linearized Navier–Stokes equations for oscillatory flow (presumed to be laminar and incompressible) in a tube   It expresses the ratio of the transient or oscillatory inertia force to the shear force  When 
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
   is small (1 or less), it means the frequency of pulsations is sufficiently low that a parabolic velocity profile has time to develop during each cycle, and the flow will be very nearly in phase with the pressure gradient, and will be given to a good approximation by Poiseuille's law, using the instantaneous pressure gradient   When 
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
   is large (10 or more), it means the frequency of pulsations is sufficiently large that the velocity profile is relatively flat or plug-like, and the mean flow lags the pressure gradient by about 90 degrees  Along with the Reynolds number, the Womersley number governs dynamic similarity The boundary layer thickness 
  
    
      
        δ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta }
   that is associated with the transient acceleration is inversely related to the Womersley number  This can be seen by recognizing the Womersley number as the square root of the Stokes number 
where 
  
    
      
        L
      
    
    {\displaystyle L}
   is a characteristic length 

Biofluid mechanics
In a flow distribution network that progresses from a large tube to many small tubes (e g  a blood vessel network), the frequency, density, and dynamic viscosity are (usually) the same throughout the network, but the tube radii change  Therefore, the Womersley number is large in large vessels and small in small vessels  As the vessel diameter decreases with each division the Womersley number soon becomes quite small  The Womersley numbers tend to 1 at the level of the terminal arteries  In the arterioles, capillaries, and venules the Womersley numbers are less than one  In these regions the inertia force becomes less important and the flow is determined by the balance of viscous stresses and the pressure gradient  This is called microcirculation Some typical values for the Womersley number in the cardiovascular system for a canine at a heart rate of 2 Hz are:
Ascending aorta – 13 2
Descending aorta – 11 5
Abdominal aorta – 8
Femoral artery – 3 5
Carotid artery – 4 4
Arterioles – 0 04
Capillaries – 0 005
Venules – 0 035
Inferior vena cava – 8 8
Main pulmonary artery – 15It has been argued that universal biological scaling laws (power-law relationships that describe variation of quantities such as metabolic rate, lifespan, length, etc , with body mass) are a consequence of the need for energy minimization, the fractal nature of vascular networks, and the crossover from high to low Womersley number flow as one progresses from large to small vessels 
Passage 3:
Weissenberg number
The Weissenberg number (Wi) is a dimensionless number used in the study of viscoelastic flows  It is named after Karl Weissenberg  The dimensionless number compares the elastic forces to the viscous forces  It can be variously defined, but it is usually given by the relation of stress relaxation time of the fluid and a specific process time  For instance, in simple steady shear, the Weissenberg number, often abbreviated as Wi or We, is defined as the shear rate 
  
    
      
        
          
            
              γ
              ˙
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\dot {\gamma }}}
   times the relaxation time 
  
    
      
        λ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \lambda }
    Using the Maxwell model and the Oldroyd-B model, the elastic forces can be written as the first Normal force (N1) 

  
    
      
        
          Wi
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                elastic forces
              
              
                viscous forces
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                τ
                
                  x
                  x
                
              
              −
              
                τ
                
                  y
                  y
                
              
            
            
              τ
              
                x
                y
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              2
              λ
              μ
              
                
                  
                    
                      γ
                      ˙
                    
                  
                
                
                  2
                
              
            
            
              μ
              
                
                  
                    γ
                    ˙
                  
                
              
            
          
        
        =
        2
        
          
            
              γ
              ˙
            
          
        
        λ
         
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\text{Wi}}={\dfrac {\mbox{elastic forces}}{\mbox{viscous forces}}}={\frac {\tau _{xx}-\tau _{yy}}{\tau _{xy}}}={\frac {2\lambda \mu {\dot {\gamma }}^{2}}{\mu {\dot {\gamma }}}}=2{\dot {\gamma }}\lambda  \,}
  Since this number is obtained from scaling the evolution of the stress, it contains choices for the shear or elongation rate, and the length-scale  Therefore the exact definition of all non dimensional numbers should be given as well as the number itself 
While Wi is similar to the Deborah number and is often confused with it in technical literature, they have different physical interpretations  The Weissenberg number indicates the degree of anisotropy or orientation generated by the deformation, and is appropriate to describe flows with a constant stretch history, such as simple shear  In contrast, the Deborah number should be used to describe flows with a non-constant stretch history, and physically represents the rate at which elastic energy is stored or released 
Passage 4:
Ericksen number
In the study of liquid crystals, the Ericksen number (Er) is a dimensionless number used to describe the deformation of the director field under flow  It is defined as the ratio of the viscous to elastic forces  In the limit of low Ericksen number the elastic forces will exceed the viscous forces and so the director field will not be strongly affected by the flow field  The Ericksen number is named after American mathematics professor Jerald Ericksen of the University of Minnesota   The number is defined:

  
    
      
        
          
            E
            r
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              μ
              v
              L
            
            K
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mathit {Er}}={\frac {\mu vL}{K}}}
  where

  
    
      
        μ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mu }
   is the fluid's dynamic viscosity,

  
    
      
        v
      
    
    {\displaystyle v}
   is a characteristic scale for the fluid's velocity,

  
    
      
        L
      
    
    {\displaystyle L}
   is a characteristic scale length for the fluid flow,

  
    
      
        K
      
    
    {\displaystyle K}
   is an elasticity force, for example the elasticity modulus times an area 
Passage 5:
Qualified Person for Pharmacovigilance
In the European Union, the Qualified Person Responsible For Pharmacovigilance (QPPV) is an individual, usually an employee of a pharmaceutical company, who is personally responsible for the safety of the human pharmaceutical products marketed by that company in the EU  This function was established in 2004 by article 23 of regulation (EC) No 726/2004  The article establishes that the holder of a marketing authorization for a drug for human use must have a QPPV  When a company submits an application for permission to bring a medicinal product onto the market, the company submits a description of its system for monitoring the safety of the product in actual use (a pharmacovigilance system) and proof that the services of a QPPV are in place "The holder of an authorisation for a medicinal product for human use granted in accordance with the provisions of this Regulation shall have permanently and continuously at his disposal an appropriately qualified person responsible for pharmacovigilance "

Responsibilities
Per Article 23, the QPPV is responsible for:

Establishing and maintaining a pharmacovigilance system
Preparing pharmacovigilance reports as defined by regulations
Answering requests from Health Authorities
Providing Health Authorities with any other information relevant to product safetyThe Good Pharmacovigilance Practices (GVP) provide further guidance regarding these responsibilities of the QPPV (Module I, Section I C 1 3: Role of the qualified person responsible for pharmacovigilance in the EU  Per GVP, the QPPV is responsible for the establishment and maintenance of the marketing authorisation holder's pharmacovigilance system and therefore shall have sufficient authority to influence the performance of the quality system and the pharmacovigilance activities and to promote, maintain and improve compliance with the legal requirements  The QPPV is specifically responsible for:

Establishing and maintaining/managing the pharmaceutical company's pharmacovigilance system
Having an overview of the safety profiles and any emerging safety concerns for the company's drugs
Acting as a single contact point for the Health Authorities on a 24-hour basis

Criteria for QPPV role
The QPPV must reside in the EU, and should be permanently and continuously at the disposal of the MAH  Each company (i e  Applicant/Marketing Authorisation Holder or group of Marketing Authorisation Holders using a common pharmacovigilance system) should appoint one QPPV responsible for overall pharmacovigilance for all medicinal products for which the company holds marketing authorisations within the EU 
Detailed information on the role and responsibilities of the QPPV, and guidance for a Marketing Authorisation Holder on how to adequately support the QPPV are specified in Guideline on good pharmacovigilance practices (GVP; Module I – Pharmacovigilance systems and their quality systems) "   At a minimum the QPPV should be appropriately qualified, with documented experience in all aspects of pharmacovigilance in order to fulfil the responsibilities and tasks of the post  If the QPPV is not medically qualified, access to a medically qualified person should be available 
In addition, there are national regulations in some EU member states that also require a nominated individual in that country who has specific legal obligations as a QPPV at a national level 

See also
Pharmacovigilance
European Medicines Agency
Passage 6:
Joseph Fourier
Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier (; French: [fuʁje]; 21 March 1768 – 16 May 1830) was a French mathematician and physicist born in Auxerre and best known for initiating the investigation of Fourier series, which eventually developed into Fourier analysis and harmonic analysis, and their applications to problems of heat transfer and vibrations  The Fourier transform and Fourier's law of conduction are also named in his honour  Fourier is also generally credited with the discovery of the greenhouse effect 

Biography
Fourier was born in Auxerre (now in the Yonne département of France), the son of a tailor  He was orphaned at the age of nine  Fourier was recommended to the Bishop of Auxerre and, through this introduction, he was educated by the Benedictine Order of the Convent of St  Mark  The commissions in the scientific corps of the army were reserved for those of good birth, and being thus ineligible, he accepted a military lectureship on mathematics  He took a prominent part in his own district in promoting the French Revolution, serving on the local Revolutionary Committee  He was imprisoned briefly during the Terror but, in 1795, was appointed to the École Normale and subsequently succeeded Joseph-Louis Lagrange at the École Polytechnique 
Fourier accompanied Napoleon Bonaparte on his Egyptian expedition in 1798, as scientific adviser, and was appointed secretary of the Institut d'Égypte  Cut off from France by the British fleet, he organized the workshops on which the French army had to rely for their munitions of war  He also contributed several mathematical papers to the Egyptian Institute (also called the Cairo Institute) which Napoleon founded at Cairo, with a view of weakening British influence in the East  After the British victories and the capitulation of the French under General Menou in 1801, Fourier returned to France 

In 1801, Napoleon appointed Fourier Prefect (Governor) of the Department of Isère in Grenoble, where he oversaw road construction and other projects  However, Fourier had previously returned home from the Napoleon expedition to Egypt to resume his academic post as professor at École Polytechnique when Napoleon decided otherwise in his remark

    the Prefect of the Department of Isère having recently died, I would like to express my confidence in citizen Fourier by appointing him to this place 
Hence being faithful to Napoleon, he took the office of Prefect  It was while at Grenoble that he began to experiment on the propagation of heat  He presented his paper On the Propagation of Heat in Solid Bodies to the Paris Institute on 21 December 1807  He also contributed to the monumental Description de l'Égypte In 1822, Fourier succeeded Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre as Permanent Secretary of the French Academy of Sciences  In 1830, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 
Fourier never married In 1830, his diminished health began to take its toll:

Fourier had already experienced, in Egypt and Grenoble, some attacks of aneurysm of the heart  At Paris, it was impossible to be mistaken with respect to the primary cause of the frequent suffocations which he experienced  A fall, however, which he sustained on the 4th of May 1830, while descending a flight of stairs, aggravated the malady to an extent beyond what could have been ever feared 
Shortly after this event, he died in his bed on 16 May 1830 
Fourier was buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, a tomb decorated with an Egyptian motif to reflect his position as secretary of the Cairo Institute, and his collation of Description de l'Égypte  His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower 
A bronze statue was erected in Auxerre in 1849, but it was melted down for armaments during World War II  Joseph Fourier University in Grenoble was named after him 

The Analytic Theory of Heat
In 1822, Fourier published his work on heat flow in Théorie analytique de la chaleur (The Analytical Theory of Heat),  in which he based his reasoning on Newton's law of cooling, namely, that the flow of heat between two adjacent molecules is proportional to the extremely small difference of their temperatures  This book was translated, with editorial 'corrections', into English 56 years later by Freeman (1878)  The book was also edited, with many editorial corrections, by Darboux and republished in French in 1888 There were three important contributions in this work, one purely mathematical, two essentially physical  In mathematics, Fourier claimed that any function of a variable, whether continuous or discontinuous, can be expanded in a series of sines of multiples of the variable  Though this result is not correct without additional conditions, Fourier's observation that some discontinuous functions are the sum of infinite series was a breakthrough  The question of determining when a Fourier series converges has been fundamental for centuries  Joseph-Louis Lagrange had given particular cases of this (false) theorem, and had implied that the method was general, but he had not pursued the subject  Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet  was the first to give a satisfactory demonstration of it with some restrictive conditions  This work provides the foundation for what is today known as the Fourier transform 
One important physical contribution in the book was the concept of dimensional homogeneity in equations; i e  an equation can be formally correct only if the dimensions match on either side of the equality; Fourier made important contributions to dimensional analysis  The other physical contribution was Fourier's proposal of his partial differential equation for conductive diffusion of heat  This equation is now taught to every student of mathematical physics 

Real roots of polynomials
Fourier left an unfinished work on determining and locating real roots of polynomials, which was edited by Claude-Louis Navier and published in 1831  This work contains much original matter—in particular, Fourier's theorem on polynomial real roots, published in 1820  Fourier's theorem on real roots of polynomials states that a polynomial with real coefficients has a real root between any two consecutive zeros of its derivative  François Budan, in 1807 and 1811, had published independently his theorem (also known by the name of Fourier), which is very close to Fourier's theorem (each theorem is a corollary of the other)  Fourier's proof is the one that was usually given, during 19th century, in textbooks on the theory of equations  A complete solution of the problem was given in 1829 by Jacques Charles François Sturm 

Discovery of the greenhouse effect
In the 1820s, Fourier calculated that an object the size of the Earth, and at its distance from the Sun, should be considerably colder than the planet actually is if warmed by only  the effects of incoming solar radiation  He examined various possible sources of the additional observed heat in articles published in 1824 and 1827  However, in the end, because of the large 33-degree difference between his calculations and observations, Fourier mistakenly believed that there is a significant contribution of radiation from interstellar space  Still, Fourier's consideration of the possibility that the Earth's atmosphere might act as an insulator of some kind is widely recognized as the first proposal of what is now known as the greenhouse effect, although Fourier never called it that In his articles, Fourier referred to an experiment by de Saussure, who lined a vase with blackened cork  Into the cork, he inserted several panes of transparent glass, separated by intervals of air  Midday sunlight was allowed to enter at the top of the vase through the glass panes  The temperature became more elevated in the more interior compartments of this device  Fourier concluded that gases in the atmosphere could form a stable barrier like the glass panes  This conclusion may have contributed to the later use of the metaphor of the "greenhouse effect" to refer to the processes that determine atmospheric temperatures  Fourier noted that the actual mechanisms that determine the temperatures of the atmosphere included convection, which was not present in de Saussure's experimental device 

Works
See also
Fourier analysis
Fourier–Deligne transform
Heat equation
Least-squares spectral analysis
List of things named after Joseph Fourier
Passage 7:
Morton number
In fluid dynamics, the Morton number (Mo) is a dimensionless number used together with the Eötvös number or Bond number to characterize the shape of bubbles or drops moving in a surrounding fluid or continuous phase, c 
It is named after Rose Morton, who described it with W  L  Haberman in 1953 

Definition
The Morton number is defined as

  
    
      
        
          M
          o
        
        =
        
          
            
              g
              
                μ
                
                  c
                
                
                  4
                
              
              
              Δ
              ρ
            
            
              
                ρ
                
                  c
                
                
                  2
                
              
              
                σ
                
                  3
                
              
            
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Mo} ={\frac {g\mu _{c}^{4}\,\Delta \rho }{\rho _{c}^{2}\sigma ^{3}}},}
  where g is the acceleration of gravity, 
  
    
      
        
          μ
          
            c
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mu _{c}}
   is the viscosity of the surrounding fluid, 
  
    
      
        
          ρ
          
            c
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \rho _{c}}
   the density of the surrounding fluid, 
  
    
      
        Δ
        ρ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Delta \rho }
   the difference in density of the phases, and 
  
    
      
        σ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \sigma }
   is the surface tension coefficient   For the case of a bubble with a negligible inner density the Morton number can be simplified to 

  
    
      
        
          M
          o
        
        =
        
          
            
              g
              
                μ
                
                  c
                
                
                  4
                
              
            
            
              
                ρ
                
                  c
                
              
              
                σ
                
                  3
                
              
            
          
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Mo} ={\frac {g\mu _{c}^{4}}{\rho _{c}\sigma ^{3}}} }

Relation to other parameters
The Morton number can also be expressed by using a combination of the Weber number, Froude number and Reynolds number,

  
    
      
        
          M
          o
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                W
                e
              
              
                3
              
            
            
              
                
                  F
                  r
                
                
                  2
                
              
              
              
                
                  R
                  e
                
                
                  4
                
              
            
          
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Mo} ={\frac {\mathrm {We} ^{3}}{\mathrm {Fr} ^{2}\,\mathrm {Re} ^{4}}} }
  The Froude number in the above expression is defined as

  
    
      
        
          F
          
            r
            
              2
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              V
              
                2
              
            
            
              g
              d
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Fr^{2}} ={\frac {V^{2}}{gd}}}
  where V is a reference velocity and d is the equivalent diameter of the drop or bubble 
Passage 8:
Kapitza number
The Kapitza number (Ka) is a dimensionless number named after the prominent Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitsa (Peter Kapitza)  He provided the first extensive study of the ways in which a thin film of liquid flows down inclined surfaces  Expressed as the ratio of surface tension forces to inertial forces, the Kapitza number acts as an indicator of the hydrodynamic wave regime in falling liquid films  Liquid film behavior represents a subset of the more general class of free boundary problems  and is important in a wide range of engineering and technological applications such as evaporators, heat exchangers, absorbers, microreactors, small-scale electronics/microprocessor cooling schemes, air conditioning and gas turbine blade cooling 
After World War II Kapitza was removed from all his positions, including director of his Institute for Physical Problems, for refusing to work on nuclear weapons  He was at his country house and devised experiments to work on there, including his experiments on falling films of liquid Unlike most dimensionless numbers used in the study of fluid mechanics, the Kapitza number represents a material property, as it is formed by combining powers of the surface tension, density, gravitational acceleration and kinematic viscosity 

  
    
      
        K
        a
        =
        
          
            σ
            
              ρ
              (
              g
              sin
              ⁡
              β
              
                )
                
                  1
                  
                    /
                  
                  3
                
              
              
                ν
                
                  4
                  
                    /
                  
                  3
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle Ka={\frac {\sigma }{\rho (g\sin \beta )^{1/3}\nu ^{4/3}}}}
  where σ is the surface tension (SI units: N/m), g is gravitational acceleration (m/s2), ρ is density (kg/m3), β is inclination angle (rad), and ν is kinematic viscosity (m2/s) 

Notes
Passage 9:
Fourier number
In the study of heat conduction, the Fourier number,  is the ratio of time, t, to a characteristic time scale for heat diffusion, td  This dimensionless group is named in honor of J B J  Fourier, who formulated the modern understanding of heat conduction  The time scale for diffusion characterizes the time needed for heat to diffuse over a distance, L  For a medium with thermal diffusivity, α, this time scale is td = L2/α, so that the Fourier number is t/td = αt/L2  The Fourier number is often denoted as Fo or FoL The Fourier number can also be used in the study of mass diffusion, if the thermal diffusivity is replaced by a mass diffusivity 
The Fourier number is used in analysis of time dependent transport phenomena, generally in conjunction with the Biot number if convection is present  The Fourier number arises naturally in nondimensionalization of the heat equation 

Definition
The general definition of the Fourier number, Fo, is:
For heat diffusion with a characteristic length scale L in a medium of thermal diffusivity, α,  the diffusion time scale is td =L2/α, so that

where:

α is the thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
t is the time (s)
L is the characteristic length through which conduction occurs (m)

Interpretation of the Fourier number
Consider transient heat conduction in  a slab of thickness L that is initially at a uniform temperature, T0  One side of the slab is heated to higher temperature, Th at time t = 0   The other side is adiabatic  The time needed for the other side of the object to show significant temperature change is the diffusion time, td   
When Fo ≪ 1, not enough time has passed for the other side to change temperature  In this case, significant temperature change only occurs close to the heated side, and most of the slab remains at T0 
When Fo ≅ 1, significant temperature change occurs all the way through the thickness L  None of the slab remains at temperature T0 
When Fo ≫ 1, enough time has passed for the slab to approach steady state  The entire slab approaches temperature Th 

Derivation and usage
The Fourier number can be derived by nondimenionalizing the time-dependent diffusion equation   As an example, consider a rod of length L that is being heated from an initial temperature, T0, by the imposition at time t = 0 of a higher temperature at x = L, TL (with x along the axis of the rod)  The heat equation in one spatial dimension, x, can be applied 

where T is the temperature for 0 < x < L and t > 0  The differential equation can be scaled into a dimensionless form  A dimensionless temperature may be defined as Θ = (T - TL)/(T0 - TL), and the equation may be divided through by α/L2:

The resulting dimensionless time variable is the Fourier number, FoL = αt/L2  The characteristic time scale for diffusion, td =L2/α, comes directly from this scaling of the heat equation  
The Fourier number is frequently used as the nondimensional time in studying transient heat conduction in solids    A second parameter, the Biot number arises in nondimensionalization when convective boundary conditions are applied to the heat equation  Together, the Fourier number and the Biot number determine the temperature response of a solid subjected to convective heating or cooling 

Application to mass transfer
An analogous Fourier number can be derived by nondimensionalization of Fick's second law of diffusion  The result is a mass transfer Fourier number, Fom defined as:
where:

Fom is the mass transfer Fourier number
D is the mass diffusivity (m2/s)
t is the time (s)
L is the length scale of interest (m)The mass transfer Fourier number can be applied to the study of certain time-dependent mass diffusion problems 

See also
Biot number
Convection
Heat conduction
Heat equation
Molecular diffusion
Context 2: Passage 1:
WLLZ-LP
WXII-LD (channel 12) is a low-power television station in Cedar, Michigan, United States, serving the Traverse City–Cadillac area with programming from MyNetworkTV and Cozi TV  Owned by Bridge Media Networks, it is sister to Lake City-licensed NewsNet flagship WMNN-LD (channel 26)  Both stations share studios on West 13th Street in Cadillac, while WXII-LD's transmitter is located west of downtown Traverse City near Harris and Cedar Run roads 
Despite having a digital signal of its own, WXII-LD is only 1 5 kW whereas WMNN-LD is 15 kW, so WXII-LD is simulcast over WMNN-LD's fifth digital subchannel (UHF channel 17 5 or virtual channel 26 5) to expand its over-the-air reach 

History
On December 12, 1996, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) issued a construction permit for a low-power television station on UHF channel 51 in Pinconning, Michigan with the call sign W51CS  In 2001, the permit was moved to VHF channel 12 in Traverse City under call letters W12CX  In 2003, the call letters were changed to WLLZ-LP  From 1980 to 1996, the WLLZ calls were used by an album oriented rock FM radio station broadcasting on 98 7 in the Detroit area, nicknamed "Detroit's Wheelz" (later Smooth Jazz WVMV "V98 7" and now top-40 "AMP Radio" WDZH)  After the FM station dropped the call letters, they were used for several years on an AM station in the market, and were picked up by Channel 12 after the AM station dropped them in 2003  WLLZ's owner at the time, P & P Cable Holdings, is known for picking up calls discarded by other Michigan radio and television stations for use on their own stations 
WLLZ-LP signed on in January 2004 as an affiliate of Urban America Television  It added America One programming to its schedule in Summer 2004  WLLZ became a full affiliate of the network in May 2006 when Urban America Television ceased operations 

In June 2008, the station was added to Charter digital channel 202 throughout the northern Lower Peninsula  It moved to the basic tier on channel 72 in December 2008 and has now moved to channel 11 in 18 counties on Charter cable  Also in December 2008, WLLZ became a primary affiliate of MyNetworkTV; the station was then branded as "My TV 12"  Until then, there was no local affiliate in the northern Michigan market 
On May 15, 2009, WLLZ discontinued an affiliation with The Sportsman Channel (which was phasing out its over-the-air affiliations) and added RTV, with America One programming significantly reduced (though not eliminated)  Previously from 2007 until 2008, NBC affiliate WPBN-TV (channel 7) carried RTV on a second digital subchannel  This was dropped in favor of a simulcast of ABC affiliate WGTU (channel 29)  Due to its low-powered status, WLLZ was exempt from switching to digital-only broadcasting on June 12, 2009 
The station discontinued their affiliation with America One in 2015, when it merged with Youtoo TV into Youtoo America, allowing a contractual out of that agreement  With the start of the 2015–16 season, WLLZ has wound down carrying nearly all of their syndicated programming, with Cozi TV being carried most of the day and MyNetworkTV in prime time 
On November 1, 2017, the FCC approved the sale of WLLZ-LP to Freelancer Television Broadcasting, Inc  On December 4, 2017, the sale to Freelancer Television Broadcasting was completed, making it a sister station to WMNN-LD; the station then modified its branding to "MI TV 12"  It changed its call sign to WXII-LP on December 21, 2017 On April 23, 2019, the FCC granted WXII-LP a construction permit to operate a digital companion channel on UHF channel 30  In the meantime, digital over-the-air access to this station had been being provided through a simulcast over a digital subchannel of co-owned station WMNN-LD; that simulcast continued post-transition to improve this station's over-the-air reach and also to feed local cable systems  On September 14, 2021, WXII-LP commenced digital operations and the FCC changed this station's call sign to WXII-LD to reflect this station's new digital operations  Concurrent with the launch of this station's digital operations, an uninterrupted national feed of the NewsNet service, absent of any locally-produced content, was added as a second subchannel On January 13, 2022, Freelancer Television Broadcasting's portfolio, including NewsNet, WMNN-LD, and WXII-LD, were sold to investor Manoj Bhargava, with Eric Wotila retaining 10% ownership in the new company Bridge News, LLC  Under the terms of the deal, Bridge News would operate the stations via a time brokerage agreement with Freelancer Television Broadcasting  The sale was consummated on March 24 

News programming
Until May 2009, WLLZ aired INN National News, a newscast produced by Independent News Network in Davenport, Iowa from America One  It also carried a video simulcast of an hour of radio station WMKT's morning show hosted by Greg Marshall  The simulcast was discontinued in early 2011 
In late 2017, following the station's callsign switch to WXII-LP, sister station WMNN-LD began producing 90-second news updates for channel 12 that aired during prime time over the first commercial break aired each hour  News programming expanded in March 2018, when WMNN-LD began producing hour-long 7:00 and 11:00 p m  newscasts for the station each weeknight  The early newscast competes against a half-hour newscast produced by CBS affiliate WWTV (channel 9) that airs on Fox affiliate WFQX-TV (channel 32), while the 11:00 p m  competes against longer-established late night newscasts on WWTV (and its Sault Ste  Marie satellite WWUP, channel 10), and WPBN-TV (and its Cheboygan satellite WTOM-TV, channel 4) as well as a pre-recorded broadcast on the latter's sister ABC affiliate, WGTU (and Sault Ste  Marie satellite WGTQ, channel 8) 

Technical information
Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:
Passage 2:
White House, Tennessee
White House is a city in Robertson and Sumner counties in the United States state of Tennessee  The population was listed as 12,982 in the 2020 census  It is approximately twenty-two miles north of downtown Nashville 

History
Settlers
The area that is now White House was purchased around 1828 by Richard Stone Wilks, a settler from Virginia   A trail running from Kentucky to Nashville, originally created by Native Americans, cut through the area   This trail was originally known as the Louisville & Nashville Turnpike during the mid-19th century   In 1928, the trail was renamed US Highway 31W 

Naming the town
In the mid-19th century, the Carter, Thomas, and Hough Stagecoach Company traveled the L&N Turnpike carrying passengers  A typical stop along the way was a white, two-story house built by Wilks in 1829  The house was a popular stop for lodging, food, and changing out horses  President Andrew Jackson was even heard to have stayed here during his travels between his home and the White House   During this time, houses were rarely painted white, particularly in this underdeveloped area  The stage coach drivers began to call this stop and the surrounding area White House 

Original White House torn down, building replaced
The monument for which the town was named was torn down in 1951 to make way for new development   However, in 1986, the community erected a replica of the original building   The reproduction, called the White House Inn Library and Museum, currently sits in the center of town next to the Fire Department   It contains the library, a museum with artifacts from the area's early years, and the city's Chamber of Commerce  In 2015, the replica White House Inn Library and Museum was turned solely into a museum and Chamber of Commerce after the city built a new library 

Growth and development
White House was incorporated in 1971  Currently, the young town is experiencing population growth, economic progress, and community development, with many apartment projects and subdivisions planned for the area  There are over 800 homes planned for the area, and at least 5 apartment subdivisions are planned for the city  The city is located north of Nashville within the greater Nashville region, and is anticipated to grow rapidly in the future as a suburb of Nashville 

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 9 0 square miles (23 2 km2), all land 
White House is located along Interstate 65 at the intersection of State Highway 76 and US Highway 31W  The town, as of 2007, covers eleven square miles and is situated about 22 miles (35 km) north of downtown Nashville, lying in both Robertson and Sumner Counties 

Climate
Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 12,982 people, 4,345 households, and 3,512 families residing in the city 

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 7,220 people, 2,497 households, and 2,060 families residing in the city  The population density was 805 3 inhabitants per square mile (310 9/km2)  There were 2,578 housing units at an average density of 287 5 per square mile (111 0/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 97 35% White, 1 33% African American, 0 25% Native American, 0 35% Asian, 0 30% from other races, and 0 42% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1 02% of the population 
There were 2,497 households, out of which 48 8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 71 0% were married couples living together, 8 4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 17 5% were non-families  15 4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 89 and the average family size was 3 22 
In the city, the population was spread out, with 31 7% under the age of 18, 6 6% from 18 to 24, 37 8% from 25 to 44, 17 6% from 45 to 64, and 6 3% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 32 years  For every 100 females, there were 99 6 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93 8 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $51,649, and the median income for a family was $55,731  Males had a median income of $38,448 versus $26,216 for females  The per capita income for the city was $19,890  About 2 3% of families and 3 3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2 6% of those under age 18 and 9 0% of those age 65 or over 

Government
White house was incorporated under the Mayor and Aldermanic charter in 1971  The town's current mayor is John Corbitt 

Notable People
Mason Jones

Education
Public schools
The city is split into two counties, and therefore has two public school districts 
Sumner County public schools:

Harold B  Williams Elementary School (K-4)
White House Middle School (5-8)
White House High School (9-12)Robertson County public schools:

Robert F  Woodall Elementary School (K-2)
White House Heritage Elementary School (3-6)
White House Heritage High School (7-12)

Private schools
Christian Community Schools (CCS)
Dayspring Academy (DSA)
Passage 3:
Kokomo, Indiana metropolitan area
The Kokomo Metropolitan Statistical Area, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, is an area consisting of Howard county in Indiana, anchored by the city of Kokomo  As of the 2000 census, the MSA had a population of 101,541 (though a July 1, 2009 estimate placed the population at 98,787)  The official 2013 population estimate for the metro area is 82,760 people are in the Kokomo metropolitan area  The MSA formerly included Tipton County, Indiana  Kokomo is also the principal city of the area known as North Central Indiana, the area around Kokomo with economic ties   The six county area including Cass, Clinton, Fulton, Howard, Miami, and Tipton counties had population of 228,331 people in 2010 

Counties
Howard
Tipton (no longer included)

Communities
Incorporated places
Cities
Elwood (partial)
Kokomo (Principal city)
Tipton (no longer included)
Towns
Greentown
Kempton
Russiaville
Sharpsville
Windfall

Census-designated places
Note: All census-designated places are unincorporated 

Indian Heights (annexed to city of Kokomo in 2012)

Unincorporated places
Townships
Howard County
Tipton County
Cicero
Jefferson
Liberty
Madison
Prairie
Wildcat

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 101,541 people, 41,269 households, and 28,307 families residing within the MSA  The racial makeup of the MSA was 91 13% White, 5 50% African American, 0 33% Native American, 0 90% Asian, 0 02% Pacific Islander, 0 76% from other races, and 1 36% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1 88% of the population 
The median income for a household in the MSA was $46,017, and the median income for a family was $54,566  Males had a median income of $42,938 versus $25,814 for females  The per capita income for the MSA was $21,988 

Combined Statistical Area
The Kokomo–Peru Combined Statistical Area (CSA) is made up of three counties in Indiana  The statistical area includes one metropolitan area and one micropolitan area  As of the 2000 Census, the CSA had a population of 137,623 (though a July 1, 2009 estimate placed the population at 134,788)  A 2013 population estimate placed the combined statistical area at 118,900 however, which again, further leads to the idea that the Kokomo Metropolitan area now only includes Howard County 

Components
Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs)
Kokomo (Howard and Tipton counties)
Micropolitan Statistical Areas (μSA)
Peru (Miami County)

See also
Indiana census statistical areas
Passage 4:
Salt Lake City metropolitan area
The Salt Lake City metropolitan area is the metropolitan area centered on the city of Salt Lake City, Utah  The Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau currently define the Salt Lake City, Utah Metropolitan Statistical Area as comprising two counties: Salt Lake and Tooele  As of the 2020 census, the MSA had a population of 1,257,936  The Salt Lake City Metropolitan Area and the Ogden-Clearfield Metropolitan Area were a single metropolitan area known as the Salt Lake City-Ogden Metropolitan Area until being separated in 2005 The metropolitan area is part of the Salt Lake City–Provo–Ogden, UT Combined Statistical Area, which also includes the Ogden–Clearfield metropolitan area, the Provo–Orem metropolitan area, and the Heber City, Utah micropolitan area  As of the 2020 census, this CSA had a population of 2,701,129, comprising 82 6 percent of Utah's then 3,271,616 residents 

Counties
Salt Lake
Tooele

Communities
Incorporated places
Unincorporated places
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 968,858 people, 318,150 households, and 231,606 families residing within the MSA  The racial makeup of the MSA was 86 63% White, 1 04% African American, 0 90% Native American, 2 43% Asian, 1 15% Pacific Islander, 5 33% from other races, and 2 53% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11 71% of the population 
The median income for a household in the MSA was $53,036, and the median income for a family was $59,139  Males had a median income of $40,683 versus $26,302 for females  The per capita income for the MSA was $23,426 

Combined Statistical Area
The Salt Lake City–Provo–Ogden Combined Statistical Area is made up of ten counties in northern Utah  The statistical area includes three metropolitan areas and one micropolitan area 

Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs)
Salt Lake City MSA (Salt Lake and Tooele counties)
Ogden–Clearfield MSA (Box Elder, Davis, Morgan, and Weber counties)
Provo–Orem MSA (Juab and Utah counties)
Micropolitan Statistical Areas (μSAs)
Heber City (Summit and Wasatch counties)

See also
Utah census statistical areas
Wasatch Front
Passage 5:
Mount Kaukau
Mount Kaukau (Māori: [kaʉkaʉ]) is a large hill in the northern suburbs of Wellington, New Zealand near Johnsonville, Khandallah and Ngaio   The summit is 445 metres above sea level and is the most visible high point in the Wellington landscape further accentuated by Wellington's main television transmitter mast, which stands 122m from the summit  The city, harbour and the Remutaka and Tararua Ranges can be seen from the summit  On a clear day Mt  Tapuae-o-Uenuku and the Kaikoura Ranges in the South Island may be seen, whilst northwest is the Porirua Basin and the Tasman Sea 

Name
The hill's original name Tarikākā means 'where the parrots rested' and is shared with the nearby settlement in Ngaio at the base of the mountain  Before the clearing of the native totara forest on the slopes and general area, the native parrot kākā was common through the city  Over a hundred years later today, the population of kākā has begun to regenerate thanks mostly to the efforts at Zealandia, and are becoming a more regular sight throughout the city and in the rejuvenating native forest on the slopes of Mount Kaukau 

Slopes and surrounding area
Much of the eastern 'city side' slopes of Mount Kaukau make up Khandallah Park, which is one of the oldest parks in New Zealand, established in 1888 and then registered as a domain in 1909  Khandallah Park has more than 60 hectares of native forest  Native birds such as the kererū, tūī and New Zealand fantail are common sights when walking through the native forest  Stumps of the old totara trees can also be seen walking through the first lower parts of the forest  In mid 2017 an old bunker off Woodmancote Road, at the base of Mount Kaukau, was rediscovered after it had been sealed off and forgotten many years previously  The bunker in an 'H' shape, had been built for Royal New Zealand Signals Corps in 1942  Due to poor construction the bunker was very leaky and was never used  Mount Kaukau forms part of the Northern Skyline track from Johnsonville to Karori and Makara 

Recreation
Khandallah Park has 9 kilometres of walking tracks allowing access to the peak of Mt Kaukau from Khandallah, Johnsonville, Ngaio and Crofton Downs  Some tracks are also open to mountain biking and e-biking 

Transmitter
The 122-metre Mount Kaukau television transmitter was built in 1965 to transmit television channel WNTV1 offering improved coverage over the channel's previous transmitter at Mount Victoria  Today it is the main television and FM radio transmitter for the Wellington metropolitan area 
In May 2022, Kordia removed the top 18 metres of the aerial, as the section was redundant following the end of analogue television broadcast 

Transmission frequencies
The following table contains television and radio frequencies currently operating at Mount Kaukau:

Former analogue television frequencies
The following frequencies were used until 29 September 2013, when Kaukau switched off analogue broadcasts (see Digital changeover dates in New Zealand) 

Kaukau Challenge
Every year Khandallah School, which is at the base of Mount Kaukau, organises a fun walk / fun run from the school to the summit and back, called the Kaukau Challenge  The Kaukau Challenge has been an annual event since 2006 with about 500 people taking part each year 

Snowfall of 2011
In mid-August 2011, two Wellington men, Nick Fone and Daniel McFadyen claimed to be the first people to ski and snowboard down Mount Kaukau when they took advantage of the unusual weather pattern delivering snow to most parts of the North Island  As Wellington has a temperate climate, snow down to near sea level is extremely rare, happening less often than once every 15 years 
Passage 6:
Traverse City, Michigan
Traverse City ( TRAV-ərs) is a city in the U S  state of Michigan  It is the county seat of Grand Traverse County, although a small portion extends into Leelanau County  It is the largest city in the 21-county Northern Michigan region  The population was 15,678 at the 2020 census, with 153,448 in the four-county Traverse City micropolitan area  Traverse City is also the second-largest city in Michigan north of the Tri-Cities, behind Marquette 
Traverse City is located at the head of the East and West arms of Grand Traverse Bay, a 32-mile-long (51 km) bay of Lake Michigan  Grand Traverse Bay is divided into arms by the 17-mile-long (27 km) Old Mission Peninsula, which is attached at its base to Traverse City  The city borders four townships–East Bay, Elmwood, Garfield, and Peninsula–all of which contain substantial suburban sprawl 

Traverse City is well-known for being a cherry production hotspot, as the area was  the largest producer of tart cherries in the United States in 2010  The city hosts the National Cherry Festival, attracting approximately 500,000 visitors annually  The area is also known for its viticulture industry, and is one of the centers of wine production in the Midwest  The city is home to a redeveloped psychiatric hospital and an active Coast Guard air base  Traverse City is located near the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, as well as a number of freshwater beaches, downhill skiing areas, and numerous forests  For these reasons, Traverse City is a year-round tourism hotspot, winning multiple accolades and awards  Traverse City has also been noted as one of Michigan's top LGBT-friendly locations 

History
19th century
American Indians
The Traverse City area is home to the Ojibwe, Ottawa, and Potawatomi people  They lived through the European colonization and the establishment of the Northwest Territory  These people groups inhabited the area surrounding the Great Lakes, including Michigan  The Traverse City area was known to Natives as gichi-wiikwedoongsing (Ojibwe: 'at the head of the great bay'), which was often anglicized to Wequetong  This settlement was located near the current-day mouth of the Boardman River, then known as adaawewiziibi (Ojibwe: 'river of trade'), however Wequetong was abandoned upon the advent of European settlement to the region 

European-American settlement
After the colonists came in, they discovered the Grand Traverse Bay  The bay earned its name from 18th-century French voyageurs who made la grande traverse, or "the long crossing", across the mouth of bay, from present-day Norwood to Northport  The area was owned by the French, followed by Great Britain as the Province of Quebec  After 1776, the area was owned by the Americans  On the Old Mission Peninsula, Rev  Peter Doughtery established the first permanent settlement in 1839  This was called "Grand Traverse", and is today known as Old Mission In 1847, Captain Horace Boardman of Naperville, Illinois, purchased the land at the mouth of the Boardman River (then known as the Ottawa River) at the head of the west arm of the bay, which at the time was still inhabited by Native Americans  In 1847, the captain, his son, and their employees built a dwelling and sawmill near the mouth of the river  In 1851 the Boardmans sold the sawmill to Hannah, Lay & Co (made up of Perry Hannah, Albert Tracy Lay and James Morgan), who improved the mill greatly  The increased investment in the mill attracted additional settlers to the new community  Perry Hannah today is known as the founding father of Traverse City 
Traverse City was originally part of Omeena County, which was originally set off in 1840 from Michilimackinac County  The county remained unorganized, lacking a central government until 1851, when it was reorganized as Grand Traverse County  The newly designated county government was assigned a county seat at Boardman's Mills, a location in present-day downtown Traverse City 

Further growth
As of 1853, the only operating post office in the Grand Traverse Bay region was the one located at Old Mission, which was then known as "Grand Traverse"  While in Washington, D C  in 1852, Mr  Lay had succeeded in getting the U S  Post Office to authorize a new post office at his newer settlement  As the newer settlement had become known as "Grand Traverse City", after the Grand Traverse Bay, Lay proposed this name for its post office, but the Post Office Department clerk suggested dropping the "Grand" from the name, as to limit confusion between this new office and the one at nearby Old Mission  Mr  Lay agreed to the new, shortened name of "Traverse City" for the post office, and the village took on this name  Also around this time, the first cherry trees were being planted on the Old Mission Peninsula, something the peninsula is widely known for today 

Late 19th century
In December 1872, rail service arrived in Traverse City via a Traverse City Railroad Company spur from the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad line at Walton Junction  The railroad tracked along the Boardman River and along Boardman Lake into Traverse City, and ended at a station along the Grand Traverse Bay, at the corner of present-day Grandview Parkway and Park Street  This new line of transportation from Southern Michigan opened up the area to settlement and industrial development  Many more people started flocking to the small community, and in 1881, Traverse City was incorporated as a village  This began the major commercial growth of the town 
In 1890, another rail line was extended to Traverse City, this one from Baldwin via Copemish and Interlochen  This line primarily served lumber companies, such as the Buckley & Douglas Lumber Company, and was used to transport logs from the vast forest of Northwest Michigan to sawmills in Manistee and Traverse City  Two years later, new railroads were extended out of Traverse City  One line was extended along the bay into Leelanau County, and curved south to a preexisting spur at Lake Ann  Another line was extended east into present-day Williamsburg, and to Charlevoix and Petoskey  This railroad was largely to serve tourists 
In 1881, the Northern Michigan Asylum, later the Traverse City State Hospital, was established as the demand for a third psychiatric hospital in Michigan, in addition to those established in Kalamazoo and Pontiac, began to grow  Perry Hannah, by then a prominent Michigan Republican, used his political influence to secure its location in Traverse City  Under the supervision of prominent architect Gordon W  Lloyd, the first building, known as Building 50, was constructed in Victorian-Italianate style according to the Kirkbride Plan  The hospital opened in 1885 with 43 residents  Under Dr  James Decker Munson, the first superintendent from 1885 to 1924, the institution expanded  Twelve housing cottages and two infirmaries were built between 1887 and 1903 to meet the specific needs of male and female patients  The institution became the city's largest employer and contributed to its growth  While the hospital was established for the care of the mentally ill, its use expanded during outbreaks of tuberculosis, typhoid, diphtheria, influenza, and polio  It also cared for the elderly, served as a rehab for drug addicts, and was used to train nurses 
On May 18, 1895, Traverse City was incorporated as a city  Perry Hannah served as the first mayor of Traverse City, after also serving as first and third village president 

20th century
The first National Cherry Festival was held in Traverse City in 1925  It was first called "Blessing of the Blossoms" and held in the spring to attract people during the blooming season  With the exception of the years before and during World War II, this tradition has been carried on since in Traverse City  The legislature moved the date of the festival to the summer, and it attracts tourists from around the state  During the week the festival takes place, the population of Traverse City rises from about 15,000 to about 500,000  In 2004 the legislature added "Blossom Days", again as a spring festival 
Also in 1925, Munson Medical Center opened, and has since grown to serve much of Northern Michigan and serves as one of Traverse City's largest employers In 1929, Traverse City's first airport, Ransom Field, opened, offering flights to Grand Rapids  It closed in 1936, when the new Traverse City Airport (now called Cherry Capital Airport) was opened  In 1953 the grounds of Ransom Field were redeveloped as Memorial Gardens Cemetery 
In 1934, the original Traverse City High School building burnt down, with no casualties  For three years, while the high school was being rebuilt, classes were moved to the Perry Hannah House, the former residence of the city's founder  Classes were moved back to the new school building in September 1937  In 1960, the high school was moved from downtown Traverse City to a new college-style campus on the grounds of Northwestern Michigan College, which opened a few years prior in 1951  The former high school building was converted to Traverse City Junior High  In 1997, the high school split into Traverse City Central and Traverse City West High Schools due to extreme overcrowding at the 1960s building In 1989, the Traverse City State Hospital closed, leaving hundreds without jobs, massive abandoned buildings, and many homeless former patients  Since 2000, the Minervini Group has undertaken the project of renovating the entire property into a social center, including many restaurants, retail spaces, office space, and residential space 

21st century
In 2005, Michigan filmmaker Michael Moore organized the first Traverse City Film Festival in downtown Traverse City  In 2015 and 2016, Traverse City was called the best small town in America by Livability com On November 3, 2015, Traverse City elected Jim Carruthers, its first openly gay mayor  After serving as mayor of Traverse City for 6 years, in June 2021 Jim Carruthers announced he would not run for his 4th mayoral term May 18, 2020, served as the city's 125th anniversary of Traverse City's incorporation as a city in 1895, and was known as the "quarantine quasquicentennial" On June 1, 2020, commissioners of Traverse City approved a plan that would close two blocks of Front Street and return State Street to two-way traffic, until Labor Day of that year  This was enacted in order to prevent crowding in reopening businesses following the COVID-19 pandemic  This followed the cancelation of the 2020 National Cherry Festival and Traverse City Film Festival On November 2, 2020, President Donald Trump and Vice President Mike Pence appeared at a campaign rally at Traverse City's Cherry Capital Airport, the day before the 2020 election In April 2021, a group composed mostly of White students from two Traverse City area school districts held an online mock slave auction via social media app in a private group chat titled "Slave Trade", wherein they traded their Black student peers for monetary amounts while using derogatory language  After the local community was made aware of this event, a coalition of community members and Traverse City Area Public School (TCAPS) Board of Education officials drafted in response a resolution which denounced the behavior  The draft of the resolution itself led to community backlash initiated largely by White conservative parents and community members who regarded the planned resolution to be "   interlaced with critical race theory"  In the aftermath of the backlash, the resolution was edited by TCAPS school board officials



ground_truth: French mathematician and physicist

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the population of the city at which the transmitter of WLLZ-LP was placed? 

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  No date for consideration of the revised resolution has been set 

Geography
Topography
Traverse City is a part of the greater Northern Michigan region, located in the northwest of Michigan's Lower Peninsula  The city is the main inland port of Grand Traverse Bay, a long, natural harbor separated from the waters of Lake Michigan by the Leelanau Peninsula  The bay is divided into an East Arm and West Arm by the Old Mission Peninsula, a thin strip of rolling hills and farmland known for its cherry crop and viticulture industry  As Traverse City contains shores on both of Grand Traverse Bay's East and West Arms, one cannot access the Old Mission Peninsula without entering Traverse City 
The Boardman River is a prominent river bisecting Traverse City from south to north  It also snakes through Traverse City's downtown district, effectively forming a peninsula, and dividing it from the Grandview Parkway  The river terminates at the Grand Traverse Bay northeast of downtown Traverse City  The river's 287-square-mile (740 km2) watershed contributes one-third of the water volume to the bay and is one of Michigan's top-ten fisheries, with more than 36 miles (58 km) of its 179 miles (288 km) designated as a Blue Ribbon trout fishery  It is also a state-designated "Natural River"  As of 2023, only one of the five dams constructed on the Boardman River remains 
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 8 66 square miles (22 43 km2), of which, 8 33 square miles (21 57 km2) of it is land and 0 33 square miles (0 85 km2) is water 
Traverse City is surrounded by a substantial suburban ring, especially within Garfield Township, to its southwest  Garfield Township is the largest municipality in Northern Michigan by population  Other adjacent townships, East Bay, Elmwood, and Peninsula, and nearby Blair and Long Lake townships, boast significant suburban populations dependent upon Traverse City 

Layout and cityscape
Traverse City, like most of Grand Traverse County and many other cities in the United States, is laid out in a grid plan  Major streets run east–west and north–south  
Traverse City's tallest building is the Park Place Hotel (at 10 stories), although recently, many proposals have been made to build taller buildings  One of these was the River West building, which was canceled in 2017 

Neighborhoods
Traverse City is divided into the following neighborhoods:
Base of the Peninsula (BOOM)
Boardman
Central Neighborhood
Downtown
East Bay
Fernwood
Grand Traverse Commons
Hilltop
Kids Creek
Morgan Farms
North Boardman Lake (NoBo)
Oak Park
Oakwood
Old Towne
Slabtown
Traverse Heights
Triangle Neighborhood

City parks
Traverse City is home to the following parks:

Superfund site
Traverse City has one superfund site, according to the Environmental Protection Agency  This is the Avenue E Groundwater Contamination Site  At this location, toxic runoff from the Coast Guard Air Station contaminated the groundwater along Avenue E 

Climate
Traverse City has a warm-summer continental climate (Köppen Dfb) close to being a hot-summer continental climate (Dfa) 
Its location near the 45th parallel is tempered by the strong and moderating effects of Lake Michigan and Grand Traverse Bay, which have a particularly noteworthy effect on the peninsulas that branch north of the city  As a result, they have viticulture and cherry orchards 
Consequently, it generally experiences warm, mild summers and severe winters  Lake Michigan especially, but also Grand Traverse Bay, greatly impact the area's diverse coastal weather patterns, which occasionally consist of sudden and/or large amounts of precipitation during the seasonally active periods  Lake-effect snowfall constitutes a large percentage of the total annual snow accumulation, which averages around 80 inches (203 cm)  Periods of snowfall typically last from November to April, although light snow as late as May or as early as late September sometimes occur 
Traverse City's record high temperature is 105 °F (41 °C), recorded in 1936, and its low temperature is −37 °F (−38 °C), recorded on February 17, 1979 

Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 14,674 people, 6,675 households, and 3,369 families residing in the city  The population density was 1,761 6 inhabitants per square mile (680 2/km2)  There were 7,358 housing units at an average density of 883 3 per square mile (341 0/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 94 4% White, 0 7% African American, 1 8% Native American, 0 7% Asian, 0 5% from other races, and 1 9% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1 9% of the population 
There were 6,675 households, of which 22 3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35 6% were married couples living together, 10 9% had a female householder with no husband present, 4 0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 49 5% were non-families  38 4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 08 and the average family size was 2 77 
The median age in the city was 40 8 years  18 2% of residents were under the age of 18; 10 3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26 7% were from 25 to 44; 28 3% were from 45 to 64; and 16 7% were 65 years of age or older  The gender makeup of the city was 47 4% male and 52 6% female 

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 14,532 people, 6,443 households, and 3,485 families residing in the city  The population density was 1,728 7 inhabitants per square mile (667 5/km2)  There were 6,842 housing units at an average density of 813 9 per square mile (314 2/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 96 00% White, 0 65% African American, 0 98% Native American, 0 50% Asian, 0 03% Pacific Islander, 0 48% from other races, and 1 36% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1 67% of the population 
There were 6,443 households, out of which 24 5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39 7% were married couples living together, 11 2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 45 9% were non-families  35 9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 15 and the average family size was 2 82 
In the city, the population was spread out, with 20 3% under the age of 18, 10 8% from 18 to 24, 29 6% from 25 to 44, 24 1% from 45 to 64, and 15 2% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 38 years  For every 100 females, there were 90 5 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87 2 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $37,330, and the median income for a family was $46,912  Males had a median income of $31,587 versus $22,512 for females  The per capita income for the city was $22,247  About 4 8% of families and 8 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7 2% of those under age 18 and 7 9% of those age 65 or over 

Religion
Traverse City is part of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaylord  It is part of the Episcopal Diocese of Western Michigan and served by Grace Episcopal Church 

Government
Traverse City is a home rule, charter city under the Home Rule Cities Act, incorporated on May 18, 1895  The city is governed by six commissioners and a mayor, elected at-large  Together they compose a seven-member legislative body  The commission appoints a city manager who serves as chief executive for city operations 
As of 2023, the city commission consists of Richard Lewis (mayor), Amy Shamroe (mayor pro tempore), and commissioners Linda Koebert, Mi Stanley, Mitchell Treadwell, Tim Werner, and Mike Wilson  The city clerk of Traverse City is Benjamin Marentette  The office of city manager has been vacant since April 11, 2023, upon the departure of Marty Colburn  Until a replacement is found, duties are held by interim city manager Nate Geinzer Traverse City's current mayor, Richard Lewis, was elected to office in 2021, running unopposed  Lewis previously served as Traverse City city manager, and interim city manager of Evart  Lewis identifies as a moderate Democrat Traverse City is located within Michigan's 1st congressional district, represented by Jack Bergman (R–Watersmeet)  As with the rest of Michigan, it is served by senators Debbie Stabenow and Gary Peters (both Democratic) in the United States Senate  It is represented in the Michigan House of Representatives by Betsy Coffia (D–Traverse City), and is a part of the 103rd district  It is also represented in the Michigan Senate by John Damoose (R–Harbor Springs) and is a part of the 37th senate district 

Education
Public schools
The public school district serving Traverse City is Traverse City Area Public Schools  This district includes 10 elementary schools serving grades Pre-K through 5, two middle schools serving grades 6 through 8, and two high schools serving grades 9 through 12: Traverse City Central and Traverse City West  In addition, the district includes an alternative high school (Traverse City High School) and a montessori elementary school 
Traverse City offers a handful of charter schools, including the Woodland School, the Old Mission Peninsula School, and Grand Traverse Academy Vocational career training is offered to high school students within the Traverse Bay Area Intermediate School District at the TBAISD Career Tech Center (CTC), located within just outside Traverse City  Students are bussed to and from their respective high schools to the Career Tech Center daily, and are eligible to receive credit for each  Courses include:
Agriscience
Arts & Communication
Business Management, Marketing & Technology
Engineering/Manufacturing & Industrial Technology
Health Services
Human Services

Private schools
Traverse City offers a number of private schools Just outside Traverse City sits the Children's House, an independent montessori school  The Pathfinder School is another independent school near Greilickville 

Religious schools
Traverse City contains a number of private religious schools
The Grand Traverse Area Catholic Schools district (GTACS) offers students of the area a catholic education, with high school students attending St  Francis High School  Another school is the Traverse City Christian School, offering non-denominational Christian education to Traverse City students  The Trinity Lutheran School offers a lutheran education to K-8 students in Traverse City  Other smaller religious schools include the Traverse Bay Mennonite School and the Traverse City Adventist School 

Higher education
Traverse City is home to Northwestern Michigan College, a two-year community college  Its annual enrollment is around 5,100  One of its campuses is at the Cherry Capital Airport, and offers aviation and auto service classes  Another campus is at the Hagerty Center on Grand Traverse Bay, which is home to Great Lakes Maritime Academy, Great Lakes Culinary Institute, Great Lakes Water Studies Institute, and the Hagerty Conference Center 

Libraries
Traverse City is served by the Traverse Area District Library, which has six branch libraries in Grand Traverse County 

Media
Print
The Traverse City Record-Eagle is one of northwest lower Michigan's daily newspapers  It is circulated in the 13 counties surrounding the city  In December 2006 it was sold by Ottaway Newspapers Inc , the community newspaper subsidiary of Dow Jones & Company to Community Newspaper Holdings, Inc  (CNHI)  It is the newspaper of record for Grand Traverse County  Daily editions of the Detroit Free Press, The Detroit News, and The Grand Rapids Press also are available on news stands throughout the region  Other local publications have included Traverse (a monthly regional magazine), NM3 Magazine (a local lifestyle and entertainment publication, no longer published), Grand Traverse Insider (a local weekly community newspaper), Northern Express Weekly, Traverse City Business News, Edible Grande Traverse magazine dedicated to the food, farms and chefs of the area, and Grand Traverse Woman Magazine 
At least seven national magazines were published in Traverse City, including Thirdeye Magazine  Village Press is based in Traverse City; it publishes the Home Shop Machinist, Live Steam and Outdoor Railroading, Machinists' Workshop, Just Labs, Pointing Dog Journal, Retriever Journal and Twin and Turbine magazines 
Traverse City is also the home of Arbutus Press, one of the leading Michigan publishers for regional non-fiction  The company has published many books including four books selected by the Library of Michigan as Michigan Notable Books: Historic Cottages of Mackinac Island (awarded in 2002), Asylum for the Insane: History of Kalamazoo State Hospital (awarded in 2009), Vintage Views Along the West Michigan Pike (awarded in 2012), and Fishtown (awarded in 2013) 

Television
Traverse City is the largest city in the Traverse City–Cadillac–Sault Ste  Marie designated market area, the largest television market in area east of the Mississippi River  Accordingly, most stations in this region are broadcast simultaneously on widely spaced transmitters on separate channels, with no difference in their feeds besides FCC-mandated station identification 
Traverse City has two television stations licensed directly to the city:

Channel 7: WPBN-TV "TV 7&4" (NBC) (simulcast on channel 4, Cheboygan)
Channel 29: WGTU "ABC 29&8" (ABC) (simulcast on channel 8, Goetzville)Additionally, WFQX operates a CW Plus station on its second digital subchannel and Northern Michigan cable television systems, branded as “The CW Northern Michigan; prior to 2018 the station was owned by WGTU and was broadcast on their second digital subchannel 
Stations licensed to nearby Cadillac are considered local to Traverse City:

Channel 9: WWTV "9&10 News" (CBS) (simulcast on channel 10, Raber Township, Michigan in the eastern Upper Peninsula)
Channel 27: WCMV (PBS)
Channel 32: WFQX-TV "Local 32" (Fox) (simulcast on channel 45, Vanderbilt)Fox's sister network, MyNetworkTV, did not have an affiliate in the market when it launched back in September 2006  This changed in 2008 when WLLZ-LP channel 12 (now WXII-LD) added the network 
Cable television service is provided within Traverse City and many outlying communities by Charter Spectrum  Public-access television cable TV programming is provided on channel 189 

Radio
Traverse City is the home of Northern Michigan talk radio station WTCM News/Talk 580 AM  Other talk stations available in the Traverse City area include WJML, WMKT, WSRT, and WLDR  AM 1310 ESPN Radio (operated by WCCW) broadcasts national ESPN content along with Detroit Pistons, Tigers, Red Wings and Lions games  MSU Football and Basketball can also be heard on 1310 
There are 16  commercial radio stations in a variety of radio formats  WKLT-97 5/98 9-FM is the area's longest serving rock station, known for its show Lunch at the Leetsville Cafe with Terri Ray, and the iconic Giant Red Radio party trailer  WNMC 90 7 FM is a community public radio station that is committed to a wide variety of musical genres and local events, with a broadcast focus on jazz, blues, and world music 
Traverse City has three religious radio stations: W201CM (a translator at 88 1) and WLJN AM/FM 89 9 FM and 1400 AM  In 2014 WLJN added another frequency at 95 9 playing contemporary Christian music 24 hours a day 
Interlochen Center for the Arts broadcasts the NPR member station dubbed Interlochen Public Radio  It serves a large portion of Northwest Lower Michigan via two stations:
88 7 is music and 91 5 is talk 
WLDR was for 10 years Sunny Country 101 9 until October 22, 2014, when the station switched back to an adult contemporary format  The station went on the air in 1966 with owner Roderick Maxson serving the Grand Traverse area and surrounding counties  They were the first to broadcast in HD radio in Michigan  They have been the sponsor for several major events in Traverse City, including The Beach Bum Games, Horses by the Bay, the Make-A-Wish Motorcycle Tour, and the Traverse City Easter Egg Hunt 

Culture
Most of Traverse City's economy is based on tourism  As part of the 2011 tourism advertising campaign the Traverse City Visitors Bureau, Traverse City Cherry Capital Airport and local businesses sponsored a video to be played on all Delta flights to and from Cherry Capital Airport in the month of June 2011  The National Cherry Festival, usually in the first week of July, tends to host hundreds of thousands of tourists and locals to the area at the end of July  It has become a focal point within the craft brewing trend  In November Beer Week is celebrated, with tours of breweries including samplings of craft brews, dinners and workshops The National Cherry Festival, held during the first full week of July every year, is a draw for tourists to Traverse City  The festival features parades, fireworks, an air show, election of festival royalty, live music, a pie-eating contest and cherries  It is estimated that the Grand Traverse region produces up to 360,000,000 pounds (163,000,000 kg) of cherries annually  The largest variety of cherry produced locally is the Montmorency cherry, or the "pie cherry"  Other cherries grown in the region include the Ulster, or sweet cherry, and the Balaton (from Lake Balaton in Hungary), a cherry situated between the Montmorency and Ulster in terms of color and taste 
The Traverse City Film Festival, held at the end of July and beginning of August every year from 2005 to 2019, was another draw for tourists and film buffs to Traverse City  The festival was started by Michael Moore, Doug Stanton and John Robert Williams as a way to bring more culture into the area via cinema 
The locale and topography is conducive for road bicycling, aided by the TART trail system  A map with routes, different trips, advice and local knowledge is available  Lake Michigan presents a location for sailing, fishing, and kayaking The Traverse City State Park, with about 250 campsites, is located three miles (4 8 km) east of downtown on 47 acres (19 ha) including a quarter mile beach on the East Bay arm of Grand Traverse Bay 
The Boardman River Nature Center is the interpretive center and management headquarters for the Grand Traverse Natural Education Reserve, a 505-acre local park and natural area 

The sandy soil is conducive to viticulture, and there are over 50 wineries in the Traverse City area  Most offer free wine tasting  Traverse City is located at the base of the Old Mission Peninsula wine region 

Performing arts and exhibits
The City Opera House, located in downtown Traverse City features plays, movies, and other performances 
The Traverse Symphony Orchestra (TSO), founded in 1952 by community leader Elnora Milliken as the Northwestern Michigan Symphony Orchestra, has grown from a small group of volunteer musicians to a paid professional orchestra of 60 contracted members  There was a connection over the years with Interlochen Center for the Arts, providing a core of musicians and conductors from among faculty and students  Until 1985 it was known as the Northwestern Michigan Symphony Orchestra The Dennos Museum Center, located on the campus of Northwestern Michigan College, is home to a collection of Inuit art including sculpture, drawing and prints  The center is also home to an interactive gallery, as well as various ongoing exhibitions in their large exhibition space  The museum expanded in 2017 and added two new wings of galleries to display art from its permanent collection (both of Inuit art and non-Inuit art) 

Historical markers
There are eleven recognized Michigan historical markers in the Traverse City area  They are:

Bingham District No  5 Schoolhouse
City Opera House
Congregation Beth El
Grand Traverse Bay
Grand Traverse County Courthouse
Great Lakes Sport Fishery
Ladies Library Association
Novotny's Saloon
Park Place Hotel
Perry Hannah House
Traverse City State Hospital

Viticulture
Traverse City was named by USA Today among the Top Ten Places for Local Wine  There are nine wineries on the Old Mission Peninsula and 21 wineries on the Leelanau Peninsula, both just a few minutes drive from downtown Traverse City  Both peninsulas sit close to the 45th parallel, a latitude known for growing grapes  The two arms of Grand Traverse Bay provide a maritime climate  Northern Michigan specializes in growing white grapes and is known for its Rieslings which grow well in the summer months and late fall which Traverse City is known for  Every October the wineries host a harvest fest  Some Riesling grapes are spared being picked in the fall to be picked when they freeze, from which ice wine is made  The wineries along the Old Mission Peninsula are Black Star Farms, 2 Lads Winery, Bowers Harbor Vineyards, Brys Estate Vineyard & Winery, Chateau Chantal Winery And Inn, Chateau Grand Traverse, Bonobo Winery, Mari Vineyards, and Peninsula Cellars  The wineries along the Leelanau Peninsula are Black Star Farms, Leelenau Cellars, Silver Leaf Vineyard and Winery, Gill's Pier Vineyard and Winery, Raftshol Vineyards, Circa Estate Winery, Forty-Five North Vineyard and Winery, Good Harbor Vineyards, Chateau Fontaine, Boskydel Vineyards, L  Mawby Vineyards, Ciccone Vineyard and Winery, Willow Vineyards, Chateau de Leelanau Vineyard and Winery, Shady Lane Cellars, Cherry Republic Winery, Longview Winery, Boathouse Winery, Verterra, Brengman Brothers, Bel Lago Winery, and Rove Estate Vineyard and Winery 

Sports
Traverse City is home to many public sporting facilities  These include the Grand Traverse County Civic Center, which is a large sports complex in the heart of the city, housing seven baseball/softball fields, a skatepark, a mile-long walk trail, an amphitheater, sledding hill, pavilion, playground, an indoor pool, and an indoor hockey rink  Other complexes include the Grand Traverse Bay YMCA, four complexes that offer public swimming, soccer, and tennis  The Huntington Rink indoor arena is used primarily for ice hockey, and is the home of the Traverse City North Stars hockey team  Many of the city parks in Traverse City also offer volleyball, soccer, and basketball 

During their annual offseason, the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League hold their training camp at Traverse City's Centre Ice Arena  In addition to training camp every September, the Red Wings host an NHL Prospect Tournament, consisting of prospects of participating teams around the league  In 2021, the Traverse City Prospect Tournament consisted of players from the Detroit Red Wings, Toronto Maple Leafs, Columbus Blue Jackets, Dallas Stars, and St  Louis Blues  The Red Wings' influence in Traverse City goes beyond training camp, however; multiple former Red Wings have lived in Traverse City, including Dallas Drake and the legendary Gordie Howe  For this reason, Traverse City is often referred to as Hockeytown North, in reference to Detroit's popular nickname, Hockeytown 

Economy
Traverse City is home to a number of local businesses including Hagerty Insurance Agency and Munson Medical Center  There is a significant manufacturing presence, as well  In recent years, the city has developed a growing technology industry, with numerous tech start-ups, a startup incubator, podcasts, and breweries  Traverse City and its micropolitan area are known for their small business, which bring in a multitude of people during the summer months 

Traverse City's central business district is located along Front Street downtown  Another major shopping district is on US 31 southwest of town, where several big box stores are located, as well as a shopping malls, the Grand Traverse Mall, anchored by Target, JCPenney, Macy's  The Buffalo Ridge Shopping Center is also on US 31 about a mile northwest of the Grand Traverse Mall  Another mall, the Cherryland Center, is located on Garfield Avenue on the south end of town; this mall features Big Lots  Two Meijer stores, one Walmart, one Sam's Club, one Costco, one Target, one Menards, and a multitude of local grocery store chains offer grocery and other options to big-box shopping 

Transportation
Airports
With a new terminal completed in 2004, Cherry Capital Airport provides regularly scheduled passenger airline service to Chicago and Detroit, with seasonal flights to Dallas-Fort Worth, Minneapolis-Saint Paul, Atlanta, New York City, Denver, Boston, Mesa, Ponte Vedra, St  Petersburg, Orlando, and Newark  It is the fourth largest airport in Michigan  Around the area, there are smaller nearby paved and unpaved airports 

Ships and boats
Adjacent to the airport is Coast Guard Air Station Traverse City, responsible for both maritime and land-based search and rescue operations in the northern Great Lakes region  On April 7, 2010, the USCG designated Traverse City a Coast Guard City  Traverse City is the second city in Michigan and tenth in the country to receive this honor 
Located in the harbor of the Great Lakes Maritime Academy is the T/S State of Michigan, a 224-foot (68 m) former Navy submarine surveillance vessel  The vessel is used as a classroom and laboratory while cadets of the academy are underway and shore side 
A tall ship, the schooner Manitou is berthed at Traverse City, and offers passages to the public 
Near Traverse City, there are two other tall ships, the schooner Madeline and the 55-foot-long (17 m) replica of the sloop Welcome, an 18th-century British warship sloop, which was built for the 1976 Bicentennial of the American Revolution  They are the only two boats recognized by the State of Michigan for their historic significance  From May through October, trained volunteers conduct tours (when in port), and give a history of the boats and Great Lakes sailing  The Madeline is berthed at Elmwood Township "Coal Dock" (Heritage Harbor), West Bayshore, just south of the Elmwood Township Marina Both are maintained by the Maritime Heritage Alliance 
The Nauti-Cat, a 43-passenger catamaran books passages on Grand Traverse bay  The Nauti-Cat is the largest commercial sailing catamaran on the Great Lakes at 47 feet (14 m) long, 29 feet (8 8 m) wide and has a 63-foot (19 m) mast  They offer cruises seven days a week, four times a day 

Buses
The area is served by Indian Trails Bus service, an intercity bus system that connects to St  Ignace to the north and to Grand Rapids and Kalamazoo to the south  The bus station is located at 107 Hall Street with connection to the BATA transfer station 
Traverse City also has a public transportation system, the Bay Area Transportation Authority (BATA) which serves most of the Grand Traverse and Leelanau region  With link services and a fixed route bus service, called the Loops, serves Traverse City and the urbanized areas of Garfield Township  BATA put into service its first hybrid bus in December 2005  BATA's downtown bus transfer terminal on Hall Street opened July 21, 2006  The terminal is used to transfer riders to different buses on different routes 

Major highways
US 31 is a major north–south highway, and serves as the primary thoroughfare through Traverse City  US 31 enters Michigan from Indiana, and runs through communities such as Benton Harbor, Holland, Grand Haven, Muskegon, Ludington, Manistee, Charlevoix, and Petoskey  Throughout its route, US 31 parallels the coast of Lake Michigan 
 M-22 is a scenic highway that parallels the shore of Grand Traverse Bay and Lake Michigan  The highway begins at an intersection in Traverse City, and runs north through Greilickville and Suttons Bay, before turning back south along Lake Michigan, through communities such as Leland, Glen Arbor, Empire, Frankfort, and Onekama, before ending at US 31 near Manistee 
 M-37 is a north–south highway  Largely following the route of US 31 in Traverse City, M-37 exits to the north, running about 18 miles (29 km) up the Old Mission Peninsula before terminating at a cul-de-sac near the Mission Point Lighthouse  South of Traverse City, M-37 runs through communities such as Mesick, Baldwin, Grand Rapids, Hastings, and Battle Creek 
 M-72 is an east–west highway that traverses the width of the Lower Peninsula  Beginning at M-22 in Empire, M-72 follows the Grandview Parkway in Traverse City, and continues east toward communities such as Kalkaska, Grayling, Mio, and Harrisville on Lake Huron 

Railroads
The Great Lakes Central Railroad (GLCR) provides freight rail service to the Traverse City area on track owned by the state of Michigan  The tracks were once owned by the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (ex-Pere Marquette Railway) and the Pennsylvania Railroad (ex-Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad) but were purchased by the state in the late 1970s and early 1980s to preserve rail service in the area  Current freight traffic includes fruit/perishables, scrap metal, and lumber 
On February 20, 1982, the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway stopped using the line after the last long train serve Traverse City  Then the railroad was dismantled next year from Manistee to Grawn and from Williamsburg to Charlevoix Since then, excursion passengers trains have operated in and out of Traverse City on an irregular basis  Recently, Lake Central Rail Tours has operated a summer excursion during the Cherry Festival until 2008  On May 11, 1996, the Grand Traverse Dinner Train began year round service from the Traverse City depot to Williamsburg and to Walton Junction  Dinner train service was suspended in 2004 after a contract dispute with the Tuscola and Saginaw Bay Railway and additional difficulties  The train itself was removed to Owosso in mid-July 2006  However, in 2015 a study was started by the Michigan Department of Transportation, and passenger rail is gaining interest 

Sister city
Traverse City has one sister city:
 Tsuchiyama (Koka), Shiga (Japan) 

Notable people
See also
Cherry production in Michigan
Former Traverse City State Hospital, historical Kirkbride Building
Munson Medical Center, regional medical referral center serving patients from 32 counties in Northern Michigan and the Upper Peninsula
Watershed Center Grand Traverse Bay

Notes
Context 3: Passage 1:
Arnold Bennett
Enoch Arnold Bennett (27 May 1867 – 27 March 1931) was an English author, best known as a novelist who wrote prolifically  Between the 1890s and the 1930s he completed 34 novels, seven volumes of short stories, 13 plays (some in collaboration with other writers), and a daily journal totalling more than a million words  He wrote articles and stories for more than 100 newspapers and periodicals, worked in and briefly ran the Ministry of Information in the First World War, and wrote for the cinema in the 1920s  Sales of his books were substantial and he was the most financially successful British author of his day 
Born into a modest but upwardly mobile family in Hanley, in the Staffordshire Potteries, Bennett was intended by his father, a solicitor, to follow him into the legal profession  Bennett worked for his father, before moving to another law firm in London as a clerk, aged 21  He became assistant editor and then editor of a women's magazine, before becoming a full-time author in 1900  Always a devotee of French culture in general and French literature in particular, he moved to Paris in 1903; there the relaxed milieu helped him overcome his intense shyness, particularly with women  He spent ten years in France, marrying a Frenchwoman in 1907  In 1912 he moved back to England  He and his wife separated in 1921 and he spent the last years of his life with a new partner, an English actress  He died in 1931 of typhoid fever, having unwisely drunk tap-water in France 
Many of Bennett's novels and short stories are set in a fictionalised version of the Staffordshire Potteries, which he called The Five Towns  He strongly believed that literature should be accessible to ordinary people, and he deplored literary cliques and élites  His books appealed to a wide public and sold in large numbers  For this reason, and for his adherence to realism, writers and supporters of the modernist school, notably Virginia Woolf, belittled him, and his fiction became neglected after his death  During his lifetime his journalistic "self-help" books sold in substantial numbers, and he was also a playwright; he did less well in the theatre than with novels, but achieved two considerable successes with Milestones (1912) and The Great Adventure (1913) 
Studies by Margaret Drabble (1974), John Carey (1992) and others have led to a re-evaluation of Bennett's work  His finest novels, including Anna of the Five Towns (1902), The Old Wives' Tale (1908), Clayhanger (1910) and Riceyman Steps (1923), are now widely recognised as major works 

Life and career
Early years
Arnold Bennett was born on 27 May 1867 in Hanley, Staffordshire, now part of Stoke-on-Trent but then a separate town  He was the eldest child of the three sons and three daughters of Enoch Bennett (1843–1902) and his wife Sarah Ann, née Longson (1840–1914)  Enoch Bennett's early career had been one of mixed fortunes: after an unsuccessful attempt to run a business making and selling pottery, he set up as a draper and pawnbroker in 1866  Four years later Enoch's father died, leaving him some money with which he articled himself to a local law firm; in 1876 he qualified as a solicitor  The Bennetts were staunch Wesleyans, musical, cultured and sociable  Enoch Bennett had an authoritarian side, but it was a happy household, although a mobile one: as Enoch's success as a solicitor increased, the family moved, within the space of five years in the late 1870s and early 1880s, to four different houses in Hanley and the neighbouring Burslem From 1877 to 1882, Bennett's schooling was at the Wedgwood Institute, Burslem, followed by a year at a grammar school in Newcastle-under-Lyme  He was good at Latin and better at French; he had an inspirational headmaster who gave him a love for French literature and the French language that lasted all his life  He did well academically and passed Cambridge University examinations that could have led to an Oxbridge education, but his father had other plans  In 1883, aged 16, Bennett left school and began work – unpaid – in his father's office  He divided his time between uncongenial jobs, such as rent collecting, during the day, and studying for examinations in the evening  He began writing in a modest way, contributing light pieces to the local newspaper  He became adept in Pitman's shorthand, a skill much sought after in commercial offices, and on the strength of that he secured a post as a clerk at a firm of solicitors in Lincoln's Inn Fields, London  In March 1889, aged 21, he left for London and never returned to live in his native county 

First years in London
In the solicitors' office in London, Bennett became friendly with a young colleague, John Eland, who had a passion for books  Eland's friendship helped alleviate Bennett's innate shyness, which was exacerbated by a lifelong stammer  Together they explored the world of literature  Among the writers who impressed and influenced Bennett were George Moore, Émile Zola, Honoré de Balzac, Guy de Maupassant, Gustave Flaubert and Ivan Turgenev  He continued his own writing, and won a prize of twenty guineas from Tit-Bits in 1893 for his story 'The Artist's Model'; another short story, 'A Letter Home', was submitted successfully to The Yellow Book, where it featured in 1895 alongside contributions from Henry James and other well-known writers In 1894 Bennett resigned from the law firm and became assistant editor of the magazine Woman  The salary, £150 a year, was £50 less than he was earning as a clerk, but the post left him much more free time to write his first novel  For the magazine he wrote under a range of female pen-names such as "Barbara" and "Cecile"  As his biographer Margaret Drabble puts it:

The informal office life of the magazine suited Bennett, not least because it brought him into lively female company, and he began to be a little more relaxed with young women  He continued work on his novel and wrote short stories and articles  He was modest about his literary talent: he wrote to a friend, "I have no inward assurance that I could ever do anything more than mediocre viewed strictly as art – very mediocre", but he knew he could "turn out things which would be read with zest, & about which the man in the street would say to friends 'Have you read so & so in the What-is-it?'" He was happy to write for popular journals like Hearth and Home or for the highbrow The Academy His debut novel, A Man from the North, completed in 1896, was published two years later, by John Lane, whose reader, John Buchan, recommended it for publication  It elicited a letter of praise from Joseph Conrad and was well and widely reviewed, but Bennett's profits from the sale of the book were less than the cost of having it typed In 1896 Bennett was promoted to be editor of Woman; by then he had set his sights on a career as a full-time author, but he served as editor for four years  During that time he wrote two popular books, described by the critic John Lucas as "pot-boilers": Journalism for Women (1898) and Polite Farces for the Drawing Room (1899)  He also began work on a second novel, Anna of the Five Towns, the five towns being Bennett's lightly fictionalised version of the Staffordshire Potteries, where he grew up 

Freelance; Paris
In 1900 Bennett resigned his post at Woman, and left London to set up house at Trinity Hall Farm, near the village of Hockliffe in Bedfordshire, where he made a home not only for himself but for his parents and younger sister  He completed Anna of the Five Towns in 1901; it was published the following year, as was its successor, The Grand Babylon Hotel  The latter, an extravagant story of crime in high society, sold 50,000 copies in hardback and was almost immediately translated into four languages  By this stage he was confident enough in his abilities to tell a friend:

In January 1902 Enoch Bennett died, after a decline into dementia  His widow chose to move back to Burslem, and Bennett's sister married shortly afterwards  With no dependants, Bennett − always a devotee of French culture − decided to move to Paris; he took up residence there in March 1903  Biographers have speculated on his precise reasons for doing so   Drabble suggests that perhaps "he was hoping for some kind of liberation  He was thirty-five and unmarried"; Lucas writes that it was almost certainly Bennett's desire to be recognised as a serious artist that prompted his move; according to his friend and colleague Frank Swinnerton, Bennett was following in the footsteps of George Moore by going to live in "the home of modern realism"; in the view of the biographer Reginald Pound it was "to begin his career as a man of the world"  The 9th arrondissement of Paris was Bennett's home for the next five years, first in the rue de Calais, near the Place Pigalle, and then the more upmarket rue d'Aumale Life in Paris evidently helped Bennett overcome much of his remaining shyness with women  His journals for his early months in Paris mention a young woman identified as "C" or "Chichi", who was a chorus girl; the journals – or at least the cautiously selected extracts published since his death – do not record the precise nature of the relationship, but the two spent a considerable amount of time together In a restaurant where he dined frequently a trivial incident in 1903 gave Bennett the germ of an idea for the novel generally regarded as his masterpiece  A grotesque old woman came in and caused a fuss; the beautiful young waitress laughed at her, and Bennett was struck by the thought that the old woman had once been as young and lovely as the waitress  From this grew the story of two contrasting sisters in The Old Wives' Tale  He did not begin work on that novel until 1907, before which he wrote ten others, some "sadly undistinguished", in the view of his biographer Kenneth Young  Throughout his career, Bennett interspersed his best novels with some that his biographers and others have labelled pot-boilers 

Marriage; Fontainebleau and US visit
In 1905 Bennett became engaged to Eleanor Green, a member of an eccentric and capricious American family living in Paris, but at the last moment, after the wedding invitations had been sent out, she broke off the engagement and almost immediately married a fellow American  Drabble comments that Bennett was well rid of her, but it was a painful episode in his life  In early 1907 he met Marguerite Soulié (1874–1960), who soon became first a friend and then a lover  In May he was taken ill with a severe gastric complaint, and Marguerite moved into his flat to look after him  They became still closer, and in July 1907, shortly after his fortieth birthday, they were married at the Mairie of the 9th arrondissement  The marriage was childless  Early in 1908 the couple moved from the rue d'Aumale to the Villa des Néfliers in Fontainebleau-Avon, about 40 miles (64 km) south-east of Paris Lucas comments that the best of the novels written while in France – Whom God Hath Joined (1906), The Old Wives' Tale (1908), and Clayhanger (1910) – "justly established Bennett as a major exponent of realistic fiction"  In addition to these, Bennett published lighter novels such as The Card (1911)  His output of literary journalism included articles for T  P  O'Connor's T  P 's Weekly and the left-wing The New Age; his pieces for the latter, published under a pen-name, were concise literary essays aimed at "the general cultivated reader", a form taken up by a later generation of writers including J  B  Priestley and V  S  Pritchett In 1911 Bennett made a financially rewarding visit to the US, which he later recorded in his 1912 book Those United States  Crossing the Atlantic aboard the Lusitania, he visited not only New York and Boston but also Chicago, Indianapolis, Washington and Philadelphia in a tour that was described by US publisher George Doran as "one of continuous triumph": in the first three days of his stay in New York he was interviewed 26 times by journalists  While rival E P  Dutton had secured rights to such Bennett novels as Hilda Lessways and the Card (retitled Denry the Audacious), Doran, who travelled everywhere with Bennett while in America, was the publisher of Bennett’s wildly successful ‘pocket philosophies’ How to Live on Twenty-Four Hours a Day and Mental Efficiency  Of these books the influential critic Willard Huntington Wright wrote that Bennett had "turned preacher and a jolly good preacher he is"  While in the US Bennett also sold the serial rights of his forthcoming novel, The Price of Love (1913–14), to Harpers for £2,000, eight essays to Metropolitan magazine for a total of  £1,200, and the American rights of a successor to Clayhanger for £3,000 During his ten years in France he had gone from a moderately well-known writer enjoying modest sales to outstanding success  Swinnerton comments that in addition to his large sales, Bennett's critical prestige was at its zenith 

Return to England
In 1912, after an extended stay at the Hotel Californie in Cannes, during which time he wrote The Regent, a light-hearted sequel to The Card, Bennett and his wife moved from France to England  Initially they lived in Putney, but "determined to become an English country landowner", he bought Comarques, an early-18th-century country house at Thorpe-le-Soken, Essex, and moved there in February 1913  Among his early concerns, once back in England, was to succeed as a playwright  He had dabbled previously but his inexperience showed  The Times thought his 1911 comedy The Honeymoon, staged in the West End with a starry cast, had "one of the most amusing first acts we have ever seen", but fell flat in the other two acts  In the same year Bennett met the playwright Edward Knoblauch (later Knoblock) and they collaborated on Milestones, the story of the generations of a family seen in 1860, 1885 and 1912  The combination of Bennett's narrative gift and Knoblauch's practical experience proved a success  The play was strongly cast, received highly favourable notices, ran for more than 600 performances in London and over 200 in New York, and made Bennett a great deal of money  His next play, The Great Adventure (1913), a stage version of his novel Buried Alive (1908), was similarly successful Bennett's attitude to the First World War was that British politicians had been at fault in failing to prevent it, but that once it had become inevitable it was right that Britain should join its allies against the Germans  He concentrated his attention on journalism, aiming to inform and encourage the public in Britain and allied and neutral countries  He served on official and unofficial committees, and in 1915 he was invited to visit France to see conditions at the front and write about them for readers at home  The collected impressions appeared in a book called Over There (1915)  He was still writing novels, however: These Twain, the third in his Clayhanger trilogy, was published in 1916 and in 1917 he completed a sequel, The Roll Call, which ends with its hero, George Cannon, enlisting in the army  Wartime London was the setting for Bennett's The Pretty Lady (1918), about a high-class French cocotte: although well reviewed, because of its subject-matter the novel provoked "a Hades of a row" and some booksellers refused to sell it When Lord Beaverbrook became Minister of Information in February 1918 he appointed Bennett to take charge of propaganda in France  Beaverbrook fell ill in October 1918 and made Bennett director of propaganda, in charge of the whole ministry for the last weeks of the war  At the end of 1918 Bennett was offered, but declined, a knighthood in the new Order of the British Empire instituted by George V  The offer was renewed some time later, and again Bennett refused it  One of his closest associates at the time suspected that he was privately hoping for the more prestigious Order of Merit As the war was ending, Bennett returned to his theatrical interests, although not primarily as a playwright  In November 1918 he became chairman, with Nigel Playfair as managing director, of the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith  Among their productions were Abraham Lincoln by John Drinkwater, and The Beggar's Opera, which, in Swinnerton's phrase, "caught different moods of the post-war spirit", and ran for 466 and 1,463 performances respectively 

Last years
In 1921 Bennett and his wife legally separated  They had been drifting apart for some years and Marguerite had taken up with Pierre Legros, a young French lecturer  Bennett sold Comarques and lived in London for the rest of his life, first in a flat near Bond Street in the West End, on which he had taken a lease during the war  For much of the 1920s he was widely known to be the highest-paid literary journalist in England, contributing a weekly column to Beaverbrook's Evening Standard under the title 'Books and Persons'; according to Frank Swinnerton these articles were "extraordinarily successful and influential     and made a number of new reputations"  By the end of his career, Bennett had contributed to more than 100 newspapers, magazines and other publications  He continued to write novels and plays as assiduously as before the war Swinnerton writes, "Endless social engagements; inexhaustible patronage of musicians, actors, poets, and painters; the maximum of benevolence to friends and strangers alike, marked the last ten years of his life"  Hugh Walpole, James Agate and Osbert Sitwell were among those who testified to Bennett's generosity  Sitwell recalled a letter Bennett wrote in the 1920s:

In 1922 Bennett met and fell in love with an actress, Dorothy Cheston (1891–1977)  Together they set up home in Cadogan Square, where they stayed until moving in 1930 to Chiltern Court, Baker Street  As Marguerite would not agree to a divorce, Bennett was unable to marry Dorothy, and in September 1928, having become pregnant, she changed her name by deed poll to Dorothy Cheston Bennett  The following April she gave birth to the couple's only child, Virginia Mary (1929–2003)  She continued to appear as an actress, and produced and starred in a revival of Milestones which was well reviewed, but had only a moderate run  Bennett had mixed feelings about her continuing stage career, but did not seek to stop it During a holiday in France with Dorothy in January 1931, Bennett twice drank tap-water – not, at the time, a safe thing to do there  On his return home he was taken ill; influenza was diagnosed at first, but the illness was typhoid fever; after several weeks of unsuccessful treatment he died in his flat at Chiltern Court on 27 March 1931, aged 63 Bennett was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium and his ashes were interred in Burslem Cemetery in his mother's grave  A memorial service was held on 31 March 1931 at St Clement Danes, London, attended by leading figures from journalism, literature, music, politics and theatre, and, in Pound's words, many men and women who at the end of the service "walked out into a London that for them would never be the same again" 

Works
From the outset, Bennett believed in the "democratisation of art which it is surely the duty of the minority to undertake"  He admired some of the modernist writers of his time, but strongly disapproved of their conscious appeal to a small élite and their disdain for the general reader  Bennett believed that literature should be inclusive, accessible by ordinary people From the start of his career, Bennett was aware of the appeal of regional fiction  Anthony Trollope, George Eliot and Thomas Hardy had created and sustained their own locales, and Bennett did the same with his Five Towns, drawing on his experiences as a boy and young man  As a realistic writer he followed the examples of the authors he admired – above all George Moore, but also Balzac, Flaubert and Maupassant among French writers, and Dostoevsky, Turgenev and Tolstoy among Russians  In writing about the Five Towns Bennett aimed to portray the experiences of ordinary people coping with the norms and constraints of the communities in which they lived  J  B  Priestley considered that the next influence on Bennett's fiction was his time in London in the 1890s, "engaged in journalism and ingenious pot-boiling of various kinds" 

Novels and short stories
Bennett is remembered chiefly for his novels and short stories  The best known are set in, or feature people from, the six towns of the Potteries of his youth  He presented the region as "the Five Towns", which correspond closely with their originals: the real-life Burslem, Hanley, Longton, Stoke and Tunstall become Bennett's Bursley, Hanbridge, Longshaw, Knype and Turnhill  These "Five Towns" make their first appearance in Bennett's fiction in Anna of the Five Towns (1902) and are the setting for further novels including Leonora (1903), Whom God Hath Joined (1906), The Old Wives' Tale (1908) and the Clayhanger trilogy – Clayhanger (1910), Hilda Lessways (1911) and These Twain (1916) – as well as for dozens of short stories  Bennett's fiction portrays the Five Towns with what The Oxford Companion to English Literature calls "an ironic but affectionate detachment, describing provincial life and culture in documentary detail, and creating many memorable characters"  In later life Bennett said that the writer George Moore was "the father of all my Five Towns books" as it was reading Moore's 1885 novel A Mummer's Wife, set in the Potteries, that "opened my eyes to the romantic nature of the district I had blindly inhabited for over twenty years" It was not only locations on which Bennett drew for his fiction  Many of his characters are discernibly based on real people in his life  His Lincoln's Inn friend John Eland was a source for Mr Aked in Bennett's first novel, A Man from the North (1898); A Great Man (1903) contains a character with echoes of his Parisienne friend Chichi; Darius Clayhanger's early life is based on that of a family friend and Bennett himself is seen in Edwin in Clayhanger  He has been criticised for making literary use in that novel of the distressing details of his father's decline into senility, but in Pound's view, in committing the details to paper Bennett was unburdening himself of painful memories These Twain is Bennett's "last extended study of Five Towns life"  The novels he wrote in the 1920s are largely set in London and thereabouts: Riceyman Steps (1923), for instance, generally regarded as the best of Bennett's post-war novels, was set in Clerkenwell: it was awarded the James Tait Black novel prize for 1923, "the first prize for a book I ever had," Bennett noted in his journal on 18 October 1924  His Lord Raingo (1926), described by Dudley Barker as "one of the finest of political novels in the language", benefited from Bennett's own experience in the Ministry of Information and his subsequent friendship with Beaverbrook: John Lucas states that "As a study of what goes on in the corridors of power [Lord Raingo] has few equals"  And Bennett's final – and longest – novel, Imperial Palace (1930), is set in a grand London hotel reminiscent of the Savoy, whose directors assisted him in his preliminary research Bennett usually gave his novels subtitles; the most frequent was "A fantasia on modern themes", individual books were called "A frolic" or "A melodrama", but he was sparing with the label "A novel" which he used for only a few of his books – for instance Anna of the Five Towns, Leonora, Sacred and Profane Love, The Old Wives' Tale, The Pretty Lady (1918) and Riceyman Steps  Literary critics have followed Bennett in dividing his novels into groups  The literary scholar Kurt Koenigsberger proposes three categories  In the first are the long narratives – "freestanding, monumental artefacts" – Anna of the Five Towns, The Old Wives' Tale, Clayhanger and Riceyman Steps, which "have been held in high critical regard since their publication"  Koenigsberger writes that the "Fantasias" such as The Grand Babylon Hotel (1902), Teresa of Watling Street (1904) and The City of Pleasure (1907), have "mostly passed from public attention along with the 'modern' conditions they exploit"  His third group includes "Idyllic Diversions" or "Stories of Adventure", including Helen with the High Hand (1910), The Card (1911), and The Regent (1913), which "have sustained some enduring critical and popular interest, not least for their amusing treatment of cosmopolitanism and provinciality" Bennett published 96 short stories in seven volumes between 1905 and 1931  His ambivalence about his native town is vividly seen in "The Death of Simon Fuge" in the collection The Grim Smile of the Five Towns (1907), judged by Lucas the finest of all the stories  His chosen locations ranged widely, including Paris and Venice as well as London and the Five Towns  As with his novels, he would sometimes give a story a label, calling "The Matador of the Five Towns" (1912) "a tragedy" and "Jock-at-a-Venture" from the same collection "a frolic"  The short stories, particularly those in Tales of the Five Towns (1905), The Grim Smile of the Five Towns (1907), and The Matador of the Five Towns contain some of the most striking examples of Bennett's concern for realism, with an unflinching narrative focus on what Lucas calls "the drab, the squalid, and the mundane"  In 2010 and 2011 two further volumes of Bennett's hitherto uncollected short stories were published: they range from his earliest work written in the 1890s, some under the pseudonym Sarah Volatile, to US magazine commissions from the late 1920s 

Stage and screen
In 1931 the critic Graham Sutton, looking back at Bennett's career in the theatre, contrasted his achievements as a playwright with those as a novelist, suggesting that Bennett was a complete novelist but a not-entirely-complete dramatist  His plays were clearly those of a novelist: "He tends to lengthy speeches  Sometimes he overwrites a part, as though distrusting the actor  He is more interested in what his people are than in what they visibly do  He 'thinks nowt' of mere slickness of plot "
Bennett's lack of a theatrical grounding showed in the uneven construction of some of his plays, such as his 1911 comedy The Honeymoon, which played for 125 performances from October 1911  The highly successful Milestones was seen as impeccably constructed, but the credit for that was given to his craftsmanlike collaborator, Edward Knoblauch (Bennett being credited with the inventive flair of the piece)  By far his most successful solo effort in the theatre was The Great Adventure, based on his 1908 novel Buried Alive, which ran in the West End for 674 performances, from March 1913 to November 1914  Sutton praised its "new strain of impish and sardonic fantasy" and rated it a much finer play than Milestones After the First World War Bennett wrote two plays on metaphysical questions, Sacred and Profane Love (1919, adapted from his novel) and Body and Soul (1922), which made little impression  The Saturday Review praised the "shrewd wit" of the former, but thought it "false in its essentials     superficial in its accidentals"  Of the latter, the critic Horace Shipp wondered "how the author of Clayhanger and The Old Wives' Tale could write such third-rate stuff"  Bennett had more success in a final collaboration with Edward Knoblock (as Knoblauch had become during the war) with Mr Prohack (1927), a comedy based on his 1922 novel; one critic wrote "I could have enjoyed the play had it run to double its length", but even so he judged the middle act weaker than the outer two  Sutton concludes that Bennett's forte was character, but that the competence of his technique was variable  The plays are seldom revived, although some have been adapted for television Bennett wrote two opera libretti for the composer Eugene Goossens: Judith (one act, 1929) and Don Juan (four acts, produced in 1937 after the writer's death)  There were comments that Goossens's music lacked tunes and Bennett's libretti were too wordy and literary  The critic Ernest Newman defended both works, finding Bennett's libretto for Judith "a drama told simply and straightforwardly" and Don Juan "the best thing that English opera has so far produced … the most dramatic and stageworthy", but though politely received, both operas vanished from the repertory after a few performances Bennett took a keen interest in the cinema, and in 1920 wrote The Wedding Dress, a scenario for a silent movie, at the request of Jesse Lasky of the Famous Players film company  It was never made, though Bennett wrote a full-length treatment, assumed to be lost until his daughter Virginia found it in a drawer in her Paris home in 1983; subsequently the script was sold to the Potteries Museum and Art Gallery and was finally published in 2013  In 1928 Bennett wrote the  scenario for the silent film Piccadilly, directed by E  A  Dupont and starring Anna May Wong, described by the British Film Institute as "one of  the true greats of British silent films"  In 1929, the year the film came out, Bennett was in discussion with a young Alfred Hitchcock to script a silent film, Punch and Judy, which foundered on artistic disagreements and  Bennett's refusal to see the film as a "talkie" rather than silent  His original scenario, acquired by Pennsylvania State University, was published in the UK in 2012 

Journalism and self-help books
Bennett published more than two dozen non-fiction books, among which eight could be classified as "self-help": the most enduring is How to Live on 24 Hours a Day (1908), which is still in print and has been translated into several languages  Other "self-help" volumes include How to Become an Author (1903), The Reasonable Life (1907), Literary Taste: How to Form It (1909), The Human Machine (1908), Mental Efficiency (1911), The Plain Man and his Wife (1913), Self and Self-Management (1918) and How to Make the Best of Life (1923)  They were, says Swinnerton, "written for small fees and with a real desire to assist the ignorant"  According to the Harvard academic Beth Blum, these books "advance less scientific versions of the argument for mental discipline espoused by William James"  In his biography of Bennett Patrick Donovan argues that in the US "the huge appeal to the ordinary readers" of his self-help books "made his name stand out vividly from other English writers across the massive, fragmented American market " As Bennett put it to his London-based agent J  B  Pinker, these "pocket philosophies are just the sort of book for the American public"  However, How to Live on 24 Hours was aimed initially at "the legions of clerks and typists and other meanly paid workers caught up in the explosion of British office jobs around the turn of the century … they offered a strong message of hope from somebody who so well understood their lives" Bennett never lost his journalistic instincts, and throughout his life sought and responded to newspaper and magazine commissions with varying degrees of enthusiasm: "from the start of the 1890s right up to the week of his death there would never be a period when he was not churning out copy for newspapers and magazines"  In a journal entry at the end of 1908, for instance, he noted that he had written "over sixty newspaper articles" that year; in 1910 the figure was "probably about 80 other articles"  While living in Paris he was a regular contributor to T  P 's Weekly; later he reviewed for The New Age under the pseudonym Jacob Tonson and was associated with the New Statesman as not only a writer but also a director 

Journals
Inspired by the Journal des Goncourt, Bennett kept a journal throughout his adult life  Swinnerton says that it runs to a million words; it has not been published in full  Edited extracts were issued in three volumes, in 1932 and 1933  According to Hugh Walpole, the editor, Newman Flower, "was so appalled by much of what he found in the journals that he published only brief extracts, and those the safest"  Whatever Flower censored, the extracts he selected were not always "the safest": he let some defamatory remarks through, and in 1935 he, the publishers and printers had to pay an undisclosed sum to the plaintiff in one libel suit and £2,500 in another 

Critical reputation
Novels and short stories
The literary modernists of his day deplored Bennett's books, and those of his well-known contemporaries H  G  Wells and John Galsworthy  Of the three, Bennett drew the most opprobrium from modernists such as Virginia Woolf, Ezra Pound and Wyndham Lewis who regarded him as representative of an outmoded and rival literary culture  There was a strong element of class-consciousness and snobbery in the modernists' attitude: Woolf accused Bennett of having "a shopkeeper's view of literature" and in her essay "Mr Bennett and Mrs Brown" accused Bennett, Galsworthy and Wells of ushering in an "age when character disappeared or was mysteriously engulfed" In a 1963 study of Bennett, James Hepburn summed up and dissented from the prevailing views of the novels, listing three related evaluative positions taken individually or together by almost all Bennett's critics: that his Five Towns novels are generally superior to his other work, that he and his art declined after The Old Wives' Tale or Clayhanger, and that there is a sharp and clear distinction between the good and bad novels  Hepburn countered that one of the novels most frequently praised by literary critics is Riceyman Steps (1923) set in Clerkenwell, London, and dealing with material imagined rather than observed by the author  On the third point he commented that although received wisdom was that The Old Wives' Tale and Clayhanger are good and Sacred and Profane Love and Lillian are bad, there was little consensus about which other Bennett novels were good, bad or indifferent  He instanced The Pretty Lady (1918), on which critical opinion ranged from "cheap and sensational"     "sentimental melodrama" to "a great novel"  Lucas (2004) considers it "a much underrated study of England during the war years, especially in its sensitive feeling for the destructive frenzy that underlay much apparently good-hearted patriotism" In 1974 Margaret Drabble published Arnold Bennett, a literary biography  In the foreword she demurred at the critical dismissal of Bennett:

Writing in the 1990s the literary critic John Carey called for a reappraisal of Bennett in his book The Intellectuals and the Masses (1992):

In 2006 Koenigsberger commented that one reason why Bennett's novels had been sidelined, apart from "the exponents of modernism who recoiled from his democratising aesthetic programme", was his attitude to gender  His books include the pronouncements "the average man has more intellectual power than the average woman" and "women as a sex love to be dominated"; Koenigsberger nevertheless praises Bennett's "sensitive and oft-praised portrayals of female figures in his fiction" Lucas concludes his study with the comment that Bennett's realism may be limited by his cautious assumption that things are as they are and will not change  Nevertheless, in Lucas's view, successive generations of reader have admired Bennett's best work, and future generations are certain to do so 

Crime fiction
Bennett dabbled in crime fiction, in The Grand Babylon Hotel and The Loot of Cities (1905)  In Queen's Quorum (1951), a survey of crime fiction, Ellery Queen listed the latter among the 100 most important works in the genre  This collection of stories recounts the adventures of a millionaire who commits crimes to achieve his idealistic ends  Although it was "one of his least known works," it was nevertheless "of unusual interest, both as an example of Arnold Bennett's early work and as an early example of dilettante detectivism" 

Legacy
Arnold Bennett Society
The Society was founded in 1954 "to promote the study and appreciation of the life, works and times not only of Arnold Bennett himself but also of other provincial writers, with particular relationship to North Staffordshire"  In 2021 its president was Denis Eldin, Bennett's grandson; among the vice-presidents was Margaret Drabble In 2017 the society instituted an annual Arnold Bennett Prize as part of author's 150th anniversary celebrations, to be awarded to an author who was born, lives or works in North Staffordshire and has published a book in the relevant year, or to the author of a book which features the region  In 2017 John Lancaster won the award for his poetry collection Potters: A Division of Labour  Subsequent winners have been Jan Edwards for her novel Winter Downs (2018), Charlotte Higgins for Red Thread: On Mazes and Labyrinths (2019) and Lisa Blower for her story collection It's Gone Dark Over Bill's Mother's (2020)  The prize was not awarded in 2021 because of the Covid-19 situation, but in 2022 it was won by John Pye, a former detective inspector turned crime writer, for his novel Where the Silent Screams Are Loudest  The prize in 2023 went to Philip Nanney Williams for his book Adams: Britain's Oldest Potting Dynasty 

Plaques and statuary
Bennett has been commemorated by several plaques  Hugh Walpole unveiled one at Comarques in 1931, and in the same year another was placed at Bennett's birthplace in Hanley  A plaque to and bust of Bennett were unveiled in Burslem in 1962, and there are blue plaques commemorating him at the house in Cadogan Square where he lived from 1923 to 1930 and on the house in Cobridge where he lived in his youth  The southern Baker Street entrance of Chiltern Court has a plaque to Bennett on the left and another to H  G  Wells on the right  A blue plaque has been placed on the wall of Bennett's home in Fontainebleau There is a two-metre-high bronze statue of Bennett outside The Potteries Museum & Art Gallery in Hanley, Stoke-on-Trent, unveiled on 27 May 2017 during the events marking the 150th anniversary of his birth 

Archives
There are substantial archives of Bennett's papers and artworks, including drafts, diaries, letters, photographs and watercolours, at The Potteries Museum & Art Gallery in Stoke-on-Trent and at Keele University  Other Bennett papers are held by University College London, the British Library, and, in the US, Texas and Yale universities and the Berg Collection in the New York Public Library 

Omelettes
Bennett shares with the composer Gioachino Rossini, the singer Nellie Melba and some other celebrities the distinction of having a well-known dish named in his honour  An omelette Arnold Bennett is one that incorporates smoked haddock, hard cheese (typically Cheddar), and cream  It was created at the Savoy Grill in London for Bennett, who was an habitué, by the chef Jean Baptiste Virlogeux  It remains a British classic; cooks from Marcus Wareing to Delia Smith and Gordon Ramsay have published their recipes for it, and a variant remains on the menu at the Savoy Grill 

Notes, references and sources
Notes
Passage 2:
Mermaid Series
The Mermaid Series was a major collection of reprints of texts from English Elizabethan, Jacobean and Restoration drama  It was launched in 1887 by the British publisher Henry Vizetelly and under the general editorship of Havelock Ellis  Around 1894 the series was taken over by the London firm of T  Fisher Unwin  Many well-known literary figures edited or introduced the texts  Some of the plays published had not been reprinted in recent editions, and most had dropped out of the stage repertoire 
The name alludes to the Mermaid Tavern in London  There has been a later New Mermaids Series



ground_truth: 143,372

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Havelock Ellis and Arnold Bennett were both what?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: 

The Best Plays of Beaumont and Fletcher
Notes by John Strachey, two volumes
(volume I) The Maid's Tragedy - Philaster - The Wild Goose Chase - Thierry and Theodoret - The Knight of the Burning Pestle
(volume II) A King and No King - Bonduca - The Spanish Curate - The Faithful Shepherdess - Valentinian

The Best Plays of George Chapman
Edited by William Lyon Phelps
All Fools - Bussy D'Ambois - The Revenge of Bussy D'Ambois - The Conspiracy of Charles, Duke of Byron - The Tragedy of Charles, Duke of Byron

The Complete Plays of William Congreve
Edited by Alexander Charles Ewald
The Old Bachelor - The Double-Dealer - Love for Love - The Way of the World - The Mourning Bride

The Best Plays of Thomas Dekker
Notes by Ernest Rhys
The Shoemaker's Holiday - The Honest Whore - Old Fortunatus - The Witch of Edmonton

The Best Plays of John Dryden
Edited by George Saintsbury, two volumes
(Volume I) Almanzor and Almahide, or The Conquest of Grenada, parts 1 & 2 - Marriage A La Mode - Aureng-Zebe
(Volume II) All for Love - The Spanish Friar - Albion and Albanius - Don Sebastian

The Best Plays of George Farquhar
Edited by William Archer
The Constant Couple - The Twin Rivals - The Recruiting Officer - The Beaux' Stratagem

The Best Plays of John Ford
Edited by Havelock Ellis
The Lover's Melancholy - 'Tis Pity She's a Whore - The Broken Heart - Love's Sacrifice - Perkin Warbeck

The Complete Plays of Robert Greene
Edited by Thomas H  Dickinson
Alphonsus, King of Arragon - A Looking Glass for London and England - Orlando Furioso - Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay - James the Fourth - George-A-Green, the Pinner of Wakefield

The Best Plays of Thomas Heywood
Edited by A  Wilson Verity, introduction by John Addington Symonds
A Woman Killed with Kindness - The Fair Maid of the West - The English Traveller - The Wise Woman of Hogsdon - The Rape of Lucrece

The Best Plays of Ben Jonson
Notes by Brinsley Nicholson and C  H  Herford, three volumes
(Volume I) Every Man in His Humour - Every Man out of His Humour - The Poetaster
(Volume II) Bartholomew Fair - Cynthia's Revels; or, The Fountain of Self-Love - Sejanus His Fall
(Volume III) Volpone; or, The Fox - Epicœne; or, The Silent Woman - The Alchemist

The Best Plays of Christopher Marlowe
Notes by Havelock Ellis, series introduction by John Addington Symonds
Tamburlaine the Great Part the First - Tamburlaine the Great Part the Second
- Doctor Faustus - The Jew of Malta - Edward the Second
Also includes a biography of Christopher Marlowe and appendices 

The Best Plays of Philip Massinger
Notes by Arthur Symons, two volumes
(Volume I) The Duke of Milan - A New Way to Pay Old Debts - The Great Duke of Florence - The Maid of Honour - The City Madam
(Volume II) The Roman Actor - The Fatal Dowry - The Guardian - The Virgin Martyr - Believe as You List

The Best Plays of Thomas Middleton
Introduction by Algernon Charles Swinburne, with Havelock Ellis, two volumes
(Volume I) A Trick to Catch the Old One - The Changeling - A Chaste Maid in Cheapside - Women Beware Women - The Spanish Gypsy
(Volume II) The Roaring Girl - The Witch - A Fair Quarrel - The Mayor of Queensborough - The Widow

Nero and Other Plays (1888)
Edited by H  P  Horne, A  W  Verity, Arthur Symons and Havelock Ellis
Nero (anonymous) - The Two Angry Women of Abington (Henry Porter) - The Parliament of Bees (John Day) - Humour Out of Breath (John Day) - A Woman is a Weathercock (Nathan Field)- Amends for Ladies (Nathan Field)

The Best Plays of Thomas Otway
Notes by Roden Noel
Don Carlos, Prince of Spain - The Orphan - The Soldier's Fortune - Venice Preserved

The Best Plays of Thomas Shadwell
Edited by George Saintsbury
The Sullen Lovers - A True Widow - The Squire of Alsatia - Bury Fair

The Best Plays of James Shirley
Introduction by Edmund Gosse
The Witty Fair One - The Traitor - Hyde Park - The Lady of Pleasure - The Cardinal - The Triumph of Peace

The Complete Plays of Richard Steele
Edited by G  A  Aitken
The Funeral - The Lying Lover - The Tender Husband - The Conscious Lovers - The School of Action - The Gentleman

The Select Plays of Sir John Vanbrugh
Edited by A  E  H  Swain
The Relapse - The Provok'd Wife - The Confederacy - A Journey to London

The Best Plays of Webster and Tourneur
Notes by John Addington Symonds
The White Devil (Webster) - The Duchess of Malfi (Webster) - The Atheist's Tragedy (Tourneur) - The Revenger's Tragedy (Tourneur, but now usually attributed to Thomas Middleton)

The Complete Plays of William Wycherley
Edited by W  C  Ward
Love in a Wood - The Gentleman Dancing Master - The Country Wife - The Plain Dealer

Online editions
Beaumont and Fletcher I • 
Beaumont and Fletcher II • 
George Chapman • 
William Congreve • 
Thomas Dekker • 
John Dryden I • 
John Dryden II • 
George Farquhar • 
John Ford • 
Robert Greene • 
Thomas Heywood • 
Ben Jonson I • 
Ben Jonson II • 
Ben Jonson III • 
Christopher Marlowe • 
Philip Massinger I • 
Philip Massinger II • 
Thomas Middleton I • 
Thomas Middleton II • 
Nero and Other Plays • 
Thomas Otway • 
Thomas Shadwell • 
James Shirley • 
Richard Steele • 
Sir John Vanbrugh • 
Webster and Tourneur • 
William Wycherley
Passage 3:
John Dicks (publisher)
John Thomas Dicks (1818–1881) was a publisher in London in the 19th century  He issued popular, affordably priced fiction and drama, such as "shilling Shakespeares and wonderfully cheap reprints of Scott and other standard authors " Earlier in his career he worked with Peter Perring Thoms and George W  M  Reynolds  Employees included illustrator Frederick Gilbert  Readers included Thomas Burt and Havelock Ellis  Dicks retired in the 1870s, when his sons took over the firm which continued into the 1960s 

Works issued by John Dicks
Musical Treasures (sheet music series); numbered list

Drama
The British drama: illustrated, vol  1–4, John Dicks, 1864–66
Dicks' British Drama, 1866–, 1866 (series)

Dicks' Standard Plays
Dicks' Standard Plays, 1874–1907 (series)
List of Dicks' Standard Plays and Free Acting Drama, 1883, OL 7225611M – arranged by number, title, author (Ainsworth, Dickens, Lytton, Scott, etc ), and theme (nautical, dumb hero, ghost, Irish, Scotch, military, temperance, fairy, equestrian, etc )

Fiction
George W  M  Reynolds  Mysteries of the Court of London 
Dicks' English Novels (series); numbered list
Dicks' English Library of Standard Works (series) Dicks' English Library of Standard Works, v 33 (via British Library on Flickr)
WorldCat  Dicks' English Library of Standard Works (series)
Dicks' Celebrated Works (series); numbered list

Periodicals
Bow Bells: A Weekly Magazine of General Literature and Art, 1862, pp  83 v – authors included George Manville Fenn, George Augustus SalaFashion plate, 1865
Fashion plates, 1870s
Reynolds' Miscellany
Halfpenny Gazette, 1861–1865
Every Week, 1869–1896
Penny Illustrated Weekly News
Fiction, edited by Eliza Winstanley – weekly

Catalogues
Shakespeare, William (c  1860s), List of Books Published by John Dicks
John Dicks' Catalogue, 1874, OCLC 500243028
Passage 4:
Havelock Ellis
Henry Havelock Ellis (2 February 1859 – 8 July 1939) was an English physician, eugenicist, writer, progressive intellectual and social reformer who studied human sexuality  He co-wrote the first medical textbook in English on homosexuality in 1897, and also published works on a variety of sexual practices and inclinations, as well as on transgender psychology  He developed the notions of narcissism and autoeroticism, later adopted by psychoanalysis 
Ellis was among the pioneering investigators of psychedelic drugs and the author of one of the first written reports to the public about an experience with mescaline, which he conducted on himself in 1896  He supported eugenics and served as one of 16 vice-presidents of the Eugenics Society from 1909 to 1912 

Early life and career
Ellis, son of Edward Peppen Ellis and Susannah Mary Wheatley, was born in Croydon, Surrey (now part of Greater London)  He had four sisters, none of whom married  His father was a sea captain and an Anglican, while his mother was the daughter of a sea captain who had many other relatives that lived on or near the sea  When he was seven his father took him on one of his voyages, during which they called at Sydney, Australia; Callao, Peru; and Antwerp, Belgium  After his return, Ellis attended the French and German College near Wimbledon, and afterward attended a school in Mitcham 
In April 1875, Ellis sailed on his father's ship for Australia; soon after his arrival in Sydney, he obtained a position as a master at a private school  After the discovery of his lack of training, he was fired and became a tutor for a family living a few miles from Carcoar, New South Wales  He spent a year there and then obtained a position as a master at a grammar school in Grafton, New South Wales  The headmaster had died and Ellis carried on at the school for that year, but was unsuccessful 
At the end of the year, he returned to Sydney and, after three months' training, was given charge of two government part-time elementary schools, one at Sparkes Creek, near Scone, New South Wales, and the other at Junction Creek  He lived at the school house on Sparkes Creek for a year  He wrote in his autobiography, "In Australia, I gained health of body, I attained peace of soul, my life task was revealed to me, I was able to decide on a professional vocation, I became an artist in literature; these five points covered the whole activity of my life in the world  Some of them I should doubtless have reached without the aid of the Australian environment, scarcely all, and most of them I could never have achieved so completely if chance had not cast me into the solitude of the Liverpool Range "

Medicine and psychology
Ellis returned to England in April 1879  He had decided to take up the study of sex and felt his first step must be to qualify as a physician  He studied at St Thomas's Hospital Medical School, now part of King's College London, but never had a regular medical practice  His training was aided by a small legacy and also income earned from editing works in the Mermaid Series of lesser known Elizabethan and Jacobean drama  He joined The Fellowship of the New Life in 1883, meeting other social reformers Eleanor Marx, Edward Carpenter and George Bernard Shaw 
The 1897 English translation of Ellis's book Sexual Inversion, co-authored with John Addington Symonds and originally published in German in 1896, was the first English medical textbook on homosexuality  It describes male homosexual relations as well as adolescent rape  Ellis wrote the first objective study of homosexuality, as he did not characterise it as a disease, immoral, or a crime  The work assumes that same-sex love transcended age taboos as well as gender taboo  The work also uses the term bisexual throughout The first edition of the book was bought-out by the executor of Symond's estate, who forbade any mention of Symonds in the second edition In 1897 a bookseller was prosecuted for stocking Ellis's book  Although the term homosexual is attributed to Ellis, he wrote in 1897, "'Homosexual' is a barbarously hybrid word, and I claim no responsibility for it " In fact, the word homosexual was coined in 1868 by the Hungarian author Karl-Maria Kertbeny Ellis may have developed psychological concepts of autoeroticism and narcissism, both of which were later developed further by Sigmund Freud  Ellis's influence may have reached Radclyffe Hall, who would have been about 17 years old at the time Sexual Inversion was published  She later referred to herself as a sexual invert and wrote of female "sexual inverts" in Miss Ogilvy Finds Herself and The Well of Loneliness  When Ellis bowed out as the star witness in the trial of The Well of Loneliness on 14 May 1928, Norman Haire was set to replace him but no witnesses were called 

Eonism
Ellis studied what today are called transgender phenomena  Together with Magnus Hirschfeld, Havelock Ellis is considered a major figure in the history of sexology to establish a new category that was separate and distinct from homosexuality  Aware of Hirschfeld's studies of transvestism, but disagreeing with his terminology, in 1913 Ellis proposed the term sexo-aesthetic inversion to describe the phenomenon  In 1920 he coined the term eonism, which he derived from the name of a historical figure, the Chevalier d'Éon  Ellis explained:
On the psychic side, as I view it, the Eonist is embodying, in an extreme degree, the aesthetic attitude of imitation of, and identification with, the admired object  It is normal for a man to identify himself with the woman he loves  The Eonist carries that identification too far, stimulated by a sensitive and feminine element in himself which is associated with a rather defective virile sexuality on what may be a neurotic basis 
Ellis found eonism to be "a remarkably common anomaly", and "next in frequency to homosexuality among sexual deviations", and categorized it as "among the transitional or intermediate forms of sexuality"  As in the Freudian tradition, Ellis postulated that a "too close attachment to the mother" may encourage eonism, but also considered that it "probably invokes some defective endocrine balance" 

Marriage
In November 1891, at the age of 32, and reportedly still a virgin, Ellis married the English writer and proponent of women's rights Edith Lees  From the beginning, their marriage was unconventional, as Edith Lees was openly bisexual  At the end of the honeymoon, Ellis went back to his bachelor rooms in Paddington  She lived at Fellowship House  Their "open marriage" was the central subject in Ellis's autobiography, My Life  Ellis reportedly had an affair with Margaret Sanger According to Ellis in My Life, his friends were much amused at his being considered an expert on sex  Some knew that he reportedly suffered from impotence until the age of 60  He then discovered that he could become aroused by the sight of a woman urinating  Ellis named this "undinism"  After his wife died, Ellis formed a relationship with a French woman, Françoise Lafitte 

Eugenics
Ellis was a supporter of eugenics  He served as vice-president to the Eugenics Education Society and wrote on the subject, among others, in The Task of Social Hygiene:

Eventually, it seems evident, a general system, whether private or public, whereby all personal facts, biological and mental, normal and morbid, are duly and systematically registered, must become inevitable if we are to have a real guide as to those persons who are most fit, or most unfit to carry on the race 
The superficially sympathetic man flings a coin to the beggar; the more deeply sympathetic man builds an almshouse for him so he need no longer beg; but perhaps the most radically sympathetic of all is the man who arranges that the beggar shall not be born 
In his early writings, it was clear that Ellis concurred with the notion that there was a system of racial hierarchies, and that non-western cultures were considered to be "lower races"  Before explicitly talking about eugenic topics, he used the prevalence of homosexuality in these 'lower races' to indicate the universality of the behavior  In his work, Sexual Inversions, where Ellis presented numerous cases of homosexuality in Britain, he was always careful to mention the race of the subject and the health of the person's 'stock', which included their neuropathic conditions and the health of their parents  However, Ellis was clear to assert that he did not feel that homosexuality was an issue that eugenics needed to actively deal with, as he felt that once the practice was accepted in society, those with homosexual tendencies would comfortably choose not to marry, and thus would cease to pass the 'homosexual heredity' along In a debate in the Sociological Society, Ellis corresponded with the eugenicist Francis Galton, who was presenting a paper in support of marriage restrictions  While Galton analogized eugenics to breeding domesticated animals, Ellis felt that a greater sense of caution was needed before applying the eugenic regulations to populations, as "we have scarcely yet realized how subtle and far-reaching hereditary influences are " Instead, because unlike domesticated animals, humans were in charge of who they mated with, Ellis argued that a greater emphasis was needed on public education about how vital this issue was  Ellis thus held much more moderate views than many contemporary eugenicists  In fact, Ellis also fundamentally disagreed with Galton's leading ideas that procreation restrictions were the same as marriage restrictions  Ellis believed that those who should not procreate should still be able to gain all the other benefits of marriage, and to not allow that was an intolerable burden  This, in his mind, was what led to eugenics being "misunderstood, ridiculed, and regarded as a fad" Throughout his life, Ellis was both a member and later a council member of the Eugenics Society  Moreover, he played a role on the General Committee of the First International Eugenics Congress 

Sexual impulse in youth
Ellis' 1933 book, Psychology of Sex, is one of the many manifestations of his interest in human sexuality  In this book, he goes into vivid detail of how children can experience sexuality differently in terms of time and intensity  He mentions that it was previously believed that, in childhood, humans had no sex impulse at all  "If it is possible to maintain that the sex impulse has no normal existence in early life, then every manifestation of it at that period must be 'perverse,'" he adds 
He continues by stating that, even in the early development and lower functional levels of the genitalia, there is a wide range of variation in terms of sexual stimulation  He claims that the ability of some infants producing genital reactions, seen as "reflex signs of irritation" are typically not vividly remembered  Since the details of these manifestations are not remembered, there is no possible way to determine them as pleasurable  However, Ellis claims that many people of both sexes can recall having agreeable sensations with the genitalia as a child  "They are not (as is sometimes imagined) repressed " They are, however, not usually mentioned to adults  Ellis argues that they typically stand out and are remembered for the sole contrast of the intense encounter to any other ordinary experience Ellis claims that sexual self-excitement is known to happen at an early age  He references authors like Marc, Fonssagrives, and Perez in France, who published their findings in the nineteenth century  These "early ages" are not strictly limited to ages close to puberty, as can be seen in their findings  These authors provide cases for children of both sexes who have masturbated from the age of three or four  Ellis references Robie's findings that boys' first sex feelings appear between the ages of five and fourteen  For girls, this age ranges from eight to nineteen 
For both sexes, these first sexual experiences arise more frequently during the later years as opposed to the earlier years  Ellis then references G V  Hamilton's studies that found twenty percent of males and fourteen percent of females have pleasurable experiences with their sex organs before the age of six  This is only supplemented by Ellis' reference to Katharine Davis' studies, which found that twenty to twenty-nine percent of boys and forty-nine to fifty-one percent of girls were masturbating by the age of eleven  However, in the next three years after, boys' percentages exceeded those of girls 
Ellis also contributed to the idea of varying levels of sexual excitation  He asserts it is a mistake to assume all children are able to experience genital arousal or pleasurable erotic sensations  He proposes cases where an innocent child is led to believe that stimulation of the genitalia will result in a pleasurable erection  Some of these children may fail and not be able to experience this, either pleasure or an erection, until puberty  Ellis concludes, then, that children are capable of a "wide range of genital and sexual aptitude"  Ellis even considers ancestry as a contributions to different sexual excitation levels, stating that children of "more unsound heredity" and/or hypersexual parents are "more precociously excitable" 

Auto-eroticism
Ellis' views of auto-eroticism were very comprehensive, including much more than masturbation  Auto-eroticism, according to Ellis, includes a wide range of phenomena  Ellis states in his 1897 book Studies in the Psychology of Sex, that auto-eroticism ranges from erotic day-dreams, marked by a passivity shown by the subject, to "unshamed efforts at sexual self-manipulation witnessed among the insane" Ellis also argues that auto-erotic impulses can be heightened by bodily processes like menstrual flow  During this time, he says, women, who would otherwise not feel a strong propensity for auto-eroticism, increase their masturbation patterns  This trend is absent, however, in women without a conscious acceptance of their sexual feelings and in a small percentage of women suffering from a sexual or general ailment which result in a significant amount of "sexual anesthesia" Ellis also raises social concern over how auto-erotic tendencies affect marriages  He goes on to tying auto-eroticism to declining marriage rates  As these rates decline, he concludes that auto-eroticism will only increase in both amount and intensity for both men and women  Therefore, he states, this is an important issue to both the moralist and physician to investigate psychological underpinnings of these experiences and determine an attitude toward them 

Smell
Ellis believed that the sense of smell, although ineffective at long ranges, still contributes to sexual attraction, and therefore, to mate selection  In his 1905 book, Sexual selection in man, Ellis makes a claim for the sense of smell in the role of sexual selection  He asserts that while we have evolved out of a great necessity for the sense of smell, we still rely on our sense of smell with sexual selection  The contributions that smell makes in sexual attraction can even be heightened with certain climates  Ellis states that with warmer climates come a heightened sensitivity to sexual and other positive feelings of smell among normal populations  Because of this, he believes people are often delighted by odors in the East, particularly in India, in "Hebrew and Mohammedan lands"  Ellis then continues by describing the distinct odours in various races, noting that the Japanese race has the least intense of bodily odours  Ellis concludes his argument by stating, "On the whole, it may be said that in the usual life of man odours play a not inconsiderable part and raise problems which are not without interest, but that their demonstrable part in actual sexual selection is comparatively small "

Views on women and birth control
Ellis favoured feminism from a eugenic perspective, feeling that the enhanced social, economic, and sexual choices that feminism provided for women would result in women choosing partners who were more eugenically sound  In his view, intelligent women would not choose, nor be forced to marry and procreate with feeble-minded men 
Ellis viewed birth control as merely the continuation of an evolutionary progression, noting that natural progress has always consisted of increasing impediments to reproduction, which lead to a lower quantity of offspring, but a much higher quality of them  From a eugenic perspective, birth control was an invaluable instrument for the elevation of the race  However, Ellis noted that birth control could not be used randomly in a way that could have a detrimental impact by reducing conception, but rather needed to be used in a targeted manner to improve the qualities of certain 'stocks'  He observed that it was the 'superior stocks' who had knowledge of and used birth control while the 'inferior stocks' propagated without checks  Ellis's solution to this was a focus on contraceptives in education, as this would disseminate the knowledge in the populations that he felt needed them the most  Ellis argued that birth control was the only available way of making eugenic selection practicable, as the only other option was wide-scale abstention from intercourse for those who were 'unfit' 

Views on sterilization
Ellis was strongly opposed to the idea of castration of either sex for eugenic purposes  In 1909, regulations were introduced at the Cantonal Asylum in Bern which allowed those deemed 'unfit' or with strong sexual inclinations to be subject to mandatory sterilization  In a particular instance, several men and women, including epileptics and pedophiles, were castrated, some of whom voluntarily requested it  While the results were positive, in that none of the subjects were found guilty of any more sexual offences, Ellis remained staunchly opposed to the practice  His view on the origin of these inclinations was that sexual impulses do not reside in the sexual organs, but rather they persist in the brain  Moreover, he posited that the sexual glands provided an important source of internal secretions vital for the functioning of the organism, and thus the glands' removal could greatly injure the patient However, already in his time, Ellis was witness to the rise of vasectomies and ligatures of the Fallopian tubes, which performed the same sterilization without removing the whole organ  In these cases, Ellis was much more favorable, yet still maintaining that "sterilization of the unfit, if it is to be a practical and humane measure commanding general approval, must be voluntary on the part of the person undergoing it, and never compulsory " His opposition to such a system was not only rooted in morality  Rather, Ellis also considered the practicality of the situation, hypothesizing that if an already mentally unfit man is forced to undergo sterilization, he would only become more ill-balanced, and would end up committing more anti-social acts 
Though Ellis was never at ease with the idea of forced sterilizations, he was willing to find ways to circumvent that restriction  His focus was on the social ends of eugenics, and as a means to it, Ellis was in no way against 'persuading' 'volunteers' to undergo sterilization by withdrawing Poor Relief from them  While he preferred to convince those he deemed unfit using education, Ellis supported coercion as a tool  Furthermore, he supported adding ideas about eugenics and birth control to the education system in order to restructure society, and to promote social hygiene  For Ellis, sterilization seemed to be the only eugenic instrument that could be used on the mentally unfit  In fact, in his publication The Sterilization of the Unfit, Ellis argued that even institutionalization could not guarantee the complete prevention of procreation between the unfit, and thus, "the burdens of society, to say nothing of the race, are being multiplied  It is not possible to view sterilization with enthusiasm when applied to any class of people…but what, I ask myself, is the practical alternative?"

Psychedelics
Ellis was among the pioneering investigators of psychedelic drugs and the author of one of the first written reports to the public about an experience with mescaline, which he conducted on himself in 1896  He consumed a brew made of three Lophophora williamsii buds in the afternoon of Good Friday alone in his set of rooms in Temple, London  During the experience, lasting for about 24 hours, he noted a plethora of extremely vivid, complex, colourful, pleasantly smelling hallucinations, consisting both of abstract geometrical patterns and objects such as butterflies and other insects  He published the account of the experience in The Contemporary Review in 1898 (Mescal: A New Artificial Paradise)  The title of the article alludes to an earlier work on the effects of mind-altering substances, an 1860 book Les Paradis artificiels by French poet Charles Baudelaire (containing descriptions of experiments with opium and hashish) 
Ellis was so impressed with the aesthetic quality of the experience that he gave some specimens of peyote to the Irish poet W B  Yeats, a member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, an organisation of which another mescaline researcher, Aleister Crowley, was also a member 

Later life and death
Ellis resigned from his position as a Fellow of the Eugenics Society over its stance on sterilization in January 1931 Ellis spent the last year of his life at Hintlesham, Suffolk, where he died in July 1939  His ashes were scattered at Golders Green Crematorium, North London, following his cremation 

Works
The Criminal (1890)
The New Spirit (1890)
The Nationalisation of Health (1892)
Man and Woman: A Study of Secondary and Tertiary Sexual Characteristics (1894) (revised 1929)
Das konträre Geschlechtsgefühl (in German)  Leipzig: Wigand  1896  p  1  with J A  Symonds
Studies in the Psychology of Sex (1897–1928) six volumes (listed below)
Studies in the Psychology of Sex  Vol  1 The Evolution of Modesty, The Phenomena of Sexual Periodicity, Auto–Erotism  1897 
Affirmations (1898)
"Mescal: A New Artificial Paradise"  The Contemporary Review  LXXIII  1898 
The Nineteenth Century (1900)
Studies in the Psychology of Sex  Vol  2 Sexual Inversion  1900 
Studies in the Psychology of Sex  Vol  3 Analysis of the Sexual Impulse, Love and Pain, The Sexual Impulse in Women  1903 
A Study of British Genius (1904)
Studies in the Psychology of Sex  Vol  4 Sexual Selection in Man  1905 
Studies in the Psychology of Sex  Vol  5 Erotic Symbolism, The Mechanism of Detumescence, The Psychic State in Pregnancy  1906 
The Soul of Spain (1908)
"The sterilisation of the unfit"  The Eugenics Review  1 (3): 203–06  1909  PMC 2986668  PMID 21259474 
Studies in the Psychology of Sex  Vol  6 Sex in Relation to Society  1910 
The Problem of Race-Regeneration (1911)
The World of Dreams (1911) (new edition 1926)
The task of social hygiene  New York  1912  p  10 
"Birth control and eugenics"  The Eugenics Review  9 (1): 32–41  1917  PMC 2942166  PMID 21259632 
The Task of Social Hygiene (1912)
Essays in War-Time  February 2006 
The Philosophy of Conflict (1919)
On Life and Sex: Essays of Love and Virtue (1921)
Kanga Creek: an Australian Idyll  The Golden Cockerel press  1922 
Little Essays of Love and Virtue (1922)
The Dance of Life  1923 
Impressions and Comments  Vol  3  1924 
Sonnets, with Folk Songs from the Spanish (1925)
Eonism and Other Supplementary Studies (1928)
Studies in the Psychology of Sex Vol  7 (1928)
The Art of Life (1929) (selected and arranged by Mrs  S  Herbert)
More Essays of Love and Virtue (1931)
ed : James Hinton: Life in Nature (1931)
Views and Reviews  1932 
Psychology of Sex  1933 
ed : Imaginary Conversations and Poems: A Selection, by Walter Savage Landor (1933)
Chapman (1934)
My Confessional (1934)
Questions of Our Day (1934)
From Rousseau to Proust (1935)
Selected Essays (1936)
Poems (1937) (selected by John Gawsworth; pseudonym of T  Fytton Armstrong)
Love and Marriage (1938) (with others)
My life  Houghton Mufflin  1939 
Sex Compatibility in Marriage (1939)
From Marlowe to Shaw (1950) (ed  by J  Gawsworth)
The Genius of Europe (1950)
Sex and Marriage (1951) (ed  by J  Gawsworth)
The Unpublished Letters of Havelock Ellis to Joseph Ishill (1954)

Translations
Germinal (by Zola) (1895) (reissued 1933)
The Psychology of the Emotions by Théodule-Armand Ribot (1897)



ground_truth: writer