prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: 1956 Night Series Cup games were played at what inner suburb of Melbourne that is 3km south of Melbourne's central business district?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
1961 Night Series Cup
The 1961 VFL Night Premiership Cup was the Victorian Football League end of season cup competition played in August and September of the 1961 VFL Premiership Season  This was the sixth season of the VFL Night Series  Run as a knock-out tournament, it was contested by the eight VFL teams that failed to make the 1961 VFL finals series  Games were played at the Lake Oval, Albert Park, then the home ground of South Melbourne, as it was the only ground equipped to host night games  Geelong won its first night series cup defeating North Melbourne in the final by 12 points 

Games
Round 1
Semifinals
Final
See also
List of Australian Football League night premiers
1961 VFL season

External links
1961 VFL Night Premiership - detailed review including quarter-by-quarter scores, best players and goalkickers for each match
Passage 2:
1971 Heinz Cup
The 1971 VFL H J  Heinz Night Premiership was the Victorian Football League end of season cup competition played in September of the 1971 VFL Premiership Season  Run as a knock-out tournament, it was contested by the eight VFL teams that failed to make the 1971 VFL finals series  Games were played at the Lake Oval, Albert Park, then the home ground of South Melbourne, as it was the only ground equipped to host night games  It was the 16th and last VFL Night Series competition, with the series disbanded the following year due to waning interest and the introduction of the final five in the premiership competition  Melbourne won its first night series cup defeating Fitzroy in the final by 16 points 

Games
Round 1
Semi-finals
Final
See also
List of Australian Football League night premiers
1971 VFL season
Passage 3:
1965 Golden Fleece Cup
The 1965 VFL Golden Fleece Night Premiership was the Victorian Football League end of season cup competition played in September of the 1965 VFL Premiership Season  Run as a knock-out tournament, it was contested by the eight VFL teams that failed to make the 1965 VFL finals series  It was the tenth VFL Night Series competition  Games were played at the Lake Oval, Albert Park, then the home ground of South Melbourne, as it was the only ground equipped to host night games  This was the first time the Night Series cup had a naming rights sponsor in Golden Fleece petroleum products  North Melbourne won its first night series cup defeating Carlton in the final by 40 points 

Games
Round 1
Semi-finals
Final
See also
List of Australian Football League night premiers
1965 VFL season

External links
1965 VFL Night Premiership - detailed review including quarter-by-quarter scores, best players and goalkickers for each match
Passage 4:
1956 Night Series Cup
The 1956 VFL Night Premiership Cup was the Victorian Football League end of season cup competition played between the eight teams that didn't make the finals of that season  It was held between 23 August to 17 September 1956 with games being played at the Lake Oval, home ground of South Melbourne as it was the only ground equipped to host night games 
Eight teams played in the first competition with the final seeing an attendance of 32,450 as South Melbourne defeated Carlton in the final by 6 points (13 16 94 to 13 10 88) 

Games
Quarterfinals
The opening match of the 1956 edition saw South Melbourne record the first victory of the new competition by 20 points over St Kilda  But the match was remembered for the brawl that happened in the third quarter which featured all of the players, umpires and some spectators in scenes not since the 1945 VFL Grand Final between Carlton and South Melbourne  The following match which was played five days later saw a surprise victory by North Melbourne who defeated Essendon by two points with North Melbourne leading at every change to get the win  Richmond and Carlton also recorded narrow wins over Hawthorn and Fitzroy in the remaining two quarter-finals which was played on 30 August and the 4 September 

Semifinals
The semi-finals began on the 6 September with South Melbourne taking on North Melbourne  In another tight tussle between the teams, it was not until late on in the final quarter with the usage of the wind that South Melbourne would take the win with a goal from Monks sealing the five point victory  In the second semi-final, an attendance of 25,500 saw Carlton win the match by 12 points in what The Age called fast, rugged and exciting football with Carlton leading at each break to record the victory 

Final
The final of the 1956 edition was played on the 17 September 1956 between South Melbourne and Carlton  With an attendance of 32,450 watching the match, South Melbourne's win was credited in the second quarter when they outscored Carlton 4 2 to 0 3 to open up a thirty-one point lead  Carlton tried to come back into the match throughout the final quarter and had a chance to take the lead but a dropped pass from Hands would give South Melbourne the win by six points and become the first winners of the Night Series Cup 

See also
List of Australian Football League night premiers
1956 VFL season
Passage 5:
1958 Night Series Cup
The 1958 VFL Night Premiership Cup was the Victorian Football League end of season cup competition played in August and September of the 1958 VFL Premiership Season  This was the third year the VFL Night Series had existed  In last years competition, each of the day finalists were duly defeated upon entry and their addition to the competition resulted in a drawn-out and complicated fixture of matches  The VFL thus elected to return to the original format for this year's competition as previously used in the 1956 Night Series Cup  Run as a knock-out tournament, it was contested by the eight VFL teams that failed to make the 1958 VFL finals series  Games were played at the Lake Oval, Albert Park, then the home ground of South Melbourne, as it was the only ground equipped to host night games  St Kilda went on to win the night series cup, defeating Carlton in the final by 8 points 

Games
Round 1
Semifinals
Final
See also
List of Australian Football League night premiers
1958 VFL season

External links
1958 VFL Night Premiership - detailed review including quarter-by-quarter scores, best players and goalkickers for each match
Passage 6:
1960 Night Series Cup
The 1960 VFL Night Premiership Cup was the Victorian Football League end of season cup competition played in September of the 1960 VFL Premiership Season  This was the fifth season of the VFL Night Series  Run as a knock-out tournament, it was contested by the eight VFL teams that failed to make the 1960 VFL finals series  Games were played at the Lake Oval, Albert Park, then the home ground of South Melbourne, as it was the only ground equipped to host night games  South Melbourne went on to win the night series cup for the third time, defeating Hawthorn in the final by 13 points 

Games
Round 1
Semifinals
Final
See also
List of Australian Football League night premiers
1960 VFL season

External links
1960 VFL Night Premiership - detailed review including quarter-by-quarter scores, best players and goalkickers for each match
Passage 7:
Albert Park, Victoria
Albert Park is an inner suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, 4 km (2 5 mi) south of Melbourne's Central Business District  The suburb is named after Albert Park, a large lakeside urban park located within the City of Port Phillip local government area  Albert Park recorded a population of 6,044 at the 2021 census The suburb of Albert Park extends from the St Vincent Gardens to Beaconsfield Parade and Mills Street  It was settled residentially as an extension of Emerald Hill (South Melbourne)  It is characterised by wide streets, heritage buildings, terraced houses, open air cafes, parks and significant stands of mature exotic trees, including Canary Island Date Palm and London Planes 
The Albert Park Circuit has been home to the Australian Grand Prix since 1996, with the exception of 2020–2021 due to the COVID-19 lockdowns 

History
Indigenous Australians first inhabited the area that is now Albert Park around 40,000 years ago  The area was a series of swamps and lagoons  The main park after which the suburb was named was declared a public park and named in 1864 to honour Queen Victoria's consort, Prince Albert Albert Park was used as a garbage dump, a military camp and for recreation before the artificial lake was built  In 1854 a land-subdivision survey was done from Park Street, South Melbourne, to the northern edge of the parkland (Albert Road)  St Vincent Gardens were laid out and the surrounding streets home to the city's most successful citizens  Street names commemorated Trafalgar and Crimean War personalities 

Heritage Victoria notes that Albert Park's St Vincent Gardens "is historically important as the premier 'square' development in Victoria based on similar models in London  It is significant as the largest development of its type in Victoria and for its unusual development as gardens rather than the more usual small park" and "was first laid out in 1854 or 55, probably by Andrew Clarke, the Surveyor-General of Victoria  The current layout is the work of Clement Hodgkinson, the noted surveyor, engineer and topographer, who adapted the design in 1857 to allow for its intersection by the St Kilda railway line  The precinct, which in its original configuration extended from Park Street in the north to Bridport Street in the south and from Howe Crescent in the east to Nelson Road and Cardigan Street in the west, was designed to emulate similar 'square' developments in London, although on a grander scale  The main streets were named after British naval heroes  The development of the special character of St Vincent Place has been characterised, since the first land sales in the 1860s, by a variety of housing stock, which has included quality row and detached houses and by the gardens which, although they have been continuously developed, remain faithful to the initial landscape concept "
St Vincent's is a garden of significant mature tree specimens  It is registered with the National Trust and is locally significant for the social focus the gardens provide to the neighbourhood  Activities in the park range from relaxing walks, siestas to organised sports competition  The Albert Park Lawn Bowls Club was established in 1873 and the Tennis Club established 1883, on the site of an earlier croquet ground 

Geography
Albert Park features part of the massive Albert Park and Lake (formerly South Park in the 19th century until it was also renamed after Prince Albert) and is located nearby  It is a significant state park managed by Parks Victoria  It is also known as the site of the Albert Park Circuit 

Commercial centres
Commercial centres include Bridport Street, with its cafes and shops and Victoria Avenue, known for its cafes, delicatessens and boutiques 

Beach areas
Albert Park has a long beach frontage, with several distinctive features, including many grand buildings (such as the Victoria Hotel, a grand hotel and former coffee palace, now café bar, built in 1887) and Victorian terrace homes; Kerferd Kiosk, an iconic Edwardian bathing pavilion and Kerferd Pier, which terminates Kerferd Road and is a jetty onto Port Phillip, used for fishing by many and sharks have occasionally been found around it 

Albert Park and Lake
The lake is popular with strollers, runners and cyclists  Dozens of small yachts sail around the lake on sunny days  Only the north eastern part of the park and lake is actually in the suburb, the rest is in the neighbouring suburbs of South Melbourne, Melbourne, Middle Park and St Kilda 

Demographics
At the 2016 census, Albert Park had a population of 6,215  66 2% of people were born in Australia  The next most common countries of birth were England 5 4%, Greece 4 0% and New Zealand 2 5%  74 2% of people only spoke English at home  Other languages spoken at home included Greek at 8 0%  The most common responses for religion were No Religion 39 3% and Catholic 18 4% 

Housing
Albert Park is composed mainly of Victorian terrace and semi-detached housing  Many residential areas are in heritage overlays to protect their character  Boyd Street, a leafy backstreet near Middle Park, is a fine example of this 

Transport
Beaconsfield Parade is the main beachside thoroughfare, between St Kilda and Port Melbourne, which runs along the Port Phillip foreshore  Richardson Street and Canterbury Road follows a similar inland route south to St Kilda  The main road arterial is Kerferd Road, a wide boulevard lined with elm trees and a central reservation, which connects from South Melbourne's Albert Road  Pickles Street, Victoria Avenue and Mills Street are the main roads running west and east toward South Melbourne 
Several tram routes service Albert Park; Route 1 along Victoria Avenue, Route 12 along Mills Street and Route 96 on a reservation parallel to Canterbury Road 
Until 1987, Albert Park was serviced by the St Kilda railway line, with Albert Park railway station being located at Bridport Street  The line has since been converted to serve trams, and forms a large part of the Route 96 tram line 
CDC Melbourne's Route 606 runs through the suburb  There are segregated cycle facilities along the beach and Canterbury Roads, with marked bicycle lanes elsewhere 

Sport
The suburb has been home to the Formula One Australian Grand Prix since 1996  The Albert Park Circuit runs on public roads  The choice of Albert Park as a Grand Prix venue was controversial, with protests by the Save Albert Park group  In preparing the Reserve for the race existing trees were cut down and replaced during landscaping, roads were upgraded, and facilities were replaced  Both major political parties support the event  The Melbourne Supercars Championship is also held on the same circuit 
Albert Park is the home of soccer club South Melbourne FC who play out of Lakeside Stadium; aptly named due to its positioning next to Albert Park Lake  Lakeside Stadium (known then as Bob Jane Stadium) was redeveloped in 2010 to include an international standard athletics track, as well as new grandstands and administrative facilities, and is also the home of the Victorian Institute of Sport  The stadium was built on the site of the old Lake Oval, which was an historic Australian rules football venue for the South Melbourne Football Club 
The Melbourne Sports & Aquatic Centre (MSAC) is a large swimming centre, which hosted squash, swimming, diving events and table tennis during the 2006 Commonwealth Games  The MSAC is also the home of the Melbourne Tigers that play in the South East Australian Basketball League 
In December 2006 polo returned to Albert Park Reserve after an absence of 100 years 
Albert Park is home to a parkrun event  The event at Albert Park is held at 8am every Saturday and starts in the Coot Picnic area, opposite the MSAC 

Notable residents
Hilda and Laurel Armstrong – 'The Vegemite Girls', sisters who coined the name of the iconic Australian food spread in 1923
Mae Busch (1891–1946) – actress, co-star in the films of famous Hollywood comedy duo Laurel and Hardy
Roy Cazaly (1893–1963) – Australian rules football legend [birthplace]
Noel Jack Counihan (1913–1986) – artist and revolutionary, made social realist art in response to the political and social issues of his times
John Danks (1828–1902) – businessman, manufacturer, councillor, benefactor; Danks Street named after him
Private Edward "Eddie" Leonski [US Army] (1917–1942) – infamous serial killer; during World War II was stationed in Melbourne and murdered three women  Was hanged for the crimes on 9 November 1942  His first victim, Ivy McLeod, was found beaten and strangled in a doorway in Albert Park, killed by Leonski after he drank whisky all morning and afternoon at the Bleak House Hotel (aka Beach House Hotel)
Walter Lindrum (1898–1960) – world-famous billiards player, regarded as the greatest ever to play the game
Likely Herman "Like" McBrien (1892–1956) – leading Australian Rules football administrator and politician
Ernest McIntyre (1921–2003) – Australian rules footballer [birthplace]
Allan McLean (1840–1911) – pastoralist, station agent, politician; 19th Premier of Victoria in 1899; elected to the first Commonwealth Parliament in 1901
Albert Monk (1900–1975) – union and labour leader; during World War Two was concurrent president of the ACTU & Trades Hall Council & ALP Victorian branch; seminally influenced the growth of the ACTU as Australia's peak trade union organization  His house was in Kerferd Road
King O'Malley (1858–1953) – politician, influential in the establishment of the Commonwealth Bank and the selection of Canberra as the national capital
Alex Lahey, singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist who was born and raised in Albert Park

See also
City of South Melbourne – Albert Park was previously within this former local government area 
Passage 8:
1957 Night Series Cup
The 1957 VFL Night Premiership Cup was the Victorian Football League end of season cup competition played in August, September and October of the 1957 VFL Premiership Season  This was the second edition that the VFL Night Series had existed with the competition expanding to feature all twelve teams  The games were being played at the Lake Oval, Albert Park, then the home ground of South Melbourne, as it was the only ground equipped to host night games 
In the final, South Melbourne took out their second night series cup, defeating Geelong by 51 points (15 13 103 to 8 4 52)  This would later be the only edition until 1977 to feature all twelve teams at the time 

Games
Round 1
Round 2
Semifinals
Final
See also
List of Australian Football League night premiers
1957 VFL season
Passage 9:
1966 Golden Fleece Cup
The 1966 VFL Golden Fleece Night Premiership was the Victorian Football League end of season cup competition played in September of the 1966 VFL Premiership Season  Run as a knock-out tournament, it was contested by the eight VFL teams that failed to make the 1966 VFL finals series  It was the eleventh VFL Night Series competition  Games were played at the Lake Oval, Albert Park, then the home ground of South Melbourne, as it was the only ground equipped to host night games  North Melbourne won its second night series cup in a row defeating Hawthorn in the final by 53 points 
Three rule changes, all of which were eventually permanently adopted in the VFL, were trialled during this series:,
A free kick was awarded against a player if the ball was kicked out of bounds on the full  Adopted in 1969 
A 50yd square was drawn in the centre of the ground, and no more than four players from each team were allowed within the square during a centre bounce; this was to reduce congestion at centre bounces  Adopted in a modified form in 1973 
The number of boundary umpires was increased from two to four  Adopted in 2008 

Games
Round 1
Semi-finals
Final
See also
List of Australian Football League night premiers
1966 VFL season
Passage 10:
1967 Golden Fleece Cup
The 1967 VFL Golden Fleece Night Premiership was the Victorian Football League end of season cup competition played in August and September of the 1967 VFL Premiership Season  Run as a knock-out tournament, it was contested by the eight VFL teams that failed to make the 1967 VFL finals series  It was the twelfth VFL Night Series competition  Games were played at the Lake Oval, Albert Park, then the home ground of South Melbourne, as it was the only ground equipped to host night games  Footscray won its third night series cup defeating South Melbourne in the final by 45 points 

Games
Round 1
Semi-finals
Final
See also
List of Australian Football League night premiers
1967 VFL season

External links
1967 VFL Night Premiership - detailed review including quarter-by-quarter scores, best players and goalkickers for each match
Context 2: Passage 1:
Gary L  Bennett
Gary L  Bennett (born January 17, 1940) is an American scientist and engineer, specializing in aerospace and energy   He has worked for NASA and the US Department of Energy (DOE) on advanced space power systems and advanced space propulsion systems   His professional career has included work on the Voyager, Galileo, and Ulysses space missions, and is currently working as a consultant in aerospace power and propulsion systems  He is also a science fiction author (The Star Sailors) 

Biography
Bennett was born in Twin Falls, Idaho  He joined the NASA headquarters in June 1988 as the Manager of Advanced Space Power Systems in the transportation division of the Office of Advanced Concepts and Technology  There, he managed a number of transportation technology programs including hybrid propulsion, electric propulsion, low-thrust chemical propulsion, and other advanced propulsion concepts (e g , fusion, antimatter)  He was also the first program manager of the advanced technology insertion program for the Pluto Fast Flyby (now New Horizons) mission and the TIMED space physics mission 
Prior to coming to NASA, Bennett held key positions in DoE's space radioisotope power program, including serving as Director of Safety and Nuclear Operations for the radioisotope power sources that were used on the Galileo mission to Jupiter and that are being used on the Ulysses mission to explore the polar regions of the Sun   This same radioisotope power source design was then flown on the Cassini mission to Saturn and on the New Horizons mission to Jupiter 
Previous positions included Chief of the Research Support Branch in the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) where Bennett was instrumental in creating and managing NRC's reactor operational safety research program 
Bennett was the flight safety manager for the radioisotope power sources currently in use on the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft (which went to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and beyond) and on Lincoln Laboratory's LES 8 and LES 9 communications satellites 
Bennett also worked as a physicist in the NERVA (Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Applications) program at what was then NASA's Lewis Research Center (now the John H  Glenn Research Center) in Cleveland, Ohio   He did fundamental reactor safety research at what is now the Department of Energy's Idaho National Laboratory (INL) 
From 1980 to 1988, he was a member of or adviser to US delegations to the two subcommittees of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and he prepared the official US position papers on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space 
From 1988 to 1990, Bennett chaired the Steering Group of the Interagency Advanced Power Group (IAPG), the national coordinating group for federally sponsored space and terrestrial power research   During his tenure and under his initiative the IAPG saw its greatest increase in membership 
Bennett received his PhD in physics from Washington State University in 1970; a Master of Nuclear Science degree in 1966, and a BSc degree in physics from the University of Idaho in 1962; and an Associate of Arts degree from Boise Junior College (now Boise State University) in 1960 
Since 1995, he has been active in promoting the teaching of science (specifically evolution) and received the Friend of Darwin Award  Bennett has also been a champion of the First Amendment and was elected to the National Advisory Council of Americans United for Separation of Church and State 

Selected works
Bennett has authored or coauthored over 160 technical papers, reports and articles on power, propulsion, and space missions 
Science fiction

G L  Bennett (1980)  The Star Sailors  ISBN 978-0-312-75582-9 Chapters in:

M S  El-Genk (1997)  A Critical Review of Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion, 1984-1993  ISBN 978-1-56396-317-9 
D M  Rowe (1995)  CRC Handbook of Thermoelectrics  ISBN 978-0-8493-0146-9 
R A  Meyers (2001)  Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology (3rd ed )  ISBN 978-0-12-227410-7 

Awards
In 2000, he received the Friend of Darwin Award by the National Center for Science Education
In 1996, he received the Schreiber-Spence Space Achievement Award for his leadership of the safety and nuclear operations for the Galileo and Ulysses radioisotope power source programs 
In 1995, he shared in the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) Aerospace Power Systems Award and Medal for his leadership of the Ulysses radioisotope power source program 
In 1994, he received the Silver & Gold Award from the University of Idaho Alumni Association
In 1990, he received the Distinguished Alumnus Award from Boise State University

Associations
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (fellow)
American Physical Society (fellow)
British Interplanetary Society (fellow)
Passage 2:
Planetary protection
Planetary protection is a guiding principle in the design of an interplanetary mission, aiming to prevent biological contamination of both the target celestial body and the Earth in the case of sample-return missions  Planetary protection reflects both the unknown nature of the space environment and the desire of the scientific community to preserve the pristine nature of celestial bodies until they can be studied in detail There are two types of interplanetary contamination  Forward contamination is the transfer of viable organisms from Earth to another celestial body   Back contamination is the transfer of extraterrestrial organisms, if they exist, back to the Earth's biosphere 

History
The potential problem of lunar and planetary contamination was first raised at the International Astronautical Federation VIIth Congress in Rome in 1956 In 1958 the U S  National Academy of Sciences (NAS) passed a resolution stating, “The National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America urges that scientists plan lunar and planetary studies with great care and deep concern so that initial operations do not compromise and make impossible forever after critical scientific experiments ” This led to creation of the ad hoc Committee on Contamination by Extraterrestrial Exploration (CETEX), which met for a year and recommended that interplanetary spacecraft be sterilized, and stated, “The need for sterilization is only temporary  Mars and possibly Venus need to remain uncontaminated only until study by manned ships becomes possible” In 1959, planetary protection was transferred to the newly formed Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)  COSPAR in 1964 issued Resolution 26 affirming that:

the search for extraterrestrial life is an important objective of space research, that the planet of Mars may offer the only feasible opportunity to conduct this search during the foreseeable future, that contamination of this planet would make such a search far more difficult and possibly even prevent for all time an unequivocal result, that all practical steps should be taken to ensure that Mars be not biologically contaminated until such time as this search has been satisfactorily carried out, and that cooperation in proper scheduling of experiments and use of adequate spacecraft sterilization techniques is required on the part of all deep space probe launching authorities to avoid such contamination 
In 1967, the US, USSR, and UK ratified the United Nations Outer Space Treaty   The legal basis for planetary protection lies in Article IX of this treaty:
"Article IX:     States Parties to the Treaty shall pursue studies of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, and conduct exploration of them so as to avoid their harmful contamination and also adverse changes in the environment of the Earth resulting from the introduction of extraterrestrial matter and, where necessary, shall adopt appropriate measures for this purpose    
This treaty has since been signed and ratified by 104 nation-states  Another 24 have signed but not ratified   All the current space-faring nation-states, along with all current aspiring space-faring nation-states, have both signed and ratified the treaty The Outer Space Treaty has consistent and widespread international support, and as a result of this, together with the fact that it is based on the 1963 declaration which was adopted by consensus in the UN National Assembly, it has taken on the status of customary international law  The provisions of the Outer Space Treaty are therefore binding on all states, even those who have neither signed nor ratified it For forward contamination, the phrase to be interpreted is "harmful contamination"   Two legal reviews came to differing interpretations of this clause (both reviews were unofficial)  However the currently accepted interpretation is that “any contamination which would result in harm to a state’s experiments or programs is to be avoided”  NASA policy states explicitly that “the conduct of scientific investigations of possible extraterrestrial life forms, precursors, and remnants must not be jeopardized” 

COSPAR recommendations and categories
The Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) meets every two years, in a gathering of 2000 to 3000 scientists, and one of its tasks is to develop recommendations for avoiding interplanetary contamination  Its legal basis is Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty  (see history below for details) 
Its recommendations depend on the type of space mission and the celestial body explored   COSPAR categorizes the missions into 5 groups:

Category I: Any mission to locations not of direct interest for chemical evolution or the origin of life, such as the  Sun or Mercury  No planetary protection requirements 
Category II: Any mission to locations of significant interest for chemical evolution and the origin of life, but only a remote chance that spacecraft-borne contamination could compromise investigations  Examples include the Moon, Venus, and comets  Requires simple documentation only, primarily to outline intended or potential impact targets, and an end of mission report of any inadvertent impact site if such occurred 
Category III: Flyby and orbiter missions to locations of significant interest for chemical evolution or the origin of life, and with a significant chance that contamination could compromise investigations e g , Mars, Europa, Enceladus  Requires more involved documentation than Category II  Other requirements, depending on the mission, may include trajectory biasing, clean room assembly, bioburden reduction, and if impact is a possibility, inventory of organics 
Category IV: Lander or probe missions to the same locations as Category III  Measures to be applied depend on the target body and the planned operations  "Sterilization of the entire spacecraft may be required for landers and rovers with life-detection experiments, and for those landing in or moving to a region where terrestrial microorganisms may survive and grow, or where indigenous life may be present  For other landers and rovers, the requirements would be for decontamination and partial sterilization of the landed hardware "Missions to Mars in category IV are subclassified further:Category IVa  Landers that do not search for Martian life - uses the Viking lander pre-sterilization requirements, a maximum of 300,000 spores per spacecraft and 300 spores per square meter 
Category IVb  Landers that search for Martian life   Adds stringent extra requirements to prevent contamination of samples 
Category IVc  Any component that accesses a Martian special region (see below) must be sterilized to at least to the Viking post-sterilization biological burden levels of 30 spores total per spacecraft Category V: This is further divided into unrestricted and restricted sample return Unrestricted Category V: samples from locations judged by scientific opinion to have no indigenous lifeforms  No special requirements 
Restricted Category V: (where scientific opinion is unsure) the requirements include: absolute prohibition of destructive impact upon return, containment of all returned hardware which directly contacted the target body, and containment of any unsterilized sample returned to Earth For Category IV missions, a certain level of biological burden is allowed for the mission  In general this is expressed as a 'probability of contamination', required to be less than one chance in 10,000 of forward contamination per mission, but in the case of Mars Category IV missions (above) the requirement has been translated into a count of Bacillus spores per surface area, as an easy to use assay method More extensive documentation is also required for Category IV  Other procedures required, depending on the mission, may include trajectory biasing, the use of clean rooms during spacecraft assembly and testing, bioload reduction, partial sterilization of the hardware having direct contact with the target body, a bioshield for that hardware, and, in rare cases, complete sterilization of the entire spacecraft For restricted Category V missions, the current recommendation is that no uncontained samples should be returned unless sterilized  Since sterilization of the returned samples would destroy much of their science value, current proposals involve containment and quarantine procedures  For details, see Containment and quarantine below  Category V missions also have to fulfill the requirements of Category IV to protect the target body from forward contamination 

Mars special regions
A special region is a region classified by COSPAR where terrestrial organisms could readily propagate, or thought to have a high potential for existence of Martian life forms  This is understood to apply to any region on Mars where liquid water occurs, or can occasionally occur, based on the current understanding of requirements for life 
If a hard landing risks biological contamination of a special region, then the whole lander system must be sterilized to COSPAR category IVc 

Target categories
Some targets are easily categorized  Others are assigned provisional categories by COSPAR, pending future discoveries and research 
The 2009 COSPAR Workshop on Planetary Protection for Outer Planet Satellites and Small Solar System Bodies covered this in some detail  Most of these assessments are from that report, with some future refinements  This workshop also gave more precise definitions for some of the categories:

Category I
“not of direct interest for understanding the process of chemical evolution or the origin of life ” 
Io, Sun, Mercury, undifferentiated metamorphosed asteroids

Category II
… where there is only a remote chance that contamination carried by a spacecraft could jeopardize future exploration”  In this case we define “remote chance” as “the absence of niches (places where terrestrial microorganisms could proliferate) and/or a very low likelihood of transfer to those places ” 
Callisto, comets, asteroids of category P, D, and C, Venus, Kuiper belt objects (KBO) < 1/2 size of Pluto 

Provisional Category II
Ganymede, Titan, Triton, the Pluto–Charon system, and other large KBOs (> 1/2 size of Pluto), CeresProvisionally, they assigned these objects to Category II  However, they state that more research is needed, because there is a remote possibility that the tidal interactions of Pluto and Charon could maintain some water reservoir below the surface  Similar considerations apply to the other larger KBOs 
Triton is insufficiently well understood at present to say it is definitely devoid of liquid water  The only close up observations to date are those of Voyager 2 
In a detailed discussion of Titan, scientists concluded that there was no danger of contamination of its surface, except short term adding of negligible amounts of organics, but Titan could have a below surface water reservoir that communicates with the surface, and if so, this could be contaminated 
In the case of Ganymede, the question is, given that its surface shows pervasive signs of resurfacing, is there any communication with its subsurface ocean? They found no known mechanism by which this could happen, and the Galileo spacecraft found no evidence of cryovolcanism  Initially, they assigned it as Priority B minus, meaning that precursor missions are needed to assess its category before any surface missions  However, after further discussion they provisionally assigned it to Category II, so no precursor missions are required, depending on future research 
If there is cryovolcanism on Ganymede or Titan, the undersurface reservoir is thought to be 50 – 150 km below the surface  They were unable to find a process that could transfer the surface melted water back down through 50 km of ice to the under surface sea  This is why both Ganymede and Titan were assigned a reasonably firm provisional Category II, but pending results of future research 
Icy bodies that show signs of recent resurfacing need further discussion and might need to be assigned to a new category depending on future research  This approach has been applied, for instance, to missions to Ceres  The planetary protection Category is subject for review during the mission of the Ceres orbiter (Dawn) depending on the results found 

Category III / IV
“…where there is a significant chance that contamination carried by a spacecraft could jeopardize future exploration ” We define “significant chance” as “the presence of niches (places where terrestrial microorganisms could proliferate) and the likelihood of transfer to those places ” 
Mars because of possible subsurface habitats 
Europa because of its subsurface ocean 
Enceladus because of evidence of water plumes 

Category V
Unrestricted Category V: “Earth-return missions from bodies deemed by scientific opinion to have no indigenous life forms ”
Restricted Category V: "Earth-return missions from bodies deemed by scientific opinion to be of significant interest to the process of chemical evolution or the origin of life "
In the category V for sample return the conclusions so far are:
Unrestricted Category V: Venus, the Moon 
Restricted Category V: Mars, Europa, Enceladus 

The Coleman–Sagan equation
The aim of the current regulations is to keep the number of microorganisms low enough so that the probability of contamination of Mars (and other targets) is acceptable  It is not an objective to make the probability of contamination zero 
The aim is to keep the probability of contamination of 1 chance in 10,000 of contamination per mission flown  This figure is obtained typically by multiplying together the number of microorganisms on the spacecraft, the probability of growth on the target body, and a series of bioload reduction factors 
In detail the method used is the Coleman–Sagan equation 
  
    
      
        P
        
          c
        
      
      =
      
        N
        
          0
        
      
      R
      
        P
        
          S
        
      
      
        P
        
          t
        
      
      
        P
        
          R
        
      
      
        P
        
          g
        
      
    
    P_{c}=N_{0}RP_{S}P_{t}P_{R}P_{g}
   
where 

  
    
      N
      
        0
      
    
    N_{0}
   = the number of microorganisms on the spacecraft initially

  
    R
    R
   = Reduction due to conditions on spacecraft before and after launch

  
    
      P
      
        S
      
    
    P_{S}
   = Probability that microorganisms on the spacecraft reach the surface of the planet

  
    
      P
      
        t
      
    
    P_{t}
   = Probability that spacecraft will hit the planet - this is 1 for a lander

  
    
      P
      
        R
      
    
    P_{R}
   = Probability of microorganism to be released in the environment when on the ground, usually set to 1 for crashlanding 

  
    
      P
      
        g
      
    
    P_{g}
   = Probability of growth  For targets with liquid water this is set to 1 for sake of the calculation Then the requirement is 
  
    
      
        P
        
          c
        
      
      <
      
        10
        
          −
          4
        
      
    
    P_{c}<10^{-4}
  
The 
  
    
      10
      
        −
        4
      
    
    10^{-4}
   is a number chosen by Sagan et al , somewhat arbitrarily  Sagan and Coleman assumed that about 60 missions to the Mars surface would occur before the exobiology of Mars is thoroughly understood, 54 of those successful, and 30 flybys or orbiters, and the number was chosen to endure a probability to keep the planet free from contamination of at least 99 9% over the duration of the exploration period 

Critiques
The Coleman–Sagan equation has been criticised because the individual parameters are often not known to better than a magnitude or so  For example, the thickness of the surface ice of Europa is unknown, and may be thin in places, which can give rise to a high level of uncertainty in the equation  It has also been criticised because of the inherent assumption made of an end to the protection period and future human exploration  In the case of Europa, this would only protect it with reasonable probability for the duration of the period of exploration Greenberg has suggested an alternative, to use the natural contamination standard — that our missions to Europa should not have a higher chance of contaminating it than the chance of contamination by meteorites from Earth 
As long as the probability of people infecting other planets with terrestrial microbes is substantially smaller than the probability that such contamination happens naturally, exploration activities would, in our view, be doing no harm  We call this concept the natural contamination standard 
Another approach for Europa is the use of binary decision trees which is favoured by the Committee on Planetary Protection Standards for Icy Bodies in the Outer Solar System under the auspices of the Space Studies Board  This goes through a series of seven steps, leading to a final decision on whether to go ahead with the mission or not 
Recommendation: Approaches to achieving planetary protection should not rely on the multiplication of bioload estimates and probabilities to calculate the likelihood of contaminating Solar System bodies with terrestrial organisms unless scientific data unequivocally define the values, statistical variation, and mutual independence of every factor used in the equation Recommendation: Approaches to achieving planetary protection for missions to icy Solar System bodies should employ a series of binary decisions that consider one factor at a time to determine the appropriate level of planetary protection procedures to use 

Containment and quarantine for restricted Category V sample return
In the case of restricted Category V missions, Earth would be protected through quarantine of sample and astronauts in a yet to be built Biosafety level 4 facility  In the case of a Mars sample return, missions would be designed so that no part of the capsule that encounters the Mars surface is exposed to the Earth environment  One way to do that is to enclose the sample container within a larger outer container from Earth, in the vacuum of space  The integrity of any seals is essential and the system must also be monitored to check for the possibility of micro-meteorite damage during return to Earth The recommendation of the ESF report is that
“No uncontained Mars materials, including space craft surfaces that have been exposed to the Mars environment should be returned to Earth unless sterilised"   "For unsterilised samples returned to Earth, a programme of life detection and biohazard testing, or a proven sterilisation process, shall be undertaken as an absolute precondition for the controlled distribution of any portion of the sample ”
No restricted category V returns have been carried out  During the Apollo program, the sample-returns were regulated through the Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law  This was rescinded in 1991, so new regulations would need to be enacted  The Apollo era quarantine procedures are of interest as the only attempt to date of a return to Earth of a sample that, at the time, was thought to have a remote possibility of including extraterrestrial life 
Samples and astronauts were quarantined in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory  The methods used would be considered inadequate for containment by modern standards  Also the lunar receiving laboratory would be judged a failure by its own design criteria as the sample return didn't contain the lunar material, with two failure points during the Apollo 11 return mission, at the splashdown and at the facility itself 
However the Lunar Receiving Laboratory was built quickly with only two years from start to finish, a time period now considered inadequate  Lessons learned from it can help with design of any Mars sample return receiving facility Design criteria for a proposed Mars Sample Return Facility, and for the return mission, have been developed by the American National Research Council, and the European Space Foundation  They concluded that it could be based on biohazard 4 containment but with more stringent requirements to contain unknown microorganisms possibly as small as or smaller than the smallest Earth microorganisms known, the ultramicrobacteria  The ESF study also recommended that it should be designed to contain the smaller gene transfer agents if possible, as these could potentially transfer DNA from martian microorganisms to terrestrial microorganisms if they have a shared evolutionary ancestry  It also needs to double as a clean room facility to protect the samples from terrestrial contamination that could confuse the sensitive life detection tests that would be used on the samples 
Before a sample return, new quarantine laws would be required  Environmental assessment would also be required, and various other domestic and international laws not present during the Apollo era would need to be negotiated 

Decontamination procedures
For all spacecraft missions requiring decontamination, the starting point is clean room assembly in US federal standard class 100 cleanrooms  These are rooms with fewer than 100 particles of size 0 5 µm or larger per cubic foot  Engineers wear cleanroom suits with only their eyes exposed  Components are sterilized individually before assembly, as far as possible, and they clean surfaces frequently with alcohol wipes during assembly  Spores of Bacillus subtilis was chosen for not only its ability to readily generate spores, but its well-established use as a model species  It is a useful tracker of UV irradiation effects because of its high resilience to a variety of extreme conditions  As such it is an important indicator species for forward contamination in the context of planetary protection 
For Category IVa missions (Mars landers that do not search for Martian life), the aim is to reduce the bioburden to 300,000 bacterial spores on any surface from which the spores could get into the Martian environment  Any heat tolerant components are heat sterilized to 114 °C  Sensitive electronics such as the core box of the rover including the computer, are sealed and vented through high-efficiency filters to keep any microbes inside For more sensitive missions such as Category IVc (to Mars special regions), a far higher level of sterilization is required  These need to be similar to levels implemented on the Viking landers, which were sterilized for a surface which, at the time, was thought to be potentially hospitable to life similar to special regions on Mars today 
In microbiology, it is usually impossible to prove that there are no microorganisms left viable, since many microorganisms are either not yet studied, or not cultivable  Instead, sterilization is done using a series of tenfold reductions of the numbers of microorganisms present  After a sufficient number of tenfold reductions, the chance that there any microorganisms left will be extremely low The two Viking Mars landers were sterilized using dry heat sterilization   After preliminary cleaning to reduce the bioburden to levels similar to present day Category IVa spacecraft, the Viking spacecraft were heat-treated for 30 hours at 112 °C, nominal 125 °C (five hours at 112 °C was considered enough to reduce the population tenfold even for enclosed parts of the spacecraft, so this was enough for a million-fold reduction of the originally low population) Modern materials however are often not designed to handle such temperatures, especially since modern spacecraft often use "commercial off the shelf" components  Problems encountered include nanoscale features only a few atoms thick, plastic packaging, and conductive epoxy attachment methods  Also many instrument sensors cannot be exposed to high temperature, and high temperature can interfere with critical alignments of instruments As a result, new methods are needed to sterilize a modern spacecraft to the higher categories such as Category IVc for Mars, similar to Viking  Methods under evaluation, or already approved, include:

Vapour phase hydrogen peroxide - effective, but can affect finishes, lubricants and materials that use aromatic rings and sulfur bonds  This has been established, reviewed, and a NASA/ESA specification for use of VHP has been approved by the Planetary Protection Officer, but it has not yet been formally published 
Ethylene oxide - this is widely used in the medical industry, and can be used for materials not compatible with hydrogen peroxide  It is under consideration for missions such as ExoMars 
Gamma radiation and electron beams have been suggested as a method of sterilization, as they are used extensively in the medical industry  They need to be tested for compatibility with spacecraft materials and hardware geometries, and are not yet ready for review Some other methods are of interest as they can sterilize the spacecraft after arrival on the planet 
Supercritical carbon dioxide snow (Mars) - is most effective against traces of organic compounds rather than whole microorganisms  Has the advantage though that it eliminates the organic traces - while other methods kill the microorganisms, they leave organic traces that can confuse life detection instruments  Is under study by JPL and ESA 
Passive sterilization through UV radiation (Mars)  Highly effective against many microorganisms, but not all, as a Bacillus strain found in spacecraft assembly facilities is particularly resistant to UV radiation  Is also complicated by possible shadowing by dust and spacecraft hardware 
Passive sterilization through particle fluxes (Europa)  Plans for missions to Europa take credit for reductions due to this 

Bioburden detection and assessment
The spore count is used as an indirect measure of the number of microorganisms present  Typically 99% of microorganisms by species will be non-spore forming and able to survive in dormant states, and so the actual number of viable dormant microorganisms remaining on the sterilized spacecraft is expected to be many times the number of spore-forming microorganisms 
One new spore method approved is the "Rapid Spore Assay"  This is based on commercial rapid assay systems, detects spores directly and not just viable microorganisms and gives results in 5 hours instead of 72 hours 

Challenges
It is also long been recognized that spacecraft cleaning rooms harbour polyextremophiles as the only microbes able to survive in them  For example, in a recent study, microbes from swabs of the Curiosity rover were subjected to desiccation, UV exposure, cold and pH extremes  Nearly 11% of the 377 strains survived more than one of these severe conditions  The genomes of resistant spore producing Bacillus sp  have been studied and genome level traits potentially linked to the resistance have been reported This does not mean that these microbes have contaminated Mars  This is just the first stage of the process of bioburden reduction  To contaminate Mars they also have to survive the low temperature, vacuum, UV and ionizing radiation during the months long journey to Mars, and then have to encounter a habitat on Mars and start reproducing there  Whether this has happened or not is a matter of probability  The aim of planetary protection is to make this probability as low as possible  The currently accepted target probability of contamination per mission is to reduce it to less than 0 01%, though in the special case of Mars, scientists also rely on the hostile conditions on Mars to take the place of the final stage of heat treatment decimal reduction used for Viking  But with current technology scientists cannot reduce probabilities to zero 

New methods
Two recent molecular methods have been approved for assessment of microbial contamination on 
spacecraft surfaces 
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) detection - this is a key element in cellular metabolism  This method is able to detect non cultivable organisms  It can also be triggered by non viable biological material so can give a "false positive" 
Limulus Amebocyte Lysate assay - detects lipopolysaccharides (LPS)  This compound is only present in Gram-negative bacteria  The standard assay analyses spores from microbes that are primarily Gram-positive, making it difficult to relate the two methods 

Impact prevention
This particularly applies to orbital missions, Category III, as they are sterilized to a lower standard than missions to the surface  It is also relevant to landers, as an impact gives more opportunity for forward contamination, and impact could be on an unplanned target, such as a special region on Mars 
The requirement for an orbital mission is that it needs to remain in orbit for at least 20 years after arrival at Mars with probability of at least 99% and for 50 years with probability at least 95%  This requirement can be dropped if the mission is sterilized to Viking sterilization standard In the Viking era (1970s), the requirement was given as a single figure, that any orbital mission should have a probability of less than 0 003% probability of impact during the current exploratory phase of exploration of Mars For both landers and orbiters, the technique of trajectory biasing is used during approach to the target  The spacecraft trajectory is designed so that if communications are lost, it will miss the target 

Issues with impact prevention
Despite these measures there has been one notable failure of impact prevention  The Mars Climate Orbiter which was sterilized only to Category III, crashed on Mars in 1999 due to a mix-up of imperial and metric units  The office of planetary protection stated that it is likely that it burnt up in the atmosphere, but if it survived to the ground, then it could cause forward contamination Mars Observer is another Category III mission with potential planetary contamination  Communications were lost three days before its orbital insertion maneuver in 1993  It seems most likely it did not succeed in entering into orbit around Mars and simply continued past on a heliocentric orbit  If it did succeed in following its automatic programming, and attempted the manoeuvre, however, there is a chance it crashed on Mars Three landers have had hard landings on Mars   These are Schiaparelli EDM lander, the Mars Polar Lander, and Deep Space 2  These were all sterilized for surface missions but not for special regions (Viking pre-sterilization only)  Mars Polar Lander, and Deep Space 2 crashed into the polar regions which are now treated as special regions because of the possibility of forming liquid brines 

Controversies
Meteorite argument
Alberto G  Fairén and Dirk Schulze-Makuch published an article in Nature recommending that planetary protection measures need to be scaled down  They gave as their main reason for this, that exchange of meteorites between Earth and Mars means that any life on Earth that could survive on Mars has already got there and vice versa Robert Zubrin used similar arguments in favour of his view that the back contamination risk has no scientific validity 

Rebuttal by NRC
The meteorite argument was examined by the NRC in the context of back contamination  It is thought that all the Martian meteorites originate in relatively few impacts every few million years on Mars  The impactors would be kilometers in diameter and the craters they form on Mars tens of kilometers in diameter  Models of impacts on Mars are consistent with these findings Earth receives a steady stream of meteorites from Mars, but they come from relatively few original impactors, and transfer was more likely in the early Solar System  Also some life forms viable on both Mars and on Earth might be unable to survive transfer on a meteorite, and there is so far no direct evidence of any transfer of life from Mars to Earth in this way 
The NRC concluded that though transfer is possible, the evidence from meteorite exchange does not eliminate the need for back contamination protection methods Impacts on Earth able to send microorganisms to Mars are also infrequent



ground_truth: Albert Park

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Gary L. Bennett was a part of the space missions that have a primary destination of what celestial body?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  Impactors of 10 km across or larger can send debris to Mars through the Earth's atmosphere but these occur rarely, and were more common in the early Solar System 

Proposal to end planetary protection for Mars
In their 2013 paper "The Over Protection of Mars", Alberto Fairén and Dirk Schulze-Makuch suggested that we no longer need to protect Mars, essentially using Zubrin's meteorite transfer argument  This was rebutted in a follow up article "Appropriate Protection of Mars", in Nature by the current and previous planetary protection officers Catharine Conley and John Rummel 

Critique of Category V containment measures
The scientific consensus is that the potential for large-scale effects, either through pathogenesis or ecological disruption, is extremely small  Nevertheless, returned samples from Mars will be treated as potentially biohazardous until scientists can determine that the returned samples are safe  The goal is to reduce the probability of release of a Mars particle to less than one in a million 

Policy proposals
Non-biological contamination
A COSPAR workshop in 2010, looked at issues to do with protecting areas from non biological contamination  They recommended that COSPAR expand its remit to include such issues  Recommendations of the workshop include:

Recommendation 3 COSPAR should add a separate and parallel policy to provide guidance on requirements/best practices for protection of non-living/nonlife-related aspects of Outer Space and celestial bodies
Some ideas proposed include protected special regions, or "Planetary Parks" to keep regions of the Solar System pristine for future scientific investigation, and also for ethical reasons 

Proposed extensions
Astrobiologist Christopher McKay has argued that until we have better understanding of Mars, our explorations should be biologically reversible  For instance if all the microorganisms introduced to Mars so far remain dormant within the spacecraft, they could in principle be removed in the future, leaving Mars completely free of contamination from modern Earth lifeforms 
In the 2010 workshop one of the recommendations for future consideration was to extend the period for contamination prevention to the maximum viable lifetime of dormant microorganisms introduced to the planet 

"'Recommendation 4 ' COSPAR should consider that the appropriate protection of potential indigenous extraterrestrial life shall include avoiding the harmful contamination of any habitable environment —whether extant or foreseeable— within the maximum potential time of viability of any terrestrial organisms (including microbial spores) that may be introduced into that environment by human or robotic activity "
In the case of Europa, a similar idea has been suggested, that it is not enough to keep it free from contamination during our current exploration period  It might be that Europa is of sufficient scientific interest that the human race has a duty to keep it pristine for future generations to study as well  This was the majority view of the 2000 task force examining Europa, though there was a minority view of the same task force that such strong protection measures are not required 

"One consequence of this view is that Europa must be protected from contamination for an open-ended period, until it can be demonstrated that no ocean exists or that no organisms are present  Thus, we need to be concerned that over a time scale on the order of 10 million to 100 million years (an approximate age for the surface of Europa), any contaminating material is likely to be carried into the deep ice crust or into the underlying ocean "
In July 2018, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine issued a Review and Assessment of Planetary Protection Policy Development Processes  In part, the report urges NASA to create a broad strategic plan that covers both forward and back contamination  The report also expresses concern about private industry missions, for which there is no governmental regulatory authority 

Protecting objects beyond the Solar System
The proposal by the German physicist Claudius Gros, that the technology of the Breakthrough Starshot project may be utilized to establish a biosphere of unicellular organisms on otherwise only transiently habitable exoplanets, has sparked a discussion, to what extent planetary protection should be extended to exoplanets  Gros argues that the extended timescales of
interstellar missions imply that planetary and exoplanetary protection have different ethical groundings 

See also
Astrobiology – Science concerned with life in the universe
ExoMars – Astrobiology programme
List of microorganisms tested in outer space
Mars 2020 – Astrobiology Mars rover mission by NASA
Panspermia – Hypothesis on the interstellar spreading of primordial life
Passage 3:
Transit (astronomy)
In astronomy, a transit (or astronomical transit) is a phenomenon when a celestial body passes directly between a larger body and the observer  As viewed from a particular vantage point, the transiting body appears to move across the face of the larger body, covering a small portion of it The word "transit" refers to cases where the nearer object appears smaller than the more distant object  Cases where the nearer object appears larger and completely hides the more distant object are known as occultations 
However, the probability of seeing a transiting planet is low because it is dependent on the alignment of the three objects in a nearly perfectly straight line  Many parameters of  a planet and its parent star can be determined based on the transit 

In the Solar System
One example of a transit involves the motion of a planet between a terrestrial observer and the Sun  This can happen only with inferior planets, namely Mercury and Venus (see transit of Mercury and transit of Venus)  However, because a transit is dependent on the point of observation, the Earth itself transits the Sun if observed from Mars  In the solar transit by the Moon captured during calibration of the STEREO B spacecraft's ultraviolet imaging, the Moon appears much smaller than it does when seen from Earth, because the spacecraft–Moon separation was several times greater than the Earth–Moon distance 
The term can also be used to describe the motion of a satellite across its parent planet, for instance one of the Galilean satellites (Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto) across Jupiter, as seen from Earth 
Although rare, cases where four bodies are lined up do happen  One of these events occurred on 27 June 1586, when Mercury transited the Sun as seen from Venus at the same time as a transit of Mercury from Saturn and a transit of Venus from Saturn 

Notable observations
No missions were planned to coincide with the transit of Earth visible from Mars on 11 May 1984 and the Viking missions had been terminated a year previously  Consequently, the next opportunity to observe such an alignment will be in 2084 
On 21 December 2012, the Cassini–Huygens probe, in orbit around Saturn, observed the planet Venus transiting the Sun On 3 June 2014, the Mars rover Curiosity observed the planet Mercury transiting the Sun, marking the first time a planetary transit has been observed from a celestial body besides Earth 

Mutual planetary transits
In rare cases, one planet can pass in front of another  If the nearer planet appears smaller than the more distant one, the event is called a mutual planetary transit 

Outside the Solar System
Exoplanet Detection

The transit method can be used to discover exoplanets  As a planet eclipses/transits its host star it will block a portion of the light from the star  If the planet transits in-between the star and the observer the change in light can be measured to construct a light curve  Light curves are measured with a charge-coupled device  The light curve of a star can disclose several physical characteristics of the planet and star, such as density  Multiple transit events must be measured to determine the characteristics which tend to occur at regular intervals  Multiple planets orbiting the same host star can cause transit-timing variations (TTV)  TTV is caused by the gravitational forces of all orbiting bodies acting upon each other  The probability of seeing a transit from Earth is low, however  The probability is given by the following equation 

  
    
      
        
          P
          
            transit
          
        
        =
        (
        
          R
          
            star
          
        
        +
        
          R
          
            planet
          
        
        )
        
          /
        
        a
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle P_{\text{transit}}=(R_{\text{star}}+R_{\text{planet}})/a,}
  where Rstar and Rplanet are the radius of the star and planet, respectively, and a is the semi-major axis  Because of the low probability of a transit in any specific system, large selections of the sky must be regularly observed in order to see a transit  Hot Jupiters are more likely to be seen because of their larger radius and short semi-major axis  In order to find Earth-sized planets, red dwarf stars are observed because of their small radius  Even though transiting has a low probability it has proven itself to be a good technique for discovering exoplanets 
In recent years, the discovery of extrasolar planets has prompted interest in the possibility of detecting their transits across their own stellar primaries  HD 209458b was the first such transiting planet to be detected 
The transit of celestial objects is one of the few key phenomena used today for the study of exoplanetary systems  Today, transit photometry is the leading form of exoplanet discovery  As an exoplanet moves in front of its host star there is a dimming in the luminosity of the host star that can be measured  Larger planets make the dip in luminosity more noticeable and easier to detect  Followup observations using other methods are often carried out to ensure it is a planet 
There are currently (December 2018) 2345 planets confirmed with Kepler light curves for stellar host 

Contacts
During a transit there are four "contacts", when the circumference of the small circle (small body disk) touches the circumference of the large circle (large body disk) at a single point   Historically, measuring the precise time of each point of contact was one of the most accurate ways to determine the positions of astronomical bodies   The contacts happen in the following order:

First contact: the smaller body is entirely outside the larger body, moving inward ("exterior ingress")
Second contact: the smaller body is entirely inside the larger body, moving further inward ("interior ingress")
Third contact: the smaller body is entirely inside the larger body, moving outward ("interior egress")
Fourth contact: the smaller body is entirely outside the larger body, moving outward ("exterior egress")A fifth named point is that of greatest transit, when the apparent centers of the two bodies are nearest to each other, halfway through the transit 

Missions
Since transit photometry allows for scanning large celestial areas with a simple procedure, it has been the most popular and successful form of finding exoplanets in the past decade and includes many projects, some of which have already been retired, others in use today, and some in progress of being planned and created  The most successful projects include HATNet, KELT, Kepler, and WASP, and some new and developmental stage missions such as TESS, HATPI, and others which can be found among the List of Exoplanet Search Projects 

HATNet
HATNet Project is a set of northern telescopes in Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory, Arizona and Mauna Kea Observatories, HI, and southern telescopes around the globe, in Africa, Australia, and South America, under the HATSouth branch of the project  These are small aperture telescopes, just like KELT, and look at a wide field which allows them to scan a large area of the sky for possible transiting planets  In addition, their multitude and spread around the world allows for 24/7 observation of the sky so that more short-period transits can be caught A third sub-project, HATPI, is currently under construction and will survey most of the night sky seen from its location in Chile 

KELT
KELT is a terrestrial telescope mission designed to search for transiting systems of planets of magnitude 8<M<10  It began operation in October 2004 in Winer Observatory and has a southern companion telescope added in 2009  KELT North observes "26-degree wide strip of sky that is overhead from North America during the year", while KELT South observes single target areas of the size 26 by 26 degrees  Both telescopes can detect and identify transit events as small as a 1% flux dip, which allows for detection of planetary systems similar to those in our planetary system 

Kepler / K2
The Kepler satellite served the Kepler mission between 7 March 2009 and 11 May 2013, where it observed one part of the sky in search of transiting planets within a 115 square degrees of the sky around the Cygnus, Lyra, and Draco constellations  After that, the satellite continued operating until 15 November 2018, this time changing its field along the ecliptic to a new area roughly every 75 days due to reaction wheel failure 

TESS
TESS was launched on 18 April 2018, and is planned to survey most of the sky by observing it strips defined along the right ascension lines for 27 days each  Each area surveyed is 27 by 90 degrees  Because of the positioning of sections, the area near TESS's rotational axis will be surveyed for up to 1 year, allowing for the identification of planetary systems with longer orbital periods 

See also
Eclipse
Kepler Mission
Occultation
Syzygy (astronomy)
Conjunction (astronomy)
Opposition (planets)
Transit of asteroids
Transit of Deimos from Mars
Transit of Phobos from Mars
Transit of Vulcan
Transit of Mercury from Mars
Transit of Earth from Mars
Passage 4:
Roche limit
In celestial mechanics, the Roche limit, also called Roche radius, is the distance from a celestial body within which a second celestial body, held together only by its own force of gravity, will disintegrate because the first body's tidal forces exceed the second body's self-gravitation  Inside the Roche limit, orbiting material disperses and forms rings, whereas outside the limit, material tends to coalesce  The Roche radius depends on the radius of the first body and on the ratio of the bodies' densities 
The term is named after Édouard Roche (French: [ʁɔʃ], English:  ROSH), the French astronomer who first calculated this theoretical limit in 1848 

Explanation
The Roche limit typically applies to a satellite's disintegrating due to tidal forces induced by its primary, the body around which it orbits  Parts of the satellite that are closer to the primary are attracted more strongly by gravity from the primary than parts that are farther away; this disparity effectively pulls the near and far parts of the satellite apart from each other, and if the disparity (combined with any centrifugal effects due to the object's spin) is larger than the force of gravity holding the satellite together, it can pull the satellite apart  Some real satellites, both natural and artificial, can orbit within their Roche limits because they are held together by forces other than gravitation  Objects resting on the surface of such a satellite would be lifted away by tidal forces  A weaker satellite, such as a comet, could be broken up when it passes within its Roche limit 
Since, within the Roche limit, tidal forces overwhelm the gravitational forces that might otherwise hold the satellite together, no satellite can gravitationally coalesce out of smaller particles within that limit  Indeed, almost all known planetary rings are located within their Roche limit  (Notable exceptions are Saturn's E-Ring and Phoebe ring  These two rings could possibly be remnants from the planet's proto-planetary accretion disc that failed to coalesce into moonlets, or conversely have formed when a moon passed within its Roche limit and broke apart )
The Roche limit is not the only factor that causes comets to break apart  Splitting by thermal stress, internal gas pressure and rotational splitting are other ways for a comet to split under stress 

Determination
The limiting distance to which a satellite can approach without breaking up depends on the rigidity of the satellite  At one extreme, a completely rigid satellite will maintain its shape until tidal forces break it apart  At the other extreme, a highly fluid satellite gradually deforms leading to increased tidal forces, causing the satellite to elongate, further compounding the tidal forces and causing it to break apart more readily 
Most real satellites would lie somewhere between these two extremes, with tensile strength rendering the satellite neither perfectly rigid nor perfectly fluid  For example, a rubble-pile asteroid will behave more like a fluid than a solid rocky one; an icy body will behave quite rigidly at first but become more fluid as tidal heating accumulates and its ices begin to melt 
But note that, as defined above, the Roche limit refers to a body held together solely by the gravitational forces which cause otherwise unconnected particles to coalesce, thus forming the body in question  The Roche limit is also usually calculated for the case of a circular orbit, although it is straightforward to modify the calculation to apply to the case (for example) of a body passing the primary on a parabolic or hyperbolic trajectory 

Rigid satellites
The rigid-body Roche limit is a simplified calculation for a spherical satellite  Irregular shapes such as those of tidal deformation on the body or the primary it orbits are neglected  It is assumed to be in hydrostatic equilibrium  These assumptions, although unrealistic, greatly simplify calculations 
The Roche limit for a rigid spherical satellite is the distance, 
  
    
      
        d
      
    
    {\displaystyle d}
  , from the primary at which the gravitational force on a test mass at the surface of the object is exactly equal to the tidal force pulling the mass away from the object:

  
    
      
        d
        =
        
          R
          
            M
          
        
        
          
            (
            
              2
              
                
                  
                    ρ
                    
                      M
                    
                  
                  
                    ρ
                    
                      m
                    
                  
                
              
            
            )
          
          
            
              1
              3
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle d=R_{M}\left(2{\frac {\rho _{M}}{\rho _{m}}}\right)^{\frac {1}{3}}}
  where 
  
    
      
        
          R
          
            M
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle R_{M}}
   is the radius of the primary, 
  
    
      
        
          ρ
          
            M
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \rho _{M}}
   is the density of the primary, and 
  
    
      
        
          ρ
          
            m
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \rho _{m}}
   is the density of the satellite  This can be equivalently written as

  
    
      
        d
        =
        
          R
          
            m
          
        
        
          
            (
            
              2
              
                
                  
                    M
                    
                      M
                    
                  
                  
                    M
                    
                      m
                    
                  
                
              
            
            )
          
          
            
              1
              3
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle d=R_{m}\left(2{\frac {M_{M}}{M_{m}}}\right)^{\frac {1}{3}}}
  where 
  
    
      
        
          R
          
            m
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle R_{m}}
   is the radius of the secondary, 
  
    
      
        
          M
          
            M
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle M_{M}}
   is the mass of the primary, and 
  
    
      
        
          M
          
            m
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle M_{m}}
   is the mass of the secondary 
This does not depend on the size of the objects, but on the ratio of densities  This is the orbital distance inside of which loose material (e g  regolith) on the surface of the satellite closest to the primary would be pulled away, and likewise material on the side opposite the primary will also go away from, rather than toward, the satellite 

Fluid satellites
A more accurate approach for calculating the Roche limit takes the deformation of the satellite into account  An extreme example would be a tidally locked liquid satellite orbiting a planet, where any force acting upon the satellite would deform it into a prolate spheroid 
The calculation is complex and its result cannot be represented in an exact algebraic formula  Roche himself derived the following approximate solution for the Roche limit:

  
    
      
        d
        ≈
        2 44
        R
        
          
            (
            
              
                
                  ρ
                  
                    M
                  
                
                
                  ρ
                  
                    m
                  
                
              
            
            )
          
          
            1
            
              /
            
            3
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle d\approx 2 44R\left({\frac {\rho _{M}}{\rho _{m}}}\right)^{1/3}}
  However, a better approximation that takes into account the primary's oblateness and the satellite's mass is:

  
    
      
        d
        ≈
        2 423
        R
        
          
            (
            
              
                
                  ρ
                  
                    M
                  
                
                
                  ρ
                  
                    m
                  
                
              
            
            )
          
          
            1
            
              /
            
            3
          
        
        
          
            (
            
              
                
                  (
                  1
                  +
                  
                    
                      m
                      
                        3
                        M
                      
                    
                  
                  )
                  +
                  
                    
                      c
                      
                        3
                        R
                      
                    
                  
                  (
                  1
                  +
                  
                    
                      m
                      M
                    
                  
                  )
                
                
                  1
                  −
                  c
                  
                    /
                  
                  R
                
              
            
            )
          
          
            1
            
              /
            
            3
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle d\approx 2 423R\left({\frac {\rho _{M}}{\rho _{m}}}\right)^{1/3}\left({\frac {(1+{\frac {m}{3M}})+{\frac {c}{3R}}(1+{\frac {m}{M}})}{1-c/R}}\right)^{1/3}}
  where 
  
    
      
        c
        
          /
        
        R
      
    
    {\displaystyle c/R}
   is the oblateness of the primary  The numerical factor is calculated with the aid of a computer 
The fluid solution is appropriate for bodies that are only loosely held together, such as a comet  For instance, comet Shoemaker–Levy 9's decaying orbit around Jupiter passed within its Roche limit in July 1992, causing it to fragment into a number of smaller pieces  On its next approach in 1994 the fragments crashed into the planet  Shoemaker–Levy 9 was first observed in 1993, but its orbit indicated that it had been captured by Jupiter a few decades prior 

See also
Roche lobe
Chandrasekhar limit
Hill sphere
Spaghettification (the extreme case of tidal distortion)
Black hole
Triton (moon) (Neptune's satellite)
Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9
Passage 5:
Ulysses (spacecraft)
Ulysses ( yoo-LISS-eez, UK also  YOO-liss-eez) was a robotic space probe whose primary mission was to orbit the Sun and study it at all latitudes  It was launched in 1990 and made three "fast latitude scans" of the Sun in 1994/1995, 2000/2001, and 2007/2008  In addition, the probe studied several comets  Ulysses was a joint venture of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the United States' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), under leadership of ESA with participation from Canada's National Research Council  The last day for mission operations on Ulysses was 30 June 2009 To study the Sun at all latitudes, the probe needed to change its orbital inclination and leave the plane of the Solar System  To change the orbital inclination of a spacecraft to about 80° requires a large change in heliocentric velocity, the energy to achieve which far exceeded the capabilities of any launch vehicle  To reach the desired orbit around the Sun, the mission's planners chose a gravity assist maneuver around Jupiter, but this Jupiter encounter meant that Ulysses could not be powered by solar cells  The probe was powered instead by a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) 
The spacecraft was originally named Odysseus, because of its lengthy and indirect trajectory to study the solar poles  It was renamed Ulysses, the Latin translation of "Odysseus", at ESA's request in honor not only of Homer's mythological hero but also of Dante's character in the Inferno  Ulysses was originally scheduled for launch in May 1986 aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger on STS-61-F  Due to the 28 January 1986 loss of Challenger, the launch of Ulysses was delayed until 6 October 1990 aboard Discovery (mission STS-41) 

Spacecraft
The spacecraft was designed by ESA and built by Dornier Systems, a German aircraft manufacturer  The body was roughly a box, approximately 3 2 m × 3 3 m × 2 1 m (10 5 ft × 10 8 ft × 6 9 ft) in size  The box mounted the 1 65 m (5 ft 5 in) dish antenna and the GPHS-RTG radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) power source  The box was divided into noisy and quiet sections  The noisy section abutted the RTG; the quiet section housed the instrument electronics  Particularly "loud" components, such as the preamps for the radio dipole, were mounted outside the structure entirely, and the box acted as a Faraday cage 
Ulysses was spin-stabilised about its z-axis which roughly coincides with the axis of the dish antenna  The RTG, whip antennas, and instrument boom were placed to stabilize this axis, with the spin rate nominally at 5 rpm  Inside the body was a hydrazine fuel tank  Hydrazine monopropellant was used for course corrections inbound to Jupiter, and later used exclusively to repoint the spin axis (and thus, the antenna) at Earth  The spacecraft was controlled by eight thrusters in two blocks  Thrusters were pulsed in the time domain to perform rotation or translation  Four sun sensors detected orientation  For fine attitude control, the S-band antenna feed was mounted slightly off-axis  This offset feed combined with the spacecraft spin introduced an apparent oscillation to a radio signal transmitted from Earth when received on board the spacecraft  The amplitude and phase of this oscillation were proportional to the orientation of the spin axis relative to the Earth direction  This method of determining the relative orientation is called conical scanning and was used by early radars for automated tracking of targets and was also very common in early infrared guided missiles 
The spacecraft used S-band for uplinked commands and downlinked telemetry, through dual redundant 5-watt transceivers  The spacecraft used X-band for science return (downlink only), using dual 20 watts TWTAs until the failure of the last remaining TWTA in January 2008  Both bands used the dish antenna with prime-focus feeds, unlike the Cassegrain feeds of most other spacecraft dishes 
Dual tape recorders, each of approximately 45-megabit capacity, stored science data between the nominal eight-hour communications sessions during the prime and extended mission phases 
The spacecraft was designed to withstand both the heat of the inner Solar System and the cold at Jupiter's distance  Extensive blanketing and electric heaters protected the probe against the cold temperatures of the outer Solar System 
Multiple computer systems (CPUs/microprocessors/Data Processing Units) are used in several of the scientific instruments, including several radiation-hardened RCA CDP1802 microprocessors  Documented 1802 usage includes dual-redundant 1802s in the COSPIN, and at least one 1802 each in the GRB, HI-SCALE, SWICS, SWOOPS and URAP instruments, with other possible microprocessors incorporated elsewhere Total mass at launch was 371 kg (818 lb), of which 33 5 kg was hydrazine propellant used for attitude control and orbit correction 

Instruments
The twelve different Instruments came from ESA and NASA  The first design was based on two probes, one by NASA and one by ESA, but the probe of NASA was defunded and in the end the instruments of the cancelled probe were mounted on Ulyssses 
Radio/Plasma antennas: Two beryllium copper antennas were unreeled outwards from the body, perpendicular to the RTG and spin axis  Together this dipole spanned 72 meters (236 2 ft)  A third antenna, of hollow beryllium copper, was deployed from the body, along the spin axis opposite the dish  It was a monopole antenna, 7 5 meters (24 6 ft) long  These measured radio waves generated by plasma releases, or the plasma itself as it passed over the spacecraft  This receiver ensemble was sensitive from DC to 1 MHz 
Experiment Boom: A third type of boom, shorter and much more rigid, extended from the last side of the spacecraft, opposite the RTG  This was a hollow carbon-fiber tube, of 50 mm (2 in ) diameter  It can be seen in the photo as the silver rod stowed alongside the body  It carried four types of instruments: a solid-state X-ray instrument, composed of two silicon detectors, to study X-rays from solar flares and Jupiter's aurorae; the Gamma-Ray Burst experiment, consisting of two CsI scintillator crystals with photomultipliers; two different magnetometers, a helium vector magnetometer and a fluxgate magnetometer; and a two-axis magnetic search coil antenna measured AC magnetic fields 
Body-Mounted Instruments: Detectors for electrons, ions, neutral gas, dust, and cosmic rays were mounted on the spacecraft body around the quiet section 
Lastly, the radio communications link could be used to search for gravitational waves (through Doppler shifts) and to probe the Sun's atmosphere through radio occultation  No gravitational waves were detected 
Total instrument mass was 55 kg 
Magnetometer (MAG): MAG measured the magnetic field in the heliosphere  Measurements of Jupiter's magnetic field were also performed 
Solar Wind Plasma Experiment (SWOOPS): detected the solar wind at all solar distances and latitudes and in three dimensions  It measured positive ions and electrons 
Solar Wind Ion Composition Instrument (SWICS): determined composition, temperature and speed of the atoms and ions that comprise the solar wind 
Unified Radio and Plasma Wave Instrument (URAP): picked up radio waves from the Sun and electromagnetic waves generated in the solar wind close to the spacecraft 
Energetic Particle Instrument (EPAC) and GAS: EPAC investigated the energy, fluxes and distribution of energetic particles in the heliosphere  GAS studied the uncharged gases (helium) of interstellar origin 
Low-Energy Ion and Electron Experiment (HI-SCALE): investigated the energy, fluxes and distribution of energetic particles in the heliosphere 
Cosmic Ray and Solar Particle Instrument (COSPIN): investigated the energy, fluxes and distribution of energetic particles and galactic cosmic rays in the heliosphere 
Solar X-ray and Cosmic Gamma-Ray Burst Instrument (GRB): studied cosmic gamma ray bursts and X-rays from solar flares 
Dust Experiment (DUST): Direct measurements of interplanetary and interstellar dust grains to investigate their properties as functions of the distance from the Sun and solar latitude 

Mission
Planning
Until Ulysses, the Sun had only been observed from low solar latitudes  The Earth's orbit defines the ecliptic plane, which differs from the Sun's equatorial plane by only 7 25°  Even spacecraft directly orbiting the Sun do so in planes close to the ecliptic because a direct launch into a high-inclination solar orbit would require a prohibitively large launch vehicle 
Several spacecraft (Mariner 10, Pioneer 11, and Voyagers 1 and 2) had performed gravity assist maneuvers in the 1970s  Those maneuvers were to reach other planets also orbiting close to the ecliptic, so they were mostly in-plane changes  However, gravity assists are not limited to in-plane maneuvers; a suitable flyby of Jupiter could produce a significant plane change  An Out-Of-The-Ecliptic mission (OOE) was thereby proposed  See article Pioneer H 
Originally, two spacecraft were to be built by NASA and ESA, as the International Solar Polar Mission  One would be sent over Jupiter, then under the Sun  The other would fly under Jupiter, then over the Sun  This would provide simultaneous coverage  Due to cutbacks, the U S  spacecraft was cancelled in 1981  One spacecraft was designed, and the project recast as Ulysses, due to the indirect and untried flight path  NASA would provide the Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) and launch services, ESA would build the spacecraft assigned to Astrium GmbH, Friedrichshafen, Germany (formerly Dornier Systems)  The instruments would be split into teams from universities and research institutes in Europe and the United States  This process provided the 12 instruments on board 
The changes delayed launch from February 1983 to May 1986 when it was to be deployed by the Space Shuttle Challenger (boosted by the proposed Centaur G Prime upper stage  However, the Challenger disaster forced a two-and-a-half year stand down of the shuttle fleet, mandated the cancellation of the Centaur-G upper stage, and pushed the launch date to October 1990 

Launch
Ulysses was deployed into low Earth orbit from the Space Shuttle Discovery  From there, it was propelled on a trajectory to Jupiter by a combination of solid rocket motors  This upper stage consisted of a two-stage Boeing IUS (Inertial Upper Stage), plus a McDonnell Douglas PAM-S (Payload Assist Module-Special)  The IUS was inertially stabilised and actively guided during its burn  The PAM-S was unguided and it and Ulysses were spun up to 80 rpm for stability at the start of its burn  On burnout of the PAM-S, the motor and spacecraft stack was yo-yo de-spun (weights deployed at the end of cables) to below 8 rpm prior to separation of the spacecraft  On leaving Earth, the spacecraft became the fastest ever artificially-accelerated spacecraft, and held that title until the New Horizons probe was launched 
On its way to Jupiter, the spacecraft was in an elliptical non-Hohmann transfer orbit  At this time, Ulysses had a low orbital inclination to the ecliptic 

Jupiter swing-by
It arrived at Jupiter on 8 February 1992 for a swing-by maneuver that increased its inclination to the ecliptic by 80 2°  The giant planet's gravity bent the spacecraft's flight path southward and away from the ecliptic plane  This put it into a final orbit around the Sun that would take it past the Sun's north and south poles  The size and shape of the orbit were adjusted to a much smaller degree so that aphelion remained at approximately 5 AU, Jupiter's distance from the Sun, and perihelion was somewhat greater than 1 AU, the Earth's distance from the Sun  The orbital period is approximately six years 

Polar regions of the Sun
Between 1994 and 1995 it explored both the southern and northern polar regions of the Sun, respectively 

Comet C/1996 B2 (Hyakutake)
On 1 May 1996, the spacecraft unexpectedly crossed the ion tail of Comet Hyakutake (C/1996 B2), revealing the tail to be at least 3 8 AU in length 

Comet C/1999 T1 (McNaught–Hartley)
An encounter with a comet tail happened again in 2004  when Ulysses flew through the ion tailings of C/1999 T1 (McNaught-Hartley)  A coronal mass ejection carried the cometary material to Ulysses 

Second Jupiter encounter
Ulysses approached aphelion in 2003/2004 and made further distant observations of Jupiter 

Comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught)
In 2007, Ulysses passed through the tail of comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught)  The results were surprisingly different from its pass through Hyakutake's tail, with the measured solar wind velocity dropping from approximately 700 kilometers per second (1,566,000 mph) to less than 400 kilometers per second (895,000 mph) 

Extended mission
ESA's Science Program Committee approved the fourth extension of the Ulysses mission to March 2004  thereby allowing it to operate over the Sun's poles for the third time in 2007 and 2008  After it became clear that the power output from the spacecraft's RTG would be insufficient to operate science instruments and keep the attitude control fuel, hydrazine, from freezing, instrument power sharing was initiated  Up until then, the most important instruments had been kept online constantly, whilst others were deactivated  When the probe neared the Sun, its power-hungry heaters were turned off and all instruments were turned on On 22 February 2008, 17 years and 4 months after the launch of the spacecraft, ESA and NASA announced that the mission operations for Ulysses would likely cease within a few months  On 12 April 2008, NASA announced that the end date will be 1 July 2008 The spacecraft operated successfully for over four times its design life  A component within the last remaining working chain of X-band downlink subsystem failed on 15 January 2008  The other chain in the X-band subsystem had previously failed in 2003 Downlink to Earth resumed on S-band, but the beamwidth of the high gain antenna in the S-band was not as narrow as in the X–band, so that the received downlink signal was much weaker, hence reducing the achievable data rate  As the spacecraft traveled on its outbound trajectory to the orbit of Jupiter, the downlink signal would have eventually fallen below the receiving capability of even the largest antennas (70 meters - 229 7 feet - in diameter) of the Deep Space Network 
Even before the downlink signal was lost due to distance, the hydrazine attitude control fuel on board the spacecraft was considered likely to freeze, as the radioisotope thermal generators (RTGs) failed to generate enough power for the heaters to overcome radiative heat loss into space  Once the hydrazine froze, the spacecraft would no longer be able to maneuver to keep its high gain antenna pointing towards Earth, and the downlink signal would then be lost in a matter of days  The failure of the X-band communications subsystem hastened this, because the coldest part of the fuel pipework was routed over the X-band traveling-wave tube amplifiers, because they generated enough heat during operation to keep the propellant plumbing warm 
The previously announced mission end date of 1 July 2008, came and went but mission operations continued albeit in a reduced capacity  The availability of science data gathering was limited to only when Ulysses was in contact with a ground station due to the deteriorating S-band downlink margin no longer being able to support simultaneous real-time data and tape recorder playback  When the spacecraft was out of contact with a ground station, the S-band transmitter was switched off and the power was diverted to the internal heaters to add to the warming of the hydrazine  On 30 June 2009, ground controllers sent commands to switch to the low gain antennas  This stopped communications with the spacecraft, in combination with previous commands to shut down its transmitter entirely 

Results
During cruise phases, Ulysses provided unique data  As the only spacecraft out of the ecliptic with a gamma-ray instrument, Ulysses was an important part of the InterPlanetary Network (IPN)  The IPN detects gamma ray bursts (GRBs); since gamma rays cannot be focused with mirrors, it was very difficult to locate GRBs with enough accuracy to study them further  Instead, several spacecraft can locate the burst through multilateration  Each spacecraft has a gamma-ray detector, with readouts noted in tiny fractions of a second  By comparing the arrival times of gamma showers with the separations of the spacecraft, a location can be determined, for follow-up with other telescopes  Because gamma rays travel at the speed of light, wide separations are needed  Typically, a determination came from comparing: one of several spacecraft orbiting the Earth, an inner-Solar-system probe (to Mars, Venus, or an asteroid), and Ulysses  When Ulysses crossed the ecliptic twice per orbit, many GRB determinations lost accuracy 
Additional discoveries:
Data provided by Ulysses led to the discovery that the Sun's magnetic field interacts with the Solar System in a more complex fashion than previously assumed 
Data provided by Ulysses led to the discovery that dust coming into the Solar System from deep space was 30 times more abundant than previously expected 
In 2007–2008 data provided by Ulysses led to the determination that the magnetic field emanating from the Sun's poles is much weaker than previously observed 
That the solar wind has "grown progressively weaker during the mission and is currently at its weakest since the start of the Space Age" 

Fate
Ulysses will most likely continue in heliocentric orbit around the Sun indefinitely  However, there is a chance that in one of its re-encounters with Jupiter a close fly-by with one of the Jovian moons would be enough to alter its course and so the probe would enter a hyperbolic trajectory around the Sun and leave the Solar System 

See also
Advanced Composition Explorer – NASA satellite of the Explorer program
List of heliophysics missions
List of missions to the outer planets
Parker Solar Probe – NASA robotic space probe of the outer corona of the Sun
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory – European space observatory
STEREO – Solar observation mission (2006–present)
TRACE – NASA satellite of the Explorer program
WIND – NASA probe to study solar wind, at L1 since 1995
Solar Orbiter – European space-based solar observatory



ground_truth: Sun

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What actor was also a president that Richard Darman worked with when they were in office?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: Passage 1:
Bobbie Kilberg
Bobbie Kilberg (born Barbara Greene; October 25, 1944) is an American political advisor who has worked for Presidents Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, George H  W  Bush, and George W  Bush  Kilberg has served as the president and CEO of the Northern Virginia Technology Council since 1998  She was briefly an attorney with the Washington law firm of Arnold & Porter from 1971 to 1973  She served on the staff of President Richard Nixon's United States Domestic Policy Council, under President Gerald Ford as Associate Counsel, and for President George H W  Bush as Deputy Assistant to the President for Public Liaison and director of the White House Office of Intergovernmental Affairs 

Career
Bobbie Kilberg is president and CEO of the Northern Virginia Technology Council, a position she has held since September 1998 As a White House Fellow, she served on the staff of President Nixon's Domestic Policy Council  From 1971 to 1973, she was an attorney with the Washington law firm of Arnold & Porter then vice president for academic affairs at Mount Vernon College  In 1971, Kilberg was elected to the Common Cause National Governing Board  In 1975 she return to the White House as associate counsel to the president under Gerald Ford Kilberg directed a project on the future of private philanthropy at the Aspen Institute beginning in 1978 then she moved to the Roosevelt Center for American Policy Studies in 1982 as vice president and general counsel She held two consecutive positions for President George H W  Bush, as Deputy Assistant to the President for Public Liaison and as director of the White House Office of Intergovernmental Affairs In December 2001, she was appointed by President George W  Bush to serve as a member of the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology during his term in office In Virginia, Bobbie Kilberg has served on the Speaker's Citizens Advisory Committee on Legislative Compensation, on the Joint Judicial Advisory Committee for the merit selection of judges, on the Attorney General's Task Forces on Identity Theft, Regulatory Reform and Economic Development, and Youth Internet Safety, and on the Governor's Northern Virginia BRAC Working Group  In November 2009, Governor Bob McDonnell named her as one of the five Co-Chairs of his Transition Team  In May 2010, she was named to the Governor's Commission on Government Reform and Restructuring and, in August 2010, she was named to the Governor's Commission on Military and National Security Facilities Kilberg has sought elected political office twice in Virginia, in 1987 as the Republican candidate for the State Senate and in 1993 as a candidate for the Republican nomination for Lieutenant Governor 

Personal life
Kilberg resides in McLean, Virginia with her husband, Bill, a senior partner and member of the executive committee of the law firm of Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher LLP  They have five children and sixteen grandchildren 
Passage 2:
List of domestic buildings by G  E  Street
G  E  Street (1824–81) was an English architect and architectural writer, whose designs were mainly in High Victorian Gothic style   Born the son of a solicitor, he first worked in a law office, but was then articled to the architect Owen Browne Carter in Winchester   Two years later, in 1844, he moved to London and worked in the office of George Gilbert Scott   Here he also worked with George Frederick Bodley and William White   Street established his own architectural practice in 1849, initially in London, and later in Wantage (then in Berkshire)   He was appointed as architect to the diocese of Oxford in 1850, and retained this position until his death  He married in 1852 and in that year moved to Oxford   He returned to London in 1856 and maintained an office there for the remainder of his career   He travelled extensively, visiting the Continent of Europe frequently   Street was also a prolific writer on architectural subjects   He was a member of the Royal Academy, and in 1874 was awarded the Royal Gold Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects, being its president in 1881 Most of Street's works were in relation to churches; designing new churches, restoring and making additions and alterations to existing churches, and designing fittings and furnishings for them   He also designed domestic buildings, especially vicarages, and schools with houses for the schoolmaster   He designed little in the way of public buildings, although towards the end of his life he designed what has been described as his "greatest commission", the Royal Courts of Justice in London   Most of his works were in England, especially within and close to the diocese of Oxford, but examples of his work can be found throughout England, Wales and Ireland   He also designed some buildings abroad, including a church in Constantinople   Almost all his designs are in Gothic Revival style, in particular, in what is known as the High Victorian style   This style came chronologically after the use of "pure" and "correct" use of features of English Gothic architecture, which had been championed by A  W  N  Pugin and the Ecclesiological Society   High Victorian incorporated the use of polychromy, and elements of Continental forms of Gothic architecture   Street died in 1881, and was buried in Westminster Abbey This list contains details of Street's work on domestic buildings in England and Scotland 

Key
Works
See also
List of new churches by G  E  Street
List of church restorations and alterations by G  E  Street
List of miscellaneous works by G  E  Street
Passage 3:
Ronald Reagan
Ronald Wilson Reagan ( RAY-gən; February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989  A member of the Republican Party, his presidency constituted the Reagan era, and he is considered one of the most prominent conservative figures in the United States 
Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932 and began to work as a sports broadcaster in Iowa  In 1937, Reagan moved to California, where he became a film actor  From 1947 to 1952, Reagan served as the president of the Screen Actors Guild  In the 1950s, he worked in television and spoke for General Electric  From 1959 to 1960, he again served as the Screen Actors Guild's president  In 1964, "A Time for Choosing" gave Reagan attention as a new conservative figure  He was elected governor of California in 1966  During his governorship, he raised taxes, turned the state budget deficit into a surplus, and cracked down harshly on university protests  After challenging and nearly defeating incumbent president Gerald Ford in the 1976 Republican presidential primaries, Reagan won the Republican nomination and then a landslide victory over incumbent Democratic president Jimmy Carter in the 1980 United States presidential election 
In his first term, Reagan implemented "Reaganomics", which involved economic deregulation and cuts in both taxes and government spending during a period of stagflation  He escalated an arms race and transitioned Cold War policy away from détente with the Soviet Union; he also ordered the invasion of Grenada in 1983  Additionally, he survived an assassination attempt, fought public sector labor unions, expanded the war on drugs, and was slow to respond to the AIDS epidemic in the United States, which began early in his presidency  In the 1984 presidential election, Reagan defeated former vice president Walter Mondale in another landslide victory  Foreign affairs dominated Reagan's second term, including the 1986 bombing of Libya, the Iran–Iraq War, the secret and illegal sale of arms to Iran to fund the Contras, and a more conciliatory approach in talks with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev that culminated in the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty 
Reagan left the presidency in 1989 with the American economy having seen a significant reduction of inflation, the unemployment rate having fallen, and the United States having entered its then-longest peacetime expansion  At the same time, the federal debt had nearly tripled since 1981 as a result of his cuts in taxes and increased military spending, despite cuts to domestic discretionary spending  Reagan's policies also helped contribute to the end of the Cold War and the end of Soviet communism  Alzheimer's disease hindered Reagan post-presidency, and his physical and mental capacities rapidly deteriorated, ultimately leading to his death in 2004  Historians and scholars have ranked Reagan among the middle to upper tier of American presidents, and he is often viewed favorably among the general public 

Early life
Ronald Wilson Reagan was born on February 6, 1911, in a commercial building in Tampico, Illinois, as the younger son of Nelle Clyde Wilson and Jack Reagan  Nelle was committed to the Disciples of Christ, which believed in the Social Gospel  She led prayer meetings and ran mid-week prayers at her church when the pastor was out of town  Reagan credited her spiritual influence and he became a Christian  According to Stephen Vaughn, Reagan's values came from his pastor, and the First Christian Church's religious, economic and social positions "coincided with the words, if not the beliefs of the latter-day Reagan"  Jack focused on making money to take care of the family, but this was complicated by his alcoholism  Neil Reagan was Reagan's older brother  Together, they lived in Chicago, Galesburg, and Monmouth before returning to Tampico  In 1920, they settled in Dixon, Illinois, living in a house near the H  C  Pitney Variety Store Building Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in drama and football  His first job involved working as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park  In 1928, Reagan began attending Eureka College at Nelle's approval on religious grounds  He was a mediocre student that participated in sports, drama, and campus politics  He became student body president and joined a student strike that resulted in the college president's resignation  Reagan recalled a time when two black football teammates were refused service at a segregated hotel; he invited them to his parents' home nearby in Dixon and his parents welcomed them  At the time, his parents' stance on racial questions were unusually progressive in Dixon  Reagan himself had grown up with very few black Americans there and was unaware of a race problem 

Entertainment career
Radio and film
After obtaining a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics and sociology from Eureka College in 1932, Reagan took a job in Davenport, Iowa, as a sports broadcaster for four football games in the Big Ten Conference  He then worked for WHO radio in Des Moines as a broadcaster for the Chicago Cubs  His specialty was creating play-by-play accounts of games using only basic descriptions that the station received by wire as the games were in progress  Simultaneously, he often expressed his opposition to racism  In 1936, while traveling with the Cubs to their spring training in California, Reagan took a screen test that led to a seven-year contract with Warner Bros Reagan arrived at Hollywood in 1937, debuting in Love Is on the Air (1937)  Using a simple and direct approach to acting and following his directors' instructions, Reagan made thirty films, mostly B films, before beginning military service in April 1942  He broke out of these types of films by portraying George Gipp in Knute Rockne, All American (1940), which would be rejuvenated when reporters called Reagan "the Gipper" while he campaigned for president of the United States  Afterward, Reagan starred in Kings Row (1942) as a leg amputee, asking, "Where's the rest of me?" His performance was considered his best by many critics  Reagan became a star, with Gallup polls placing him "in the top 100 stars" from 1941 to 1942 World War II interrupted the movie stardom that Reagan would never be able to achieve again as Warner Bros  became uncertain about his ability to generate ticket sales  Reagan, who had a limited acting range, was dissatisfied with the roles he received  As a result, Lew Wasserman renegotiated his contract with his studio, allowing him to also make films with Universal Pictures, Paramount Pictures, and RKO Pictures as a freelancer  With this, Reagan appeared in multiple western films, something that had been denied him working at Warner Bros  In 1952, he ended his relationship with Warner Bros , but went on to appear in a total of 53 films, his last being The Killers (1964) 

Military service
In April 1937, Reagan enlisted in the United States Army Reserve  He was assigned as a private in Des Moines' 322nd Cavalry Regiment and reassigned to second lieutenant in the Officers Reserve Corps  He later became a part of the 323rd Cavalry Regiment in California  As relations between the United States and Japan worsened, Reagan was ordered for active duty while he was filming Kings Row  Wasserman and Warner Bros  lawyers successfully sent draft deferments to complete the film in October 1941  However, to avoid accusations of Reagan being a draft dodger, the studio let him go in April 1942 Reagan reported for duty with severe near-sightedness  His first assignment was at Fort Mason as a liaison officer, a role that allowed him to transfer to the United States Army Air Forces (AAF)  Reagan became an AAF public relations officer and was subsequently assigned to the 18th AAF Base Unit in Culver City where he felt that it was "impossible to remove an incompetent or lazy worker" due to what he felt was "the incompetence, the delays, and inefficiencies" of the federal bureaucracy  Despite this, Reagan participated in the Provisional Task Force Show Unit in Burbank and continued to make theatrical films  He was also ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in the sixth War Loan Drive before being reassigned to Fort MacArthur until his discharge on December 9, 1945, as a captain  Throughout his military service, Reagan produced over 400 training films 

Screen Actors Guild presidency
When Robert Montgomery resigned as president of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) on March 10, 1947, Reagan was elected to that position, in a special election  Reagan's first tenure saw various labor-management disputes, the Hollywood blacklist, and the Taft–Hartley Act's implementation  On April 10, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) interviewed Reagan and he provided them with the names of actors whom he believed to be communist sympathizers  During a House Un-American Activities Committee hearing, Reagan testified that some guild members were associated with the Communist Party and that he was well-informed on a "jurisdictional strike"  When asked if he was aware of communist efforts within the Screen Writers Guild, he called the efforts "hearsay"  Reagan would remain SAG president until he resigned on November 10, 1952; Walter Pidgeon succeeded him, but Reagan stayed on the board The SAG fought with film producers over residual payments and on November 16, 1959, the board installed Reagan as SAG president, replacing the resigned Howard Keel  In his second stint, Reagan managed to secure the payments for actors whose theatrical films were released from 1948 to 1959 were televised  The producers were initially required to pay the actors fees, but they ultimately settled for pensions instead  However, they were still required to pay residuals for films after 1959  Reagan resigned from the SAG presidency on June 7, 1960, and also left the board; George Chandler succeeded him as SAG president 

Marriages and children
Reagan married Brother Rat (1938) co-star Jane Wyman in January 1940  Together, they had two biological daughters: Maureen in 1941, and Christine, born prematurely and dead the next day in 1947  They adopted one son, Michael, in 1945  Wyman filed to divorce Reagan in June 1948  She was uninterested in politics, and occasionally recriminated, reconciled and separated with him  Although Reagan was unprepared, the divorce was finalized in July 1949  Reagan would also remain close to his children  Later that year, Reagan met Nancy Davis after she contacted him in his capacity as the SAG president about her name appearing on a communist blacklist in Hollywood; she had been mistaken for another Nancy Davis  They married in March 1952 and had two children, Patti in 1952, and Ron in 1958 

Television
Reagan became the host of MCA Inc  television production General Electric Theater at Wasserman's recommendation  It featured multiple guest stars, and Ronald and Nancy Reagan, continuing to use her stage name Nancy Davis, acted together in three episodes  When asked how Reagan was able to recruit such stars to appear on the show during television's infancy, he replied, "Good stories, top direction, production quality " However, the viewership declined in the 1960s and the show was canceled in 1962  In 1965, Reagan became the host of another MCA production, Death Valley Days 

Early political activities
Reagan began as a Democrat, viewing Franklin D  Roosevelt as "a true hero"  He joined the American Veterans Committee and Hollywood Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions (HICCASP), worked with the AFL–CIO to fight right-to-work laws, and continued to speak out against racism when he was in Hollywood  In 1945, Reagan planned to lead an HICCASP anti-nuclear rally, but Warner Bros  prevented him from going  In 1946, he appeared in a radio program called Operation Terror to speak out against rising Ku Klux Klan activity in the country, citing the attacks as a "capably organized systematic campaign of fascist violence and intimidation and horror"  Reagan also supported Harry S  Truman in the 1948 presidential election and Helen Gahagan Douglas for the United States Senate in 1950  It was Reagan's belief that communism was a powerful backstage influence in Hollywood that led him to rally his friends against them Reagan began shifting to the right when he supported the presidential campaigns of Dwight D  Eisenhower in 1952 and Richard Nixon in 1960  When Reagan was contracted by General Electric (GE), he gave speeches to their employees  His speeches had a positive take on free markets  Under GE vice president Lemuel Boulware, a staunch anti-communist, employees were encouraged to vote for business-friendly politicians In 1961, Reagan adapted his speeches into another speech to criticize Medicare  In his view, its legislation would have meant "the end of individual freedom in the United States"  In 1962, Reagan was dropped by GE, and he formally registered as a Republican In 1964, Reagan gave a speech for presidential contender Barry Goldwater that was eventually referred to as "A Time for Choosing"   Reagan argued that the Founding Fathers "knew that governments don't control things  And they knew when a government sets out to do that, it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose" and that "We've been told increasingly that we must choose between left or right " Even though the speech was not enough to turn around the faltering Goldwater campaign, it increased Reagan's profile among conservatives  David S  Broder and Stephen H  Hess called it "the most successful national political debut since William Jennings Bryan electrified the 1896 Democratic convention with his famous 'Cross of Gold' address" 

1966 California gubernatorial election
In January 1966, Reagan announced his candidacy for the California governorship, repeating his stances on individual freedom and big government  When he met with black Republicans in March, he was criticized for opposing the Civil Rights Act of 1964  Certain in his own lack of prejudice, Reagan responded resentfully that bigotry was not in his nature and later argued that certain provisions of the act infringed upon the rights of property owners  After the Supreme Court of California ruled that the initiative that repealed the Rumford Act was unconstitutional in May, he voiced his support for the act's repeal, but later preferred amending it  In the Republican primary, Reagan defeated George Christopher, a moderate who William F  Buckley Jr  thought had painted Reagan as extreme Reagan's general election opponent, incumbent governor Pat Brown, attempted to label Reagan as an extremist and tout his own accomplishments  Reagan portrayed himself as a political outsider, and charged Brown as responsible for the Watts riots and lenient on crime  In numerous speeches, Reagan "hit the Brown administration about high taxes, uncontrolled spending, the radicals at the University of California, Berkeley, and the need for accountability in government"  Meanwhile, many in the press perceived Reagan as "monumentally ignorant of state issues", though Lou Cannon said that Reagan benefited from an appearance he and Brown made on Meet the Press in September  Ultimately, Reagan won the governorship with 57 percent of the vote compared to Brown's 42 percent 

1967–1975: California governorship
Brown had spent much of California's funds on new programs, prompting them to use accrual accounting to avoid raising taxes  Consequently, it generated a larger deficit, and Reagan would call for reduced government spending and tax hikes to balance the budget  He worked with Jesse M  Unruh on securing tax increases and promising future property tax cuts  This caused some conservatives to accuse Reagan of betraying his principles  As a result, taxes on sales, banks, corporate profits, inheritances, liquor, and cigarettes jumped  Kevin Starr states, Reagan "gave Californians the biggest tax hike in their history—and got away with it " In the 1970 gubernatorial election, Unruh used Reagan's tax policy against him, saying it disproportionally favored the wealthy  Reagan countered that he was still committed to reducing property taxes  By 1973, the budget had a surplus, which Reagan preferred "to give back to the people" In 1967, Reagan reacted to the Black Panther Party's strategy of copwatching by signing the Mulford Act to prohibit the public carrying of firearms  The act was California's most restrictive piece of gun control legislation, with critics saying that it was "overreacting to the political activism of organizations such as the Black Panthers"  The act marked the beginning of both modern legislation and public attitude studies on gun control  Reagan also signed the 1967 Therapeutic Abortion Act that allowed abortions in the cases of rape and incest when a doctor determined the birth would impair the physical or mental health of the mother  He later expressed regret over signing it, saying that he was unaware of the mental health provision  He believed that doctors were interpreting the provision loosely and more abortions were resulting After Reagan won the 1966 election, he and his advisors planned a run in the 1968 Republican presidential primaries  He ran as an unofficial candidate to cut into Nixon's southern support and be a compromise candidate if there were to be a brokered convention  He won California's delegates, but Nixon secured enough delegates for the nomination Reagan had previously been critical of former governor Brown and university administrators for tolerating student demonstrations in the city of Berkeley, making it a major theme in his campaigning  
On February 5, 1969, Reagan declared a state of emergency in response to ongoing protests and acts of violence at the University of California, Berkeley, and sent in the California Highway Patrol  In May 1969, these officers, along with local officers from Berkeley and Alameda county, clashed with protestors over a site known as the People's Park  One student was shot and killed while many police officers and two reporters were injured  Reagan then commanded the state National Guard troops to occupy Berkeley for seventeen days to subdue the protesters, allowing other students to attend class safely  In February 1970, violent protests broke out near the University of California, Santa Barbara, where he once again deployed the National Guard  On April 7, Reagan defended his policies regarding campus protests, saying, "If it takes a bloodbath, let's get it over with  No more appeasement "During his victorious reelection campaign in 1970, Reagan, remaining critical of government, promised to prioritize welfare reform  He was concerned that the programs were disincentivizing work and that the growing welfare rolls would lead to both an unbalanced budget and another big tax hike in 1972  At the same time, the Federal Reserve increased interest rates to combat inflation, putting the American economy in a mild recession  Reagan worked with Bob Moretti to tighten up the eligibility requirements so that the financially needy could continue receiving payments  This was only accomplished after Reagan softened his criticism of Nixon's Family Assistance Plan  Nixon then lifted regulations to shepherd California's experiment  In 1976, the Employment Development Department published a report suggesting that the experiment that ran from 1971 to 1974 was unsuccessful Reagan did not run for the governorship in 1974 and it was won by Pat Brown's son, Jerry  Reagan's governorship, as professor Gary K  Clabaugh writes, saw public schools deteriorate due to his opposition to additional basic education funding  As for higher education, journalist William Trombley believed that the budget cuts Reagan enacted damaged Berkeley's student-faculty ratio and research  Additionally, the homicide rate doubled and armed robbery rates rose as well during Reagan's eight years, even with the many laws Reagan signed to try toughening criminal sentencing and reforming the criminal justice system  Reagan strongly supported capital punishment, but his efforts to enforce it were thwarted by People v  Anderson in 1972  According to his son, Michael, Reagan said that he regretted signing the Family Law Act that granted no-fault divorces 

1975–1981: Seeking the presidency
1976 Republican primaries
Insufficiently conservative to Reagan and many other Republicans, president Gerald Ford suffered from multiple political and economic woes  Ford, running for president, was disappointed to hear him also run  Reagan was strongly critical of détente and Ford's policy of détente with the Soviet Union  He repeated "A Time for Choosing" around the country before announcing his campaign on November 20, 1975, when he discussed economic and social problems, and to a lesser extent, foreign affairs  Both candidates were determined to knock each other out early in the primaries, but Reagan would devastatingly lose the first five primaries beginning with New Hampshire, where he popularized the welfare queen narrative about Linda Taylor, exaggerating her misuse of welfare benefits and igniting voter resentment for welfare reform, but never overtly mentioning her name or race In Florida, Reagan referred to a "strapping young buck", which became an example of dog whistle politics, and accused Ford for handing the Panama Canal to Panama's government while Ford implied that he would end Social Security  Then, in Illinois, he again criticized Ford's policy and his secretary of state, Henry Kissinger  Losing the first five primaries prompted Reagan to desperately win North Carolina's by running a grassroots campaign and uniting with the Jesse Helms political machine that viciously attacked Ford  Reagan won an upset victory, convincing party delegates that Ford's nomination was no longer guaranteed  Reagan won subsequent victories in Texas, Alabama, Georgia, and Indiana with his attacks on social programs, opposition to forced busing, increased support from inclined voters of a declining George Wallace presidential campaign, and repeated criticisms of Ford and Kissinger's policies, including détente The result was a seesaw battle for the 1,130 delegates required for their party's nomination that neither would reach before the Kansas City convention in August and Ford replacing mentions of détente with Reagan's preferred phrase, "peace through strength"  Reagan took John Sears' advice of choosing liberal Richard Schweiker as his running mate, hoping to pry loose of delegates from Pennsylvania and other states, and distract Ford  Instead, conservatives were left alienated, and Ford picked up the remaining uncommitted delegates and prevailed, earning 1,187 to Reagan's 1,070  Before giving his acceptance speech, Ford invited Reagan to address the convention; Reagan emphasized individual freedom and the dangers of nuclear weapons  In 1977, Ford told Cannon that Reagan's primary challenge contributed to his own narrow loss to Democrat Jimmy Carter in the 1976 United States presidential election 

1980 election
Reagan emerged as a vocal critic of President Carter in 1977  The Panama Canal Treaty's signing, the 1979 oil crisis, and rise in the inflation, interest and unemployment rates helped set up his 1980 presidential campaign, which he announced on November 13, 1979 with an indictment of the federal government  His announcement stressed his fundamental principles of tax cuts to stimulate the economy and having both a small government and a strong national defense, since he believed the United States was behind the Soviet Union militarily  Heading into 1980, his age became an issue among the press, and the United States was in a severe recession  In the primaries, Reagan lost Iowa to George H  W  Bush, but rebounded in New Hampshire  Soon thereafter, Reagan's opponents began dropping out of the primaries, including John B  Anderson, who left the party to become an independent candidate  Reagan easily captured the presidential nomination and chose Bush as his running mate at the Detroit convention in July The general election pitted Reagan against Carter amid the multitude of domestic concerns and ongoing Iran hostage crisis that began on November 4, 1979  Reagan's campaign worried that Carter would be able to secure the release of the American hostages in Iran as part of the October surprise, Carter "suggested that Reagan would wreck Social Security" and portrayed him as a warmonger, and Anderson carried support from liberal Republicans dissatisfied with Reagan's conservatism  One of Reagan's key strengths was his appeal to the rising conservative movement  Though most conservative leaders espoused cutting taxes and budget deficits, many conservatives focused more closely on social issues like abortion and homosexuality  Evangelical Protestants became an increasingly important voting bloc, and they generally supported Reagan  Reagan also won the backing of Reagan Democrats  Though he advocated socially conservative view points, Reagan focused much of his campaign on attacks against Carter's foreign policy In August, Reagan gave a speech at the Neshoba County Fair, stating his belief in states' rights  Joseph Crespino argues that the visit was designed to reach out to Wallace-inclined voters, and some also saw these actions as an extension of the Southern strategy to garner white support for Republican candidates  Reagan's supporters have said that this was his typical anti-big government rhetoric, without racial context or intent  In the October 28 debate, Carter correctly chided Reagan for being against national health insurance  Reagan replied, "There you go again", though the audience laughed and viewers found him more appealing  Reagan later asked the audience if they were better off than they were four years ago, slightly paraphrasing Roosevelt's words in 1934  In 1983, Reagan's campaign managers were revealed to having obtained Carter's debate briefing book before the debates  On November 4, 1980, Reagan won in a decisive victory in the Electoral College over Carter, carrying 44 states and receiving 489 electoral votes to Carter's 49 in six states and the District of Columbia  He won the popular vote by a narrower margin, receiving nearly 51 percent to Carter's 41 percent and Anderson's 7 percent  In the United States Congress, Republicans won a majority of seats in the Senate for the first time since 1952 while Democrats retained the House of Representatives 

1981–1989: Presidency
First inauguration
The 40th president of the United States, Reagan was sworn into office for his first term on January 20, 1981  In his inaugural address, he addressed the country's economic malaise, arguing, "In this present crisis, government is not the solution to our problem, government is the problem " In a final insult to President Carter, Iran had waited until Reagan had been sworn in before sending the hostages home 

"Reaganomics" and the economy
Reagan advocated a laissez-faire philosophy, and promoted a set of neoliberal reforms dubbed "Reaganomics", which included monetarism and supply-side economics 

Taxation
Reagan worked with the boll weevil Democrats to pass tax and budget legislation in a Congress led by Tip O'Neill, a liberal who strongly criticized Reaganomics  He lifted federal oil and gasoline price controls on January 28, 1981, and in August, he signed the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 to dramatically lower federal income tax rates and require exemptions and brackets to be indexed for inflation starting in 1985  Amid growing concerns about the mounting federal debt, Reagan signed the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982, one of the eleven times Reagan raised taxes  The bill doubled the federal cigarette tax, rescinded a portion of the corporate tax cuts from the 1981 tax bill, and according to Paul Krugman, "a third of the 1981 cut" overall  Many of his supporters condemned the bill, but Reagan defended his preservation of cuts on individual income tax rates  By 1983, the amount of federal tax had fallen for all or most taxpayers, but most strongly affected the wealthy The Tax Reform Act of 1986 reduced the number of tax brackets and top tax rate, and almost doubled personal exemptions To Reagan, the tax cuts would not have increased the deficit as long as there was enough economic growth and spending cuts  His policies proposed that economic growth would occur when the tax cuts spur investments, which would result in more spending, consumption, and ergo tax revenue  This theoretical relationship has been illustrated by some with the controversial Laffer curve  Critics labeled this "trickle-down economics", the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will spread to the poor  Milton Friedman and Robert Mundell argued that these policies invigorated America's economy and contributed to the economic boom of the 1990s 

Inflation and unemployment
Reagan took office in the midst of stagflation  The economy briefly experienced growth before plunging into a recession in July 1981  As Federal Reserve chairman, Paul Volcker fought inflation by pursuing a tight money policy of high interest rates, which restricted lending and investment, raised unemployment, and temporarily reduced economic growth  In December 1982, the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) measured the unemployment rate at 10 8 percent  Around the same time, economic activity began to rise until its end in 1990, setting the record for the longest peacetime expansion  In 1983, the recession ended and Reagan nominated Volcker to a second term in fear of damaging confidence in the economic recovery Reagan appointed Alan Greenspan to succeed Volcker in 1987  Greenspan raised interest rates in another attempt to curb inflation, setting off the Black Monday although the markets eventually recovered  By 1989, the BLS measured the unemployment rate at 5 3 percent  The inflation rate dropped from 12 percent during the 1980 election to under 5 percent in 1989  Likewise, the interest rate dropped from 15 percent to under 10 percent  Yet, not all shared equally in the economic recovery, and both economic inequality and the number of homeless individuals increased during the 1980s  Critics have contended that a majority of the jobs created during this decade paid the minimum wage 

Government spending
In 1981, in an effort to keep it solvent, Reagan approved a plan for cuts to Social Security  He later backed off of these plans due to public backlash  He then created the Greenspan Commission to keep Social Security financially secure and in 1983, he signed amendments to raise both the program's payroll taxes and retirement age for benefits  He had signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981 to cut funding for federal assistance such as food stamps, unemployment benefits, subsidized housing and the Aid to Families with Dependent Children, and would discontinue the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act  On the other side, defense spending doubled between 1981 and 1985  During Reagan's presidency, Project Socrates operated within the Defense Intelligence Agency in order to discover why the United States was unable to maintain its economic competitiveness  According to program director Michael Sekora, their findings helped the country exceed Soviet missile defense technology 

Deregulation
Reagan sought to loosen federal regulation of economic activities, and he appointed key officials who shared this agenda  William Leuchtenburg writes that by 1986, the Reagan administration eliminated almost half of the federal regulations that had existed in 1981  The 1982 Garn–St  Germain Depository Institutions Act deregulated savings and loan associations by letting them make a variety of loans and investments outside of real estate  After the bill's passage, savings and loans associations engaged in riskier activities, and the leaders of some institutions embezzled funds  The administration's inattentiveness toward the industry contributed to the savings and loan crisis and costly bailouts 

Deficits
The deficits were exacerbated by the early 1980s recession, which cut into federal revenue  The national debt tripled between the fiscal years of 1980 and 1989, and the national debt as a percentage of the gross domestic product rose from 33 percent in 1981 to 53 percent by 1989  During his time in office, Reagan never fulfilled his 1980 campaign promise of submitting a balanced budget  The United States borrowed heavily in order to cover newly spawned federal budget deficits  Reagan described the tripled debt the "greatest disappointment of his presidency"  Jeffrey Frankel opined that the deficits were a major reason why Reagan's successor, Bush, reneged on his campaign promise by raising taxes through the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990 

Assassination attempt
On March 30, 1981, Reagan was shot by John Hinckley Jr  outside the Washington Hilton  Also struck were: James Brady, Thomas Delahanty, and Tim McCarthy  Although "right on the margin of death" upon arrival at George Washington University Hospital, Reagan underwent surgery and recovered quickly from a broken rib, a punctured lung, and internal bleeding  Professor J  David Woodard says that the assassination attempt "created a bond between him and the American people that was never really broken"  Later, Reagan came to believe that God had spared his life "for a chosen mission" 

Supreme Court appointments
Reagan appointed three associate justices to the Supreme Court of the United States: Sandra Day O'Connor in July 1981, Antonin Scalia in 1986, and Anthony Kennedy in 1988  He also appointed William Rehnquist as the chief justice in 1986  The direction of the Supreme Court's reshaping has been described as conservative 

Public sector labor union fights
Early in August 1981, the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) went on strike, violating a federal law prohibiting government unions from striking  On August 3, Reagan said that he would fire air traffic controllers if they did not return to work within 48 hours; according to him, 38 percent did not return  On August 13, Reagan fired roughly 12,000 striking air traffic controllers who ignored his order  He used military controllers and supervisors to handle the nation's commercial air traffic until new controllers could be hired and trained  The breaking of the PATCO strike demoralized organized labor, and the number of strikes fell greatly in the 1980s  With the assent of Reagan's sympathetic National Labor Relations Board appointees, many companies also won wage and benefit cutbacks from unions, especially in the manufacturing sector  During Reagan's presidency, the share of employees who were part of a labor union dropped from approximately one-fourth of the total workforce to approximately one-sixth of the total workforce 

Civil rights
Despite Reagan having opposed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the bill was extended for 25 years in 1982  He initially opposed the establishment of Martin Luther King Jr  Day, but signed a veto-proof bill to create the holiday in 1983, and also alluded to claims that King was associated with communists during his career  In 1984, he signed legislation intended to impose fines for fair housing discrimination offenses  In March 1988, Reagan vetoed the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987, but Congress overrode his veto  He had argued that the bill unreasonably increased the federal government's power and undermined the rights of churches and business owners  Later in September, legislation was passed to correct loopholes in the Fair Housing Act of 1968 Early in his presidency, Reagan appointed Clarence M  Pendleton Jr  as chair of the United States Commission on Civil Rights to criticism for politicizing the agency  Pendleton and Reagan's subsequent appointees steered the commission in line with Reagan's views on civil rights, arousing the ire of civil rights advocates  In 1987, Reagan unsuccessfully nominated Robert Bork to the Supreme Court as a way to achieve his civil rights policy that could not be fulfilled during his presidency; his administration had opposed affirmative action, particularly in education, federal assistance programs, housing and employment, but Reagan reluctantly continued these policies  In housing, Reagan's administration saw considerably fewer fair housing cases filed than the three previous administrations  Reagan's recasting of civil rights through reduced enforcement of civil rights laws has been regarded by some as the largest since Lyndon B  Johnson's presidency 

War on drugs
In response to concerns about the increasing crack epidemic, Reagan intensified the war on drugs in 1982  While the American public did not see drugs as an important issue then, the FBI, Drug Enforcement Administration and the United States Department of Defense all increased their anti-drug funding immensely  Reagan's administration publicized the campaign to gain support after crack became widespread in 1985  Reagan signed the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 and 1988 to specify penalties for drug offenses  Both bills have been criticized in the years since for promoting racial disparities  Additionally, Nancy Reagan founded the "Just Say No" campaign to discourage others from engaging in recreational drug use and raise awareness about the dangers of drugs  A 1988 study showed 39 percent of high school seniors using illegal drugs compared to 53 percent in 1980, but Scott Lilienfeld and Hal Arkowitz say that the success of these types of campaigns have not been found to be affirmatively proven 

Escalation of the Cold War
Reagan ordered a massive defense buildup; he revived the B-1 Lancer program that had been rejected by the Carter administration, and deployed the MX missile  In response to Soviet deployment of the SS-20, he oversaw NATO's deployment of the Pershing missile in Western Europe  In 1982, Reagan tried to cut off the Soviet Union's access to hard currency by impeding its proposed gas line to Western Europe  It hurt the Soviet economy, but it also caused much ill will among American allies in Europe who counted on that revenue; he later retreated on this issue  In March 1983, Reagan introduced the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) to protect the United States from space intercontinental ballistic missiles  He believed that this defense shield could protect the country from nuclear destruction in a hypothetical nuclear war with the Soviet Union  There was much disbelief among the scientific community surrounding the program's scientific feasibility, leading opponents to dub the SDI "Star Wars", though Soviet leader Yuri Andropov said it would lead to "an extremely dangerous path" 
In a 1982 address to the British Parliament, Reagan said, "the march of freedom and democracy     will leave Marxism–Leninism on the ash heap of history " Dismissed by the American press as "wishful thinking", Margaret Thatcher called the address a "triumph"  David Cannadine says of Thatcher that "Reagan had been grateful for her interest in him at a time when the British establishment refused to take him seriously" with the two agreeing on "building up stronger defenses against Soviet Russia" and both believing in outfacing "what Reagan would later call 'the evil empire'" in reference to the Soviet Union during a speech to the National Association of Evangelicals in March 1983  After Soviet fighters downed Korean Air Lines Flight 007 in September, which included Larry McDonald and 61 other Americans, Reagan expressed outrage towards the Soviet Union  The next day, reports suggested that the Soviets had fired on the plane by mistake  In spite of the harsh, discordant rhetoric, Reagan's administration continued discussions with the Soviet Union on START I Although the Reagan administration agreed with the communist government in China to reduce the sale of arms to Taiwan in 1982, Reagan himself was the first president to reject containment and détente, and to put into practice the concept that the Soviet Union could be defeated rather than simply negotiated with  His covert aid to Afghan mujahideen forces through Pakistan against the Soviets has been given credit for assisting in ending the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan  However, the United States was subjected to blowback in the form of the Taliban that opposed them in the war in Afghanistan  In his 1985 State of the Union Address, Reagan proclaimed, "Support for freedom fighters is self-defense " Through the Reagan Doctrine, his administration supported anti-communist movements that fought against groups backed by the Soviet Union in an effort to rollback Soviet-backed communist governments and reduce Soviet influence across the world  Critics have felt that the administration ignored the human rights violations in the countries they backed, including genocide in Guatemala and mass killings in Chad 

Invasion of Grenada
On October 19, 1983, Maurice Bishop was overthrown and murdered by one of his colleagues  Several days later, Reagan ordered American forces to invade Grenada  Reagan cited a regional threat posed by a Soviet-Cuban military build-up in the Caribbean nation and concern for the safety of hundreds of American medical students at St  George's University as adequate reasons to invade  Two days of fighting commenced, resulting in an American victory  While the invasion enjoyed public support in the United States, it was criticized internationally, with the United Nations General Assembly voting to censure the American government  Cannon later noted that throughout Reagan's 1984 presidential campaign, the invasion overshadowed the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings, which killed 241 Americans taking part in an international peacekeeping operation during the Lebanese Civil War 

1984 election
Reagan announced his reelection campaign on January 29, 1984, declaring, "America is back and standing tall " In February, his administration reversed the unpopular decision to send the United States Marine Corps to Lebanon, thus eliminating a political liability for him  Reagan faced minimal opposition in the Republican primaries, and he and Bush accepted the nomination at the Dallas convention in August  In the general election, his campaign ran the commercial, "Morning in America"  At a time when the American economy was already recovering, former vice president Walter Mondale was attacked by Reagan's campaign as a "tax-and-spend Democrat", while Mondale criticized the deficit, the SDI, and Reagan's civil rights policy  However, Reagan's age induced his campaign managers to minimize his public appearances  Mondale's campaign believed that Reagan's age and mental health were issues before the October presidential debates Following Reagan's performance in the first debate where he struggled to recall statistics, his age was brought up by the media in negative fashion  Reagan's campaign changed his tactics for the second debate where he quipped, "I will not make age an issue of this campaign  I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience " This remark generated applause and laughter, even from Mondale  At that point, Broder suggested that age was no longer a liability for Reagan, and Mondale's campaign felt that "the election was over"  In November, Reagan won a landslide reelection victory with 59 percent of the popular vote and 525 electoral votes from 49 states  Mondale won 41 percent of the popular vote and 13 electoral votes from the District of Columbia and his home state of Minnesota 

Response to the AIDS epidemic
The AIDS epidemic began to unfold in 1981, and AIDS was initially difficult to understand for physicians and the public  As the epidemic advanced, according to White House physician and later physician to the president, brigadier general John Hutton, Reagan thought of AIDS as though "it was the measles and would go away"  The October 1985 death of the President's friend Rock Hudson affected Reagan's view; Reagan approached Hutton for more information on the disease  Still, between September 18, 1985 and February 4, 1986, Reagan did not mention AIDS in public In 1986, Reagan asked C  Everett Koop to draw up a report on the AIDS issue  Koop angered many evangelical conservatives, both in and out of the Reagan administration, by stressing the importance of sex education including condom usage in schools  A year later, Reagan, who reportedly had not read the report, gave his first speech on the epidemic when 36,058 Americans had been diagnosed with AIDS, and 20,849 had died of it  Reagan called for increased testing (including routine testing for marriage applicants) and mandatory testing of select groups (including federal prisoners)  Even after this speech, however, Reagan remained reluctant to publicly address AIDS Scholars and AIDS activists have argued that the Reagan administration largely ignored the AIDS crisis  Randy Shilts and Michael Bronski said that AIDS research was chronically underfunded during Reagan's administration, and Bronski added that requests for more funding by doctors at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention were routinely denied  In a September 1985 press conference, after Hudson announced his AIDS diagnosis, Reagan called a government AIDS research program a "top priority", but also cited budgetary constraints  Between the fiscal years of 1984 and 1989, federal spending on AIDS totaled $5 6 billion  The Reagan administration proposed $2 8 billion during this time period, but pressure from congressional Democrats resulted in the larger amount 

Addressing apartheid
Opposition to apartheid strengthened during Reagan's first term in office as its component disinvestment from South Africa movement, which had been in existence for quite some years  The opposition also gained critical mass following in the United States, particularly on college campuses and among mainline Protestant denominations  President Reagan was opposed to divestiture because, as he wrote in a letter to Sammy Davis Jr , it "would hurt the very people we are trying to help and would leave us no contact within South Africa to try and bring influence to bear on the government"  He also noted the fact that the "American-owned industries there employ more than 80,000 blacks" and that their employment practices were "very different from the normal South African customs"  The anti-communist focus of Reagan's administration lent itself to closer ties with the apartheid regime of South Africa, particularly with regards to matters pertaining to nuclear weapons The Reagan administration developed constructive engagement with the South African government as a means of encouraging it to move away from apartheid gradually  It was part of a larger initiative designed to foster peaceful economic development and political change throughout southern Africa  This policy, however, engendered much public criticism, and renewed calls for the imposition of stringent sanctions  In response, Reagan announced the imposition of new sanctions on the South African government, including an arms embargo in late 1985  These sanctions were seen as weak by anti-apartheid activists and as insufficient by the president's opponents in Congress  In 1986, Congress approved the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act, which included tougher sanctions; Reagan's veto was overridden by Congress  Afterward, he remained opposed to apartheid and unsure of "how best to oppose it"  Several European countries, as well as Japan, also imposed their sanctions on South Africa soon after 

Libya bombing
Contentious relations between Libya and the United States under President Reagan were revived in the West Berlin discotheque bombing that killed an American soldier and injured dozens of others on April 5, 1986  Stating that there was irrefutable evidence that Libya had a direct role in the bombing, Reagan authorized the use of force against the country  On April 14, the United States launched a series of airstrikes on ground targets in Libya  Thatcher allowed the United States Air Force to use Britain's air bases to launch the attack, on the justification that the United Kingdom was supporting America's right to self-defense under Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations  The attack was, according to Reagan, designed to halt Muammar Gaddafi's "ability to export terrorism", offering him "incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior"  The attack was condemned by many countries; by an overwhelming vote, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution to condemn the attack and deem it a violation of the Charter and international law 

Iran–Contra affair
Reagan authorized William J  Casey to arm the Contras, fearing that Communists would take over Nicaragua if it remained under the leadership of the Sandinistas  Congress passed the 1982 Boland Amendment, prohibiting the CIA and United States Department of Defense from using their budgets to provide aid to the Contras  Still, the Reagan administration raised funds for the Contras from private donors and foreign governments  When Congress learned that the CIA had secretly placed naval mines in Nicaraguan harbors, Congress passed a second Boland Amendment that barred granting any assistance to the Contras  By mid-1985, Hezbollah began to take American hostages in Lebanon, holding seven of them in reaction to the United States' support of Israel Reagan procured the release of seven American hostages held by Hezbollah by selling American arms to Iran, then engaged in the Iran–Iraq War, in hopes that Iran would pressure Hezbollah to release the hostages  The Reagan administration sold over 2,000 missiles to Iran without informing Congress; Hezbollah released four hostages but captured an additional six Americans  On Oliver North's initiative, the administration redirected the proceeds from the missile sales to the Contras  The transactions were exposed by Ash-Shiraa in early November 1986  Reagan initially denied any wrongdoing, but on November 25, he announced that John Poindexter and North had left the administration and that he would form the Tower Commission to investigate the transactions  A few weeks later, Reagan asked a panel of federal judges to appoint a special prosecutor who would conduct a separate investigation The Tower Commission released a report in February 1987 confirming that the administration had traded arms for hostages and sent the proceeds of the weapons sales to the Contras  The report laid most of the blame on North, Poindexter, and Robert McFarlane, but it was also critical of Donald Regan and other White House staffers  Investigators did not find conclusive proof that Reagan had known about the aid provided to the Contras, but the report noted that Reagan had "created the conditions which made possible the crimes committed by others" and had "knowingly participated or acquiesced in covering up the scandal"  The affair damaged the administration and raised questions about Reagan's competency and the wisdom of conservative policies  The administration's credibility was also badly damaged on the international stage as it had violated its own arms embargo on Iran 

Soviet decline and thaw in relations
Although the Soviets did not accelerate military spending in response to Reagan's military buildup, their enormous military expenses, in combination with collectivized agriculture and inefficient planned manufacturing, were a heavy burden for the Soviet economy  At the same time, the prices of oil, the primary source of Soviet export revenues, fell to one third of the previous level in 1985  These factors contributed to a stagnant economy during Mikhail Gorbachev's tenure as the Soviet Union's leader Reagan's foreign policy towards the Soviets wavered between brinkmanship and cooperation  Reagan appreciated Gorbachev's revolutionary change in the direction of the Soviet policy and shifted to diplomacy, intending to encourage him to pursue substantial arms agreements  They held four summit conferences between 1985 and 1988  Reagan believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to allow for more democracy and free speech, this would lead to reform and the end of communism  The critical summit was in Reykjavík in 1986, where they agreed to abolish all nuclear weapons  However, Gorbachev added the condition that SDI research must be confined to laboratories during the ten-year period when disarmament would take place  Reagan refused, stating that it was defensive only and that he would share the secrets with the Soviets, thus failing to reach a deal In June 1987, Reagan addressed Gorbachev during a speech at the Berlin Wall, demanding that he "tear down this wall"  The remark was ignored at the time, but after the wall fell in November 1989, it was retroactively recast as a soaring achievement  In December, Reagan and Gorbachev met again at the Washington Summit to sign the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, committing to the total abolition of their respective short-range and medium-range missile stockpiles  The treaty established an inspections regime designed to ensure that both parties honored the agreement  In May 1988, the U S  Senate overwhelmingly voted in favor of ratifying the treaty, providing a major boost to Reagan's popularity in the aftermath of the Iran–Contra affair  A new era of trade and openness between the two powers commenced, and the United States and Soviet Union cooperated on international issues such as the Iran–Iraq War 

1989–2004: Post-presidency
After leaving the presidency on January 20, 1989, Ronald and Nancy Reagan settled in a home in Bel Air, in addition to Rancho del Cielo in Santa Barbara  He received multiple awards and honors, and received generous payments for speaking engagements  In 1991, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library opened  Reagan also addressed the 1992 Republican National Convention "to inspire allegiance to the party regulars"; publicly favored the Brady Bill, drawing criticism from gun control opponents; a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget; and the repeal of the 22nd Amendment  His final public speech occurred on February 3, 1994, during a tribute to him in Washington, D C ; his last major public appearance was at the funeral of Richard Nixon on April 27, 1994 In August 1994, Reagan was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease, which he announced through a handwritten letter in November  There was speculation over how long he had demonstrated symptoms of mental degeneration, but lay observations that he suffered from Alzheimer's while still in office have been widely refuted by medical experts; his doctors said that he first began exhibiting overt symptoms of the illness in late 1992 or 1993  Over time, the disease destroyed Reagan's mental capacity  By 1997, he was reported to recognize few people other than his wife, though he continued to walk through parks and on beaches, play golf, and visit his office in nearby Century City  Eventually, his family decided that he would live in quiet semi-isolation with his wife  By the end of 2003, Reagan had lost his ability to speak and was mostly confined to his bed, no longer able to recognize any family members Reagan died of pneumonia, complicated by Alzheimer's, at his home in Los Angeles, on June 5, 2004  President George W  Bush called Reagan's death "a sad hour in the life of America"  His public funeral was held in the Washington National Cathedral, where eulogies were given by Margaret Thatcher, Brian Mulroney, George H  W  Bush, and George W  Bush  Other world leaders attended including Mikhail Gorbachev and Lech Wałęsa  Reagan was interred at his presidential library 

Legacy
Historical reputation
In 2008, British historian M  J  Heale summarized that scholars had reached a broad consensus in which "Reagan rehabilitated conservatism, turned the country to the right, practiced a 'pragmatic conservatism' that balanced ideology with the constraints of government, revived faith in the presidency and American self-respect, and contributed to critically ending the Cold War", which ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991  Many conservative and liberal scholars have agreed that Reagan has been the most influential president since Roosevelt, leaving his imprint on American politics, diplomacy, culture, and economics through his effective communication of his conservative agenda and pragmatic compromising  During the initial years of Reagan's post-presidency, historical rankings placed his presidency in the twenties  Throughout the 2000s and 2010s, his presidency was often placed in the top ten Many proponents, including his Cold War contemporaries, believe that his defense policies, economic policies, military policies, and hard-line rhetoric against the Soviet Union and communism, together with his summits with Gorbachev, played a significant part in ending the Cold War  Professor Jeffrey Knopf argues that while Reagan's practice of referring to the Soviet Union as "evil" probably made no difference to the Soviet leaders, it possibly gave encouragement to Eastern European citizens who opposed their communist regimes  President Truman's policy of containment is also regarded as a force behind the fall of the Soviet Union, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined the Soviet system itself  Nevertheless, Melvyn P  Leffler called Reagan "Gorbachev's minor, yet indispensable partner, setting the framework for the dramatic changes that neither anticipated happening anytime soon" Critics, for example Paul Krugman, note Reagan's tenure as having begun a period of increased income inequality, sometimes called the "Great Divergence"  Krugman also views Reagan as having initiated the ideology of the current-day Republican Party, which he feels is led by "radicals" who seek to "undo the twentieth century" gains in income equality and unionization  Others, such as Nixon's Secretary of Commerce Peter G  Peterson, also criticize what they feel was not just Reagan's fiscal irresponsibility, but also ushering in an era where tax cutting "became the GOP's core platform"  With resulting deficits and GOP leaders (speciously in Peterson's opinion) arguing supply-side gains would enable the country to "grow" its way out of deficits Reagan was known for storytelling and humor, which involved puns and self-deprecation  Reagan also often emphasized family values, despite being the first president to have been divorced  He showed the ability comfort to Americans during the aftermath of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster  Reagan's ability to talk about substantive issues with understandable terms and to focus on mainstream American concerns earned him the laudatory moniker the "Great Communicator"  He also earned the nickname "Teflon President" in that public perceptions of him were not substantially tarnished by the multitude of controversies that arose during his administration 

Political influence
Reagan led a new conservative movement, altering the political dynamic of the United States  Conservatism became the dominant ideology for Republicans, displacing the party's faction of liberals and moderates  In his time, men began voting more Republican, and women began voting more Democrat – a gender distinction that has persisted   He was supported by young voters, an allegiance that shifted many of them to the party  He attempted to appeal to black voters in 1980, but would receive the lowest black vote for a Republican presidential candidate at the time  Throughout Reagan's presidency, Republicans were unable to gain complete control of Congress The period of American history most dominated by Reagan and his policies (particularly on taxes, welfare, defense, the federal judiciary, and the Cold War) is known as the Reagan era, which suggests that the "Reagan Revolution" had a lasting impact on the United States in domestic and foreign policy  The Bill Clinton administration is often treated as an extension of the era, as is the George W  Bush administration  Since 1988, Republican presidential candidates have invoked Reagan's policies and beliefs  Carlos Lozada noted Trump's praising of Reagan in a book he published during his 2016 campaign 
Passage 4:
Timeline of the presidency of Gerald Ford
Gerald Ford, a Republican from Michigan, was inaugurated as the nation's 38th president on August 9, 1974, upon the resignation of Richard Nixon,  and ended on January 20, 1977  The following articles cover the timeline of Ford's presidency:

Timeline of the Gerald Ford presidency (1974)
Timeline of the Gerald Ford presidency (1975)
Timeline of the Gerald Ford presidency (1976–January 1977)

See also
Timeline of the Richard Nixon presidency, for his predecessor
Timeline of the Jimmy Carter presidency, for his successor
Passage 5:
Richard Darman
Richard Gordon Darman (May 10, 1943 – January 25, 2008) was an American businessman and government official who served in senior positions during the presidencies of Ronald Reagan and George H  W  Bush 

Early life
Darman was born in Charlotte, North Carolina, the son of Eleanor F  and Morton H  Darman  His father was a textile mill owner 
Darman graduated with honors from Harvard College in 1964 and from the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration in 1967 

Career
Darman held several governmental positions under James Baker, including as Assistant Secretary of Commerce (1976–1977)  After the defeat of Gerald Ford, Darman became a member of the faculty of Harvard Kennedy School, to which he would return on two occasions between 1977 and 2002 
When Baker became White House Chief of Staff under President Reagan, Darman returned to serve as Assistant to the President of the United States and White House Staff Secretary (1981–1985), before following Baker to the Treasury Department as Deputy Secretary of the Treasury (1985–1987) 
Darman served as Director of the Office of Management and Budget for the entire presidency of the first President Bush  Darman was regarded as provocative and intelligent by Washington insiders but was criticized by some economists for being too focused on the budget deficit and was sometimes blamed for convincing Bush to renege on his promise of "Read my lips: No new taxes," which is widely believed to have contributed to Bush's defeat in the election of 1992  Darman had previously tried to stop Bush from making the promise during the 1988 campaign From 1993 until his death in 2008, Darman was a partner and managing director of The Carlyle Group  During that period, Carlyle went from being a small firm with 26 employees to one of the world's largest and most successful private equity firms  Darman was a trustee of the Loomis Sayles Funds, the IXIS Funds, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute  He served as Chairman of the Board of the Smithsonian National Museum of American History and, in May 2003, became Chairman of the Board of AES Corporation, an electric utility company 

Personal life
He married Kathleen Emmet on September 1, 1967; they had three sons, William T  E , Jonathan W  E  and C  T  Emmet Darman 
Darman died on January 25, 2008, at the age of 64, following a battle with acute myelogenous leukemia 
Passage 6:
President of Vietnam
The president of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Vietnamese: Chủ tịch nước Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam, lit  'Chairman of the state of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam') is the head of state of Vietnam, elected by the Vietnam National Assembly from delegates of the National Assembly  Since Vietnam is a single-party state, the president is generally considered to hold the second highest position in the political system, formally after the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam  In addition, the president appoints the head of government, the Prime Minister  As head of state, the President represents Vietnam both domestically and internationally, and maintains the regular and coordinated operation and stability of the national government and safeguards the independence and territorial integrity of the country  
The president must be a delegate of the National Assembly and is traditionally a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party  The Central Committee of the Communist Party nominates candidates to the Standing Committee of the National Assembly, the Standing Committee of the National Assembly then confirms and nominates those candidates for official election by all delegates of the National Assembly  
The president appoints the vice president, prime minister, ministers, and other officials with the consent of the National Assembly  The president is furthermore the supreme commander-in-chief of the Vietnam People's Armed Forces, chairman of the Council for Defense and Security  Moreover, member of Political Bureau, standing member of the Central Military Commission and the Central Police Party Committee  Since September 2011, the president is also the head of the Central Steering Committee for Judicial Reform  The tenure of the president is five years, and a president can only serve three terms  If the president becomes unable to discharge duties of office, the vice president assumes the office of acting president until the president resumes duty, or until the election of a new president 
The powers and prestige of the office of president have varied over the years  For instance, while the inaugural president, Hồ Chí Minh, was also the chairman of the Communist Party, making him (in that capacity) the first ranking member of the Politburo, the highest decision-making body in Vietnam, his successor, Tôn Đức Thắng, served as a symbolic figure along with General Secretary Lê Duẩn  Since Trường Chinh's ascension to the presidency, the president has been ranked 1st (he was sometimes also chairman of the party) or 2nd in the order of precedence of the Communist Party's Politburo except President Nguyễn Minh Triết ranked fourth and President Võ Chí Công ranked third  Three persons served concurrently as head of both the party and state: Hồ Chí Minh (1951–1969), Trường Chinh (1986) and Nguyễn Phú Trọng (2018–2021) 
Võ Văn Thưởng is the current President of Vietnam after being appointed by the National Assembly on 2 March 2023  He is the youngest person to hold this position since the republic's founding in 1945 

History
Hồ Chí Minh was appointed Vietnam's first president in 1946 by the National Assembly  The 1959 Constitutions stated that the National Assembly had the power to appoint and dismiss the president  The president represented Vietnam both internally and externally  The power and responsibilities of the president in 1946 constitution is very similar to the power and responsibilities of the president of the United States with elements from the president of France being both the head of state and the head of government  The 1959 constitution significantly reduced the power of the president, making the president the de jure leader of Vietnam while handling most of the de facto power to the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam  The 1980 constitution transformed the office of head of state dramatically  The office of president was abolished and replaced with the office of Chairman of the Council of State (CC)  The CC chairmanship was modelled after the Soviet office of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet  The Council of State, as with the Council of Ministers, was a collective decision-making body  Both the Council of State and the Council of Ministers were part of the executive branch; the strengthening of these institutions weakened the role of the legislative branch  The duties, powers and responsibilities of the Council of State were taken from the Standing Committee of the National Assembly, which lost most of its powers and prestige in the 1980 Constitution 
The members of the Council of State were elected by the National Assembly and consisted of a chairman, deputy chairmen, a general secretary and other members  Council of State members could not concurrently be members of the Council of Ministers  The chairman of the Council of State was concurrently chairman of the National Defense Council (later the National Defense and Security Council) and commander-in-chief of the Vietnam People's Armed Forces  The Council of State supervised the works of other institutions, most notably the Council of Ministers, the Supreme People's Organ for Control and the People's Councils at all levels  It also presided over the elections of the National Assembly  The office of Chairman of the Council of State, the head of state, was abolished in the 1992 Constitution and replaced by the office of President 
The importance of the president has not remained constant throughout Vietnamese history  For instance, while Hồ Chí Minh was ranked as first member of the Politburo, the highest decision-making body in Vietnam, his successor, Tôn Đức Thắng, was a symbolic figure with little power  The post of head of state was strengthened in the 1980 Constitution by the appointment of Trường Chinh who was, by order of precedence, the second-highest-ranking member in the Politburo, behind Lê Duẩn  The office of president retained the second highest rank in the Politburo order of precedence until Nguyễn Minh Triết was appointed in 2006; he ranked fourth in the Politburo hierarchy  The Politburo elected in the aftermath of the 11th National Party Congress (held in January 2011) by the Central Committee elected Trương Tấn Sang as the first-ranking member of the Politburo  This was the first time in Vietnamese history where the highest-ranking member of the Politburo does not hold post of either general secretary or chairman (was in existence from 1951 to 1969) of the party  Since Trương Tấn Sang is first-ranked member of the Politburo, he is the body's unofficial head  Politburo meetings are held regularly; decisions within the Politburo are made through collective decision-making, and policies are only enacted if a majority of Politburo members supports them 

Term of office
The president is selected for a term of office of five years  The term of office of the incumbent president continues until the president-elect takes office
On assuming office, the president takes the following oath before the parliament:

In my capacity as President of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, I swear complete allegiance to the country, people, and constitution; to fulfill the tasks assigned by the State, and people

Duties, powers and responsibilities
The president is the head of state of Vietnam, and his main priority is to represent Vietnam internally and externally  The officeholder is elected by the National Assembly of Vietnam, is responsible to it and reports to it  The tenure of the president is five years, the same as that of the National Assembly  The president continues to serve in his functions until the National Assembly elects a successor  The president has the following executive and legislative powers:

To promulgate laws, decree-laws and the Constitution,
To suspend the implementation or abrogation of the documents of the prime minister or the deputy prime minister which contravene the Constitution and the Laws
To act as the country's commander-in-chief and holds the office of Chairman of the National Defense and Security Council of Vietnam,
To convene meetings of the National Defense and Security Council of Vietnam,
The president shall take measures to protect the sovereignty of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam its independence and state integrity, and ensure concerted functioning and interaction of all bodies of state power,
To propose to the National Assembly the election or dismissal from office of the vice president, the prime minister, the Chief justice of the Supreme People's Court and the head of the Supreme People's Office of Supervision and Control,
The president has the right to preside over meetings of the Government of Vietnam,
To appoint or dismiss officials, staff and employees of the Office of the President,
To appoint or dismiss deputy prime ministers, ministers and other members of the government,
To proclaim a state of war or amnesty,
On the basis of a Standing Committee resolution, the president can order a general or partial mobilisation, or can proclaim a state of emergency nationwide or in a particular region,
To propose that the Standing Committee review its decree-laws and resolutions on matters stipulated in Points 8 and 9, Article 91, within the space of ten days following their adoption; if those decree-laws and resolutions are again passed by the Standing Committee of the National Assembly with the country's president dissenting, the latter shall report the matter to the National Assembly for it to decide the issue at its nearest session,
To appoint or dismiss the deputy Chief justice and judges of the Supreme People's Court and the Deputy Director of the Supreme People's Office of Supervision and Control,
To appoint or dismiss the chief of general staff, vice chief of general staff, chief of the General Department of Politics and the vice chief of the General Political Department
To confer titles and ranks on senior officers of the Vietnam People's Armed Forces and bestows "diplomatic titles and ranks, and other State titles and ranks; to confer medals, badges and State honours and distinctions",
To appoint and recall ambassadors extraordinary and plenipotentiary, and receive foreign ambassadors extraordinary and plenipotentiary, to negotiate and sign international agreements on behalf of the Socialist Republic with the heads of other states; he can approve or join international agreements, except in cases where a decision by the National Assembly is necessary,
To grant Vietnamese nationality, release from Vietnamese nationality, or deprive of Vietnamese nationality,
To hold Head of Steering Committee of the Central Judicial Reform,
To supervise the detection and handles all corrupt behaviors,
To hold Director of the Economic Council The National Defense and Security Council (NDSC) is composed of the president, the prime minister and other members  The members of the NDSC are proposed by the president and approved by the National Assembly  NDSC members do not need to be members of the National Assembly  The decision-making process of the NDSC is that of a collective leadership  Among its powers is the right to mobilise all forces in the name of national defense, and in case of war the National Assembly can entrust the NDSC with special duties and powers 

Succession
According to Article 93 of the Constitution of Vietnam (2013):
"When the President is incapacitated from work over a long period of time, the Vice President shall succeed as acting President  In case of vacancy of the Presidency, the Vice President shall serve as acting President until a new President is elected by the National Assembly "

See also
List of presidents of Vietnam
List of spouses of Vietnamese presidents
Vice President of Vietnam
Prime Minister of Vietnam
Deputy Prime Minister of Vietnam
Council for National Defense and Security (Vietnam)
General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam
List of central officeholders in the Communist Party of Vietnam
Air transports of heads of state and government



ground_truth: George H. W. Bush