prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How are elephants connected to Gajabrishta?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Elephant
Elephants are the largest existing land animals  Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant  They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae and the order Proboscidea; extinct relatives include mammoths and mastodons  Distinctive features of elephants include a long proboscis called a trunk, tusks, large ear flaps, pillar-like legs, and tough but sensitive grey skin  The trunk is prehensile, bringing food and water to the mouth, and grasping objects  Tusks, which are derived from the incisor teeth, serve both as weapons and as tools for moving objects and digging  The large ear flaps assist in maintaining a constant body temperature as well as in communication  African elephants have larger ears and concave backs, whereas Asian elephants have smaller ears, and convex or level backs 
Elephants are scattered throughout sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia and are found in different habitats, including savannahs, forests, deserts, and marshes  They are herbivorous, and they stay near water when it is accessible  They are considered to be keystone species, due to their impact on their environments   Elephants have a fission–fusion society, in which multiple family groups come together to socialise  Females (cows) tend to live in family groups, which can consist of one female with her calves or several related females with offspring  The leader of a female group, usually the oldest cow, is known as the matriarch 
Males (bulls) leave their family groups when they reach puberty and may live alone or with other males  Adult bulls mostly interact with family groups when looking for a mate  They enter a state of increased testosterone and aggression known as musth, which helps them gain dominance over other males as well as reproductive success  Calves are the centre of attention in their family groups and rely on their mothers for as long as three years  Elephants can live up to 70 years in the wild  They communicate by touch, sight, smell, and sound; elephants use infrasound and seismic communication over long distances  Elephant intelligence has been compared with that of primates and cetaceans  They appear to have self-awareness, and possibly show concern for dying and dead individuals of their kind 
African bush elephants and Asian elephants are listed as endangered and African forest elephants as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)  One of the biggest threats to elephant populations is the ivory trade, as the animals are poached for their ivory tusks  Other threats to wild elephants include habitat destruction and conflicts with local people  Elephants are used as working animals in Asia  In the past, they were used in war; today, they are often controversially put on display in zoos, or exploited for entertainment in circuses  Elephants have an iconic status in human culture and have been featured in art, folklore, religion, literature, and popular culture 

Etymology
The word "elephant" is based on the Latin elephas (genitive elephantis) ("elephant"), which is the Latinised form of the Greek ἐλέφας (elephas) (genitive ἐλέφαντος (elephantos), probably from a non-Indo-European language, likely Phoenician  It is attested in Mycenaean Greek as e-re-pa (genitive e-re-pa-to) in Linear B syllabic script  As in Mycenaean Greek, Homer used the Greek word to mean ivory, but after the time of Herodotus, it also referred to the animal  The word "elephant" appears in Middle English as olyfaunt (c  1300) and was borrowed from Old French oliphant (12th century) 

Taxonomy
Elephants belong to the family Elephantidae, the sole remaining family within the order Proboscidea  Their closest extant relatives are the sirenians (dugongs and manatees) and the hyraxes, with which they share the clade Paenungulata within the superorder Afrotheria  Elephants and sirenians are further grouped in the clade Tethytheria Three species of living elephants are recognised; the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) and Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)  African elephants were traditionally considered a single species, Loxodonta africana, but molecular studies have affirmed their status as separate species  Mammoths (Mammuthus) are nested within living elephants as they are more closely related to Asian elephants than to African elephants  Another extinct genus of elephant, Palaeoloxodon, is also recognised, which appears to have close affinities with and to have hybridised with African elephants 

Evolution
Over 180 extinct members of order Proboscidea have been described  The earliest proboscideans, the African Eritherium and Phosphatherium are known from the late Paleocene  The Eocene included Numidotherium, Moeritherium and Barytherium from Africa  These animals were relatively small and some, like Moeritherium and Barytherium were probably amphibious  Later on, genera such as Phiomia and Palaeomastodon arose; the latter likely inhabited more forested areas  Proboscidean diversification changed little during the Oligocene  One notable species of this epoch was Eritreum melakeghebrekristosi of the Horn of Africa, which may have been an ancestor to several later species 
A major event in proboscidean evolution was the collision of Afro-Arabia with Eurasia, during the Early Miocene, around 18-19 million years ago allowing proboscideans to disperse from their African homeland across Eurasia, and later, around 16-15 million years ago into North America across the Bering Land Bridge  Proboscidean groups prominent during the Miocene include the deinotheres, along with the more advanced elephantimorphs, including mammutids (mastodons), gomphotheres, amebelodontids (which includes the "shovel tuskers" like Platybelodon), choerolophodontids and stegodontids  Around 10 million years ago, the earliest members of the family Elephantidae emerged in Africa, having originated from gomphotheres Elephantids are distinguished from earlier proboscideans by a major shift in the molar morphology to parallel lophs rather than the cusps of earlier proboscideans, allowing them to become higher crowned (hypsodont) and more efficient in consuming grass  The Late Miocene saw major climactic changes, which resulted in the decline and extinction of many proboscidean groups  The earliest members of modern genera of Elephantidae appeared during the latest Miocene-early Pliocene around 5 million years ago  The elephantid genera Elephas (which includes the living Asian elephant) and Mammuthus (mammoths) migrated out of Africa during the late Pliocene, around 3 6 to 3 2 million years ago Over the course of the Early Pleistocene, all non-elephantid probobscidean genera outside of the Americas became extinct with the exception of Stegodon, with gomphotheres dispersing into South America as part of the Great American interchange, and mammoths migrating into North America around 1 5 million years ago  At the end of the Early Pleistocene, around 800,000 years ago the elephantid genus Palaeoloxodon dispersed outside of Africa, becoming widely distributed in Eurasia  Proboscideans underwent a dramatic decline during the Late Pleistocene, with all remaining non-elephantid proboscideans (including Stegodon, mastodons, and the gomphotheres Cuvieronius and Notiomastodon) and Palaeoloxodon becoming extinct, with mammoths only surviving in relict populations on islands around the Bering Strait into the Holocene, with their latest survival being on Wrangel Island around 4,000 years ago Over the course of their evolution, probobscideans grew larger in size  With that came longer limbs and wider feet with a more digitigrade stance along with a larger head and shorter neck  The trunk evolved and grew longer to provide reach  The number of premolars, incisors and canines decreased and the cheek teeth (molars and premolars) became longer and more specialised  The incisors developed into tusks of different shapes and sizes  Several species of proboscideans became isolated on islands and experienced insular dwarfism, some dramatically reducing in body size, such as the 1 metre (3 3 ft) tall dwarf elephant species Palaeoloxodon falconeri 

Living species
Anatomy
Elephants are the largest living terrestrial animals  The skeleton is made up of 326–351 bones  The vertebrae are connected by tight joints, which limit the backbone's flexibility  African elephants have 21 pairs of ribs, while Asian elephants have 19 or 20 pairs  The skull contains air cavities (sinuses) that reduce the weight of the skull while maintaining overall strength  These cavities give the inside of the skull a honeycomb-like appearance  By contrast, the lower jaw is dense  The cranium is particularly large and provides enough room for the attachment of muscles to support the entire head  The skull is built to withstand great stress, particularly when fighting or when using the tusks  The brain is surrounded by arches in the skull which serve as protection  Because of the size of the head, the neck is relatively short to provide better support 
Elephants are homeotherms, and maintain their average body temperature at ~ 36 °C (97 °F), with minimum 35 2 °C (95 4 °F) during cool season, and maximum 38 0 °C (100 4 °F) during hot dry season 

Ears and eyes
Elephant ear flaps, or pinnae are 1–2 mm (0 039–0 079 in) thick in the middle with a thinner tip and supported by a thicker base  They contain numerous blood vessels called capillaries  Warm blood flows into the capillaries, freeing excess heat into the environment  This effect is increased by flapping the ears back and forth  Larger ear surfaces contain more capillaries, and more heat can be released  Of all the elephants, African bush elephants live in the hottest climates, and have the largest ear flaps  The ossicles are adapted for hearing low frequencies, being most sensitive at 1 kHz Lacking a lacrimal apparatus (tear duct), the eye relies on the harderian gland in the orbit to keep it moist  A durable nictitating membrane shields the globe  The animal's field of vision is compromised by the location and limited mobility of the eyes  Elephants are considered to be dichromats and they can see well in dim light but not in bright light 

Trunk
The elongated and prehensile trunk, or proboscis, consists of both the nose and upper lip, which fuse in early fetal development  This versatile appendage contains up to 150,000 separate muscle fascicles, with no bone and little fat  These paired muscles consist of two major types: superficial (surface) and internal  The former are divided into dorsals, ventrals, and laterals while the latter are divided into transverse and radiating muscles  The muscles of the trunk connect to a bony opening in the skull  The nasal septum consists of small elastic muscles between the nostrils which are divided by cartilage at the base  A unique proboscis nerve – a combination of the maxillary and facial nerves – lines each side of the appendage As a muscular hydrostat, the trunk moves by finely controlled muscle contractions, working both with and against each other  Using three basic movements: bending, twisting, and longitudinal stretching/retracting, the trunk has near unlimited flexibility  Objects grasped by the end of the trunk can be moved to the mouth by curving the appendage inwards  The trunk can also bend at different points by creating stiffened "pseudo-joints"  The tip can be moved in a way similar to the human hand  The skin is more elastic on the dorsal side of the elephant trunk than underneath; allowing the animal to stretch and coil while maintaining a strong grasp  The African elephants have two finger-like extensions at the tip of the trunk that allow them to pluck small food  The Asian elephant has only one and relies more on wrapping around a food item  Asian elephant trunks have better motor coordination 

The trunk's extreme flexibility allows it to forage and wrestle other elephants with it  It is powerful enough to lift up to 350 kg (770 lb), but also has the precision to crack a peanut shell without breaking the seed  With its trunk, an elephant can reach items up to 7 m (23 ft) high and dig for water in the mud or sand below  It also uses it to clean itself  Individuals may show lateral preference when grasping with their trunks: some prefer to twist them to the left, others to the right  Elephant trunks are capable of powerful siphoning  They can expand their nostrils 30% around, leading to a 64% greater nasal volume, and can breathe in almost 30 times faster than a human sneeze, at over 150 m/s (490 ft/s)  They suck up water which is squirted into the mouth or over the body  The trunk of an adult Asian elephant is capable of retaining 8 5 L (2 2 US gal) of water   They will also sprinkle dust or grass on themselves  When underwater, the elephant uses its trunk as a snorkel The trunk also acts as a sense organ  Its sense of smell may be four times greater than a bloodhound's nose  The infraorbital nerve, which makes the trunk sensitive to touch, is thicker than both the optic and auditory nerves  Whiskers grow all along the trunk, and are particularly packed at the tip, where they contribute to its tactile sensitivity  Unlike those of many mammals, such as cats and rats, elephant whiskers do not move independently ("whisk") to sense the environment; the trunk itself must move to bring the whiskers into contact with nearby objects  Whiskers grow in rows along each side on ventral surface of the trunk, which is thought to be essential in helping elephants balance objects there, whereas they are more evenly arranged on the dorsal surface  Number and patterns of whiskers are distinctly different between species Damaging the trunk would be detrimental to an elephant's survival, although in rare cases, individuals have survived with shortened ones  One trunkless elephant has been observed to graze using its lips with its hind legs in the air and balancing on its front knees  Floppy trunk syndrome is a condition of trunk paralysis recorded in African bush elephants and involves the degeneration of the peripheral nerves and muscles  The disorder has been linked to lead poisoning 

Teeth
Elephants usually have 26 teeth: the incisors, known as the tusks, 12 deciduous premolars, and 12 molars  Unlike most mammals, teeth are not replaced by new ones emerging from the jaws vertically  Instead, new teeth start at the back of the mouth and push out the old ones  The first chewing tooth on each side of the jaw falls out when the elephant is two to three years old  This is followed by four more tooth replacements at the ages of four to six, 9–15, 18–28 and finally in their early 40s  The final (usually sixth) set must last the elephant the rest of its life  Elephant teeth have loop-shaped dental ridges, which are more diamond-shaped in African elephants 

Tusks
The tusks of an elephant are modified second incisors in the upper jaw  They replace deciduous milk teeth at 6–12 months of age and keep growing at about 17 cm (7 in) a year  As the tusk develops, it is topped with smooth cone-shaped enamel that eventually wanes  The dentine is known as ivory and has a cross-section of intersecting lines, known as "engine turning", which create diamond-shaped patterns  Being living tissue, tusks are fairly soft; about as dense as the mineral calcite  The tusk protrudes from a socket in the skull and most of it is external  At least one-third of the tusk contains the pulp and some have nerves which stretch even further  Thus it would be difficult to remove it without harming the animal  When removed, ivory will dry up and crack if not kept cool and wet  Tusks function in digging, debarking, marking, moving objects and fighting Elephants are usually right- or left-tusked, similar to humans, who are typically right- or left-handed  The dominant or "master" tusk, is typically more worn down, as it is shorter and blunter  For the African elephants, tusks are present in both males and females, and are around the same length in both sexes, reaching up to 300 cm (9 ft 10 in), but those of males tend to be more massive  In the Asian species, only the males have large tusks  Female Asians have very small tusks, or none at all  Tuskless males exist and are particularly common among Sri Lankan elephants  Asian males can have tusks as long as Africans', but they are usually slimmer and lighter; the largest recorded was 302 cm (9 ft 11 in) long and weighed 39 kg (86 lb)  Hunting for elephant ivory in Africa and Asia has led to natural selection for shorter tusks and tusklessness 

Skin
An elephant's skin is generally very tough, at 2 5 cm (1 in) thick on the back and parts of the head  The skin around the mouth, anus, and inside of the ear is considerably thinner  Elephants are typically grey, but African elephants look brown or reddish after rolling in coloured mud  Asian elephants have some patches of depigmentation, particularly on the head  Calves have brownish or reddish hair, with the head and back being particularly hairy  As elephants mature, their hair darkens and becomes sparser, but dense concentrations of hair and bristles remain on the tip of the tail and parts of the head and genitals  Normally the skin of an Asian elephant is covered with more hair than its African counterpart  Their hair is thought to help them lose heat in their hot environments Although tough, an elephant's skin is very sensitive and requires mud baths to maintain moisture and protect it from burning and insect bites  After bathing, the elephant will usually use its trunk to blow dust onto its body and this dries into a protective crust  Elephants have difficulty releasing heat through the skin because of their low surface-area-to-volume ratio, which is many times smaller than that of a human  They have even been observed lifting up their legs, to expose their soles to the air  Elephants only have sweat glands between the toes, but the skin allows water to disperse and evaporate, cooling the animal  In addition, cracks in the skin may reduce dehydration and allow for increased thermal regulation in the long term 

Legs, locomotion, and posture
To support the animal's weight, an elephant's limbs are positioned more vertically under the body than in most other mammals  The long bones of the limbs have cancellous bone in place of medullary cavities  This strengthens the bones while still allowing haematopoiesis (blood cell creation)  Both the front and hind limbs can support an elephant's weight, although 60% is borne by the front  The position of the limbs and leg bones allow an elephant to stand still for extended periods of time without tiring  Elephants are incapable of turning their manus, as the ulna and radius of the front legs are secured in pronation  Elephants may also lack the pronator quadratus and pronator teres muscles or have very small ones  The circular feet of an elephant have soft tissues or "cushion pads" beneath the manus or pes, which allow them to bear the animal's great mass  They appear to have a sesamoid, an extra "toe" similar in placement to a giant panda's extra "thumb", that also helps in weight distribution  As many as five toenails can be found on both the front and hind feet Elephants can move both forwards and backwards, but are incapable of trotting, jumping, or galloping  They can move on land only by walking or ambling: a faster gait similar to running   In walking, the legs act as pendulums, with the hips and shoulders moving up and down while the foot is planted on the ground  The fast gait does not meet all the criteria of running, since there is no point where all the feet are off the ground, although the elephant uses its legs much like other running animals, and can move faster by quickening its stride  Fast-moving elephants appear to 'run' with their front legs, but 'walk' with their hind legs and can reach a top speed of 25 km/h (16 mph)  At this speed, most other quadrupeds are well into a gallop, even accounting for leg length  Spring-like kinetics could explain the difference between the motion of elephants and other animals  The cushion pads expand and contract, and reduce both the pain and noise that would come from a very heavy animal moving  Elephants are capable swimmers: they can swim for up to six hours while staying at the surface, moving at 2 1 km/h (1 mph) and traversing up to 48 km (30 mi) continuously 

Internal systems
The brain of an elephant weighs 4 5–5 5 kg (10–12 lb) compared to 1 6 kg (4 lb) for a human brain  It is the largest of all terrestrial mammals  While the elephant brain is larger overall, it is proportionally smaller than the human brain  At birth, an elephant's brain already weighs 30–40% of its adult weight  The cerebrum and cerebellum are well developed, and the temporal lobes are so large that they bulge out laterally  Their temporal lobes are proportionally larger than in other animals, including humans  The throat of an elephant appears to contain a pouch where it can store water for later use  The larynx of the elephant is the largest known among mammals  The vocal folds are anchored close to the epiglottis base  When comparing an elephant's vocal folds to those of a human, an elephant's are proportionally longer, thicker, with a greater cross-sectional area  In addition, they are located further up the vocal tract with an acute slope 

The heart of an elephant weighs 12–21 kg (26–46 lb)  Its apex has two pointed ends, an unusual trait among mammals  In addition, the ventricles of the heart split towards the top, a trait also found in sirenians  When upright, the elephant's heart beats around 28 beats per minutes and actually speeds up to 35 beats when it lays down  The blood vessels are thick and wide and can hold up during blood pressures  The lungs are attached to the diaphragm, and breathing relies less on the expanding of the ribcage  Connective tissue exists in place of the pleural cavity  This may allow the animal to deal with the pressure differences when its body is underwater and its trunk is breaking the surface for air  Elephants inhale mostly with the trunk, but also with the mouth  They have a hindgut fermentation system, and their large and small intestines together reach 35 m (115 ft) in length  Less than half of an elephant's food intake gets digested, despite the process lasting a day 

Sex organs
A male elephant's testes are located internally near the kidneys  The penis can be as long as 100 cm (39 in) with a 16 cm (6 in) wide base  It curves to an 'S' when fully erect and has an orifice shaped like a Y  The female's clitoris may be 40 cm (16 in)  The vulva is found lower than in other herbivores, between the hind legs instead of under the tail  Determining pregnancy status can be difficult due to the animal's large belly  The female's mammary glands occupy the space between the front legs, which puts the suckling calf within reach of the female's trunk  Elephants have a unique organ, the temporal gland, located in both sides of the head  This organ is associated with sexual behaviour, and males secrete a fluid from it when in musth  Females have also been observed with these secretions 

Natural history
Elephants are herbivorous and will eat leaves, twigs, fruit, bark, grass and roots  African elephants mostly browse while Asian elephants mainly graze  They can eat as much as 300 kg (660 lb) of food and drink 40 L (11 US gal) of water in a day  Elephants tend to stay near water sources  They have morning, afternoon and nighttime feeding sessions  At midday, elephants rest under trees and may doze off while standing  Sleeping occurs at night while the animal is lying down  Elephants average 3–4 hours of sleep per day  Both males and family groups typically move no more than 20 km (12 mi) a day, but distances as far as 180 km (112 mi) have been recorded in the Etosha region of Namibia  Elephants go on seasonal migrations in response to changes in environmental conditions  In northern Botswana, they travel 325 km (202 mi) to the Chobe River after the local waterholes dry up in late August 

Because of their large size, elephants have a huge impact on their environments and are considered keystone species  Their habit of uprooting trees and undergrowth can transform savannah into grasslands; smaller herbivores can access trees mowed down by elephants  When they dig for water during drought, they create waterholes that can be used by other animals  When they use waterholes, they end up making them bigger  At Mount Elgon, elephants dig through caves and pave the way for ungulates, hyraxes, bats, birds and insects  Elephants are important seed dispersers; African forest elephants consume and deposit many seeds over great distances, with either no effect or a positive effect on germination  In Asian forests, large seeds require giant herbivores like elephants and rhinoceros for transport and dispersal  This ecological niche cannot be filled by the smaller Malayan tapir  Because most of the food elephants eat goes undigested, their dung can provide food for other animals, such as dung beetles and monkeys  Elephants can have a negative impact on ecosystems  At Murchison Falls National Park in Uganda, elephants numbers have threatened several species of small birds that depend on woodlands  Their weight causes the soil to compress, leading to run off and erosion Elephants typically coexist peacefully with other herbivores, which will usually stay out of their way  Some aggressive interactions between elephants and rhinoceros have been recorded  The size of adult elephants makes them nearly invulnerable to predators  Calves may be preyed on by lions, spotted hyenas, and wild dogs in Africa and tigers in Asia  The lions of Savuti, Botswana, have adapted to hunting elephants, mostly calves, juveniles or even sub-adults  There are rare reports of adult Asian elephants falling prey to tigers  Elephants tend to have high numbers of parasites, particularly nematodes, compared to many other mammals  This is due to them being largely immune to predators, which would otherwise kill off many of the individuals with significant parasite loads 

Social structure
Elephants are generally gregarious animals  African bush elephants in particular have a complex, stratified social structure  Female elephants spend their entire lives in tight-knit matrilineal family groups  They are led by the matriarch which is often the eldest female  She remains leader of the group until death or if she no longer has the energy for the role; a study on zoo elephants found that the death of the matriarch led to greater stress in the surviving elephants  When her tenure is over, the matriarch's eldest daughter takes her place instead of her sister (if present)  One study found that younger matriarchs take potential threats less seriously  Large family groups may split if they cannot be supported by the local resources At Amboseli National Park, Kenya, female groups may consist of around ten members, including four adults and their dependent offspring  Here, a cow's life involves interaction with those outside her group  Two separate families may associate and bond with each other, forming what are known as bond groups  During the dry season, elephant families may aggregate together into clans  These may number around nine groups, which clans do not form strong bonds, but defend their dry-season ranges against other clans  The Amboseli elephant population is further divided into the "central" and "peripheral" subpopulations Female Asian elephants tend to have more fluid social associations  In Sri Lanka, there appear to be stable family units or "herds" and larger, looser "groups"  They have been observed to have "nursing units" and "juvenile-care units"  In southern India, elephant populations may contain family groups, bond groups and possibly clans  Family groups tend to be small, with only one or two adult females and their offspring  A group containing more than two cows and their offspring is known as a "joint family"  Malay elephant populations have even smaller family units and do not reach levels above a bond group  Groups of African forest elephants typically consist of one cow with one to three offspring  These groups appear to interact with each other, especially at forest clearings 

Adult males live separate lives  As he matures, a bull associates more with outside males or even other families  At Amboseli, young males may be away from their families 80% by 14–15 years of age  When males permanently leave, they either live alone or with other males  The former is typical of bulls in dense forests  A dominance hierarchy exists among males, whether they are social or solitary  Dominance depends on the age, size and sexual condition  Male elephants can be quite sociable when not competing for mates and form vast and fluid social networks  Older bulls act as the leaders of these groups  The presence of older males appears to subdue the aggression and "deviant" behaviour of younger ones  The largest all-male groups can reach close to 150 individuals  Adult males and females come together to breed  Bulls will accompany family groups if a cow is in oestrous 

Sexual behaviour
Musth
Adult males enter a state of increased testosterone known as musth  In a population in southern India, males first enter musth at 15 years old, but it is not very intense until they are older than 25  At Amboseli, no bulls under 24 were found to be in musth, while half of those aged 25–35 and all those over 35 did  In some areas, there may be seasonal influences on the timing of musths  The main characteristic of a bull's musth is a fluid discharged from the temporal gland that runs down the side of his face  Behaviours associated with musth include walking with a high and swinging head, nonsynchronous ear flapping, picking at the ground with the tusks, marking, rumbling, and urinating in the sheath  The length of this varies between males of different ages and conditions, lasting days to months Males become extremely aggressive during musth  Size is the determining factor in agonistic encounters when the individuals have the same condition  In contests between musth and non-musth individuals, musth bulls win the majority of the time, even when the non-musth bull is larger  A male may stop showing signs of musth when he encounters a musth male of higher rank  Those of equal rank tend to avoid each other  Agonistic encounters typically consist of threat displays, chases, and minor sparring  Rarely do they full-on fight 

Mating
Elephants are polygynous breeders, and most copulations occur during rainfall  An oestrus cow uses pheromones in her urine and vaginal secretions to signal her readiness to mate  A bull will follow a potential mate and assess her condition with the flehmen response, which requires him to collect a chemical sample with his trunk and taste it with the vomeronasal organ at the roof of the mouth  The oestrous cycle of a cow lasts 14–16 weeks with the follicular phase lasting 4–6-weeks and luteal phase 8- to 10-weeks  While most mammals have one surge of luteinizing hormone during the follicular phase, elephants have two  The first (or anovulatory) surge, appears to change the female's scent, signaling to males that she is in heat, but ovulation does not occur until the second (or ovulatory) surge  Cows over 45–50 years of age are less fertile Bulls engage in a behaviour known as mate-guarding, where they follow oestrous females and defend them from other males  Most mate-guarding is done by musth males, and females seek them out, particularly older ones  Musth appears to signal to females the condition of the male, as weak or injured males do not have normal musths  For young females, the approach of an older bull can be intimidating, so her relatives stay nearby for comfort  During copulation, the male rests his trunk on the female  The penis is mobile enough to move without the pelvis  Before mounting, it curves forward and upward  Copulation lasts about 45 seconds and does not involve pelvic thrusting or ejaculatory pause Homosexual behaviour is frequent in both sexes  As in heterosexual interactions, this involves mounting  Male elephants sometimes stimulate each other by playfighting and "championships" may form between old bulls and younger male  Female same-sex behaviours have been documented only in captivity where they engage in mutual masturbation with their trunks 

Birth and development
Gestation in elephants typically lasts between one and a half and two years and the female will not give birth again for at least four years  The relatively long pregnancy is supported by several corpus luteums and gives the foetus more time to develop, particularly the brain and trunk  Births tend to take place during the wet season  Typically, only a single young is born, but twins sometimes occur  Calves are born roughly 85 cm (33 in) tall and with a weight of around 120 kg (260 lb)  They are precocial and quickly stand and walk to follow their mother and family herd  A newborn calf will attract the attention of all the herd members  Adults and most of the other young will gather around the newborn, touching and caressing it with their trunks  For the first few days, the mother limits access to her young  Alloparenting – where a calf is cared for by someone other than its mother – takes place in some family groups  Allomothers are typically aged two to twelve years For the first few days, the newborn is unsteady on its feet and needs its mother's help  It relies on touch, smell, and hearing, as its eyesight is less developed  With little coordination in its trunk, it can only flop it around which may cause it to trip  When it reaches its second week, the calf can walk with more balance and has more control over its trunk  After its first month, the trunk can grab and hold objects, but still lacks sucking abilities, and the calf must bend down to drink  It continues to stay near its mother as it is still reliant on her  For its first three months, a calf relies entirely on its mother's milk, after which it begins to forage for vegetation and can use its trunk to collect water  At the same time, there is progress in lip and leg movements  By nine months, mouth, trunk and foot coordination are mastered  Suckling bouts tend to last 2–4 min/hr for a calf younger than a year  After a year, a calf is fully capable of grooming, drinking, and feeding itself  It still needs its mother's milk and protection until it is at least two years old  Suckling after two years may improve growth, health and fertility Play behaviour in calves differs between the sexes; females run or chase each other while males play-fight  The former are sexually mature by the age of nine years while the latter become mature around 14–15 years  Adulthood starts at about 18 years of age in both sexes  Elephants have long lifespans, reaching 60–70 years of age  Lin Wang, a captive male Asian elephant, lived for 86 years 

Communication
Elephants communicate in various ways  Individuals greet one another by touching each other on the mouth, temporal glands and genitals  This allows them to pick up chemical cues  Older elephants use trunk-slaps, kicks, and shoves to control younger ones  Touching is especially important for mother–calf communication  When moving, elephant mothers will touch their calves with their trunks or feet when side-by-side or with their tails if the calf is behind them  A calf will press against its mother's front legs to signal it wants to rest and will touch her breast or leg when it wants to suckle Visual displays mostly occur in agonistic situations  Elephants will try to appear more threatening by raising their heads and spreading their ears  They may add to the display by shaking their heads and snapping their ears, as well as tossing around dust and vegetation  They are usually bluffing when performing these actions  Excited elephants also raise their heads and spread their ears but additionally may raise their trunks  Submissive elephants will lower their heads and trunks, as well as flatten their ears against their necks, while those that are ready to fight will bend their ears in a V shape Elephants produce several vocalisations—some of which pass though the trunk—for both short and long range communication  This includes trumpeting, bellowing, roaring, growling, barking, snorting, and rumbling  Elephants can produce infrasonic rumbles  For Asian elephants, these calls have a frequency of 14–24 Hz, with sound pressure levels of 85–90 dB and last 10–15 seconds  For African elephants, calls range from 15 to 35 Hz with sound pressure levels as high as 117 dB, allowing communication for many kilometres, possibly over 10 km (6 mi) Elephants are known to communicate with seismics, vibrations produced by impacts on the earth's surface or acoustical waves that travel through it  An individual foot stomping or mock charging can create seismic signals that can be heard at travel distances of up to 32 km (20 mi)  Seismic waveforms produced by rumbles travel 16 km (10 mi) 

Intelligence and cognition
Elephants are among the most intelligent animals  They exhibit mirror self-recognition, an indication of self-awareness and cognition that has also been demonstrated in some apes and dolphins  One study of a captive female Asian elephant suggested the animal was capable of learning and distinguishing between several visual and some acoustic discrimination pairs  This individual was even able to score a high accuracy rating when re-tested with the same visual pairs a year later  Elephants are among the species known to use tools  An Asian elephant has been observed fine-tuning branches for use as flyswatters  Tool modification by these animals is not as advanced as that of chimpanzees  Elephants are popularly thought of as having an excellent memory  This could have a factual basis; they possibly have cognitive maps which give them long lasting memories of their environment on a wide scale  Individuals may be able to remember where their family members are located Scientists debate the extent to which elephants feel emotion  They are attracted to the bones of their own kind, regardless of whether they are related  As with chimpanzees and dolphins, a dying or dead elephant may elicit attention and aid from others, including those from other groups  This has been interpreted as expressing "concern"; however, the Oxford Companion to Animal Behaviour (1987) said that "one is well advised to study the behaviour rather than attempting to get at any underlying emotion" 

Conservation
Status
African bush elephants were listed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2021, and African forest elephants were listed as Critically Endangered in the same year  In 1979, Africa had an estimated population of at least 1 3 million elephants, possibly as high as 3 0 million  A decade later, the population was estimated to be 609,000; with 277,000 in Central Africa, 110,000 in Eastern Africa, 204,000 in Southern Africa, and 19,000 in Western Africa  The population of rainforest elephants was lower than anticipated, at around 214,000 individuals  Between 1977 and 1989, elephant populations declined by 74% in East Africa  After 1987, losses in elephant numbers hastened, and savannah populations from Cameroon to Somalia experienced a decline of 80%  African forest elephants had a total loss of 43%  Population trends in southern Africa were various, with unconfirmed losses in Zambia, Mozambique and Angola while populations grew in Botswana and Zimbabwe and were stable in South Africa  The IUCN estimated that total population in Africa is estimated at around to 415,000 individuals for both species combined as of 2016 African elephants receive at least some legal protection in every country where they are found  Successful conservation efforts in certain areas have led to high population densities while failures have lead to declines as high as 70% or more of the course of ten years  As of 2008, local numbers were controlled by contraception or translocation  Large-scale cullings stopped in the late 1980s and early 1990s  In 1989, the African elephant was listed under Appendix I by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), making trade illegal  Appendix II status (which allows restricted trade) was given to elephants in Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe in 1997 and South Africa in 2000  In some countries, sport hunting of the animals is legal; Botswana, Cameroon, Gabon, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe have CITES export quotas for elephant trophies In 2020, the IUCN listed the Asian elephant as endangered due to the population declining by half over "the last three generations"  Asian elephants once ranged from Western to East Asia and south to Sumatra  and Java  It is now extinct in these areas, and the current range of Asian elephants is highly fragmented  The total population of Asian elephants is estimated to be around 40,000–50,000, although this may be a loose estimate  Around 60% of the population is in India  Although Asian elephants are declining in numbers overall, particularly in Southeast Asia, the population in Sri Lanka appears to have risen and elephant numbers in the Western Ghats may have stablised 

Threats
The poaching of elephants for their ivory, meat and hides has been one of the major threats to their existence  Historically, numerous cultures made ornaments and other works of art from elephant ivory, and its use was comparable to that of gold  The ivory trade contributed to the fall of the African elephant population in the late 20th century  This prompted international bans on ivory imports, starting with the United States in June 1989, and followed by bans in other North American countries, western European countries, and Japan  Around the same time, Kenya destroyed all its ivory stocks  Ivory was banned internationally by CITES in 1990  Following the bans, unemployment rose in India and China, where the ivory industry was important economically  By contrast, Japan and Hong Kong, which were also part of the industry, were able to adapt and were not as badly affected  Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Malawi wanted to continue the ivory trade and were allowed to, since their local populations were healthy, but only if their supplies were from culled individuals or those that died of natural causes The ban allowed the elephant to recover in parts of Africa  In February 2012, 650 elephants in Bouba Njida National Park, Cameroon, were slaughtered by Chadian raiders  This has been called "one of the worst concentrated killings" since the ivory ban  Asian elephants are potentially less vulnerable to the ivory trade, as females usually lack tusks  Still, members of the species have been killed for their ivory in some areas, such as Periyar National Park in India  China was the biggest market for poached ivory but announced they would phase out the legal domestic manufacture and sale of ivory products in May 2015, and in September 2015, China and the United States said "they would enact a nearly complete ban on the import and export of ivory" due to causes of extinction Other threats to elephants include habitat destruction and fragmentation  The Asian elephant lives in areas with some of the highest human populations and may be confined to small islands of forest among human-dominated landscapes  Elephants commonly trample and consume crops, which contributes to conflicts with humans, and both elephants and humans have died by the hundreds as a result  Mitigating these conflicts is important for conservation  One proposed solution is the protection of wildlife corridors which give populations greater interconnectivity and space  Chili pepper products as well as guarding with defense tools have been found to be effective in preventing crop-raiding by elephants  Less effective tactics include beehive and electric fences 

Human relations
Working animal
Elephants have been working animals since at least the Indus Valley civilization over 4,000 years ago and continue to be used in modern times  There were 13,000–16,500 working elephants employed in Asia in 2000  These animals are typically captured from the wild when they are 10–20 years old when they are both more trainable and can work for more years  They were traditionally captured with traps and lassos, but since 1950, tranquillisers have been used  Individuals of the Asian species have been often trained as working animals  Asian elephants are used to carry and pull both objects and people in and out of areas as well as lead people in religious celebrations  They are valued over mechanised tools as they can perform the same tasks but in more difficult terrain, with strength, memory, and delicacy  Elephants can learn over 30 commands  Musth bulls are difficult and dangerous to work with and so are chained up until their condition passes In India, many working elephants are alleged to have been subject to abuse  They and other captive elephants are thus protected under The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act of 1960  In both Myanmar and Thailand, deforestation and other economic factors have resulted in sizable populations of unemployed elephants resulting in health problems for the elephants themselves as well as economic and safety problems for the people amongst whom they live The practice of working elephants has also been attempted in Africa  The taming of African elephants in the Belgian Congo began by decree of Leopold II of Belgium during the 19th century and continues to the present with the Api Elephant Domestication Centre 

Warfare
Historically, elephants were considered formidable instruments of war  They were described in Sanskrit texts as far back as 1500 BC  From South Asia, the use of elephants in warfare spread west to Persia and east to Southeast Asia  The Persians used them during the Achaemenid Empire (between the 6th and 4th centuries BC) while Southeast Asian states first used war elephants possibly as early as the 5th century BC and continued to the 20th century  War elephants were also employed in the Mediterranean and North Africa throughout the classical period since the reign of Ptolemy II in Egypt  The Carthaginian general Hannibal famously took African elephants across the Alps during his war with the Romans and reached the Po Valley in 218 BC with all of them alive, but died of disease and combat a year later Their heads and sides were equipped with armour, the trunk may have had a sword tied to it and tusks were sometimes covered sharpened iron or brass  Trained elephants would attack both humans and horses with their tusks  They might have grasped an enemy soldier with the trunk and tossed him to their mahout, or pinned the soldier to the ground and speared him  Some shortcomings of war elephants included their great visibility, which made them easy to target, and limited maneuverability compared to horses  Alexander the Great achieved victory over armies with war elephants by having his soldiers injure the trunks and legs of the animals which caused them to panic and become uncontrollable 

Zoos and circuses
Elephants have traditionally been a major part of zoos and circuses around the world  In circuses, they are trained to perform tricks  The most famous circus elephant was probably Jumbo (1861 – 15 September 1885), who was a major attraction in the Barnum & Bailey Circus  These animals do not reproduce well in captivity, due to the difficulty of handling musth bulls and limited understanding of female oestrous cycles  Asian elephants were always more common than their African counterparts in modern zoos and circuses  After CITES listed the Asian elephant under Appendix I in 1975, imports of the species almost stopped by the end of the 1980s  Subsequently, the US received many captive African elephants from Zimbabwe, which had an overabundance of the animals Keeping elephants in zoos has met with some controversy  Proponents of zoos argue that they allow easy access to the animals and provide fund and knowledge for preserving their natural habitats, as well as safekeeping for the species  Opponents claim that animals in zoos are under physical and mental stress  Elephants have been recorded displaying stereotypical behaviours in the form of wobbling the body or head and pacing the same route both forwards and backwards  This has been observed in 54% of individuals in UK zoos  Elephants in European zoos appear to have shorter lifespans than their wild counterparts at only 17 years, although other studies suggest that zoo elephants live just as long The use of elephants in circuses has also been controversial; the Humane Society of the United States has accused circuses of mistreating and distressing their animals  In testimony to a US federal court in 2009, Barnum & Bailey Circus CEO Kenneth Feld acknowledged that circus elephants are struck behind their ears, under their chins and on their legs with metal-tipped prods, called bull hooks or ankus  Feld stated that these practices are necessary to protect circus workers and acknowledged that an elephant trainer was rebuked for using an electric prod on an elephant  Despite this, he denied that any of these practices hurt the animals  Some trainers have tried to train elephants without the use of physical punishment  Ralph Helfer is known to have relied on positive reinforcement when training his animals  Barnum and Bailey circus retired its touring elephants in May 2016 

Attacks
Elephants can exhibit bouts of aggressive behaviour and engage in destructive actions against humans  In Africa, groups of adolescent elephants damaged homes in villages after cullings in the 1970s and 1980s  Because of the timing, these attacks have been interpreted as vindictive  In parts of India, male elephants have entered villages at night, destroying homes and killing people  From 2000 to 2004, 300 people died in Jharkhand, and in Assam, 239 people were reportedly killed between 2001 and 2006 
Throughout the country, 1,500 people were killed by elephants between 2019 and 2022, which led to 300 elephants being killed in kind  Local people have reported their belief that some elephants were drunk during their attacks, though officials have disputed this  Purportedly drunk elephants attacked an Indian village in December 2002, killing six people, which led to the retaliatory slaughter of about 200 elephants by locals 

Cultural depictions
Elephants have a universal presence in global culture  They have been represented in art since Paleolithic times  Africa, in particular, contains many examples of elephant rock art, especially in the Sahara and southern Africa  In Asia, the animals are depicted as motifs in Hindu and Buddhist shrines and temples  Elephants were often difficult to portray by people with no first-hand experience of them  The ancient Romans, who kept the animals in captivity, depicted elephants more accurately than medieval Europeans who portrayed them more like fantasy creatures, with horse, bovine and boar-like traits, and trumpet-like trunks  As Europeans gained more access to captive elephants during the 15th century, depictions of them became more accurate, including one made by Leonardo da Vinci Elephants have been the subject of religious beliefs  The Mbuti people of central Africa believe that the souls of their dead ancestors resided in elephants  Similar ideas existed among other African societies, who believed that their chiefs would be reincarnated as elephants  During the 10th century AD, the people of Igbo-Ukwu, in modern day Nigeria, placed elephant tusks underneath their death leader's feet in the grave  The animals' importance is only totemic in Africa but is much more significant in Asia  In Sumatra, elephants have been associated with lightning  Likewise in Hinduism, they are linked with thunderstorms as Airavata, the father of all elephants, represents both lightning and rainbows  One of the most important Hindu deities, the elephant-headed Ganesha, is ranked equal with the supreme gods Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma in some traditions  Ganesha is associated with writers and merchants and it is believed that he can give people success as well as grant them their desires, but could also take these things away  In Buddhism, Buddha is said to have been a white elephant reincarnated as a human 

In Western popular culture, elephants symbolise the exotic, especially since – as with the giraffe, hippopotamus and rhinoceros – there are no similar animals familiar to Western audiences  As characters, elephants are most common in children's stories, where they are portrayed positively  They are typically surrogates for humans with ideal human values  Many stories tell of isolated young elephants returning to or finding a family, such as "The Elephant's Child" from Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories, Disney's Dumbo, and Kathryn and Byron Jackson's The Saggy Baggy Elephant  Other elephant heroes given human qualities include Jean de Brunhoff's Babar, David McKee's Elmer, and Dr  Seuss's Horton Several cultural references emphasise the elephant's size and strangeness  For instance, a "white elephant" is a byword for something that is weird, unwanted, and has no value  The expression "elephant in the room" refers to something that is being ignored but ultimately must be addressed  The story of the blind men and an elephant involves blind men touching different parts of an elephant and trying to figure out what it is 

See also
Animal track
Desert elephant
Elephants' graveyard
List of individual elephants
Motty, captive hybrid of an Asian and African elephant
National Elephant Day (Thailand)
World Elephant Day
Passage 2:
Gajabrishta
Gaja in Sanskrit means elephant  'Brishta' is the back or hip portion of a sitting elephant  The later Cholas of the Chola empire in the Indian subcontinent, especially the ones in Thondai Mandalam around the North Tamil Nadu area constructed temples which had vimanas in this style 
The sanctum sanctorum of these temples, especially Shiva temples, had this style of vimana 

See also
Shiva Temples of Tamil Nadu
Context 2: Passage 1:
Picardy Spaniel
The Picardy Spaniel is a breed of dog developed in France for use as a gundog  It is related to the Blue Picardy Spaniel, and still has many similarities, but the Picardy Spaniel is the older of the two breeds  It is thought to be one of the two oldest continental spaniel breeds and was favoured by the French nobility, remaining popular for hunting after the French Revolution due to its weather resistant coat that enabled it to hunt in a variety of conditions and terrain  However its popularity waned following the influx of English hunting breeds in the early 20th century  Slightly smaller than an English Setter but larger than most of its spaniel cousins, it has no major health issues although as with many breeds with pendulous ears, it can be prone to ear infections 

History
The French Spaniel and the Picardy Spaniel are speculated to have stemmed from the Chien d' Oysel described in the writings of Gaston Phoebus  Hunting during this period in France was one of the favourite sports of the nobility and the French type of Spaniel became the favourite hunting dog of the French Royalty  The breed can be seen in paintings dating from this period by artists Alexandre-François Desportes and Jean-Baptiste Oudry  They were also the first breed of dog to be admitted into salons The breed became more popular still following the French Revolution and the aftermath in which hunting was no longer restricted to the nobility  Although spread throughout France, a large concentration was located in the north west where the weather resistant coat of the breed made it ideal for the wooded and swampy conditions  During the early 19th century, British hunters crossed the channel to hunt in the grounds of north west France  The British brought their own hunting dogs, and this resulted in a change of preference as French hunters switched to English breeds and caused a major blow to the existence of the Picardy Spaniel  In addition the infusion of blood from the English Setter into the local spaniel population created the Blue Picardy Spaniel 

Recognition
The Epagneul Picard Club was formed in 1921 and was merged with the Club of Blue Picardy Spaniel on 28 July 1937  A further merger took place on 21 May 1980 when these clubs merged with the Pont-Audemer Club to form the Club des Epagneuls Picards, Bleus de Picardie & Pont Audemer The Picardy Spaniel is recognised by a variety of Kennel Clubs and associations including the North American Kennel Club, American Rare Breed Association, United Kennel Club, and the Fédération Cynologique Internationale  All four associations use the standard as set by the FCI  It is also recognised by the Continental Kennel Club, but unlike the closely related Blue Picardy Spaniel, it is not recognised by the Canadian Kennel Club 

Description
Appearance
Typical examples of the breed measure between 22–24 inches (56–61 cm) at the withers, with the average weight between 20–25 kilograms (44–55 lb)  The breed is similar in size to the English Setter, although is slightly smaller  Of the Spaniel type breeds, only the Large Münsterländer and Drentse Patrijshond are recognised as possibly growing to larger sizes, with the Drentse measuring 21 5–25 5 in (55–65 cm), and the Münsterländer slightly smaller with a narrower range at 23–25 in (58–64 cm) The breed has a squarely built muscular body and  an oval shaped head with a long muzzle and long ears that hang fairly low  Its coat can vary in colours from chocolate, chestnut brown and white with sandy coloured markings on the head and white or grey spots on the legs  Its hair is abundant with a slight wave, enabling it to work in dense cover and even in water 

Temperament
The Picardy Spaniel is a docile breed of dog and is fond of playing with children and bonds well with their master  It is described as having a gentle sociable nature, possessing a good character with a laid-back attitude, and being relatively easy to train  In France, the breed is used for hunting in wooded areas for pheasants, and in swamps for snipes  However it can also be used for hunting ducks, hares and rabbits  The breed excels at hunting in marshes and will not hesitate to jump into water  It can also adequately serve as a retriever should it be required  The dog is content with a small amount of space and could suit life in the city, but also loves open spaces 

Health
The Picardy Spaniel has no known hereditary health problems, and has an average lifespan of 14 years  However being a hunting spaniel, the breed is prone to ear infections  These infections are common among dogs with pendulous ears, including Basset Hounds and other breeds of spaniel  Overfeeding a Picardy Spaniel may lead to
overweight 
Passage 2:
List of goat breeds
Goats - farm animals of domestic goat (Capra hircus) species, small ruminants - are widespread throughout the world and are used in almost any natural and climatic conditions, even those where other productive animals cannot live  Different breeds of goats are adapted to different livestock systems - from small herds of 3-5 heads on meager grazing to large intensive livestock farms, from year-round grazing to fully stable housing, with many intermediate variations between them  Goats are a source of several types of products, of which the main ones are milk, meat and wool  Among the goat breeds there are highly productive specialized, dual-triple-use and universal breeds  External differences between breeds are represented by many major and minor traits that vary in a very wide range  Goat breeds (especially dairy goats) are some of the oldest defined animal breeds for which breed standards and production records have been kept  Selective breeding of goats generally focuses on improving production of fiber, meat, dairy products or goatskin  Breeds are generally classified based on their primary use, though there are several breeds which are considered dual- or multi-purpose 

List
Passage 3:
Beaglier
This is a list of common dog crossbreeds  These are crossbreed dogs created deliberately by crossing two purebred dogs  Some are known as designer dogs and are bred as companion dogs, often given portmanteau names derived from those of the parent breeds; others are bred to combine specific working qualities inherent in the parent breeds 

Crossbreeds
See also
Dog crossbreed
List of dog breeds
Mongrel
Passage 4:
Beagle
The beagle is a breed of  small scent hound, similar in appearance to the much larger foxhound  The beagle was developed primarily for hunting hare, known as beagling  Possessing a great sense of smell and superior tracking instincts, the beagle is the primary breed used as a detection dog for prohibited agricultural imports and foodstuffs in quarantine around the world  The beagle is intelligent and is a popular pet due to its size, good temper, and a lack of inherited health problems 
The modern breed was developed in Great Britain around the 1830s from several breeds, including the Talbot Hound, the North Country Beagle, the Southern Hound, and possibly the Harrier 
Beagles have been depicted in popular culture since Elizabethan times in literature and paintings and more recently in film, television, and comic books 

History
The origin of the beagle is not known  In the 11th century, William the Conqueror brought the St  Hubert Hound and the Talbot hound to Britain  In Britain, both of these strains were then crossed with Greyhounds to give them speed and stamina for deer hunting  Beagles are similar to the Harrier and the extinct Southern Hound, though they are smaller and slower 
From medieval times, beagle was used as a generic description for the smaller hounds, though these dogs differed considerably from the modern breed  Miniature breeds of beagle-type dogs were known from the times of Edward II and Henry VII, who both had packs of Glove Beagles, so named since they were small enough to fit on a glove, and Queen Elizabeth I kept a breed known as a Pocket Beagle, which stood 8 to 9 inches (20 to 23 cm) at the shoulder  Small enough to fit in a "pocket" or saddlebag, they rode along on the hunt  The larger hounds would run the prey to ground, then the hunters would release the small dogs to continue the chase through underbrush  Elizabeth I referred to the dogs as her singing beagles and often entertained guests at her royal table by letting her Pocket Beagles cavort amid their plates and cups  19th-century sources refer to these breeds interchangeably and it is possible that the two names refer to the same small variety  In George Jesse's Researches into the History of the British Dog from 1866, the early 17th-century poet and writer Gervase Markham is quoted referring to the beagle as small enough to sit on a man's hand and to the: little small mitten-beagle, which may be companion for a ladies kirtle, and in the field will run as cunningly as any hound whatere, only their musick is very small like reeds 
By the 18th century, two breeds had been developed for hunting hare and rabbit: the Southern Hound and the North Country Beagle (or Northern Hound)  The Southern Hound, a tall, heavy dog with a square head, and long, soft ears, was common from south of the River Trent and probably closely related to the Talbot Hound  Though slow, it had stamina and an excellent scenting ability  The North Country Beagle, possibly a cross between an offshoot of the Talbot stock and a Greyhound, was bred chiefly in Yorkshire and was common in the northern counties  It was smaller than the Southern Hound, less heavy-set, and with a more pointed muzzle  It was faster than its southern counterpart but its scenting abilities were less well-developed Standards for the Pocket Beagle were drawn up as late as 1901; these genetic lines are now extinct, although modern breeders have attempted to recreate the variety 

Development of the modern breed
Reverend Phillip Honeywood established a beagle pack in Essex in the 1830s and it is believed that this pack formed the basis for the modern breed  Although details of the pack's lineage are not recorded, it is thought that North Country Beagles and Southern Hounds were strongly represented; William Youatt suspected that Harriers formed a good majority of the beagle's bloodline, but the origin of the Harrier is itself obscure  Honeywood's Beagles were small, standing at about 10 inches (25 cm) at the shoulder, and pure white according to John Mills (writing in The Sportsman's Library in 1845)  Prince Albert and Lord Winterton also had Beagle packs around this time, and royal favor no doubt led to some revival of interest in the breed, but Honeywood's pack was regarded as the finest of the three 
Although credited with the development of the modern breed, Honeywood concentrated on producing dogs for hunting and it was left to Thomas Johnson to refine the breeding to produce dogs that were both attractive and capable hunters  Two strains were developed: the rough-coated and smooth-coated varieties  The rough-coated beagle survived until the beginning of the 20th century, and there were even records of one making an appearance at a dog show as late as 1969, but this variety is now extinct, having probably been absorbed into the standard beagle bloodline In the 1840s, a standard beagle type was beginning to develop; the distinction between the North Country Beagle and Southern Hound had been lost, but there was still a large variation in size, character, and reliability among the emerging packs  In 1856, "Stonehenge" (the pseudonym of John Henry Walsh), writing in the Manual of British Rural Sports, was still dividing beagles into four varieties: the medium beagle; the dwarf or lapdog beagle; the fox beagle (a smaller, slower version of the Foxhound); and the rough-coated or terrier beagle, which he classified as a cross between any of the other varieties and one of the Scottish terrier breeds  Stonehenge also gives the start of a standard description:

In size the beagle measures from 10 inches, or even less, to 15  In shape they resemble the old southern hound in miniature, but with more neatness and beauty; and they also resemble that hound in style of hunting 
By 1887 the threat of extinction was on the wane: there were 18 beagle packs in England  The Beagle Club was formed in 1890 and the first standard drawn up at the same time  The following year the Association of Masters of Harriers and Beagles was formed  Both organisations aimed to further the best interests of the breed, and both were keen to produce a standard type of beagle  By 1902, the number of packs had risen to 44 

Export
Beagles were in the United States by the 1840s at the latest, but the first dogs were imported strictly for hunting and were of variable quality  Since Honeywood had only started breeding in the 1830s, it is unlikely these dogs were representative of the modern breed, and the description of them as looking like straight-legged Dachshunds with weak heads has little resemblance to the standard  Serious attempts at establishing a quality bloodline began in the early 1870s when General Richard Rowett from Illinois imported some dogs from England and began breeding  Rowett's Beagles are believed to have formed the models for the first American standard, drawn up by Rowett, L  H  Twadell, and Norman Ellmore in 1887  The beagle was accepted as a breed by the American Kennel Club (AKC) in 1885  In the 20th century the breed has spread worldwide 

Popularity
On its formation, the Association of Masters of Harriers and Beagles took over the running of a regular show at Peterborough that had started in 1889, and the Beagle Club in the UK held its first show in 1896  The regular showing of the breed led to the development of a uniform type, and the beagle continued to prove a success up until the outbreak of World War I when all shows were suspended  After the war, the breed was again struggling for survival in the UK: the last of the Pocket Beagles was probably lost during this time, and registrations fell to an all-time low  A few breeders (notably Reynalton Kennels) managed to revive interest in the dog and by World War II, the breed was once again doing well  Registrations dropped again after the end of the war but almost immediately recovered As purebred dogs, beagles have always been more popular in the United States and Canada than in their native country England  The National Beagle Club of America was formed in 1888 and by 1901 a beagle had won a Best in Show title  As in the UK, activity during World War I was minimal, but the breed showed a much stronger revival in the U S  when hostilities ceased  In 1928 it won a number of prizes at the Westminster Kennel Club's show and by 1939 a beagle – Champion Meadowlark Draughtsman – had captured the title of top-winning American-bred dog for the year   On 12 February 2008, a beagle, K-Run's Park Me In First (Uno), won the Best In Show category at the Westminster Kennel Club show for the first time in the competition's history  In North America they have been consistently in the top-ten most-popular breeds for over 30 years  From 1953 to 1959 the beagle was ranked No  1 on the list of the American Kennel Club's registered breeds; in 2005 and 2006 it ranked 5th out of the 155 breeds registered  In the UK they are not quite so popular, placing 28th and 30th in the rankings of registrations with the Kennel Club in 2005 and 2006 respectively  In the United States the beagle ranked 4th most popular breed in 2012 and 2013, behind the Labrador Retriever (#1), German Shepherd (#2), and Golden Retriever (#3) breeds 

Name
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first mention of the beagle by name in English literature dates from c  1475 in The Squire of Low Degree  The origin of the word "beagle" is uncertain, although it has been suggested that the word derives from the French begueule which means "gate throat" It is not known why the black and tan Kerry Beagle, present in Ireland since Celtic times, has the beagle description, since at 22 to 24 inches (56 to 61 cm) it is significantly taller than the modern day beagle, and in earlier times was even larger  Some writers suggest that the beagle's scenting ability may have come from cross-breeding earlier strains with the Kerry Beagle  Originally used for hunting stags, it is today used for hare and drag hunting 

Appearance
The general appearance of the beagle resembles a miniature Foxhound, but the head is broader and the muzzle shorter, the expression completely different and the legs shorter in proportion to the body   They are generally between 13 and 16 inches (33 and 41 cm) high at the withers and weigh between 18 and 35 lb (8 2 and 15 9 kg), with females being slightly smaller than males on average 
They have a smooth, somewhat domed skull with a medium-length, square-cut muzzle, and a black (or occasionally liver) gumdrop nose  The jaw is strong, and the teeth scissor together with the upper teeth fitting perfectly over the lower teeth  Both sets align square to the jaw  The eyes are large, hazel or brown, with a mild, hound-like pleading look  The large ears are long, soft, and low-set, turning towards the cheeks slightly and rounded at the tips  Beagles have a strong, medium-length neck (which is long enough for them to easily bend to the ground to pick up a scent), with little folding in the skin but some evidence of a dewlap; a broad chest narrowing to a tapered abdomen and waist and a long, slightly curved tail (known as the "stern") tipped with white  The white tip, known as the flag, was bred for selectively, as the tail remains easily seen when the dog's head is down following a scent  The tail does not curl over the back, but is held upright when the dog is active  The beagle has a muscular body and a medium-length, smooth, hard coat  The front legs are straight and carried under the body while the rear legs are muscular and well bent at the stifles 
The tricolored beagle—white with large black areas and light brown shading—is the most common   Tricolored beagles occur in a number of shades, from the "Classic Tri" with a jet black saddle (also known as "Blackback"), to the "Dark Tri" (where faint brown markings are intermingled with more prominent black markings), to the "Faded Tri" (where faint black markings are intermingled with more prominent brown markings)  Some tricolored dogs have a broken pattern, sometimes referred to as pied  These dogs have mostly white coats with patches of black and brown hair  Tricolor beagles are almost always born black and white  The white areas are typically set by eight weeks, but the black areas may fade to brown as the puppy matures   (The brown may take between one and two years to fully develop ) Some beagles gradually change colour during their lives, and may lose their black markings entirely 
Two-colour varieties always have a white base colour with areas of the second colour  Tan and white is the most common two-colour variety, but there is a wide range of other colours including lemon, a very light tan; red, a reddish, almost orange, brown; and liver, a darker brown, and black  Liver is not common and is not permitted in some standards; it tends to occur with yellow eyes  Ticked or mottled varieties may be either white or black with different coloured flecks (ticking), such as the blue-mottled or bluetick beagle, which has spots that appear to be a midnight-blue colour, similar to the colouring of the Bluetick Coonhound  Some tricolour beagles also have ticking of various colours in their white areas 

Sense of smell
Alongside the Bloodhound and Basset Hound, the beagle has one of the best developed senses of smell of any dog  In the 1950s, John Paul Scott and John Fuller began a 13-year study of canine behavior  As part of this research, they tested the scenting abilities of various breeds by putting a mouse in a one-acre field and timing how long it took the dogs to find it  The beagles found it in less than a minute while Fox Terriers took 15 minutes and Scottish Terriers failed to find it at all  The long ears and large lips of the beagle probably assist in trapping the scents close to the nose 

Variations
Breed varieties
The American Kennel Club recognises two separate varieties of beagle: the 13-inch for hounds less than 13 inches (33 cm), and the 15-inch for those between 13 and 15 inches (33 and 38 cm)  The Canadian Kennel Club recognises a single type, with a height not exceeding 15 inches (38 cm)   The Kennel Club (UK) and FCI affiliated clubs recognise a single type, with a height of between 13 and 16 inches (33 and 41 cm) 

English and American varieties are sometimes mentioned  However, there is no official recognition from any Kennel Club for this distinction  Beagles fitting the American Kennel Club standard – which disallows animals over 15 inches (38 cm) – are smaller on average than those fitting the Kennel Club standard which allows heights up to 16 inches (41 cm) 
Pocket Beagles are sometimes advertised for sale but while the UK Kennel Club originally specified a standard for the Pocket Beagle in 1901, the variety is now not recognised by any Kennel Club 
A strain known as Patch Hounds was developed by Willet Randall and his family from 1896 specifically for their rabbit hunting ability  They trace their bloodline back to Field Champion Patch, but do not necessarily have a patchwork marking 

Crossbreeds
In the 1850s, John Henry Walsh (Stonehenge) recommended a cross between a Beagle and a Scottish Terrier as a retriever  He found the crossbreed to be a good worker, silent and obedient, but it had the drawback that it was small and could barely carry a hare  More recently, the trend has been for "designer dogs" and one of the most popular has been the Beagle/Pug cross known as a Puggle  Some puppies of this cross are less excitable than a Beagle and with a lower exercise requirement, similar to the Pug parent; but many are highly excitable and require vigorous exercise 

Temperament
The beagle has an even temper and gentle disposition  Described in several breed standards as "merry", they are amiable and typically neither aggressive nor timid, although this depends on the individual  They enjoy company, and although they may initially be standoffish with strangers, they are easily won over  They make poor guard dogs for this reason, although their tendency to bark or howl when confronted with the unfamiliar makes them good watch dogs  In a 1985 study conducted by Ben and Lynette Hart, the beagle was given the highest excitability rating, along with the Yorkshire Terrier, Cairn Terrier, Miniature Schnauzer, West Highland White Terrier, and Fox Terrier They are ranked 72nd in Stanley Coren's The Intelligence of Dogs, as Coren places them among the group with the lowest degree of working/obedience intelligence  Coren's scale, however, does not assess understanding, independence, or creativity 
Beagles are excellent with children and this is one of the reasons they have become popular family pets  Beagles are pack animals; they are prone to separation anxiety, a condition which causes them to destroy things when left unattended   Not all beagles will howl, but most will bark when confronted with strange situations, and some will bay (also referred to as "speaking", "giving tongue", or "opening") when they catch the scent of potential quarry  They also generally get along well with cats and other dogs  They are not too demanding with regard to exercise; their inbred stamina means they do not easily tire when exercised, but they also do not need to be worked to exhaustion before they will rest  Regular exercise helps ward off the weight gain to which the breed is prone 

Health
The typical longevity of beagles is 12–15 years, which is a common lifespan for dogs of their size Beagles may be prone to epilepsy, but this can often be controlled with medication  Hypothyroidism and a number of types of dwarfism occur in beagles  Two conditions in particular are unique to the breed: "Funny Puppy", in which the puppy is slow to develop and eventually develops weak legs, a crooked back and although normally healthy, is prone to a range of illnesses; and Musladin-Lueke syndrome (MLS) in which the eyes are slanted and the outer toes are underdeveloped but otherwise development is as normal  Hip dysplasia, common in Harriers and in some larger breeds, is rarely considered a problem in beagles  Beagles are considered a chondrodystrophic breed, meaning that they are prone to types of disk diseases 
In rare cases, beagles may develop immune mediated polygenic arthritis (where the immune system attacks the joints) even at a young age  The symptoms can sometimes be relieved by steroid treatments  Another rare disease in the breed is neonatal cerebellar cortical degeneration  Affected puppies are slow, have lower co-ordination, fall more often, and do not have a normal gait  It has an estimated carrier rate of 5% and affected rate of 0 1%  A genetic test is available Their long floppy ears can mean that the inner ear does not receive a substantial air flow or that moist air becomes trapped, and this can lead to ear infections  Beagles may also be affected by a range of eye problems; two common ophthalmic conditions in beagles are glaucoma and corneal dystrophy  "Cherry eye", a prolapse of the gland of the third eyelid, and distichiasis, a condition in which eyelashes grow into the eye causing irritation, sometimes exist; both these conditions can be corrected with surgery  They can suffer from several types of retinal atrophy  Failure of the nasolacrimal drainage system can cause dry eye or leakage of tears onto the face As field dogs they are prone to minor injuries such as cuts and sprains, and, if inactive, obesity is a common problem as they will eat whenever food is available and rely on their owners to regulate their weight  When working or running free they are also likely to pick up parasites such as fleas, ticks, harvest mites, and tapeworms, and irritants such as grass seeds can become trapped in their eyes, soft ears, or paws Beagles may exhibit a behavior known as reverse sneezing, in which they sound as if they are choking or gasping for breath, but are actually drawing air in through the mouth and nose  The exact cause of this behavior is not known, but it can be a common occurrence and is not harmful to the dog 

Reproduction
The average size of a beagle litter is six puppies  When mother beagles give birth to litters of puppies, the little pups weigh just a few ounces each 

Hunting
Beagles were developed primarily for hunting hare, an activity known as beagling  They were seen as ideal hunting companions for the elderly who could follow on horseback without exerting themselves, for young hunters who could keep up with them on ponies, and for the poorer hunters who could not afford to maintain a stable of good hunting horses  Before the advent of the fashion for foxhunting in the 19th century, hunting was an all day event where the enjoyment was derived from the chase rather than the kill  In this setting the tiny beagle was well matched to the hare, as unlike Harriers they would not quickly finish the hunt, but because of their excellent scent-tracking skills and stamina they were almost guaranteed to eventually catch the hare  The beagle packs would run closely together ("so close that they might be covered with a sheet") which was useful in a long hunt, as it prevented stray dogs from obscuring the trail  In thick undergrowth they were also preferred to spaniels when hunting pheasant With the fashion for faster hunts, the beagle fell out of favor for chasing hare, but was still employed for rabbit hunting  In Anecdotes of Dogs (1846), Edward Jesse says:

In rabbit-shooting, in gorse and thick cover, nothing can be more cheerful than the beagle  They also are easily heard over long distances and in thick cover  They have been called rabbit-beagles from this employment, for which they are peculiarly qualified, especially those dogs which are somewhat wire-haired In the United States they appear to have been employed chiefly for hunting rabbits from the earliest imports 
Hunting hare with beagles became popular again in Britain in the mid-19th century and continued until it was made illegal in Scotland by the Protection of Wild Mammals (Scotland) Act 2002 and in England and Wales by the Hunting Act 2004  Under this legislation beagles may still pursue rabbits with the landowner's permission  Drag hunting is popular where hunting is no longer permitted or for those owners who do not wish to participate in hunting a live animal, but still wish to exercise their dog's innate skills 
The traditional foot pack consists of up to 40 beagles, marshaled by a Huntsman who directs the pack and who is assisted by a variable number of whippers-in whose job is to return straying hounds to the pack  The Master of the Hunt is in overall day-to-day charge of the pack, and may or may not take on the role of Huntsman on the day of the hunt 
As hunting with beagles was seen as ideal for young people, many of the British public schools traditionally maintained beagle packs  Protests were lodged against Eton's use of beagles for hunting as early as 1902 but the pack is still in existence today  In 2001, the Wye College beagle pack was taken by the Animal Liberation Front  School and university packs are still maintained by Eton, Marlborough, Radley, the Royal Agricultural University, and Christ Church, Oxford In addition to organised beagling, beagles have been used for hunting or flushing to guns (often in pairs) a wide range of game including snowshoe hare, cottontail rabbits, game birds, roe deer, red deer, bobcat, coyote, wild boar, and foxes, and have even been recorded as being used to hunt stoat  In most of these cases, the beagle is employed as a gun dog, flushing game for hunter's guns 

Detection
Beagles are used as detection dogs in the Beagle Brigade of the United States Department of Agriculture  These dogs are used to detect food items in luggage being taken into the United States  After trialling several breeds, beagles were chosen because they are relatively small and unintimidating for people who are uncomfortable around dogs, easy to care for, intelligent and work well for rewards  They are also used for this purpose in a number of other countries including by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in New Zealand, the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, and in Canada, Japan, and the People's Republic of China  Larger breeds are generally used for detection of explosives as this often involves climbing over luggage and on large conveyor belts, work for which the smaller Beagle is not suited 

Testing
Beagles are the dog breed most often used in animal testing, due to their size and passive nature  In the United States, as many as 65,000 beagles are used every year for medical, cosmetic, beauty, and other chemical tests  They are purpose bred and live their lives in cages undergoing experiments  The Rescue + Freedom Project (formerly Beagle Freedom Project) has successfully advocated for beagles to be released from labs  This organisation has freed hundreds of animals Beagles are used in a range of research procedures: fundamental biological research, applied human medicine, applied veterinary medicine, and protection of man, animals, or the environment  Of the 8,018 dogs used in testing in the UK in 2004, 7,799 were beagles (97 3%)  In the UK, the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 gave special status to primates, equids, cats and dogs and in 2005 the Animal Procedures Committee (set up by the act) ruled that testing on mice was preferable, even though a greater number of individual animals were involved  In 2005 beagles were involved in less than 0 3% of the total experiments on animals in the UK, but of the 7670 experiments performed on dogs 7406 involved beagles (96 6%)  Most dogs are bred specifically for this purpose, by companies such as Harlan  In the UK companies breeding animals for research must be licensed under the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 

Bans and activism against beagle testing
Testing of cosmetic products on animals is banned in the member states of the European Community, although France protested the ban and has made efforts to have it lifted  It is permitted in the United States but is not mandatory if safety can be ascertained by other methods, and the test species is not specified by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)  When testing toxicity of food additives, food contaminants, and some drugs and chemicals the FDA uses beagles and miniature pigs as surrogates for direct human testing  Minnesota was the first state to enact a Beagle Freedom adoption law in 2014, mandating that dogs and cats are allowed to be adopted once they have completed research testing Anti-vivisection groups have reported on abuse of animals inside testing facilities  In 1997 footage secretly filmed by a freelance journalist inside Huntingdon Life Sciences in the UK showed staff punching and screaming at beagles  Consort Kennels, a UK-based breeder of beagles for testing, closed down in 1997 after pressure from animal rights groups There are various examples of activists utilizing Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests to obtain information about taxpayer funding of animal testing  For example, the White Coat Waste Project, a group of activists that hold that taxpayers should not have to pay $20 billion every year for experiments on animals, highlighted that the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases provided $400,000 in taxpayer money to fund experiments in which 28 beagles were infected by disease-causing parasites   The White Coat Project found reports that said dogs taking part in the experiments were "vocalizing in pain" after being injected with foreign substances  Following public outcry, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) made a call to action that all members of the National Institute of Health resign effective immediately and that there is a "need to find a new NIH director to replace the outgoing Francis Collins who will shut down research that violates the dignity of nonhuman animals "

Other roles
Although bred for hunting, Beagles are versatile and are nowadays employed for various other roles in detection, therapy, and as family pets Beagles are used as sniffer dogs for termite detection in Australia, and have been mentioned as possible candidates for drug and explosive detection  Because of their gentle nature and unimposing build, they are also frequently used in pet therapy, visiting the sick and elderly in hospital  In June 2006, a trained Beagle assistance dog was credited with saving the life of its owner after using her owner's mobile phone to dial an emergency number   In the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, a Beagle search and rescue dog with a Colombian rescue squad was credited with locating the owner of the Hôtel Montana, who was subsequently rescued after spending 100 hours buried in the rubble  Beagles were hired by New York City to help with bedbug detection, although some have expressed doubts about the role of such dogs in this type of detection 

In popular culture
Anthropomorphic Beagles appeared in comic strips and animated cartoons since the 1950s with the Peanuts character Snoopy, who was billed as "the world's most famous Beagle"  The animated series Courage the Cowardly Dog also features an anthropomorphic beagle as its title character 
Porthos is a beagle that belongs to Jonathan Archer, the captain on the television series Star Trek: Enterprise 
Former US President Lyndon Baines Johnson had several beagles, and caused an outcry when he picked up one of them by its ears during an official greeting on the White House lawn 
The ship on which Charles Darwin made the voyage which provided much of the inspiration for On the Origin of Species was named HMS Beagle after the breed, and, in turn, lent its name to the ill-fated British Martian lander Beagle 2 
An American bred 15 inch male Beagle with the registered name of Ch K-Run's Park Me In First and the pet name of "Uno" won the 2008 Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show 
A Canadian bred 15 inch female Beagle with the registered name of Gr Ch Tashtins Lookin For Trouble and the pet name of "Miss P" won the 2015 Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show 

Notable Beagles
Frodo, awarded the PDSA Gold Medal for animal bravery
Uno, who in 2008 became the first Beagle to win the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show 
Miss P, winner of the 2015 Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show
Passage 5:
List of turkey breeds
Turkey breeds are reported to the DAD-IS breed database of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations by more than sixty countries  The breeds reported include commercial/industrial strains, local types and recognised breeds in many countries 

United States
Twenty breeds are reported to DAD-IS by the United States  Eight of them are recognised by the American Poultry Association in its breed standard, the American Standard of Perfection, where however they are classified as "varieties" rather than as breeds  This may be because the original genotype for domestic turkeys was for Bronze, and all other color varieties are due to mutations from it 

APA varieties
Europe
Twelve breeds are recognized by the Entente Européenne d'Aviculture et de Cuniculture  Others with breed standards of European national associations are accepted 

EE breeds
Other varieties not recognized by the APA or EE include the following: 

Auburn or Light Brown is an extremely rare as its numbers are not considered high enough for inclusion in the Standard  An extremely rare variant of the Auburn is called the Silver Auburn 
Buff (or Jersey Buff) is a very rare heritage breed 
Chocolate breed is chocolate brown in color  Day-old poults are white-faced with chocolate bodies 
Midget White is a rare heritage breed sometimes confused with the Beltsville Small White 
Zagorje (Zagorski puran) is a Croatian variant of turkey 

See also
Turkey genus
Wild turkey of North America
Domestic turkey
Ocellated turkey, a species of turkey residing primarily in the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico 
Passage 6:
French Spaniel
The French Spaniel (Epagneul Français) is a breed of dog of the Spaniel-like setter  It was developed in France and Canada as a hunting dog, descended from dogs of the 14th century  Popular with royalty during the Middle Ages, it nearly became extinct by the turn of the 20th century but was saved by the efforts of Father Fournier, a French priest  One of the largest breeds of Spaniel, it typically has a white coat with brown markings  It is a friendly breed that has few health issues, but can be affected by a syndrome called acral mutilation and analgesia  The breed is recognised by Canadian and international kennel clubs but not by The Kennel Club (UK)  The American Kennel Club has included the breed in its Foundation Stock Service, the first step to full recognition 

History
Spaniels were first mentioned in France during the 14th century in Gaston III of Foix-Béarn's work Livre de chasse, later translated into English as The Master of Game  The French Spaniel was referred to as a specific type of Spaniel by 1660 and was noted as being distinctive from the King Charles Spaniel of the Holland type The breed was popular during the Middle Ages with it used for falconry and as a settling dog for net hunting  They became a favourite of French Royalty and Kings and Princes at the royal courts of Versailles favored them over other breeds of hunting dogs  In addition, Catherine I of Russia (1684–1727) was known to have owned a French Spaniel named Babe  During this period, the French Spaniel was known to have split into several regional types The Sporting Magazine wrote of the French Spaniel and the hunting of mallards in 1805, "The rough French Spaniel has been found the best companion on these occasions: he watches the conduct of the sportsman, and, with a velocity unequalled, darts on the wounded prey, presents it with all possible speed at the feet of his master " In the 1850s, the Brittany (formerly known as Brittany Spaniel) was developed from crossing French Spaniels with English Setters James de Connick established the first breed standard for the French Spaniel in 1891  At the turn of the 20th century, the numbers of French Spaniels dropped so low that they nearly became extinct due to competition from foreign sporting dogs, in particular as French hunters chose to hunt particularly with English breeds of hunting dogs  A French priest named Father Fournier undertook the task of gathering the remaining French Spaniels in his Saint Hillaire kennels in order to preserve the breed  There he built the lineages that are representatives of those we now have  The French Spaniel Club was founded in 1921, with Father Fournier as the president of the association  The modern French Spaniel is one of a group of recognised French Spaniels, including the Brittany, Picardy and Blue Picardy 

Recognition
The French Spaniel was little known outside France and neighboring countries until it was introduced in the Canadian province of Quebec in the 1970s  It quickly became a popular dog for hunting woodcock and grouse  The Club de l'Épagneul Français du Canada was formed in 1978 to ensure the French Spaniel would continue to meet breed standards and to pursue official recognition by the Canadian Kennel Club, by which the breed was recognised in 1985 French Spaniels are also recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale, and the United Kennel Club  The Kennel Club (UK) and the American Kennel Club do not recognize the French Spaniel, but is recognised by the North American Versatile Hunting Dog Association, and can be registered with US dog registries in order to record their registries and compete in associated dog shows, such as the Dog Registry of America, American Canine Association, and America's Pet Registry To qualify for recognition by the American Kennel Club, a national breed club must first be established and a written request needs to be sent to the AKC along with a breed standard  This enables qualification for the Foundation Stock Service  The next step is to qualify to compete in the Miscellaneous Class  This requires a minimum of one hundred active members in the national breed club, along with a minimum of three to four hundred dogs in the United States with a three generation pedigree (all dogs in those pedigrees must be of the same breed)  In addition, they must be geographically spread across twenty states or more, and finally the clubs by-laws and constitution must be reviewed as well as breed observations made by AKC staff  There is a typical stay of between one and three years in the Miscellaneous Class before full recognition is granted  During this time, the breed club must be seen to be active and hold seminars, matches as well as local and national speciality shows  The Kennel Club (UK) does not have a miscellaneous class or foundation stock service, instead it requires British bred dog and three generation pedigrees of them, along with details from the country of origin including the breed standard  This allows listing on the Imported Breeds Register, with full recognition granted at the discretion of the Kennel Club Review Committee 

Description
The French Spaniel is one of the two tallest spaniel breeds, being taller than the English Springer Spaniel  Males can range in height from 22–24 inches (56–61 cm), and females are about an inch shorter  Dogs can range in weight from 45–60 pounds (20–27 kg) A normal dog has a muscular appearance with a deep chest and strong legs  The French Spaniel has eyes of a dark amber colour, and a thick tail that tapers towards the tip  The hair is medium, dense, with long feathers on the ears, backs of the legs and tail  It has some waviness on the chest and otherwise lies flat on the body  The normal colour of a French Spaniel's coat is white with brown markings rather in shade from a light cinnamon to dark liver  Historically, the coat was only white with black markings, but the breed was mixed with other colours of Spaniels during the 19th century 

Temperament
The French Spaniel has a friendly and outgoing personality and is well balanced and patient  It is not a naturally aggressive dog, is eager to please and thus can be trained easily  A dog of this breed will form a strong bond with its master, being typically a working dog  It has a high level of stamina and requires vigorous exercise 

Health
The breed is robustly healthy with few issues and adapts well to wet weather conditions  A dermatological condition known as acral mutilation and analgesia may affect French Spaniels  It is a newly recognised disorder, with symptoms becoming apparent between three and a half months and a year of age  It was first reported in thirteen dogs in Canada and shares symptoms with the acral mutilation syndromes of the German Shorthaired Pointer, English Pointer and English Springer Spaniels  Dogs who are affected will lick, bite and mutilate their extremities resulting in ulcers with secondary bacterial infections  Self amputation of claws, digits and footpads can happen in extreme cases  The majority of the initial dogs identified were euthanised within days to months of being diagnosed 
Passage 7:
American Cocker Spaniel
The American Cocker Spaniel is a breed of sporting dog  It is a spaniel type dog that is closely related to the English Cocker Spaniel; the two breeds diverged during the 20th century due to differing breed standards in the US and the UK  In the United States, the breed is usually called a Cocker Spaniel, while elsewhere in the world, it is called an American Cocker Spaniel to distinguish it from its older English cousin  The word cocker is commonly held to stem from their use to hunt woodcock in England, while spaniel is thought to be derived from the breed's origins in Spain 
The first spaniel in America came across with the Mayflower in 1620, but it was not until 1878 that the first Cocker Spaniel was registered with the American Kennel Club (AKC)  A national breed club was set up three years later and the dog considered to be the father of the modern breed, Ch  Obo II, was born around this time  By the 1920s the English and American varieties of Cocker had become noticeably different and in 1946 the AKC recognized the English type as a separate breed  It was not until 1970 that The Kennel Club in the UK recognized the American Cocker Spaniel as being separate from the English type  The American Cocker was the most popular breed in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s and again during the 1980s, reigning for a total of 18 years  They have also won the best in show title at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show on four occasions, the best in show title at Crufts in 2017, and have been linked to the President of the United States on several occasions, with owners including Richard Nixon and Harry S  Truman   In 2013, the cocker spaniel ranked 29th the American Kennel Club registration statistics of historical comparisons and notable trends 
The breed is the smallest of the sporting dogs recognized by the AKC, and its distinctly shaped head makes it immediately recognizable  In addition, there are some marked differences between it and its English relative  It is a happy breed with average working intelligence, although by being bred to a show standard it is no longer an ideal working dog  Members of the breed suffer from a wide variety of health ailments including problems with their hearts, eyes and ears 

History
The word spanyell is thought to date from the late 12th century when it was used to name a type of dog imported into England from Spain, with the span part of the word referring to the country of origin  Records from the mid-14th century show that selective breeding was already in place, with the breed being separated into two distinct types, called water spaniels and land spaniels  By 1801, the smaller variety of land spaniel was called the Cocker or Cocking Spaniel, so named for its use in flushing woodcock According to historical records, the first spaniel was brought to North America aboard the Mayflower which sailed from Plymouth, England and landed in New England in 1620  The first Cocker Spaniel recorded in America was a liver and white dog named Captain, who was registered with the American Kennel Club in 1878  In 1881, the American Cocker Spaniel Club was formed; it would later become the American Spaniel Club (ASC) and is now known as the oldest breed club for dogs in the United States  The task of the club was initially to create a standard to separate the Cocker Spaniel in America from other types of land spaniels, a task which would take over 20 years, only being completed in 1905 The dog considered to be the father of the American Cocker Spaniel was sired by the dog considered to be the father of the English Cocker Spaniel  Ch  Obo was bred to Ch  Chloe II, who was shipped to America while she was pregnant  Once in the United States, she whelped a dog who became Ch  Obo II  He differed greatly from the modern breed, being only 10 inches (25 cm) tall and with a long body, but was considered to be an excellent dog of that era and became a popular sire Towards the end of the 19th century, the breed had become popular in America and Canada due to their dual use as a family pet and a working dog  In the early 20th century the breeders on either side of the Atlantic had created different breed standards for the Cocker Spaniel and the breed gradually diverged from one another, with the two becoming noticeably different by the 1920s  The American Cockers by now had a smaller muzzle, their coats were softer and the dogs overall were lighter and smaller  The differences were so apparent that in 1935, breeders founded the English Cocker Spaniel Club and restricted breeding between the two types of spaniel  The two types of Cocker Spaniel in America were shown together as one breed, with the English type as a variety of the main breed, until 1946 when the American Kennel Club recognized the English Cocker Spaniel as a separate breed 

Return to the UK
Initially in the United Kingdom there were a few American Cockers that had accompanied service personnel to American bases in the 1950s and 1960s  In addition, several came over with embassy staff and business people returning home The first UK Kennel Club registered American Cocker Spaniel was Aramingo Argonaught, born January 17, 1956, and bred by Herbert L  Steinberg  Two judges confirmed that the dog was an American Cocker and not an English Cocker before the Kennel Club permitted the dog to be shown  In the 1960s they were shown as a rare breed, which meant that they did not have a show class of their own and could only be shown in variety classes  This included Aramingo Argonaught, who was the first American Cocker Spaniel to be shown at Crufts in 1960 in a class entitled "Any variety not classified at this show"  In 1968, the KC agreed to have the breed shown in the category "Any variety gundog other than Cocker" and stated that the American Cocker was not a variety of "Spaniel (Cocker)"  There were around 100 registrations between 1966 and 1968 In 1970 the breed was given a separate register in the Kennel Club Breed Supplement, as it was previously included in "Any other variety"  Registration numbers increased to 309 by 1970 following this full recognition 

Notable American Cockers and popularity
American Cocker Spaniels have won best in show at the Westminster Dog Show on four occasions, with the first win in 1921 by Ch  Midkiff Seductive  Ch  My Own Brucie won the title twice in 1940 and 1941, and became known as the most photographed dog in the world Brucie's win in 1940 coincided with the American Cocker Spaniel becoming the most popular breed of dog in the United States, and they would remain the most popular until 1952  The breed won the title for the fourth time in 1954 with the victory going to Ch  Carmor's Rise and Shine  The popularity of the American Cocker increased once again in the 1980s with it becoming the most popular breed again from 1984 until 1990  In more recent years the popularity of the breed has decreased, with it ranked 15th most popular by the American Kennel Club in 2005  The breeds most recent victory came in 2017 when it won the best in show title at Crufts 
American Cocker Spaniels have had several links to the United States Presidency  In 1952, an American Cocker Spaniel became a household name when United States Senator Richard Nixon made his Checkers speech on September 23  A parti-colored American Cocker Spaniel named Dot was one of several dogs owned by Rutherford B  Hayes; and a buff colored dog named Feller caused a scandal for Harry S  Truman when the dog was received as an unwanted gift with the President subsequently giving it away to a White House physician  More recently, a Cocker named Zeke lived with Bill Clinton while he was the governor of Arkansas 

Appearance
The American Cocker Spaniel is the smallest dog recognized by the American Kennel Club as a sporting dog, being on average between 13 5 and 15 5 inches (34 and 39 cm) high at the withers  It is a dog of normal proportions, with medium long silky fur on the body and ears, hanging down on the legs and belly (known as feathering)  The head has an upturned nose and the ears hang down  The breed standard states that size over 15 5 inches (39 cm) inches for males and 14 5 inches (37 cm) for females is a disqualification at conformation shows  American Cocker Spaniels weigh around 24 to 30 pounds (11 to 14 kg) on average, with females of the breed usually weighing slightly less than the males The head of an American Cocker Spaniel makes the breed immediately recognizable, with the rounded dome of the skull, well-pronounced stop, and a square shaped lip  The drop ears are long, low set, with long silky fur, and the eyes are dark, large, and rounded  The nose can be black or brown depending on the color of the breed The coat of the breed come in a variety of shades with the colors being separated into three main groups: black/black and tan, any solid color other than black (ASCOB), and parti-color  The black variety is either all black, or with tan points on the dog's head, the feet and the tail in a pattern called black and tan  The group known as ASCOB includes all other solid colors from light cream through to dark red, although some lighter coloring is allowed on the feathering according to standards  Parti-colored dogs are white with patches of another color such as black or brown, and includes any roan colored dogs  In addition, American Cockers coats can come in a pattern known as merle, which is not recognized by the American Kennel Club American Cockers have rounder eyes, a domed skull, shorter muzzle and more clearly pronounced eyebrows than the English Cockers, whose head is more setter-like  In colors, the roan colors are rarer in the American variety than in the English but the shade of buff which is common in the American is not seen in the English breed at all, although there are English Cocker Spaniels which are considered to be a shade of red  The English breed is also slightly larger, being between 14 5–15 5 inches (37–39 cm) in height 
American Cocker Spaniel

Temperament
Known as the "Merry Cocker", the American Cocker Spaniel breed standard defines the ideal dog of the breed as being "equable in temperament with no suggestion of timidity " The breed ranks 20th in Stanley Coren's The Intelligence of Dogs, a rating that indicates good "Working or Obedience Intelligence", or trainability  IQ tests run on a variety of breeds in the 1950s and 1960s showed that the American Cocker performed the best when tested on its ability to show restraint and delayed response to a trigger, a trait which was put down to the breed's bred-in ability when hunting to freeze upon finding a bird before flushing it out on command  However, they proved to be the worst breed tested when it came to manipulating objects with their paws, for instance uncovering a dish of food or pulling on a string With a good level of socialization at an early age, an American Cocker can get along with people, children, other dogs and other pets  This breed seems to have a perpetually wagging tail and prefers to be around people; it is not best suited to the backyard alone  Cockers can be easily stressed by loud noises and by rough treatment or handling Members of the breed were originally used as hunting dogs, but increased in popularity as a show dog  It was bred more and more in conformation with the breed standard, resulting in certain attributes, such as a long coat, which no longer make it an ideal working dog 

Health
American Cocker Spaniels in UK and USA/Canada surveys had a median lifespan of about 10 to 11 years, which is on the low end of the typical range for purebred dogs, and one to two years less than other breeds of their size  The larger English Cocker Spaniel typically lives about a year longer than the American Cocker Spaniel  In a 2004 UK Kennel Club survey, the most common causes of death were cancer (23%), old age (20%), cardiac (8%), and immune-mediated (8%)  In a 2003 USA/Canada Health Survey with a smaller sample size, the leading causes of death were cancer, hepatic disease, and immune-mediated American Cockers previously high popularity resulted in the breed frequently being bred by backyard breeders or in puppy mills  This indiscriminate breeding has increased the proliferation of breed related health issues in certain bloodlines American Cocker Spaniels are susceptible to a variety of illnesses, particularly infections affecting their ears and, in some cases, their eyes  Although the number or percent of afflicted dogs is not known, progressive retinal atrophy (PRA), glaucoma, and cataracts have been identified in some members of the breed  The American Spaniel Club recommends annual eye exams by a veterinary ophthalmologist for all dogs that are to be used for breeding  Autoimmune problems in Cockers have also been identified in an unknown number or percent of the breed, including autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA)  Ear inflammations are common in drop-eared breeds of dog, including the American Cocker, and luxating patellas and hip dysplasia have been identified in some members of the breed Heart conditions such as dilated cardiomyopathy, where the heart becomes weakened and enlarged, and sick sinus syndrome, which is a type of abnormal heart beating which causes low blood pressure, have been identified in the breed  Phosphofructokinase deficiency is a condition caused by a recessive gene in the breed which prevents the metabolism of glucose into energy, causing the dog to have extremely low energy and be unable to exercise  The gene which causes this appears in around 10 percent of the population, but DNA testing can prevent two carrier dogs from breeding and thus creating puppies with this condition American Cockers are also prone to canine epilepsy and the related condition known as Rage Syndrome  The latter is a form of epilepsy which can cause a normally placid dog to engage in sudden and unprovoked violent attacks  Initial research shows that both conditions appear to be inheritable 

In popular culture
The film Lady and the Tramp features the character Lady who is an American Cocker Spaniel 
Trilby from the Australian-American TV series Raggs is an American Cocker Spaniel 
Mags from Turbo Dogs is an American Cocker Spaniel 
Passage 8:
Water spaniel
Water spaniel (capitalized in the names of standardized breeds) was originally a term for water dogs generally, and today refer to several different breeds of water dogs that actually are spaniels, such as:

American Water Spaniel
English Water Spaniel, extinct
Irish Water Spaniel
Tweed Water Spaniel, extinct
Passage 9:
Welsh Springer Spaniel
The Welsh Springer Spaniel (Welsh: Llamgi Cymru) is a breed of dog and a member of the spaniel family  Thought to be comparable to the old Land Spaniel, they are similar to the English Springer Spaniel and historically have been referred to as both the Welsh Spaniel and the Welsh Cocker Spaniel  They were relatively unknown until a succession of victories in dog trials by the breed increased its popularity  Following recognition by The Kennel Club in 1902, the breed gained the modern name of Welsh Springer Spaniel  The breed's coat only comes in a single colour combination of white with red markings, usually in a piebald pattern  Loyal and affectionate, they can become very attached to family members and are wary of strangers  Health conditions are limited to those common among many breeds of dog, although they are affected more than average by hip dysplasia and some eye conditions  They are a working dog, bred for hunting, and while not as rare as some varieties of spaniel, they are rarer than the more widely known English Springer Spaniel with which they are sometimes confused 

History
The origin of the Welsh Springer Spaniel is unknown, but dogs resembling the breed with its distinctive red and white coat are frequently depicted in old pictures and prints  This type of dog was known as the Land Spaniel, and is considered to be similar to the modern Welsh Springer  John Caius, writing in 1570, said "Spaniels whose skynnes are white and if marked with any spottes they are commonly red"  It is thought that these Spaniels may have made their way into the Welsh valleys where local sportsman and hunters managed to conserve them in a pure state At one time called the Welsh Starter, it was used to spring game, originally for hunters using falcons  The traditional red and white colour of the Welsh Springer was once also found in English dogs, but by the early 20th century any such dogs were considered to have "died out long ago" The Welsh Springer Spaniel was also at one time called the Welsh Spaniel, and also at one point was included in the Kennel Club (UK) studbook as Cocker Spaniels, and was known as the Welsh Cocker  During the 19th century were several different varieties of Cocker Spaniel, including the English, the Welsh and the Devonshire as the term was used to describe the size of the dog rather than the breed  Unusually, in John George Wood's 1865 book The Illustrated Natural History, an image is described showing a Welsh Cocker Spaniel as a solid coloured dark spaniel  The same inscription is used in the 1867 work The Dog in Health and Disease by Stonehenge and he further describes the Welsh Cocker and the Devonshire Cocker as "both being of a deep-liver colour"  The Welsh Springer was relatively unknown during the 19th Century, but this changed in 1900 when Mr  A  T  Williams of Ynis-y-Gerwn won the team stake at the Sporting Spaniel Club Trials  The trials were held on Mr  Williams' own estate, and it was thought that when his team defeated eight well known teams it was because of the home advantage  This was disproved when dogs from the same kennel went on to win in successive years around the UK  His conformation show champion dog Corrin was the first Welsh Springer Spaniel to be photographed 

Welsh Springers were recognised by The Kennel Club, after the breed had gained popularity, in 1902 under the new name of Welsh Springer Spaniel  Until then the breed was shown alongside the English Springer Spaniel  The Welsh Springer Spaniel was transported to America in the late 19th century and gained recognition by the American Kennel Club in 1906 World War I caused problems for the breed in the United Kingdom, and when the war was over there were no dogs whose parents had registered pedigrees  The breed restarted with the remaining unregistered dogs, and it is these dogs that formed the modern day breed  The breeders in the 1920s and 1930s developed these dogs into the type of Welsh Springer Spaniel which remains today  The Welsh Springer Spaniel Club (UK) was formed in 1923, registrations slowly increased between the wars but all records held by the breed club were destroyed in an air raid during World War II  Following the two World Wars, it was thought that no Welsh Springers remained in the United States  The breed was reintroduced, and the descendants of those dogs make up the breed today in the United States and Canada  The breed was officially imported into Australia in 1973 In 2000, The Kennel Club registered 424 Welsh Springer Spaniels, compared with 12,599 English Springer Spaniels and 13,445 English Cocker Spaniels  Numbers remained steady, with 420 Welsh Springer Spaniels being registered in 2004, however numbers of English Springer Spaniels increased to 14,765 and English Cocker Spaniels to 16,608  Numbers remain closer to the American Cocker Spaniel which registered 610 in 2000, and 599 in 2004  The breed remains more popular than some other breeds of Spaniel, including the Clumber Spaniel, Field Spaniel, Sussex Spaniel and Irish Water Spaniel  Total registrations in the UK during 2016 fell to 299 qualifying it to be included on The Kennel Club's list of Vulnerable Native Breeds 

Description
Appearance
The Welsh Springer Spaniel is a compact, solidly built dog, bred for hard work and endurance  Their body can give the impression of length due to its obliquely angled forequarters and developed hindquarters  The build of the Welsh Springer Spaniel should be slightly off square, meaning that the length of the dog should be slightly greater than the height at the withers  However, some dogs may be square, and this is not penalised in the show ring as long as the height is never greater than the length   Traditionally a docked breed, dependent on legislation in the country of origin, and where allowed the dew claws can be removed In conformation showing, eyes should be brown in colour; yellow eyes do sometimes occur but are penalised in the show ring  Ears are small, pendulous (suspended and hanging), vine-shaped and with a light setter-like feathering  Nostrils are well developed and are black or any shade of brown; a pink nose is penalised in the AKC standard for the show ring, in Britain the colour is not specified in The Kennel Club's breed standard  In showing, a scissors bite is preferred with an undershot jaw severely penalised  Unlike the English Springer Spaniel and English Cocker Spaniel, there is no divergence into show and field styles of the breed Male dogs are 46 to 48 centimetres (18 to 19 in) high at the withers, with females a little smaller at 43 to 46 centimetres (17 to 18 in)  On average, members of the breed weigh between 16 and 20 kg (35 and 45 lb)  The back of the legs, chest, and underside of the body are feathered, and the ears and tail are lightly feathered  The only colour is a rich red-and-white  Any pattern is acceptable and any white area may be flecked with red ticking Welsh Springers are often confused with the English Springer Spaniel, but there are marked differences  The Welsh Springer is slightly smaller, and its reddish markings on a white background as opposed to the English Springers black or liver-coloured markings  Both breeds are admired for their hunting abilities and their trademark trait of "springing" at game  This can be seen during play also, as a dog may "spring" on his toy  Some experts believe that the Welsh Springer Spaniel and the Brittany share the same ancestry as there is a great deal of resemblance between the two breeds  The colours of the Welsh Springer, while exclusive from the English Springer, appear in the Brittany and the Brittany and Welsh Springers are both of similar sizes  The Welsh Springer is larger than the English Cocker Spaniel 

Temperament
The Welsh Springer Spaniel is active, loyal, and affectionate  They may meet strangers barking when in their territory, or act aloof, cautious or wary  The breed is well known for being friendly and demonstrative to all members of the family, especially children, and accepting other pets of the household with a friendly, playful attitude The breed is quick to learn but can be headstrong, though with correct training can become very obedient  The Welsh Springer was bred for work and endurance, and as with many breeds of hunting dogs requires a regular exercise routine to keep them healthy and content  Without adequate exercise, a Welsh Springer Spaniel may appear hyperactive  Some Welsh Springers can become clingy towards their owners and suffer separation anxiety when alone 

Health
The Welsh Springer is generally a healthy breed, but some can suffer conditions common to many breeds such as hip dysplasia, Canine glaucoma and like other dogs with pendulous ears, they are prone to ear infections such as otitis externa  Some Welsh Springer Spaniels are predisposed to become overweight  In a survey of over a hundred breeds of dog conducted in 1997, the Welsh Springer Spaniel was ranked 14th for worst hip score, with the average score of the breed being 18 45  The average lifespan is 12 to 15 years 

Eye disorders
Welsh Springers can be prone to entropion, which is a disorder that affects the eyelids  The condition causes them to curl inwards, pressing the eyelashes against the surface of the eye itself and causing them to scratch it  This can lead to irritation and damage to the cornea  In most cases it only affects the lower eyelid on one or both eyes, but in some cases the upper eyelid can be affected as well  Symptoms can include tearing, squinting, the rubbing of the eyes, thick discharge from the eyes and rolling of the eyelid along with wetness on the hairs next to the eyelids  There is no medical treatment for entropion, and surgical correction may be necessary depending on the severity of the case  This condition may be present soon after birth, or later in life as a secondary condition to other eye related diseases or infections  Other breeds also affected by the condition include the Chow Chow, Great Dane, Golden Retriever and the English Springer Spaniel Narrow/closed angle glaucoma is an autosomal dominant inheritable trait in the breed  It is a leading cause of blindness in dogs, and is where there is increased fluid pressure within the eye  If the fluid is not reduced, the pressure causes permanent damage to the retina and optic nerve  Loss of eyesight can happen as quickly as within 24 hours if the pressure if elevated enough, or slowly over time if it is only a mild elevation  The sudden, rapid elevation of pressure is more common with narrow/closed angle glaucoma which is more common to the breed than the slower open angle glaucoma  Symptoms can include redness in the eye, the eye itself looking cloudy, sensitivity to light and the dog may rub at their eye, or even rub it along other objects and carpet as the condition is moderate to extremely painful  Treatment can vary depending on the severity of the condition but if inherited glaucoma appears in one eye then it usually occurs in the other eye eventually 

See also
Hunting dog
Sporting Group
Context 3: Passage 1:
Siberian roe deer
The Siberian roe deer, eastern roe deer, or Asian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus), is a species of roe deer found in northeastern Asia  In addition to Siberia and Mongolia, it is found in Kazakhstan, the Tian Shan Mountains of Kyrgyzstan, eastern Tibet, the Korean Peninsula, and northern China 
Its specific name pygargus, literally "white-rumped", is shared by the pygarg, an antelope known in antiquity  The name was chosen by the German biologist Peter Simon Pallas in the late 18th century  The Siberian roe deer has long antlers 

Taxonomy
The Siberian roe deer was once considered to be the same species as the European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), but it is now considered to be a separate species 
The two subspecies of the Siberian roe deer are C  p  pygargus and C  p  tianschanicus (the latter is named for the Tian Shan mountains) 

Description
The Siberian roe deer is a medium-sized metacarpalian deer, with a long neck and large ears  It is typically up to 146 cm (4 8 ft) in body length and 59 kg (130 lb) in weight, making it larger than C  capreolus where populations from Ural and Northern Kazakhstan are the largest on average, followed by those from Transbaikal, Amur, and Primolskil regions  It has larger antlers with more branches than those of European roe deer  Siberian roe deer generally live about 8–12 years, with a maximum of about 18 years  In winter the northern populations exhibit light gray coloring, but their southern counterparts are grayish brown and ochraceous  The belly is creamy and the caudal patch is white  In the summer, their coloring is reddish  Young have a spotted coat  Males are larger and have three-tined antlers, widely spaced and slanting upward, which are shed in the autumn or early winter and begin to regrow shortly thereafter 

Distribution and habitat
Siberian roe deer are found within the temperate zone of Eastern Europe and Central and East Asia  Fossil records show their territory once stretched to the northern Caucasus Mountains, as well as eastern Ukraine  In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, their range was diminished by overhunting in Eastern Europe, northern Kazakhstan, western Siberia, and the northern regions of eastern Siberia  Due to a division in their range, two morphologically different subspecies resulted (Tian Shan and Siberian)   The Siberian and European roe deer meet at the Caucasus Mountains with the Siberian roe deer occupying the northern flank, and the European roe deer occupying the southern flank, Asia Minor, and parts of northwestern Iran 
The Siberian roe deer has a light, slender build adapted for tall, dense grass  They live in forest and steppe habitats and develop high densities in tall-grass meadows and floodplains  They are adapted to severe weather extremes It may have become naturalized in England for a short period in the early 20th century as an escapee from Woburn, but it was extirpated by 1945 

Ecology
Diet
The diet of the Siberian roe deer consists of over 600 species of plants – mostly herbaceous dicotyledons (58%), monocotyledons (16%), and woody species (22%)  In winter, without proper sustenance, they have a lowered metabolic rate  In summer, their dietary need for sodium necessitates visits to natural salt licks  Water is usually obtained through moisture-rich foods as opposed to directly from the source 

Behavior
Siberian roe deer can jump distances up to 15 m (49 ft), and mating occurs in August and September  Female Siberian roe deer are the only ungulates to undergo embryonic diapause  Embryonic implantation takes place in January and gestation lasts 280–300 days  Females usually have two young at a time, which are weaned after 4–5 months  Females reach sexual maturity in their first year of age but usually do not breed until their second  Males usually mate in their third year of life  The life-span of the Siberian roe deer does not usually exceed 10 years Males mark their territory with olfactory marks, using secretion glands on the head skin, which they rub against trees, shrubs, and high grasses, or with visual marks, by fraying trees with their antlers  Vocal signals are also a form of communication in Siberian roe deer  They have six signals: squeaking or whistling, rasping, barking, whining, screaming, and nonvocal sounds Some Siberian roe deer perform mass migrations 

Predation
The Siberian roe deer is preyed upon by the Amur leopard, Siberian lynx, snow leopard, Himalayan wolf, and Siberian tiger 

See also
Animals portal
 Siberia portal
Passage 2:
Bambi, a Life in the Woods
Bambi, a Life in the Woods (German title: Bambi: Eine Lebensgeschichte aus dem Walde) is a 1923 Austrian coming-of-age novel written by Felix Salten, and originally published in Berlin by Ullstein Verlag  The novel traces the life of Bambi, a male roe deer, from his birth through childhood, the loss of his mother, the finding of a mate, the lessons he learns from his father, and the experience he gains about the dangers posed by human hunters in the forest  It is also, in its most complete translation, seen as a parable of the dangers and persecution faced by Jews in Europe An English translation by Whittaker Chambers was published in North America by Simon & Schuster in 1928, and the novel has since been translated and published in over thirty languages around the world  Salten published a sequel, Bambi's Children, in 1939 
The novel was well received by critics and is considered a classic, as well as one of the first environmental novels  It was adapted into a theatrical animated film, Bambi, by Walt Disney Productions in 1942, as well as two Russian live-action adaptations in 1985 and 1986, a ballet in 1987, and a stage production in 1998  Another ballet adaptation was created by an Oregon troupe, but never premiered  Janet Schulman published a children's picture book adaptation in 2000 that featured realistic oil paintings and many of Salten's original words 

Plot
Bambi is a roe deer fawn born in a thicket in late spring one year  Over the course of the summer, his mother teaches him about the various inhabitants of the forest and the ways deer live  When she feels he is old enough, she takes him to the meadow, which he learns is a wonderful but also dangerous place, as it leaves the deer exposed and in the open  After some initial fear over his mother's caution, Bambi enjoys the experience  On a subsequent trip, Bambi meets his Aunt Ena and her twin fawns Faline and Gobo  They quickly become friends and share what they have learned about the forest  While they are playing, they encounter princes, male deer, for the first time  After the stags leave, the fawns learn that those were their fathers, but that the fathers rarely stay with or speak to the females and young 
As Bambi grows older, his mother begins to leave him alone  While searching for her one day, Bambi has his first encounter with "He" – the animals' term for humans – which terrifies him  The man raises a firearm and aims at him; Bambi flees at top speed, joined by his mother  After he is scolded by a stag for crying for his mother, Bambi gets used to being alone at times  He later learns the stag is called the "Old Prince", the oldest and largest stag in the forest, who is known for his cunning and aloof nature  During the winter, Bambi meets Marena, a young doe, Nettla, an old doe who no longer bears young, and two princes, Ronno and Karus  Mid-winter, hunters enter the forest, killing many animals including Bambi's mother  Gobo also disappears and is presumed dead 
After this, the novel skips ahead a year, noting that Bambi, now a young adult, was cared for by Nettla and that when he got his first set of antlers he was abused and harassed by the other males  It is summer and Bambi is now sporting his second set of antlers  He is reunited with his cousin Faline  After he battles and defeats first Karus, then Ronno, Bambi and Faline fall in love with each other  They spend a great deal of time together  During this time, the Old Prince saves Bambi's life when he nearly runs towards a hunter imitating a doe's call  This teaches the young buck to be cautious about blindly rushing toward any deer's call  During the summer, Gobo returns to the forest, having been raised by a man who found him collapsed in the snow during the hunt where Bambi's mother was killed  While his mother and Marena welcome him and celebrate him as a "friend" of man, the Old Prince and Bambi pity him  Marena becomes his mate, but several weeks later Gobo is killed when he approaches a hunter in the meadow, falsely believing the halter he wore would keep him safe from all men 
As Bambi continues to age, he begins spending most of his time alone, including avoiding Faline though he still loves her in a melancholic way  Several times he meets with the Old Prince, who teaches him about snares, shows him how to free another animal from one, and encourages him not to use trails, to avoid the traps of men  When Bambi is later shot by a hunter, the Prince shows him how to walk in circles to confuse the man and his dogs until the bleeding stops, then takes him to a safe place to recover  They remain together until Bambi is strong enough to leave the safe haven again  When Bambi has grown gray and is "old", the Old Prince shows him that men are not all-powerful by showing him the dead body of a man who was shot and killed by another man  When Bambi confirms that he now understands that "He" is not all-powerful, and that there is "Another" over all creatures, the stag tells him that he has always loved him and calls him "my son" before leaving 
At the end of the novel, Bambi meets with twin fawns who are calling for their mother, and he scolds them for not being able to stay alone  After leaving them, he thinks to himself that the girl fawn reminded him of Faline, and that the male was promising, and that Bambi hoped to meet him again when he was grown 

Publication history
Felix Salten, himself an avid hunter, penned Bambi: Eine Lebensgeschichte aus dem Walde after World War I, targeting an adult audience  The novel was first published in Vienna in serialized form in the newspaper the Neue Freie Presse from 15 August to 21 October 1922, and as a book in Germany by Ullstein Verlag in 1923, and republished in 1926 in Vienna 

Translations
Max Schuster, a German Jewish émigré and co-founder of Simon & Schuster, led the effort to publish Bambi in English  Clifton Fadiman, an editor there, engaged his Columbia University classmate Whittaker Chambers to translate it  Simon & Schuster published this first English edition in 1928, with illustrations by Kurt Wiese, under the title Bambi: A Life in the Woods  The New York Times Book Review praised the prose as "admirably translated" that made the book "literature of a high order " The translation immediately became "a Book-of-the-Month Club hit " Simon & Schuster printed a first-run of 75,000 copies and sold more than 650,000 copies between 1928 and 1942  (Jonathan Cape published the book in the UK starting in 1928 as well ) Chambers' translation has been reprinted repeatedly with different illustrations  Bambi, along with Salten's Fifteen Rabbits and The City Jungle, all translated by Chambers, remain in print from Simon & Schuster  In 2015, an Austrian scholar voiced objections to Simon & Schuster's "publication strategies" and "marketing strategy," as well as Chambers' translation for "opening the possibility for the story to be understood less as a human story about persecution, expulsion or assimilation and more as an animal story conveying a strong message about the protection of animals and the necessity of conservation "A translation by Hannah Correll was published in 2019 by Clydesdale Press  A translation by Jack Zipes was published in 2022 by Princeton University Press  Zipes commented the conversation between animals is "reminiscent of Austrian German you'd hear in cafes around Vienna  The original translation didn't capture that and I hope mine does," while a grandson of Chambers countered that the 1928 translation is more poetic  One reviewer wrote: "Chambers and Zipes differ moderately in style, with Zipes cleaving more faithfully to the German ("polecat") and Chambers privileging his American audience ("ferret")  An aim of Zipes’ translation is to restore Salten's more overt anthropomorphism, which Chambers softened  To a reader familiar with the 1928 translation, some of Zipes' more faithful anthropomorphic choices are jarring; it feels odd to read that a fawn "yelled," for example  And Zipes occasionally increases the anthropomorphism beyond that suggested by Salten, as when he uses the pronouns "he" and "she" in a conversation between two autumn leaves, which are genderless in the original text  The Zipes translation is also not quite complete: one reviewer noted omissions ranging from short phrases and individual sentences to an entire passage recounting Bambi's first meeting with the old roebucks  A translation by Damion Searls was published in 2022 by The New York Review of Books  The translations have been reviewed in various newspapers and magazines 

Formats
Over 200 editions of the novel have been published, with almost 100 German and English editions alone, and numerous translations and reprintings in over 30 languages  It has also been published in a variety of formats, including printed medium, audiobook, Braille, and E-book formats 

Copyright dispute
When Salten originally published Bambi in 1923, he did so under Germany's copyright laws, which required no statement that the novel was copyrighted  In the 1926 republication, he did include a United States copyright notice, so the work is considered to have been copyrighted in the United States in 1926  In 1936, Salten sold some film rights to the novel to MGM producer Sidney Franklin who passed them on to Walt Disney for the creation of a film adaptation  After Salten's death in 1945, his daughter Anna Wyler inherited the copyright and renewed the novel's copyrighted status in 1954 (U S  copyright law in effect at the time provided for an initial term of 28 years from the date of first publication in the U S , which could be extended for an additional 28 years provided the copyright holder filed for renewal before the expiration of the initial copyright)  In 1958, she formulated three agreements with Disney regarding the novel's rights  Upon her death in 1977, the rights passed to her husband, Veit Wyler, and her children, who held on to them until 1993 when he sold the rights to the publishing house Twin Books  Twin Books and Disney disagreed on the terms and validity of Disney's original contract with Anna Wyler and Disney's continued use of the Bambi name When the two companies were unable to reach a solution, Twin Books filed suit against Disney for copyright infringement  Disney argued that because Salten's original 1923 publication of the novel did not include a copyright notice, by American law it was immediately considered a public domain work  It also argued that as the novel was published in 1923, Anna Wyler's 1954 renewal occurred after the deadline and was invalid  The case was reviewed by the U S  District Court for the Northern District of California, which ruled that the novel was copyrighted upon its publication in 1923, and not a public domain work then  However, in validating 1923 as the publication date, this confirmed Disney's claim that the copyright renewal was filed too late and the novel became a public domain work in 1951 Twin Books appealed the decision, and in March 1996 the U S  Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit reversed the original decision, stating that the novel was a foreign work in 1923 that was not in its home country's public domain when published, therefore the original publication date could not be used in arguing American copyright law  Instead, the 1926 publication date, the first in which it specifically declared itself to be copyrighted in the United States, is considered the year when the novel was copyrighted in America  Anna Wyler's renewal was therefore timely and valid, and Twin Books' ownership of the copyright was upheld The Twin Books decision is still regarded as controversial by many copyright experts  David Nimmer, in a 1998 article, argued that the Twin Books ruling meant that an ancient Greek epic, if only published outside the U S  without the required formalities, would be eligible for copyright protection  Although Nimmer concluded that Twin Books required this finding (within the Ninth Circuit), he characterized the result as "patently absurd "The American copyright of the novel expired on January 1, 2022, while in Austria and other countries of the European Union it entered the public domain on January 1, 2016 

Sequel
While living in exile in Switzerland, after being forced to flee Nazi-occupied Austria, Salten wrote a sequel to Bambi that follows the birth and lives of Bambi's twin offspring, Geno and Gurri  The young fawns interact with other deer, and are educated and watched over by Bambi and Faline as they grow  They also learn more about the ways of man, including both hunters and the gamekeeper seeking to protect the deer  Due to Salten's exiled status – he had lost his Austrian publisher Paul Zsolnay Verlag – the English translation of the novel was published first, in the United States in 1939 by Bobbs-Merrill; it would take a year before the sequel was published in the original German language in Switzerland by his new publisher 

Reception
In the United States, the 1928 translation of Bambi was "hugely popular", selling 650,000 copies by 1942  When Felix Salten visited the United States as a member of a European delegation of journalists in May–July 1930, he was greeted warmly because of Bambi wherever the delegation went, as was testified by the Finnish member of the delegation, Urho Toivola  In his own travel book, Salten did not boast about this; only when describing his visit to a "Negro college" of Atlanta, he mentions passingly that the children praised his books In 1936 Nazi Germany however, the government banned the original as "political allegory on the treatment of Jews in Europe " Many copies of the novel were burned, making original first editions rare and difficult to find 

In his foreword, John Galsworthy called it a "delicious book – delicious not only for children but for those who are no longer so fortunate" and a "little masterpiece" that shows a "delicacy of perception and essential truth"  He observed that while reading the galley proof of the novel while crossing the English Channel, he, his wife, and his nephew read each page in turn over the course of three hours in "silent absorption" Among US reviewers, New York Times reviewer John Chamberlain praised Salten's "tender, lucid style" that "takes you out of yourself"  He felt that Salten captured the essence of each of the creatures as they talked, catching the "rhythm of the different beings who people his forest world" and showed particular "comprehension" in detailing the various stages of Bambi's life  He also considered the English translation "admirably" done  A reviewer for Catholic World praised the approach of the subject, noting that it was "marked by poetry and sympathy [with] charming reminders of German folklore and fairy tale" but disliked the "transference of certain human ideals to the animal mind" and the vague references to religious allegory  The Boston Transcript called it a "sensitive allegory of life"  The Saturday Review considered it "beautiful and graceful" piece that showed a rare "individuality"  Isabel Ely Lord, reviewing the novel for the American Journal of Nursing, called the novel a "delightful animal story" and Salten a "poet" whose "picture of the woods and its people is an unforgettable one " In comparing Bambi to Salten's later work Perri – in which Bambi makes a brief cameo – Louise Long of the Dallas Morning News considered both to be stories that "quietly and completely [captivate] the heart"  Long felt the prose was "poised and mobile and beautiful as poetry" and praises Salten for his ability to give the animals seemingly human speech while not "[violating] their essential natures " Vicky Smith of Horn Book Magazine felt the novel was gory compared to the later Disney adaptation and called it a "weeper"  While criticizing it as one of the most esteemable anti-hunting novels available, she concedes the novel is not easily forgettable and praises the "linchpin scene" where Bambi's mother dies, stating "the understated conclusion of that scene, 'Bambi never saw his mother again,' masterfully evokes an uncomplicated emotional response"  She questions Galsworthy's recommendation of the novel to sportsmen in the foreword, wondering "how many budding sportsmen might have had conversion experiences in the face of Salten's unrelieved harangue and how many might have instead become alienated " In comparing the novel to the Disney film, Steve Chapple of Sports Afield felt that Salten viewed Bambi's forest as a "pretty scary place" and the novel as a whole had a "lot of dark adult undertones"  Interpreting it as an allegory for Salten's own life, Chapple felt Salten came across as "a little morbid, a bleeding heart of a European intellectual " A half century later,The Wall Street Journal's James P  Sterba also considered it an "antifascist allegory" and sarcastically notes that "you'll find it in the children's section at the library, a perfect place for this 293-page volume, packed as it is with blood-and-guts action, sexual conquest and betrayal" and "a forest full of cutthroats and miscreants  I count at least six murderers (including three child-killers) among Bambi's associates "Among UK reviews, the Times Literary Supplement stated that the novel is a "tale of exceptional charm, though untrustworthy of some of the facts of animal life "

Impact
Some critics have argued that Bambi is one of the first environmental novels 

Adaptations
Film
Walt Disney animated film
With World War II looming, Max Schuster aided the Jewish Salten's flight from Nazi controlled Austria and Nazi Germany and helped introduce him, and Bambi, to Walt Disney Productions  Sidney Franklin, a producer and director at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, purchased the film rights in 1933, initially desiring to make a live-action adaptation of the work  Deciding such a film would be too difficult to make, he sold the rights to Walt Disney in April 1937 in hopes of it being adapted into an animated film instead  Disney began working on the film immediately, intending it to be the company's second feature-length animated film and his first to be based on a specific, recent work The original novel, written for an adult audience, was considered too "grim" and "somber" for the young audience Disney was targeting, and with the work required to adapt the novel, Disney put production on hold while it worked on several other projects  In 1938, Disney assigned Perce Pearce and Carl Fallberg to develop the film's storyboards, but attention was soon drawn away as the studio began working on Fantasia



ground_truth: Sanskrit

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Are both French Spaniel and Beagle universally recognized breeds?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  Finally, on 17 August 1939, production on Bambi began in earnest, although it progressed slowly due to changes in the studio personnel, location and the methodology of handling animation at the time  The writing was completed in July 1940, by which time the film's budget had swelled to $858,000  Disney was later forced to slash 12 minutes from the film before final animation, to save costs on production Heavily modified from the original novel, Bambi was released to theaters in the United States on 8 August 1942  Disney's version severely downplays the naturalistic and environmental elements found in the novel, giving it a lighter, friendlier feeling  The addition of two new characters, Thumper the Rabbit and Flower the Skunk, two sweet and gentle forest creatures, contributed to giving the film the desired levity  Considered a classic, the film has been called "the crowning achievement of Walt Disney's animation studio" and was named as the third best film in the animation genre of the AFI's 10 Top 10 "classic" American film genres On January 28, 2020, a computer-animated remake of the Disney film was announced to be in development with a script co-written by Geneva Robertson-Dworet and Lindsey Beer while Paul Weitz, Chris Weitz, and Andrew Miano will produce the film 

Russian live-action films
In 1985, a Russian-language live-action adaptation, Russian: Детство Бемби (Detstvo Bembi, lit  Bambi's Childhood), was produced and released in VHS format in the Soviet Union by Gorky Film Studios  It was directed by Natalya Bondarchuk, who also co-wrote the script with Yuri Nagibin, and featured music by Boris Petrov  Natalya 's son Ivan Burlyayev and her husband Nikolay Burlyaev starred as the young and adolescent Bambi, respectively, while Faline (renamed Falina) was portrayed by Yekaterina Lychyova as a child and Galina Belyayeva as an adult  In this adaptation, the film starts using animals, changes to using human actors, then returns to using animals for the ending A sequel, Russian: Юность Бемби (Yunost Bembi), lit  Bambi's Youth, followed in 1986 with Nikolay and Galina reprising their voice roles as Bambi and Falina  Featuring over 100 species of live animals and filmed in various locations in Crimea, Mount Elbrus, Latvia and Czechoslovakia, the film follows new lovers Bambi and Felina as they go on a journey in search of a life-giving flower  Both films were released to Region 2 DVD with Russian and English subtitle options by the Russian Cinema Council in 2000  The first film's DVD also included a French audio soundtrack, while the second contained French subtitles instead 

Horror film
On November 21, 2022, a live-action horror film, titled Bambi: The Reckoning, was announced to be in development for ITN Studios and Jagged Edge Productions with Scott Jeffrey directing and Rhys Frake-Waterfield producing  The film will be about the titular character getting revenge after the death of his mother  The film is expected to begin principal photography in mid-2023 

Ballet
The Estonian composer Lydia Auster composed the ballet Bambi in 1986 which was premièred in Tartu, Vanemuine theater, in 1987 The Oregon Ballet Theatre adapted Bambi into an evening-length ballet entitled Bambi: Lord of the Forest  It was slated to premiere in March 2000 as the main production for the company's 2000–2001 season  A collaboration between artistic director James Canfield and composer Thomas Lauderdale, the ballet's production was to be an interpretation of the novel rather than the Disney film  In discussing the adaptation, Canfield stated that he was given a copy of the novel as a Christmas present and found it to be a "classic story about coming of age and a life cycle " He went on to note that the play was inspired solely by the novel and not the Disney film  After the initial announcements, the pair began calling the work The Collaboration, as Disney owns the licensing rights for the name Bambi and they did not wish to fight for usage rights  The local press began calling the ballet alternative titles, including Not-Bambi which Canfield noted to be his favorite, out of derision at Disney  Its premiere was delayed for unexplained reasons, and it has yet to be performed 

Theater
Playwright James DeVita, of the First Stage Children's Theater, created a stage adaptation of the novel  The script was published by Anchorage Press Plays on 1 June 1997  Crafted for young adults and teenagers and retaining the title Bambi – A Life in the Woods, it has been produced around the United States at various venues  The script calls for an open-stage setup, and utilizes at least nine actors: five male and four female, to cover the thirteen roles  The American Alliance Theatre and Education awarded the work its "Distinguished Play Award" for an adaptation 

Book
In 1999, the novel was adapted into an illustrated hardback children's book by Janet Schulman, illustrated by Steve Johnson and Lou Fancher, and published by Simon & Schuster as part of its "Atheneum Books for Young Readers" imprint  In the adaptation, Schulman attempted to retain some of the lyrical feel of the original novel  She notes that rather than rewrite the novel, she "replicated Salten's language almost completely  I reread the novel a number of times and then I went through and highlighted the dialogue and poignant sentences Salten had written " Doing so retained much of the novel's original lyrical feel, though the book's brevity did result in a sacrifice of some of the "majesty and mystery" found in the novel  The illustrations were created to appear as realistic as possible, using painted images rather than sketches  In 2002, the Schulman adaptation was released in audiobook format by Audio Bookshelf, with Frank Dolan as the reader 

See also
Bambi Awards
Bambi effect
Bambi's Children
Fifteen Rabbits
Passage 3:
Felix Salten
Felix Salten (German: [ˈzaltn̩]; 6 September 1869 – 8 October 1945) was an Austro-Hungarian author and literary critic in Vienna 

Life
Salten was born Siegmund Salzmann on 6 September 1869 in Pest, Austria-Hungary  His father was Fülöp Salzmann, the telegraph office's clerk in Pest; his mother was Maria Singer  He was the grandson of an Orthodox rabbi  When he was four weeks old, his family relocated to Vienna, as many Jews did after the Imperial government had granted full citizenship rights to Jews in 1867 
When his father went bankrupt, the sixteen-year-old Salten quit school and began working for an insurance agency  He also began submitting poems and book reviews to journals  He became part of the "Young Vienna" movement (Jung-Wien) and soon received work as a full-time art and theater critic for Vienna's press (Wiener Allgemeine Zeitung, Zeit)  In 1900, he published his first collection of short stories  In 1901, he initiated Vienna's first, short-lived literary cabaret Jung-Wiener Theater Zum lieben Augustin 
He was soon publishing, on an average, one book a year, of plays, short stories, novels, travel books, and essay collections  He also wrote for nearly all the major newspapers of Vienna  In 1906, Salten went to Ullstein as an editor in chief of the B Z  am Mittag and the Berliner Morgenpost, but relocated to Vienna some months later  He wrote also film scripts and librettos for operettas  In 1927 he became president of the Austrian P E N  club as successor of Arthur Schnitzler 
His best remembered work is Bambi (1923)  A translation in English was published by Simon & Schuster in 1928, and became a Book-of-the-Month Club success  In 1933, he sold the film rights to the American director Sidney Franklin for only $1,000, and Franklin later transferred the rights to the Walt Disney Studios, which formed the basis of the animated film Bambi (1942) 
Life in Austria became perilous for Jews during the 1930s  In Germany, Adolf Hitler had Salten's books banned in 1936  Two years later, after Germany's annexation of Austria, Salten moved to Zurich, Switzerland, with his wife, and spent his final years there  Felix Salten died on 8 October 1945, at the age of 76  He is buried at Israelitischer Friedhof Unterer Friesenberg 
Salten married actress Ottilie Metzl (1868–1942) in 1902, and had two children: Paul (1903–1937) and Anna Katharina (1904–1977), who married Swiss actor Hans Rehmann  He composed another book based on the character of Bambi, titled Bambi’s Children: The Story of a Forest Family (1939)  His stories Perri and The Hound of Florence inspired the Disney films Perri (1957) and The Shaggy Dog (1959), respectively 
Salten was himself an avid hunter Salten is now considered the probable author of a successful erotic novel, Josephine Mutzenbacher: The Life Story of a Viennese Whore, as Told by Herself published anonymously in 1906, filled with social criticism 

Selected works
1899 – Der Gemeine
1906 – Josephine Mutzenbacher, authorship assumed – in German: Josefine Mutzenbacher oder Die Geschichte einer Wienerischen Dirne von ihr selbst erzählt (Vienna: Privatdruck [Fritz Freund], 1906)
1907 – Herr Wenzel auf Rehberg und sein Knecht Kaspar Dinckel
1910 – Olga Frohgemuth
1911 – Der Wurstelprater
1922 – Das Burgtheater
1923 – Der Hund von Florenz; English translation by Huntley Paterson, illustrated by Kurt Wiese, The Hound of Florence (Simon & Schuster, 1930), OCLC 1826868
1923 – Bambi: Eine Lebensgeschichte aus dem Walde; English transl  Whittaker Chambers, illus  Kurt Wiese, foreword John Galsworthy, as Bambi, a Life in the Woods (US: Simon & Schuster, 1928, OCLC 69170544; UK: Jonathan Cape, June/July 1928, OCLC 8454451); re-illustrated by Barbara Cooney (S&S, 1970), OCLC 824177272
1925 – Neue Menschen auf alter Erde: Eine Palästinafahrt
1927 – Martin Overbeck: Der Roman eines reichen jungen Mannes
1929 – Fünfzehn Hasen: Schicksale in Wald und Feld; English transl  Whittaker Chambers, as Fifteen Rabbits (US: Simon & Schuster, 1930, OCLC 1050794154); revised and enlarged (New York : Grosset & Dunlap, 1942, illus  Kurt Wiese), OCLC 4026552)
1931 – Freunde aus aller Welt: Roman eines zoologischen Gartens; English transl  Whittaker Chambers, illus  Kurt Wiese, as The City Jungle (US: Simon & Schuster, 1932, OCLC 2079025)
1931 – Fünf Minuten Amerika
1933 – Florian: Das Pferd des Kaisers; transl  Erich Posselt and Michel Kraike, Florian: The Emperor’s Stallion (Bobbs-Merrill, 1934), OCLC 8990860
1938 – Perri; German, Die Jugend des Eichhörnchens Perri
1939 – Bambi's Children, English translation (Bobbs-Merrill); German original, Bambis Kinder: Eine Familie im Walde (1940)
1940 – Renni the Rescuer
1942 – A Forest World
1945 – Djibi, the Kitten, illus  Walter Linsenmaier; U S  transl , Jibby the Cat (Messner, 1948)

Selected filmography
Doctor Schotte (1918)
Modern Marriages (1924)
Comedians (1925)
Storm in a Water Glass (1931)
Poor as a Church Mouse (1931)
Scampolo (1932)
The Empress and I (1933)
The Only Girl (1933)
Florian (1940)
Bambi (1942)
Perri (1957)
The Shaggy Dog (1959)

See also
Exilliteratur
Fable
Salzmann
Passage 4:
Roe Green Park
Roe Green Park is a park in the London Borough of Brent, northwest London, England  The Barn Hill Conservation Group maintain the Roe Green walled garden that is within the park  Roe Green Village was built between 1918 and 1920, using Prussian/German prisoners of war as cheap labour after World War I  The park was incorporated and thus taken under council control between 1935 and 1938 

History
This now much used park in Kingsbury came about because of the rapid growth of suburban housing in this part of the district in the early 1930s  In 1933 the local Council identified a 5-acre (2 0 ha) site on the north side of Kingsbury Road for a park, but this was subject to plans for housing (Manor Close) by the developer, George Cloke  He had moved into Kingsbury Manor in 1929, and bought most of the land of Valley Farm the following year  Under pressure from the local Ratepayers' Association, the Council negotiated with Mr Cloke to purchase some of his other land for a park, and in March 1935 two fields on the south side of Bacon Lane (about 21 acres) were bought for about £27,000, with Middlesex County Council contributing 25% of the money  As the entrance to this new park was from Roe Green, it was given the name "Roe Green Park" 
While the purchase was going through, Wembley Urban District Council decided to use part of the park fronting Kingsbury Road as the site for an open air swimming pool  In 1936 and 1937 Roe Green Park was used as the venue for a week-long Carnival and Fete to raise money for Wembley Hospital (which was run by a charity in these days before the National Health Service) and also for brass band concerts on summer Sunday evenings, but these events were transferred to Silver Jubilee Park when work started on building Kingsbury Swimming Pool in 1938  The Olympic-sized pool opened in May 1939 
After buying the two fields, the Council wanted to acquire further land, to make the park more accessible from the main shopping centre and Kingsbury Station  After three years of negotiations, they bought the 5-acre (2 0 ha) Westcroft field for £13,750 from another local developer, Henry Higinbotham, in 1938  In the same year, Kingsbury Manor and its 10-acre (4 0 ha) grounds were purchased from George Cloke  This was a joint purchase with Middlesex County Council, who wanted to use the large, secluded house as a Maternity Hostel for unmarried mothers 
The land for the park as it now exists had been acquired, but soon the outbreak of the Second World War meant that all of the park was ploughed up to provide allotments where local people could grow vegetables and fruit  After the war, twenty "pre-fab" bungalows were built along the Kingsbury Road edge of the park between the swimming pool and the Kingsbury Manor lodge, as emergency housing for families, and it was only around 1960 that local residents could enjoy the use of all of the park again The pool was closed in 1988 and demolished a few years later, replaced by green pitches 

John Logie Baird
John Logie Baird, the television pioneer, leased the former stables and coach house at Kingsbury Manor in 1928  He employed H  Barton-Chapple to take charge of his experiments there, which included designing and building prototype TV receivers  In May 1929, two 25-metre high masts were erected, and the first international moving picture transmissions, from Berlin in Germany to England, were received here  The following year, the first combined sound and vision signals were received  For many years afterwards the former stables were known as Kingsbury Manor Studio, and are now the home of Kingsbury Veterans' Club  The masts were taken down at the start of the Second World War, as they would have been a landmark for German bombers, but the concrete base of one of the masts can still be seen in Roe Green Park    A plaque to commemorate Baird's work here was unveiled next to this by Wembley History Society in the 1950s, which was moved to the Veterans' Club after damage by vandals 

Homicide
The park was in the news headlines in February 2002 when the fire-blistered body of an 18-year-old Sri Lankan man was found there  A year later, four other Sri Lankans – including ring-leader Senthamil Thillainathan – were found guilty of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment  Senthamil had also murdered another man in an axe attack in nearby Wembley eight months earlier 

George Michael
The video for the 2004 single "Round Here" from George Michael's fifth solo album, Patience, features several clips of Roe Green Park  The song is about the singer's childhood, and includes the lyric "I hear my mamma call/In Kingsbury Park" 
Passage 5:
Deer of Great Britain
Six species of deer are living wild in Great Britain: Scottish red deer, roe deer, fallow deer, sika deer, Reeves's muntjac, and Chinese water deer  Of those, Scottish red and roe deer are native and have lived in the isles throughout the Holocene  Fallow deer have been reintroduced twice, by the Romans and the Normans, after dying out in the last ice age  The other three are escaped or released alien species 

Native
Scottish red deer - (subspecies)
Roe deer

Introduced
Fallow deer
Sika deer
Reeves's muntjac
Water deer

Reintroduced
Eurasian elk - (on private reserves)
Reindeer - (on private reserves)

Extinct
Irish elk

Gallery
Passage 6:
Roe deer
The roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), also known as the roe, western roe deer, or European roe deer, is a species of deer  The male of the species is sometimes referred to as a roebuck  The roe is a small deer, reddish and grey-brown, and well-adapted to cold environments  The species is widespread in Europe, from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia, from Scotland to the Caucasus, and east as far as northern Iran 

Etymology
The English roe is from the Old English rā or rāha, from Proto-Germanic *raihô, cognate with Old Norse rá, Old Saxon rēho, Middle Dutch and Dutch ree, Old High German rēh, rēho, rēia, German Reh  It is perhaps ultimately derived from a PIE root *rei-, meaning "streaked, spotted or striped" The word is attested on the 5th-century Caistor-by-Norwich astragalus – a roe deer talus bone, written in Elder Futhark as ᚱᚨᛇᚺᚨᚾ, transliterated as raïhan In the English language, this deer was originally simply called a 'roe', but over time the word 'roe' has become a qualifier, and it is now usually called 'roe deer' The Koiné Greek name πύγαργος, transliterated 'pygargos', mentioned in the Septuagint and the works of various writers such as Hesychius, Herodotus and later Pliny, was originally thought to refer to this species (in many European translations of the Bible), although it is now more often believed to refer to the addax  It is derived from the words pyge 'buttocks' and argo 'white' 
The taxonomic name Capreolus is derived from capra or caprea, meaning 'billy goat', with the diminutive suffix -olus  The meaning of this word in Latin is not entirely clear: it may have meant 'ibex' or 'chamois'  The roe was also known as capraginus or capruginus in Latin 

Taxonomy
Linnaeus first described the roe deer in the modern taxonomic system as Cervus capreolus in 1758  The initially monotypic genus Capreolus was first proposed by John Edward Gray in 1821, although he did not provide a proper description for this taxon  Gray was not actually the first to use the name Capreolus, it has been used by other authors before him  Nonetheless, his publication is seen as taxonomically acceptable  He was generally ignored until the 20th century, most 19th-century works having continued to follow Linnaeus 
The name Capreolus capreolus is a tautonym Roe deer populations gradually become somewhat larger as one moves further to the east, peaking in Kazakhstan, then becoming smaller again towards the Pacific Ocean  The Soviet mammalogist Vladimir Sokolov had recognised this as a separate species from 1985 already using electrophoretic chromatography to show differences in the fractional protein content of the body tissues, the next year he showed that there were differences in the skull morphology, and a year after he used sonographs to demonstrate that the fawns, females and males made very different noises between species  Alexander S  Graphodatsky looked at the karyotypy to present more evidence to recognise these Russian and Asian populations as a separate species, now renamed the eastern or Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus), in his 1990 paper  The taxa are differentiated by the B chromosomes found in C  pygargus, populations of this species gain more of these strange 'junk' chromosomes as one moves further east 
This new taxonomic interpretation (circumscription) was first followed in the American book Mammal Species of the World in 1993  Populations of the roe deer from east of the Khopyor River and Don River to Korea are considered to be this species 

Subspecies
The Integrated Taxonomic Information System, following the 2005 Mammal Species of the World, gives the following subspecies:
Capreolus capreolus capreolus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Capreolus capreolus canus Miller, 1910 - Spain
Capreolus capreolus caucasicus Nikolay Yakovlevich Dinnik, 1910 - A large-sized subspecies found in the region to the north of the Caucasus Mountains; although Mammal Species of the World appears to recognise the taxon, this work bases itself on a chapter by Lister et al  in the 1998 book The European roe deer: the biology of success, which only recognises the name as provisional 
Capreolus capreolus italicus Enrico Festa, 1925 - ItalyThis is just one (extreme) interpretation among a number of them  Two main specialists did not recognise these taxa and considered the species to be without subspecies in 2001  The European Union's Fauna Europaea recognised in 2005 two subspecies, but besides the nominate form recognises the Spanish population as the endemic Capreolus capreolus garganta Meunier, 1983  In 2008 the IUCN recognised three infraspecific taxa: the nominate and the subspecies garganta and italicus 

Systematics
Roe deer are most closely related to the water deer, and, counter-intuitively, the three species in this group, called the Capreolini, are most closely related to moose and reindeer Although roe deer were once classified as belonging to the Cervinae subfamily, they are now classified as part of the Odocoileinae, which includes the deer from the New World 

Hybrids
Both the European roe deer and Siberian roe deer have seen their populations increase, both around the 1930s  In recent times, since the 1960s, the two species have become sympatric where their distributions meet, and there is now a broad 'hybridization zone' running from the right side of the Volga River up to eastern Poland  It is extremely difficult for hunters to know which species they have bagged  In line with Haldane's rule, female hybrids of the two taxa are fertile, while male hybrids are not  Hybrids are much larger than normal and a Cesarean section was sometimes needed to birth the fawns, becoming larger than their mothers at the age of 4–5 months  F1 hybrid males may be sterile, but backcrosses with the females are possible 22% of the animals around Moscow carry the mtDNA of the European roe deer and 78% of the Siberian  In the Volgograd region, the European roe deer predominates  In the Stavropol and Dnipropetrovsk regions of Ukraine, most of the deer are Siberian roe deer  In northeastern Poland there is also evidence of introgression with the Siberian roe deer, which was likely introduced  In some cases, such as around Moscow, former introductions of European stock is likely responsible 

Description
The roe deer is a relatively small deer, with a body length of 95–135 cm (3 ft 1 in – 4 ft 5 in) throughout its range, and a shoulder height of 63–67 cm (2 ft 1 in – 2 ft 2 in), and a weight of 15–35 kg (35–75 lb)  Populations from Urals and northern Kazakhstan are larger on average growing to 145 cm (4 ft 9 in) in length and 85 cm (2 ft 9 in) at shoulder height, with body weights of up to 60 kg (130 lb), with the populations becoming smaller again further east in the Transbaikal, Amur Oblast, and Primorsky Krai regions  In healthy populations, where population density is restricted by hunting or predators, bucks are slightly larger than does  Under other conditions, males can be similar in size to females, or slightly smaller Bucks in good conditions develop antlers up to 20–25 cm (8–10 in) long with two or three, rarely even four, points  When the male's antlers begin to regrow, they are covered in a thin layer of velvet-like fur which disappears later on after the hair's blood supply is lost  Males may speed up the process by rubbing their antlers on trees, so that their antlers are hard and stiff for the duels during the mating season  Unlike most cervids, roe deer begin regrowing antlers almost immediately after they are shed 

Distribution
Within Europe the roe deer occurs in most areas with the exception of northernmost Scandinavia, in Norway it occurs throughout the country with the exception of parts of northern Vestland and northernmost Nordland (north of Narvik), and the islands of Iceland, Ireland and those of the Mediterranean Sea islands



ground_truth: no

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What was the home city of the author of the famous novel tracing the life of a male roe deer from his birth onward?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  In the Mediterranean region, it is largely confined to mountainous areas, and is absent or rare at low altitudes There is an early Neolithic fossil record from Jordan It is known that there are roe deer that live in the Red Forest near Chornobyl in Ukraine 

Belgium
In Flanders the roe deer was mostly confined to the hilly regions in the east, but like in neighbouring countries the population has expanded in recent times  A theory is that the expansion of maize cultivation, which are higher than traditional crops and afford more shelter, has aided their expansion to the west 

Britain
In England and Wales, roe deer have experienced a substantial expansion in their range in the latter half of the 20th century and continuing into the 21st century  This increase in population also appears to be affecting woodland ecosystems  At the start of the 20th century, they were almost extirpated in Southern England, but since then have hugely expanded their range, mostly due to restrictions and decrease in hunting, increases in forests and reductions in arable farming, changes in agriculture (more winter cereal crops), a massive reduction in extensive livestock husbandry, and a general warming climate over the past 200 years  Furthermore, there are no large predators in Britain  In some cases, roe deer have been introduced with human help  In 1884 roe deer were introduced from Württemberg in Germany into the Thetford Forest, and these spread to populate most of Norfolk, Suffolk, and substantial parts of Cambridgeshire  In southern England, they started their expansion in Sussex (possibly from enclosed stock in Petworth Park) and from there soon spread into Surrey, Berkshire, Wiltshire, Hampshire, and Dorset, and for the first half of the 20th century, most roe deer in Southern England were to be found in these counties  By the end of the 20th century, they had repopulated much of southern England and had expanded into Somerset, Devon, Cornwall, Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, Warwickshire, Lincolnshire and South Yorkshire, and had even spread into Wales from the Ludlow area where an isolated population had appeared  At the same time, the surviving population in Scotland and the Lake District had pushed further south beyond Yorkshire and Lancashire and into Derbyshire and Humberside In the 1970s, the species was still completely absent from Wales  Roe deer can now be found in most of rural England except for southeast Kent and parts of Wales; anywhere in the UK mainland suitable for roe deer may have a population  Not being a species that needs large areas of woodland to survive, urban roe deer are now a feature of several cities, notably Glasgow and Bristol, where in particular they favour cemeteries  In Wales, they are least common, but they are reasonably well established in Powys and Monmouthshire 

Iran
Roe deer are found in northern Iran in the Caspian region: they occur in the Hyrcanian woodlands and agricultural lands of the Alborz Mountains (Golestan National Park, Jahan Nama Protected Area) 

Ireland
Scottish roe deer were introduced to the Lissadell Estate in County Sligo in Ireland around 1870 by Sir Henry Gore-Booth  The Lissadell roe deer were noted for their occasional abnormal antlers and survived in that general area for about 50 years before they died out  According to the National Biodiversity Data Centre, in 2014 there was a confirmed sighting of roe deer in County Armagh  There have been other, unconfirmed, sightings in County Wicklow 

The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, roe deer were extirpated from the entirety of the country except for two small areas around 1875  As new forests were planted in the country in the 20th century, the population began to expand rapidly  Although it was a protected species in 1950, the population is no longer considered threatened and it has lost legal protection  As of 2016 there are some 110,000 roe deer in the country  The population is primarily kept in check through the efforts of hunters 

Israel
In 1991, a breeding colony of 27 roe deer coming from France, Hungary and Italy were brought in the Hai-Bar Carmel Reserve  A small number of this roe deer population has been reintroduced to the Carmel Mountains from the Carmel Hai-Bar Nature Reserve, with the first deer being released in 1996  24 to 29 animals had been released by 2006  Some of the reintroduced animals were hand-reared and could be monitored by their responses to their keeper calls 

Ecology
Habitat
This species can utilize a large number of habitats, including open agricultural areas and above the tree line, but a requisite factor is access to food and cover  It retreats to dense woodland, especially among conifers, or bramble scrub when it must rest, but it is very opportunistic and a hedgerow may be good enough  Roe deer in the southern Czech Republic live in almost completely open agricultural land  The animal is more likely to be spotted in places with nearby forests to retreat to  A pioneer species commonly associated with biotic communities at an early stage of succession, during the Neolithic period in Europe when farming humans began to colonise the continent from the Middle East, the roe deer was abundant, taking advantage of areas of forest or woodland cleared by Neolithic farmers 

Behaviour
In order to mitigate risk, roe deer remain within refuge habitats (such as forests) during the day  They are likelier to venture into more open habitats at night and during crepuscular periods when there is less ambient activity  It scrapes leaf litter off the ground to make a 'bed' When alarmed it will bark a sound much like a dog and flash out its white rump patch  Rump patches differ between the sexes, with the white rump patches heart-shaped on females and kidney-shaped on males  Males may also bark or make a low grunting noise  Does (the females) make a high-pitched "pheep" whine to attract males during the rut (breeding season) in July and August  Initially the female goes looking for a mate and commonly lures the buck back into her territory before mating  The roe deer is territorial, and while the territories of a male and a female might overlap, other roe deer of the same sex are excluded unless they are the doe's offspring of that year 

Diet
It feeds mainly on grass, leaves, berries, and young shoots  It particularly likes very young, tender grass with a high moisture content, i e , grass that has received rain the day before  Roe deer will generally not venture into a field that has or has had livestock in it 

Reproduction
The polygamous roe deer males clash over territory in early summer and mate in early autumn  During courtship, when the males chase the females, they often flatten the underbrush, leaving behind areas of the forest in the shape of a circle or figure eight called 'roe rings'  These tend to be 1-3m in diameter  In 1956 it was speculated based on some field evidence that they choose where to form rings around plants with ergot mould, but this has not been substantiated further  Males may also use their antlers to shovel around fallen foliage and soil as a way of attracting a mate  Roebucks enter rutting inappetence during the July and August breeding season  Females are monoestrous and after delayed implantation usually give birth the following June, after a 10-month gestation period, typically to two spotted fawns of opposite sexes  The fawns remain hidden in long grass from predators; they are suckled by their mother several times a day for around three months  Young female roe deer can begin to reproduce when they are around 6 months old  During the mating season, a male roe deer may mount the same doe several times over a duration of several hours 

Population ecology
A roe deer can live up to 20 years, but it usually does not reach such an age  A normal life span in the wild is seven to eight years, or 10 years The roe deer population shows irruptive growth  It is extremely fecund and can double its population every year; it shows a retarded reaction to population density with females continuing to have a similar fecundity at high population densities 
Population structure is modified by available nutrition, where populations are irrupting there are few animals over six years old  Where populations are stagnant or moribund, there is huge fawn mortality and a large part of the population is over seven years old  Mortality is highest in the first weeks after birth due to predation, or sometimes farm machinery; or in the first winter due to starvation or disease, with up to 90% mortality 

Community ecology
It is a main prey of the Persian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana) in the Alborz Mountains of Iran The nematode Spiculopteragia asymmetrica infects this deer Compared to the other large herbivores and omnivores in Iran, it is a poor disperser of plant seeds, despite consuming relatively more of them 

Uses
The roe deer is a game animal of great economic value in Europe, providing large amounts of meat and earning millions of euros in sport hunting  In 1998, some 2,500,000 roe deer were shot per year in Western Europe  In Germany alone, 700,000 were shot a year in the 1990s  This is insufficient to slow down the population growth, and the roe deer continues to increase in number It is the main source of venison in Europe  In the 2000s, there was growing interest among consumers in alternative and organic food products such as game meat  Frozen roe venison should not be stored longer than 10 to 12 months at −25 °C to maintain a high quality  Storage time and quality can decrease if the bullet has travelled through the digestive tract and contaminated the meat  The meat, like most game meat, is darker in colour than most farmed meat 

Palaeontology
Roe deer are thought to have evolved from a species in the Eurasian genus Procapreolus, with some 10 species occurring from the Late Miocene to the Early Pleistocene, which moved from the east to Central Europe over the millennia, where Procapreolus cusanus (also classified as Capreolus cusanus) occurred  It may not have evolved from C  cusanus, however, because the two extant species split from each other 1 375 and 2 75 Myr ago, and the western species first appeared in Europe 600 thousand years ago As of 2008 over 3,000 fossil specimens of this species have been recovered from Europe, which affords a good set of data to elucidate the prehistoric distribution  The distribution of the European species has fluctuated often since entering Europe  During the some periods during the last ice age it was present in central Europe, but during the Last Glacial Maximum it retreated to refugia in the Iberian Peninsula (two refugia here), southern France, Italy (likely two), the Balkans and the Carpathians  When the last Ice Age ended the species initially abruptly expanded north of the Alps to Germany during the Greenland Interstadial, 12 5–10 8 thousand years ago, but during the cooling of the Younger Dryas, 10 8–10 thousand years ago, it appears to have disappeared again from this region  It reappeared 9 7–9 5 thousand years ago, reaching northern central Europe  The modern population in this area appears to have recolonised it from the Carpathians and/or further east, but not the Balkans or other refugia  This is opposite to the red deer, which recolonised Europe from Iberia  There has been much admixture of these populations where they meet, also possibly due to human intervention in some cases It is thought that during the Middle Ages the two species of roe deer were kept apart due to hunting pressure and an abundance of predators; the different species may have met in the period just before that, and yet, during the Ice Age they were also kept apart 

Conservation
Populations are increasing throughout Europe; it is considered a species of 'least concern' 

Culture
In the Hebrew Bible Deuteronomy 14:5, the יַחְמ֑וּר, yahmur, derived from 'to be red', is listed as the third species of animal that may be eaten  In most Bibles this word has usually been translated as 'roe deer', and it still means as much in Arabic (أحمر, pronounced 'ahmar) -it was still said to be a common species in the Mount Carmel area in the 19th century  The King James Bible translated the word as 'fallow deer', and in other English Bible translations the word has been translated as a number of different species  When Modern Hebrew was reconstructed to serve as the language of the future Israel in late Ottoman and British Mandatory Palestine, the King James Bible interpretation was chosen, despite the fallow deer being fallow, not red 
Bambi, the titular character of the book Bambi, A Life in the Woods and its sequel Bambi's Children was originally a roe deer  When the story was adapted to the animated film Bambi by Walt Disney Pictures, the main character was changed to a white-tailed deer Albino roe deer were exceedingly rare in history, and they were regarded as national treasures or sacred animals in ancient times in China 
Passage 7:
5 6×57mm
The 5 6×57mm (designated as the 5,6 × 57 by the C I P ) cartridge was created by Rheinisch-Westfälische Sprengstoffwerke (RWS) in Germany in 1964 by necking down popular 7×57mm Mauser (similarly to how Paul Mauser himself created 6 5×57mm Mauser) for hunting small deer such as roe deer, and for chamois  The calibre has a significant following among European sportsmen, and most European mass production riflemakers chamber several models of rifle for this cartridge   During the 1970-1990 period this cartridge was widely and successfully used in the Republic of Ireland for deer shooting, since security considerations at a period of Provisional Irish Republican Army violence had led to a ban on the civilian ownership of calibres larger than  224in   Some British small deer specialist hunters use the 5 6×57 mm with great success on roe deer, muntjac and Chinese water deer With a factory-load velocity of 3,500 ft/s (1,100 m/s) with a 74-grain, cone-pointed bullet, it is approximately 100 ft/s (30 m/s) faster than the  220 Swift cartridge firing a bullet of equivalent weight   The larger case capacity means that handloaders can produce 50-grain loads that, with velocities in excess of 4,100 ft/s (1,200 m/s), will outpace anything that can safely be achieved by the Swift  The  223 Winchester Super Short Magnum is a 21st-century cartridge that is comparable to the 5 6×57 mm The 5 6×57mm cartridge case has a distinctively thick case wall, and this causes significant problems when handloading, owing to the force that needs to be used through the press when re-sizing the case neck   It has been suggested that this unusual neck thickness is the result of the use of  22 rimfire chamber adapters in centrefire rifles chambered for this cartridge 

5 6×57mm rimmed variant
The 5 6×57mmR (designated as the 5,6 × 57 R by the C I P ) is a rimmed variant of the 5 6×57mm  The rimmed variant was designed for break-open rifles and is almost identical to the rimless variant except for the rim 

Specifications
Bullet diameter: 5 69 mm ( 224")
Loads:
74 gr @ 1040 m/s (3412 ft/s)
60 gr @ 3700 ft/s
Passage 8:
Whitetail Deer Cutaneous Fibroma
Cutaneous fibromas (also known as deer warts) are common neoplasms occurring in wild and domestic deer of many species and are caused by host-specific viral infections  The fibromas occur most frequently in animals under 2 years of age, with cases in older deer reported occasionally or rarely Deer fibromas appear on the skin as hard and round tumors that can be up to 1 cm in diameter  The tumors are blackish or brown and have a rough-textured surface  They do not cause the animal harm unless clumps of fibromas interfere with breathing, eating, or walking 
Fibromas have been reported in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), fallow deer (Cervus dama), red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), Sika deer (Cervus nippon), moose (Alces alces), and caribou (Rangifer caribou) " They occur across the entirety of the white-tail deer's range 

Clinical signs and symptoms
The only visible signs of cutaneous fibroma in white-tailed deer are fleshy wart-like growths on the skin  These growths can vary from single to clusters of warts  These warts can also vary in size from small to very large  They are only attached to the skin, not to the underlying muscle and bone, so their only physical effects on the deer stem from their ability to impair the deer's sight and range of motion if they are large enough to inhibit normal behavior  Deer with these growths can still be in perfect health and usually show no symptoms of ill health 

Transmission
The fibromas are most often caused by host-specific papillomaviruses  They may also be due to host-specific poxviruses The transmission of cutaneous fibromas in the white-tailed deer is caused by a virus that is thought to be transmitted through a variety of insect bites or by a deer coming in contact with any contaminated object that scratches or penetrates the skin of the deer or contaminates wounded/damaged skin  Deer tend to frequent particular trails during their movements, and may thus potentially become infected by contact with objects on the path previously contaminated by other deer  As fibromas occur more commonly in bucks, the virus is probably often transmitted during sparring This disease appears temporary, manifesting after about 7 weeks after inoculation and lasting only about two months  Cutaneous fibromas are not transmissible to other livestock or to humans if their meat is consumed 

Occurrence
Fibromas occur most frequently in animals under 2 years of age  The tumor has been diagnosed in 2 1% of males and 0 4% of females  More bucks are shot (either by law or hunter preference), which influences the sampling 

Treatment and control
Treatment is not a feasible option for most wild populations  The disease has not been a problem in captive herds  The growths could be removed surgically if they became important, but that would rarely be an issue  Because exposure to the virus leads to immunity, it should be possible to develop a vaccine if prevention becomes necessary  To date, this disease has been too rare to justify such actions 

Prognosis
Large, ulcerated fibromas are infrequent  In most deer, the fibromas develop to only a few millimeters in diameter  Tumors then regress; this has been observed both in naturally occurring and experimentally induced cases  Only in an occasional deer do they develop into conspicuous skin tumors  Results of a New York survey indicated that wild deer are exposed and develop an immunity to the fibroma virus early in life 

Significance
Fibromatosis is not an important cause of deer mortality  The disease is not known to infect humans  Although they do not harm the meat, fibromas are repulsive to most people, so they discourage them from consuming the deer Some domesticated animals (cattle, dogs, etc ) are subject to "warts" common to their species  Fibromatosis of deer is quite unlikely to be infectious to domestic animals 

See also
Shope papilloma virus



ground_truth: Vienna