prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Gary L. Bennett was a part of the space missions that have a primary destination of what celestial body?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Gary L  Bennett
Gary L  Bennett (born January 17, 1940) is an American scientist and engineer, specializing in aerospace and energy   He has worked for NASA and the US Department of Energy (DOE) on advanced space power systems and advanced space propulsion systems   His professional career has included work on the Voyager, Galileo, and Ulysses space missions, and is currently working as a consultant in aerospace power and propulsion systems  He is also a science fiction author (The Star Sailors) 

Biography
Bennett was born in Twin Falls, Idaho  He joined the NASA headquarters in June 1988 as the Manager of Advanced Space Power Systems in the transportation division of the Office of Advanced Concepts and Technology  There, he managed a number of transportation technology programs including hybrid propulsion, electric propulsion, low-thrust chemical propulsion, and other advanced propulsion concepts (e g , fusion, antimatter)  He was also the first program manager of the advanced technology insertion program for the Pluto Fast Flyby (now New Horizons) mission and the TIMED space physics mission 
Prior to coming to NASA, Bennett held key positions in DoE's space radioisotope power program, including serving as Director of Safety and Nuclear Operations for the radioisotope power sources that were used on the Galileo mission to Jupiter and that are being used on the Ulysses mission to explore the polar regions of the Sun   This same radioisotope power source design was then flown on the Cassini mission to Saturn and on the New Horizons mission to Jupiter 
Previous positions included Chief of the Research Support Branch in the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) where Bennett was instrumental in creating and managing NRC's reactor operational safety research program 
Bennett was the flight safety manager for the radioisotope power sources currently in use on the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft (which went to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and beyond) and on Lincoln Laboratory's LES 8 and LES 9 communications satellites 
Bennett also worked as a physicist in the NERVA (Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Applications) program at what was then NASA's Lewis Research Center (now the John H  Glenn Research Center) in Cleveland, Ohio   He did fundamental reactor safety research at what is now the Department of Energy's Idaho National Laboratory (INL) 
From 1980 to 1988, he was a member of or adviser to US delegations to the two subcommittees of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and he prepared the official US position papers on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space 
From 1988 to 1990, Bennett chaired the Steering Group of the Interagency Advanced Power Group (IAPG), the national coordinating group for federally sponsored space and terrestrial power research   During his tenure and under his initiative the IAPG saw its greatest increase in membership 
Bennett received his PhD in physics from Washington State University in 1970; a Master of Nuclear Science degree in 1966, and a BSc degree in physics from the University of Idaho in 1962; and an Associate of Arts degree from Boise Junior College (now Boise State University) in 1960 
Since 1995, he has been active in promoting the teaching of science (specifically evolution) and received the Friend of Darwin Award  Bennett has also been a champion of the First Amendment and was elected to the National Advisory Council of Americans United for Separation of Church and State 

Selected works
Bennett has authored or coauthored over 160 technical papers, reports and articles on power, propulsion, and space missions 
Science fiction

G L  Bennett (1980)  The Star Sailors  ISBN 978-0-312-75582-9 Chapters in:

M S  El-Genk (1997)  A Critical Review of Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion, 1984-1993  ISBN 978-1-56396-317-9 
D M  Rowe (1995)  CRC Handbook of Thermoelectrics  ISBN 978-0-8493-0146-9 
R A  Meyers (2001)  Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology (3rd ed )  ISBN 978-0-12-227410-7 

Awards
In 2000, he received the Friend of Darwin Award by the National Center for Science Education
In 1996, he received the Schreiber-Spence Space Achievement Award for his leadership of the safety and nuclear operations for the Galileo and Ulysses radioisotope power source programs 
In 1995, he shared in the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) Aerospace Power Systems Award and Medal for his leadership of the Ulysses radioisotope power source program 
In 1994, he received the Silver & Gold Award from the University of Idaho Alumni Association
In 1990, he received the Distinguished Alumnus Award from Boise State University

Associations
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (fellow)
American Physical Society (fellow)
British Interplanetary Society (fellow)
Passage 2:
Planetary protection
Planetary protection is a guiding principle in the design of an interplanetary mission, aiming to prevent biological contamination of both the target celestial body and the Earth in the case of sample-return missions  Planetary protection reflects both the unknown nature of the space environment and the desire of the scientific community to preserve the pristine nature of celestial bodies until they can be studied in detail There are two types of interplanetary contamination  Forward contamination is the transfer of viable organisms from Earth to another celestial body   Back contamination is the transfer of extraterrestrial organisms, if they exist, back to the Earth's biosphere 

History
The potential problem of lunar and planetary contamination was first raised at the International Astronautical Federation VIIth Congress in Rome in 1956 In 1958 the U S  National Academy of Sciences (NAS) passed a resolution stating, “The National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America urges that scientists plan lunar and planetary studies with great care and deep concern so that initial operations do not compromise and make impossible forever after critical scientific experiments ” This led to creation of the ad hoc Committee on Contamination by Extraterrestrial Exploration (CETEX), which met for a year and recommended that interplanetary spacecraft be sterilized, and stated, “The need for sterilization is only temporary  Mars and possibly Venus need to remain uncontaminated only until study by manned ships becomes possible” In 1959, planetary protection was transferred to the newly formed Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)  COSPAR in 1964 issued Resolution 26 affirming that:

the search for extraterrestrial life is an important objective of space research, that the planet of Mars may offer the only feasible opportunity to conduct this search during the foreseeable future, that contamination of this planet would make such a search far more difficult and possibly even prevent for all time an unequivocal result, that all practical steps should be taken to ensure that Mars be not biologically contaminated until such time as this search has been satisfactorily carried out, and that cooperation in proper scheduling of experiments and use of adequate spacecraft sterilization techniques is required on the part of all deep space probe launching authorities to avoid such contamination 
In 1967, the US, USSR, and UK ratified the United Nations Outer Space Treaty   The legal basis for planetary protection lies in Article IX of this treaty:
"Article IX:     States Parties to the Treaty shall pursue studies of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, and conduct exploration of them so as to avoid their harmful contamination and also adverse changes in the environment of the Earth resulting from the introduction of extraterrestrial matter and, where necessary, shall adopt appropriate measures for this purpose    
This treaty has since been signed and ratified by 104 nation-states  Another 24 have signed but not ratified   All the current space-faring nation-states, along with all current aspiring space-faring nation-states, have both signed and ratified the treaty The Outer Space Treaty has consistent and widespread international support, and as a result of this, together with the fact that it is based on the 1963 declaration which was adopted by consensus in the UN National Assembly, it has taken on the status of customary international law  The provisions of the Outer Space Treaty are therefore binding on all states, even those who have neither signed nor ratified it For forward contamination, the phrase to be interpreted is "harmful contamination"   Two legal reviews came to differing interpretations of this clause (both reviews were unofficial)  However the currently accepted interpretation is that “any contamination which would result in harm to a state’s experiments or programs is to be avoided”  NASA policy states explicitly that “the conduct of scientific investigations of possible extraterrestrial life forms, precursors, and remnants must not be jeopardized” 

COSPAR recommendations and categories
The Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) meets every two years, in a gathering of 2000 to 3000 scientists, and one of its tasks is to develop recommendations for avoiding interplanetary contamination  Its legal basis is Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty  (see history below for details) 
Its recommendations depend on the type of space mission and the celestial body explored   COSPAR categorizes the missions into 5 groups:

Category I: Any mission to locations not of direct interest for chemical evolution or the origin of life, such as the  Sun or Mercury  No planetary protection requirements 
Category II: Any mission to locations of significant interest for chemical evolution and the origin of life, but only a remote chance that spacecraft-borne contamination could compromise investigations  Examples include the Moon, Venus, and comets  Requires simple documentation only, primarily to outline intended or potential impact targets, and an end of mission report of any inadvertent impact site if such occurred 
Category III: Flyby and orbiter missions to locations of significant interest for chemical evolution or the origin of life, and with a significant chance that contamination could compromise investigations e g , Mars, Europa, Enceladus  Requires more involved documentation than Category II  Other requirements, depending on the mission, may include trajectory biasing, clean room assembly, bioburden reduction, and if impact is a possibility, inventory of organics 
Category IV: Lander or probe missions to the same locations as Category III  Measures to be applied depend on the target body and the planned operations  "Sterilization of the entire spacecraft may be required for landers and rovers with life-detection experiments, and for those landing in or moving to a region where terrestrial microorganisms may survive and grow, or where indigenous life may be present  For other landers and rovers, the requirements would be for decontamination and partial sterilization of the landed hardware "Missions to Mars in category IV are subclassified further:Category IVa  Landers that do not search for Martian life - uses the Viking lander pre-sterilization requirements, a maximum of 300,000 spores per spacecraft and 300 spores per square meter 
Category IVb  Landers that search for Martian life   Adds stringent extra requirements to prevent contamination of samples 
Category IVc  Any component that accesses a Martian special region (see below) must be sterilized to at least to the Viking post-sterilization biological burden levels of 30 spores total per spacecraft Category V: This is further divided into unrestricted and restricted sample return Unrestricted Category V: samples from locations judged by scientific opinion to have no indigenous lifeforms  No special requirements 
Restricted Category V: (where scientific opinion is unsure) the requirements include: absolute prohibition of destructive impact upon return, containment of all returned hardware which directly contacted the target body, and containment of any unsterilized sample returned to Earth For Category IV missions, a certain level of biological burden is allowed for the mission  In general this is expressed as a 'probability of contamination', required to be less than one chance in 10,000 of forward contamination per mission, but in the case of Mars Category IV missions (above) the requirement has been translated into a count of Bacillus spores per surface area, as an easy to use assay method More extensive documentation is also required for Category IV  Other procedures required, depending on the mission, may include trajectory biasing, the use of clean rooms during spacecraft assembly and testing, bioload reduction, partial sterilization of the hardware having direct contact with the target body, a bioshield for that hardware, and, in rare cases, complete sterilization of the entire spacecraft For restricted Category V missions, the current recommendation is that no uncontained samples should be returned unless sterilized  Since sterilization of the returned samples would destroy much of their science value, current proposals involve containment and quarantine procedures  For details, see Containment and quarantine below  Category V missions also have to fulfill the requirements of Category IV to protect the target body from forward contamination 

Mars special regions
A special region is a region classified by COSPAR where terrestrial organisms could readily propagate, or thought to have a high potential for existence of Martian life forms  This is understood to apply to any region on Mars where liquid water occurs, or can occasionally occur, based on the current understanding of requirements for life 
If a hard landing risks biological contamination of a special region, then the whole lander system must be sterilized to COSPAR category IVc 

Target categories
Some targets are easily categorized  Others are assigned provisional categories by COSPAR, pending future discoveries and research 
The 2009 COSPAR Workshop on Planetary Protection for Outer Planet Satellites and Small Solar System Bodies covered this in some detail  Most of these assessments are from that report, with some future refinements  This workshop also gave more precise definitions for some of the categories:

Category I
“not of direct interest for understanding the process of chemical evolution or the origin of life ” 
Io, Sun, Mercury, undifferentiated metamorphosed asteroids

Category II
… where there is only a remote chance that contamination carried by a spacecraft could jeopardize future exploration”  In this case we define “remote chance” as “the absence of niches (places where terrestrial microorganisms could proliferate) and/or a very low likelihood of transfer to those places ” 
Callisto, comets, asteroids of category P, D, and C, Venus, Kuiper belt objects (KBO) < 1/2 size of Pluto 

Provisional Category II
Ganymede, Titan, Triton, the Pluto–Charon system, and other large KBOs (> 1/2 size of Pluto), CeresProvisionally, they assigned these objects to Category II  However, they state that more research is needed, because there is a remote possibility that the tidal interactions of Pluto and Charon could maintain some water reservoir below the surface  Similar considerations apply to the other larger KBOs 
Triton is insufficiently well understood at present to say it is definitely devoid of liquid water  The only close up observations to date are those of Voyager 2 
In a detailed discussion of Titan, scientists concluded that there was no danger of contamination of its surface, except short term adding of negligible amounts of organics, but Titan could have a below surface water reservoir that communicates with the surface, and if so, this could be contaminated 
In the case of Ganymede, the question is, given that its surface shows pervasive signs of resurfacing, is there any communication with its subsurface ocean? They found no known mechanism by which this could happen, and the Galileo spacecraft found no evidence of cryovolcanism  Initially, they assigned it as Priority B minus, meaning that precursor missions are needed to assess its category before any surface missions  However, after further discussion they provisionally assigned it to Category II, so no precursor missions are required, depending on future research 
If there is cryovolcanism on Ganymede or Titan, the undersurface reservoir is thought to be 50 – 150 km below the surface  They were unable to find a process that could transfer the surface melted water back down through 50 km of ice to the under surface sea  This is why both Ganymede and Titan were assigned a reasonably firm provisional Category II, but pending results of future research 
Icy bodies that show signs of recent resurfacing need further discussion and might need to be assigned to a new category depending on future research  This approach has been applied, for instance, to missions to Ceres  The planetary protection Category is subject for review during the mission of the Ceres orbiter (Dawn) depending on the results found 

Category III / IV
“…where there is a significant chance that contamination carried by a spacecraft could jeopardize future exploration ” We define “significant chance” as “the presence of niches (places where terrestrial microorganisms could proliferate) and the likelihood of transfer to those places ” 
Mars because of possible subsurface habitats 
Europa because of its subsurface ocean 
Enceladus because of evidence of water plumes 

Category V
Unrestricted Category V: “Earth-return missions from bodies deemed by scientific opinion to have no indigenous life forms ”
Restricted Category V: "Earth-return missions from bodies deemed by scientific opinion to be of significant interest to the process of chemical evolution or the origin of life "
In the category V for sample return the conclusions so far are:
Unrestricted Category V: Venus, the Moon 
Restricted Category V: Mars, Europa, Enceladus 

The Coleman–Sagan equation
The aim of the current regulations is to keep the number of microorganisms low enough so that the probability of contamination of Mars (and other targets) is acceptable  It is not an objective to make the probability of contamination zero 
The aim is to keep the probability of contamination of 1 chance in 10,000 of contamination per mission flown  This figure is obtained typically by multiplying together the number of microorganisms on the spacecraft, the probability of growth on the target body, and a series of bioload reduction factors 
In detail the method used is the Coleman–Sagan equation 
  
    
      
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    P_{c}=N_{0}RP_{S}P_{t}P_{R}P_{g}
   
where 

  
    
      N
      
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    N_{0}
   = the number of microorganisms on the spacecraft initially

  
    R
    R
   = Reduction due to conditions on spacecraft before and after launch

  
    
      P
      
        S
      
    
    P_{S}
   = Probability that microorganisms on the spacecraft reach the surface of the planet

  
    
      P
      
        t
      
    
    P_{t}
   = Probability that spacecraft will hit the planet - this is 1 for a lander

  
    
      P
      
        R
      
    
    P_{R}
   = Probability of microorganism to be released in the environment when on the ground, usually set to 1 for crashlanding 

  
    
      P
      
        g
      
    
    P_{g}
   = Probability of growth  For targets with liquid water this is set to 1 for sake of the calculation Then the requirement is 
  
    
      
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    P_{c}<10^{-4}
  
The 
  
    
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    10^{-4}
   is a number chosen by Sagan et al , somewhat arbitrarily  Sagan and Coleman assumed that about 60 missions to the Mars surface would occur before the exobiology of Mars is thoroughly understood, 54 of those successful, and 30 flybys or orbiters, and the number was chosen to endure a probability to keep the planet free from contamination of at least 99 9% over the duration of the exploration period 

Critiques
The Coleman–Sagan equation has been criticised because the individual parameters are often not known to better than a magnitude or so  For example, the thickness of the surface ice of Europa is unknown, and may be thin in places, which can give rise to a high level of uncertainty in the equation  It has also been criticised because of the inherent assumption made of an end to the protection period and future human exploration  In the case of Europa, this would only protect it with reasonable probability for the duration of the period of exploration Greenberg has suggested an alternative, to use the natural contamination standard — that our missions to Europa should not have a higher chance of contaminating it than the chance of contamination by meteorites from Earth 
As long as the probability of people infecting other planets with terrestrial microbes is substantially smaller than the probability that such contamination happens naturally, exploration activities would, in our view, be doing no harm  We call this concept the natural contamination standard 
Another approach for Europa is the use of binary decision trees which is favoured by the Committee on Planetary Protection Standards for Icy Bodies in the Outer Solar System under the auspices of the Space Studies Board  This goes through a series of seven steps, leading to a final decision on whether to go ahead with the mission or not 
Recommendation: Approaches to achieving planetary protection should not rely on the multiplication of bioload estimates and probabilities to calculate the likelihood of contaminating Solar System bodies with terrestrial organisms unless scientific data unequivocally define the values, statistical variation, and mutual independence of every factor used in the equation Recommendation: Approaches to achieving planetary protection for missions to icy Solar System bodies should employ a series of binary decisions that consider one factor at a time to determine the appropriate level of planetary protection procedures to use 

Containment and quarantine for restricted Category V sample return
In the case of restricted Category V missions, Earth would be protected through quarantine of sample and astronauts in a yet to be built Biosafety level 4 facility  In the case of a Mars sample return, missions would be designed so that no part of the capsule that encounters the Mars surface is exposed to the Earth environment  One way to do that is to enclose the sample container within a larger outer container from Earth, in the vacuum of space  The integrity of any seals is essential and the system must also be monitored to check for the possibility of micro-meteorite damage during return to Earth The recommendation of the ESF report is that
“No uncontained Mars materials, including space craft surfaces that have been exposed to the Mars environment should be returned to Earth unless sterilised"   "For unsterilised samples returned to Earth, a programme of life detection and biohazard testing, or a proven sterilisation process, shall be undertaken as an absolute precondition for the controlled distribution of any portion of the sample ”
No restricted category V returns have been carried out  During the Apollo program, the sample-returns were regulated through the Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law  This was rescinded in 1991, so new regulations would need to be enacted  The Apollo era quarantine procedures are of interest as the only attempt to date of a return to Earth of a sample that, at the time, was thought to have a remote possibility of including extraterrestrial life 
Samples and astronauts were quarantined in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory  The methods used would be considered inadequate for containment by modern standards  Also the lunar receiving laboratory would be judged a failure by its own design criteria as the sample return didn't contain the lunar material, with two failure points during the Apollo 11 return mission, at the splashdown and at the facility itself 
However the Lunar Receiving Laboratory was built quickly with only two years from start to finish, a time period now considered inadequate  Lessons learned from it can help with design of any Mars sample return receiving facility Design criteria for a proposed Mars Sample Return Facility, and for the return mission, have been developed by the American National Research Council, and the European Space Foundation  They concluded that it could be based on biohazard 4 containment but with more stringent requirements to contain unknown microorganisms possibly as small as or smaller than the smallest Earth microorganisms known, the ultramicrobacteria  The ESF study also recommended that it should be designed to contain the smaller gene transfer agents if possible, as these could potentially transfer DNA from martian microorganisms to terrestrial microorganisms if they have a shared evolutionary ancestry  It also needs to double as a clean room facility to protect the samples from terrestrial contamination that could confuse the sensitive life detection tests that would be used on the samples 
Before a sample return, new quarantine laws would be required  Environmental assessment would also be required, and various other domestic and international laws not present during the Apollo era would need to be negotiated 

Decontamination procedures
For all spacecraft missions requiring decontamination, the starting point is clean room assembly in US federal standard class 100 cleanrooms  These are rooms with fewer than 100 particles of size 0 5 µm or larger per cubic foot  Engineers wear cleanroom suits with only their eyes exposed  Components are sterilized individually before assembly, as far as possible, and they clean surfaces frequently with alcohol wipes during assembly  Spores of Bacillus subtilis was chosen for not only its ability to readily generate spores, but its well-established use as a model species  It is a useful tracker of UV irradiation effects because of its high resilience to a variety of extreme conditions  As such it is an important indicator species for forward contamination in the context of planetary protection 
For Category IVa missions (Mars landers that do not search for Martian life), the aim is to reduce the bioburden to 300,000 bacterial spores on any surface from which the spores could get into the Martian environment  Any heat tolerant components are heat sterilized to 114 °C  Sensitive electronics such as the core box of the rover including the computer, are sealed and vented through high-efficiency filters to keep any microbes inside For more sensitive missions such as Category IVc (to Mars special regions), a far higher level of sterilization is required  These need to be similar to levels implemented on the Viking landers, which were sterilized for a surface which, at the time, was thought to be potentially hospitable to life similar to special regions on Mars today 
In microbiology, it is usually impossible to prove that there are no microorganisms left viable, since many microorganisms are either not yet studied, or not cultivable  Instead, sterilization is done using a series of tenfold reductions of the numbers of microorganisms present  After a sufficient number of tenfold reductions, the chance that there any microorganisms left will be extremely low The two Viking Mars landers were sterilized using dry heat sterilization   After preliminary cleaning to reduce the bioburden to levels similar to present day Category IVa spacecraft, the Viking spacecraft were heat-treated for 30 hours at 112 °C, nominal 125 °C (five hours at 112 °C was considered enough to reduce the population tenfold even for enclosed parts of the spacecraft, so this was enough for a million-fold reduction of the originally low population) Modern materials however are often not designed to handle such temperatures, especially since modern spacecraft often use "commercial off the shelf" components  Problems encountered include nanoscale features only a few atoms thick, plastic packaging, and conductive epoxy attachment methods  Also many instrument sensors cannot be exposed to high temperature, and high temperature can interfere with critical alignments of instruments As a result, new methods are needed to sterilize a modern spacecraft to the higher categories such as Category IVc for Mars, similar to Viking  Methods under evaluation, or already approved, include:

Vapour phase hydrogen peroxide - effective, but can affect finishes, lubricants and materials that use aromatic rings and sulfur bonds  This has been established, reviewed, and a NASA/ESA specification for use of VHP has been approved by the Planetary Protection Officer, but it has not yet been formally published 
Ethylene oxide - this is widely used in the medical industry, and can be used for materials not compatible with hydrogen peroxide  It is under consideration for missions such as ExoMars 
Gamma radiation and electron beams have been suggested as a method of sterilization, as they are used extensively in the medical industry  They need to be tested for compatibility with spacecraft materials and hardware geometries, and are not yet ready for review Some other methods are of interest as they can sterilize the spacecraft after arrival on the planet 
Supercritical carbon dioxide snow (Mars) - is most effective against traces of organic compounds rather than whole microorganisms  Has the advantage though that it eliminates the organic traces - while other methods kill the microorganisms, they leave organic traces that can confuse life detection instruments  Is under study by JPL and ESA 
Passive sterilization through UV radiation (Mars)  Highly effective against many microorganisms, but not all, as a Bacillus strain found in spacecraft assembly facilities is particularly resistant to UV radiation  Is also complicated by possible shadowing by dust and spacecraft hardware 
Passive sterilization through particle fluxes (Europa)  Plans for missions to Europa take credit for reductions due to this 

Bioburden detection and assessment
The spore count is used as an indirect measure of the number of microorganisms present  Typically 99% of microorganisms by species will be non-spore forming and able to survive in dormant states, and so the actual number of viable dormant microorganisms remaining on the sterilized spacecraft is expected to be many times the number of spore-forming microorganisms 
One new spore method approved is the "Rapid Spore Assay"  This is based on commercial rapid assay systems, detects spores directly and not just viable microorganisms and gives results in 5 hours instead of 72 hours 

Challenges
It is also long been recognized that spacecraft cleaning rooms harbour polyextremophiles as the only microbes able to survive in them  For example, in a recent study, microbes from swabs of the Curiosity rover were subjected to desiccation, UV exposure, cold and pH extremes  Nearly 11% of the 377 strains survived more than one of these severe conditions  The genomes of resistant spore producing Bacillus sp  have been studied and genome level traits potentially linked to the resistance have been reported This does not mean that these microbes have contaminated Mars  This is just the first stage of the process of bioburden reduction  To contaminate Mars they also have to survive the low temperature, vacuum, UV and ionizing radiation during the months long journey to Mars, and then have to encounter a habitat on Mars and start reproducing there  Whether this has happened or not is a matter of probability  The aim of planetary protection is to make this probability as low as possible  The currently accepted target probability of contamination per mission is to reduce it to less than 0 01%, though in the special case of Mars, scientists also rely on the hostile conditions on Mars to take the place of the final stage of heat treatment decimal reduction used for Viking  But with current technology scientists cannot reduce probabilities to zero 

New methods
Two recent molecular methods have been approved for assessment of microbial contamination on 
spacecraft surfaces 
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) detection - this is a key element in cellular metabolism  This method is able to detect non cultivable organisms  It can also be triggered by non viable biological material so can give a "false positive" 
Limulus Amebocyte Lysate assay - detects lipopolysaccharides (LPS)  This compound is only present in Gram-negative bacteria  The standard assay analyses spores from microbes that are primarily Gram-positive, making it difficult to relate the two methods 

Impact prevention
This particularly applies to orbital missions, Category III, as they are sterilized to a lower standard than missions to the surface  It is also relevant to landers, as an impact gives more opportunity for forward contamination, and impact could be on an unplanned target, such as a special region on Mars 
The requirement for an orbital mission is that it needs to remain in orbit for at least 20 years after arrival at Mars with probability of at least 99% and for 50 years with probability at least 95%  This requirement can be dropped if the mission is sterilized to Viking sterilization standard In the Viking era (1970s), the requirement was given as a single figure, that any orbital mission should have a probability of less than 0 003% probability of impact during the current exploratory phase of exploration of Mars For both landers and orbiters, the technique of trajectory biasing is used during approach to the target  The spacecraft trajectory is designed so that if communications are lost, it will miss the target 

Issues with impact prevention
Despite these measures there has been one notable failure of impact prevention  The Mars Climate Orbiter which was sterilized only to Category III, crashed on Mars in 1999 due to a mix-up of imperial and metric units  The office of planetary protection stated that it is likely that it burnt up in the atmosphere, but if it survived to the ground, then it could cause forward contamination Mars Observer is another Category III mission with potential planetary contamination  Communications were lost three days before its orbital insertion maneuver in 1993  It seems most likely it did not succeed in entering into orbit around Mars and simply continued past on a heliocentric orbit  If it did succeed in following its automatic programming, and attempted the manoeuvre, however, there is a chance it crashed on Mars Three landers have had hard landings on Mars   These are Schiaparelli EDM lander, the Mars Polar Lander, and Deep Space 2  These were all sterilized for surface missions but not for special regions (Viking pre-sterilization only)  Mars Polar Lander, and Deep Space 2 crashed into the polar regions which are now treated as special regions because of the possibility of forming liquid brines 

Controversies
Meteorite argument
Alberto G  Fairén and Dirk Schulze-Makuch published an article in Nature recommending that planetary protection measures need to be scaled down  They gave as their main reason for this, that exchange of meteorites between Earth and Mars means that any life on Earth that could survive on Mars has already got there and vice versa Robert Zubrin used similar arguments in favour of his view that the back contamination risk has no scientific validity 

Rebuttal by NRC
The meteorite argument was examined by the NRC in the context of back contamination  It is thought that all the Martian meteorites originate in relatively few impacts every few million years on Mars  The impactors would be kilometers in diameter and the craters they form on Mars tens of kilometers in diameter  Models of impacts on Mars are consistent with these findings Earth receives a steady stream of meteorites from Mars, but they come from relatively few original impactors, and transfer was more likely in the early Solar System  Also some life forms viable on both Mars and on Earth might be unable to survive transfer on a meteorite, and there is so far no direct evidence of any transfer of life from Mars to Earth in this way 
The NRC concluded that though transfer is possible, the evidence from meteorite exchange does not eliminate the need for back contamination protection methods Impacts on Earth able to send microorganisms to Mars are also infrequent  Impactors of 10 km across or larger can send debris to Mars through the Earth's atmosphere but these occur rarely, and were more common in the early Solar System 

Proposal to end planetary protection for Mars
In their 2013 paper "The Over Protection of Mars", Alberto Fairén and Dirk Schulze-Makuch suggested that we no longer need to protect Mars, essentially using Zubrin's meteorite transfer argument  This was rebutted in a follow up article "Appropriate Protection of Mars", in Nature by the current and previous planetary protection officers Catharine Conley and John Rummel 

Critique of Category V containment measures
The scientific consensus is that the potential for large-scale effects, either through pathogenesis or ecological disruption, is extremely small  Nevertheless, returned samples from Mars will be treated as potentially biohazardous until scientists can determine that the returned samples are safe  The goal is to reduce the probability of release of a Mars particle to less than one in a million 

Policy proposals
Non-biological contamination
A COSPAR workshop in 2010, looked at issues to do with protecting areas from non biological contamination  They recommended that COSPAR expand its remit to include such issues  Recommendations of the workshop include:

Recommendation 3 COSPAR should add a separate and parallel policy to provide guidance on requirements/best practices for protection of non-living/nonlife-related aspects of Outer Space and celestial bodies
Some ideas proposed include protected special regions, or "Planetary Parks" to keep regions of the Solar System pristine for future scientific investigation, and also for ethical reasons 

Proposed extensions
Astrobiologist Christopher McKay has argued that until we have better understanding of Mars, our explorations should be biologically reversible  For instance if all the microorganisms introduced to Mars so far remain dormant within the spacecraft, they could in principle be removed in the future, leaving Mars completely free of contamination from modern Earth lifeforms 
In the 2010 workshop one of the recommendations for future consideration was to extend the period for contamination prevention to the maximum viable lifetime of dormant microorganisms introduced to the planet 

"'Recommendation 4 ' COSPAR should consider that the appropriate protection of potential indigenous extraterrestrial life shall include avoiding the harmful contamination of any habitable environment —whether extant or foreseeable— within the maximum potential time of viability of any terrestrial organisms (including microbial spores) that may be introduced into that environment by human or robotic activity "
In the case of Europa, a similar idea has been suggested, that it is not enough to keep it free from contamination during our current exploration period  It might be that Europa is of sufficient scientific interest that the human race has a duty to keep it pristine for future generations to study as well  This was the majority view of the 2000 task force examining Europa, though there was a minority view of the same task force that such strong protection measures are not required 

"One consequence of this view is that Europa must be protected from contamination for an open-ended period, until it can be demonstrated that no ocean exists or that no organisms are present  Thus, we need to be concerned that over a time scale on the order of 10 million to 100 million years (an approximate age for the surface of Europa), any contaminating material is likely to be carried into the deep ice crust or into the underlying ocean "
In July 2018, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine issued a Review and Assessment of Planetary Protection Policy Development Processes  In part, the report urges NASA to create a broad strategic plan that covers both forward and back contamination  The report also expresses concern about private industry missions, for which there is no governmental regulatory authority 

Protecting objects beyond the Solar System
The proposal by the German physicist Claudius Gros, that the technology of the Breakthrough Starshot project may be utilized to establish a biosphere of unicellular organisms on otherwise only transiently habitable exoplanets, has sparked a discussion, to what extent planetary protection should be extended to exoplanets  Gros argues that the extended timescales of
interstellar missions imply that planetary and exoplanetary protection have different ethical groundings 

See also
Astrobiology – Science concerned with life in the universe
ExoMars – Astrobiology programme
List of microorganisms tested in outer space
Mars 2020 – Astrobiology Mars rover mission by NASA
Panspermia – Hypothesis on the interstellar spreading of primordial life
Passage 3:
Transit (astronomy)
In astronomy, a transit (or astronomical transit) is a phenomenon when a celestial body passes directly between a larger body and the observer  As viewed from a particular vantage point, the transiting body appears to move across the face of the larger body, covering a small portion of it The word "transit" refers to cases where the nearer object appears smaller than the more distant object  Cases where the nearer object appears larger and completely hides the more distant object are known as occultations 
However, the probability of seeing a transiting planet is low because it is dependent on the alignment of the three objects in a nearly perfectly straight line  Many parameters of  a planet and its parent star can be determined based on the transit 

In the Solar System
One example of a transit involves the motion of a planet between a terrestrial observer and the Sun  This can happen only with inferior planets, namely Mercury and Venus (see transit of Mercury and transit of Venus)  However, because a transit is dependent on the point of observation, the Earth itself transits the Sun if observed from Mars  In the solar transit by the Moon captured during calibration of the STEREO B spacecraft's ultraviolet imaging, the Moon appears much smaller than it does when seen from Earth, because the spacecraft–Moon separation was several times greater than the Earth–Moon distance 
The term can also be used to describe the motion of a satellite across its parent planet, for instance one of the Galilean satellites (Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto) across Jupiter, as seen from Earth 
Although rare, cases where four bodies are lined up do happen  One of these events occurred on 27 June 1586, when Mercury transited the Sun as seen from Venus at the same time as a transit of Mercury from Saturn and a transit of Venus from Saturn 

Notable observations
No missions were planned to coincide with the transit of Earth visible from Mars on 11 May 1984 and the Viking missions had been terminated a year previously  Consequently, the next opportunity to observe such an alignment will be in 2084 
On 21 December 2012, the Cassini–Huygens probe, in orbit around Saturn, observed the planet Venus transiting the Sun On 3 June 2014, the Mars rover Curiosity observed the planet Mercury transiting the Sun, marking the first time a planetary transit has been observed from a celestial body besides Earth 

Mutual planetary transits
In rare cases, one planet can pass in front of another  If the nearer planet appears smaller than the more distant one, the event is called a mutual planetary transit 

Outside the Solar System
Exoplanet Detection

The transit method can be used to discover exoplanets  As a planet eclipses/transits its host star it will block a portion of the light from the star  If the planet transits in-between the star and the observer the change in light can be measured to construct a light curve  Light curves are measured with a charge-coupled device  The light curve of a star can disclose several physical characteristics of the planet and star, such as density  Multiple transit events must be measured to determine the characteristics which tend to occur at regular intervals  Multiple planets orbiting the same host star can cause transit-timing variations (TTV)  TTV is caused by the gravitational forces of all orbiting bodies acting upon each other  The probability of seeing a transit from Earth is low, however  The probability is given by the following equation 

  
    
      
        
          P
          
            transit
          
        
        =
        (
        
          R
          
            star
          
        
        +
        
          R
          
            planet
          
        
        )
        
          /
        
        a
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle P_{\text{transit}}=(R_{\text{star}}+R_{\text{planet}})/a,}
  where Rstar and Rplanet are the radius of the star and planet, respectively, and a is the semi-major axis  Because of the low probability of a transit in any specific system, large selections of the sky must be regularly observed in order to see a transit  Hot Jupiters are more likely to be seen because of their larger radius and short semi-major axis  In order to find Earth-sized planets, red dwarf stars are observed because of their small radius  Even though transiting has a low probability it has proven itself to be a good technique for discovering exoplanets 
In recent years, the discovery of extrasolar planets has prompted interest in the possibility of detecting their transits across their own stellar primaries  HD 209458b was the first such transiting planet to be detected 
The transit of celestial objects is one of the few key phenomena used today for the study of exoplanetary systems  Today, transit photometry is the leading form of exoplanet discovery  As an exoplanet moves in front of its host star there is a dimming in the luminosity of the host star that can be measured  Larger planets make the dip in luminosity more noticeable and easier to detect  Followup observations using other methods are often carried out to ensure it is a planet 
There are currently (December 2018) 2345 planets confirmed with Kepler light curves for stellar host 

Contacts
During a transit there are four "contacts", when the circumference of the small circle (small body disk) touches the circumference of the large circle (large body disk) at a single point   Historically, measuring the precise time of each point of contact was one of the most accurate ways to determine the positions of astronomical bodies   The contacts happen in the following order:

First contact: the smaller body is entirely outside the larger body, moving inward ("exterior ingress")
Second contact: the smaller body is entirely inside the larger body, moving further inward ("interior ingress")
Third contact: the smaller body is entirely inside the larger body, moving outward ("interior egress")
Fourth contact: the smaller body is entirely outside the larger body, moving outward ("exterior egress")A fifth named point is that of greatest transit, when the apparent centers of the two bodies are nearest to each other, halfway through the transit 

Missions
Since transit photometry allows for scanning large celestial areas with a simple procedure, it has been the most popular and successful form of finding exoplanets in the past decade and includes many projects, some of which have already been retired, others in use today, and some in progress of being planned and created  The most successful projects include HATNet, KELT, Kepler, and WASP, and some new and developmental stage missions such as TESS, HATPI, and others which can be found among the List of Exoplanet Search Projects 

HATNet
HATNet Project is a set of northern telescopes in Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory, Arizona and Mauna Kea Observatories, HI, and southern telescopes around the globe, in Africa, Australia, and South America, under the HATSouth branch of the project  These are small aperture telescopes, just like KELT, and look at a wide field which allows them to scan a large area of the sky for possible transiting planets  In addition, their multitude and spread around the world allows for 24/7 observation of the sky so that more short-period transits can be caught A third sub-project, HATPI, is currently under construction and will survey most of the night sky seen from its location in Chile 

KELT
KELT is a terrestrial telescope mission designed to search for transiting systems of planets of magnitude 8<M<10  It began operation in October 2004 in Winer Observatory and has a southern companion telescope added in 2009  KELT North observes "26-degree wide strip of sky that is overhead from North America during the year", while KELT South observes single target areas of the size 26 by 26 degrees  Both telescopes can detect and identify transit events as small as a 1% flux dip, which allows for detection of planetary systems similar to those in our planetary system 

Kepler / K2
The Kepler satellite served the Kepler mission between 7 March 2009 and 11 May 2013, where it observed one part of the sky in search of transiting planets within a 115 square degrees of the sky around the Cygnus, Lyra, and Draco constellations  After that, the satellite continued operating until 15 November 2018, this time changing its field along the ecliptic to a new area roughly every 75 days due to reaction wheel failure 

TESS
TESS was launched on 18 April 2018, and is planned to survey most of the sky by observing it strips defined along the right ascension lines for 27 days each  Each area surveyed is 27 by 90 degrees  Because of the positioning of sections, the area near TESS's rotational axis will be surveyed for up to 1 year, allowing for the identification of planetary systems with longer orbital periods 

See also
Eclipse
Kepler Mission
Occultation
Syzygy (astronomy)
Conjunction (astronomy)
Opposition (planets)
Transit of asteroids
Transit of Deimos from Mars
Transit of Phobos from Mars
Transit of Vulcan
Transit of Mercury from Mars
Transit of Earth from Mars
Passage 4:
Roche limit
In celestial mechanics, the Roche limit, also called Roche radius, is the distance from a celestial body within which a second celestial body, held together only by its own force of gravity, will disintegrate because the first body's tidal forces exceed the second body's self-gravitation  Inside the Roche limit, orbiting material disperses and forms rings, whereas outside the limit, material tends to coalesce  The Roche radius depends on the radius of the first body and on the ratio of the bodies' densities 
The term is named after Édouard Roche (French: [ʁɔʃ], English:  ROSH), the French astronomer who first calculated this theoretical limit in 1848 

Explanation
The Roche limit typically applies to a satellite's disintegrating due to tidal forces induced by its primary, the body around which it orbits  Parts of the satellite that are closer to the primary are attracted more strongly by gravity from the primary than parts that are farther away; this disparity effectively pulls the near and far parts of the satellite apart from each other, and if the disparity (combined with any centrifugal effects due to the object's spin) is larger than the force of gravity holding the satellite together, it can pull the satellite apart  Some real satellites, both natural and artificial, can orbit within their Roche limits because they are held together by forces other than gravitation  Objects resting on the surface of such a satellite would be lifted away by tidal forces  A weaker satellite, such as a comet, could be broken up when it passes within its Roche limit 
Since, within the Roche limit, tidal forces overwhelm the gravitational forces that might otherwise hold the satellite together, no satellite can gravitationally coalesce out of smaller particles within that limit  Indeed, almost all known planetary rings are located within their Roche limit  (Notable exceptions are Saturn's E-Ring and Phoebe ring  These two rings could possibly be remnants from the planet's proto-planetary accretion disc that failed to coalesce into moonlets, or conversely have formed when a moon passed within its Roche limit and broke apart )
The Roche limit is not the only factor that causes comets to break apart  Splitting by thermal stress, internal gas pressure and rotational splitting are other ways for a comet to split under stress 

Determination
The limiting distance to which a satellite can approach without breaking up depends on the rigidity of the satellite  At one extreme, a completely rigid satellite will maintain its shape until tidal forces break it apart  At the other extreme, a highly fluid satellite gradually deforms leading to increased tidal forces, causing the satellite to elongate, further compounding the tidal forces and causing it to break apart more readily 
Most real satellites would lie somewhere between these two extremes, with tensile strength rendering the satellite neither perfectly rigid nor perfectly fluid  For example, a rubble-pile asteroid will behave more like a fluid than a solid rocky one; an icy body will behave quite rigidly at first but become more fluid as tidal heating accumulates and its ices begin to melt 
But note that, as defined above, the Roche limit refers to a body held together solely by the gravitational forces which cause otherwise unconnected particles to coalesce, thus forming the body in question  The Roche limit is also usually calculated for the case of a circular orbit, although it is straightforward to modify the calculation to apply to the case (for example) of a body passing the primary on a parabolic or hyperbolic trajectory 

Rigid satellites
The rigid-body Roche limit is a simplified calculation for a spherical satellite  Irregular shapes such as those of tidal deformation on the body or the primary it orbits are neglected  It is assumed to be in hydrostatic equilibrium  These assumptions, although unrealistic, greatly simplify calculations 
The Roche limit for a rigid spherical satellite is the distance, 
  
    
      
        d
      
    
    {\displaystyle d}
  , from the primary at which the gravitational force on a test mass at the surface of the object is exactly equal to the tidal force pulling the mass away from the object:

  
    
      
        d
        =
        
          R
          
            M
          
        
        
          
            (
            
              2
              
                
                  
                    ρ
                    
                      M
                    
                  
                  
                    ρ
                    
                      m
                    
                  
                
              
            
            )
          
          
            
              1
              3
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle d=R_{M}\left(2{\frac {\rho _{M}}{\rho _{m}}}\right)^{\frac {1}{3}}}
  where 
  
    
      
        
          R
          
            M
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle R_{M}}
   is the radius of the primary, 
  
    
      
        
          ρ
          
            M
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \rho _{M}}
   is the density of the primary, and 
  
    
      
        
          ρ
          
            m
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \rho _{m}}
   is the density of the satellite  This can be equivalently written as

  
    
      
        d
        =
        
          R
          
            m
          
        
        
          
            (
            
              2
              
                
                  
                    M
                    
                      M
                    
                  
                  
                    M
                    
                      m
                    
                  
                
              
            
            )
          
          
            
              1
              3
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle d=R_{m}\left(2{\frac {M_{M}}{M_{m}}}\right)^{\frac {1}{3}}}
  where 
  
    
      
        
          R
          
            m
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle R_{m}}
   is the radius of the secondary, 
  
    
      
        
          M
          
            M
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle M_{M}}
   is the mass of the primary, and 
  
    
      
        
          M
          
            m
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle M_{m}}
   is the mass of the secondary 
This does not depend on the size of the objects, but on the ratio of densities  This is the orbital distance inside of which loose material (e g  regolith) on the surface of the satellite closest to the primary would be pulled away, and likewise material on the side opposite the primary will also go away from, rather than toward, the satellite 

Fluid satellites
A more accurate approach for calculating the Roche limit takes the deformation of the satellite into account  An extreme example would be a tidally locked liquid satellite orbiting a planet, where any force acting upon the satellite would deform it into a prolate spheroid 
The calculation is complex and its result cannot be represented in an exact algebraic formula  Roche himself derived the following approximate solution for the Roche limit:

  
    
      
        d
        ≈
        2 44
        R
        
          
            (
            
              
                
                  ρ
                  
                    M
                  
                
                
                  ρ
                  
                    m
                  
                
              
            
            )
          
          
            1
            
              /
            
            3
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle d\approx 2 44R\left({\frac {\rho _{M}}{\rho _{m}}}\right)^{1/3}}
  However, a better approximation that takes into account the primary's oblateness and the satellite's mass is:

  
    
      
        d
        ≈
        2 423
        R
        
          
            (
            
              
                
                  ρ
                  
                    M
                  
                
                
                  ρ
                  
                    m
                  
                
              
            
            )
          
          
            1
            
              /
            
            3
          
        
        
          
            (
            
              
                
                  (
                  1
                  +
                  
                    
                      m
                      
                        3
                        M
                      
                    
                  
                  )
                  +
                  
                    
                      c
                      
                        3
                        R
                      
                    
                  
                  (
                  1
                  +
                  
                    
                      m
                      M
                    
                  
                  )
                
                
                  1
                  −
                  c
                  
                    /
                  
                  R
                
              
            
            )
          
          
            1
            
              /
            
            3
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle d\approx 2 423R\left({\frac {\rho _{M}}{\rho _{m}}}\right)^{1/3}\left({\frac {(1+{\frac {m}{3M}})+{\frac {c}{3R}}(1+{\frac {m}{M}})}{1-c/R}}\right)^{1/3}}
  where 
  
    
      
        c
        
          /
        
        R
      
    
    {\displaystyle c/R}
   is the oblateness of the primary  The numerical factor is calculated with the aid of a computer 
The fluid solution is appropriate for bodies that are only loosely held together, such as a comet  For instance, comet Shoemaker–Levy 9's decaying orbit around Jupiter passed within its Roche limit in July 1992, causing it to fragment into a number of smaller pieces  On its next approach in 1994 the fragments crashed into the planet  Shoemaker–Levy 9 was first observed in 1993, but its orbit indicated that it had been captured by Jupiter a few decades prior 

See also
Roche lobe
Chandrasekhar limit
Hill sphere
Spaghettification (the extreme case of tidal distortion)
Black hole
Triton (moon) (Neptune's satellite)
Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9
Passage 5:
Ulysses (spacecraft)
Ulysses ( yoo-LISS-eez, UK also  YOO-liss-eez) was a robotic space probe whose primary mission was to orbit the Sun and study it at all latitudes  It was launched in 1990 and made three "fast latitude scans" of the Sun in 1994/1995, 2000/2001, and 2007/2008  In addition, the probe studied several comets  Ulysses was a joint venture of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the United States' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), under leadership of ESA with participation from Canada's National Research Council  The last day for mission operations on Ulysses was 30 June 2009 To study the Sun at all latitudes, the probe needed to change its orbital inclination and leave the plane of the Solar System  To change the orbital inclination of a spacecraft to about 80° requires a large change in heliocentric velocity, the energy to achieve which far exceeded the capabilities of any launch vehicle  To reach the desired orbit around the Sun, the mission's planners chose a gravity assist maneuver around Jupiter, but this Jupiter encounter meant that Ulysses could not be powered by solar cells  The probe was powered instead by a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) 
The spacecraft was originally named Odysseus, because of its lengthy and indirect trajectory to study the solar poles  It was renamed Ulysses, the Latin translation of "Odysseus", at ESA's request in honor not only of Homer's mythological hero but also of Dante's character in the Inferno  Ulysses was originally scheduled for launch in May 1986 aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger on STS-61-F  Due to the 28 January 1986 loss of Challenger, the launch of Ulysses was delayed until 6 October 1990 aboard Discovery (mission STS-41) 

Spacecraft
The spacecraft was designed by ESA and built by Dornier Systems, a German aircraft manufacturer  The body was roughly a box, approximately 3 2 m × 3 3 m × 2 1 m (10 5 ft × 10 8 ft × 6 9 ft) in size  The box mounted the 1 65 m (5 ft 5 in) dish antenna and the GPHS-RTG radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) power source  The box was divided into noisy and quiet sections  The noisy section abutted the RTG; the quiet section housed the instrument electronics  Particularly "loud" components, such as the preamps for the radio dipole, were mounted outside the structure entirely, and the box acted as a Faraday cage 
Ulysses was spin-stabilised about its z-axis which roughly coincides with the axis of the dish antenna  The RTG, whip antennas, and instrument boom were placed to stabilize this axis, with the spin rate nominally at 5 rpm  Inside the body was a hydrazine fuel tank  Hydrazine monopropellant was used for course corrections inbound to Jupiter, and later used exclusively to repoint the spin axis (and thus, the antenna) at Earth  The spacecraft was controlled by eight thrusters in two blocks  Thrusters were pulsed in the time domain to perform rotation or translation  Four sun sensors detected orientation  For fine attitude control, the S-band antenna feed was mounted slightly off-axis  This offset feed combined with the spacecraft spin introduced an apparent oscillation to a radio signal transmitted from Earth when received on board the spacecraft  The amplitude and phase of this oscillation were proportional to the orientation of the spin axis relative to the Earth direction  This method of determining the relative orientation is called conical scanning and was used by early radars for automated tracking of targets and was also very common in early infrared guided missiles 
The spacecraft used S-band for uplinked commands and downlinked telemetry, through dual redundant 5-watt transceivers  The spacecraft used X-band for science return (downlink only), using dual 20 watts TWTAs until the failure of the last remaining TWTA in January 2008  Both bands used the dish antenna with prime-focus feeds, unlike the Cassegrain feeds of most other spacecraft dishes 
Dual tape recorders, each of approximately 45-megabit capacity, stored science data between the nominal eight-hour communications sessions during the prime and extended mission phases 
The spacecraft was designed to withstand both the heat of the inner Solar System and the cold at Jupiter's distance  Extensive blanketing and electric heaters protected the probe against the cold temperatures of the outer Solar System 
Multiple computer systems (CPUs/microprocessors/Data Processing Units) are used in several of the scientific instruments, including several radiation-hardened RCA CDP1802 microprocessors  Documented 1802 usage includes dual-redundant 1802s in the COSPIN, and at least one 1802 each in the GRB, HI-SCALE, SWICS, SWOOPS and URAP instruments, with other possible microprocessors incorporated elsewhere Total mass at launch was 371 kg (818 lb), of which 33 5 kg was hydrazine propellant used for attitude control and orbit correction 

Instruments
The twelve different Instruments came from ESA and NASA  The first design was based on two probes, one by NASA and one by ESA, but the probe of NASA was defunded and in the end the instruments of the cancelled probe were mounted on Ulyssses 
Radio/Plasma antennas: Two beryllium copper antennas were unreeled outwards from the body, perpendicular to the RTG and spin axis  Together this dipole spanned 72 meters (236 2 ft)  A third antenna, of hollow beryllium copper, was deployed from the body, along the spin axis opposite the dish  It was a monopole antenna, 7 5 meters (24 6 ft) long  These measured radio waves generated by plasma releases, or the plasma itself as it passed over the spacecraft  This receiver ensemble was sensitive from DC to 1 MHz 
Experiment Boom: A third type of boom, shorter and much more rigid, extended from the last side of the spacecraft, opposite the RTG  This was a hollow carbon-fiber tube, of 50 mm (2 in ) diameter  It can be seen in the photo as the silver rod stowed alongside the body  It carried four types of instruments: a solid-state X-ray instrument, composed of two silicon detectors, to study X-rays from solar flares and Jupiter's aurorae; the Gamma-Ray Burst experiment, consisting of two CsI scintillator crystals with photomultipliers; two different magnetometers, a helium vector magnetometer and a fluxgate magnetometer; and a two-axis magnetic search coil antenna measured AC magnetic fields 
Body-Mounted Instruments: Detectors for electrons, ions, neutral gas, dust, and cosmic rays were mounted on the spacecraft body around the quiet section 
Lastly, the radio communications link could be used to search for gravitational waves (through Doppler shifts) and to probe the Sun's atmosphere through radio occultation  No gravitational waves were detected 
Total instrument mass was 55 kg 
Magnetometer (MAG): MAG measured the magnetic field in the heliosphere  Measurements of Jupiter's magnetic field were also performed 
Solar Wind Plasma Experiment (SWOOPS): detected the solar wind at all solar distances and latitudes and in three dimensions  It measured positive ions and electrons 
Solar Wind Ion Composition Instrument (SWICS): determined composition, temperature and speed of the atoms and ions that comprise the solar wind 
Unified Radio and Plasma Wave Instrument (URAP): picked up radio waves from the Sun and electromagnetic waves generated in the solar wind close to the spacecraft 
Energetic Particle Instrument (EPAC) and GAS: EPAC investigated the energy, fluxes and distribution of energetic particles in the heliosphere  GAS studied the uncharged gases (helium) of interstellar origin 
Low-Energy Ion and Electron Experiment (HI-SCALE): investigated the energy, fluxes and distribution of energetic particles in the heliosphere 
Cosmic Ray and Solar Particle Instrument (COSPIN): investigated the energy, fluxes and distribution of energetic particles and galactic cosmic rays in the heliosphere 
Solar X-ray and Cosmic Gamma-Ray Burst Instrument (GRB): studied cosmic gamma ray bursts and X-rays from solar flares 
Dust Experiment (DUST): Direct measurements of interplanetary and interstellar dust grains to investigate their properties as functions of the distance from the Sun and solar latitude 

Mission
Planning
Until Ulysses, the Sun had only been observed from low solar latitudes  The Earth's orbit defines the ecliptic plane, which differs from the Sun's equatorial plane by only 7 25°  Even spacecraft directly orbiting the Sun do so in planes close to the ecliptic because a direct launch into a high-inclination solar orbit would require a prohibitively large launch vehicle 
Several spacecraft (Mariner 10, Pioneer 11, and Voyagers 1 and 2) had performed gravity assist maneuvers in the 1970s  Those maneuvers were to reach other planets also orbiting close to the ecliptic, so they were mostly in-plane changes  However, gravity assists are not limited to in-plane maneuvers; a suitable flyby of Jupiter could produce a significant plane change  An Out-Of-The-Ecliptic mission (OOE) was thereby proposed  See article Pioneer H 
Originally, two spacecraft were to be built by NASA and ESA, as the International Solar Polar Mission  One would be sent over Jupiter, then under the Sun  The other would fly under Jupiter, then over the Sun  This would provide simultaneous coverage  Due to cutbacks, the U S  spacecraft was cancelled in 1981  One spacecraft was designed, and the project recast as Ulysses, due to the indirect and untried flight path  NASA would provide the Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) and launch services, ESA would build the spacecraft assigned to Astrium GmbH, Friedrichshafen, Germany (formerly Dornier Systems)  The instruments would be split into teams from universities and research institutes in Europe and the United States  This process provided the 12 instruments on board 
The changes delayed launch from February 1983 to May 1986 when it was to be deployed by the Space Shuttle Challenger (boosted by the proposed Centaur G Prime upper stage  However, the Challenger disaster forced a two-and-a-half year stand down of the shuttle fleet, mandated the cancellation of the Centaur-G upper stage, and pushed the launch date to October 1990 

Launch
Ulysses was deployed into low Earth orbit from the Space Shuttle Discovery  From there, it was propelled on a trajectory to Jupiter by a combination of solid rocket motors  This upper stage consisted of a two-stage Boeing IUS (Inertial Upper Stage), plus a McDonnell Douglas PAM-S (Payload Assist Module-Special)  The IUS was inertially stabilised and actively guided during its burn  The PAM-S was unguided and it and Ulysses were spun up to 80 rpm for stability at the start of its burn  On burnout of the PAM-S, the motor and spacecraft stack was yo-yo de-spun (weights deployed at the end of cables) to below 8 rpm prior to separation of the spacecraft  On leaving Earth, the spacecraft became the fastest ever artificially-accelerated spacecraft, and held that title until the New Horizons probe was launched 
On its way to Jupiter, the spacecraft was in an elliptical non-Hohmann transfer orbit  At this time, Ulysses had a low orbital inclination to the ecliptic 

Jupiter swing-by
It arrived at Jupiter on 8 February 1992 for a swing-by maneuver that increased its inclination to the ecliptic by 80 2°  The giant planet's gravity bent the spacecraft's flight path southward and away from the ecliptic plane  This put it into a final orbit around the Sun that would take it past the Sun's north and south poles  The size and shape of the orbit were adjusted to a much smaller degree so that aphelion remained at approximately 5 AU, Jupiter's distance from the Sun, and perihelion was somewhat greater than 1 AU, the Earth's distance from the Sun  The orbital period is approximately six years 

Polar regions of the Sun
Between 1994 and 1995 it explored both the southern and northern polar regions of the Sun, respectively 

Comet C/1996 B2 (Hyakutake)
On 1 May 1996, the spacecraft unexpectedly crossed the ion tail of Comet Hyakutake (C/1996 B2), revealing the tail to be at least 3 8 AU in length 

Comet C/1999 T1 (McNaught–Hartley)
An encounter with a comet tail happened again in 2004  when Ulysses flew through the ion tailings of C/1999 T1 (McNaught-Hartley)  A coronal mass ejection carried the cometary material to Ulysses 

Second Jupiter encounter
Ulysses approached aphelion in 2003/2004 and made further distant observations of Jupiter 

Comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught)
In 2007, Ulysses passed through the tail of comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught)  The results were surprisingly different from its pass through Hyakutake's tail, with the measured solar wind velocity dropping from approximately 700 kilometers per second (1,566,000 mph) to less than 400 kilometers per second (895,000 mph) 

Extended mission
ESA's Science Program Committee approved the fourth extension of the Ulysses mission to March 2004  thereby allowing it to operate over the Sun's poles for the third time in 2007 and 2008  After it became clear that the power output from the spacecraft's RTG would be insufficient to operate science instruments and keep the attitude control fuel, hydrazine, from freezing, instrument power sharing was initiated  Up until then, the most important instruments had been kept online constantly, whilst others were deactivated  When the probe neared the Sun, its power-hungry heaters were turned off and all instruments were turned on On 22 February 2008, 17 years and 4 months after the launch of the spacecraft, ESA and NASA announced that the mission operations for Ulysses would likely cease within a few months  On 12 April 2008, NASA announced that the end date will be 1 July 2008 The spacecraft operated successfully for over four times its design life  A component within the last remaining working chain of X-band downlink subsystem failed on 15 January 2008  The other chain in the X-band subsystem had previously failed in 2003 Downlink to Earth resumed on S-band, but the beamwidth of the high gain antenna in the S-band was not as narrow as in the X–band, so that the received downlink signal was much weaker, hence reducing the achievable data rate  As the spacecraft traveled on its outbound trajectory to the orbit of Jupiter, the downlink signal would have eventually fallen below the receiving capability of even the largest antennas (70 meters - 229 7 feet - in diameter) of the Deep Space Network 
Even before the downlink signal was lost due to distance, the hydrazine attitude control fuel on board the spacecraft was considered likely to freeze, as the radioisotope thermal generators (RTGs) failed to generate enough power for the heaters to overcome radiative heat loss into space  Once the hydrazine froze, the spacecraft would no longer be able to maneuver to keep its high gain antenna pointing towards Earth, and the downlink signal would then be lost in a matter of days  The failure of the X-band communications subsystem hastened this, because the coldest part of the fuel pipework was routed over the X-band traveling-wave tube amplifiers, because they generated enough heat during operation to keep the propellant plumbing warm 
The previously announced mission end date of 1 July 2008, came and went but mission operations continued albeit in a reduced capacity  The availability of science data gathering was limited to only when Ulysses was in contact with a ground station due to the deteriorating S-band downlink margin no longer being able to support simultaneous real-time data and tape recorder playback  When the spacecraft was out of contact with a ground station, the S-band transmitter was switched off and the power was diverted to the internal heaters to add to the warming of the hydrazine  On 30 June 2009, ground controllers sent commands to switch to the low gain antennas  This stopped communications with the spacecraft, in combination with previous commands to shut down its transmitter entirely 

Results
During cruise phases, Ulysses provided unique data  As the only spacecraft out of the ecliptic with a gamma-ray instrument, Ulysses was an important part of the InterPlanetary Network (IPN)  The IPN detects gamma ray bursts (GRBs); since gamma rays cannot be focused with mirrors, it was very difficult to locate GRBs with enough accuracy to study them further  Instead, several spacecraft can locate the burst through multilateration  Each spacecraft has a gamma-ray detector, with readouts noted in tiny fractions of a second  By comparing the arrival times of gamma showers with the separations of the spacecraft, a location can be determined, for follow-up with other telescopes  Because gamma rays travel at the speed of light, wide separations are needed  Typically, a determination came from comparing: one of several spacecraft orbiting the Earth, an inner-Solar-system probe (to Mars, Venus, or an asteroid), and Ulysses  When Ulysses crossed the ecliptic twice per orbit, many GRB determinations lost accuracy 
Additional discoveries:
Data provided by Ulysses led to the discovery that the Sun's magnetic field interacts with the Solar System in a more complex fashion than previously assumed 
Data provided by Ulysses led to the discovery that dust coming into the Solar System from deep space was 30 times more abundant than previously expected 
In 2007–2008 data provided by Ulysses led to the determination that the magnetic field emanating from the Sun's poles is much weaker than previously observed 
That the solar wind has "grown progressively weaker during the mission and is currently at its weakest since the start of the Space Age" 

Fate
Ulysses will most likely continue in heliocentric orbit around the Sun indefinitely  However, there is a chance that in one of its re-encounters with Jupiter a close fly-by with one of the Jovian moons would be enough to alter its course and so the probe would enter a hyperbolic trajectory around the Sun and leave the Solar System 

See also
Advanced Composition Explorer – NASA satellite of the Explorer program
List of heliophysics missions
List of missions to the outer planets
Parker Solar Probe – NASA robotic space probe of the outer corona of the Sun
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory – European space observatory
STEREO – Solar observation mission (2006–present)
TRACE – NASA satellite of the Explorer program
WIND – NASA probe to study solar wind, at L1 since 1995
Solar Orbiter – European space-based solar observatory
Context 2: Passage 1:
Power factor
In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC power system is defined as the ratio of the real power absorbed by the load to the apparent power flowing in the circuit   Real power is the average of the instantaneous product of voltage and current and represents the capacity of the electricity for performing work  Apparent power is the product of RMS current and voltage  Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power may be greater than the real power, so more current flows in the circuit than would be required to transfer real power alone  A power factor magnitude of less than one indicates the voltage and current are not in phase, reducing the average product of the two  A negative power factor occurs when the device (which is normally the load) generates real power, which then flows back towards the source 
In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred  The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system and require larger wires and other equipment  Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power factor 
Power-factor correction increases the power factor of a load, improving efficiency for the distribution system to which it is attached  Linear loads with a low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network of capacitors or inductors  Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system  In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor  The devices for correction of the power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or built into power-consuming equipment 

General case
The general expression for power factor is given by

  
    
      
        
          
            power factor
          
        
        =
        P
        
          /
        
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{power factor}}=P/P_{a}}
  

  
    
      
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
        =
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle P_{a}=I_{rms}V_{rms}}
  where 
  
    
      
        P
      
    
    {\displaystyle P}
   is the real power measured by an ideal wattmeter, 
  
    
      
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{rms}}
   is the rms current measured by an ideal ammeter, and 
  
    
      
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle V_{rms}}
   is the rms voltage measured by an ideal voltmeter   Apparent power, 
  
    
      
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle P_{a}}
  , is the product of the rms current and the rms voltage 
If the load is sourcing power back toward the generator, then 
  
    
      
        P
      
    
    {\displaystyle P}
   and 
  
    
      
        
          
            power factor
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{power factor}}}
   will be negative 

Periodic waveforms
If the waveforms are periodic with the same period which is much shorter than the averaging time of the physical meters, then the power factor can be computed by the following

  
    
      
        
          
            power factor
          
        
        =
        P
        
          /
        
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{power factor}}=P/P_{a}}
  

  
    
      
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
        =
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle P_{a}=I_{rms}V_{rms}}
  

  
    
      
        P
        =
        
          
            1
            T
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            
              t
              ′
            
          
          
            
              t
              ′
            
            +
            T
          
        
        i
        (
        t
        )
        v
        (
        t
        )
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle P={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{t'}^{t'+T}i(t)v(t)dt}
  

  
    
      
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          
            1
            T
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            
              t
              ′
            
          
          
            
              t
              ′
            
            +
            T
          
        
        
          
            i
            (
            t
            )
          
          
            2
          
        
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{rms}^{2}={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{t'}^{t'+T}{i(t)}^{2}dt}
  

  
    
      
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          
            1
            T
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            
              t
              ′
            
          
          
            
              t
              ′
            
            +
            T
          
        
        
          
            v
            (
            t
            )
          
          
            2
          
        
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle V_{rms}^{2}={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{t'}^{t'+T}{v(t)}^{2}dt}
  where 
  
    
      
        i
        (
        t
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle i(t)}
   is the instantaneous current, 
  
    
      
        v
        (
        t
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle v(t)}
   is the instantaneous voltage, 
  
    
      
        
          t
          ′
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle t'}
   is an arbitrary starting time, and 
  
    
      
        T
      
    
    {\displaystyle T}
   is the period of the waveforms 

Nonperiodic waveforms
If the waveforms are not periodic and the physical meters have the same averaging time, then the equations for the periodic case can be used with the exception that 
  
    
      
        T
      
    
    {\displaystyle T}
   is the averaging time of the meters instead of the waveform period 

Linear time-invariant circuits
Linear time-invariant circuits (referred to simply as linear circuits for the rest of this article), for example, circuits consisting of combinations of resistors, inductors and capacitors have a sinusoidal response to the sinusoidal line voltage  A linear load does not change the shape of the input waveform but may change the relative timing (phase) between voltage and current, due to its inductance or capacitance 
In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in step (or in phase), changing polarity at the same instant in each cycle  All the power entering the load is consumed (or dissipated) 
Where reactive loads are present, such as with capacitors or inductors, energy storage in the loads results in a phase difference between the current and voltage waveforms  During each cycle of the AC voltage, extra energy, in addition to any energy consumed in the load, is temporarily stored in the load in electric or magnetic fields then returned to the power grid a fraction of the period later 
Electrical circuits containing predominantly resistive loads (incandescent lamps, heating elements) have a power factor of almost 1, but circuits containing inductive or capacitive loads (electric motors, solenoid valves, transformers, fluorescent lamp ballasts, and others) can have a power factor well below 1 
In the electric power grid, reactive loads cause a continuous ebb and flow of nonproductive power   A circuit with a low power factor will use a greater amount of current to transfer a given quantity of real power than a circuit with a high power factor thus causing increased losses due to resistive heating in power lines, and requiring the use of higher-rated conductors and transformers 

Definition and calculation
AC power has two components:

Real power or active power (
  
    
      
        P
      
    
    {\displaystyle P}
  ) (sometimes called average power), expressed in watts (W)
Reactive power (
  
    
      
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q}
  ), usually expressed in reactive volt-amperes (var)Together, they form the complex power (
  
    
      
        S
      
    
    {\displaystyle S}
  ) expressed as volt-amperes (VA)  The magnitude of the complex power is the apparent power (
  
    
      
        
          |
        
        S
        
          |
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle |S|}
  ), also expressed in volt-amperes (VA) 
The VA and var are non-SI units mathematically identical to the watt, but are used in engineering practice instead of the watt to state what quantity is being expressed  The SI explicitly disallows using units for this purpose or as the only source of information about a physical quantity as used The power factor is defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power  As power is transferred along a transmission line, it does not consist purely of real power that can do work once transferred to the load, but rather consists of a combination of real and reactive power, called apparent power  The power factor describes the amount of real power transmitted along a transmission line relative to the total apparent power flowing in the line The power factor can also be computed as the cosine of the angle θ by which the current waveform lags or leads the voltage waveform, 

Power triangle
One can relate the various components of AC power by using the power triangle in vector space  Real power extends horizontally in the real axis and reactive power extends in the direction of the imaginary axis  Complex power (and its magnitude, apparent power) represents a combination of both real and reactive power, and therefore can be calculated by using the vector sum of these two components  We can conclude that the mathematical relationship between these components is:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                S
              
              
                
                =
                P
                +
                j
                Q
              
            
            
              
                
                  |
                
                S
                
                  |
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      P
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                    +
                    
                      Q
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
                
                  pf
                
              
              
                
                =
                cos
                ⁡
                
                  θ
                
                =
                
                  
                    P
                    
                      
                        |
                      
                      S
                      
                        |
                      
                    
                  
                
                =
                cos
                ⁡
                
                  
                    (
                    
                      arctan
                      ⁡
                      
                        
                          (
                          
                            
                              Q
                              P
                            
                          
                          )
                        
                      
                    
                    )
                  
                
              
            
            
              
                Q
              
              
                
                =
                P
                
                tan
                ⁡
                (
                arccos
                ⁡
                (
                
                  pf
                
                )
                )
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}S&=P+jQ\\|S|&={\sqrt {P^{2}+Q^{2}}}\\{\text{pf}}&=\cos {\theta }={\frac {P}{|S|}}=\cos {\left(\arctan {\left({\frac {Q}{P}}\right)}\right)}\\Q&=P\,\tan(\arccos({\text{pf}}))\end{aligned}}}
  As the angle θ increases with fixed total apparent power, current and voltage are further out of phase with each other  Real power decreases, and reactive power increases 

Lagging, leading and unity power factors
Power factor is described as leading if the current waveform is advanced in phase with respect to voltage, or lagging when the current waveform is behind the voltage waveform  A lagging power factor signifies that the load is inductive, as the load will consume reactive power  The reactive component 
  
    
      
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q}
   is positive as reactive power travels through the circuit and is consumed by the inductive load  A leading power factor signifies that the load is capacitive, as the load supplies reactive power, and therefore the reactive component 
  
    
      
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q}
   is negative as reactive power is being supplied to the circuit 

If θ is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power factor is equal to the cosine of the angle, 
  
    
      
        cos
        ⁡
        θ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \cos \theta }
  :

  
    
      
        
          |
        
        P
        
          |
        
        =
        
          |
        
        S
        
          |
        
        cos
        ⁡
        θ
      
    
    {\displaystyle |P|=|S|\cos \theta }
  Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless number between -1 and 1  When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle  When the power factor is 1, referred to as unity power factor, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load  Power factors are usually stated as leading or lagging to show the sign of the phase angle  Capacitive loads are leading (current leads voltage), and inductive loads are lagging (current lags voltage) 
If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply, current and voltage will change polarity in step, the power factor will be 1, and the electrical energy flows in a single direction across the network in each cycle  Inductive loads such as induction motors (any type of wound coil) consume reactive power with the current waveform lagging the voltage  Capacitive loads such as capacitor banks or buried cables generate reactive power with the current phase leading the voltage  Both types of loads will absorb energy during part of the AC cycle, which is stored in the device's magnetic or electric field, only to return this energy back to the source during the rest of the cycle 
For example, to get 1 kW of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 1 = 1 kVA)  At low values of power factor, more apparent power needs to be transferred to get the same real power  To get 1 kW of real power at 0 2 power factor, 5 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 0 2 = 5 kVA)  This apparent power must be produced and transmitted to the load and is subject to losses in the production and transmission processes 
Electrical loads consuming alternating current power consume both real power and reactive power  The vector sum of real and reactive power is the complex power, and its magnitude is the apparent power  The presence of reactive power causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the electric load has a power factor of less than 1 
A negative power factor (0 to −1) can result from returning active power to the source, such as in the case of a building fitted with solar panels when surplus power is fed back into the supply 

Power factor correction of linear loads
A high power factor is generally desirable in a power delivery system to reduce losses and improve voltage regulation at the load  Compensating elements near an electrical load will reduce the apparent power demand on the supply system  Power factor correction may be applied by an electric power transmission utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the network  Individual electrical customers who are charged by their utility for low power factor may install correction equipment to increase their power factor so as to reduce costs 
Power factor correction brings the power factor of an AC power circuit closer to 1 by supplying or absorbing reactive power, adding capacitors or inductors that act to cancel the inductive or capacitive effects of the load, respectively  In the case of offsetting the inductive effect of motor loads, capacitors can be locally connected  These capacitors help to generate reactive power to meet the demand of the inductive loads  This will keep that reactive power from having to flow all the way from the utility generator to the load  In the electricity industry, inductors are said to consume reactive power and capacitors are said to supply it, even though reactive power is just energy moving back and forth on each AC cycle 
The reactive elements in power factor correction devices can create voltage fluctuations and harmonic noise when switched on or off  They will supply or sink reactive power regardless of whether there is a corresponding load operating nearby, increasing the system's no-load losses  In the worst case, reactive elements can interact with the system and with each other to create resonant conditions, resulting in system instability and severe overvoltage fluctuations  As such, reactive elements cannot simply be applied without engineering analysis 

An automatic power factor correction unit consists of a number of capacitors that are switched by means of contactors  These contactors are controlled by a regulator that measures power factor in an electrical network  Depending on the load and power factor of the network, the power factor controller will switch the necessary blocks of capacitors in steps to make sure the power factor stays above a selected value 
In place of a set of switched capacitors, an unloaded synchronous motor can supply reactive power  The reactive power drawn by the synchronous motor is a function of its field excitation  It is referred to as a synchronous condenser  It is started and connected to the electrical network  It operates at a leading power factor and puts vars onto the network as required to support a system's voltage or to maintain the system power factor at a specified level 
The synchronous condenser's installation and operation are identical to those of large electric motors  Its principal advantage is the ease with which the amount of correction can be adjusted; it behaves like a variable capacitor  Unlike with capacitors, the amount of reactive power supplied is proportional to voltage, not the square of voltage; this improves voltage stability on large networks   Synchronous condensers are often used in connection with high-voltage direct-current transmission projects or in large industrial plants such as steel mills 
For power factor correction of high-voltage power systems or large, fluctuating industrial loads, power electronic devices such as the static VAR compensator or STATCOM are increasingly used  These systems are able to compensate sudden changes of power factor much more rapidly than contactor-switched capacitor banks and, being solid-state, require less maintenance than synchronous condensers 

Non-linear loads
Examples of non-linear loads on a power system are rectifiers (such as used in a power supply), and arc discharge devices such as fluorescent lamps, electric welding machines, or arc furnaces  Because current in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the current contains frequency components that are multiples of the power system frequency  Distortion power factor is a measure of how much the harmonic distortion of a load current decreases the average power transferred to the load 

Non-sinusoidal components
In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power factor arises only from the difference in phase between the current and voltage  This is displacement power factor Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some other form  Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental frequency) AC current  This is of importance in practical power systems that contain non-linear loads such as rectifiers, some forms of electric lighting, electric arc furnaces, welding equipment, switched-mode power supplies, variable speed drives and other devices  Filters consisting of linear capacitors and inductors can prevent harmonic currents from entering the supplying system 
To measure the real power or reactive power, a wattmeter designed to work properly with non-sinusoidal currents must be used 

Distortion power factor
The distortion power factor is the distortion component associated with the harmonic voltages and currents present in the system 

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                
                  
                    distortion power factor
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      I
                      
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      I
                      
                        r
                        m
                        s
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      I
                      
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        I
                        
                          1
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      
                        I
                        
                          2
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      
                        I
                        
                          3
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      
                        I
                        
                          4
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      ⋯
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    1
                    
                      1
                      +
                      
                        
                          
                            
                              I
                              
                                2
                              
                              
                                2
                              
                            
                            +
                            
                              I
                              
                                3
                              
                              
                                2
                              
                            
                            +
                            
                              I
                              
                                4
                              
                              
                                2
                              
                            
                            +
                            ⋯
                          
                          
                            I
                            
                              1
                            
                            
                              2
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    1
                    
                      1
                      +
                      T
                      H
                      
                        D
                        
                          i
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\mbox{distortion power factor}}&={\frac {I_{1}}{I_{rms}}}\\&={\frac {I_{1}}{\sqrt {I_{1}^{2}+I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }}}\\&={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+{\frac {I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }{I_{1}^{2}}}}}}\\&={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+THD_{i}^{2}}}}\\\end{aligned}}}
  
  
    
      
        
          
            
              THD
            
          
          
            i
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{THD}}_{i}}
   is the total harmonic distortion of the load current  

  
    
      
        T
        H
        
          D
          
            i
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                
                  ∑
                  
                    h
                    =
                    2
                  
                  
                    ∞
                  
                
                
                  I
                  
                    h
                  
                  
                    2
                  
                
              
            
            
              I
              
                1
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                I
                
                  2
                
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              
                I
                
                  3
                
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              
                I
                
                  4
                
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              ⋯
            
            
              I
              
                1
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle THD_{i}={\frac {\sqrt {\displaystyle \sum _{h=2}^{\infty }I_{h}^{2}}}{I_{1}}}={\frac {\sqrt {I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }}{I_{1}}}}
  
  
    
      
        
          I
          
            1
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{1}}
   is the fundamental component of the current and 
  
    
      
        
          I
          
            
              rms
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{\mbox{rms}}}
   is the total current – both are root mean square-values (distortion power factor can also be used to describe individual order harmonics, using the corresponding current in place of total current)  This definition with respect to total harmonic distortion assumes that the voltage stays undistorted (sinusoidal, without harmonics)  This simplification is often a good approximation for stiff voltage sources (not being affected by changes in load downstream in the distribution network)  Total harmonic distortion of typical generators from current distortion in the network is on the order of 1–2%, which can have larger scale implications but can be ignored in common practice The result when multiplied with the displacement power factor (DPF) is the overall, true power factor or just power factor (PF):

  
    
      
        
          
            PF
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              cos
              ⁡
              
                φ
              
            
            
              1
              +
              T
              H
              
                D
                
                  i
                
                
                  2
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{PF}}={\frac {\cos {\varphi }}{\sqrt {1+THD_{i}^{2}}}}}

Distortion in three-phase networks
In practice, the local effects of distortion current on devices in a three-phase distribution network rely on the magnitude of certain order harmonics rather than the total harmonic distortion 
For example, the triplen, or zero-sequence, harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc ) have the property of being in-phase when compared line-to-line  In a delta-wye transformer, these harmonics can result in circulating currents in the delta windings and result in greater resistive heating  In a wye-configuration of a transformer, triplen harmonics will not create these currents, but they will result in a non-zero current in the neutral wire  This could overload the neutral wire in some cases
and create error in kilowatt-hour metering systems and billing revenue   The presence of current harmonics in a transformer also result in larger eddy currents in the magnetic core of the transformer  Eddy current losses generally increase as the square of the frequency, lowering the transformer's efficiency, dissipating additional heat, and reducing its service life Negative-sequence harmonics (5th, 11th, 17th, etc ) combine 120 degrees out of phase, similarly to the fundamental harmonic but in a reversed sequence   In generators and motors, these currents produce magnetic fields which oppose the rotation of the shaft and sometimes result in damaging mechanical vibrations 

Switched-mode power supplies
A particularly important class of non-linear loads is the millions of personal computers that typically incorporate switched-mode power supplies (SMPS) with rated output power ranging from a few watts to more than 1 kW  Historically, these very-low-cost power supplies incorporated a simple full-wave rectifier that conducted only when the mains instantaneous voltage exceeded the voltage on the input capacitors   This leads to very high ratios of peak-to-average input current, which also lead to a low distortion power factor and potentially serious phase and neutral loading concerns 
A typical switched-mode power supply first converts the AC mains to a DC bus by means of a bridge rectifier  The output voltage is then derived from this DC bus  The problem with this is that the rectifier is a non-linear device, so the input current is highly non-linear  That means that the input current has energy at harmonics of the frequency of the voltage  This presents a problem for power companies, because they cannot compensate for the harmonic current by adding simple capacitors or inductors, as they could for the reactive power drawn by a linear load  Many jurisdictions are beginning to require power factor correction for all power supplies above a certain power level 
Regulatory agencies such as the EU have set harmonic limits as a method of improving power factor  Declining component cost has hastened implementation of two different methods  To comply with current EU standard EN61000-3-2, all switched-mode power supplies with output power more than 75 W must at least include passive power factor correction  80 Plus power supply certification requires a power factor of 0 9 or more 

Power factor correction (PFC) in non-linear loads
Passive PFC
The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter that passes current only at line frequency (50 or 60 Hz)  The filter consists of capacitors or inductors and makes a non-linear device look more like a linear load  An example of passive PFC is a valley-fill circuit 
A disadvantage of passive PFC is that it requires larger inductors or capacitors than an equivalent power active PFC circuit  Also, in practice, passive PFC is often less effective at improving the power factor 

Active PFC
Active PFC is the use of power electronics to change the waveform of current drawn by a load to improve the power factor   Some types of the active PFC are buck, boost, buck-boost and synchronous condenser   Active power factor correction can be single-stage or multi-stage 
In the case of a switched-mode power supply, a boost converter is inserted between the bridge rectifier and the main input capacitors  The boost converter attempts to maintain a constant voltage at its output while drawing a current that is always in phase with and at the same frequency as the line voltage  Another switched-mode converter inside the power supply produces the desired output voltage from the DC bus  This approach requires additional semiconductor switches and control electronics but permits cheaper and smaller passive components  It is frequently used in practice 
For a three-phase SMPS, the Vienna rectifier configuration may be used to substantially improve the power factor 
SMPSs with passive PFC can achieve power factor of about 0 7–0 75, SMPSs with active PFC, up to 0 99 power factor, while a SMPS without any power factor correction have a power factor of only about 0 55–0 65 Due to their very wide input voltage range, many power supplies with active PFC can automatically adjust to operate on AC power from about 100 V (Japan) to 240 V (Europe)  That feature is particularly welcome in power supplies for laptops 

Dynamic PFC
Dynamic power factor correction (DPFC), sometimes referred to as real-time power factor correction, is used for electrical stabilization in cases of rapid load changes (e g  at large manufacturing sites)  DPFC is useful when standard power factor correction would cause over or under correction   DPFC uses semiconductor switches, typically thyristors, to quickly connect and disconnect capacitors or inductors to improve power factor 

Importance in distribution systems
Power factors below 1 0 require a utility to generate more than the minimum volt-amperes necessary to supply the real power (watts)  This increases generation and transmission costs  For example, if the load power factor were as low as 0 7, the apparent power would be 1 4 times the real power used by the load  Line current in the circuit would also be 1 4 times the current required at 1 0 power factor, so the losses in the circuit would be doubled (since they are proportional to the square of the current)  Alternatively, all components of the system such as generators, conductors, transformers, and switchgear would be increased in size (and cost) to carry the extra current  When the power factor is close to unity, for the same kVA rating of the transformer more load current can be supplied Utilities typically charge additional costs to commercial customers who have a power factor below some limit, which is typically 0 9 to 0 95   Engineers are often interested in the power factor of a load as one of the factors that affect the efficiency of power transmission 
With the rising cost of energy and concerns over the efficient delivery of power, active PFC has become more common in consumer electronics  Current Energy Star guidelines for computers call for a power factor of ≥ 0 9 at 100% of rated output in the PC's power supply  According to a white paper authored by Intel and the U S  Environmental Protection Agency, PCs with internal power supplies will require the use of active power factor correction to meet the ENERGY STAR 5 0 Program Requirements for Computers In Europe, EN 61000-3-2 requires power factor correction be incorporated into consumer products 
Small customers, such as households, are not usually charged for reactive power and so power factor metering equipment for such customers will not be installed 

Measurement techniques
The power factor in a single-phase circuit (or balanced three-phase circuit) can be measured with the wattmeter-ammeter-voltmeter method, where the power in watts is divided by the product of measured voltage and current  The power factor of a balanced polyphase circuit is the same as that of any phase  The power factor of an unbalanced polyphase circuit is not uniquely defined 
A direct reading power factor meter can be made with a moving coil meter of the electrodynamic type, carrying two perpendicular coils on the moving part of the instrument  The field of the instrument is energized by the circuit current flow  The two moving coils, A and B, are connected in parallel with the circuit load   One coil, A, will be connected through a resistor and the second coil, B, through an inductor, so that the current in coil B is delayed with respect to current in A  At unity power factor, the current in A is in phase with the circuit current, and coil A provides maximum torque, driving the instrument pointer toward the 1 0 mark on the scale  At zero power factor, the current in coil B is in phase with circuit current, and coil B provides torque to drive the pointer towards 0  At intermediate values of power factor, the torques provided by the two coils add and the pointer takes up intermediate positions Another electromechanical instrument is the polarized-vane type  In this instrument a stationary field coil produces a rotating magnetic field, just like a polyphase motor  The field coils are connected either directly to polyphase voltage sources or to a phase-shifting reactor if a single-phase application   A second stationary field coil, perpendicular to the voltage coils, carries a current proportional to current in one phase of the circuit  The moving system of the instrument consists of two vanes that are magnetized by the current coil  In operation, the moving vanes take up a physical angle equivalent to the electrical angle between the voltage source and the current source  This type of instrument can be made to register for currents in both directions, giving a four-quadrant display of power factor or phase angle 
Digital instruments exist that directly measure the time lag between voltage and current waveforms  Low-cost instruments of this type measure the peak of the waveforms  More sophisticated versions measure the peak of the fundamental harmonic only, thus giving a more accurate reading for phase angle on distorted waveforms  Calculating power factor from voltage and current phases is only accurate if both waveforms are sinusoidal Power Quality Analyzers, often referred to as Power Analyzers, make a digital recording of the voltage and current waveform (typically either one phase or three phase) and accurately calculate true power (watts), apparent power (VA) power factor, AC voltage, AC current, DC voltage, DC current, frequency, IEC61000-3-2/3-12 Harmonic measurement, IEC61000-3-3/3-11 flicker measurement, individual phase voltages in delta applications where there is no neutral line, total harmonic distortion, phase and amplitude of individual voltage or current harmonics, etc 

Mnemonics
English-language power engineering students are advised to remember:
ELI the ICE man or ELI on ICE – the voltage E, leads the current I, in an inductor L  The current I leads the voltage E in a capacitor C 
Another common mnemonic is CIVIL – in a capacitor (C) the current (I) leads voltage (V), voltage (V) leads current (I) in an inductor (L) 
Passage 2:
Womersley number
The Womersley number (
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
   or 
  
    
      
        
          Wo
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\text{Wo}}}
  ) is a dimensionless number in biofluid mechanics and biofluid dynamics  It is a dimensionless expression of the pulsatile flow frequency in relation to viscous effects  It is named after John R  Womersley (1907–1958) for his work with blood flow in arteries  The Womersley number is important in keeping dynamic similarity when scaling an experiment  An example of this is scaling up the vascular system for experimental study  The Womersley number is also important in determining the thickness of the boundary layer to see if entrance effects can be ignored 
The square root of this number is also referred to as Stokes number, 
  
    
      
        
          Stk
        
        =
        
          
            Wo
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\text{Stk}}={\sqrt {\text{Wo}}}}
  , due to the pioneering work done by Sir George Stokes on the Stokes second problem 

Derivation
The Womersley number, usually denoted 
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
  , is defined by the relation

where 
  
    
      
        L
      
    
    {\displaystyle L}
   is an appropriate length scale (for example the radius of a pipe), 
  
    
      
        ω
      
    
    {\displaystyle \omega }
   is the angular frequency of the oscillations, and 
  
    
      
        ν
      
    
    {\displaystyle \nu }
  , 
  
    
      
        ρ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \rho }
  , 
  
    
      
        μ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mu }
   are the kinematic viscosity, density, and dynamic viscosity of the fluid, respectively  The Womersley number is normally written in the powerless form

In the cardiovascular system, the pulsation frequency, density, and dynamic viscosity are constant, however the Characteristic length, which in the case of blood flow is the vessel diameter, changes by three orders of magnitudes (OoM) between the aorta and fine capillaries  The Womersley number thus changes due to the variations in vessel size across the vasculature system  The Womersley number of human blood flow can be estimated as follows:

  
    
      
        α
        =
        L
        
          
            (
            
              
                
                  ω
                  ρ
                
                μ
              
            
            )
          
          
            
              1
              2
            
          
        
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha =L\left({\frac {\omega \rho }{\mu }}\right)^{\frac {1}{2}}\, }
  
Below is a list of estimated Womersley numbers in different human blood vessels:

It can also be written in terms of the dimensionless Reynolds number (Re) and Strouhal number (St):

The Womersley number arises in the solution of the linearized Navier–Stokes equations for oscillatory flow (presumed to be laminar and incompressible) in a tube   It expresses the ratio of the transient or oscillatory inertia force to the shear force  When 
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
   is small (1 or less), it means the frequency of pulsations is sufficiently low that a parabolic velocity profile has time to develop during each cycle, and the flow will be very nearly in phase with the pressure gradient, and will be given to a good approximation by Poiseuille's law, using the instantaneous pressure gradient   When 
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
   is large (10 or more), it means the frequency of pulsations is sufficiently large that the velocity profile is relatively flat or plug-like, and the mean flow lags the pressure gradient by about 90 degrees  Along with the Reynolds number, the Womersley number governs dynamic similarity The boundary layer thickness 
  
    
      
        δ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta }
   that is associated with the transient acceleration is inversely related to the Womersley number  This can be seen by recognizing the Womersley number as the square root of the Stokes number 
where 
  
    
      
        L
      
    
    {\displaystyle L}
   is a characteristic length 

Biofluid mechanics
In a flow distribution network that progresses from a large tube to many small tubes (e g  a blood vessel network), the frequency, density, and dynamic viscosity are (usually) the same throughout the network, but the tube radii change  Therefore, the Womersley number is large in large vessels and small in small vessels  As the vessel diameter decreases with each division the Womersley number soon becomes quite small  The Womersley numbers tend to 1 at the level of the terminal arteries  In the arterioles, capillaries, and venules the Womersley numbers are less than one  In these regions the inertia force becomes less important and the flow is determined by the balance of viscous stresses and the pressure gradient  This is called microcirculation Some typical values for the Womersley number in the cardiovascular system for a canine at a heart rate of 2 Hz are:
Ascending aorta – 13 2
Descending aorta – 11 5
Abdominal aorta – 8
Femoral artery – 3 5
Carotid artery – 4 4
Arterioles – 0 04
Capillaries – 0 005
Venules – 0 035
Inferior vena cava – 8 8
Main pulmonary artery – 15It has been argued that universal biological scaling laws (power-law relationships that describe variation of quantities such as metabolic rate, lifespan, length, etc , with body mass) are a consequence of the need for energy minimization, the fractal nature of vascular networks, and the crossover from high to low Womersley number flow as one progresses from large to small vessels 
Passage 3:
Weissenberg number
The Weissenberg number (Wi) is a dimensionless number used in the study of viscoelastic flows  It is named after Karl Weissenberg  The dimensionless number compares the elastic forces to the viscous forces  It can be variously defined, but it is usually given by the relation of stress relaxation time of the fluid and a specific process time  For instance, in simple steady shear, the Weissenberg number, often abbreviated as Wi or We, is defined as the shear rate 
  
    
      
        
          
            
              γ
              ˙
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\dot {\gamma }}}
   times the relaxation time 
  
    
      
        λ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \lambda }
    Using the Maxwell model and the Oldroyd-B model, the elastic forces can be written as the first Normal force (N1) 

  
    
      
        
          Wi
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                elastic forces
              
              
                viscous forces
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                τ
                
                  x
                  x
                
              
              −
              
                τ
                
                  y
                  y
                
              
            
            
              τ
              
                x
                y
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              2
              λ
              μ
              
                
                  
                    
                      γ
                      ˙
                    
                  
                
                
                  2
                
              
            
            
              μ
              
                
                  
                    γ
                    ˙
                  
                
              
            
          
        
        =
        2
        
          
            
              γ
              ˙
            
          
        
        λ
         
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\text{Wi}}={\dfrac {\mbox{elastic forces}}{\mbox{viscous forces}}}={\frac {\tau _{xx}-\tau _{yy}}{\tau _{xy}}}={\frac {2\lambda \mu {\dot {\gamma }}^{2}}{\mu {\dot {\gamma }}}}=2{\dot {\gamma }}\lambda  \,}
  Since this number is obtained from scaling the evolution of the stress, it contains choices for the shear or elongation rate, and the length-scale  Therefore the exact definition of all non dimensional numbers should be given as well as the number itself 
While Wi is similar to the Deborah number and is often confused with it in technical literature, they have different physical interpretations  The Weissenberg number indicates the degree of anisotropy or orientation generated by the deformation, and is appropriate to describe flows with a constant stretch history, such as simple shear  In contrast, the Deborah number should be used to describe flows with a non-constant stretch history, and physically represents the rate at which elastic energy is stored or released 
Passage 4:
Ericksen number
In the study of liquid crystals, the Ericksen number (Er) is a dimensionless number used to describe the deformation of the director field under flow  It is defined as the ratio of the viscous to elastic forces  In the limit of low Ericksen number the elastic forces will exceed the viscous forces and so the director field will not be strongly affected by the flow field  The Ericksen number is named after American mathematics professor Jerald Ericksen of the University of Minnesota   The number is defined:

  
    
      
        
          
            E
            r
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              μ
              v
              L
            
            K
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mathit {Er}}={\frac {\mu vL}{K}}}
  where

  
    
      
        μ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mu }
   is the fluid's dynamic viscosity,

  
    
      
        v
      
    
    {\displaystyle v}
   is a characteristic scale for the fluid's velocity,

  
    
      
        L
      
    
    {\displaystyle L}
   is a characteristic scale length for the fluid flow,

  
    
      
        K
      
    
    {\displaystyle K}
   is an elasticity force, for example the elasticity modulus times an area 
Passage 5:
Qualified Person for Pharmacovigilance
In the European Union, the Qualified Person Responsible For Pharmacovigilance (QPPV) is an individual, usually an employee of a pharmaceutical company, who is personally responsible for the safety of the human pharmaceutical products marketed by that company in the EU  This function was established in 2004 by article 23 of regulation (EC) No 726/2004  The article establishes that the holder of a marketing authorization for a drug for human use must have a QPPV  When a company submits an application for permission to bring a medicinal product onto the market, the company submits a description of its system for monitoring the safety of the product in actual use (a pharmacovigilance system) and proof that the services of a QPPV are in place "The holder of an authorisation for a medicinal product for human use granted in accordance with the provisions of this Regulation shall have permanently and continuously at his disposal an appropriately qualified person responsible for pharmacovigilance "

Responsibilities
Per Article 23, the QPPV is responsible for:

Establishing and maintaining a pharmacovigilance system
Preparing pharmacovigilance reports as defined by regulations
Answering requests from Health Authorities
Providing Health Authorities with any other information relevant to product safetyThe Good Pharmacovigilance Practices (GVP) provide further guidance regarding these responsibilities of the QPPV (Module I, Section I C 1 3: Role of the qualified person responsible for pharmacovigilance in the EU  Per GVP, the QPPV is responsible for the establishment and maintenance of the marketing authorisation holder's pharmacovigilance system and therefore shall have sufficient authority to influence the performance of the quality system and the pharmacovigilance activities and to promote, maintain and improve compliance with the legal requirements  The QPPV is specifically responsible for:

Establishing and maintaining/managing the pharmaceutical company's pharmacovigilance system
Having an overview of the safety profiles and any emerging safety concerns for the company's drugs
Acting as a single contact point for the Health Authorities on a 24-hour basis

Criteria for QPPV role
The QPPV must reside in the EU, and should be permanently and continuously at the disposal of the MAH  Each company (i e  Applicant/Marketing Authorisation Holder or group of Marketing Authorisation Holders using a common pharmacovigilance system) should appoint one QPPV responsible for overall pharmacovigilance for all medicinal products for which the company holds marketing authorisations within the EU 
Detailed information on the role and responsibilities of the QPPV, and guidance for a Marketing Authorisation Holder on how to adequately support the QPPV are specified in Guideline on good pharmacovigilance practices (GVP; Module I – Pharmacovigilance systems and their quality systems) "   At a minimum the QPPV should be appropriately qualified, with documented experience in all aspects of pharmacovigilance in order to fulfil the responsibilities and tasks of the post  If the QPPV is not medically qualified, access to a medically qualified person should be available 
In addition, there are national regulations in some EU member states that also require a nominated individual in that country who has specific legal obligations as a QPPV at a national level 

See also
Pharmacovigilance
European Medicines Agency
Passage 6:
Joseph Fourier
Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier (; French: [fuʁje]; 21 March 1768 – 16 May 1830) was a French mathematician and physicist born in Auxerre and best known for initiating the investigation of Fourier series, which eventually developed into Fourier analysis and harmonic analysis, and their applications to problems of heat transfer and vibrations  The Fourier transform and Fourier's law of conduction are also named in his honour  Fourier is also generally credited with the discovery of the greenhouse effect 

Biography
Fourier was born in Auxerre (now in the Yonne département of France), the son of a tailor  He was orphaned at the age of nine  Fourier was recommended to the Bishop of Auxerre and, through this introduction, he was educated by the Benedictine Order of the Convent of St  Mark  The commissions in the scientific corps of the army were reserved for those of good birth, and being thus ineligible, he accepted a military lectureship on mathematics  He took a prominent part in his own district in promoting the French Revolution, serving on the local Revolutionary Committee  He was imprisoned briefly during the Terror but, in 1795, was appointed to the École Normale and subsequently succeeded Joseph-Louis Lagrange at the École Polytechnique 
Fourier accompanied Napoleon Bonaparte on his Egyptian expedition in 1798, as scientific adviser, and was appointed secretary of the Institut d'Égypte  Cut off from France by the British fleet, he organized the workshops on which the French army had to rely for their munitions of war  He also contributed several mathematical papers to the Egyptian Institute (also called the Cairo Institute) which Napoleon founded at Cairo, with a view of weakening British influence in the East  After the British victories and the capitulation of the French under General Menou in 1801, Fourier returned to France 

In 1801, Napoleon appointed Fourier Prefect (Governor) of the Department of Isère in Grenoble, where he oversaw road construction and other projects  However, Fourier had previously returned home from the Napoleon expedition to Egypt to resume his academic post as professor at École Polytechnique when Napoleon decided otherwise in his remark

    the Prefect of the Department of Isère having recently died, I would like to express my confidence in citizen Fourier by appointing him to this place 
Hence being faithful to Napoleon, he took the office of Prefect  It was while at Grenoble that he began to experiment on the propagation of heat  He presented his paper On the Propagation of Heat in Solid Bodies to the Paris Institute on 21 December 1807  He also contributed to the monumental Description de l'Égypte In 1822, Fourier succeeded Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre as Permanent Secretary of the French Academy of Sciences  In 1830, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 
Fourier never married In 1830, his diminished health began to take its toll:

Fourier had already experienced, in Egypt and Grenoble, some attacks of aneurysm of the heart  At Paris, it was impossible to be mistaken with respect to the primary cause of the frequent suffocations which he experienced  A fall, however, which he sustained on the 4th of May 1830, while descending a flight of stairs, aggravated the malady to an extent beyond what could have been ever feared 
Shortly after this event, he died in his bed on 16 May 1830 
Fourier was buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, a tomb decorated with an Egyptian motif to reflect his position as secretary of the Cairo Institute, and his collation of Description de l'Égypte  His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower 
A bronze statue was erected in Auxerre in 1849, but it was melted down for armaments during World War II  Joseph Fourier University in Grenoble was named after him 

The Analytic Theory of Heat
In 1822, Fourier published his work on heat flow in Théorie analytique de la chaleur (The Analytical Theory of Heat),  in which he based his reasoning on Newton's law of cooling, namely, that the flow of heat between two adjacent molecules is proportional to the extremely small difference of their temperatures  This book was translated, with editorial 'corrections', into English 56 years later by Freeman (1878)  The book was also edited, with many editorial corrections, by Darboux and republished in French in 1888 There were three important contributions in this work, one purely mathematical, two essentially physical  In mathematics, Fourier claimed that any function of a variable, whether continuous or discontinuous, can be expanded in a series of sines of multiples of the variable  Though this result is not correct without additional conditions, Fourier's observation that some discontinuous functions are the sum of infinite series was a breakthrough  The question of determining when a Fourier series converges has been fundamental for centuries  Joseph-Louis Lagrange had given particular cases of this (false) theorem, and had implied that the method was general, but he had not pursued the subject  Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet  was the first to give a satisfactory demonstration of it with some restrictive conditions  This work provides the foundation for what is today known as the Fourier transform 
One important physical contribution in the book was the concept of dimensional homogeneity in equations; i e  an equation can be formally correct only if the dimensions match on either side of the equality; Fourier made important contributions to dimensional analysis  The other physical contribution was Fourier's proposal of his partial differential equation for conductive diffusion of heat  This equation is now taught to every student of mathematical physics 

Real roots of polynomials
Fourier left an unfinished work on determining and locating real roots of polynomials, which was edited by Claude-Louis Navier and published in 1831  This work contains much original matter—in particular, Fourier's theorem on polynomial real roots, published in 1820  Fourier's theorem on real roots of polynomials states that a polynomial with real coefficients has a real root between any two consecutive zeros of its derivative  François Budan, in 1807 and 1811, had published independently his theorem (also known by the name of Fourier), which is very close to Fourier's theorem (each theorem is a corollary of the other)  Fourier's proof is the one that was usually given, during 19th century, in textbooks on the theory of equations  A complete solution of the problem was given in 1829 by Jacques Charles François Sturm 

Discovery of the greenhouse effect
In the 1820s, Fourier calculated that an object the size of the Earth, and at its distance from the Sun, should be considerably colder than the planet actually is if warmed by only  the effects of incoming solar radiation  He examined various possible sources of the additional observed heat in articles published in 1824 and 1827  However, in the end, because of the large 33-degree difference between his calculations and observations, Fourier mistakenly believed that there is a significant contribution of radiation from interstellar space  Still, Fourier's consideration of the possibility that the Earth's atmosphere might act as an insulator of some kind is widely recognized as the first proposal of what is now known as the greenhouse effect, although Fourier never called it that In his articles, Fourier referred to an experiment by de Saussure, who lined a vase with blackened cork  Into the cork, he inserted several panes of transparent glass, separated by intervals of air  Midday sunlight was allowed to enter at the top of the vase through the glass panes  The temperature became more elevated in the more interior compartments of this device  Fourier concluded that gases in the atmosphere could form a stable barrier like the glass panes  This conclusion may have contributed to the later use of the metaphor of the "greenhouse effect" to refer to the processes that determine atmospheric temperatures  Fourier noted that the actual mechanisms that determine the temperatures of the atmosphere included convection, which was not present in de Saussure's experimental device 

Works
See also
Fourier analysis
Fourier–Deligne transform
Heat equation
Least-squares spectral analysis
List of things named after Joseph Fourier
Passage 7:
Morton number
In fluid dynamics, the Morton number (Mo) is a dimensionless number used together with the Eötvös number or Bond number to characterize the shape of bubbles or drops moving in a surrounding fluid or continuous phase, c 
It is named after Rose Morton, who described it with W  L  Haberman in 1953 

Definition
The Morton number is defined as

  
    
      
        
          M
          o
        
        =
        
          
            
              g
              
                μ
                
                  c
                
                
                  4
                
              
              
              Δ
              ρ
            
            
              
                ρ
                
                  c
                
                
                  2
                
              
              
                σ
                
                  3
                
              
            
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Mo} ={\frac {g\mu _{c}^{4}\,\Delta \rho }{\rho _{c}^{2}\sigma ^{3}}},}
  where g is the acceleration of gravity, 
  
    
      
        
          μ
          
            c
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mu _{c}}
   is the viscosity of the surrounding fluid, 
  
    
      
        
          ρ
          
            c
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \rho _{c}}
   the density of the surrounding fluid, 
  
    
      
        Δ
        ρ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Delta \rho }
   the difference in density of the phases, and 
  
    
      
        σ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \sigma }
   is the surface tension coefficient   For the case of a bubble with a negligible inner density the Morton number can be simplified to 

  
    
      
        
          M
          o
        
        =
        
          
            
              g
              
                μ
                
                  c
                
                
                  4
                
              
            
            
              
                ρ
                
                  c
                
              
              
                σ
                
                  3
                
              
            
          
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Mo} ={\frac {g\mu _{c}^{4}}{\rho _{c}\sigma ^{3}}} }

Relation to other parameters
The Morton number can also be expressed by using a combination of the Weber number, Froude number and Reynolds number,

  
    
      
        
          M
          o
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                W
                e
              
              
                3
              
            
            
              
                
                  F
                  r
                
                
                  2
                
              
              
              
                
                  R
                  e
                
                
                  4
                
              
            
          
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Mo} ={\frac {\mathrm {We} ^{3}}{\mathrm {Fr} ^{2}\,\mathrm {Re} ^{4}}} }
  The Froude number in the above expression is defined as

  
    
      
        
          F
          
            r
            
              2
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              V
              
                2
              
            
            
              g
              d
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Fr^{2}} ={\frac {V^{2}}{gd}}}
  where V is a reference velocity and d is the equivalent diameter of the drop or bubble 
Passage 8:
Kapitza number
The Kapitza number (Ka) is a dimensionless number named after the prominent Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitsa (Peter Kapitza)  He provided the first extensive study of the ways in which a thin film of liquid flows down inclined surfaces  Expressed as the ratio of surface tension forces to inertial forces, the Kapitza number acts as an indicator of the hydrodynamic wave regime in falling liquid films  Liquid film behavior represents a subset of the more general class of free boundary problems  and is important in a wide range of engineering and technological applications such as evaporators, heat exchangers, absorbers, microreactors, small-scale electronics/microprocessor cooling schemes, air conditioning and gas turbine blade cooling 
After World War II Kapitza was removed from all his positions, including director of his Institute for Physical Problems, for refusing to work on nuclear weapons  He was at his country house and devised experiments to work on there, including his experiments on falling films of liquid Unlike most dimensionless numbers used in the study of fluid mechanics, the Kapitza number represents a material property, as it is formed by combining powers of the surface tension, density, gravitational acceleration and kinematic viscosity 

  
    
      
        K
        a
        =
        
          
            σ
            
              ρ
              (
              g
              sin
              ⁡
              β
              
                )
                
                  1
                  
                    /
                  
                  3
                
              
              
                ν
                
                  4
                  
                    /
                  
                  3
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle Ka={\frac {\sigma }{\rho (g\sin \beta )^{1/3}\nu ^{4/3}}}}
  where σ is the surface tension (SI units: N/m), g is gravitational acceleration (m/s2), ρ is density (kg/m3), β is inclination angle (rad), and ν is kinematic viscosity (m2/s) 

Notes
Passage 9:
Fourier number
In the study of heat conduction, the Fourier number,  is the ratio of time, t, to a characteristic time scale for heat diffusion, td  This dimensionless group is named in honor of J B J  Fourier, who formulated the modern understanding of heat conduction  The time scale for diffusion characterizes the time needed for heat to diffuse over a distance, L  For a medium with thermal diffusivity, α, this time scale is td = L2/α, so that the Fourier number is t/td = αt/L2  The Fourier number is often denoted as Fo or FoL The Fourier number can also be used in the study of mass diffusion, if the thermal diffusivity is replaced by a mass diffusivity 
The Fourier number is used in analysis of time dependent transport phenomena, generally in conjunction with the Biot number if convection is present  The Fourier number arises naturally in nondimensionalization of the heat equation 

Definition
The general definition of the Fourier number, Fo, is:
For heat diffusion with a characteristic length scale L in a medium of thermal diffusivity, α,  the diffusion time scale is td =L2/α, so that

where:

α is the thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
t is the time (s)
L is the characteristic length through which conduction occurs (m)

Interpretation of the Fourier number
Consider transient heat conduction in  a slab of thickness L that is initially at a uniform temperature, T0  One side of the slab is heated to higher temperature, Th at time t = 0   The other side is adiabatic  The time needed for the other side of the object to show significant temperature change is the diffusion time, td   
When Fo ≪ 1, not enough time has passed for the other side to change temperature  In this case, significant temperature change only occurs close to the heated side, and most of the slab remains at T0 
When Fo ≅ 1, significant temperature change occurs all the way through the thickness L  None of the slab remains at temperature T0 
When Fo ≫ 1, enough time has passed for the slab to approach steady state  The entire slab approaches temperature Th 

Derivation and usage
The Fourier number can be derived by nondimenionalizing the time-dependent diffusion equation   As an example, consider a rod of length L that is being heated from an initial temperature, T0, by the imposition at time t = 0 of a higher temperature at x = L, TL (with x along the axis of the rod)  The heat equation in one spatial dimension, x, can be applied 

where T is the temperature for 0 < x < L and t > 0  The differential equation can be scaled into a dimensionless form  A dimensionless temperature may be defined as Θ = (T - TL)/(T0 - TL), and the equation may be divided through by α/L2:

The resulting dimensionless time variable is the Fourier number, FoL = αt/L2  The characteristic time scale for diffusion, td =L2/α, comes directly from this scaling of the heat equation  
The Fourier number is frequently used as the nondimensional time in studying transient heat conduction in solids    A second parameter, the Biot number arises in nondimensionalization when convective boundary conditions are applied to the heat equation  Together, the Fourier number and the Biot number determine the temperature response of a solid subjected to convective heating or cooling 

Application to mass transfer
An analogous Fourier number can be derived by nondimensionalization of Fick's second law of diffusion  The result is a mass transfer Fourier number, Fom defined as:
where:

Fom is the mass transfer Fourier number
D is the mass diffusivity (m2/s)
t is the time (s)
L is the length scale of interest (m)The mass transfer Fourier number can be applied to the study of certain time-dependent mass diffusion problems 

See also
Biot number
Convection
Heat conduction
Heat equation
Molecular diffusion
Context 3: Passage 1:
John Franks (judge)
Sir John Franks (1770–1852), was an Indian judge 
Franks was the second son of Thomas Franks (1729–1787), of Ballymagooly, County Cork, by Catherine, daughter of Rev  John Day  He was born in 1770, and graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, B A  1788, LL B  1791  He was called to the Irish Bar 1792  He went on the Munster circuit, and had a good practice as chamber counsel  He became King's Counsel in 1823  In 1825 the Board of Control, on the recommendation of his friend William Plunket, then Attorney General for Ireland, appointed him a judge of the Supreme Court at Calcutta  He received, as was customary, the honour of knighthood before his departure for India  He held this office until the effect of the climate on his health brought about his resignation in 1834  On his return, he resided at Roebuck, near Dublin  He died on 11 January 1852  He married three times  By his first wife, Catherine, daughter of his cousin Thomas Franks of Carrig, Cork, he had two sons and three daughters  His second marriage was to Jane Marshall, and his third to Sarah O'Regan  His eldest son and heir was John Franks of Ballyscaddan, County Limerick; his younger son, Matthew, was an army officer, as were many of his later descendants 
Franks was popular, both as advocate and judge  He was an intimate friend of John Philpot Curran, and one of his executors   W  H  Curran, J P  Curran's son, commemorates his ‘peculiar aboriginal wit, quiet, keen, and natural to the occasion, and, best of all, never malignant’ 

Arms
Passage 2:
Henry Archer
Henry Archer (1799 – 2 March 1863) was the son of an Irish landowner  He attended Trinity College, Dublin  He was called to the Irish Bar and spent most of his time between North Wales and London 

Ffestiniog Railway
In railway circles, Archer is known mostly for the Ffestiniog Railway, which was the major work of his life, a fiery temper, a large frame and an even larger personality  A few recall his long running but fruitless championship of the various Porth Dinllaen railway and harbour projects 
The Ffestiniog slate industry should be grateful to Henry Archer for being in the right place at the right time  It was at the Penygroes Inn in 1829 that Archer met Samuel Holland Jnr , of Rhiwbryfdir slate mine at Blaenau Ffestiniog who was returning from Caernarfon where he banked with Williams and Co  He had travelled between Caernarfon and Penygroes as a passenger on the horse drawn Nantlle Tramway and had called at the Inn for a cup of tea before collecting his horse and riding home 
In conversation, Archer expressed an interest in the Nantlle Railway that was apparently quietly seeking a purchaser  Holland, it is said, suggested that Archer should leave Nantlle to its fate and turn his energies to building a proper railway from Ffestiniog to Porthmadog  A detailed discussion followed and Archer became involved with Holland in the promotion of the Ffestiniog Railway Company 
It was left to Archer as the Managing Director designate to raise the initial capital of £24,185 largely on the Dublin Stock Exchange (including £11,905 of his own money)  He was the driving force also in steering the bill through Parliament and in managing the company during construction and through its early years when Archer had to persuade a suspicious slate industry to entrust its slate transport to a railway  Archer quarrelled with his fellow directors, with the Oakeley Estate and with James Spooner and was less active in FR company affairs after the railway opened  In 1836 he sued the FR company for his salary and received a substantial settlement  Nominally he remained as Managing Director until 1856 and as a director until 1860, when the FR Co  gave him a pension of £100 per annum as the originator of the FR and for devoting many years to its service 

Philately
Philatelists know Henry Archer as the inventor of the first postage stamp perforating machine, which he patented in 1848, to facilitate stamp separation  Following the successful Prince Consort Essay trials in 1853, he sold his copyright and patents to the Postmaster General for £4,000  In early trials, his alternative Archer Roulette machines failed to work well 
Archer died at Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, France on 2 March 1863 
Passage 3:
Fenmore Baldwin
Fenmore Baldwin is a fictional character from The Young and the Restless, an American soap opera on the CBS network  Created by former head writers Lynn Marie Latham and Kay Alden as the son of Michael Baldwin (Christian LeBlanc) and Lauren Fenmore (Tracey Bregman), the character was born during the episode airing on October 13, 2006  Initially portrayed by various child actors, including Robbie Tucker, the character was rapidly aged to a teenager in 2012, with Max Ehrich assuming the role through 2015  In 2018, the role was recast with Zach Tinker 
As a teenager, the character's storylines have included a romance with Summer Newman (Hunter King), as well as a cyberbullying plot with Jamie Vernon (Daniel Polo), which was generally well received by the actors and public  Fenmore has also developed a "dark side", coinciding with teenage angst  Ehrich characterized the character as being at a "vulnerable age", while "trying to find his place in the world"  Ehrich's portrayal has received a positive response; Michael Fairman of On-Air On-Soaps described the actor as talented, as well as Luke Kerr of Zap2it praising Ehrich for "mastering the crazy behind-the-eyes element" of the character's relatives  Ehrich's portrayal garnered him four consecutive Daytime Emmy Award nominations between 2013 and 2016 

Casting
The role was first portrayed by three sets of twins, including Avital and Amiel Weiss, Matthew and Riley Esham, and Aiden and Andrew Gonzales over the course of 2006 to 2009  The role was then rapidly aged for the first time when Tucker assumed the role in October 2009  In May 2012, it was announced that the character had been rapidly aged again to a teenager, with Ehrich scheduled to join the cast  He made his debut on June 11, 2012  In an interview with Soap Opera Digest, Ehrich stated that he had gone through a "long audition process", saying: "I got a callback and did a chemistry read with someone, then came back to read with Christian LeBlanc  By the end of that audition, I knew something felt right and that he could be my father " When asked about signing a contract with the series, Ehrich stated: "I'm still on recurring right now  I think it's all relevant to your character and either way, in my book, it's awesome  I would sign, yes, but it'll happen when the time is right " Ehrich last aired on May 18, 2015 In November 2018, Ehrich announced on Instagram that he'd been asked to reprise the role, however, due to a string of stalking incidents, he could not return; as a result, Zach Tinker was announced as a recast  Tinker debuted in the role on December 3, 2018  Tinker was written out on February 11, 2019  In November 2019, it was reported that Tinker will be returning to the show; airing the week of December 23  On January 13, 2023, it was announced Tinker would reprise the role beginning January 25 

Development
Characterization
When Ehrich first stepped into the role, he stated: "There [are] so many places where they can go with this role  I have just gotten back into Genoa City  It's such a vulnerable age, so really there [are] so many different paths I can go down  And there's so much that can happen  I’m very, very curious to see where they go with it " When asked how he would describe Fenmore, Ehrich said: "He is definitely figuring himself out  You’re on the brink of adulthood  You have to start taking a bit of responsibility  [And] your hormones start kicking in hardcore  So he's definitely going through some stuff " In another interview, he described Fenmore as "trying to find his place in the world", saying: "When Fen first came back, I think he was at a very vulnerable age and was trying to find his place in the world; just really figure out who he is  He has such a strict dad, who just became D A , so of course his morals are so strong and everything is black and white, right or wrong " Luke Kerr of Zap2it wrote that the character had become "creepy" during his angst and acting out 

Teenage angst
When Fenmore and female character Summer Newman (Hunter King) were rapidly aged to teenagers at the same time, Deanna Barnert of MSN Entertainment previewed: "These two kids may learn about some of the insane things their parents have done – as fans know, that says a lot!" She also wrote that given who their parents are, "that can only mean trouble"  Fenmore has dated Summer, to which Ehrich stated: "Everything he does is for his love for Summer  He has this obsession with her  Every action he does stems from that " In another interview, he stated of their relationship: "I think Fen’s first love is Summer; he falls in love; he’s infatuated with her  She plays games with him, and where it’s going is – will Fen get into her ways, or will he stand his ground? Everything Fenmore does is coming from his love for Summer, so he’s still the same kid, it’s just sometimes love makes you do some crazy thing Fenmore later began to enter a rebellious phase " Tracey Bregman (who portrays his mother Lauren) stated that she "was always hoping they would show the dark side of our child, because both Lauren and Michael have dark sides  That is something they both work hard on to suppress, that comes out now and them " Christian LeBlanc (who portrays his father Michael) stated Michael has "troubled youth to deal with", saying: "It’s the first time on Y&R that such a young storyline has pulled such focus  It’s going to be really fascinating  The whole family gets drawn in  The trouble with Fenmore affects Lauren and Michael  [There’s a] rippling effect, like every good story " The character was later involved in a cyberbullying storyline with Summer and Jamie Vernon (Daniel Polo)  Michael Logan of TV Guide previewed the storyline, writing: "Adding fuel to the fire is young Fen Baldwin (Max Ehrich), who is so infatuated with Summer that he becomes her partner in crime — in fact, he takes things a few dangerous steps further once he sees Summer's growing fondness for Jamie " Ehrich liked the plot as he was bullied as a child, stating: "Kids do it out of their own sadness or insecurity, but needless to say that doesn’t matter when you’re a victim of it – you feel so isolated and so alone  To have a storyline that addresses it, it’s like, "This is real; this is what happens"  People need to know the truth of what is going on out there "In another interview, Ehrich expressed more of his opinions on the storyline, stating: "It’s so relevant now and it’s such an epidemic  Just for it to be out there to show that it happens  This is a real issue that needs to be addressed  To be a part of that, and to spread awareness feels so nice because I’ve personally experience bullying and I know many friends who have  Whether people’s reason behind it are good or bad, nonetheless, it affects kids to such an extent especially young, vulnerable kids " Of the character's "dark side", Ehrich stated: "I love playing dark, but justifiably dark  It's never coming from a psychopathic place  First, he got obsessed with Summer, and that caused the bullying storyline, and now he's dealing with his parents' problems and possible divorce  Fenmore's issues come from a place that makes sense  It's interesting, because everyone around him is pretty much lying, and Fen is supposed to be the crazy one  Yet he's actually the truthful one " He also stated that "as an actor, it's fun to go out of control", saying: "As an actor, it’s fun when you’re out of control, and you don’t even know you’re acting  Like, literally, you just escape  And I got to feel that  And I’ve had numerous times on this show where I’ve gotten to be out of control, and it’s a really nice feeling  It’s exhilarating " He also revealed that he had been listening to the music of John Mayer and Bruno Mars to get into Fenmore's head space  Ehrich also conceded that he didn't want Fenmore to go "too far", saying: "He's a really troubled kid who is just trying to find his way in life  He's not evil  I don't think he's asking for too much except for some love and trust  He's on a journey—a long, long journey to find some peace "

Storylines
Lauren Fenmore Baldwin (Tracey E  Bregman) gave birth to Fenmore prematurely, and he was forced to remain in the hospital for a short time  Shortly after his birth, he was kidnapped, along with Phyllis Summers Newman (Michelle Stafford) and her daughter, Summer Newman, by Sheila Carter, who had had cosmetic surgery to look like Phyllis  All are rescued when Lauren tracked down Sheila and shot her  In 2012, Fenmore was sent to stay with his half-brother, Scotty Grainger, in Canada due to Lauren's fear that Daisy Carter (Yvonne Zima), Sheila's daughter, would end up harming him  Months later, Fenmore returns a moody teenager, kindling a friendship with a teenaged Summer  They became close and later began a relationship  When Summer began harassing a boy named Jamie Vernon (Daniel Polo) online, Fenmore was against the idea, but when his father, Michael Baldwin (Christian LeBlanc), began looking out for Jamie, he became jealous and took over the bullying by sending him harassing text messages from a disposable cell phone  Fenmore's jealously continued when Michael and Lauren had Jamie move in with them temporarily  He attempted to frame Jamie for stealing his mother's expensive decoration, and attempted to take pictures of him with the decoration on a rooftop  The boys struggled and Jamie was found face down in the snow below  He accused Fenmore of pushing him, Michael believed Jamie over his own son and he was arrested  However, Jamie later confessed that Fenmore did not push him and he was exonerated  Michael and Lauren's marriage suffered due to the bullying ordeal 
Fenmore was befriended by Carmine Basco (Marco Dapper), the man whom Lauren was having an affair with, while also trying to win over Summer again, who was crushing on Kyle Abbott (Hartley Sawyer)  Fenmore asked Summer to their senior prom, and instead of going, Summer threw a party at her mother's penthouse  During a game of truth or dare, Fenmore was dared to kiss Summer, who had text messaged Kyle that she was in trouble  Kyle later punched Fenmore in the face; footage was caught on video and uploaded online, weakening Fenmore's social status  Afterward, he is befriended by Raven (Amanda Leighton); they go to a graduation party, do drugs and talk about their social struggles  When Fenmore discovers Carmine's affair with his mother, he isolates himself from his family and continues to do drugs  Afterward, he asks Carmine to help him obtain more drugs, and while he refuses, he finds Fenmore unconscious in the back of the local restaurant  When he awakens in the hospital, he tells his parents that Carmine gave him the drugs that he overdosed on, but he later confesses that this was a lie  After stealing drugs from the hospital and getting caught, Michael and Lauren send Fenmore to rehab  After being released for an event in which Lauren would be crowned businesswoman of the year, Carmine is shot to death in an alleyway  Fenmore is convinced he murdered Carmine but admits to being high on drugs at the time and can't remember clearly  Michael decides to confess to the murder to protect his family, and he is sent to prison  Knowing that his father did not kill Carmine, Fenmore steals drugs and purposely gets caught so he can be put in prison as well  While in prison, Fenmore tries to make deals with other prisoners to get his father's sentence reduced, as Paul Williams (Doug Davidson) and Christine Blair (Lauralee Bell) try to uncover the truth behind Carmine's death  Michael is later released after Fen confesses to killing Carmine, worrying his parents 
As Paul, Christine and Michael continue to hit dead ends on solving Carmine's murder, Fen announces he wants to confess to a judge and be sentenced prison time; Christine and Lauren however are strongly against it  Just as Fen decides he is going to confess to the judge, Michael discovers that Carmine is in fact alive  He reveals that he was in fact being transported into witness protection the day of the banquet for giving the FBI evidence against another criminal, but he wanted to see Lauren one last time  Fen shot him that night but doctors and medical examiners secretly revived him and sent him into witness protection  He refuses to return to Genoa City to exonerate Fen because of his own safety, so instead Michael films him confessing that he is alive  Michael arrives with the video before Fen can confess, and he is exonerated  After being reunited with his family, Michael and Lauren later mention that Fen had gone to Arizona to visit potential colleges 

Reception
Jillian Bowe of Zap2it was surprised by the decision to age both Fenmore and Summer Newman (Hunter King) at the same time  Omar White-Nobles of TVSource wrote, "Don't they grow up fast?", referring to Soap Opera Rapid Aging Syndrome  Michael Fairman of On-Air On-Soaps wrote that aging the characters would help to "beef up" the soap opera's summer storylines  Roger Newcomb of the website We Love Soaps wondered if the character would "have issues with his parents the way other aged kids on the show have of late"  Fairman later stated of Ehrich's portrayal: "Recently, the powers-that-be at Y&R chose to age Lauren and Michael’s tot of a son, Fenmore, to a teenager (another victim of Soap Opera Rapid Aging Syndrome) and with that comes new complex problems for the Baldwins, and as it appears “Fen” may be a chip off the old block     sort to speak   The talented Max Ehrich was cast as the new Fen, and since he has begun to air in the part he has received high marks, not only from his scene partners, but daytime fans, too " He also called Fenmore's family "one of the most fascinating TV families"  Luke Kerr, also of Zap2it, wrote that he "really likes" Ehrich as Fenmore, stating: "He has totally mastered the Baldwin/Fisher crazy behind-the-eyes element of early Michael and Kevin (Greg Rikaart) " Jamey Giddens also wrote of the character's family storyline, saying: "A father hellbent on preventing his son from going down the same unspeakable path he once traveled; a mother who refuses to believe her child could be guilty of the heinous crime he's being accused of committing  No, this isn't the back page copy for Jodi Picoult's next best-selling novel, it's the saga of the Baldwins on The Young and the Restless!"In 2013, Ehrich received a Daytime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Younger Actor in a Drama Series for his portrayal of Fenmore  On the day the actor was informed of his nomination, Ehrich stated: "I’ve been in daydream all day  I feel like I was hit by an electric current " He admitted that it was a "pretty easy choice" choosing which scene to submit for consideration; Ehrich chose a scene where Fenmore tells Jamie that Summer is the one cyberbullying him  He stated that he chose that episode "because that day, I felt this outer body experience  I was not in control at all"  Of his nomination, Ehrich stated: "It’s an honor, and it’s something I hope will hit me really soon, because it doesn’t feel real at all!" However, Ehrich lost the award to Days of Our Lives star Chandler Massey for his portrayal of Will Horton 
Passage 4:
George Allman (natural historian)
George James Allman FRS FRSE (1812 – 24 November 1898) was an Irish ecologist, botanist and zoologist who served as Emeritus Professor of Natural History at Edinburgh University in Scotland 

Life
Allman was born in Cork, Ireland, the son of James C  Allman of Bandon, and received his early education at the Royal Academical Institution, Belfast  For some time he studied for the Irish Bar, but ultimately gave up law in favour of natural science  In 1843, he graduated in medicine at Trinity College, Dublin, and in the following year was appointed professor of botany in that university, succeeding the botanist William Allman (1776–1846), who was the father of George Johnston Allman (distant relations of George)  
This position he held for about twelve years until he moved to Edinburgh as Regius Professor of natural history  There he remained until 1870, when considerations of health induced him to resign his professorship and retire to Dorset, where he devoted himself to his favourite pastime of horticulture The scientific papers which came from his pen are very numerous  His most important work was upon the gymnoblast group of the hydrozoa, on which he published in 1871-1872, through the Ray Society, an exhaustive monograph, based largely on his own researches and illustrated with drawings of remarkable excellence from his own hand  Biological science is also indebted to him for several convenient terms which have come into daily use, e g  endoderm and ectoderm for the two cellular layers of the body-wall in Coelenterata  He contributed articles to the Irish Naturalist He became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1854, and received a Royal medal in 1873  He received the Cunningham Medal of the Royal Irish Academy in 1878 In 1859–60, he was President of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, for  several years (1874–1881) President of the Linnaean Society, and in 1879 presided over the Sheffield meeting of the British Association He died in Ardmore, Parkstone in Dorset and is buried in Poole Cemetery 

Family
Allman married Hannah Louisa Shaen  They had no children  George Allman's family ran  Allman's Bandon Distillery, his brother, the Liberal MP Richard Allman, was a partner in the Distillery 

Select bibliography
Allman G  J  1843  On a new genus of terrestrial gasteropod  The Athenaeum 1843 (829): 851  London 
Passage 5:
J  J  Clancy (North County Dublin MP)
John Joseph Clancy (15 July 1847 – 25 November 1928), usually known as J  J  Clancy, was an Irish nationalist politician and Member of Parliament (MP) in the House of Commons for North Dublin from 1885 to 1918  He was one of the leaders of the later Irish Home Rule movement and promoter of the Housing of the Working Classes (Ireland) Act 1908, known as the Clancy Act  Called to the Irish Bar in 1887, he became a King's Counsel in 1906 

Origins
Son of a farmer, William Clancy of Carraghy, J  J  Clancy was born at the height of the Great Irish Famine in the parish of Annaghdown, Co  Galway, which was one of the worst affected areas   He was educated at the College of the Immaculate Conception, Athlone, and at the recently founded non-sectarian Queen's College, Galway, obtaining an MA in Ancient Classics in 1868  At both institutions he was a contemporary of his later parliamentary colleague, T  P  O'Connor 
Clancy spent three years as a Classics teacher at Holy Cross School, Tralee, where he married Margaret Louise Hickie (d  1912) of Newcastle West, County Limerick, in 1868  She was from a strongly Nationalist family and one of her nephews was the Irish revolutionary and author Piaras Béaslaí, who had close relations with the Clancy family 

Early political life
In 1870, J  J  Clancy took up the post of assistant editor of the leading Nationalist weekly The Nation, acting as editor in 1880–85  During this time he was active in the Land League, Home Rule League, Young Ireland Society and Irish Labour and Industrial Union, and was elected to the Organising Committee of the Irish National League on its foundation in 1882   He organised a vigorous voter registration campaign in County Dublin after the Nationalist defeat at a by-election in 1883, and was elected MP for the North seat in the Nationalist landslide December 1885 general election 
Clancy was appointed by the Irish Party in 1886 as editor of the Irish Press Agency in London, whose purpose was to win support for Irish Home Rule in Great Britain   In this role he wrote or edited dozens of pamphlets, many of them attacking the regime of coercion introduced by Arthur Balfour as Chief Secretary for Ireland after the Conservative Party returned to power in 1886 

Parnell split
Clancy had long been a strong supporter of the Irish leader Charles Stewart Parnell  When a majority of the Irish Parliamentary Party turned against Parnell in November 1890, following what amounted to a demand by the Liberal leader, Gladstone, that Parnell should stand down over his involvement with Katharine O'Shea, Clancy rapidly emerged as one of Parnell's key defenders  On the third day of the Irish Party's week-long debate on Parnell's leadership in Committee Room 15 of the House of Commons, Clancy proposed an amendment that attempted to compromise by seeking further views from Gladstone and the other British Liberal Party leaders  Although this move held off a decision for another three days, it was ultimately unsuccessful  Clancy was among the minority who stayed with Parnell when the party split on 6 December 1890 into the pro-Parnellite Irish National League (INL) and the anti-Parnellite Irish National Federation (INF)  He later joined the editorial staff of the Irish Daily Independent, founded to support the Parnellite cause 
After Parnell's death in October 1891, the Parnellites were in an isolated position  At the July 1892 general election they faced vigorous opposition from the Catholic Church and Clancy was one of only nine INL Parnellites elected  Thereafter he worked closely with John Redmond, who led the small Parnellite group and after the 1900 general election the re-united Irish Parliamentary Party  Together with fellow Parnellites Willie Redmond and Pat O'Brien, Clancy was one of the small core of Redmond's confidants, and until Redmond's death in March 1918 was his most trusted adviser on legal draftsmanship and constitutional law  After the retirement of Thomas Sexton, Clancy was seen as the Irish Party's financial expert 

Reforming legislation
Following the overwhelming rejection of the second Irish Home Rule Bill by the House of Lords in 1893 and the Conservatives' return to power in 1895 general election, immediate prospects for Home Rule were abandoned   Over the next 15 years, Clancy focused on making the most of opportunities for reform   He helped in the framing of the various Land Acts, which settled the land question by enabling tenant farmers to buy their holdings, publishing a guide to the Land Act of 1896  He supported the introduction of democratic local government in Ireland following the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 by publishing a guide to the Act and editing the County Councils Gazette  He acted as spokesman for the Irish Party in support of the Trade Disputes Bills of 1904 and 1906 that restored the effective right to strike—which had been undermined by the Taff Vale Case of 1901 
After the Liberals' return to office in the 1906 general election, Clancy helped get inscribed on the Statute Book Acts of considerable importance  He played a major role in promoting the Town Tenants (Ireland) Act of 1906, which gave rights to urban tenants to retain the value of their improvements parallel to those the Land Acts extended to farmers  Housing conditions in Ireland at the time were very poor, and Clancy's 1908 Housing Act, known as the Clancy Act made various financial and administrative changes with the aim of speeding up the building of council housing  The Clancy Act created a boom in urban social housing in Ireland  Clancy also contributed to the resolution of the Catholic University question, via the Act of 1908 that established the present National University of Ireland, which removed barriers that had held back participation in higher education by Ireland's Catholic majority 

Third Home Rule Bill
Attaining Home Rule for Ireland by constitutional means required overcoming opposition from the House of Lords   This opportunity arose as a result of David Lloyd George's 1909 budget, which the Lords attempted to veto, leading the Liberals to fight a general election in 1910 on a platform of limiting the power of the Lords    But the 1909 budget was also unpopular in Ireland, because of changes to alcohol taxes and death duties, the latter affecting the very farmers whom the Irish Party itself had successfully campaigned to make owners of their farms   A delicate balance needed to be trodden and it fell to Clancy, by now the Irish Party's finance spokesman, to deal with the problem 
The Government of Ireland Act 1914, creating a settlement for Ireland similar to the later devolution arrangements for Scotland of 1998, eventually received the royal assent on 18 September 1914  But this was after earlier vehement Unionist opposition had become apparent in Ulster, featuring the Larne gun-running and near-mutiny in the British army  Implementation of the Act was postponed until after the First World War, which began on 4 August 

Rise of Sinn Féin
Following the Easter Rising of 1916, misjudgments by the British government bolstered support for Sinn Féin, the broad movement campaigning for an independent Republic, and events slipped out of the Irish Parliamentary leaders' control  The younger generation had been brought up in a greatly intensified atmosphere of cultural nationalism focusing particularly on militant separatism 
Clancy was one of five Irish Parliamentary Party representatives in the Irish Convention of 1917–18 who tried to get an agreed settlement of the Ulster question  In this capacity he took the majority Nationalist line, compromising over the question of customs and excise and safeguards for Protestant interests for the sake of agreement with the Southern Unionists, and rejecting the more assertive Nationalist line of a group led by the Bishop of Raphoe  Although the Convention produced a majority report, the consensus did not include the Northern Protestants and Lloyd George subsequently went ahead with legislation for partition under the Fourth Home Rule Act   Following Redmond's death in March 1918, Clancy was seen as the leader of the remnants of the Redmondite wing of the Party   He was one of the committee of six who drafted the Irish Parliamentary Party manifesto for the 1918 general election  In that election he was defeated by more than two to one by the Sinn Féin candidate, Frank Lawless, the Parliamentary Party swept aside and only winning a disproportionate six contested seats, on 21 7% of the national vote in Ireland 
J  J  Clancy died in Dublin on 25 November 1928 

Notes
Selected writings
Essays and Speeches on the Irish Question:  Vol  1, edited by J  J  Clancy, London, Irish Press Agency, 1888
‘The Position of the Irish Tenant’, Contemporary Review, Vol LVI, July 1889
Short Lessons on the Irish Question;  or, The leaflets of the Irish Press Agency, Vol 1, Nos 1–102, edited by J  J  Clancy,  London, Irish Press Agency, 1890
‘The Question of the Irish Leadership’, Contemporary Review, Vol LIX, March 1891
‘The Financial Aspects of Home Rule’, Contemporary Review, Vol LXIII, January 1893
‘The Housing Problem:  How to Solve It’,  Speech delivered at the meeting of the Central branch of the United Irish League on 6 Nov 1907,  Dublin, United Irish League, 1907
The Irish Party and the Budget:  A Vindication, Dublin, Sealy, Bryers and Walker, 1910
The Home Rule Act:  A Statement of its Provisions, Dublin, United Irish League, 1917
Passage 6:
Charles Johnstone
Charles Johnstone (c  1719–1800) was an Irish novelist  Prevented by deafness from practising at the Irish Bar, he went to India, where he was proprietor of a newspaper  He wrote one successful book, Chrysal, or the Adventures of a Guinea, a somewhat sombre satire 

Life
Born at Carrigogunnell, County Limerick about 1719, he was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, but is not known to have taken a degree  He was called to the bar, but extreme deafness prevented his practice except as a chamber lawyer, where he did not succeed  He began to write as a living In May 1782, Johnstone sailed for India, with a dangerous shipwreck on the voyage  He found employment in writing for the Bengal newspaper press, under the signature of "Oneiropolos"  He became in time joint proprietor of a journal, and prospered  He died at Calcutta about 1800 

Works
Johnstone's major work, entitled Chrysal, or the Adventures of a Guinea, and frequently reprinted, appeared in 4 vols , London, 1760–65  The first and second volumes had been written during a visit to George Edgcumbe, 3rd Baron Edgcumbe in Devon  The book, a succès de scandale, claimed to reveal political secrets, and to expose the profligacy of well-known public characters Johnstone was also the author of:
The Reverie, or a Flight to the Paradise of Fools, 2 vols  London, 1762 
The History of Arsaces, Prince of Betlis, 2 vols  1774 
The Pilgrim, or a Picture of Life, 2 vols  1775 
History of John Juniper, Esq , alias Juniper Jack, 3 vols  1781 

See also
Hellfire Club
Passage 7:
Thomas O'Shaughnessy
Sir Thomas Lopdell O'Shaughnessy, KC (22 December 1850 – 7 March 1933) was the last Recorder of Dublin in Ireland 

Early life
O'Shaughnessy was born on 22 December 1850 in Dublin, son of Thomas O'Shaughnessy and Mary Lopdell  He married Catherine Trueman in 1879 and they had four children  He died at his home in Fitzwilliam Square, Dublin on 7 March 1933  Educated at Queens College Galway, he was called to the Irish Bar in 1874 and to the English Bar by Middle Temple in 1894 

Legal career
O'Shaughnessy carried out his practice on the Connaught and North Eastern Circuit  He served as counsel to the plaintiffs in relation to the disastrous rail accident during a school outing from Armagh to Newry  O'Shaughnessy won a great reputation from this trial, and took silk (an informal term for Queen's Counsel) soon after  For fifteen years, he was one of the most influential, effective and well-paid barristers of the Dublin Four Courts, and was regarded as a mentor to younger barristers Maurice Healy remarked that there was a rather unfriendly rivalry between himself and William Huston Dodd as to which of them was entitled to be called "Leader of the Bar"  He was sworn in as Recorder of Dublin in 1905  He would be the last to hold this position, a role which stretched back to James Stanihurst in 1564  The Recordership was abolished in 1924 and O'Shaughnessy became a judge in the High Court of the Irish Free State  He resigned in 1925 and received a knighthood in 1927  He was a Bencher of the King's Inns and was sworn in as a member of the Irish Privy Council in 1912  He was a member of the Reform Club 
Passage 8:
Robbie Tucker
Robbie Tucker (born April 5, 2001) is an American actor  His best known role to date is that of Fenmore Baldwin on the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless  Tucker has also starred on other series, such as Criminal Minds, FlashForward and It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia  He has also appeared in the films Prom and Little Fockers 
In 2012, Tucker was nominated at the 33rd Young Artist Awards for his performance in Prom and won for his role in The Young and the Restless He is also the brother of actress Jillian Rose Reed 

Filmography
Passage 9:
It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia
It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia is an American sitcom created by Rob McElhenney and developed with Glenn Howerton for FX  It premiered on August 4, 2005, and was moved to FXX beginning with the ninth season in 2013  It stars Charlie Day, Howerton, McElhenney, Kaitlin Olson, and Danny DeVito  The series follows the exploits of "The Gang", a group of narcissistic and sociopathic friends who run the Irish dive bar Paddy's Pub in South Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, but spend most of their free time drinking, scheming, arguing amongst themselves, and plotting elaborate cons against others, and at times each other, for personal benefit, financial gain, revenge, or simply out of boredom 
With its 15th season, the series became the longest-running live-action American comedy series, replacing The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet, which ran for 14 seasons (435 episodes) between 1952 and 1966  In December 2020, the series was renewed for a total of four additional seasons, bringing it to 18 seasons  The 16th season premiered on June 7, 2023 The show has received critical acclaim, with many lauding the cast performances and dark humor  It has amassed a large cult following 

Plot
The series follows a group of misfit, narcissistic sociopaths, referred to as "The Gang", who run a meager, unsuccessful Irish bar called Paddy's Pub in the neighborhood of South Philadelphia  The Gang originally consists of janitor Charlie Kelly (Charlie Day), bouncer Mac (Rob McElhenney), and bartender Dennis Reynolds (Glenn Howerton), the three of whom also own Paddy's Pub, in addition to Dennis' twin sister Dee Reynolds (Kaitlin Olson), a struggling actress who works as a waitress there  In season 2, they are joined by Frank Reynolds (Danny DeVito), an eccentric millionaire and the neglectful father of the Reynolds twins, who takes over most of the ownership of the bar  He soon becomes the financial catalyst for the Gang, often funding many of the Gang's over-complicated plots, while simultaneously succumbing to the brazen depravity of the group 
Each member of The Gang exhibits unethical behavior and anti-social traits such as extreme selfishness, pathological dishonesty, narcissism, aggression, excessive drinking and substance abuse, unregulated emotions, cruelty, and absolutely no regard for the people around them, while also displaying acute codependency, stupidity, and a surprising lack of awareness of basic social norms  The comedy of the show emerges from these extreme character traits resulting in conflicts that lead The Gang into absurd, dark and painfully embarrassing situations, typically ending with them getting their comeuppance, but never learning their lesson  This allows the show to mine a variety of socio-political and economic issues for satire and dark humor, while keeping the characters in a state of relative stasis conducive to the long-running sitcom format 
Episodes usually find The Gang hatching elaborate schemes and regularly conspiring, against both outsiders and one another, for personal gain, revenge, or simply schadenfreude  They habitually inflict physical and psychological pain on anyone who crosses their path, even each other, yet always return to the status quo at Paddy's Pub because they have alienated the rest of society and have only each other's company in the end  The Gang has no sense of shame when attempting to get what they want and often engage in activities that others would find humiliating, disgusting, or shocking  Some of these situations include pretending to be disabled, becoming addicted to crack cocaine in order to qualify for welfare, attempted cannibalism, kidnapping, waterboarding, blackface, blackmail, stalking, grave robbing, hiding naked inside a couch to eavesdrop on people, tricking a man into giving his daughter a lap dance, foraging naked in the sewers for rings and coins, impersonating police officers to extort civilians, creating a cult, secretly feeding someone their dead pet, plugging their open wounds with trash, setting an apartment full of people on fire and nailing the exit shut, taking out life insurance on a suicidal person, and lying about having AIDS in order to get priority access to water park rides  In an angry summation of their circumstances during one such escapade, Dennis laments The Gang's dynamic:

We immediately escalate everything to a ten    somebody comes in with some preposterous plan or idea, then all of a sudden everyone's on the gas, nobody's on the brakes, nobody's thinking, everyone's just talking over each other with one idiotic idea after another! Until, finally, we find ourselves in a situation where we've broken into somebody's house – and the homeowner is home!
With rare exceptions, Paddy's Pub generates limited revenue  Most stay away from the establishment due to the numerous stabbings that have taken place  The few regular customers have been known to serve themselves  The Gang has been known to close Paddy's for extended periods without warning  When the bar is open, they shirk their respective jobs' responsibilities and choose to drink instead  Paddy's is only able to stay in business because of Frank's financial backing, government bailouts and tax fraud 

Cast and characters
The show features a core cast of five characters (The Gang) and a recurring cast of colorful side characters, including the Waitress, Cricket, the McPoyles, the Ponderosas, the Lawyer and various family members like Mrs  Kelly, Mrs  Mac and Uncle Jack Kelly, who cross paths and interact with the Gang in increasingly unhinged ways as the show progresses 

Main
Charlie Day as Charlie Kelly, co-owner and janitor of Paddy's Pub  He is a childhood friend of Mac, and high school friend of Dennis and Dee  He lives in squalor with Frank in a run-down, vermin-infested apartment, and has deep-seated psychological problems, partly due to substance abuse from huffing paint and glue, and partly due to his complicated family background possibly involving child abuse  He has an extensive history of pica and regularly eats various items not meant for human consumption, such as cat food, stickers, paint, and bleach  Due to his general lack of intelligence and his illiteracy, he is arguably the simplest member of The Gang  Despite this, Charlie is a naturally gifted musician, a self-proclaimed expert in "bird law" and possibly the only competent worker at Paddy's with his knack for unorthodox maintenance practices ("Charlie Work")  He also has an unhealthy obsession with "The Waitress", a recurring character who finds his interest in her creepy 
Glenn Howerton as Dennis Reynolds, co-owner and the main bartender of Paddy's Pub, in addition to being Dee's twin brother and Frank's son  Originally the most intelligent and normal-seeming of the three co-owners, Dennis is slowly revealed to be the most narcissistic and psychopathic of The Gang  Dennis is extremely superficial, selfish, vain and abrasive  His predatory nature is often depicted through numerous attempts to seduce various women; which, when successful, result in him gaslighting and emotionally abusing them in order to win over their favor before inevitably dumping them once he has had sex with them ("The D E N N I S  System")  It is strongly hinted at times that Dennis may secretly be a serial killer, though this remains ambiguous as a running gag  In season 10, he is diagnosed with borderline personality disorder, though he frequently denies this and believes himself to be completely rational, and is convinced that he is in complete control of everything and everyone around him, going as far as to label himself a 'golden god'  In the season 12 finale, Dennis reveals to the rest of the gang that he has an infant son, and moves to North Dakota to raise him  He returns to Philadelphia in season 13, supposedly supporting his family from a distance 
Rob McElhenney as Ronald "Mac" McDonald, co-owner and self-proclaimed bouncer of Paddy's Pub  He is Charlie's childhood friend and Dennis's high school friend  The son of a convicted felon who has been in prison for much of Mac's life, he frequently attempts to demonstrate his toughness and refers to himself as the "sheriff of Paddy's"  Deeply insecure, Mac constantly seeks the approval of those around him, especially his father, his apathetic and emotionally absent mother, and Dennis, his roommate  He suffers from extreme bouts of body dysmorphia, and has been depicted at various weights throughout the course of the series: prior to the beginning of Season 7, he gained 60 pounds (27 kg) and was diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes, and when he finally returned to a healthy weight in the following season, he admitted he misses being fat, as he believed he had come across as "scary" to people  In Season 13, he is noticeably fit and physically stronger, though it is quickly revealed his motives for attaining his shape was strictly due to his intense desire for acceptance from the rest of the Gang  He often brags about his hand-to-hand combat skills, but typically flees from physical confrontation and is usually depicted as the most cowardly of the gang  Mac is a Roman Catholic, though he often espouses strong Christian fundamentalist opinions, despite his often amoral behavior, such as casual sex with numerous women, including Dennis's and Dee's mother  Though it is frequently insinuated Mac harbors homosexual feelings, he maintained an adamant denial of any such proclivity, much to the gang's annoyance, until he comes out in season 12  Later episodes reveal that Mac is sexually attracted to his best friend, Dennis 
Kaitlin Olson as Deandra "Sweet Dee" Reynolds, waitress and sometimes bartender at Paddy's Pub, as well as Dennis's twin sister and Frank's daughter  Though initially depicted as The Gang's 'the voice of reason' in the debut season, she gradually loses any sense of moral fortitude that she once had, and is frequently shown to be just as prejudiced and depraved as her male friends by the end of season 1, arguably becoming the most petty member of the group, often plotting against others whom she deems more successful than herself in a vain effort to boost her own image  Dee wore a back brace in high school, leaving her with the nickname "The Aluminum Monster", and she is frequently referred to by the gang as a bird  Dee lives alone in an apartment  Though often the butt of the gang's jokes, she frequently involves herself in their schemes, perhaps due to her constant need for approval and attention from her peers  She does not hold any ownership stake in the bar – perhaps due to the gang's various prejudices against her, but also in part to her desire to become a professional actress/comedian (an ambition she consistently fails to achieve due to her debilitating stage fright and her general lack of any apparent talent)  In multiple episodes, it is referenced that Dee set her college roommate on fire, and is often portrayed as the most physically violent of the group  Despite expressing outward disgust at her brother's more predatory behavior, later episodes reveal Dee not to be above such behavior herself 
Danny DeVito as Frank Reynolds, legal father of Dennis and Dee Reynolds, and the majority owner of Paddy's Pub soon after his introduction in season 2 onward  Frank is a millionaire and often funds and enables The Gang's worst schemes and impulses, just to feel a sense of youthfulness and energy  He was once a successful businessman with a long history of illegal operations and dealings with sordid characters, but chooses to abandon that life and redeem himself after leaving his "whore wife", Barbara Reynolds  It is revealed at the end of season 2 that Dennis and Dee are products of an affair and not actually his biological children  He has since embraced his "feral" nature and describes himself as "fringe class"  Despite his substantial financial resources, he chooses to share a decrepit studio apartment with Charlie, where they sleep together on a pullout couch and have a surprisingly affectionate pseudo-father/son relationship  The two have similar interests, such as playing the inexplicable game of Night Crawlers and foraging naked in sewers for valuables  He always arms himself with at least one loaded handgun and does not hesitate to brandish or even discharge one when provoked, and often snorts cocaine as part of his daily routine 

Production
Charlie Day, Glenn Howerton, and Rob McElhenney first met each other while auditioning for Tuck Everlasting and other projects in New York City and, later, in Los Angeles—they were going up for similar parts, moved to Los Angeles around the same time and even had the same manager Nick Frenkel  Day and Howerton, notably, got to know each other on a car ride back from testing for That '80s Show in late 2001, when Howerton was cast as Corey Howard and Day did not get the part of his best friend  While living in New York, Day had been making comedic home movies with his friends from the Williamstown Theatre Festival—Jimmi Simpson, Nate Mooney, David Hornsby and Logan Marshall-Green, (many of whom would later go on to be involved with Sunny)—which inspired McElhenney and Howerton to want to make short films of their own with him  McElhenney, in particular, had been writing screenplays between jobs and since none of them were picked up, decided to shoot them himself with Howerton, Day and other actor friends  The decision to make their own short films was further influenced by the release of the affordable Panasonic DVX100A digital camera as well as the accessible, low-budget look of The Office (UK) and Curb Your Enthusiasm It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia grew out of an idea for a short film conceived late one night by McElhenney "where a friend came over to another friend's house to get sugar, and the friend tells him he has cancer, and all the guy can think about is getting his sugar and getting out of there"  He wrote the scene down before taking it to Howerton the next day to flesh it out and work on making it comedic  Day was soon roped in and the first script was written, featuring three struggling actors in LA named Charlie, Glenn and Mac, and the ensuing awkwardness around Charlie's cancer diagnosis  The home movies were shot and reshot multiple times, initially with Hornsby playing the Mac character and McElhenney behind the camera as director  It was via this process that McElhenney, Day and Howerton learned the basics of shooting, editing and other aspects of film-making  The three then developed a second "episode" of their home movie series, this time focused on the cringe humor from Mac's sense of shame around his relationship with Carmen, a transgender woman  At this point, it became clear that the home movies had potential as a television series, instead of the short films they were envisioned as originally  Both parts would eventually end up in the episode "Charlie Has Cancer" 
The home movie was titled It's Always Sunny on TV after the a-ha song "The Sun Always Shines on T V "  Howerton had been listening to the album Hunting High and Low (1985) while stretching at a Crunch gym in West Hollywood This was then developed into a pilot called It's Always Sunny on TV and was shot on a digital camcorder and filmed in the actors' own apartments  They expanded the central cast to four people living in Los Angeles, "a group of best friends who care so little for each other", Howerton said It was believed the pilot was shot with a budget of just $200, but Day would later comment, "We shot it for nothing    I don't know where this $200 came from    We were a bunch of kids with cameras running around shooting each other and [the] next thing you know, we're eleven years in and we're still doing the show " This pilot was shopped by the actors around various studios, their pitch being simply showing the DVD of the pilot to executives  After viewing the pilot, FX Network ordered the first season  The show was budgeted at $450,000 an episode, less than a third of a network standard, using Panasonic's DVX100 MiniDV prosumer video camera  The original concept had "the gang" being out-of-work actors with the theme song being a cha-cha version of "Hooray for Hollywood"; however there were too many shows at the time with a similar premise  "The network came to us and said, 'We don't want a show about actors,' and we said, 'Fine, let's put it somewhere else,'" McElhenney explained  "I'm from Philly, let's put it in Philly, and we'll make it about a bar, because that's a job where you can have lots of free time and still have income that could explain how these people can sustain themselves " Prior to Kaitlin Olson joining the show, the character Sweet Dee was originally played by Jordan Reid, who at the time was the girlfriend of McElhenney, but was recast after they broke up  The title was later changed to reflect that, in the unaired pilot, the gang had been rewritten as bar owners in Philadelphia, instead of actors in LA 
After the first season, FX executives were worried about the show's low ratings and demanded that changes be made to the cast  "So, John Landgraf, who's the president of FX, he called me in for a meeting and was like, 'Hey, no one's watching the show, but we love it,'" McElhenney recalled  "'We wanna keep it on, but we don't have any money for marketing, and we need to add somebody with some panache that we can hopefully parlay into some public relations story, just so we can get people talking '" FX began suggesting actors such as Danny DeVito that could boost the show's profile  "It's not that we were reticent to the idea of adding Danny to the show," Howerton recalled, "It's that we were reticent to add a name to the show  You know, because we kinda liked that we were no-names and it was this weird, small thing, you know " Initially, McElhenney refused, saying "No, I just don't think we wanna do that, and they were like, 'Oh OK, well, you know    the show's over '" Realizing they needed to change the trajectory of the show to please the network, McElhenney, Howerton, and Day became open to adding a new cast member who was familiar to the public  However, McElhenney, Howerton, and Day were hesitant at first since they thought they would "ruin the show", particularly Day  DeVito later joined the cast in the first episode of the second season, playing the father of Dennis and Dee The show is shot in both Philadelphia and Los Angeles  The exterior of Paddy's Pub is located at the Starkman Building on 544 Mateo Street in Los Angeles 
On April 1, 2016, the series was renewed for a thirteenth and fourteenth season, which matched The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet with the most seasons for a live-action sitcom in American television history  On April 9, 2020, McElhenney announced that writing had begun for the fifteenth season  Filming for the season began in May 2021 and wrapped that October  In January 2023, McElhenney confirmed that filming for the sixteenth season had begun 

Episodes
Broadcast and syndication
The first season ran for seven episodes with the finale airing September 15, 2005  According to McElhenney, word of mouth on the show was good enough for FX to renew it for a second season, which ran from June 29 to August 17, 2006  Reruns of edited first-season episodes began airing on FX's then-parent network, Fox, in June 2006, for a planned three-episode run—"The Gang Finds a Dead Guy," "Gun Fever" (which was renamed "Gun Control") and "Charlie Gets Molested" were shown  The show was not aired on broadcast television again until 2011, when FX began offering it for syndication The third season ran from September 13 to November 15, 2007  On March 5, 2008, FX renewed It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia for a fourth season  On July 15, 2008, it was reported that FX had ordered 39 additional episodes of the series, produced as seasons five through seven of the show  All five main cast members were secured for the entire scheduled run  The fifth season ran from September 17 to December 10, 2009  On May 31, 2010, Comedy Central began airing reruns  WGN America also began broadcasting the show as part of its fall 2011 schedule The sixth season ran from September 16 to December 9, 2010, comprising 12 episodes, plus the Christmas special  The seventh season ran from September 15 to December 15, 2011, comprising 13 episodes  On August 6, 2011, FX announced it had picked up the show for an additional two seasons (the eighth and ninth) running through 2013  On March 28, 2013, FX renewed the show for a tenth season, and announced that it would move to FX's new sister network, FXX In April 2017, Kaitlin Olson announced that It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia would go on an extended hiatus  In an interview with TV Guide, she said, "We ended up pushing our next season a year because we were all busy with separate projects this year  So at the end of this coming shooting season of The Mick, I'll step right into Sunny after that "On October 2, 2017, the show premiered on Vice on TV The series is available for streaming on Hulu except for the episodes "America's Next Top Paddy's Billboard Model Contest", "Dee Reynolds: Shaping America's Youth", "The Gang Recycles Their Trash", "The Gang Makes Lethal Weapon 6" and "Dee Day", due to scenes involving blackface  The same episodes are missing from Netflix in the UK, Disney+ in Australia, Canada, and Scandinavia, and Star+ in Latin America 

Music
The show uses recurring orchestral production music selections  "We had a music supervisor called Ray Espinola and we said, 'Give us everything you have in a sort of Leave It to Beaver with a big band-swing kind of feel,' and the majority of the songs are from what he sent over," Charlie Day explained  "When you set it against what these characters were doing—which often times can be perceived as quite despicable, or wrong—it really disarmed the audience  It just became our go-to library of songs "The theme song is called "Temptation Sensation" by German composer Heinz Kiessling  Kiessling's work ("On Your Bike" and "Blue Blood") can also be heard during various scene transitions throughout the show, along with other composers and pieces such as Werner Tautz ("Off Broadway"), Joe Brook ("Moonbeam Kiss"), and Karl Grell ("Honey Bunch")  Many of the tracks heard in the series are from Cafe Romantique, an album of easy listening production music collected by Extreme Music, the production music library unit of Sony/ATV Music Publishing  Independent record label Fervor Records has also contributed music to the show  Songs from The Jack Gray Orchestra's album Easy Listening Symph-O-Nette ("Take A Letter Miss Jones," "Golly Gee Whiz," and "Not a Care in the World") and the John Costello III release Giants of Jazz ("Birdcage," "Cotton Club" and "Quintessential") are heard in several episodes 
The soundtrack, featuring most of the music heard on the show, was released in 2010 

Soundtrack track listing
Reception and legacy
Critical reviews and commentary
It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia has received critical acclaim for its humor and the performances of the cast  Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker praised the show, calling it "not merely the best sitcom on television but one of the most arresting and ambitious current TV series, period " Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly reviewed the first season negatively, commenting, "[I]t is smug enough to think it's breaking ground, but not smart enough to know it isn't " Brian Lowry of Variety gave the first season a positive review, saying it was "invariably clever and occasionally a laugh-out-loud riot, all while lampooning taboo topics " However, later seasons of the show have received favorable ratings on review aggregator Metacritic, receiving 70/100, 78/100 and 85/100 for seasons 4, 5 and 6 respectively  The show has become a cult hit with viewers and is often compared in style to Seinfeld—particularly due to the self-centered nature of its main characters  The Philadelphia Inquirer reviewer Jonathan Storm wrote, "It's like Seinfeld on crack," a quote that became widely used to describe the series, to the point that FX attached the tagline, "It's Seinfeld on crack "In 2014, Entertainment Weekly listed the show at number 7 in the "26 Best Cult TV Shows Ever," with the comment that "it's a great underdog story     If it sounds too dark for you, consider that there's an episode about making mittens for kittens, and it's adorable " In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook likes found that Sunny was "more popular in college towns (and most popular in Philadelphia) "In 2015, Rolling Stone rated the top 20 greatest and funniest It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia episodes, stating "for 10 seasons, the series had mined comic gold from the execrable behavior of the owners of Paddy's Pub " They claimed the two-part season 4 episode, "Mac and Charlie Die" is the sitcom's greatest episode yet  In 2019, the BBC called the show "the best US sitcom " They praised the show's unique outlook and ability to range from nihilistic humor to genuine heartfelt moments According to Matt Fowler of IGN, the series "broke new ground" due to its sociopathic depiction of "The Gang"  It was also ranked 63rd in IGN's list of the top 100 TV shows of all time 

Awards
Other media
The Nightman Cometh live
In September 2009, the cast took their show live  The "Gang" performed the musical The Nightman Cometh in New York City, Boston, Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia  Mary Elizabeth Ellis and Artemis Pebdani also appeared in the performance as The Waitress and Artemis  Actress Rhea Perlman (wife of Danny DeVito) assumed the role of Gladys Creator Rob McElhenney said that Live Nation originally approached the cast about doing the show at 30 cities, but in the end the cast settled on six  Co-developer Glenn Howerton described the show as "essentially an expanded version of the actual episode of "The Nightman Cometh," which was the final episode for season four  There are some added moments, added scenes, added songs, and extended versions of songs that already existed " The performance featured two new songs, and the actors were given more opportunity to improvise thanks to the longer running time  An episode from season five was also previewed before the show 
The Los Angeles performance, filmed at The Troubadour, was included as a bonus feature on the season four DVD box set 

Russian adaptation
A Russian adaptation of It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia premiered in Russia on the television channel TNT on May 12, 2014  This version is titled В Москве всегда солнечно (V Moskve vsegda solnechno, It's Always Sunny in Moscow) and like the original, centers around four friends, who own a bar called "Philadelphia" in Moscow 

Book
A book based upon It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia was released on January 6, 2015, titled The Gang Writes a Self-Help Book: The 7 Secrets of Awakening the Highly Effective Four-Hour Giant, Today 

Podcast
On November 9, 2021, Howerton, Day, and McElhenney started The Always Sunny Podcast, an episode-by-episode-recap of the show, with Megan Ganz as producer  Occasional guest stars include Kaitlin Olson, David Hornsby, Mary Elizabeth Ellis, Michael Naughton, Lin-Manuel Miranda, Cormac Bluestone and Danny DeVito 

Notes



ground_truth: Sun

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What was the nationality and profession of the person responsible for the concept of a dimensionless number in physics and engineering?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: Passage 1:
Encounter with Werther
Encounter with Werther (German: Begegnung mit Werther) is a 1949 West German historical drama film directed by Karl-Heinz Stroux and starring Horst Caspar, Heidemarie Hatheyer and Paul Klinger  It is based on the writing of the 1774 novel The Sorrows of Young Werther by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe  It was released to commemorate the writer's second hundredth birthday in August 1949 
It was shot at the Bavaria Studios in Munich and on location in Limburg, Wetzlar and Marburg an der Lahn 
The film's sets were designed by the art director Paul Markwitz 

Cast
Horst Caspar as Werther
Heidemarie Hatheyer as Lotte
Paul Klinger as Albert
Rudolf Reiff as Amtmann as Lotte's Father
Paul Dahlke as Napoleon
Walter Kottenkamp as Goethe
Fritz Odemar as Graf
Harald Mannl as Gesandter
Christiane Felsmann as Frl  von Bassenheim
Arthur Mentz as Bauernbursche
Friedrich Siemers as Schreiber Heinrich
Karl Lieffen as Bediensteter Bursche
Passage 2:
Piano Quartet No  3 (Brahms)
The Piano Quartet No  3 in C minor, Op  60, completed by Johannes Brahms in 1875, is scored for piano, violin, viola and cello  It is sometimes called the Werther Quartet after Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther  The premiere took place in Vienna on November 18th 1875 to an anxious public  Richard Wagner and his wife Cosima were in attendance 

Structure
The quartet is in four movements:

Analysis
First movement
The first movement is a sonata-form movement in C minor in triple meter  It begins with the piano playing bare octaves on C  The violin, viola, and violoncello then play the first theme, consisting of two sighing gestures of a descending minor second, followed by a descending theme  Some have speculated that the sighing motive is a musical utterance of the name "Clara", in reference to Clara Schumann, the composer, pianist, and lifelong friend and love interest of Brahms  More clear is Brahms's transposed version of Robert Schumann's "Clara theme", found in various pieces such as his Bunte Blätter, Op  99 (1841), on which both Clara and Brahms wrote sets of piano variations  The Clara theme (C–B–A–G♯–A, often transposed: here E♭–D–C–B–C) was first detected by Eric Sams in his essays and books on Schumann and Brahms  In his 1971 essay “Brahms and his Clara Themes”, Sams writes on the “Clara content” in op  60: “The first sentence of that autobiographical work is doubly expressive of Clara  Furthermore, there is direct evidence that this melodic form actually embodied her, for Brahms as for Schumann ”After the first statement of the theme, the piano plays octaves on B♭  The opening motives, again played by the strings, becomes more chromatic and unsettling, until finally coming to rest on the dominant of C, G major  The viola and violin play pizzicato octaves on E♮ before the strings cascade down the C harmonic minor scale that ushers in the first theme, stated forte  After a brief development of this theme, an ascending gesture based on sixteenth-notes alternating between the notes of a minor second serves as the transition to the second theme in the relative major of C minor, E♭ major  This second theme is an uplifting eight-measure theme stated initially in the piano alone  Brahms then uses the technique of theme and variations to construct four variations on this theme, each eight measures long  A short idea based on the opening theme closes the exposition, which is not repeated 
The development section begins by restating the theme from measures 32–35 in E♭ minor  This moves to B major for a new fortissimo idea (perhaps a variation) based on the same theme  The quartet's opening sighing motives become developed in an E minor passage that incorporates a triplet figure on the second beat of the measure, and eventually the previous B major idea is restated identically in G major  The second theme from the exposition is then treated in imitative (almost canonic) counterpoint in C minor  After the beginning of the third contrapuntal treatment of this theme, a dominant pedal is sustained in octaves on G  This resolves unexpectedly to an A♭ major chord that is quickly brought down to C minor by the opening sighing motive in the piano 
The sighing motive indicates the beginning of the recapitulation  Rather than affirming the tonic of C minor, however, Brahms takes the recapitulation in a different direction: the opening section again ends on a dominant pedal on G with the violin and viola playing pizzicato octaves on E♮, but the E♮ is used to turn the music to E minor  Chromatic descent is employed to bring the music to a half-cadence on D, leading to the second theme in G major  This is perhaps the only sonata form movement in the minor mode in which the recapitulation features the second subject in the key of the major dominant  The second theme is first stated by the viola, which is then followed by three new variations (the first being played by the violin, the second and third by the piano), and one of the same variations as the exposition  A fifth variation leads to a short digression in C major but becomes chromatic and ends with a development the first theme, coming to a cadence on C  This is followed by a brief coda that expands on the first motives heard in the piece  Nevertheless, the key of C minor is arguably not clearly established by the recapitulation (the key signature of C minor is present at the end of the movement for less than two complete pages)  The movement ends with a clear tonic–dominant–tonic perfect cadence, stated piano  The expansive and exploratory nature of the movement, along with the quiet closing dynamic, helps make the conventional final cadential progression appear mysterious 

Second movement
The second movement is a tempestuous scherzo (ternary form) in compound duple meter in C minor, the same key as the first movement  Donald Francis Tovey argues that Brahms puts the scherzo in the same key as the first movement because the first movement does not sufficiently stabilize its own tonic and requires the second movement to "[furnish] the tonal balance unprovided for by the end of the first movement " Although it is the shortest scherzo of Brahms's piano quartets, it is formally and tonally very complex 
The movement begins with an opening motif of a descending octave on G and a rising minor second to A♭ stated by the piano, followed by a falling diatonic line accompanied by the strings  The first theme, which clearly derives from the opening motif, is immediately by the solo piano played after this and Brahms uses the technique of developing variation to expand this theme  Most melodic ideas can be traced to the opening motif or the ascending minor second of the opening motif, which, notably, is the inversion of the descending sighs of the introduction of the first movement  This scherzo is very chromatic and unstable tonally, although it does actually move to a secondary phrase on the dominant and returns to the tonic with frequency  The scherzo ends with a pedal on the tonic C minor 
The middle section is not demarcated by the title of trio as are the middle sections of the scherzi from Brahms's previous two piano quartets  Moreover, this middle section serves more as a section of contrasting material than as a structural contrast—it maintains the same key signature, time signature, and tempo as the scherzo, is not musically marked off in any clear way, and even develops the same themes as the scherzo  One may argue whether it is in fact a trio at all, as nineteenth century composers knew it  Nonetheless, the middle section begins with a new theme, an ascending line in quarter notes in the strings, accompanied by a descending triplet figure played by the piano  This instrumentation is soon reversed and earlier themes from the scherzo become further developed  The transition back to the scherzo develops and rhythmically diminishes the opening motif of the scherzo and is the most chromatic, rhythmically complex, loud, and dramatic section of the movement  The scherzo is repeated almost entirely, however, the section immediately preceding the tonic pedal is omitted and replaced with a climactic dominant chord in a very high register in the strings, ending with a tierce de picardie on C major with three loud declamations of the tonic major chord 

Third movement
The Andante is in a modified ternary form: ABCA′ with a coda  This is the only movement of the quartet that is not in C minor, and it is in the key of E major, a remote key in the context of C minor  This can be explained by its origin as the slow movement to a piano quartet in C-sharp minor, which Brahms revised and published as Op  60 in C minor  The key of E major is easily explained in the tonal context of C♯ minor, but the key choice of this movement was not revised as was the first movement; it should also be noted that the slow movement to Brahms's Symphony No  1 in C minor is also in E major 
The Andante begins with a luscious melody played by the violoncello in its upper register (Theme A) with only the piano as accompaniment, clearly inspired by Schumann's Piano Quartet, where a similarly sumptuous melody opens the slow movement  The opening thematic material of this melody is a sequence of descending thirds, a gesture frequently used by Brahms (such as in his Op  119, No  1, and the opening to Symphony No  4, to name two examples)  The violin eventually joins in with a new melody over the cello  The viola enters later with a tutti descending stepwise idea  The A section, which is itself in a sort of AAB form, ends in the conventional dominant key of B major 
The B section (in ABAB form) begins with a syncopated ascending stepwise melodic line in the violin to be played molto dolce (Theme B)  The piano begins to gain prominence with a distorted version of the opening cello line, played symmetrically across the piano (Theme C)  Another theme developed in the B section is a falling line with dotted rhythms (Theme D) 
The third section begins in B major but is highly chromatic  The piano plays a version of Theme B in broken octaves under consistent eighth-notes played by the violin and viola  This figure ends with a version of Theme C in broken octaves in the piano  This alternates with the string section, which develops Theme C  The piano rejoins and develops Themes C and D with the strings in E minor, but soon the violin plays Theme D over the other strings  At this point, the strings alternate with the piano, which plays Theme D in an unstable harmonic palette in broken octaves, while the strings play a combination of Themes C and D  This passage of alternating instruments moves from E minor to C minor to G♯ minor back to E major in the reprise of the A section 
The only significant differences between the first and second A sections are that in the second, the piano moves in triplets, there is a full string texture almost entirely throughout (often using pizzicato), and the piano begins the theme (although it is soon replaced by the cello)  The coda is introduced by a new chord progression in the first tutti idea and by a solo cello line  Theme B is presented first by the viola and then by the violin, and the movement ends with the first measure of Theme A, stated first by the cello and then by the piano, concluding with a pianissimo affirmation of the tonic 

Fourth movement
The finale is a sonata-allegro in C minor in cut time with a secondary subject in E♭ major  The tempo is Allegro comodo and the exposition is repeated  The piano accompaniment for the first theme, stated immediately in measure 1, is derived from the opening piano line of Felix Mendelssohn's Piano Trio in C minor, Op  66, movement 1  Mendelssohn's Piano Trio also features a quotation of a chorale melody taken from the sixteenth-century Genevan psalter 'Vor deinen Thron tret ich hiermit' (“Before Your Throne I Now Appear”)  Vincent C  K  Cheung has also observed that the opening G–E♭ motion in the violin, coupled with the G–G–G–C in the piano greatly points toward the “Fate theme” in Beethoven's Fifth Symphony  Brahms's piece thus operates on multiple levels of reference (both literary and musical) and quotation 
The movement begins with the violin playing a theme above piano accompaniment  Both lines are separate themes that are developed individually throughout the movement, but they are similar in one major respect: both are constructed of three ascending notes preceded by a pickup, which go to a neighbor tone of the highest note and move back to that note  The essential notes of the violin theme are B–C–D–E♭–F–E♭, and the essential notes of the piano theme are: G–C–E♭–G–F♯–G (the rest of the piano theme is a descending sequence of ascending seconds: G–A♭–F–G–E♭–F–D–E♭)  Therefore, the violin line uses an upper neighbor tone while the piano line uses a lower neighbor tone  This is crucial for understanding Brahms's development of the thematic ideas of this movement 
The violin melody is halting and primarily diatonic, played over an energetic piano accompaniment  It moves from C minor to G minor, although it ends with a change of mode to G major  After this, the violin plays a descending stepwise melody, which under close inspection is revealed to be an inversion of its own original theme (from B–C–D–E♭–F–E♭ to G–F–E♭–D–C–B) in successive quarter notes  The viola and cello soon accompany this figure  This builds up until measure 39, where a thunderous theme erupts in all instruments  This moves quickly to an idea constructed in triplets  Tonally, this passage is in C minor, and the final progression ends with an alternation between B-diminished and A♭ major  The piano plays a broken A♭ major chord, followed by a broken A♭ minor chord that is used to make a transition to E♭ major 
The section in the relative major begins with a theme clearly composed from the theme of the piano's accompaniment, in this case stated by the violin and viola moving in unison over a piano accompaniment based on the previous broken chordal figure  This briefly exchanges with a cello countermelody  When the violin and viola soar to an unexpectedly high register, the piano interrupts by playing an explosive broken dominant seventh chord  The strings respond by a piano, homophonic, homorythmic theme to be played mezza voce (medium voice)  This idea is taken directly from the opening string theme of the first movement  Rather than accompanying this theme, the piano plays a descending broken chord after each utterance  The exposition ends in E-flat major, and Brahms indicates that it should be repeated 
The development begins with an exploration of the descending third that begins the violin's opening theme; when sequenced, this produces a series of descending thirds that recalls the opening theme of the third movement (G♯–E–C–A)  The piano accompanies this with its initial theme  Brahms quickly eliminates accidentals from the key signature as the piece progresses to D major and A minor  Interspersed are descending chromatic phrases played by the piano  In measures 117–118, the cello introduces a new four-note idea (E–F–D–E) played pizzicato underneath the piano  This idea is taken from the second half of the first piano theme (G–A♭–F–G)  The viola plays the opening of the piano's first theme, which resembles an inversion of the sequenced thirds developed moments earlier  Brahms repeats this pattern almost exactly, moving from A minor to E minor to B minor  In B minor, the piano develops its initial theme to a greater extent  This part of the development section is concluded by syncopated phrases by the viola and piano, which echo the second half of the piano's first theme in B minor 
Austrian musicologist and educator Karl Geiringer has shown that the next section (measures 155–188) is an insertion "in order to mitigate the excessive conciseness of this movement " Later insertions were atypical of Brahms because of his "striving after compression," and it seems that he "for once overshot the mark " The later addition explains the motion away from B minor, only to return to the key some thirty measures later  This section continues with the homorhythmic theme in G major, then in E♭ major  What follows is a quick (Tempo I) development of the initial piano theme in C minor, with all strings playing the opening four notes (moving in the often used progression i – I – iv)  This exact sequence is used again in the coda to turn the movement from the minor mode to major  A dominant seventh chord in C minor is used as a pivot chord to return to B minor (a similar progression is used in Brahms's Ballade, Op  118, No  3, in which a dominant seventh chord built on G moves abruptly to B major)  The violin develops its initial theme in B minor and then D minor with all three string instruments  The final notes of the theme (F–E♭) are sequenced and inverted repeatedly, recalling the significance of descending seconds in the first movement of this quartet  This moves from D minor to G minor to C minor  The end of the development section sees a very high and prolonged A♭, which parallels the end of the development section of the first movement 
The recapitulation, which reinstates the key signature of C minor, begins with the initial violin theme stated forte by all strings, accompanied by the piano playing broken octaves in triplets, outlining the main notes of its theme  After the first statement, the piano resumes its original accompaniment and the strings are reduced to a piano dynamic  This proceeds similarly to the exposition, albeit with the themes developed more extensively  Notably, the music turns toward G minor more strongly and the key signature changes to C major, as the relative major section from the exposition is in the tonic major in the recapitulation  The rest of the recapitulation is nearly identical to the exposition, ending in C major 
The coda begins at measure 311, with the piano loudly declaring the homorhythmic theme, alternating with the strings  The violin theme is then played by the strings in C major, but it soon shifts back to C minor (the key signature too returns)  The four-note idea from the development section comes back, this time with its first note removed  The chromatic descending scale in the piano, an abbreviation of the violin theme in the viola, the four-note theme, and the chord progression (i – I – iv) indicate that the coda draws more from the development section than from the exposition or recapitulation  The music quietly subsides into a tranquillo section in which the inversion of the violin theme (first stated in measures 21–22 from the exposition) is sequenced across the strings while the piano continues to develop its initial theme  The violin and cello eventually sustain the tonic C for a great amount of time while the piano and viola begin to lean toward the tonic major in a continuing I – iv progression  All instruments continue to die down as the piano plays one last descending chromatic scale, the violin and viola combine the piano's initial theme with the quarter note rhythm of the violin theme, and the cello sustains a low C  As the piano and strings reach their final notes, a C major chord stated pianissimo is held briefly, shining out of the mist  Two sudden forte C major chords complete this quartet 
Passage 3:
William Render
William Render (fl  1800), grammarian and translator, was a native of Germany  He was a fellow student at Giessen University with a brother of Charlotte (Werther's inamorata), and was well acquainted with Werther himself  In an appendix to his English version of Goethe's romance, Render relates a conversation he had with Werther at Frankfort-on-the-Main a few days before the latter's suicide Render was ordained to the Lutheran ministry  Subsequently he acted as 'traveling guardian to the son of a distinguished personage'  He then traveled in western Germany with 'several English gentlemen', one of whom may have been Francis, afterwards the Marquis Hastings, to whom, as Earl of Moira, he dedicated his Tour through Germany  Render came to England about 1790, and settled in London  He taught German and other languages 'in several families of distinction ' Towards the end of the century he also became 'teacher of German' at Cambridge, Oxford, and Edinburgh  In 1798 he published an English version of Kotzebue's play Count Benyowsky, which reached a second edition within the year  
In 1800, Render further translated The Robbers, Don Carlos, Maria Stuart, and The Armenian of Schiller  In the following year appeared his version of The Sorrows of Werther, the first translation into English made direct from the original German  In the preface he speaks of 'his friend the baron Goethe', whom he may have met at Frankfurt  Render's Tour through Germany, particularly along the Banks of the Rhine, Mayne, also appeared in 1801  A vocabulary of familiar phrases in German and English is annexed for the benefit of travelers  The remainder of Render's publications were educational manuals  The chief of these, A concise Practical Grammar of the German Tongue (1799), was very successful  
A fifth edition, corrected and augmented with improvements made by the Berlin Academy, was issued in 1817  As a token of his appreciation of the work, Alexander I of Russia ordered Woronzow, his ambassador in England, to present Render with a ring and an autograph letter  Render also published German Exercises, a Pocket Dictionary in English and German, and other manuals of instruction in German 
Passage 4:
Werther, North Rhine-Westphalia
Werther is a town in the district of Gütersloh in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany  It is located near the Teutoburg Forest, approximately 10 km (6 miles) north-west of Bielefeld  It is best known for the Werther's Original caramel sweets, which are nowadays produced in the nearby city of Halle  Werther has one Gesamtschule and one Gymnasium, which has an exchange partnership with a Yarm School, an independent school in Yarm, England 

People
August Oberwelland, entrepreneur, August Storck company founder
Passage 5:
Odyssey
The Odyssey (; Ancient Greek: Ὀδύσσεια, romanized: Odýsseia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer  It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences  As with the Iliad, the poem is divided into 24 books  It follows the Greek hero Odysseus, king of Ithaca, and his journey home after the Trojan War  After the war, which lasted ten years, his journey lasted for ten additional years, during which time he encountered many perils and all of his crewmates were killed  In his absence, Odysseus was assumed dead, and his wife Penelope and son Telemachus had to contend with a group of unruly suitors who were competing for Penelope's hand in marriage 
The Odyssey was originally composed in Homeric Greek in around the 8th or 7th century BC and, by the mid-6th century BC, had become part of the Greek literary canon  In antiquity, Homer's authorship of the poem was not questioned, but contemporary scholarship predominantly assumes that the Iliad and the Odyssey were composed independently and that the stories formed as part of a long oral tradition  Given widespread illiteracy, the poem was performed by an aoidos or rhapsode and was more likely to be heard than read 
Crucial themes in the poem include the ideas of nostos (νόστος; "return"), wandering, xenia (ξενία; "guest-friendship"), testing, and omens  Scholars still reflect on the narrative significance of certain groups in the poem, such as women and slaves, who have a more prominent role in the epic than in many other works of ancient literature  This focus is especially remarkable when contrasted with the Iliad, which centres the exploits of soldiers and kings during the Trojan War 
The Odyssey is regarded as one of the most significant works of the Western canon  The first English translation of the Odyssey was in the 16th century  Adaptations and re-imaginings continue to be produced across a wide variety of media  In 2018, when BBC Culture polled experts around the world to find literature's most enduring narrative, the Odyssey topped the list 

Synopsis
Exposition (books 1–4)
The Odyssey begins after the end of the ten-year Trojan War (the subject of the Iliad), from which Odysseus (also known by the Latin variant Ulysses), king of Ithaca, has still not returned because he angered Poseidon, the god of the sea  Odysseus' son, Telemachus, is about 20 years old and is sharing his absent father's house on the island of Ithaca with his mother Penelope and the suitors of Penelope, a crowd of 108 boisterous young men who each aim to persuade Penelope for her hand in marriage, all the while reveling in the king's palace and eating up his wealth 
Odysseus' protectress, the goddess Athena, asks Zeus, king of the gods, to finally allow Odysseus to return home when Poseidon is absent from Mount Olympus  Disguised as a chieftain named Mentes, Athena visits Telemachus to urge him to search for news of his father  He offers her hospitality, and they observe the suitors dining rowdily while Phemius, the bard, performs a narrative poem for them 
That night, Athena, disguised as Telemachus, finds a ship and crew for the true prince  The next morning, Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens of Ithaca to discuss what should be done with the insolent suitors, who then scoff at Telemachus  Accompanied by Athena (now disguised as Mentor), the son of Odysseus departs for the Greek mainland to the household of Nestor, most venerable of the Greek warriors at Troy, who resided in Pylos after the war 
From there, Telemachus rides to Sparta, accompanied by Nestor's son  There he finds Menelaus and Helen, who are now reconciled  Both Helen and Menelaus also say that they returned to Sparta after a long voyage by way of Egypt  There, on the island of Pharos, Menelaus encounters the old sea-god Proteus, who tells him that Odysseus was a captive of the nymph Calypso  Telemachus learns the fate of Menelaus' brother, Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and leader of the Greeks at Troy: he was murdered on his return home by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus  The story briefly shifts to the suitors, who have only just realized that Telemachus is gone  Angry, they formulate a plan to ambush his ship and kill him as he sails back home  Penelope overhears their plot and worries for her son's safety 

Escape to the Phaeacians (books 5–8)
In the course of Odysseus' seven years as a captive of Calypso on the island Ogygia, she has fallen deeply in love with him, even though he spurns her offers of immortality as her husband and still mourns for home  She is ordered to release him by the messenger god Hermes, who has been sent by Zeus in response to Athena's plea  Odysseus builds a raft and is given clothing, food, and drink by Calypso  When Poseidon learns that Odysseus has escaped, he wrecks the raft, but helped by a veil given by the sea nymph Ino, Odysseus swims ashore on Scherie, the island of the Phaeacians  Naked and exhausted, he hides in a pile of leaves and falls asleep 
The next morning, awakened by girls' laughter, he sees the young Nausicaä, who has gone to the seashore with her maids after Athena told her in a dream to do so  He appeals for help  She encourages him to seek the hospitality of her parents, Arete and Alcinous  Alcinous promises to provide him a ship to return him home without knowing the identity of Odysseus  He remains for several days  Odysseus asks the blind singer Demodocus to tell the story of the Trojan Horse, a stratagem in which Odysseus had played a leading role  Unable to hide his emotion as he relives this episode, Odysseus at last reveals his identity  He then tells the story of his return from Troy 

Odysseus' account of his adventures (books 9–12)
Odysseus recounts his story to the Phaeacians  After a failed raid against the Cicones, Odysseus and his twelve ships were driven off course by storms  Odysseus visited the lotus-eaters who gave his men their fruit which caused them to forget their homecoming  Odysseus had to drag them back to the ship by force 
Afterward, Odysseus and his men landed on a lush, uninhabited island near the land of the Cyclopes  The men entered the cave of Polyphemus, where they found all the cheeses and meat they desired  Upon returning to his cave, Polyphemus sealed the entrance with a massive boulder and proceeded to eat Odysseus' men  Odysseus devised an escape plan in which he, identifying himself as "Nobody," plied Polyphemus with wine and blinded him with a wooden stake  When Polyphemus cried out, his neighbors left after Polyphemus claimed that "Nobody" had attacked him  Odysseus and his men finally escaped the cave by hiding on the underbellies of the sheep as they were let out of the cave 
As they escaped, however, Odysseus taunted Polyphemus and revealed himself  The Cyclops prayed to his father Poseidon, asking him to curse Odysseus to wander for ten years  After the escape, Aeolus gave Odysseus a leather bag containing all the winds except the west wind, a gift that should have ensured a safe return home  Just as Ithaca came into sight, the sailors opened the bag while Odysseus slept, thinking it contained gold  The winds flew out, and the storm drove the ships back the way they had come  Aeolus, recognizing that Odysseus had drawn the ire of the gods, refused to further assist him 

After the cannibalistic Laestrygonians destroyed all of his ships except his own, Odysseus sailed on and reached the island of Aeaea, home of witch-goddess Circe  She turned half of his men into swine with drugged cheese and wine  Hermes warned Odysseus about Circe and gave Odysseus an herb called moly, making him resistant to Circe's magic  Odysseus forced Circe to change his men back to their human forms and was seduced by her  They remained with her for one year  Finally, guided by Circe's instructions, Odysseus and his crew crossed the ocean and reached a harbor at the western edge of the world, where Odysseus sacrificed to the dead  Odysseus summoned the spirit of the prophet Tiresias and was told that he may return home if he is able to stay himself and his crew from eating the sacred livestock of Helios on the island of Thrinacia and that failure to do so would result in the loss of his ship and his entire crew  He then meets his dead mother Anticleia and first learns of the suitors and what happened in Ithaca in his absence  Odysseus also converses with his dead comrades from Troy 
Returning to Aeaea, they buried Elpenor and were advised by Circe on the remaining stages of the journey  They skirted the land of the Sirens  All of the sailors had their ears plugged up with beeswax, except for Odysseus, who was tied to the mast as he wanted to hear the song  He told his sailors not to untie him as it would only make him drown himself  They then passed between the six-headed monster Scylla and the whirlpool Charybdis  Scylla claimed six of his men 
Next, they landed on the island of Thrinacia, with the crew overriding Odysseus's wishes to remain away from the island  Zeus caused a storm that prevented them from leaving, causing them to deplete the food given to them by Circe  While Odysseus was away praying, his men ignored the warnings of Tiresias and Circe and hunted the sacred cattle  Helios insisted that Zeus punish the men for this sacrilege  They suffered a shipwreck, and all but Odysseus drowned as he clung to a fig tree  Washed ashore on Ogygia, he remained there as Calypso's lover 

Return to Ithaca (books 13–20)
Having listened to his story, the Phaeacians agree to provide Odysseus with more treasure than he would have received from the spoils of Troy  They deliver him at night, while he is fast asleep, to a hidden harbour on Ithaca  Odysseus awakens and believes that he has been dropped on a distant land before Athena appears to him and reveals that he is indeed on Ithaca  She hides his treasure in a nearby cave and disguises him as an elderly beggar so he can see how things stand in his household  He finds his way to the hut of one of his own slaves, swineherd Eumaeus, who treats him hospitably and speaks favorably of Odysseus  After dinner, the disguised Odysseus tells the farm laborers a fictitious tale of himself 
Telemachus sails home from Sparta, evading an ambush set by the suitors  He disembarks on the coast of Ithaca and meets Odysseus  Odysseus identifies himself to Telemachus (but not to Eumaeus), and they decide that the suitors must be killed  Telemachus goes home first  Accompanied by Eumaeus, Odysseus returns to his own house, still pretending to be a beggar  He is ridiculed by the suitors in his own home, especially Antinous  Odysseus meets Penelope and tests her intentions by saying he once met Odysseus in Crete  Closely questioned, he adds that he had recently been in Thesprotia and had learned something there of Odysseus's recent wanderings 
Odysseus's identity is discovered by the housekeeper Eurycleia when she recognizes an old scar as she is washing his feet  Eurycleia tries to tell Penelope about the beggar's true identity, but Athena makes sure that Penelope cannot hear her  Odysseus swears Eurycleia to secrecy 

Slaying of the Suitors (books 21–24)
The next day, at Athena's prompting, Penelope maneuvers the suitors into competing for her hand with an archery competition using Odysseus' bow  The man who can string the bow and shoot an arrow through a dozen axe heads would win  Odysseus takes part in the competition, and he alone is strong enough to string the bow and shoot the arrow through the dozen axe heads, making him the winner  He then throws off his rags and kills Antinous with his next arrow  Odysseus kills the other suitors, first using the rest of the arrows and then by swords and spears  Once the battle is won, Telemachus also hangs twelve of their household maids whom Eurycleia identifies as guilty of betraying Penelope or having sex with the suitors  Odysseus identifies himself to Penelope  She is hesitant but recognizes him when he mentions that he made their bed from an olive tree still rooted to the ground



ground_truth: French mathematician and physicist

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Robbie Tucker plays in what series that follows a group of friends who run an Irish bar?

The following are given passages.
Context 4:  She embraces him and they sleep 
The next day, Odysseus goes to his father Laertes's farm and reveals himself  Following them to the farm is a group of Ithacans, led by Eupeithes, father of Antinous, who are out for revenge for the murder of the suitors  A battle breaks out, but it is stopped by Athena and Zeus 

Structure
The Odyssey is 12,109 lines composed in dactylic hexameter, also called Homeric hexameter  It opens in medias res, in the middle of the overall story, with prior events described through flashbacks and storytelling  The 24 books correspond to the letters of the Greek alphabet; the division was likely made after the poem's composition, by someone other than Homer, but is generally accepted In the Classical period, some of the books (individually and in groups) were commonly given their own titles:

Book 1–4: Telemachy—the story focuses on the perspective of Telemachus 
Books 9–12: Apologoi—Odysseus recalls his adventures for his Phaeacian hosts 
Book 22: Mnesterophonia ('slaughter of the suitors'; Mnesteres, 'suitors' + phónos, 'slaughter') Book 22 concludes the Greek Epic Cycle, though fragments remain of the "alternative ending" of sorts known as the Telegony  The Telegony aside, the last 548 lines of the Odyssey, corresponding to Book 24, are believed by many scholars to have been added by a slightly later poet 

Geography
The events in the main sequence of the Odyssey (excluding Odysseus' embedded narrative of his wanderings) have been said to take place in the Peloponnese and in what are now called the Ionian Islands  There are difficulties in the apparently simple identification of Ithaca, the homeland of Odysseus, which may or may not be the same island that is now called Ithakē (modern Greek: Ιθάκη)  The wanderings of Odysseus as told to the Phaeacians, and the location of the Phaeacians' own island of Scheria, pose more fundamental problems, if geography is to be applied: scholars, both ancient and modern, are divided as to whether any of the places visited by Odysseus (after Ismaros and before his return to Ithaca) are real  Both antiquated and contemporary scholars have attempted to map Odysseus' journey but now largely agree that the landscapes, especially of the Apologia (Books 9 to 11), include too many mythological aspects as features to be unequivocally mappable  Classicist Peter T  Struck created an interactive map which plots Odysseus' travels, including his near homecoming which was thwarted by the bag of wind 

Influences
Scholars have seen strong influences from Near Eastern mythology and literature in the Odyssey  Martin West notes substantial parallels between the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey  Both Odysseus and Gilgamesh are known for traveling to the ends of the earth and on their journeys go to the land of the dead  On his voyage to the underworld, Odysseus follows instructions given to him by Circe, who is located at the edges of the world and is associated through imagery with the sun  Like Odysseus, Gilgamesh gets directions on how to reach the land of the dead from a divine helper: the goddess Siduri, who, like Circe, dwells by the sea at the ends of the earth, whose home is also associated with the sun  Gilgamesh reaches Siduri's house by passing through a tunnel underneath Mt  Mashu, the high mountain from which the sun comes into the sky  West argues that the similarity of Odysseus' and Gilgamesh's journeys to the edges of the earth are the result of the influence of the Gilgamesh epic upon the Odyssey In 1914, paleontologist Othenio Abel surmised the origins of the Cyclops to be the result of ancient Greeks finding an elephant skull  The enormous nasal passage in the middle of the forehead could have looked like the eye socket of a giant, to those who had never seen a living elephant  Classical scholars, on the other hand, have long known that the story of the Cyclops was originally a folk tale, which existed independently of the Odyssey and which became part of it at a later date  Similar stories are found in cultures across Europe and the Middle East  According to this explanation, the Cyclops was originally simply a giant or ogre, much like Humbaba in the Epic of Gilgamesh  Graham Anderson suggests that the addition about it having only one eye was invented to explain how the creature was so easily blinded 

Themes and patterns
Homecoming
Homecoming (Ancient Greek: νόστος, nostos) is a central theme of the Odyssey  Anna Bonafazi of the University of Cologne writes that, in Homer, nostos is "return home from Troy, by sea"  Agatha Thornton examines nostos in the context of characters other than Odysseus, in order to provide an alternative for what might happen after the end of the Odyssey  For instance, one example is that of Agamemnon's homecoming versus Odysseus'  Upon Agamemnon's return, his wife Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus, kill Agamemnon  Agamemnon's son, Orestes, out of vengeance for his father's death, kills Aegisthus  This parallel compares the death of the suitors to the death of Aegisthus and sets Orestes up as an example for Telemachus  Also, because Odysseus knows about Clytemnestra's betrayal, Odysseus returns home in disguise in order to test the loyalty of his own wife, Penelope  Later, Agamemnon praises Penelope for not killing Odysseus  It is because of Penelope that Odysseus has fame and a successful homecoming  This successful homecoming is unlike Achilles, who has fame but is dead, and Agamemnon, who had an unsuccessful homecoming resulting in his death 

Wandering
Only two of Odysseus's adventures are described by the narrator  The rest of Odysseus' adventures are recounted by Odysseus himself  The two scenes described by the narrator are Odysseus on Calypso's island and Odysseus' encounter with the Phaeacians  These scenes are told by the poet to represent an important transition in Odysseus' journey: being concealed to returning home Calypso's name comes from the Greek word kalúptō (καλύπτω), meaning 'to cover' or 'conceal', which is apt, as this is exactly what she does with Odysseus  Calypso keeps Odysseus concealed from the world and unable to return home  After leaving Calypso's island, the poet describes Odysseus' encounters with the Phaeacians—those who "convoy without hurt to all men"—which represents his transition from not returning home to returning home Also, during Odysseus' journey, he encounters many beings that are close to the gods  These encounters are useful in understanding that Odysseus is in a world beyond man and that influences the fact he cannot return home  These beings that are close to the gods include the Phaeacians who lived near the Cyclopes, whose king, Alcinous, is the great-grandson of the king of the giants, Eurymedon, and the grandson of Poseidon  Some of the other characters that Odysseus encounters are the cyclops Polyphemus, the son of Poseidon; Circe, a sorceress who turns men into animals; and the cannibalistic giants, the Laestrygonians 

Guest-friendship
Throughout the course of the epic, Odysseus encounters several examples of xenia ("guest-friendship"), which provide models of how hosts should and should not act  The Phaeacians demonstrate exemplary guest-friendship by feeding Odysseus, giving him a place to sleep, and granting him many gifts and a safe voyage home, which are all things a good host should do  Polyphemus demonstrates poor guest-friendship  His only "gift" to Odysseus is that he will eat him last  Calypso also exemplifies poor guest-friendship because she does not allow Odysseus to leave her island  Another important factor to guest-friendship is that kingship implies generosity  It is assumed that a king has the means to be a generous host and is more generous with his own property  This is best seen when Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, begs Antinous, one of the suitors, for food and Antinous denies his request  Odysseus essentially says that while Antinous may look like a king, he is far from a king since he is not generous According to J  B  Hainsworth, guest-friendship follows a very specific pattern:
The arrival and the reception of the guest 
Bathing or providing fresh clothes to the guest 
Providing food and drink to the guest 
Questions may be asked of the guest and entertainment should be provided by the host 
The guest should be given a place to sleep, and both the guest and host retire for the night 
The guest and host exchange gifts, the guest is granted a safe journey home, and the guest departs Another important factor of guest-friendship is not keeping the guest longer than they wish and also promising their safety while they are a guest within the host's home 

Testing
Another theme throughout the Odyssey is testing  This occurs in two distinct ways  Odysseus tests the loyalty of others and others test Odysseus' identity  An example of Odysseus testing the loyalties of others is when he returns home  Instead of immediately revealing his identity, he arrives disguised as a beggar and then proceeds to determine who in his house has remained loyal to him and who has helped the suitors  After Odysseus reveals his true identity, the characters test Odysseus' identity to see if he really is who he says he is  For instance, Penelope tests Odysseus' identity by saying that she will move the bed into the other room for him  This is a difficult task since it is made out of a living tree that would require being cut down, a fact that only the real Odysseus would know, thus proving his identity Testing also has a very specific type scene that accompanies it  Throughout the epic, the testing of others follows a typical pattern  This pattern is:
Odysseus is hesitant to question the loyalties of others 
Odysseus tests the loyalties of others by questioning them 
The characters reply to Odysseus' questions 
Odysseus proceeds to reveal his identity 
The characters test Odysseus' identity 
There is a rise of emotions associated with Odysseus' recognition, usually lament or joy 
Finally, the reconciled characters work together 

Omens
Omens occur frequently throughout the Odyssey  Within the epic poem, they frequently involve birds  According to Thornton, most crucial is who receives each omen and in what way it manifests  For instance, bird omens are shown to Telemachus, Penelope, Odysseus, and the suitors  Telemachus and Penelope receive their omens as well in the form of words, sneezes, and dreams  However, Odysseus is the only character who receives thunder or lightning as an omen  She highlights this as crucial because lightning, as a symbol of Zeus, represents the kingship of Odysseus  Odysseus is associated with Zeus throughout both the Iliad and the Odyssey Omens are another example of a type scene in the Odyssey  Two important parts of an omen type scene are the recognition of the omen, followed by its interpretation  In the Odyssey, all of the bird omens—with the exception of the first—show large birds attacking smaller birds  Accompanying each omen is a wish which can be either explicitly stated or only implied  For example, Telemachus wishes for vengeance and for Odysseus to be home, Penelope wishes for Odysseus' return, and the suitors wish for the death of Telemachus 

Textual history
Composition
The date of the poem is a matter of some disagreement among classicists  In the middle of the 8th century BC, the inhabitants of Greece began to adopt a modified version of the Phoenician alphabet to write down their own language  The Homeric poems may have been one of the earliest products of that literacy, and if so, would have been composed some time in the late 8th century BC  Inscribed on a clay cup found in Ischia, Italy, are the words "Nestor's cup, good to drink from " Some scholars, such as Calvert Watkins, have tied this cup to a description of King Nestor's golden cup in the Iliad  If the cup is an allusion to the Iliad, that poem's composition can be dated to at least 700–750 BC Dating is similarly complicated by the fact that the Homeric poems, or sections of them, were performed regularly by rhapsodes for several hundred years  The Odyssey as it exists today is likely not significantly different  Aside from minor differences, the Homeric poems gained a canonical place in the institutions of ancient Athens by the 6th century  In 566 BC, Peisistratos instituted a civic and religious festival called the Panathenaia, which featured performances of Homeric poems  These are significant because a "correct" version of the poems had to be performed, indicating that a particular version of the text had become canonised 

Textual tradition
The Iliad and the Odyssey were widely copied and used as school texts in lands where the Greek language was spoken throughout antiquity  Scholars may have begun to write commentaries on the poems as early as the time of Aristotle in the 4th century BC  In the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, scholars affiliated with the Library of Alexandria—particularly Zenodotus and Aristarchus of Samothrace—edited the Homeric poems, wrote commentaries on them, and helped establish the canonical texts The Iliad and the Odyssey remained widely studied and used as school texts in the Byzantine Empire during the Middle Ages  The Byzantine Greek scholar and archbishop Eustathios of Thessalonike (c  1115 – c  1195/6 AD) wrote exhaustive commentaries on both of the Homeric epics that became seen by later generations as authoritative; his commentary on the Odyssey alone spans nearly 2,000 oversized pages in a twentieth-century edition  The first printed edition of the Odyssey, known as the editio princeps, was produced in 1488 by the Greek scholar Demetrios Chalkokondyles, who had been born in Athens and had studied in Constantinople  His edition was printed in Milan by a Greek printer named Antonios Damilas Since the late 19th century, many papyri containing fragments of the Odyssey have been found in Egypt, some with content different from later medieval versions 
In 2018, the Greek Cultural Ministry revealed the discovery of a clay tablet near the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, containing 13 verses from the Odyssey's 14th book  While it was initially reported to date from the 3rd century AD, the date is unconfirmed 

English translations
George Chapman's English translations of the Odyssey and the Iliad, published together in 1616 but serialised earlier, were the first to enjoy widespread success  The texts had been published in translation before, with some translated not from the original Greek  Chapman worked on these for a large part of his life  In 1581, Arthur Hall translated the first 10 books of the Iliad from a French version  Chapman's translations persisted in popularity, and are often remembered today through John Keats' sonnet  "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" (1816)  Years after completing his translation of the Iliad, Alexander Pope began to translate the Odyssey because of his financial situation  His second translation was not received as favourably as the first Emily Wilson, a professor of classical studies at the University of Pennsylvania, notes that as late as the first decade of the 21st century, almost all of the most prominent translators of Greek and Roman literature had been men  She calls her experience of translating Homer one of "intimate alienation " Wilson writes that this has affected the popular conception of characters and events of the Odyssey, inflecting the story with connotations not present in the original text: "For instance, in the scene where Telemachus oversees the hanging of the slaves who have been sleeping with the suitors, most translations introduce derogatory language ("sluts" or "whores") [   ] The original Greek does not label these slaves with derogatory language " In the original Greek, the word used is hai, the feminine article, equivalent to "those female people" 

Legacy
The influence of the Homeric texts can be difficult to summarise because of how greatly they have impacted the popular imagination and cultural values  The Odyssey and the Iliad formed the basis of education for members of ancient Mediterranean society  That curriculum was adopted by Western humanists, meaning the text was so much a part of the cultural fabric that it became irrelevant whether an individual had read it  As such, the influence of the Odyssey has reverberated through over a millennium of writing  The poem topped a poll of experts by BBC Culture to find literature's most enduring narrative  It is widely regarded by western literary critics as a timeless classic and remains one of the oldest works of extant literature commonly read by Western audiences 

Literature
In Canto XXVI of the Inferno, Dante Alighieri meets Odysseus in the eighth circle of hell, where Odysseus appends a new ending to the Odyssey in which he never returns to Ithaca and instead continues his restless adventuring  Edith Hall suggests that Dante's depiction of Odysseus became understood as a manifestation of Renaissance colonialism and othering, with the cyclops standing in for "accounts of monstrous races on the edge of the world", and his defeat as symbolising "the Roman domination of the western Mediterranean" Irish poet James Joyce's modernist novel Ulysses (1922) was significantly influenced by the Odyssey  Joyce had encountered the figure of Odysseus in Charles Lamb's Adventures of Ulysses, an adaptation of the epic poem for children, which seems to have established the Latin name in Joyce's mind  Ulysses, a re-telling of the Odyssey set in Dublin, is divided into 18 sections ("episodes") which can be mapped roughly onto the 24 books of the Odyssey  Joyce claimed familiarity with the original Homeric Greek, but this has been disputed by some scholars, who cite his poor grasp of the language as evidence to the contrary  The book, and especially its stream of consciousness prose, is widely considered foundational to the modernist genre Modern writers have revisited the Odyssey to highlight the poem's female characters  Canadian writer Margaret Atwood adapted parts of the Odyssey for her novella, The Penelopiad (2005)  The novella focuses on Penelope and the twelve female slaves hanged by Odysseus at the poem's ending, an image which haunted Atwood  Atwood's novella comments on the original text, wherein Odysseus' successful return to Ithaca symbolises the restoration of a patriarchal system  Similarly, Madeline Miller's Circe (2018) revisits the relationship between Odysseus and Circe on Aeaea  As a reader, Miller was frustrated by Circe's lack of motivation in the original poem and sought to explain her capriciousness  The novel recontextualises the sorceress' transformations of sailors into pigs from an act of malice into one of self-defence, given that she has no superhuman strength with which to repel attackers 

Film and television
L'Odissea (1911) is an Italian silent film by Giuseppe de Liguoro 
Ulysses (1954) is a film adaptation starring Kirk Douglas as Ulysses, Silvana Mangano as Penelope and Circe, and Anthony Quinn as Antinous 
L'Odissea (1968) is an Italian-French-German-Yugoslavian television miniseries praised for its faithful rendering of the original epic 
Nostos: The Return (1989) is an Italian film about Odysseus' homecoming  Directed by Franco Piavoli, it relies on visual storytelling and has a strong focus on nature 
Ulysses' Gaze (1995), directed by Theo Angelopoulos, has many of the elements of the Odyssey set against the backdrop of the most recent and previous Balkan Wars 
The Odyssey (1997) is a television miniseries directed by Andrei Konchalovsky and starring Armand Assante as Odysseus and Greta Scacchi as Penelope 
O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000) is a crime comedy drama film written, produced, co-edited and directed by the Coen brothers and is very loosely based on Homer's poem 

Opera and music
Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria, first performed in 1640, is an opera by Claudio Monteverdi based on the second half of Homer's Odyssey 
Rolf Riehm composed an opera based on the myth, Sirenen – Bilder des Begehrens und des Vernichtens (Sirens – Images of Desire and Destruction), which premiered at the Oper Frankfurt in 2014 
Robert W  Smith's second symphony for concert band, The Odyssey, tells four of the main highlights of the story in the piece's four movements: "The Iliad", "The Winds of Poseidon", "The Isle of Calypso", and "Ithaca" 

Sciences
Psychiatrist Jonathan Shay wrote two books, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character  (1994) and Odysseus in America: Combat Trauma and the Trials of Homecoming (2002), which relate the Iliad and the Odyssey to posttraumatic stress disorder and moral injury as seen in the rehabilitation histories of combat veteran patients  
Passage 6:
Albert Odyssey (Super Famicom game)
Albert Odyssey (アルバートオデッセイ, Arubaato Odessei) is a tactical role-playing video game developed and published by Sunsoft and released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in Japan in March 1993  The game features strategy-based combat in addition to traditional role-playing game elements in two-dimensional environments  It is the first game in the Albert Odyssey series, and was followed by two sequels, Albert Odyssey 2: Jashin no Taidou in 1994, and Albert Odyssey: Legend of Eldean in 1996   On June 12, 1996, Albert Odyssey was made available as a full game download on the Satellaview add-on as BS Albert Odyssey (BSアルバートオデッセイ, BS Arubaato Odessei), and the original Albert Odyssey was re-released for Satellaview in March 1998 Players assume the role of Albert, the young heroic swordsman who lives in a fantasy world filled with monsters and mythical creatures  While much of the world remains in relative peace following a great war many years before, a military faction led by the dark magician Globus has emerged to conquer the newly pacified nations and expand their empire  With the help of Albert's friends as well as hired mercenaries, the player must travel the world and eventually confront Golbus and his forces to prevent another large-scale conflict 

Gameplay
Albert Odyssey is a role-playing video game with strategy elements where players must travel through a fantasy environment battling monsters and other enemies to advance the story  The game uses two-dimensional character sprites and environments accompanied by the Super Nintendo Entertainment System's Mode 7 graphics capabilities that give the impression of three dimensions  Players move their characters from a top-down perspective through towns and other peaceful areas, while the game's overworld and dungeons are rendered as large battlefields laden with enemies  Throughout the game, players take part in the story by interacting with non-player characters and performing story-driven quests that continually expand the game's narrative 
Using a turn-based system, both the player and computer opponent take turns moving and attacking across the field  A player may choose to move, attack, perform magic, use an item in their possession to aid themselves, or retreat to the nearest safe area to rest or restock supplies  Once two characters come in contact with one another, a battle sequence ensues where the attacking character deals damage to the opponent, lowering their health  When the player or enemy's health reaches zero, they are defeated and ejected from the field  Player's advance by confronting and defeating enemies, gaining experience points in the process that go towards making characters stronger and learn new abilities  A character can be further augmented with progressively more powerful weapons and equipment can be purchased in towns or found on defeated enemies  Progress is recorded by using save points found in set areas throughout the game that utilize the Famicom's battery backup-up system  If all of a player's characters are defeated at any time, they are forced to restart the game from the last recorded save file 

Audio
The music for Albert Odyssey was written and programmed by Sunsoft in-house composer Naoki Kodaka, with the game being his first Super Famicom and role-playing endeavor  On June 25, 1993, Sunsoft released an official soundtrack titled All Sounds of Albert Odyssey in Japan published by Datam Polystar featuring all background music and jingles from the game   Later that year, selected music from Albert Odyssey was performed by the Tokyo City Philharmonic Orchestra as part of the third Game Music Concert series in Tokyo, Japan, later made available as a commercial album the following December  The two tracks represented were "The Road Walked by Heroes" and "Hometown Tibelis", retitled as "Albert Odyssey Theme" and "God's People" respectively 

Sequel
Albert Odyssey 2: Jashin no Taidou (アルバートオデッセイ2 邪神の胎動, Aruberto Odesei Tsu Jashin no Taidou, lit  Albert Odyssey 2: Sign of the Devil) is a tactical role-playing video game developed and published by Sunsoft for the Super Famicom and released in December 1994  It is the sequel to the original Albert Odyssey and retains many of the same gameplay and story elements while featuring enhanced graphics and battle features 
The game is set ten years after the previous title and follows the story of Dean, a young warrior who is enthralled by the exploits of the hero Albert who saved the world a decade earlier from an evil magician   Setting off on his own journey to investigate the conflict, Dean becomes entangled in an adventure of his own while meeting characters from the previous game  He soon learns that the world is once again in danger from an ancient evil god known as Okutoba, and must become a hero himself to stop him from throwing the world into darkness 

Gameplay
Like its predecessor, Albert Odyssey 2 is a traditional strategy-based role-playing video game featuring two-dimensional character and background graphics  While towns and other safe areas are presented in a top-down fashion where players can move about freely, the game's overworld and dungeons take the appearance of a grid-like strategy board filled with monsters and other enemies   Using the Super Famicom's Mode 7 graphics function, environments can scroll and zoom smoothly based on the player's point of view, and give the appearance of three-dimensions  Players advance the game's story by taking part in large-scale battles and interacting with non-player characters 
The battle system in Albert Odyssey 2 has been modified slightly from the original   While players can still move in eight directions to engage opponents, the size of many battlefields, as well as the number of enemies represented, has been reduced, with the entire system becoming more streamlined  Characters move about the battle environment using a turn-based system where enemies and the player's party take turns attacking in phases, with one entire side acting before another  On a player's turn, characters may move, fight, use a magic attack, use an item from their inventory, or retreat to a nearby safe location  Battle are won when an entire enemy party has been defeated, yielding experience points that allow characters to gain levels and become stronger as well as give access to new abilities   Players record their progress using the game cartridge's built-in battery back-up system by accessing preset save points during gameplay 
Passage 7:
Sorrows of Werther
"Sorrows of Werther" is a satirical poem by William Makepeace Thackeray written in response to the enormous success of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's novel The Sorrows of Young Werther 


== Text ==
Passage 8:
Werther (film)
Werther is an opera by Jules Massenet 
Werther may also refer to:

Places
Werther, North Rhine-Westphalia, a town in western Germany
Werther, Thuringia, a municipality in eastern Germany

People with the surname
Gustav Werther (1815–1869), German chemist
Heinrich Wilhelm von Werther (1772–1859), Prussian diplomat and politician

Arts
The Sorrows of Young Werther, a novel by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe that the opera Werther is loosely based on
Werther (1986 film), a Spanish film based on the novel
Werther (1927 film), a Czech film

Others
Werther's Original, a toffee-and-cream candy
The New Werther, by the statistician Karl Pearson
Passage 9:
Werther
Werther is an opera (drame lyrique) in four acts by Jules Massenet to a French libretto by Édouard Blau, Paul Milliet and Georges Hartmann (who used the pseudonym Henri Grémont)  It is loosely based on Goethe's epistolary novel The Sorrows of Young Werther, which was based both on fact and on Goethe's own early life  Earlier examples of operas using the story were made by Kreutzer (1792) and Pucitta (1802) 

Performance history
Massenet started composing Werther in 1885, completing it in 1887  He submitted it to Léon Carvalho, the director of the Paris Opéra-Comique, that year, but Carvalho declined to accept it on the grounds that the scenario was too serious  With the disruption of the fire at the Opéra-Comique and Massenet's work on other operatic projects (especially Esclarmonde), it was put to one side, until the Vienna Opera, pleased with the success of Manon, asked the composer for a new work  Werther received its premiere on 16 February 1892 (in a German version translated by Max Kalbeck) at the Imperial Theatre Hofoper in Vienna The French-language premiere followed in Geneva on 27 December 1892  The first performance in France was given by the Opéra-Comique at the Théâtre Lyrique on the Place du Châtelet in Paris on 16 January 1893, with Marie Delna as Charlotte and Guillaume Ibos in the title role, conducted by Jules Danbé, but was not immediately successful Werther entered the repertoire at the Opéra-Comique in 1903 in a production supervised by Albert Carré, and over the next half-century the opera was performed over 1,100 times there, Léon Beyle becoming a distinguished interpreter of Werther The United States premiere with the Metropolitan Opera took place in Chicago on 29 March 1894 and then in the company's main house in New York City three weeks later  The UK premiere was a one-off performance at Covent Garden, London, on 11 June 1894 with Emma Eames as Charlotte, Sigrid Arnoldson as Sophie, and Jean de Reszke in the title role 
Werther is still regularly performed around the world and has been recorded many times  Although the role of Werther was written for a tenor, Massenet adjusted it for a baritone, when Mattia Battistini sang it in Saint Petersburg in 1902  It is very occasionally performed in this version, in which the changes affect only the vocal line for the title character  There are no other changes to the words, to the lines for other characters, or to the orchestration 

Roles
Instrumentation
2 flutes (2nd doubling piccolo),
2 oboes (doubling English horns),
2 clarinets in B-flat and A,
alto saxophone,
2 bassoons,
4 horns in F,
2 cornets in B-flat and A,
3 trombones,
tuba,
timpani,
percussion (1) (bass drum, triangle),
harp,
strings 

Synopsis
Time: Within the period July to December, in an undefined year in the 1780s 
Place: Wetzlar in Germany 

Act 1
In July, the widowed Bailiff (a Magistrate, rather than one who comes to seize property), is teaching his six youngest children a Christmas carol ("Noël! Jésus vient de naître")  His drinking companions, Johann and Schmidt, arrive as Charlotte, the eldest daughter, dresses for a ball  Since her fiancé Albert is away, she is to be escorted by Werther, whom the Bailiff and his companions find gloomy  Werther arrives ("O Nature, pleine de grâce"), and watches as Charlotte prepares her young siblings' supper, just as her mother had before she died  He greets her and they leave for the ball  Albert returns unexpectedly after a six-month trip  He is unsure of Charlotte's intentions and disappointed not to find her at home, but is reassured and consoled by Charlotte's younger sister Sophie  He leaves after promising to return in the morning  After an orchestral interlude, Werther and Charlotte return very late; he is already enamoured of her  His declaration of love is interrupted by the announcement of Albert's return  Charlotte recalls how she promised her dying mother she would marry Albert  Werther is in despair 

Act 2
It is three months later, and Charlotte and Albert are now married  They walk happily to church to celebrate the minister's 50th wedding anniversary, followed by the disconsolate Werther ("Un autre est son époux!")  First Albert and then Sophie ("Du gai soleil, plein de flamme") try to cheer him up  When Charlotte exits the church, he speaks to her of their first meeting  Charlotte begs Werther to leave her, though she indicates that she would be willing to receive him again on Christmas Day  Werther contemplates suicide ("Lorsque l'enfant revient d'un voyage")  He encounters Sophie but the tearful girl does not understand his distressing behavior  Albert now realizes that Werther loves Charlotte 

Act 3
Charlotte is at home alone on Christmas Eve  She spends time rereading the letters that she has received from Werther ("Werther! Qui m'aurait dit     Ces lettres!"), wondering how the young poet is and how she had the strength to send him away  Sophie comes in and tries to cheer up her older sister ("Ah! le rire est béni"), though Charlotte is not to be consoled ("Va! laisse couler mes larmes")  Suddenly Werther appears, and while he reads to her some poetry of Ossian ("Pourquoi me réveiller?"), he realizes that she does indeed return his love  They embrace for a moment, but she quickly bids him farewell  He leaves with thoughts of suicide  Albert returns home to find his wife distraught  Werther sends a messenger to Albert, requesting to borrow his pistols, explaining he is going on an extended trip  After the servant has taken them, Charlotte has a terrible premonition and hurries to find Werther  An orchestral intermezzo ("La nuit de Noël") leads without a break into the final Act 

Act 4
"The death of Werther": At Werther's apartment, Charlotte has arrived too late to stop him from shooting himself; he is dying  She consoles him by declaring her love  He asks for forgiveness  After he dies, Charlotte faints  Outside children are heard singing the Christmas carol 

Noted arias
Recordings
A well-regarded recording of the complete opera was made in January 1931 by French Columbia with a French cast and the orchestra and chorus of the Opéra-Comique under the direction of Élie Cohen  Henry Fogel of Fanfare magazine, writing in 1992, counted 14 complete recordings and considered it the finest of the lot  His colleague, James Camner, reviewing the Opera d'Oro reissue in 2003, called it "one of the treasures of recorded opera      Unfortunately, the transfer is over filtered  The high frequencies are lost, giving the performance an unwarranted flatness  Happily, Naxos offers the same recording expertly transferred by Ward Marston, and acquiring it is a must " Alan Blyth, while giving a very positive review of the reissue of the recording with Albert Lance as Werther and Rita Gorr as Charlotte in 2004, nevertheless pointed out that "neither quite has the ideal subtlety of the best Massenet singers, such as Vallin and Thill on the classic, pre-war set, now on Naxos" In addition, many of the greatest French and Italian singers of the past century or more have recorded individual arias from Massenet's masterwork 
Passage 10:
The Novel of Werther
The Novel of Werther (French: Le Roman de Werther) is a 1938 French historical drama film directed by Max Ophüls and starring Pierre Richard-Willm, Annie Vernay and Jean Galland  It is based on the 1774 novel The Sorrows of Young Werther by Goethe The film was made by Nero Film, a company run by German exiles who had left following the Nazi rise to power 

Cast
Pierre Richard-Willm as Werther
Annie Vernay as Charlotte
Jean Galland as Albert
Paulette Pax as Aunt Emma
Jean Périer as President
Edmond Beauchamp as murderer
Georges Bever as chamberlain
Geno Ferny as portraitist
Fernand Blot as Werther's colleague
Denise Kerny as the right one
Henri Guisol as Schertz, the clerk
Roger Legris as Franz, valet
Jean Buquet as little Gustave
Maurice Schutz as le sonneur
Léonce Corne asle majordome
Philippe Richard as Grand Duke
Charles Nossent as le cocher
Léon Larive as comedian
Georges Vitray as bailiff
Génia Vaury as girl
Henri Beaulieu
Henri Darbrey
Pierre Darteuil
Maurice Devienne
Martial Rèbe
Robert Rollis



ground_truth: It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia