prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which case was brought to court first Miller v. California or Gates v. Collier ?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Trusty system (prison)
The "trusty system" (sometimes incorrectly called "trustee system") was a penitentiary system of discipline and security enforced in parts of the United States until the 1980s, in which designated inmates were given various privileges, abilities, and responsibilities not available to all inmates It was made compulsory under Mississippi state law but was used in other states as well, such as Arkansas, Alabama, Louisiana, New York and Texas  The method of controlling and working inmates at Mississippi State Penitentiary at Parchman was designed in 1901 to replace convict leasing  The case Gates v  Collier ended the flagrant abuse of inmates under the trusty system and other prison abuses that had continued essentially unchanged since the building of the Mississippi State Penitentiary  Other states using the trusty system were also forced to give it up under the ruling 

History
Prisons had trusties as far back as the 1800s 

Parchman Farm
The prison had approximately 16,000 acres (65 km2) of farmland and grew such cash crops as cotton as well as engaged in livestock production  Although the population of the prison was around 1,900 inmates (two thirds of whom were black and in racially-segregated units), the law allowed only a maximum of 150 staff members to be hired to minimize operating costs  Thus, the farm labor was done by inmates The bulk of guarding and disciplining of the inmates was performed by inmate trusties  They also performed most of the administrative work, supervised by a few employees  Therefore, the inmate trusties essentially controlled inmate care and custody, basically running the prison system Highest in the prison inmate hierarchy were the inmates armed with rifles, called the "trusty shooters"  Their job was to act as prison guards and control other inmates on a day-to-day basis in the residential camps or out on the field work crews  Next came the unarmed trusties who performed janitorial, clerical, and other menial tasks for the prison's staff  Simple tasks, such as distributing medication, were carried out by other categories of inmates such as "hallboys"  Inmate trusties enforced discipline within the prison inmate living quarters (16 different residential camps) and in the work camps and prison farms  In addition to punishment administered on site, inmate trusties could recommend further punishment in the special punishment area for disobedient or disruptive inmates According to attorney Roy Haber, who handled the series of litigation cases brought by the American Civil Liberties Union against the trusty system, inmates were whipped with leather straps for failing to pick their daily quota of cotton  The farm's camps of black inmates were supervised by one white sergeant, and under him the black inmate "trusty shooters", who were serving sentences for murder, carried rifles and enforced discipline 

Abolition
Gates v  Collier (Gates v  Collier Prison Reform Case, 1970–1971) ended the flagrant abuse of inmates under the trusty system and other prison abuses that had continued essentially unchanged since the building of the prison in 1903  On October 20, 1972, Federal Judge William Keady ordered the end of racial segregation in prison residential quarters  He also required replacement of trusty shooters with civilian prison guards Any system in which inmates were allowed to be in a position of authority and control other inmates or to use physical abuse or intimidation of other inmates was abolished  It also found some types of corporal punishment were a violation of an inmate's Eighth Amendment rights, including "handcuffing inmates to the fence and to cells for, long periods of time,    and forcing inmates to stand, sit or lie on crates, stumps, or otherwise maintain awkward positions for prolonged periods "Its structure and abuses were detailed in Hope v  Pelzer in which a former inmate sued the prison superintendent for personal injury suffered under the trusty system Other states using the trusty system, such as Arkansas, Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas were also forced to abolish it under the Gates v  Collier rulings  However, some states, such as Texas, still continued their use of trusty systems (known as "building tenders") until the 1980s, when Federal Judge William Wayne Justice, in Ruiz v  Estelle, 503 F  Supp  1265 (S D  Tex  1980), compelled the replacement of the trusty system with the strictly-regulated Support Service Inmate (SSI) system 

See also
"Parchman Farm" (song)
Louisiana State Penitentiary
Kapo
Passage 2:
Brockmeyer v  Dun &amp; Bradstreet
Brockmeyer v  Dun & Bradstreet 113 Wis  2d 561, 335 N W 2d 834 (Wis  1983), was a case in which the Wisconsin Supreme Court first identified that Wisconsin has some judicial exceptions to the employment at will doctrine 

Facts
Charles J  Brockmeyer was employed at investment firm Dun & Bradstreet as a district manager of credit services, though he lacked a formal employment contract  After the employer settled a sex discrimination suit filed by the employee's former secretary, with whom he allegedly had an affair, the employer fired the employee  The court held that it was appropriate to create a public policy exception to the employment-at-will doctrine, as the termination had clearly violated a well-defined public policy, as evidenced by existing law  While the employer's actions may have constituted bad faith, they did not contravene the policies of any statute or constitutional provision  As the employee failed to prove that his discharge violated fundamental public policy, the decision for the employer was appropriate 

Holding
The court affirmed the decision of the lower court in favor of the employer 

Citations
The case is cited in Bammert v  Don's Super Valu, Inc 
Passage 3:
Miller v  California
Miller v  California, 413 U S  15 (1973), was a landmark decision of the U S  Supreme Court modifying its definition of obscenity from that of "utterly without socially redeeming value" to that which lacks "serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value"  It is now referred to as the three-prong standard or the Miller test 

Background
In 1971, Marvin Miller, an owner/operator of a California mail-order business specializing in pornographic films and books, sent out a brochure advertising books and a film that graphically depicted sexual activity between men and women  The brochure used in the mailing contained graphic images from the books and the film  Five of the brochures were mailed to a restaurant in Newport Beach, California  The owner and his mother opened the envelope and seeing the brochures, called the police Miller was arrested and charged with violating California Penal Code 311 2(a) which says in part, "Every person who knowingly sends or causes to be sent, or brings or causes to be brought, into this state for sale or distribution, or in this state possesses, prepares, publishes, produces, or prints, with intent to distribute or to exhibit to others, or who offers to distribute, distributes, or exhibits to others, any obscene matter is for a first offense, guilty of a misdemeanor " California lawmakers wrote the statute based on two previous Supreme Court obscenity cases, Memoirs v  Massachusetts and Roth v  United States Miller was tried by jury in the Superior Court of Orange County  At the conclusion of the evidence phase, the judge instructed the jury to evaluate the evidence by the community standards of California, i e , as defined by the statute  The jury returned a guilty verdict 
Miller appealed to the Appellate Division of the Superior Court, arguing that the jury instructions did not use the standard set in Memoirs v  Massachusetts which said that in order to be judged obscene, materials must be "utterly without redeeming social value " Miller argued that only a national standard for obscenity could be applied  The appellate division rejected the argument and affirmed the jury verdict  Miller then filed an appeal with the California Court of Appeal for the Third District, which declined to review  Miller applied to the Supreme Court for certiorari, which was granted  Oral arguments were heard in January 1972 

Previous Supreme Court decisions on obscenity
The U S  Supreme Court granted certiorari to Miller because the California law was based on its two previous obscenity cases which the Court wanted to revisit  Chief Justice Warren Burger came to the Court in 1969 believing that the Court's obscenity jurisprudence was misguided and governments should be given more leeway to ban obscene materials  In consideration of Miller in May and June 1972, Burger pushed successfully for a looser definition of "obscenity" which would allow local prosecutions, while Justice William J  Brennan, Jr , who by now also believed the Roth and Memoirs tests should be abandoned, led the charge for protecting all "obscenity" unless distributed to minors or exposed offensively to unconsenting adults  Decision of the case was contentious, and Miller was put over for reargument for October term in 1972, and did not come down until June 1973, with Burger prevailing with a 5–4 vote Since the Court's decision in Roth v  United States, the Court had struggled to define what constituted constitutionally unprotected obscene material  Under the Comstock laws that prevailed before Roth, articulated most famously in the 1868 English case Regina v Hicklin, any material that tended to "deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences" was deemed "obscene" and could be banned on that basis  Thus, works by Honoré de Balzac, Gustave Flaubert, James Joyce, and D  H  Lawrence were banned based on isolated passages and the effect they might have on children  Roth repudiated the "Hicklin test" and defined obscenity more strictly, as material whose "dominant theme taken as a whole appeals to the prurient interest" to the "average person, applying contemporary community standards"  Only material now meeting this test could be banned as "obscene" In Memoirs v  Massachusetts, a plurality of the Court further redefined the Roth test by holding unprotected only that which is "patently offensive" and "utterly without redeeming social value," but no opinion in that case could command a majority of the Court either, and the state of the law in the obscenity field remained confused   In Jacobellis v  Ohio, Justice Potter Stewart's concurring opinion said that the Court in earlier pornography cases "was faced with the task of trying to define what may be indefinable," and that criminal laws were constitutionally limited to "hard-core pornography," which he did not try to define: "perhaps I could never succeed in intelligibly doing so  But I know it when I see it " Other Justices  had equally been unwilling to clearly define what pornography could be prohibited by the First Amendment 

Supreme Court decision
Miller had based his appeal in California on Memoirs v  Massachusetts  The Court rejected that argument 
The question before the court was whether the sale and distribution of obscene material was protected under the First Amendment's guarantee of Freedom of Speech  The Court ruled that it was not  It indicated that "obscene material is not protected by the First Amendment," especially that of hardcore pornography, thereby reaffirming part of Roth However, the Court acknowledged "the inherent dangers of undertaking to regulate any form of expression," and said that "State statutes designed to regulate obscene materials must be carefully limited " The Court, in an attempt to set such limits, devised a set of three criteria which must be met for a work to be legitimately subject to state regulation:

whether the average person, applying contemporary "community standards," would find that the work, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest;
whether the work depicts or describes, in an offensive way, sexual conduct or excretory functions, as specifically defined by applicable state law (the syllabus of the case mentions only sexual conduct, but excretory functions are explicitly mentioned on page 25 of the majority opinion); and
whether the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value This obscenity test overturns the definition of obscenity set out in the Memoirs decision, which held that "all ideas having even the slightest redeeming social importance     have the full protection of the guaranties [of the First Amendment]" and that obscenity was that which was "utterly without redeeming social importance" The Miller decision vacated the jury verdict and remanded the case back to the California Superior Court 

Definition of obscenity post-Miller
Miller provided states greater freedom in prosecuting alleged purveyors of "obscene" material because, for the first time since Roth, a majority of the Court agreed on a definition of "obscenity " Hundreds of "obscenity" prosecutions went forward after Miller, and the Supreme Court began denying review of these state actions after years of reviewing many "obscenity" convictions (over 60 appeared on the Court's docket for the 1971–72 term, pre-Miller) A companion case to Miller, Paris Adult Theatre I v  Slaton, provided states with greater leeway to shut down adult movie houses  Controversy arose over Miller's "community standards" analysis, with critics charging that Miller encouraged forum shopping to prosecute national producers of what some believe to be "obscenity" in locales where community standards differ substantially from the rest of the nation  For example, under the "community standards" prong of the Miller test, what might be considered "obscene" in Utah might not be considered "obscene" in Massachusetts, or the opposite might be true; in any event, prosecutors tend to bring charges in locales where they believe that they will prevail  Justice Brennan, author of the Roth opinion, argued in his dissent for Paris Adult Theatre that outright suppression of obscenity is too vague to enforce in line with the First and Fourteenth Amendments The standards established by Miller were elaborated upon in Pope v  Illinois in 1987  In the case, the jury instructions for the local court had been for the jurors to evaluate whether adult magazines had value according to a community standard, and the conviction was held by the Illinois appellate court  The Supreme Court overruled the appellate court decision, siding with the defendant  In the majority opinion, the Supreme Court held that the first two prongs of the test were to be evaluated according to a "community standard," but not the third, which was to be held to the higher standard of a "reasonable person" evaluating the work for value In 1987, Oregon became the first state to strike down the criminalization of obscenity  In State v  Henry, the Oregon Supreme Court ruled in favor of Earl Henry, the owner of an adult bookstore, stating that the state obscenity statute violated the free speech provision of Oregon's state constitution In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled in Reno v  American Civil Liberties Union that the anti-indecency provisions of the Communications Decency Act were unconstitutional  The Act had criminalized the sending of "obscene or indecent" material to minors over the Internet  The court unanimously ruled that the provision violated the First Amendment due to its burden on free speech 

Effects of the decision
In the years since Miller, many localities have cracked down on adult theatres and bookstores, as well as nude dancing, through restrictive zoning ordinances and public nudity laws Additionally, in 1982's New York v  Ferber the Court declared child pornography as unprotected by the First Amendment, upholding the state of New York's ban on that material  In the 2002 Ashcroft v  Free Speech Coalition case, however, the Court held that sexually explicit material that only appears to depict minors, but actually does not, might be exempt from obscenity rulings In American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression v  Strickland, plaintiffs American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression, joined by various publishers, retailers, and web site operators, sued Ohio's Attorney General and Ohio county prosecutors in United States District Court for the Southern District of Ohio  Plaintiffs alleged that Ohio Revised Code §2907 01(E) and (J), which prohibited the dissemination or display of "materials harmful to juveniles", unconstitutionally violated both the First Amendment and the Commerce Clause of the Constitution  Plaintiffs specifically challenged the statute's definition of "harmful to juveniles", as well as the provisions governing Internet dissemination of those materials  The court held the statute unconstitutional because the statute's definition of "material harmful to minors" did not comply with Miller The "community standards" portion of the decision is of particular relevance with the rise of the Internet, as materials believed by some to be "obscene" can be accessed from anywhere in the nation, including places where there is a greater concern about "obscenity" than other areas of the nation  Enforcing and applying obscenity laws to the Internet have proven difficult  Both the Child Pornography Prevention Act (CPPA) and the Child Online Protection Act (COPA) have had sections struck down as unconstitutional in cases such as Ashcroft v  Free Speech Coalition and Ashcroft v  ACLU 

See also
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 413
Sex-related court cases
United States obscenity law
Passage 4:
Gasser v MISAT
Gasser v MISAT (C–116/02) was a decision of the European Court of Justice regarding the interpretation of the Brussels convention of 1968 ruling that a court chosen in a choice of court agreement should stay its proceedings - as any other court chosen second within the Brussels regime - until the court first seized had declared it did not have jurisdiction  The court's decision was considered problematic as it favoured the uniformity of application of the Brussels regime jurisdictional rules temporarily over party autonomy : 572  Due to similar provisions in the 2001 Brussels Regulation and Lugano Conventions, the interpretation also affects choice of court agreements under those later instruments  However, in the 2012 Recast version of the Brussels I Regulation chosen courts can take jurisdiction, even if a court not chosen has been addressed first 

Facts
Austrian supplier Gasser and Italian distributor MISAT entered into a contract together for the supply of children's clothes  In the contract, they included a choice-of-court agreement, stipulating that an Austrian court have jurisdiction in case of conflict  However, when a dispute arose between the two parties, MISAT seised an Italian court to declare that the contract had been terminated, contrary to the choice-of-court clause they agreed on 
MISAT relied on Article 21 of the Brussels Convention, a convention to which all members of the European Community were party, and which regulates which court within those states has jurisdiction  The convention contains a lis alibi pendens-rule: where proceedings involving the same issue and between the same parties are brought before the courts of different Member States, the court seised second must stay proceedings up until the jurisdiction of the court first seised has been established – after which the court second seised must decline jurisdiction if the court first seised is indeed found to have jurisdiction  Consequently, Article 21 of the Convention establishes a type of "first come, first served"-rule: when there is a triple identity in parties,: §34  object,: §40  as well as cause of action, the court that has been seised second will only be able to decide in the case when it has been decided in the first court that the latter has no jurisdiction  The Report Jenard cites the need to "facilitate the proper administration of justice within the Community" as the underlying idea behind this lis alibi pendens rule, as irreconcilable judgments would obstruct such proper administration and ultimately be detrimental to the "mutual trust in the administration of justice in the Community"  Consequently, the lis pendens-rule can be considered as an expression of the Regulation's search for both certainty and the preservation of mutual trust amongst Member States The problem however in the case at hand was that the parties had first made an agreement as to which court would have jurisdiction in case of conflict- namely an Austrian court  Consequently, Gasser brought the same case before the Oberlandesgericht (Higher Regional Court) Innsbruck in Austria, where the question was eventually passed on to the European Court of Justice of whether or not the lis pendens-rule could override the parties' autonomous decision contained in their choice-of-court agreement and thus, if the abovementioned rule contained in Article 21 of the Convention was applicable or not : §21, §28

CJEU procedure
The reference for a preliminary ruling were made on 25 March 2002, and observations were made -in addition to the parties in the dispute- by Italy, the United Kingdom and the European Commission  While Italy, the Commission and Misat contended that the lis pendens doctrine needed to take precedence, and that thus the court second seized should stay its proceedings until the first court had decided on its position, the UK and Gasser argued that the choice of the parties should take immediate precedence over the lis pendens rule 

Advocate-General
The (advisory) opinion of Advocate-General was delivered on 9 September 2003  The Advocate-general held that the European Court of Justice had the possibility to rule that a valid choice of court clause amounted exclusive jurisdiction to a (group of) courts, and that thus it was possible to derogate from using the lis pendens doctrine and give such a court immediate jurisdiction  The court had made a similar exception before in Overseas Union Insurance Ltd and Deutsche Ruck Uk Reinsurance Ltd and Pine Top Insurance Company Ltd v New Hampshire Insurance Company where it ruled that if one of the "exclusive jurisdiction" grounds of Article 16 applied, the court that had exclusive jurisdiction did not have to stay proceedings, even if it was seized second  The exclusive jurisdiction of choice of court agreements/clauses is however placed in Article 15, and thus is not automatically covered by the judgments  The Advocate general suggested to only allow a court seized second (and which was chosen in a choice of court clause/agreement) "where there is no room for any doubt as to the jurisdiction of the court second seised"; to avoid the situations where both courts would assume jurisdiction 

Decision
The Court resolutely rejected the possibility that the party autonomy could take precedence over the abovementioned goals of certainty and mutual trust, stating that "the court second seised is never in a better position than the court first seised to determine whether the latter has jurisdiction" : §48  Even though the Austrian court was consistent with the parties choice-of-court agreement, it was for the court first seized to decide it had not jurisdiction and the presence of such a clause is "not such as to call in question the application of the procedural rule contained in Article 21 of the Convention [now Article 27], which is based clearly and solely on the chronological order in which the courts involved are seised" : §46–47

Relevance
The ruling by the Court has implications not only for the application of the Brussels Convention, but also by the Brussels I Regulation (44/2001) that mostly replaced it, and for the interpretation by EU states of the Lugano Conventions of 1998 and 2007 that contain similar provisions : 572 First, there is the (unlikely) risk that the court first seised finds the jurisdiction clause invalid, which consequently takes away the possibility for the designated court to decide the case, even if the latter would have declared the clause valid : 577  Although the Court in Gasser first seems to minimise the likelihood of this hypothesis by stating that a jurisdiction clause "must be regarded as an independent concept",: §51  it nonetheless points out that verifying the existence of jurisdiction clauses "may necessitate delicate and costly investigations" : §26  As a result, although unlikely, there is still a risk that two courts from different Member States will decide upon the validity of a jurisdiction clause differently : 572 Second, the Court's ruling, which imposes a sort of absolute first-come, first-served principle, promotes the use of tactical litigation and "torpedo claims" : 573  The reason why can be described as the difference between theory and reality  In theory, the fact that a party would have to turn to a different Member State for a ruling in his case is irrelevant or even meaningless, as the Brussels I Regulation rests upon the axiomatic assumption that procedural justice is served wherever in the community proceedings are heard : 570  In reality however, this fact is of great tactical significance to the recalcitrant party, since -apart from the aforementioned fact that the first court seised may determine the effect of Article 23 differently- some Member States have a system of much slower-moving judiciary, which makes the realisation of procedural justice unlikely : 577  Italy is a prime example thereof, with decisions on jurisdiction alone taking several months or even years; commencing proceedings in Italy is accordingly dubbed "firing the Italian torpedo"  This torpedo may well sink a jurisdiction agreement, as the crude confrontation with increased delay and expense for the other party makes it not only unlikely for him to recommence proceedings in the agreed court after jurisdiction has been settled, but can even deter him from litigating altogether at the sight of the location of the court first seised : 577 In conclusion, not only may the party defending the choice-of-court agreement experience substantive disadvantages in the other Member State, as the court situated there might declare the agreement invalid, the party may also be exposed to procedural disadvantages, caused by judicial system which is not chosen : 573  This in turn can make the jurisdiction agreement ineffective altogether, going against the principle of party autonomy  Taking a formalistic and literal approach, the Court states that "the difficulties of the kind (   ) stemming from delaying tactics by parties (   ) are not such as to call in question the interpretation of the Brussels Convention, as deduced from its wordings and purpose",: §53  pointing out that the Regulation "is necessarily based on the trust which Contracting States accord to each other's legal systems and judicidial institutions" : §72

Effect on the Brussels Regulation
In the Recast of the Brussels I Regulation, the Commission addressed the problems created by the Gasser judgment  Dealing with the problematic tactical litigation spawning from the Gasser judgment, the Recast Regulation now contains a reversal of the priority rule, by giving the court chosen by the parties in the jurisdiction agreement precedence over all other courts, regardless of when proceedings were initiated  From a prima facie point of view, this certainly seems to deal the Gasser problem effectively, as a tactical race to the court is now without effect  However, some have raised the question to whether or not this will simply encourage the use of 'sham jurisdictional agreements', and if this indisputable preference for allegedly-chosen courts could not just lead to “improved” or “reverse” torpedo claims 
Passage 5:
Adams v  Burke
Adams v  Burke, 84 U S  (17 Wall ) 453 (1873), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court first elaborated on the exhaustion doctrine  According to that doctrine, a so-called authorized sale of a patented product (one made by the patentee or a person authorized by it to sell the product) liberates the product from the patent monopoly  The product becomes the complete property of the purchaser and "passes without the monopoly " The property owner is then free to use or dispose of it as it may choose, free of any control by the patentee  Adams is a widely cited, leading case  A substantially identical doctrine applies in copyright law and is known as the "first sale doctrine" 
As the Supreme Court recently explained, in Kirtsaeng v  John Wiley & Sons, Inc , 133 S  Ct  1351 (2013), the principle comes from early English common law of property, explained in Coke on Littleton early in the 17th century  Under the common law, if a man is possessed of a chattel (item of personal property) and he transfers his property in it to another, no restriction against the use or disposition of the chattel will be effective, for that would hinder trade and commerce – it would interfere with bargaining among men  If once a patented product was sold and allowed to enter the stream of commerce, if it could be subject to restrictions (perhaps secret) on its use or further disposition, businessmen would not be able to know whether transactions in the product were effective and business certainty would be greatly impaired 

Factual background
In 1863, U S  Patent No  38,713 issued to the inventors Merrill and Horner for a  coffin lid that permitted interested persons to view the name-plate and inscription of the decedent in the coffin, irrespective of whether the coffin cover is open or closed  In 1865 they assigned to Lockhart & Seelye of Cambridge  Massachusetts, the ownership of the patent in a circular area around Boston having a ten-mile radius  Adams, the plaintiff in this case, was the assignee of the patent in an area outside this circle which included the town of Natick, Massachusetts Burke, the defendant, was an undertaker doing business in Natick, Massachusetts, seventeen miles from Boston  Burke purchased some patented coffin lids from Lockhart & Seelye, who had manufactured them  Burke then took them to Natick (more than ten miles from Boston), and used them in his business  Adams then sued him 

Trial court opinion
The circuit court for the district of Massachusetts dismissed the case  It said:

When a patented product passes lawfully into the hands of a purchaser without condition or restriction, it is no longer within the monopoly or under the protection of the patent act, but outside of it     It is clear that by such a sale the purchaser acquires an absolute title to the manufactured product which is the subject of a patent, and may deal with It in the same manner as if dealing with any other kind of property  He may use it, repair it, Improve upon it, or sell it  Subsequent purchasers acquire the same rights as the seller had, and may do with the article, or its materials, whatever the first purchaser could have lawfully done if he had not parted with the title 

Supreme Court opinion
Adams appealed to the Supreme Court, which affirmed  The Court began by observing that this was a case of first impression in the Supreme Court although the governing principle had been involved in other patent cases  That principle was this:

[T]he sale by a person who has the full right to make, sell, and use       a machine carries with it the right to the use of that machine to the full extent to which it can be used in point of time         [I]n the essential nature of things, when the patentee, or the person having his rights, sells a machine or instrument whose sole value is in its use, he receives the consideration for its use and he parts with the right to restrict that use  The article, in the language of the Court, passes without the limit of the monopoly  [citation omitted] That is to say the patentee or his assignee having in the act of sale received all the royalty or consideration which he claims for the use of his invention in that particular machine or instrument, it is open to the use of the purchaser without further restriction on account of the monopoly of the patentees 

Accordingly, the Court ruled that "we hold that in the class of machines or implements we have described, when they are once lawfully made and sold, there is no restriction on their use to be implied for the benefit of the patentee or his assignees or licensees "Subsequent Supreme Court cases following the doctrine of the Adams case include:

Motion Picture Patents Co  v  Universal Film Mfg  Co , 243 U S  502 (1917) 
Straus v  Victor Talking Machine Co , 243 U S  490 (1917) 
Ethyl Gasoline Corp  v  United States, 309 U S  436 (1940) 
United States v  Univis Lens Co , 316 U S  241 (1942) 
Aro Mfg  Co  v  Convertible Top Replacement Co , 365 U  S  336 (1961) 
Quanta Computer, Inc  v  LG Electronics, Inc , 553 U S  617 (2008) But see:

United States v  General Electric Co , 272 U S  476 (1926) 
General Talking Pictures Corp  v  Western Electric Co , 304 U S  175 (1938) 
Passage 6:
Jones v  Cunningham
Jones v  Cunningham, 371 U S  236 (1963), was a Supreme Court case in which the court first ruled that state inmates had the right to file  a writ of habeas corpus challenging both the legality and the conditions of their imprisonment  Prior to this, starting with Pervear v  Massachusetts, 72 U S  475 (1866), the court had maintained a "hands off" policy regarding federal interference with state incarceration policies and practices, maintaining that the Bill of Rights did not apply to the states  Subsequently, in Cooper v  Pate (1964), an inmate successfully obtained standing to challenge the denial of his right to practice his religion through a habeas corpus writ 
Passage 7:
Cheff v  Mathes
Cheff v  Mathes, 199 A 2d 548 (Del  1964), was a case in which the Delaware Supreme Court first addressed the issue of director conflict of interest in a corporate change of control setting  This case is the predecessor to future seminal corporate law cases including: Unocal Corp  v  Mesa Petroleum Co , Revlon v  MacAndrews, and Paramount v  Time 

Facts
Holland Furnace Company manufactured home furnaces  The company's marketing strategy involved door-to-door sales, which employed a large workforce  This model, if not unique to Holland Furnace, was nevertheless unusual   From the standpoint of Arnold Maremont, a businessman who had been purchasing Holland Furnace stock, it was unprofitable  These practices also implicated Holland Furnace in charges of unfair trade practices   (An investigation of these practices by the Federal Trade Commission had already been pending for a year at the time of the events underlying the decision in Cheff )  Sales representatives for Holland would go door to door posing as official inspectors  Claiming to be employed by the homeowner's utility or by the local government, these salesmen would disassemble the furnace, refusing to reassemble it for lack of spare parts  Holland's core business lay in replacement boilers 
Cheff-Landwehr family group had effective control over the company, with 18 5% of Holland stock  Cheff, a family member, was Holland's Chief Executive Officer  From 1948-1956, Holland's sales declined by 25%  Management attributed the sharp drop to a boom in sales following World War II, which could not be sustained in later years  Maremont, an owner of an automotive parts manufacturing business, approached Cheff in 1957 to discuss the possibility of a merger between the two companies  Cheff was not interested in a business combination   Rebuffed, Maremont purchased 6% of Holland stock on the open market  Cheff ordered an investigation of Maremont, and learned that Maremont had engaged in corporate takeovers and liquidation of several companies  (At the resulting trial, Cheff would testify that Maremont was not well regarded among local area businessmen )  Cheff and Maremont met a second time, by which time Maremont owned 11% of Holland Stock  Maremont told Cheff that Holland's door-to-door sales tactic was obsolete and should be abandoned in favor of a wholesaler marketing strategy 
Upon learning of Maremont's plans, Cheffs and Holland's board of directors agreed that Maremont posed a threat to Holland's continued existence   Holland's board would claim that Maremont's threat caused many of Holland's employees to quit in anticipation of the threatened takeover  With the stated aim of eliminating Maremont's threat to Holland's existence, the Holland board of directors authorized the repurchase of Maremont's holdings of Holland stock at a price above the prevailing market stock price  Essentially, the board authorized the payment of greenmail to Maremont 

Business Judgment RuleThe Delaware Supreme Court first had to determine whether Holland's directors were protected from judicial scrutiny of their actions under the business judgment rule   While the business judgment rule typically protects corporate officers from judicial scrutiny of their actions, the rule could be limited if judges found a conflict of interest   In the case of Holland Furnace, the board's purchase of shares with corporate funds prevented a hostile takeover (which could have been in the best interest of the company) while also maintaining their control of the company  Thus, the court had to decide whether the Board was so conflicted that they should not be afforded Business Judgment Rule protection 

Threat to Corporate Policy"The question then presented is whether or not [the board] satisfied the burden of proof of showing reasonable grounds to believe a danger to corporate policy and effectiveness existed by the presence of the Maremont stock ownership  It is important to remember that the directors satisfy their burden by showing good faith and reasonable investigation; the directors will not be penalized for an honest mistake of judgment, if the judgment appeared reasonable at the time the decision was made "

Judgment
The court held that the directors were protected by the business judgment rule, because they held a good faith belief that Maremont posed a threat to Holland's continued existence  Testimony established the board's understanding of Maremont's reputation for acquiring businesses and liquidating them, and that Maremont's apparent intentions negatively affected Holland's work force 
Therefore, after Delaware's holding in this case, a director could rebut any inference of a conflict of interest, and remain protected by the business judgment rule, if they showed that they held a good faith belief that they were pursuing a "business purpose" that would benefit the corporation 

Aftermath
The court's findings mention - and minimize - the FTC investigation of Holland Furnace  The court, endorsing Holland's board, also notes that Holland's downward sales-trend reversed itself in 1957, the year that Maremont was bought out  What the court does not mention is that Holland's fortunes suffered another reversal - this one fatal  Holland's sales were in excess of $31 million in 1958, but dropped to $1 1 million by 1965  That year, Holland stock reached a high of $1 63 per share, compared to a closing price of $11–1/8 per share in October 1957  Holland Furnace, listed in editions of Moody's Industrial Manual for the years covering the events of this case, did not appear in 1966 
Holland Furnace faced charges of unfair trade practices that were known prior to the decision in Cheff v  Mathes  As a result of their investigations into the sales practices of Holland Furnace, the FTC issued a "cease and desist order" against the company, an order upheld by the United States Court of Appeals, Seventh Circuit  Ultimately, Holland Furnace and Mr  Cheff were held in contempt for violating the order by continuing to engage in unfair trade practices  Mr  Cheff went to jail for 6 months The unsavory character of Arnold Maremont is a key factor in the court's decision  During proceedings leading up to the court's decision in Cheff, Mr  Cheff testified as to Maremont's reputation, that: "Throughout the whole of the Kalamazoo-Battle Creek area, and Detroit too, where I spent considerable time, he is well known and not highly regarded by any stretch "
Arnold Maremont, who died in 1978, involved himself in pursuits other than business  According to his obituary in The New York Times, Maremont was both a patron of the arts and a visionary for social justice  A governing life member of the Art Institute of Chicago and a former trustee of the Lyric Opera and Ballet Theater, Maremont was the first Illinois industrialist to back a law ending employment discrimination against African Americans  As chairman of the Illinois Public Aid Commission in the early 1960s, he campaigned for publicly supported birth control for welfare families 

See also
Weinberger v  UOP, Inc  457 A 2d 701 (Del  1983)
Unocal v  Mesa
Passage 8:
Gates v  Collier
Gates v  Collier, 501 F 2d 1291 (5th Cir  1974), was a landmark decision of the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals that brought an end to the trusty system as well as flagrant inmate abuse at Mississippi State Penitentiary, also known as Parchman Farm, in Sunflower County, Mississippi  It was the first case in a body of law developed in the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals holding that a variety of forms of corporal punishment against prisoners constituted cruel and unusual punishment and a violation of Eighth Amendment rights  This case was also the first broad-scale intervention by a court in the supervision of prison practices In Gates v  Collier, the Court of Appeals found certain forms of corporal punishment violate the Eighth Amendment, including "handcuffing inmates to the fence and to cells for long periods of time,     and forcing inmates to stand, sit or lie on crates, stumps, or otherwise maintain awkward positions for prolonged periods "

Parchman Farm
The Mississippi State Penitentiary, commonly known as Parchman Farm, was founded in 1904 and consisted of 20,000 acres of delta  The prison was styled after plantations, emerging in the South during the Jim Crow era  It's estimated that throughout its history, about 90% of Parchman's prisoners were black men After the Civil War, Mississippi was still dependent upon black labor to sustain its farms and plantations  As a result, the state passed a series of laws that made vagrancy a crime; African Americans had to constantly carry papers around showing proof of employment, and if they were found without documentation they would be arrested  Pig laws also played a role in the convictions of many Parchman Farm inmates  Pig laws made any kind of minor larceny a serious crime, for stealing something like a soda would typically result in five years of jail  Convict leasing was another discriminatory system used in which African Americans would be leased to do work rather than sent to jail, essentially taking the place of slavery Parchman Farm had black camps that were overseen by a white sergeant  Below the white sergeant were black trusties, who had been convicted of murder and allowed to carry a gun  The state rationalized this system economically, for hiring inmates to carry out duties rather than civilian guards meant money was being saved "The Penitentiary Board at the time was composed of 5 individuals appointed by the Governor with consent of the Senate for 4-year terms, appointed the superintendent, who was vested with exclusive management and control of the prison system in all aspects, including the care and treatment of inmates and the hiring, control and discharge of 150 civilian employees" Oshinksy, the author of Worse than Slavery, once stated in an interview with The Washington Post that "Parchman Farm was basically the leading cash cow for the state of Mississippi " They were adding hundreds of thousands of dollars and then millions of dollars to the state treasury, and thus were a huge economic asset" 

Roy Haber
In 1970, Roy Haber, a civil rights lawyer, was recruited along with other lawyers to "bring some law and order to the South" Haber first came to Parchman in 1970 after quitting his New York City divorce practice to speak with Matthew Winter, a prisoner who had been convicted of murder  Haber's initial visit to Parchman was made in order to determine whether or not Winter had been adequately represented in court  After his first meeting with Haber, Winter was threatened and beaten by trusties Haber took statements from Parchman inmates about conditions at the prison, which was not easy at first; many prisoners were afraid of facing retribution from prison officials Some of his most "damning" evidence included a document that ran over fifty single-spaced pages with a list of murders, rapes, beatings, and tortures at Parchman between 1969 and 1971 

Racial discrimination and inmate abuse
At Parchman Farm, punishments up until the 1970s were representative of slavery  "The prisoners were housed in large barracks that were rundown and filthy, with 100–120 in one room"  Each camp had open ditches that held raw sewage and medical waste  When Judge Keady of the District Court Case visited Parchman on multiple occasions, he witnessed "filthy bathrooms, rotting mattresses, polluted water supplies, and kitchens overrun with insects, rodents, and the stench of decay " Parchman was known to be dangerous and deadly  Aside from its inhumane conditions, shootings and beatings were carried out regularly, murders failed to be documented and the maximum-security unit was a torture chamber Allegations of abuse between 1969 and 1971 include:

Bogard, William: compelled to stand in the daytime and sit at night for three entire days without interruption on a coke crate 
Collins, Matthew: murdered by trusty J C  Dunnican on order of Ollis Hitt 
Goodwin, Frank: "jumped on" and had an ear ripped off by inmate Danny Williamson 
Hayes, Jessie: shot by trusty John Horn for refusal to engage in homosexual acts 
Humes, George: handcuffed to bars, on tiptoes for two days without food, water, or bathroom facilities 
Marino, Hilliard: hair cut and pulled out while forced to kneel on the concrete floor, assaulted with others in MSU with brass knuckles, causing blindness and constant pain 
Nathan, Walter: handcuffed and hung from tree 
Tackett, Bob: another inmate named Cantrell kicked out one of his eyes which was lost; that he was beaten by a trusty 
Waldie, Donald: Required to maintain a mid-suspended position which one assumes during course of doing push-ups, and at that time was guarded by J D  Gilmer, who shot above or below him if he moved 
Wells, William: fatally shot by Sgt  West 
Williams, Jessie: fatally shot by Walter Griffin, a trusty, on orders of Obar, the driver of the vehicle 

District court case
On February 8, 1971, Nazareth Gates, Willie Holmes, Matthew Winter, and Hal Zachary filed a class action against the Superintendent of the Penitentiary, the members of the Mississippi Penitentiary Board and the Governor of the State  "The plaintiffs charged that ‘deplorable conditions and practices’ at Parchman deprived them of rights guaranteed by the First, Eighth, Thirteenth, and Fourteenth amendments to the United States Constitution" Thomas D  Cook was the penitentiary superintendent accused of committing the actions, and was replaced in February 1972 by John Collier, who was substituted and appointed in his stead as a defendant 
"28 U S C  §§ 1331 and 1343, the plaintiffs allege that the defendants, by their methods of prison administration, have deprived the inmates of rights, privileges and immunities secured to them by the First, Eighth, Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments and by 42 U S C  §§ 1981, 1983, 1985 and 1994  The complaint stated that African American inmates had been segregated and discriminated against based on their race, which is a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment  The complaint aimed for injunctive relief to remedy the alleged misconduct of the defendants and a declaratory judgment that the continuation of certain practices and conditions at the penitentiary is unconstitutional" According to a section of the Preliminary Statement, "On August 23, 1971, the United States was allowed to intervene as plaintiff pursuant to 42 U S C  § 2000h-2 [2] The complaint in intervention alleges that the defendants have, contrary to the Fourteenth Amendment, maintained a system of prison facilities segregated by race; and, additionally, the defendants have failed to provide the inmates with adequate housing, medical care, and protection from assault from other prisoners; that the conditions of the sewerage disposal and water systems create an immediate health hazard, and that prison officials have permitted the custodial staff, including inadequately trained armed trusties, to inflict cruel and unusual punishment upon inmates in violation of the Eighth Amendment  The United States seeks injunctive relief to remedy the alleged misconduct of defendants" In October 1972, Judge William Keady found for the plaintiffs, calling Parchman Farm an "affront to modern standards of decency" and its living quarters "unfit for human habitation " He ordered an end to all unconstitutional conditions and practices 

Fifth Circuit decision
The state of Mississippi appealed this decision to the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals, though the Fifth Circuit ended up agreeing with the lower court's earlier decision  Racial segregation of inmates was abolished as well as the trusty system Subsequently, other states utilizing the trusty system, such as Arkansas, Alabama, Louisiana and Texas were also forced to abolish it under the Gates v  Collier rulings 

See also
Louisiana State Penitentiary
Cummins Unit - Arkansas and Texas
Pervear v  Massachusetts
Holt v  Sarver
Ruiz v  Estelle - Texas
Hope v  Pelzer
Passage 9:
WN Hillas &amp; Co Ltd v Arcos Ltd
WN Hillas & Co Ltd v Arcos Ltd [1932] UKHL 2 is a landmark House of Lords case on English contract law where the court first began to move away from a strict, literal interpretation of the terms of a contract, and instead interpreted it with a view to preserve the bargain  The Court ruled that judges may imply terms into a contract based on the past dealings of the parties rather than void the agreement 
Lord Wright stated in this case that people who give good consideration can bind themselves to a duty to negotiate in good faith, but this view was controversially rejected in a later House of Lords case, Walford v Miles (1992) Hillas & Company were merchants purchasing timber from Arcos  Hillas and Arcos reached an agreement to purchase 22,000 standards of timber, under the specific condition that they should also have the option of entering into a contract with Arcos to purchase 100,000 standards the following year with a 5% reduction on price  Arcos refused to sell them the 100,000 standards the following year  Hillas was successful at trial, which Arcos appealed successfully to the Court of Appeal 

See also
G Scammell & Nephew Ltd v Ouston [1941] 1 AC 251
Smith v Hughes (1871) LR 6 QB 597
Hartog v Colin & Shields [1939] 3 All ER 566
Frederick E Rose (London) Ltd v William H Pim Junior & Co Ltd [1953] 2 QB 450

Notes
External links
Full text of decision from Bailii org
Passage 10:
Fletcher v  Peck
Fletcher v  Peck, 10 U S  (6 Cranch) 87 (1810), was a landmark United States Supreme Court decision in which the Supreme Court first ruled a state law unconstitutional  The decision created a growing precedent for the sanctity of legal contracts and hinted that Native Americans did not hold complete title to their own lands (an idea fully realized in Johnson v  McIntosh) 

Yazoo lands sales
Following the Treaty of Paris ending the American Revolution, Georgia claimed possession of the Yazoo lands, a 54,000 sq mi (140,000 km2) region of the Indian Reserve, west of its own territory  The land later became the northern part of the states of Alabama and Mississippi 
In 1795, the Georgia legislature divided the area into four tracts  The state then sold the tracts to four separate land development companies for $500,000, about $0 014 per acre, a bargain even at 1790 prices  The Georgia legislature overwhelmingly approved this land grant, known as the Yazoo Land Act of 1795  However, it was later revealed that the Yazoo Land Act had been approved in return for bribes in a scandal known as the Yazoo Land Scandal  The voters rejected most of the incumbents in the next election; the new legislature, reacting to the public outcry, repealed the law and voided the transactions made under it 
Robert Fletcher and especially John Peck were speculators in the Yazoo lands  Fletcher bought a tract of land from Peck after the 1795 act was repealed  Fletcher, in 1803, brought a suit against Peck, claiming that Peck had not had clear title to the land when he sold it 
There was collusion between the two  Both would have their land secured if the Supreme Court decided that Native Americans did not hold original title  Fletcher set out to win the case 

Court ruling
The Supreme Court unanimously (with a separate concurring opinion written by William Johnson) ruled that the legislature's repeal of the law was unconstitutional  John Marshall wrote that the sale was a binding contract, which under Article I, Section 10, Clause I (the Contract Clause) of the Constitution, cannot be invalidated even if it is illegally secured 
The ruling lent further protection to property rights against popular pressure and is the earliest case of the Court asserting its right to invalidate state laws which are in conflict with or are otherwise contrary to the Constitution  A later Chief Justice, William H  Rehnquist, wrote that Fletcher v  Peck "represented an attempt by Chief Justice Marshall to extend the protection of the contract clause to infant business" 

See also
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 10
Yazoo land scandal
Context 3: Passage 1:
Picardy Spaniel
The Picardy Spaniel is a breed of dog developed in France for use as a gundog  It is related to the Blue Picardy Spaniel, and still has many similarities, but the Picardy Spaniel is the older of the two breeds  It is thought to be one of the two oldest continental spaniel breeds and was favoured by the French nobility, remaining popular for hunting after the French Revolution due to its weather resistant coat that enabled it to hunt in a variety of conditions and terrain  However its popularity waned following the influx of English hunting breeds in the early 20th century  Slightly smaller than an English Setter but larger than most of its spaniel cousins, it has no major health issues although as with many breeds with pendulous ears, it can be prone to ear infections 

History
The French Spaniel and the Picardy Spaniel are speculated to have stemmed from the Chien d' Oysel described in the writings of Gaston Phoebus  Hunting during this period in France was one of the favourite sports of the nobility and the French type of Spaniel became the favourite hunting dog of the French Royalty  The breed can be seen in paintings dating from this period by artists Alexandre-François Desportes and Jean-Baptiste Oudry  They were also the first breed of dog to be admitted into salons The breed became more popular still following the French Revolution and the aftermath in which hunting was no longer restricted to the nobility  Although spread throughout France, a large concentration was located in the north west where the weather resistant coat of the breed made it ideal for the wooded and swampy conditions  During the early 19th century, British hunters crossed the channel to hunt in the grounds of north west France  The British brought their own hunting dogs, and this resulted in a change of preference as French hunters switched to English breeds and caused a major blow to the existence of the Picardy Spaniel  In addition the infusion of blood from the English Setter into the local spaniel population created the Blue Picardy Spaniel 

Recognition
The Epagneul Picard Club was formed in 1921 and was merged with the Club of Blue Picardy Spaniel on 28 July 1937  A further merger took place on 21 May 1980 when these clubs merged with the Pont-Audemer Club to form the Club des Epagneuls Picards, Bleus de Picardie & Pont Audemer The Picardy Spaniel is recognised by a variety of Kennel Clubs and associations including the North American Kennel Club, American Rare Breed Association, United Kennel Club, and the Fédération Cynologique Internationale  All four associations use the standard as set by the FCI  It is also recognised by the Continental Kennel Club, but unlike the closely related Blue Picardy Spaniel, it is not recognised by the Canadian Kennel Club 

Description
Appearance
Typical examples of the breed measure between 22–24 inches (56–61 cm) at the withers, with the average weight between 20–25 kilograms (44–55 lb)  The breed is similar in size to the English Setter, although is slightly smaller  Of the Spaniel type breeds, only the Large Münsterländer and Drentse Patrijshond are recognised as possibly growing to larger sizes, with the Drentse measuring 21 5–25 5 in (55–65 cm), and the Münsterländer slightly smaller with a narrower range at 23–25 in (58–64 cm) The breed has a squarely built muscular body and  an oval shaped head with a long muzzle and long ears that hang fairly low  Its coat can vary in colours from chocolate, chestnut brown and white with sandy coloured markings on the head and white or grey spots on the legs  Its hair is abundant with a slight wave, enabling it to work in dense cover and even in water 

Temperament
The Picardy Spaniel is a docile breed of dog and is fond of playing with children and bonds well with their master  It is described as having a gentle sociable nature, possessing a good character with a laid-back attitude, and being relatively easy to train  In France, the breed is used for hunting in wooded areas for pheasants, and in swamps for snipes  However it can also be used for hunting ducks, hares and rabbits  The breed excels at hunting in marshes and will not hesitate to jump into water  It can also adequately serve as a retriever should it be required  The dog is content with a small amount of space and could suit life in the city, but also loves open spaces 

Health
The Picardy Spaniel has no known hereditary health problems, and has an average lifespan of 14 years  However being a hunting spaniel, the breed is prone to ear infections  These infections are common among dogs with pendulous ears, including Basset Hounds and other breeds of spaniel  Overfeeding a Picardy Spaniel may lead to
overweight 
Passage 2:
List of goat breeds
Goats - farm animals of domestic goat (Capra hircus) species, small ruminants - are widespread throughout the world and are used in almost any natural and climatic conditions, even those where other productive animals cannot live  Different breeds of goats are adapted to different livestock systems - from small herds of 3-5 heads on meager grazing to large intensive livestock farms, from year-round grazing to fully stable housing, with many intermediate variations between them  Goats are a source of several types of products, of which the main ones are milk, meat and wool  Among the goat breeds there are highly productive specialized, dual-triple-use and universal breeds  External differences between breeds are represented by many major and minor traits that vary in a very wide range  Goat breeds (especially dairy goats) are some of the oldest defined animal breeds for which breed standards and production records have been kept  Selective breeding of goats generally focuses on improving production of fiber, meat, dairy products or goatskin  Breeds are generally classified based on their primary use, though there are several breeds which are considered dual- or multi-purpose 

List
Passage 3:
Beaglier
This is a list of common dog crossbreeds  These are crossbreed dogs created deliberately by crossing two purebred dogs  Some are known as designer dogs and are bred as companion dogs, often given portmanteau names derived from those of the parent breeds; others are bred to combine specific working qualities inherent in the parent breeds 

Crossbreeds
See also
Dog crossbreed
List of dog breeds
Mongrel
Passage 4:
Beagle
The beagle is a breed of  small scent hound, similar in appearance to the much larger foxhound  The beagle was developed primarily for hunting hare, known as beagling  Possessing a great sense of smell and superior tracking instincts, the beagle is the primary breed used as a detection dog for prohibited agricultural imports and foodstuffs in quarantine around the world  The beagle is intelligent and is a popular pet due to its size, good temper, and a lack of inherited health problems 
The modern breed was developed in Great Britain around the 1830s from several breeds, including the Talbot Hound, the North Country Beagle, the Southern Hound, and possibly the Harrier 
Beagles have been depicted in popular culture since Elizabethan times in literature and paintings and more recently in film, television, and comic books 

History
The origin of the beagle is not known  In the 11th century, William the Conqueror brought the St  Hubert Hound and the Talbot hound to Britain  In Britain, both of these strains were then crossed with Greyhounds to give them speed and stamina for deer hunting  Beagles are similar to the Harrier and the extinct Southern Hound, though they are smaller and slower 
From medieval times, beagle was used as a generic description for the smaller hounds, though these dogs differed considerably from the modern breed  Miniature breeds of beagle-type dogs were known from the times of Edward II and Henry VII, who both had packs of Glove Beagles, so named since they were small enough to fit on a glove, and Queen Elizabeth I kept a breed known as a Pocket Beagle, which stood 8 to 9 inches (20 to 23 cm) at the shoulder  Small enough to fit in a "pocket" or saddlebag, they rode along on the hunt  The larger hounds would run the prey to ground, then the hunters would release the small dogs to continue the chase through underbrush  Elizabeth I referred to the dogs as her singing beagles and often entertained guests at her royal table by letting her Pocket Beagles cavort amid their plates and cups  19th-century sources refer to these breeds interchangeably and it is possible that the two names refer to the same small variety  In George Jesse's Researches into the History of the British Dog from 1866, the early 17th-century poet and writer Gervase Markham is quoted referring to the beagle as small enough to sit on a man's hand and to the: little small mitten-beagle, which may be companion for a ladies kirtle, and in the field will run as cunningly as any hound whatere, only their musick is very small like reeds 
By the 18th century, two breeds had been developed for hunting hare and rabbit: the Southern Hound and the North Country Beagle (or Northern Hound)  The Southern Hound, a tall, heavy dog with a square head, and long, soft ears, was common from south of the River Trent and probably closely related to the Talbot Hound  Though slow, it had stamina and an excellent scenting ability  The North Country Beagle, possibly a cross between an offshoot of the Talbot stock and a Greyhound, was bred chiefly in Yorkshire and was common in the northern counties  It was smaller than the Southern Hound, less heavy-set, and with a more pointed muzzle  It was faster than its southern counterpart but its scenting abilities were less well-developed Standards for the Pocket Beagle were drawn up as late as 1901; these genetic lines are now extinct, although modern breeders have attempted to recreate the variety 

Development of the modern breed
Reverend Phillip Honeywood established a beagle pack in Essex in the 1830s and it is believed that this pack formed the basis for the modern breed  Although details of the pack's lineage are not recorded, it is thought that North Country Beagles and Southern Hounds were strongly represented; William Youatt suspected that Harriers formed a good majority of the beagle's bloodline, but the origin of the Harrier is itself obscure  Honeywood's Beagles were small, standing at about 10 inches (25 cm) at the shoulder, and pure white according to John Mills (writing in The Sportsman's Library in 1845)  Prince Albert and Lord Winterton also had Beagle packs around this time, and royal favor no doubt led to some revival of interest in the breed, but Honeywood's pack was regarded as the finest of the three 
Although credited with the development of the modern breed, Honeywood concentrated on producing dogs for hunting and it was left to Thomas Johnson to refine the breeding to produce dogs that were both attractive and capable hunters  Two strains were developed: the rough-coated and smooth-coated varieties  The rough-coated beagle survived until the beginning of the 20th century, and there were even records of one making an appearance at a dog show as late as 1969, but this variety is now extinct, having probably been absorbed into the standard beagle bloodline In the 1840s, a standard beagle type was beginning to develop; the distinction between the North Country Beagle and Southern Hound had been lost, but there was still a large variation in size, character, and reliability among the emerging packs  In 1856, "Stonehenge" (the pseudonym of John Henry Walsh), writing in the Manual of British Rural Sports, was still dividing beagles into four varieties: the medium beagle; the dwarf or lapdog beagle; the fox beagle (a smaller, slower version of the Foxhound); and the rough-coated or terrier beagle, which he classified as a cross between any of the other varieties and one of the Scottish terrier breeds  Stonehenge also gives the start of a standard description:

In size the beagle measures from 10 inches, or even less, to 15  In shape they resemble the old southern hound in miniature, but with more neatness and beauty; and they also resemble that hound in style of hunting 
By 1887 the threat of extinction was on the wane: there were 18 beagle packs in England  The Beagle Club was formed in 1890 and the first standard drawn up at the same time  The following year the Association of Masters of Harriers and Beagles was formed  Both organisations aimed to further the best interests of the breed, and both were keen to produce a standard type of beagle  By 1902, the number of packs had risen to 44 

Export
Beagles were in the United States by the 1840s at the latest, but the first dogs were imported strictly for hunting and were of variable quality  Since Honeywood had only started breeding in the 1830s, it is unlikely these dogs were representative of the modern breed, and the description of them as looking like straight-legged Dachshunds with weak heads has little resemblance to the standard  Serious attempts at establishing a quality bloodline began in the early 1870s when General Richard Rowett from Illinois imported some dogs from England and began breeding  Rowett's Beagles are believed to have formed the models for the first American standard, drawn up by Rowett, L  H  Twadell, and Norman Ellmore in 1887  The beagle was accepted as a breed by the American Kennel Club (AKC) in 1885  In the 20th century the breed has spread worldwide 

Popularity
On its formation, the Association of Masters of Harriers and Beagles took over the running of a regular show at Peterborough that had started in 1889, and the Beagle Club in the UK held its first show in 1896  The regular showing of the breed led to the development of a uniform type, and the beagle continued to prove a success up until the outbreak of World War I when all shows were suspended  After the war, the breed was again struggling for survival in the UK: the last of the Pocket Beagles was probably lost during this time, and registrations fell to an all-time low  A few breeders (notably Reynalton Kennels) managed to revive interest in the dog and by World War II, the breed was once again doing well  Registrations dropped again after the end of the war but almost immediately recovered As purebred dogs, beagles have always been more popular in the United States and Canada than in their native country England  The National Beagle Club of America was formed in 1888 and by 1901 a beagle had won a Best in Show title  As in the UK, activity during World War I was minimal, but the breed showed a much stronger revival in the U S  when hostilities ceased  In 1928 it won a number of prizes at the Westminster Kennel Club's show and by 1939 a beagle – Champion Meadowlark Draughtsman – had captured the title of top-winning American-bred dog for the year   On 12 February 2008, a beagle, K-Run's Park Me In First (Uno), won the Best In Show category at the Westminster Kennel Club show for the first time in the competition's history  In North America they have been consistently in the top-ten most-popular breeds for over 30 years  From 1953 to 1959 the beagle was ranked No  1 on the list of the American Kennel Club's registered breeds; in 2005 and 2006 it ranked 5th out of the 155 breeds registered  In the UK they are not quite so popular, placing 28th and 30th in the rankings of registrations with the Kennel Club in 2005 and 2006 respectively  In the United States the beagle ranked 4th most popular breed in 2012 and 2013, behind the Labrador Retriever (#1), German Shepherd (#2), and Golden Retriever (#3) breeds 

Name
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first mention of the beagle by name in English literature dates from c  1475 in The Squire of Low Degree  The origin of the word "beagle" is uncertain, although it has been suggested that the word derives from the French begueule which means "gate throat" It is not known why the black and tan Kerry Beagle, present in Ireland since Celtic times, has the beagle description, since at 22 to 24 inches (56 to 61 cm) it is significantly taller than the modern day beagle, and in earlier times was even larger  Some writers suggest that the beagle's scenting ability may have come from cross-breeding earlier strains with the Kerry Beagle  Originally used for hunting stags, it is today used for hare and drag hunting 

Appearance
The general appearance of the beagle resembles a miniature Foxhound, but the head is broader and the muzzle shorter, the expression completely different and the legs shorter in proportion to the body   They are generally between 13 and 16 inches (33 and 41 cm) high at the withers and weigh between 18 and 35 lb (8 2 and 15 9 kg), with females being slightly smaller than males on average 
They have a smooth, somewhat domed skull with a medium-length, square-cut muzzle, and a black (or occasionally liver) gumdrop nose  The jaw is strong, and the teeth scissor together with the upper teeth fitting perfectly over the lower teeth  Both sets align square to the jaw  The eyes are large, hazel or brown, with a mild, hound-like pleading look  The large ears are long, soft, and low-set, turning towards the cheeks slightly and rounded at the tips  Beagles have a strong, medium-length neck (which is long enough for them to easily bend to the ground to pick up a scent), with little folding in the skin but some evidence of a dewlap; a broad chest narrowing to a tapered abdomen and waist and a long, slightly curved tail (known as the "stern") tipped with white  The white tip, known as the flag, was bred for selectively, as the tail remains easily seen when the dog's head is down following a scent  The tail does not curl over the back, but is held upright when the dog is active  The beagle has a muscular body and a medium-length, smooth, hard coat  The front legs are straight and carried under the body while the rear legs are muscular and well bent at the stifles 
The tricolored beagle—white with large black areas and light brown shading—is the most common   Tricolored beagles occur in a number of shades, from the "Classic Tri" with a jet black saddle (also known as "Blackback"), to the "Dark Tri" (where faint brown markings are intermingled with more prominent black markings), to the "Faded Tri" (where faint black markings are intermingled with more prominent brown markings)  Some tricolored dogs have a broken pattern, sometimes referred to as pied  These dogs have mostly white coats with patches of black and brown hair  Tricolor beagles are almost always born black and white  The white areas are typically set by eight weeks, but the black areas may fade to brown as the puppy matures   (The brown may take between one and two years to fully develop ) Some beagles gradually change colour during their lives, and may lose their black markings entirely 
Two-colour varieties always have a white base colour with areas of the second colour  Tan and white is the most common two-colour variety, but there is a wide range of other colours including lemon, a very light tan; red, a reddish, almost orange, brown; and liver, a darker brown, and black  Liver is not common and is not permitted in some standards; it tends to occur with yellow eyes  Ticked or mottled varieties may be either white or black with different coloured flecks (ticking), such as the blue-mottled or bluetick beagle, which has spots that appear to be a midnight-blue colour, similar to the colouring of the Bluetick Coonhound  Some tricolour beagles also have ticking of various colours in their white areas 

Sense of smell
Alongside the Bloodhound and Basset Hound, the beagle has one of the best developed senses of smell of any dog  In the 1950s, John Paul Scott and John Fuller began a 13-year study of canine behavior  As part of this research, they tested the scenting abilities of various breeds by putting a mouse in a one-acre field and timing how long it took the dogs to find it  The beagles found it in less than a minute while Fox Terriers took 15 minutes and Scottish Terriers failed to find it at all  The long ears and large lips of the beagle probably assist in trapping the scents close to the nose 

Variations
Breed varieties
The American Kennel Club recognises two separate varieties of beagle: the 13-inch for hounds less than 13 inches (33 cm), and the 15-inch for those between 13 and 15 inches (33 and 38 cm)  The Canadian Kennel Club recognises a single type, with a height not exceeding 15 inches (38 cm)   The Kennel Club (UK) and FCI affiliated clubs recognise a single type, with a height of between 13 and 16 inches (33 and 41 cm) 

English and American varieties are sometimes mentioned  However, there is no official recognition from any Kennel Club for this distinction  Beagles fitting the American Kennel Club standard – which disallows animals over 15 inches (38 cm) – are smaller on average than those fitting the Kennel Club standard which allows heights up to 16 inches (41 cm) 
Pocket Beagles are sometimes advertised for sale but while the UK Kennel Club originally specified a standard for the Pocket Beagle in 1901, the variety is now not recognised by any Kennel Club 
A strain known as Patch Hounds was developed by Willet Randall and his family from 1896 specifically for their rabbit hunting ability  They trace their bloodline back to Field Champion Patch, but do not necessarily have a patchwork marking 

Crossbreeds
In the 1850s, John Henry Walsh (Stonehenge) recommended a cross between a Beagle and a Scottish Terrier as a retriever  He found the crossbreed to be a good worker, silent and obedient, but it had the drawback that it was small and could barely carry a hare  More recently, the trend has been for "designer dogs" and one of the most popular has been the Beagle/Pug cross known as a Puggle  Some puppies of this cross are less excitable than a Beagle and with a lower exercise requirement, similar to the Pug parent; but many are highly excitable and require vigorous exercise 

Temperament
The beagle has an even temper and gentle disposition  Described in several breed standards as "merry", they are amiable and typically neither aggressive nor timid, although this depends on the individual  They enjoy company, and although they may initially be standoffish with strangers, they are easily won over  They make poor guard dogs for this reason, although their tendency to bark or howl when confronted with the unfamiliar makes them good watch dogs  In a 1985 study conducted by Ben and Lynette Hart, the beagle was given the highest excitability rating, along with the Yorkshire Terrier, Cairn Terrier, Miniature Schnauzer, West Highland White Terrier, and Fox Terrier They are ranked 72nd in Stanley Coren's The Intelligence of Dogs, as Coren places them among the group with the lowest degree of working/obedience intelligence  Coren's scale, however, does not assess understanding, independence, or creativity 
Beagles are excellent with children and this is one of the reasons they have become popular family pets  Beagles are pack animals; they are prone to separation anxiety, a condition which causes them to destroy things when left unattended   Not all beagles will howl, but most will bark when confronted with strange situations, and some will bay (also referred to as "speaking", "giving tongue", or "opening") when they catch the scent of potential quarry  They also generally get along well with cats and other dogs  They are not too demanding with regard to exercise; their inbred stamina means they do not easily tire when exercised, but they also do not need to be worked to exhaustion before they will rest  Regular exercise helps ward off the weight gain to which the breed is prone 

Health
The typical longevity of beagles is 12–15 years, which is a common lifespan for dogs of their size Beagles may be prone to epilepsy, but this can often be controlled with medication



ground_truth: Miller v. California

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What organization does Sandra Pizzarello and Doctorate have in common?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
John C  Sigler
John C  Sigler  (born 1945) is an American lawyer, gun rights activist, former chair of the Republican State Committee of Delaware and former president of the National Rifle Association (NRA) 
Sigler graduated from Milford High School in 1964 and attended Appalachian State Teacher's College  He earned a bachelors degree in criminal justice administration from Wilmington College in 1981, a Master of Business Administration from Central Michigan University, and a Juris Doctor from Widener University School of Law in 1987  He served in the United States Navy from 1967 to 1971 on the USS George Bancroft (SSBN-643) and USS Hardhead (SS-365), and worked for the police department in Dover, Delaware from 1972 to 1991  He retired as a captain and subsequently worked as a lawyer 
Sigler joined the NRA in 1970 and was elected to the board of directors in 1996  He was named president at the 2007 annual meeting in St  Louis, succeeding Sandra Froman to become the 59th president of the organization  He served two terms and was succeeded by Ron Schmeits in 2009 
In 2013, Sigler abruptly resigned as chair of the Delaware Republican Party 
Passage 2:
Jubilee doctor
A jubilee doctor (Swedish: jubeldoktor, Finnish: riemutohtori, Latin: doctor jubilaris) or golden doctor (German: Goldene Doktor) is in some countries a person who has held a doctorate for 50 years or more  When 50 years have passed, the doctor is invited again by his or her university to the ceremony where the doctorates are conferred and is made jubilee/golden doctor and celebrated as a guest of honour  This custom is common in Germany, Sweden and Finland  In Germany, this ceremony is referred to as the "Golden Promotion" (Goldene Promotion)  In Sweden, a person so honoured who holds, for instance, a doctorate of philosophy, may use the academic title fil jubeldr instead of the regular fil dr 
Passage 3:
Doctorate
A doctorate (from Latin docere, "to teach"), doctor's degree (from Latin doctor, "teacher"), or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi ("licence to teach")  In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific profession  There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to scientific disciplines 
In the United States and some other countries, there are also professional degrees that include "doctor" in their name and are classified as doctorates  
Many universities also award honorary doctorates to individuals deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or  other contributions to the university or society 

History
Middle Ages
The term doctor derives from Latin, meaning "teacher" or "instructor"  The doctorate (Latin: doctoratus) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin (licentia docendi) at a university  Its roots can be traced to the early church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers, and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible The right to grant a licentia docendi (i e  the doctorate) was originally reserved to the Catholic Church, which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance, and pay a fee  The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed access—at that time essentially free of charge—to all able applicants  Applicants were tested for aptitude  This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the universities, slowly distancing themselves from the Church  In 1213 the right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris, where it became a universal license to teach (licentia ubique docendi)  However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (baccalaureus), the latter was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the master's degree (magister) and doctorate, both of which now became the accepted teaching qualifications  According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150 by the University of Paris George Makdisi theorizes that the ijazah issued in early Islamic madrasahs was the origin of the doctorate later issued in medieval European universities  Alfred Guillaume and Syed Farid al-Attas agree that there is a resemblance between the ijazah and the licentia docendi  However, Toby Huff and others reject Makdisi's theory  Devin J  Stewart notes a difference in the granting authority (individual professor for the ijzazah and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate) 

17th and 18th centuries
The doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century (likely c  1652)  The term "philosophy" does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy  Still, it is used in a broader sense under its original Greek meaning: "love of wisdom"  In most of Europe, all fields (history, philosophy, social sciences, mathematics, and natural philosophy/natural sciences) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as the "faculty of philosophy"  The Doctorate of Philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though most degrees are not for the study of philosophy  Chris Park explains that it was not until formal education and degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the Doctorate of Philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree, abbreviated as Dr  phil  (similar to Ph D  in Anglo-American countries)  Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in philosophy and doctorates in the natural sciences, abbreviated as Dr  rer  nat  and also doctorates in the social/political sciences, abbreviated as Dr  rer  pol , similar to the other traditional doctorates in medicine (Dr  med ) and law (Dr  jur ) 
University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild  The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations  Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree 
University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men  The first women to be granted doctorates were Juliana Morell in 1608 at Lyons or maybe Avignon (she "defended theses" in 1606 or 1607, although claims that she received a doctorate in canon law in 1608 have been discredited), Elena Cornaro Piscopia in 1678 at the University of Padua, Laura Bassi in 1732 at Bologna University, Dorothea Erxleben in 1754 at Halle University and  María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda in 1785 at Complutense University, Madrid 

Modern times
The use and meaning of the doctorate have changed over time and are subject to regional variations  For instance, until the early 20th century, few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders  After that time, the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread  Universities' shift to research-oriented education (based upon the scientific method, inquiry, and observation) increased the doctorate's importance  Today, a research doctorate (PhD) or its equivalent (as defined in the US by the NSF) is generally a prerequisite for an academic career  However, many recipients do not work in academia 

Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward  The first professional doctorate offered in the United States was the M D  at Kings College (now Columbia University) after the medical school's founding in 1767  However, this was not a professional doctorate in the modern American sense  It was awarded for further study after the qualifying Bachelor of Medicine (M B ) rather than a qualifying degree  The MD became the standard first degree in medicine in the US during the 19th century, but as a three-year undergraduate degree  It did not become established as a graduate degree until 1930  As the standard qualifying degree in medicine, the MD gave that profession the ability (through the American Medical Association, established in 1847 for this purpose) to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice In the shape of the German-style PhD, the modern research degree was first awarded in the US in 1861, at Yale University  This differed from the MD in that the latter was a vocational "professional degree" that trained students to apply or practice knowledge rather than generate it, similar to other students in vocational schools or institutes  In the UK, research doctorates initially took higher doctorates in Science and Letters, first introduced at Durham University in 1882  The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada and was instituted at all British universities from 1917  The first (titled a DPhil) was awarded at the University of Oxford Following the MD, the next professional doctorate in the US, the Juris Doctor (JD), was established by the University of Chicago in 1902  However, it took a long time to be accepted, not replacing the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) until the 1960s, by which time the LLB was generally taken as a graduate degree  Notably, the JD and LLB curriculum were identical, with the degree being renamed as a doctorate, and it (like the MD) was not equivalent to the PhD, raising criticism that it was "not a 'true Doctorate'"  When professional doctorates were established in the UK in the late 1980s and early 1990s, they did not follow the US model  Still, they were set up as research degrees at the same level as PhDs but with some taught components and a professional focus for research work Now usually called higher doctorates in the United Kingdom, the older-style doctorates take much longer to complete since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects  These doctorates are less common than the PhD in some countries and are often awarded honoris causa  The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU   It involves either a long new thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications  The habilitation (highest available degree) demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate supportive funding  The habilitation follows the research doctorate, and in Germany, it can be a requirement for appointment as a Privatdozent or professor 

Types
Since the Middle Ages, the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities have proliferated throughout the world  Practice varies from one country to another  While a doctorate usually entitles a person to be addressed as "doctor", the use of the title varies widely depending on the type and the associated occupation 

Research doctorate
Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of publishable academic research, at least in principle, in a peer-reviewed academic journal  The best-known research degree title in the English-speaking world, is Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated Ph D , PhD or, at some British universities, DPhil) awarded in many countries throughout the world  In the U S , for instance, although the most typical research doctorate is the PhD, accounting for about 98% of the research doctorates awarded, there are more than 15 other names for research doctorates  Other research-oriented doctorates (some having a professional practice focus) include the Doctor of Education (Ed D  or EdD), the Doctor of Science (D Sc  or Sc D ),
Doctor of Arts (D A ), Doctor of Juridical Science (J S D  or S J D ), Doctor of Musical Arts (D M A ), Doctor of Professional Studies/Professional Doctorate (ProfDoc or DProf), Doctor of Public Health (Dr P H ), Doctor of Social Science (D S Sc  or DSocSci), Doctor of Management (D M  or D Mgt ), Doctor of Business Administration (D B A   or DBA), the UK Doctor of Management (DMan), various doctorates in engineering, such as the US Doctor of Engineering (D Eng , D E Sc  or D E S , also awarded in Japan and South Korea), the UK Engineering Doctorate (EngD), the German engineering doctorate Doktoringenieur (Dr -Ing ) the German natural science doctorate Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr  rer  nat ) and the economics and social science doctorate Doctor rerum politicarum (Dr  rer  pol )  The UK Doctor of Medicine (MD or MD (Res)) and Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) are research doctorates  The Doctor of Theology (Th D , D Th  or ThD), Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT) and the Doctor of Sacred Theology (S T D , or D S Th ) are research doctorates in theology Criteria for research doctorates vary but typically require completion of a substantial body of original research, which may be presented as a single thesis or dissertation, or as a portfolio of shorter project reports (thesis by publication)  The submitted dissertation is assessed by a committee of, typically, internal, and external examiners  It is then typically defended by the candidate during an oral examination (called viva (voce) in the UK and India) by the committee, which then awards the degree unconditionally, awards the degree conditionally (ranging from corrections in grammar to additional research), or denies the degree  Candidates may also be required to complete graduate-level courses in their field and study research methodology 
Criteria for admission to doctoral programs vary  Students may be admitted with a bachelor's degree in the U S  and the U K   However, elsewhere, e g  in Finland and many other European countries, a master's degree is required  The time required to complete a research doctorate varies from three years, excluding undergraduate study, to six years or more 

Licentiate
Licentiate degrees vary widely in their meaning, and in a few countries are doctoral-level qualifications  Sweden awards the licentiate degree as a two-year qualification at the doctoral level and the doctoral degree (PhD) as a four-year qualification  Sweden originally abolished the Licentiate in 1969 but reintroduced it in response to demands from business  Finland also has a two-year doctoral level licentiate degree, similar to Sweden's  Outside of Scandinavia, the licentiate is usually a lower-level qualification  In Belgium, the licentiate was the basic university degree prior to the Bologna Process and was equivalent to a bachelor's degree  In France and other countries, it is the bachelor's-level qualification in the Bologna process  In the Pontifical system, the Licentiate in Sacred Theology (STL) is equivalent to an advanced master's degree, or the post-master's coursework required in preparation for a doctorate (i e  similar in level to the Swedish/Finnish licentiate degree)  While other licences (such as the Licence in Canon Law) are at the level of master's degrees 

Higher doctorate and post-doctoral degrees
A higher tier of research doctorates may be awarded based on a formally submitted portfolio of published research of an exceptionally high standard  Examples include the Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD), Doctor of Divinity (DD), Doctor of Letters (DLitt or LittD), Doctor of Law or Laws (LLD), and Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the traditional doctorates in Scandinavia 
The habilitation teaching qualification (facultas docendi or "faculty to teach") under a university procedure with a thesis and an exam is commonly regarded as belonging to this category in Germany, Austria, France, Liechtenstein, Switzerland, Poland, etc  The degree developed in Germany in the 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation"  In many federal states of Germany, the habilitation results in an award of a formal "Dr  habil " degree or the holder of the degree may add "habil " to their research doctorate such as "Dr  phil  habil " or "Dr  rer  nat  habil " In some European universities, especially in German-speaking countries, the degree is insufficient to have teaching duties without professor supervision (or teaching and supervising PhD students independently) without an additional teaching title such as Privatdozent   In Austria, the habilitation bestows the graduate with the facultas docendi, venia legendi  Since 2004, the honorary title of "Privatdozent" (before this, completing the habilitation resulted in appointment as a civil servant)  In many Central and Eastern Europe countries, the degree gives venia legendi, Latin for "the permission to lecture", or ius docendi, "the right to teach", a specific academic subject at universities for a lifetime  The French academic system used to have a higher doctorate, called the "state doctorate" (doctorat d'État), but, in 1984, it was superseded by the habilitation (Habilitation à diriger des recherches, "habilitation to supervise (doctoral and post-doctoral) research", abbreviated HDR) which is the prerequisite to supervise PhDs and to apply to Full Professorships 
While this section has focused on earned qualifications conferred in virtue of published work or the equivalent, a higher doctorate may also be presented on an honorary basis by a university — at its own initiative or after a nomination — in recognition of public prestige, institutional service, philanthropy, or professional achievement  In a formal listing of qualifications, and often in other contexts, an honorary higher doctorate will be identified using language like "DCL, honoris causa", "HonLLD", or "LittD h c " 

Professional doctorate
Depending on the country, professional doctorates may also be research degrees at the same level as PhDs  The relationship between research and practice is considered important and professional degrees with little or no research content are typically aimed at professional performance  Many professional doctorates are named "Doctor of [subject name] and abbreviated using the form "D[subject abbreviation]" or "[subject abbreviation]D", or may use the more generic titles "Professional Doctorate", abbreviated "ProfDoc" or "DProf", "Doctor of Professional Studies" (DPS)  or "Doctor of Professional Practice" (DPP) In the US, professional doctorates (formally "doctor's degree – professional practice" in government classifications) are defined by the US Department of Education's National Center for Educational Statistics as degrees that require a minimum of six years of university-level study (including any pre-professional bachelor's or associate degree) and meet the academic requirements for professional licensure in the discipline  The definition for a professional doctorate does not include a requirement for either a dissertation or study beyond master's level, in contrast to the definition for research doctorates ("doctor's degree – research/scholarship")  However, individual programs may have different requirements  There is also a category of "doctor's degree – other" for doctorates that do not fall into either the "professional practice" or "research/scholarship" categories  All of these are considered doctoral degrees In contrast to the US, many countries reserve the term "doctorate" for research degrees  If, as in Canada and Australia, professional degrees bear the name "Doctor of    ", etc , it is made clear that these are not doctorates  Examples of this include Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD), Doctor of Medicine (MD), Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP), and Juris Doctor (JD)  Contrariwise, for example, research doctorates like Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Education (EdD) and Doctor of Social Science (DSS) qualify as full academic doctorates in Canada though they normally incorporate aspects of professional practice in addition to a full dissertation  In the Philippines, the University of the Philippines Open University offers a Doctor of Communication (DComm) professional doctorate All doctorates in the UK and Ireland are third cycle qualifications in the Bologna Process, comparable to US research doctorates  Although all doctorates are research degrees, professional doctorates normally include taught components, while the name PhD/DPhil is normally used for doctorates purely by thesis  Professional, practitioner, or practice-based doctorates such as the DClinPsy, MD, DHSc, EdD, DBA, EngD and DAg are full academic doctorates  They are at the same level as the PhD in the national qualifications frameworks; they are not first professional degrees but are "often post-experience qualifications" in which practice is considered important in the research context  In 2009 there were 308 professional doctorate programs in the UK, up from 109 in 1998, with the most popular being the EdD (38 institutions), DBA (33), EngD/DEng (22), MD/DM (21), and DClinPsy/DClinPsych/ClinPsyD (17)  Similarly, in Australia, the term "professional doctorate" is sometimes applied to the Scientiae Juridicae Doctor (SJD), which, like the UK professional doctorates, is a research degree 

Honorary doctorate
When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or philanthropic efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree honoris causa ('for the sake of the honor'), waiving the usual requirements for granting the degree  Some universities do not award honorary degrees, for example, Cornell University, the University of Virginia, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

National variations
Argentina
In Argentina the doctorate (doctorado) is the highest academic degree  The intention is that candidates produce original contributions in their field knowledge within a frame of academic excellence  A dissertation or thesis is prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director  It is reviewed by a Doctoral Committee composed of examiners external to the program and at least one examiner external to the institution  The degree is conferred after a successful dissertation defence  In 2006, there were approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees  Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation, an agency in Argentina's Ministry of Education, Science and Technology 

Brazil
Doctoral candidates are normally required to have a master's degree in a related field  Exceptions are based on their individual academic merit  A second and a third foreign language are other common requirements, although the requirements regarding proficiency commonly are not strict  The admissions process varies by institution  Some require candidates to take tests while others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview only  In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant 
Requirements usually include satisfactory performance in advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam and submitting a thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge  The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external  After completion, which normally consumes 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of Doutor (Doctor) followed by the main area of specialization, e g  Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Ciências da Computação (Doctor of Computer Sciences), Doutor em Filosofia (Doctor of Philosophy), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering) or Doutor em Medicina (Doctor of Medicine)  The generic title of Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences) is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i e  Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc )
All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free (mandated by the Brazilian constitution)  Some graduate students are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico) and CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior)  Personal scholarships are provided by the various FAP's (Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa) at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of São Paulo, FAPERJ in the state of Rio de Janeiro and FAPEMIG in the state of Minas Gerais  Competition for graduate financial aid is intense and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies  The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil is between US$500 and $1000 
A degree of Doutor usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to a US assistant professor  Progression to full professorship, known as Professor Titular requires that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes additional years  In the federal university system, doctors who are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to the rank of associate professor, then become eligible to take the competitive exam for vacant full professorships  In São Paulo state universities, associate professorships and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship are conditioned on the qualification of Livre-docente and requires, in addition to a doctorate, a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications, a public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and a written exam 
In recent years some initiatives as jointly supervised doctorates (e g  "cotutelles") have become increasingly common in the country, as part of the country's efforts to open its universities to international students 

Denmark
Denmark offers four levels of degrees:

A three-year bachelor's degree program (e g  Bachelor of Arts)
A subsequent, two-year master's degree program (e g  Master of Arts) – in Danish traditionally referred to as a "kandidatgrad", i e  a candidate's degree (e g  cand mag : Candidatus/Candidata Magisterii); usually, both titles appear on the diplomas issued 
A three-year ph d  degree program, which replaced the equivalent licentiat in 1992, and does not grant the holder the right to the title dr  or doktor  At the same time, a minor, two-year research training program, leading to a title of "magister", was phased out to meet the international standards of the Bologna Process 
A 'full' doctor's degree (e g  dr phil , Doctor Philosophiae, for humanistic and STEM subjects) – the higher doctorate – introduced in 1479  The second part of the title communicates the field of study – e g  dr scient (in the sciences), dr jur (in law), dr theol (in theology) For the ph d  degree, the candidates (ph d  students or fellows) – who are required to have a master's degree – enroll at a ph d  school at a university and participate in a research training program, at the end of which they each submit a thesis and defend it orally at a formal disputation  In the disputation, the candidates defend their theses against three official opponents, and may take opponents or questions from those present in the auditorium (ex auditorio) 
For the higher doctorate, the candidate (referred to as præses) is required to submit a thesis of major scientific significance, and to proceed to defend it orally against two official opponents, as well as against any and all opponents from the auditorium (ex auditorio) – no matter how long the proceedings take  The official opponents are required to be full professors  The candidate is required to have a master's degree, but not necessarily a ph d 
The ph d  was introduced as a separate title from the higher doctorate in 1992 as part of the transition to a new degree structure, since the changes in the degree system would otherwise leave a significant amount of academics without immediately recognizable qualifications in international settings  The original vision was purported to be to phase out the higher doctorate in favor of the ph d  (or merge the two), but so far, there are no signs of this happening  Many Danish academics with permanent positions wrote ph d  dissertations in the 90s when the system was new, since at that time, a ph d  degree or equivalent qualifications began to be required for certain academic positions in Denmark  Until the late 20th century, the higher doctorate was a condition for attaining full professorship; it is no longer required per se for any positions, but is considered amply equivalent to the ph d  when applying for academic positions 

Egypt
In Egypt, the highest degree doctorate is awarded by Al-Azhar University est  970, which grants ( العالمية Ālimiyya\ Habilitation) 
The Medical doctorate (abbreviated as M D ) is equivalent to the Ph D  degree  To earn an M D  in a science specialty, one must have a master's degree (M Sc ) (or two diplomas before the introduction of M Sc  degree in Egypt) before applying  The M D  degree involves courses in the field and defending a dissertation  It takes on average three to five years 
Many postgraduate medical and surgical specialties students earn a doctorate  After finishing a 6-year medical school and one-year internship (house officer), physicians and surgeons earn the M B  B Ch  degree, which is equivalent to a US MD degree  They can then apply to earn a master's degree or a speciality diploma, then an MD degree in a specialty 
The Egyptian M D  degree is written using the name of one's specialty  For example, M D  (Geriatrics) means a doctorate in Geriatrics, which is equivalent to a Ph D  in Geriatrics 

Finland
The Finnish requirement for the entrance into doctoral studies is a master's degree or equivalent  All universities have the right to award doctorates  The ammattikorkeakoulu institutes (institutes of higher vocational education that are not universities but often called "Universities of Applied Sciences" in English) do not award doctoral or other academic degrees  The student must:

Demonstrate understanding of their field and its meaning, while preparing to use scientific or scholarly study in their field, creating new knowledge 
Obtain a good understanding of development, basic problems and research methods
Obtain such understanding of the general theory of science and letters and such knowledge of neighbouring research fields that they are able to follow the development of these fields The way to show that these general requirements have been met is:

Complete graduate coursework 
Demonstrate critical and independent thought
Prepare and publicly defend a dissertation (a monograph or a compilation thesis of peer-reviewed articles)  In fine arts, the dissertation may be substituted by works and/or performances as accepted by the faculty Entrance to a doctoral program is available only for holders of a master's degree; there is no honors procedure for recruiting Bachelors  Entrance is not as controlled as in undergraduate studies, where a strict numerus clausus is applied  Usually, a prospective student discusses their plans with a professor  If the professor agrees to accept the student, the student applies for admission  The professor may recruit students to their group  Formal acceptance does not imply funding  The student must obtain funding either by working in a research unit or through private scholarships  Funding is more available for natural and engineering sciences than in letters  Sometimes, normal work and research activity are combined Prior to introduction of the Bologna process, Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1,800 hours) of formal coursework  The requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision to individual universities, which may delegate the authority to faculties or individual professors  In Engineering and Science, required coursework varies between 40 and 70 ECTS 
The duration of graduate studies varies  It is possible to graduate three years after the master's degree, while much longer periods are not uncommon  The study ends with a dissertation, which must present substantial new scientific/scholarly knowledge  The dissertation can either be a monograph or it an edited collection of 3 to 7 journal articles  Students unable or unwilling to write a dissertation may qualify for a licentiate degree by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually summarizing one year of research 
When the dissertation is ready, the faculty names two expert pre-examiners with doctoral degrees from the outside the university  During the pre-examination process, the student may receive comments on the work and respond with modifications  After the pre-examiners approve, the doctoral candidate applies the faculty for permission to print the thesis  When granting this permission, the faculty names the opponent for the thesis defence, who must also be an outside expert, with at least a doctorate  In all Finnish universities, long tradition requires that the printed dissertation hang on a cord by a public university noticeboard for at least ten days prior to for the dissertation defence The doctoral dissertation takes place in public  The opponent and the candidate conduct a formal debate, usually wearing white tie, under the supervision of the thesis supervisor  Family, friends, colleagues and the members of the research community customarily attend the defence  After a formal entrance, the candidate begins with an approximately 20-minute popular lecture (lectio praecursoria), that is meant to introduce laymen to the thesis topic  The opponent follows with a short talk on the topic, after which the pair critically discuss the dissertation  The proceedings take two to three hours  At the end the opponent presents their final statement and reveals whether he/she will recommend that the faculty accept it  Any member of the public then has an opportunity to raise questions, although this is rare  Immediately after the defence, the supervisor, the opponent and the candidate drink coffee with the public  Usually, the attendees of the defence are given the printed dissertation  In the evening, the passed candidate hosts a dinner (Finnish: karonkka) in honour of the opponent  Usually, the candidate invites their family, colleagues and collaborators Doctoral graduates are often Doctors of Philosophy (filosofian tohtori), but many fields retain their traditional titles: Doctor of Medicine (lääketieteen tohtori), Doctor of Science in Technology (tekniikan tohtori), Doctor of Science in Arts (Art and Design), etc 
The doctorate is a formal requirement for a docenture or professor's position, although these in practice require postdoctoral research and further experience  Exceptions may be granted by the university governing board, but this is uncommon, and usually due to other work and expertise considered equivalent 

France
HistoryBefore 1984 three research doctorates existed in France: the State doctorate (doctorat d'État, "DrE", the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (Doctorat de troisième cycle, also called doctorate of specialty, Doctorat de spécialité, created in 1954 and shorter than the State doctorate) and the diploma of doctor-engineer (diplôme de docteur-ingénieur created in 1923), for technical research 
During the first half of the 20th century, following the submission of two theses (primary thesis, thèse principale, and secondary thesis, thèse complémentaire) to the Faculty of Letters (in France, "letters" is equivalent to "humanities") at the University of Paris, the doctoral candidate was awarded the Doctorat ès lettres  There was also the less prestigious "university doctorate" Doctorat d'université which could be received for the submission of a single thesis 
In the 1950s, the Doctorat ès lettres was renamed to Doctorat d'État  In 1954 (for the sciences) and 1958 (for letters and human sciences), the less demanding Doctorat de troisième cycle degree was created on the model of the American Ph D  with the purpose to lessen what had become an increasingly long period of time between the typical students' completion of their Diplôme d'études supérieures, roughly equivalent to a Master of Arts) and their Doctorat d'État After 1984, only one type of doctoral degree remained: the "doctorate" (Doctorat)  A special diploma was created called the "accreditation to supervise research" (Habilitation à diriger des recherches), a professional qualification to supervise doctoral work  (This diploma is similar in spirit to the older State doctorate, and the requirements for obtaining it are similar to those necessary to obtain tenure in other systems ) Before only professors or senior full researchers of similar rank were normally authorized to supervise a doctoral candidate's work  Now habilitation is a prerequisite to the title of professor in university (Professeur des universités) and to the title of Research Director (Directeur de recherche) in national public research agency such as CNRS, INRIA, or INRAE 

AdmissionToday, the doctorate (doctorat) is a research-only degree  It is a national degree and its requirements are fixed by the minister of higher education and research  Only public institutions award the doctorate  It can be awarded in any field of study  The master's degree is a prerequisite  The normal duration is three years  The writing of a comprehensive thesis constitutes the bulk of the doctoral work  While the length of the thesis varies according to the discipline, it is rarely less than 150 pages, and often substantially more  Some 15,000 new doctoral matriculations occur every year and ~10,000 doctorates are awarded Doctoral candidates can apply for a three-year fellowship  The most well known is the Contrat Doctoral (4,000 granted every year with a gross salary of 1758 euros per month as of September 2016) 
Since 2002 candidates follow in-service training, but there is no written examination for the doctorate  The candidate has to write a thesis that is read by two external reviewers  The head of the institution decides whether the candidate can defend the thesis, after considering the external reviews  The jury members are designated by the head of the institution  The candidate's supervisor and the external reviewers are generally jury members  The maximum number of jury members is 8  The defense generally lasts 45 minutes in scientific fields, followed by 1 – 2 and a half hours of questions from the jury or other doctors present  The defense and questions are public  The jury then deliberates in private and then declares the candidate admitted or "postponed"  The latter is rare  New regulations were set in 2016 and do not award distinctions 
The title of doctor (docteur) can also be used by medical and pharmaceutical practitioners who hold a doctor's State diploma (diplôme d'État de docteur, distinct from the doctorat d'État mentioned above)  The diploma is a first-degree 
A guidelines with good practices and legal analysis has been published in 2018 by Association nationale des docteurs (ANDès) & Confédération des Jeunes Chercheurs (CJC) with funding of french Ministry of research 

Germany
Doctoral degrees in Germany are research doctorates and are awarded by a process called Promotion  The concept of a US-style professional doctorate as an entry-level professional qualification does not exist  Most doctorates are awarded with specific Latin designations for the field of research (except for engineering, where the designation is German), instead of a general name for all fields (such as the Ph D )  The most important degrees are:

Dr  rer  nat  (rerum naturalium; natural and formal sciences, i e  physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, computer science and information technology, or psychology);
Dr  phil  (philosophiae; humanities such as philosophy, philology, history, and social sciences such as sociology, political science, or psychology as well);
Dr  iur  (iuris; law);
Dr  oec  (oeconomiae; economics);
Dr  rer  pol  (rerum politicarum; economics, business administration, political science);
Dr  theol  (theologiae; theology);
Dr  med  (medicinae; medicine);
Dr  med  dent  (medicinae dentariae; dentistry);
Dr  med  vet  (medicinae veterinariae; veterinary medicine);
Dr -Ing  (engineering) In medicine, "doctoral" dissertations are often written alongside undergraduate study therefore, European Research Council decided in 2010 that such Dr  med  degrees do not meet the international standards of a Ph D  research degree  The duration of the doctorate depends on the field: a doctorate in medicine may take less than a full-time year to complete; those in other fields, two to six years 
Over fifty doctoral designations exist, many of them rare or no longer in use  As a title, the degree is commonly written in front of the name in abbreviated form, e g , Dr  rer  nat  Max Mustermann or Dr  Max Mustermann, dropping the designation entirely  However, leaving out the designation is only allowed when the doctorate degree is not an honorary doctorate, which must be indicated by Dr  h c  (from Latin honoris causa)  Although the honorific does not become part of the name, holders can demand that the title appear in official documents  The title is not mandatory  The honorific is commonly used in formal letters  For holders of other titles, only the highest title is mentioned  Multiple holders of doctorate degrees can be addressed as Dres  (from Latin doctores)  Professional doctorates obtained in other countries, not requiring a thesis or not being third cycle qualifications under the Bologna process, can only be used postnominally, e g , "Max Mustermann, MD", and do not allow the use of the title Dr  In contrast to English, in which a person's name is preceded by at most one title (except in very ceremonious usage), the formal German mode of address permits several titles in addition to "Herr" or "Frau" (which, unlike "Mr" or "Ms", is not considered a title at all, but an Anrede or "address"), including repetitions in the case of multiple degrees, as in "Frau Prof  Dr  Dr  Schmidt", for a person who would be addressed as "Prof  Schmidt" in English 
In the German university system it is common to write two doctoral theses, the inaugural thesis (Inauguraldissertation), completing a course of study, and the habilitation thesis (Habilitationsschrift), which opens the road to a professorship  Upon completion of the habilitation thesis, a Habilitation is awarded, which is indicated by appending habil  (habilitata/habilitatus) to the doctorate, e g , Dr  rer  nat  habil  Max Mustermann  It is considered as an additional academic qualification rather than an academic degree formally  It qualifies the owner to teach at German universities (facultas docendi)  The holder of a Habilitation receives the authorization to teach a certain subject (venia legendi)  This has been the traditional prerequisite for attaining Privatdozent (PD) and employment as a full university professor  With the introduction of Juniorprofessuren—around 2005—as an alternative track towards becoming a professor at universities (with tenure), Habilitation is no longer the only university career track 

India
In India, doctorates are offered by universities  Entry requirements include master's degree  Some universities consider undergraduate degrees in professional areas such as engineering, medicine or law as qualifications for pursuing doctorate level degrees  Entrance examinations are held for almost all programs  In most universities, coursework duration and thesis is 5–6 years  The most common doctoral degree is Ph D 

Italy
Until the introduction of the dottorato di ricerca in the mid-1980s, the laurea generally constituted the highest academic degree obtainable in Italy  The first institution in Italy to create a doctoral program was Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1927 under the historic name "Diploma di Perfezionamento"  Further, the dottorato di ricerca was introduced by law and presidential decree in 1980, in a reform of academic teaching, training and experimentation in organisation and teaching methods Italy uses a three-level degree system following the Bologna Process  The first-level degree, called a laurea (Bachelor's degree), requires three years and a short thesis  The second-level degree, called a laurea magistrale (Master's degree), is obtained after two additional years, specializing in a branch of the field  This degree requires more advanced thesis work, usually involving academic research or an internship  The final degree is called a dottorato di ricerca (Ph D ) and is obtained after three years of academic research on the subject and a thesis 
Alternatively, after obtaining the laurea or the laurea magistrale, one can complete a "Master's" (first-level Master's after the laurea; second-level Master's after the laurea magistrale) of one or two years, usually including an internship  An Italian "Master's" is not the same as a master's degree; it is intended to be more focused on professional training and practical experience 
Regardless of the field of study, the title for Bachelors Graduate students is Dottore/Dottoressa (abbrev  Dott /Dott ssa, or as Dr ), not to be confused with the title for the Ph D , which is instead Dottore/Dottoressa di Ricerca  A laurea magistrale grants instead the title of Dottore/Dottoressa magistrale  Graduates in the fields of Education, Art and Music are also called Dr  Prof  (or simply Professore) or Maestro  Many professional titles, such as ingegnere (engineer) are awarded only upon passing a post-graduation examination (esame di stato), and registration in the relevant professional association 
The Superior Graduate Schools in Italy (Italian: Scuola Superiore Universitaria), also called Schools of Excellence (Italian: Scuole di Eccellenza) such as Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa and Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies keep their historical "Diploma di Perfezionamento" title by law and MIUR Decree 

Japan
Dissertation-only
Until the 1990s, most natural science and engineering doctorates in Japan were earned by industrial researchers in Japanese companies  These degrees were awarded by the employees' former university, usually after years of research in industrial laboratories  The only requirement is submission of a dissertation, along with articles published in well-known journals  This program is called ronbun hakase (論文博士)  It produced the majority of engineering doctoral degrees from national universities  University-based doctoral programs called katei hakase (課程博士), are gradually replacing these degrees  By 1994, more doctoral engineering degrees were earned for research within university laboratories (53%) than industrial research laboratories (47%)  Since 1978, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) has provided tutorial and financial support for promising researchers in Asia and Africa  The program is called JSPS RONPAKU 

Professional degree
The only professional doctorate in Japan is the Juris Doctor, known as Hōmu Hakushi (法務博士) The program generally lasts two or three years  This curriculum is professionally oriented, but unlike in the US the program does not provide education sufficient for a law license  All candidates for a bar license must pass the bar exam (Shihou shiken), attend the Legal Training and Research Institute and pass the practical exam (Nikai Shiken or Shihou Shushusei koushi) 

Netherlands and Flanders
The traditional academic system of the Netherlands provided basic academic diploma: propaedeuse and three academic degrees: kandidaat (the lowest degree), depending on gender doctorandus or doctoranda (drs ) (with equivalent degrees in engineering – ir  and law – mr ) and doctor (dr )  After successful completion of the first year of university, the student was awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree)  In some fields, this diploma was abolished in the 1980s  In physics and mathematics, the student could directly obtain a kandidaats (candidate) diploma in two years  The candidate diploma was all but abolished by 1989  It used to be attained after completion of the majority of courses of the academic study (usually after completion of course requirements of the third year in the program), after which the student was allowed to begin work on their doctorandus thesis  The successful completion of this thesis conveyed the doctoranda/us title, implying that the student's initial studies were finished  In addition to these 'general' degrees, specific titles equivalent to the doctorandus degree were awarded for law: meester (master) (mr ), and for engineering: ingenieur (engineer)(ir )  Following the Bologna protocol the Dutch adopted the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees  The old candidate's degree was revived to become the bachelor's degree and the doctorandus' (mr and ir degree) were replaced by master's degrees 
Students can only enroll in a doctorate system after completing a research university level master's degree; although dispensation can be granted on a case-by-case basis after scrutiny of the individual's portfolio  The most common way to conduct doctoral studies is to work as promovendus/assistent in opleiding (aio)/onderzoeker in opleiding (oio) (research assistant with additional courses and supervision), perform extensive research and write a dissertation consisting of published articles (over a period of four or more years, averaging about 5 5 to 6)  Research can also be conducted without official research assistant status, for example through a business-sponsored research laboratory 
Every Ph D  thesis has to be promoted by a full university professor or an associate professor  who has the role of principal advisor and holds the right to do so (ius promovendi)  The promotor (professor) determines whether the thesis quality suffices and can be submitted to the committee of experts  A committee of experts in the field review the thesis  Failures at this stage are rare because supervisors withhold inadequate work  The supervisors and promotor lose prestige among their colleagues should they allow a substandard thesis to be submitted 
After reviewer approval, the candidate publishes the thesis (generally more than 100 copies) and sends it to colleagues, friends and family with an invitation to the public defense  The degree is awarded in a formal, public, defense session, in which the thesis is defended against critical questions of the "opposition" (the review committee)  Failure during this session is possible, but rare  Before the defense there may or may not be a public presentation, lasting 10 minutes (e g  Eindhoven University of Technology) to exactly half hour (e g  Delft University of Technology)  The actual defense lasts exactly the assigned time slot (45 minutes to 1 hour exactly depending on the university) after which the defense is stopped by the bedel who closes the process 
The doctor's title is the highest academic title in the Netherlands  In research doctorates the degree is always Ph D  or dr  with no distinction between disciplines  Three Dutch universities of technology (Eindhoven University of Technology, Delft University of Technology, and University of Twente) also award a 2-year (industry oriented) Professional Doctorate in Engineering (PDEng), named EngD from September 2022 onwards  Those who obtained a degree in a foreign country can only use one of the Dutch titles drs , mr , ir , or dr if approved by the Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs though according to the opportunity principle, little effort monitors such frauds  Dutch doctors may use PhD behind their name instead of the uncapitalized shortcut dr  before their name Those who have multiple doctor (dr ) titles may use the title dr mult  Those who have received honoris causa doctorates may use dr h c  before their own name In Belgium's Flemish Community the doctorandus title was only used by those who actually started their doctoral work  Doctorandus is still used as a synonym for a Ph D  student  The licentiaat (licensee) title was in use for a regular graduate until the Bologna reform changed the licentiaat degree to the master's degree (the Bologna reform abolished the two-year kandidaat degree and introduced a three-year academic bachelor's degree instead) 

Russia
In the Russian Empire the academic degree "doctor of the sciences" (doktor nauk) marked the highest academic degree that can be achieved by an examination  (The "doctor nauk" degree was introduced in Russia in 1819, abolished in 1917, and revived in the USSR in 1934 ) This system was generally adopted by the USSR/Russia and many post-Soviet countries  A lower degree, "candidate [doctor] of the sciences" (kandidat nauk; first introduced in the USSR on January 13, 1934, by a decision of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR), is, roughly, the Russian equivalent to the research doctorate in other countries 

Spain
Doctoral degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R D  778/1998), Real Decreto (in Spanish)  They are granted by the university on behalf of the king  Its diploma has the force of a public document  The Ministry of Science keeps a national registry of theses called TESEO  According to the National Institute of Statistics (INE), fewer than 5% of M Sc  degree holders are admitted to Ph D  programmes 

All doctoral programs are research-oriented  A minimum of 4 years of study is required, divided into 2 stages:

A 2-year (or longer) period of studies concludes with a public dissertation presented to a panel of 3 Professors  Upon approval from the university, the candidate receives a Diploma de Estudios Avanzados (part qualified doctor, equivalent to M Sc )  From 2008 it is possible to substitute the former diploma by a recognized master program 
A 2-year (or longer) research period includes extensions for up to 10 years  The student must present a thesis describing a discovery or original contribution  If approved by their thesis director, the study is presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars  Any Doctor attending the public defense is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions  If approved, the candidate receives the doctorate  Four marks used to be granted: Unsatisfactory (Suspenso), Pass (Aprobado), Remarkable (Notable), "Cum laude" (Sobresaliente), and "Summa cum laude" (Sobresaliente Cum Laude)  Those Doctors granted their degree "Summa Cum Laude" were allowed to apply for an "Extraordinary Award" Since September 2012 and regulated by Royal Decree (R D  99/2011) (in Spanish), three marks can be granted: Unsatisfactory (No apto), Pass (Apto) and "Cum laude" (Apto Cum Laude) as maximum mark  In the public defense the doctor is notified if the thesis has passed or not passed  The Apto Cum Laude mark is awarded after the public defense as the result of a private, anonymous vote  Votes are verified by the university  A unanimous vote of the reviewers nominates Doctors granted Apto Cum Laude for an "Extraordinary Award" (Premio Extraordinario de Doctorado) 
In the same Royal Decree the initial 3-year study period was replaced by a Research master's degree (one or two years; Professional master's degrees do not grant direct access to Ph D  Programs) that concludes with a public dissertation called Trabajo de Fin de Máster or Proyecto de Fin de Máster  An approved project earns a master's degree that grants access to a Ph D  program and initiates the period of research 
A doctorate is required in order to teach at the university Only Ph D  holders, Grandees and Dukes can sit and cover their heads in the presence of the King From 1857, Complutense University was the only one in Spain authorised to confer the doctorate  This law remained in effect until 1954, when the University of Salamanca joined in commemoration of its septcentenary  In 1970, the right was extended to all Spanish universities All doctorate holders are reciprocally recognised as equivalent in Germany and Spain (according to the "Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994") 

United Kingdom
History of the UK doctorate
The doctorate has long existed in the UK as, originally, the second degree in divinity, law, medicine and music  But it was not until the late 19th century that the research doctorate, now known as the higher doctorate, was introduced  The first higher doctorate was the Doctor of Science at Durham University, introduced in 1882  This was soon followed by other universities, including the University of Cambridge establishing its ScD in the same year, the University of London transforming its DSc from an advanced study course to a research degree in 1885, and the University of Oxford establishing its Doctor of Letters (DLitt) in 1900 

The PhD was adopted in the UK following a joint decision in 1917 by British universities, although it took much longer for it to become established  Oxford became the first university to institute the new degree, although naming it the DPhil  The PhD was often distinguished from the earlier higher doctorates by distinctive academic dress  At Cambridge, for example, PhDs wear a master's gown with scarlet facings rather than the full scarlet gown of the higher doctors, while the University of Wales gave PhDs crimson gowns rather than scarlet  Professional doctorates were introduced in Britain in the 1980s and 1990s  The earliest professional doctorates were in the social sciences, including the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Education (EdD) and Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy) 

British doctorates today
Today, except for those awarded honoris causa (honorary degrees), all doctorates granted by British universities are research doctorates, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of an extensive and substantial thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university   UK doctorates are categorised as:
Junior doctorates

Subject specialist doctorates – normally PhD/DPhil; the most common form of doctorate
Integrated subject specialist doctorates – integrated PhDs including teaching at master's level
Doctorates by publication – PhD by Published Works; only awarded infrequently
Professional / practice-based / practitioner doctorates – e g  EdD, ProfDoc/DProf, EngD, etc ; usually include taught elements and have an orientation that combines professional and academic aspectsHigher doctorates
e g  DD, LLD, DSc, DLitt; higher level than junior doctorates, usually awarded either for a substantial body of work over an extended period or as honorary degrees The Quality Assurance Agency states in the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies (which covers junior doctorates but not higher doctorates) that:
Doctoral degrees are awarded to students who have demonstrated:
the creation and interpretation of new knowledge, through original research or other advanced scholarship, of a quality to satisfy peer review, extend the forefront of the discipline, and merit publication
a systematic acquisition and understanding of a substantial body of knowledge which is at the forefront of an academic discipline or area of professional practice
the general ability to conceptualise, design and implement a project for the generation of new knowledge, applications or understanding at the forefront of the discipline, and to adjust the project design in the light of unforeseen problems
a detailed understanding of applicable techniques for research and advanced academic enquiry
In the UK, the (junior) doctorate is a qualification awarded at FHEQ level 8/level 12 of the FQHEIS on the national qualifications frameworks  The higher doctorates are stated to be "A higher level of award", which is not covered by the qualifications frameworks 

Subject specialist doctorates
These are the most common doctorates in the UK and are normally awarded as PhDs  While the master/apprentice model was traditionally used for British PhDs, since 2003 courses have become more structured, with students taking courses in research skills and receiving training for professional and personal development  However, the assessment of the PhD remains based on the production of a thesis or equivalent and its defence at a viva voce oral examination, normally held in front of at least two examiners, one internal and one external  Access to PhDs normally requires an upper second class or first class bachelor's degree, or a master's degree  Courses normally last three years, although it is common for students to be initially registered for MPhil degrees and then formally transferred onto the PhD after a year or two  Students who are not considered likely to complete a PhD may be offered the opportunity to complete an MPhil instead Integrated doctorates, originally known as 'New Route PhDs', were introduced from 2000 onwards  These integrate teaching at master's level during the first one or two years of the degree, either alongside research or as a preliminary to starting research  These courses usually offer a master's-level exit degree after the taught courses are completed  While passing the taught elements is often required, examination of the final doctorate is still by thesis (or equivalent) alone  The duration of integrated doctorates is a minimum of four years, with three years spent on the research component In 2013, Research Councils UK issued a 'Statement of Expectations for Postgraduate Training', which lays out the expectations for training in PhDs funded by the research councils  In the latest version (2016), issued together with Cancer Research UK, the Wellcome Trust and the British Heart Foundation, these include the provision of careers advice, in-depth advanced training in the subject area, provision of transferable skills, training in experimental design and statistics, training in good research conduct, and training for compliance with legal, ethical and professional frameworks  The statement also encourages peer-group development through cohort training and/or Graduate schools 

Higher doctorates
Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body of original research undertaken over the course of many years  Typically the candidate submits a collection of previously published, peer-refereed work, which is reviewed by a committee of internal and external academics who decide whether the candidate deserves the doctorate  The higher doctorate is similar in some respects to the habilitation in some European countries  However, the purpose of the award is significantly different  While the habilitation formally determines whether an academic is suitably qualified to be a university professor, the higher doctorate does not qualify the holder for a position but rather recognises their contribution to research Higher doctorates were defined by the UK Council for Graduate Education (UKCGE) in 2013 as:
an award that is at a level above the PhD (or equivalent professional doctorate in the discipline), and that is typically gained not through a defined programme of study but rather by submission of a substantial body of research-based work 
In terms of number of institutions offering the awards, the most common doctorates of this type in UKCGE surveys carried out in 2008 and 2013 were the Doctor of Science (DSc), Doctor of Letters (DLitt), Doctor of Law (LLD), Doctor of Music (DMus) and Doctor of Divinity (DD); in the 2008 survey the Doctor of Technology (DTech) tied with the DD  The DSc was offered by all 49 responding institutions in 2008 and 15 out of 16 in 2013 and the DLitt by only one less in each case, while the DD was offered in 10 responding institutions in 2008 and 3 in 2013  In terms of number of higher doctorates awarded (not including honorary doctorates) the DSc was most popular, but the number of awards was very low: the responding institutions had averaged an award of at most one earned higher doctorate per year over the period 2003–2013 

Honorary degrees
Most British universities award degrees honoris causa to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field  Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending on the candidate's achievements  However, some universities differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates, using the degree of Doctor of the University (D Univ ) for these purposes, and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research 

United States
U S  research doctorates are awarded for advanced study followed by successfully completing and defending independent research presented in the form of a dissertation  Professional degrees may use the term "doctor" in their titles, such as Juris Doctor and Doctor of Medicine, but these degrees rarely contain an independent research component and are not research doctorates  Law school graduates, although awarded the J D  degree, are not normally addressed as "doctor"  In legal studies, the  Doctor of Juridical Science is considered the equivalent to a Ph D 
Many universities offer Ph D /D Phil  followed by a professional doctorate or joint Ph D /D Phil  with a professional degree  Often, Ph D  work is sequential to the professional degree, e g , Ph D /D Phil  in law after a J D  or equivalent in physical therapy after DPT, in pharmacy after Pharm D  Such professional degrees are referred to as an entry level doctorate program and Ph D  as a post-professional doctorate 

Research degrees
The most common research doctorate is the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph D  or D Phil )  This degree was first awarded in the U S  at the 1861 Yale University commencement  The University of Pennsylvania followed in 1871, with Cornell (1872), Harvard (1873), Michigan (1876)   and Princeton (1879) following suit  Controversy and opposition followed the introduction of the Ph D  into the U S  educational system, lasting into the 1950s, as it was seen as an unnecessary artificial transplant from a foreign (Germany) educational system, which corrupted a system based on England's Oxbridge model Ph D s and other research doctorates in the U S  typically entail successful completion of coursework, passing a comprehensive examination, and defending a dissertation The median number of years for completion of U S  doctoral degrees is seven  Doctoral applicants were previously required to have a master's degree, but many programs accept students immediately following undergraduate studies  Many programs gauge the potential of applicants to their program and grant a master's degree upon completion of the necessary course work  When so admitted, the student is expected to have mastered the material covered in the master's degree despite not holding one, though this tradition is under heavy criticism  Successfully finishing Ph D  qualifying exams confers Ph D  candidate status, allowing dissertation work to begin 
The International Affairs Office of the U S  Department of Education has listed 18 frequently awarded research doctorate titles identified by the National Science Foundation (NSF) as representing degrees equivalent in research content to the Ph D 

Professional degrees
Many fields offer professional doctorates (or professional master's) such as engineering, pharmacy, medicine, public health, dentistry, optometry, psychology, speech–language pathology,  physical therapy, occupational therapy, health science, advanced practice registered nurse, chiropractic, naturopathic medicine, law, architecture, education, teaching, business, management, and others that require such degrees for professional practice or licensure  Some of these degrees are also termed "first professional degrees", since they are the first field-specific master's or doctoral degrees 
A Doctor of Engineering (DEng) is a professional degree  In contrast to a PhD in Engineering where students usually conduct original theory-based research, DEng degrees are built around applied coursework and a practice-led project and thus designed for working engineers in the industry  DEng students defend their thesis at the end of their study before a thesis committee in order to be conferred a degree 
A Doctor of Pharmacy is awarded as the professional degree in pharmacy replacing a bachelor's degree  It is the only professional pharmacy degree awarded in the US  Pharmacy programs vary in length between 4 years for matriculants with a B S /B A  to 6 years for others 
In the twenty-first century professional doctorates appeared in other fields, such as the Doctor of Audiology in 2007  Advanced Practice Registered Nurses were expected to completely transition to the Doctor of Nursing Practice by 2015, and physical therapists to the Doctor of Physical Therapy by 2020  Professional associations play a central role in this transformation amid criticisms on the lack of proper criteria to assure appropriate rigor  In many cases Masters level programs were relabeled as doctoral programs 

Revocation
A doctoral degree can be revoked or rescinded by the university that awarded it  Possible reasons include plagiarism, criminal or unethical activities of the holder, or malfunction or manipulation of academic evaluation processes 

See also
Postdoctoral researcher
Compilation thesis
Habilitation thesis
Doctor (title)
Eurodoctorate
List of fields of doctoral studies
Passage 4:
Sandra Pizzarello
Sandra Pizzarello, D Bi Sc  was a Venetian biochemist known for her co-discovery of amino acid enantiomeric excess in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites  Her research interests concerned the characterization of meteoritic organic compounds in elucidating the evolution of planetary homochirality  Pizzarello was a project collaborator and co-investigator for the NASA Astrobiology Institute (NAI), the president of the International Society for the Study of the Origin of Life (2014-2017), and an emerita professor at Arizona State University (ASU) 

Early life and education
Sandra Pizzarello was born in Venice, Italy in 1933  In 1955, she graduated summa cum laude from the University of Padua earning her Doctor of Biological Sciences degree under her adviser Professor Roncato  Pizzarello went on to work as a research associate developing tranquilizers for Farmitalia Research Laboratories in the Department of Neuropharmacology  Over the course of several years, Pizzarello transitioned from research to raising a family  Following a career opportunity for her husband, an aeronautical engineer and computer scientist, she moved her family to Phoenix, Arizona in 1970 
Once Pizzarello's youngest of four children finished primary school, her focus returned to her career after a decade away from scientific research  She audited a graduate biochemistry seminar course at ASU where she met Professor John Cronin, future co-discoverer of amino acid enantiomeric excess in meteorites  Due to her outstanding performance in the course, she was offered a job to work with Cronin at the university as a research professor in analyzing the recently recovered Murchison meteorite 
Sandra Pizzarello died on October 24, 2021 

Research
Sandra Pizzarello's research over the last forty years involved the analysis of organic compounds in several carbonaceous chondrites, particularly molecular, chiral, and isotopic characterization of amino acids  Because the formation of these organic-rich meteorites pre-date the origin of life, they had been under investigation as potential sites of primal organic compounds which could shed light on abiogenesis, specifically the origin of biological homochirality  Such studies, however, had been inconclusive until 1997 when Cronin and Pizzarello detected 7-9% L-enantiomeric excesses of three abiological amino acids while analyzing the Murchison meteorite Given Earth's history of meteoric impacts and the observation that meteors contain an excess of the biologically relevant L-stereoisomer of certain amino acids, Pizzarello studied the effect of meteoritic amino acids in enantiomeric excess on the formation of other biological molecules  In one study, Pizzarello found that nonracemic solutions of abiological isovaline and proteinogenic alanine can direct the condensation of  glycolaldehyde to produce nonracemic solutions of threose and erythrose via an aldol reaction concluding that amino acids can act as asymmetric catalysts in carbohydrate synthesis  These findings support the origin of life hypothesis that homochirality originated prior to life and from extraterrestrial origins  However, Pizzarello's theoretical inquiries into cosmochemical evolution remain debated based on suspect analytical evidence of meteoritic enantiomeric excesses 

External links
# https://nai nasa gov/directory/pizzarello-sandra/ NASA gov
https://webapp4 asu edu/directory/person/274781
Passage 5:
Sandra Eades
Sandra Eades  (born 1967) is a Noongar physician, researcher and professor, and the first Aboriginal medical practitioner to be awarded a Doctorate of Philosophy in 2003  As of March 2020 she is Dean of Medicine at Curtin University 

Early life and education
Sandra Eades was born in Mount Barker, Western Australia and at the age of 12 moved to Perth with her family  In primary school she wanted to be a doctor but thought she would not have that opportunity as an Aboriginal girl  In 1985, at the age of 17, she arrived at University of Newcastle as one of four Aboriginal students selected for a special program to study medicine  She graduated from the University of Western Australia with a PhD in 2003 

Career
Eades worked in the public hospital system after graduating from medical school, and was a general practitioner with the Aboriginal Medical Service for seven years  She began her career researching the epidemiology of Indigenous child health in Australia at the Telethon Institute for Child Health Research  Her first research opportunity into causes of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) in Aboriginal infants in Western Australia, was introduced to her by 2003 Australian of the Year, Fiona Stanley  She has been recognised for "identifying links between social factors such as housing and infant health" As Head of Indigenous Maternal and Child Health, and Associate Head of Preventative Health Research at Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Eades won a number of grants for research in Indigenous health studies  She was senior research fellow at The Sax Institute in Sydney from 2004 to 2008, and an Adjunct Senior Lecturer in the School of Public Health at the University of Sydney from 2012 to 2013  Moving to Melbourne in mid-2008 she joined the Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute and in 2018 she became Associate Dean Indigenous at the University of Melbourne Eades was appointed Dean of the Curtin Medical School in March 2020 

Awards and honours
Eades's work in pediatric and perinatal epidemiology has improved the lives of Aboriginal women and children 
2005: Deadly award for Outstanding Achievement in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health, which she dedicated to her three-year-old child 
2006: NSW Woman of the Year  Nominated by Frank Sartor, the Minister for Science and Medical Research 
2014: Elected Fellow of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences (FAHMS) 
2015: Inaugural winner, Lowitja Institute Cranlana Award
2020: Elected Fellow of the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia (FASSA) 
2022: Officer of the Order of Australia for "distinguished service to medical research, to Indigenous health, and to professional organisations"
Passage 6:
Herbert A  Shepard
Herbert Allen Shepard (1919–1985) was a Canadian-born American organization behaviorist and economist who made a significant contribution to Organization Development He held faculty posts at several universities including M I T , where he received his doctorate in Industrial Economics  He founded and directed the first doctoral program in Organization Development at Case Western Reserve; developed a residency in administrative psychiatry at Yale University School of Medicine, and was also President of The Gestalt Institute of Cleveland and The Professional Development Institute 
Shepard conducted the first large-scale experiments in Organization Development, while at Esso in the late fifties, and served as principal consultant to TRW Systems in the applications of behavioral science to organizations and teams  He has published widely and was chairman of the Douglas Memorial Award Committee of the Journal of Applied Behavioral Science  His research advanced our understanding of human behavior and social systems from dyads (doctor-patient or consultant-client) to organizations (synergy, alternative dispute resolution, structure, building consensus and caring about the powerless)  It opened the way for further developments in the psychology of teams, leadership and  interpersonal compatibility; cognitive behavior therapy, social cognitive theory (educational psychology); choice theory;"Principled Negotiation"  26 September 2022 , positive psychology and organization development 
In management consulting, Shepard's clients included Bell-Northern Research, Syncrude, Esso, TRW, Connecticut General Life Insurance Company, Union Carbide, USAID and most of the departments of the federal governments of the U S A  and Canada 
Context 3:  Hypothyroidism and a number of types of dwarfism occur in beagles  Two conditions in particular are unique to the breed: "Funny Puppy", in which the puppy is slow to develop and eventually develops weak legs, a crooked back and although normally healthy, is prone to a range of illnesses; and Musladin-Lueke syndrome (MLS) in which the eyes are slanted and the outer toes are underdeveloped but otherwise development is as normal  Hip dysplasia, common in Harriers and in some larger breeds, is rarely considered a problem in beagles  Beagles are considered a chondrodystrophic breed, meaning that they are prone to types of disk diseases 
In rare cases, beagles may develop immune mediated polygenic arthritis (where the immune system attacks the joints) even at a young age  The symptoms can sometimes be relieved by steroid treatments  Another rare disease in the breed is neonatal cerebellar cortical degeneration  Affected puppies are slow, have lower co-ordination, fall more often, and do not have a normal gait  It has an estimated carrier rate of 5% and affected rate of 0 1%  A genetic test is available Their long floppy ears can mean that the inner ear does not receive a substantial air flow or that moist air becomes trapped, and this can lead to ear infections  Beagles may also be affected by a range of eye problems; two common ophthalmic conditions in beagles are glaucoma and corneal dystrophy  "Cherry eye", a prolapse of the gland of the third eyelid, and distichiasis, a condition in which eyelashes grow into the eye causing irritation, sometimes exist; both these conditions can be corrected with surgery  They can suffer from several types of retinal atrophy  Failure of the nasolacrimal drainage system can cause dry eye or leakage of tears onto the face As field dogs they are prone to minor injuries such as cuts and sprains, and, if inactive, obesity is a common problem as they will eat whenever food is available and rely on their owners to regulate their weight  When working or running free they are also likely to pick up parasites such as fleas, ticks, harvest mites, and tapeworms, and irritants such as grass seeds can become trapped in their eyes, soft ears, or paws Beagles may exhibit a behavior known as reverse sneezing, in which they sound as if they are choking or gasping for breath, but are actually drawing air in through the mouth and nose  The exact cause of this behavior is not known, but it can be a common occurrence and is not harmful to the dog 

Reproduction
The average size of a beagle litter is six puppies  When mother beagles give birth to litters of puppies, the little pups weigh just a few ounces each 

Hunting
Beagles were developed primarily for hunting hare, an activity known as beagling  They were seen as ideal hunting companions for the elderly who could follow on horseback without exerting themselves, for young hunters who could keep up with them on ponies, and for the poorer hunters who could not afford to maintain a stable of good hunting horses  Before the advent of the fashion for foxhunting in the 19th century, hunting was an all day event where the enjoyment was derived from the chase rather than the kill  In this setting the tiny beagle was well matched to the hare, as unlike Harriers they would not quickly finish the hunt, but because of their excellent scent-tracking skills and stamina they were almost guaranteed to eventually catch the hare  The beagle packs would run closely together ("so close that they might be covered with a sheet") which was useful in a long hunt, as it prevented stray dogs from obscuring the trail  In thick undergrowth they were also preferred to spaniels when hunting pheasant With the fashion for faster hunts, the beagle fell out of favor for chasing hare, but was still employed for rabbit hunting  In Anecdotes of Dogs (1846), Edward Jesse says:

In rabbit-shooting, in gorse and thick cover, nothing can be more cheerful than the beagle  They also are easily heard over long distances and in thick cover  They have been called rabbit-beagles from this employment, for which they are peculiarly qualified, especially those dogs which are somewhat wire-haired In the United States they appear to have been employed chiefly for hunting rabbits from the earliest imports 
Hunting hare with beagles became popular again in Britain in the mid-19th century and continued until it was made illegal in Scotland by the Protection of Wild Mammals (Scotland) Act 2002 and in England and Wales by the Hunting Act 2004  Under this legislation beagles may still pursue rabbits with the landowner's permission  Drag hunting is popular where hunting is no longer permitted or for those owners who do not wish to participate in hunting a live animal, but still wish to exercise their dog's innate skills 
The traditional foot pack consists of up to 40 beagles, marshaled by a Huntsman who directs the pack and who is assisted by a variable number of whippers-in whose job is to return straying hounds to the pack  The Master of the Hunt is in overall day-to-day charge of the pack, and may or may not take on the role of Huntsman on the day of the hunt 
As hunting with beagles was seen as ideal for young people, many of the British public schools traditionally maintained beagle packs  Protests were lodged against Eton's use of beagles for hunting as early as 1902 but the pack is still in existence today  In 2001, the Wye College beagle pack was taken by the Animal Liberation Front  School and university packs are still maintained by Eton, Marlborough, Radley, the Royal Agricultural University, and Christ Church, Oxford In addition to organised beagling, beagles have been used for hunting or flushing to guns (often in pairs) a wide range of game including snowshoe hare, cottontail rabbits, game birds, roe deer, red deer, bobcat, coyote, wild boar, and foxes, and have even been recorded as being used to hunt stoat  In most of these cases, the beagle is employed as a gun dog, flushing game for hunter's guns 

Detection
Beagles are used as detection dogs in the Beagle Brigade of the United States Department of Agriculture  These dogs are used to detect food items in luggage being taken into the United States  After trialling several breeds, beagles were chosen because they are relatively small and unintimidating for people who are uncomfortable around dogs, easy to care for, intelligent and work well for rewards  They are also used for this purpose in a number of other countries including by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in New Zealand, the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, and in Canada, Japan, and the People's Republic of China  Larger breeds are generally used for detection of explosives as this often involves climbing over luggage and on large conveyor belts, work for which the smaller Beagle is not suited 

Testing
Beagles are the dog breed most often used in animal testing, due to their size and passive nature  In the United States, as many as 65,000 beagles are used every year for medical, cosmetic, beauty, and other chemical tests  They are purpose bred and live their lives in cages undergoing experiments  The Rescue + Freedom Project (formerly Beagle Freedom Project) has successfully advocated for beagles to be released from labs  This organisation has freed hundreds of animals Beagles are used in a range of research procedures: fundamental biological research, applied human medicine, applied veterinary medicine, and protection of man, animals, or the environment  Of the 8,018 dogs used in testing in the UK in 2004, 7,799 were beagles (97 3%)  In the UK, the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 gave special status to primates, equids, cats and dogs and in 2005 the Animal Procedures Committee (set up by the act) ruled that testing on mice was preferable, even though a greater number of individual animals were involved  In 2005 beagles were involved in less than 0 3% of the total experiments on animals in the UK, but of the 7670 experiments performed on dogs 7406 involved beagles (96 6%)  Most dogs are bred specifically for this purpose, by companies such as Harlan  In the UK companies breeding animals for research must be licensed under the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 

Bans and activism against beagle testing
Testing of cosmetic products on animals is banned in the member states of the European Community, although France protested the ban and has made efforts to have it lifted  It is permitted in the United States but is not mandatory if safety can be ascertained by other methods, and the test species is not specified by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)  When testing toxicity of food additives, food contaminants, and some drugs and chemicals the FDA uses beagles and miniature pigs as surrogates for direct human testing  Minnesota was the first state to enact a Beagle Freedom adoption law in 2014, mandating that dogs and cats are allowed to be adopted once they have completed research testing Anti-vivisection groups have reported on abuse of animals inside testing facilities  In 1997 footage secretly filmed by a freelance journalist inside Huntingdon Life Sciences in the UK showed staff punching and screaming at beagles  Consort Kennels, a UK-based breeder of beagles for testing, closed down in 1997 after pressure from animal rights groups There are various examples of activists utilizing Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests to obtain information about taxpayer funding of animal testing  For example, the White Coat Waste Project, a group of activists that hold that taxpayers should not have to pay $20 billion every year for experiments on animals, highlighted that the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases provided $400,000 in taxpayer money to fund experiments in which 28 beagles were infected by disease-causing parasites   The White Coat Project found reports that said dogs taking part in the experiments were "vocalizing in pain" after being injected with foreign substances  Following public outcry, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) made a call to action that all members of the National Institute of Health resign effective immediately and that there is a "need to find a new NIH director to replace the outgoing Francis Collins who will shut down research that violates the dignity of nonhuman animals "

Other roles
Although bred for hunting, Beagles are versatile and are nowadays employed for various other roles in detection, therapy, and as family pets Beagles are used as sniffer dogs for termite detection in Australia, and have been mentioned as possible candidates for drug and explosive detection  Because of their gentle nature and unimposing build, they are also frequently used in pet therapy, visiting the sick and elderly in hospital  In June 2006, a trained Beagle assistance dog was credited with saving the life of its owner after using her owner's mobile phone to dial an emergency number   In the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, a Beagle search and rescue dog with a Colombian rescue squad was credited with locating the owner of the Hôtel Montana, who was subsequently rescued after spending 100 hours buried in the rubble  Beagles were hired by New York City to help with bedbug detection, although some have expressed doubts about the role of such dogs in this type of detection 

In popular culture
Anthropomorphic Beagles appeared in comic strips and animated cartoons since the 1950s with the Peanuts character Snoopy, who was billed as "the world's most famous Beagle"  The animated series Courage the Cowardly Dog also features an anthropomorphic beagle as its title character 
Porthos is a beagle that belongs to Jonathan Archer, the captain on the television series Star Trek: Enterprise 
Former US President Lyndon Baines Johnson had several beagles, and caused an outcry when he picked up one of them by its ears during an official greeting on the White House lawn 
The ship on which Charles Darwin made the voyage which provided much of the inspiration for On the Origin of Species was named HMS Beagle after the breed, and, in turn, lent its name to the ill-fated British Martian lander Beagle 2 
An American bred 15 inch male Beagle with the registered name of Ch K-Run's Park Me In First and the pet name of "Uno" won the 2008 Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show 
A Canadian bred 15 inch female Beagle with the registered name of Gr Ch Tashtins Lookin For Trouble and the pet name of "Miss P" won the 2015 Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show 

Notable Beagles
Frodo, awarded the PDSA Gold Medal for animal bravery
Uno, who in 2008 became the first Beagle to win the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show 
Miss P, winner of the 2015 Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show
Passage 5:
List of turkey breeds
Turkey breeds are reported to the DAD-IS breed database of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations by more than sixty countries  The breeds reported include commercial/industrial strains, local types and recognised breeds in many countries 

United States
Twenty breeds are reported to DAD-IS by the United States  Eight of them are recognised by the American Poultry Association in its breed standard, the American Standard of Perfection, where however they are classified as "varieties" rather than as breeds  This may be because the original genotype for domestic turkeys was for Bronze, and all other color varieties are due to mutations from it 

APA varieties
Europe
Twelve breeds are recognized by the Entente Européenne d'Aviculture et de Cuniculture  Others with breed standards of European national associations are accepted 

EE breeds
Other varieties not recognized by the APA or EE include the following: 

Auburn or Light Brown is an extremely rare as its numbers are not considered high enough for inclusion in the Standard  An extremely rare variant of the Auburn is called the Silver Auburn 
Buff (or Jersey Buff) is a very rare heritage breed 
Chocolate breed is chocolate brown in color  Day-old poults are white-faced with chocolate bodies 
Midget White is a rare heritage breed sometimes confused with the Beltsville Small White 
Zagorje (Zagorski puran) is a Croatian variant of turkey 

See also
Turkey genus
Wild turkey of North America
Domestic turkey
Ocellated turkey, a species of turkey residing primarily in the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico 
Passage 6:
French Spaniel
The French Spaniel (Epagneul Français) is a breed of dog of the Spaniel-like setter  It was developed in France and Canada as a hunting dog, descended from dogs of the 14th century  Popular with royalty during the Middle Ages, it nearly became extinct by the turn of the 20th century but was saved by the efforts of Father Fournier, a French priest  One of the largest breeds of Spaniel, it typically has a white coat with brown markings  It is a friendly breed that has few health issues, but can be affected by a syndrome called acral mutilation and analgesia  The breed is recognised by Canadian and international kennel clubs but not by The Kennel Club (UK)  The American Kennel Club has included the breed in its Foundation Stock Service, the first step to full recognition 

History
Spaniels were first mentioned in France during the 14th century in Gaston III of Foix-Béarn's work Livre de chasse, later translated into English as The Master of Game  The French Spaniel was referred to as a specific type of Spaniel by 1660 and was noted as being distinctive from the King Charles Spaniel of the Holland type The breed was popular during the Middle Ages with it used for falconry and as a settling dog for net hunting  They became a favourite of French Royalty and Kings and Princes at the royal courts of Versailles favored them over other breeds of hunting dogs  In addition, Catherine I of Russia (1684–1727) was known to have owned a French Spaniel named Babe  During this period, the French Spaniel was known to have split into several regional types The Sporting Magazine wrote of the French Spaniel and the hunting of mallards in 1805, "The rough French Spaniel has been found the best companion on these occasions: he watches the conduct of the sportsman, and, with a velocity unequalled, darts on the wounded prey, presents it with all possible speed at the feet of his master " In the 1850s, the Brittany (formerly known as Brittany Spaniel) was developed from crossing French Spaniels with English Setters James de Connick established the first breed standard for the French Spaniel in 1891  At the turn of the 20th century, the numbers of French Spaniels dropped so low that they nearly became extinct due to competition from foreign sporting dogs, in particular as French hunters chose to hunt particularly with English breeds of hunting dogs  A French priest named Father Fournier undertook the task of gathering the remaining French Spaniels in his Saint Hillaire kennels in order to preserve the breed  There he built the lineages that are representatives of those we now have  The French Spaniel Club was founded in 1921, with Father Fournier as the president of the association  The modern French Spaniel is one of a group of recognised French Spaniels, including the Brittany, Picardy and Blue Picardy 

Recognition
The French Spaniel was little known outside France and neighboring countries until it was introduced in the Canadian province of Quebec in the 1970s  It quickly became a popular dog for hunting woodcock and grouse  The Club de l'Épagneul Français du Canada was formed in 1978 to ensure the French Spaniel would continue to meet breed standards and to pursue official recognition by the Canadian Kennel Club, by which the breed was recognised in 1985 French Spaniels are also recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale, and the United Kennel Club  The Kennel Club (UK) and the American Kennel Club do not recognize the French Spaniel, but is recognised by the North American Versatile Hunting Dog Association, and can be registered with US dog registries in order to record their registries and compete in associated dog shows, such as the Dog Registry of America, American Canine Association, and America's Pet Registry To qualify for recognition by the American Kennel Club, a national breed club must first be established and a written request needs to be sent to the AKC along with a breed standard  This enables qualification for the Foundation Stock Service  The next step is to qualify to compete in the Miscellaneous Class  This requires a minimum of one hundred active members in the national breed club, along with a minimum of three to four hundred dogs in the United States with a three generation pedigree (all dogs in those pedigrees must be of the same breed)  In addition, they must be geographically spread across twenty states or more, and finally the clubs by-laws and constitution must be reviewed as well as breed observations made by AKC staff  There is a typical stay of between one and three years in the Miscellaneous Class before full recognition is granted  During this time, the breed club must be seen to be active and hold seminars, matches as well as local and national speciality shows  The Kennel Club (UK) does not have a miscellaneous class or foundation stock service, instead it requires British bred dog and three generation pedigrees of them, along with details from the country of origin including the breed standard  This allows listing on the Imported Breeds Register, with full recognition granted at the discretion of the Kennel Club Review Committee 

Description
The French Spaniel is one of the two tallest spaniel breeds, being taller than the English Springer Spaniel  Males can range in height from 22–24 inches (56–61 cm), and females are about an inch shorter  Dogs can range in weight from 45–60 pounds (20–27 kg) A normal dog has a muscular appearance with a deep chest and strong legs  The French Spaniel has eyes of a dark amber colour, and a thick tail that tapers towards the tip  The hair is medium, dense, with long feathers on the ears, backs of the legs and tail  It has some waviness on the chest and otherwise lies flat on the body  The normal colour of a French Spaniel's coat is white with brown markings rather in shade from a light cinnamon to dark liver  Historically, the coat was only white with black markings, but the breed was mixed with other colours of Spaniels during the 19th century 

Temperament
The French Spaniel has a friendly and outgoing personality and is well balanced and patient  It is not a naturally aggressive dog, is eager to please and thus can be trained easily  A dog of this breed will form a strong bond with its master, being typically a working dog  It has a high level of stamina and requires vigorous exercise 

Health
The breed is robustly healthy with few issues and adapts well to wet weather conditions  A dermatological condition known as acral mutilation and analgesia may affect French Spaniels  It is a newly recognised disorder, with symptoms becoming apparent between three and a half months and a year of age  It was first reported in thirteen dogs in Canada and shares symptoms with the acral mutilation syndromes of the German Shorthaired Pointer, English Pointer and English Springer Spaniels  Dogs who are affected will lick, bite and mutilate their extremities resulting in ulcers with secondary bacterial infections  Self amputation of claws, digits and footpads can happen in extreme cases  The majority of the initial dogs identified were euthanised within days to months of being diagnosed 
Passage 7:
American Cocker Spaniel
The American Cocker Spaniel is a breed of sporting dog  It is a spaniel type dog that is closely related to the English Cocker Spaniel; the two breeds diverged during the 20th century due to differing breed standards in the US and the UK  In the United States, the breed is usually called a Cocker Spaniel, while elsewhere in the world, it is called an American Cocker Spaniel to distinguish it from its older English cousin  The word cocker is commonly held to stem from their use to hunt woodcock in England, while spaniel is thought to be derived from the breed's origins in Spain 
The first spaniel in America came across with the Mayflower in 1620, but it was not until 1878 that the first Cocker Spaniel was registered with the American Kennel Club (AKC)  A national breed club was set up three years later and the dog considered to be the father of the modern breed, Ch  Obo II, was born around this time  By the 1920s the English and American varieties of Cocker had become noticeably different and in 1946 the AKC recognized the English type as a separate breed  It was not until 1970 that The Kennel Club in the UK recognized the American Cocker Spaniel as being separate from the English type  The American Cocker was the most popular breed in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s and again during the 1980s, reigning for a total of 18 years  They have also won the best in show title at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show on four occasions, the best in show title at Crufts in 2017, and have been linked to the President of the United States on several occasions, with owners including Richard Nixon and Harry S  Truman   In 2013, the cocker spaniel ranked 29th the American Kennel Club registration statistics of historical comparisons and notable trends 
The breed is the smallest of the sporting dogs recognized by the AKC, and its distinctly shaped head makes it immediately recognizable  In addition, there are some marked differences between it and its English relative  It is a happy breed with average working intelligence, although by being bred to a show standard it is no longer an ideal working dog  Members of the breed suffer from a wide variety of health ailments including problems with their hearts, eyes and ears 

History
The word spanyell is thought to date from the late 12th century when it was used to name a type of dog imported into England from Spain, with the span part of the word referring to the country of origin  Records from the mid-14th century show that selective breeding was already in place, with the breed being separated into two distinct types, called water spaniels and land spaniels  By 1801, the smaller variety of land spaniel was called the Cocker or Cocking Spaniel, so named for its use in flushing woodcock According to historical records, the first spaniel was brought to North America aboard the Mayflower which sailed from Plymouth, England and landed in New England in 1620  The first Cocker Spaniel recorded in America was a liver and white dog named Captain, who was registered with the American Kennel Club in 1878  In 1881, the American Cocker Spaniel Club was formed; it would later become the American Spaniel Club (ASC) and is now known as the oldest breed club for dogs in the United States  The task of the club was initially to create a standard to separate the Cocker Spaniel in America from other types of land spaniels, a task which would take over 20 years, only being completed in 1905



ground_truth: University

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Are both French Spaniel and Beagle universally recognized breeds?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: The dog considered to be the father of the American Cocker Spaniel was sired by the dog considered to be the father of the English Cocker Spaniel  Ch  Obo was bred to Ch  Chloe II, who was shipped to America while she was pregnant  Once in the United States, she whelped a dog who became Ch  Obo II  He differed greatly from the modern breed, being only 10 inches (25 cm) tall and with a long body, but was considered to be an excellent dog of that era and became a popular sire Towards the end of the 19th century, the breed had become popular in America and Canada due to their dual use as a family pet and a working dog  In the early 20th century the breeders on either side of the Atlantic had created different breed standards for the Cocker Spaniel and the breed gradually diverged from one another, with the two becoming noticeably different by the 1920s  The American Cockers by now had a smaller muzzle, their coats were softer and the dogs overall were lighter and smaller  The differences were so apparent that in 1935, breeders founded the English Cocker Spaniel Club and restricted breeding between the two types of spaniel  The two types of Cocker Spaniel in America were shown together as one breed, with the English type as a variety of the main breed, until 1946 when the American Kennel Club recognized the English Cocker Spaniel as a separate breed 

Return to the UK
Initially in the United Kingdom there were a few American Cockers that had accompanied service personnel to American bases in the 1950s and 1960s  In addition, several came over with embassy staff and business people returning home The first UK Kennel Club registered American Cocker Spaniel was Aramingo Argonaught, born January 17, 1956, and bred by Herbert L  Steinberg  Two judges confirmed that the dog was an American Cocker and not an English Cocker before the Kennel Club permitted the dog to be shown  In the 1960s they were shown as a rare breed, which meant that they did not have a show class of their own and could only be shown in variety classes  This included Aramingo Argonaught, who was the first American Cocker Spaniel to be shown at Crufts in 1960 in a class entitled "Any variety not classified at this show"  In 1968, the KC agreed to have the breed shown in the category "Any variety gundog other than Cocker" and stated that the American Cocker was not a variety of "Spaniel (Cocker)"  There were around 100 registrations between 1966 and 1968 In 1970 the breed was given a separate register in the Kennel Club Breed Supplement, as it was previously included in "Any other variety"  Registration numbers increased to 309 by 1970 following this full recognition 

Notable American Cockers and popularity
American Cocker Spaniels have won best in show at the Westminster Dog Show on four occasions, with the first win in 1921 by Ch  Midkiff Seductive  Ch  My Own Brucie won the title twice in 1940 and 1941, and became known as the most photographed dog in the world Brucie's win in 1940 coincided with the American Cocker Spaniel becoming the most popular breed of dog in the United States, and they would remain the most popular until 1952  The breed won the title for the fourth time in 1954 with the victory going to Ch  Carmor's Rise and Shine  The popularity of the American Cocker increased once again in the 1980s with it becoming the most popular breed again from 1984 until 1990  In more recent years the popularity of the breed has decreased, with it ranked 15th most popular by the American Kennel Club in 2005  The breeds most recent victory came in 2017 when it won the best in show title at Crufts 
American Cocker Spaniels have had several links to the United States Presidency  In 1952, an American Cocker Spaniel became a household name when United States Senator Richard Nixon made his Checkers speech on September 23  A parti-colored American Cocker Spaniel named Dot was one of several dogs owned by Rutherford B  Hayes; and a buff colored dog named Feller caused a scandal for Harry S  Truman when the dog was received as an unwanted gift with the President subsequently giving it away to a White House physician  More recently, a Cocker named Zeke lived with Bill Clinton while he was the governor of Arkansas 

Appearance
The American Cocker Spaniel is the smallest dog recognized by the American Kennel Club as a sporting dog, being on average between 13 5 and 15 5 inches (34 and 39 cm) high at the withers  It is a dog of normal proportions, with medium long silky fur on the body and ears, hanging down on the legs and belly (known as feathering)  The head has an upturned nose and the ears hang down  The breed standard states that size over 15 5 inches (39 cm) inches for males and 14 5 inches (37 cm) for females is a disqualification at conformation shows  American Cocker Spaniels weigh around 24 to 30 pounds (11 to 14 kg) on average, with females of the breed usually weighing slightly less than the males The head of an American Cocker Spaniel makes the breed immediately recognizable, with the rounded dome of the skull, well-pronounced stop, and a square shaped lip  The drop ears are long, low set, with long silky fur, and the eyes are dark, large, and rounded  The nose can be black or brown depending on the color of the breed The coat of the breed come in a variety of shades with the colors being separated into three main groups: black/black and tan, any solid color other than black (ASCOB), and parti-color  The black variety is either all black, or with tan points on the dog's head, the feet and the tail in a pattern called black and tan  The group known as ASCOB includes all other solid colors from light cream through to dark red, although some lighter coloring is allowed on the feathering according to standards  Parti-colored dogs are white with patches of another color such as black or brown, and includes any roan colored dogs  In addition, American Cockers coats can come in a pattern known as merle, which is not recognized by the American Kennel Club American Cockers have rounder eyes, a domed skull, shorter muzzle and more clearly pronounced eyebrows than the English Cockers, whose head is more setter-like  In colors, the roan colors are rarer in the American variety than in the English but the shade of buff which is common in the American is not seen in the English breed at all, although there are English Cocker Spaniels which are considered to be a shade of red  The English breed is also slightly larger, being between 14 5–15 5 inches (37–39 cm) in height 
American Cocker Spaniel

Temperament
Known as the "Merry Cocker", the American Cocker Spaniel breed standard defines the ideal dog of the breed as being "equable in temperament with no suggestion of timidity " The breed ranks 20th in Stanley Coren's The Intelligence of Dogs, a rating that indicates good "Working or Obedience Intelligence", or trainability  IQ tests run on a variety of breeds in the 1950s and 1960s showed that the American Cocker performed the best when tested on its ability to show restraint and delayed response to a trigger, a trait which was put down to the breed's bred-in ability when hunting to freeze upon finding a bird before flushing it out on command  However, they proved to be the worst breed tested when it came to manipulating objects with their paws, for instance uncovering a dish of food or pulling on a string With a good level of socialization at an early age, an American Cocker can get along with people, children, other dogs and other pets  This breed seems to have a perpetually wagging tail and prefers to be around people; it is not best suited to the backyard alone  Cockers can be easily stressed by loud noises and by rough treatment or handling Members of the breed were originally used as hunting dogs, but increased in popularity as a show dog  It was bred more and more in conformation with the breed standard, resulting in certain attributes, such as a long coat, which no longer make it an ideal working dog 

Health
American Cocker Spaniels in UK and USA/Canada surveys had a median lifespan of about 10 to 11 years, which is on the low end of the typical range for purebred dogs, and one to two years less than other breeds of their size  The larger English Cocker Spaniel typically lives about a year longer than the American Cocker Spaniel  In a 2004 UK Kennel Club survey, the most common causes of death were cancer (23%), old age (20%), cardiac (8%), and immune-mediated (8%)  In a 2003 USA/Canada Health Survey with a smaller sample size, the leading causes of death were cancer, hepatic disease, and immune-mediated American Cockers previously high popularity resulted in the breed frequently being bred by backyard breeders or in puppy mills  This indiscriminate breeding has increased the proliferation of breed related health issues in certain bloodlines American Cocker Spaniels are susceptible to a variety of illnesses, particularly infections affecting their ears and, in some cases, their eyes  Although the number or percent of afflicted dogs is not known, progressive retinal atrophy (PRA), glaucoma, and cataracts have been identified in some members of the breed  The American Spaniel Club recommends annual eye exams by a veterinary ophthalmologist for all dogs that are to be used for breeding  Autoimmune problems in Cockers have also been identified in an unknown number or percent of the breed, including autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA)  Ear inflammations are common in drop-eared breeds of dog, including the American Cocker, and luxating patellas and hip dysplasia have been identified in some members of the breed Heart conditions such as dilated cardiomyopathy, where the heart becomes weakened and enlarged, and sick sinus syndrome, which is a type of abnormal heart beating which causes low blood pressure, have been identified in the breed  Phosphofructokinase deficiency is a condition caused by a recessive gene in the breed which prevents the metabolism of glucose into energy, causing the dog to have extremely low energy and be unable to exercise  The gene which causes this appears in around 10 percent of the population, but DNA testing can prevent two carrier dogs from breeding and thus creating puppies with this condition American Cockers are also prone to canine epilepsy and the related condition known as Rage Syndrome  The latter is a form of epilepsy which can cause a normally placid dog to engage in sudden and unprovoked violent attacks  Initial research shows that both conditions appear to be inheritable 

In popular culture
The film Lady and the Tramp features the character Lady who is an American Cocker Spaniel 
Trilby from the Australian-American TV series Raggs is an American Cocker Spaniel 
Mags from Turbo Dogs is an American Cocker Spaniel 
Passage 8:
Water spaniel
Water spaniel (capitalized in the names of standardized breeds) was originally a term for water dogs generally, and today refer to several different breeds of water dogs that actually are spaniels, such as:

American Water Spaniel
English Water Spaniel, extinct
Irish Water Spaniel
Tweed Water Spaniel, extinct
Passage 9:
Welsh Springer Spaniel
The Welsh Springer Spaniel (Welsh: Llamgi Cymru) is a breed of dog and a member of the spaniel family  Thought to be comparable to the old Land Spaniel, they are similar to the English Springer Spaniel and historically have been referred to as both the Welsh Spaniel and the Welsh Cocker Spaniel  They were relatively unknown until a succession of victories in dog trials by the breed increased its popularity  Following recognition by The Kennel Club in 1902, the breed gained the modern name of Welsh Springer Spaniel  The breed's coat only comes in a single colour combination of white with red markings, usually in a piebald pattern  Loyal and affectionate, they can become very attached to family members and are wary of strangers  Health conditions are limited to those common among many breeds of dog, although they are affected more than average by hip dysplasia and some eye conditions  They are a working dog, bred for hunting, and while not as rare as some varieties of spaniel, they are rarer than the more widely known English Springer Spaniel with which they are sometimes confused 

History
The origin of the Welsh Springer Spaniel is unknown, but dogs resembling the breed with its distinctive red and white coat are frequently depicted in old pictures and prints  This type of dog was known as the Land Spaniel, and is considered to be similar to the modern Welsh Springer  John Caius, writing in 1570, said "Spaniels whose skynnes are white and if marked with any spottes they are commonly red"  It is thought that these Spaniels may have made their way into the Welsh valleys where local sportsman and hunters managed to conserve them in a pure state At one time called the Welsh Starter, it was used to spring game, originally for hunters using falcons  The traditional red and white colour of the Welsh Springer was once also found in English dogs, but by the early 20th century any such dogs were considered to have "died out long ago" The Welsh Springer Spaniel was also at one time called the Welsh Spaniel, and also at one point was included in the Kennel Club (UK) studbook as Cocker Spaniels, and was known as the Welsh Cocker  During the 19th century were several different varieties of Cocker Spaniel, including the English, the Welsh and the Devonshire as the term was used to describe the size of the dog rather than the breed  Unusually, in John George Wood's 1865 book The Illustrated Natural History, an image is described showing a Welsh Cocker Spaniel as a solid coloured dark spaniel  The same inscription is used in the 1867 work The Dog in Health and Disease by Stonehenge and he further describes the Welsh Cocker and the Devonshire Cocker as "both being of a deep-liver colour"  The Welsh Springer was relatively unknown during the 19th Century, but this changed in 1900 when Mr  A  T  Williams of Ynis-y-Gerwn won the team stake at the Sporting Spaniel Club Trials  The trials were held on Mr  Williams' own estate, and it was thought that when his team defeated eight well known teams it was because of the home advantage  This was disproved when dogs from the same kennel went on to win in successive years around the UK  His conformation show champion dog Corrin was the first Welsh Springer Spaniel to be photographed 

Welsh Springers were recognised by The Kennel Club, after the breed had gained popularity, in 1902 under the new name of Welsh Springer Spaniel  Until then the breed was shown alongside the English Springer Spaniel  The Welsh Springer Spaniel was transported to America in the late 19th century and gained recognition by the American Kennel Club in 1906 World War I caused problems for the breed in the United Kingdom, and when the war was over there were no dogs whose parents had registered pedigrees  The breed restarted with the remaining unregistered dogs, and it is these dogs that formed the modern day breed  The breeders in the 1920s and 1930s developed these dogs into the type of Welsh Springer Spaniel which remains today  The Welsh Springer Spaniel Club (UK) was formed in 1923, registrations slowly increased between the wars but all records held by the breed club were destroyed in an air raid during World War II  Following the two World Wars, it was thought that no Welsh Springers remained in the United States  The breed was reintroduced, and the descendants of those dogs make up the breed today in the United States and Canada  The breed was officially imported into Australia in 1973 In 2000, The Kennel Club registered 424 Welsh Springer Spaniels, compared with 12,599 English Springer Spaniels and 13,445 English Cocker Spaniels  Numbers remained steady, with 420 Welsh Springer Spaniels being registered in 2004, however numbers of English Springer Spaniels increased to 14,765 and English Cocker Spaniels to 16,608  Numbers remain closer to the American Cocker Spaniel which registered 610 in 2000, and 599 in 2004  The breed remains more popular than some other breeds of Spaniel, including the Clumber Spaniel, Field Spaniel, Sussex Spaniel and Irish Water Spaniel  Total registrations in the UK during 2016 fell to 299 qualifying it to be included on The Kennel Club's list of Vulnerable Native Breeds 

Description
Appearance
The Welsh Springer Spaniel is a compact, solidly built dog, bred for hard work and endurance  Their body can give the impression of length due to its obliquely angled forequarters and developed hindquarters  The build of the Welsh Springer Spaniel should be slightly off square, meaning that the length of the dog should be slightly greater than the height at the withers  However, some dogs may be square, and this is not penalised in the show ring as long as the height is never greater than the length   Traditionally a docked breed, dependent on legislation in the country of origin, and where allowed the dew claws can be removed In conformation showing, eyes should be brown in colour; yellow eyes do sometimes occur but are penalised in the show ring  Ears are small, pendulous (suspended and hanging), vine-shaped and with a light setter-like feathering  Nostrils are well developed and are black or any shade of brown; a pink nose is penalised in the AKC standard for the show ring, in Britain the colour is not specified in The Kennel Club's breed standard  In showing, a scissors bite is preferred with an undershot jaw severely penalised  Unlike the English Springer Spaniel and English Cocker Spaniel, there is no divergence into show and field styles of the breed Male dogs are 46 to 48 centimetres (18 to 19 in) high at the withers, with females a little smaller at 43 to 46 centimetres (17 to 18 in)  On average, members of the breed weigh between 16 and 20 kg (35 and 45 lb)  The back of the legs, chest, and underside of the body are feathered, and the ears and tail are lightly feathered  The only colour is a rich red-and-white  Any pattern is acceptable and any white area may be flecked with red ticking Welsh Springers are often confused with the English Springer Spaniel, but there are marked differences  The Welsh Springer is slightly smaller, and its reddish markings on a white background as opposed to the English Springers black or liver-coloured markings  Both breeds are admired for their hunting abilities and their trademark trait of "springing" at game  This can be seen during play also, as a dog may "spring" on his toy  Some experts believe that the Welsh Springer Spaniel and the Brittany share the same ancestry as there is a great deal of resemblance between the two breeds  The colours of the Welsh Springer, while exclusive from the English Springer, appear in the Brittany and the Brittany and Welsh Springers are both of similar sizes  The Welsh Springer is larger than the English Cocker Spaniel 

Temperament
The Welsh Springer Spaniel is active, loyal, and affectionate  They may meet strangers barking when in their territory, or act aloof, cautious or wary  The breed is well known for being friendly and demonstrative to all members of the family, especially children, and accepting other pets of the household with a friendly, playful attitude The breed is quick to learn but can be headstrong, though with correct training can become very obedient  The Welsh Springer was bred for work and endurance, and as with many breeds of hunting dogs requires a regular exercise routine to keep them healthy and content  Without adequate exercise, a Welsh Springer Spaniel may appear hyperactive  Some Welsh Springers can become clingy towards their owners and suffer separation anxiety when alone 

Health
The Welsh Springer is generally a healthy breed, but some can suffer conditions common to many breeds such as hip dysplasia, Canine glaucoma and like other dogs with pendulous ears, they are prone to ear infections such as otitis externa  Some Welsh Springer Spaniels are predisposed to become overweight  In a survey of over a hundred breeds of dog conducted in 1997, the Welsh Springer Spaniel was ranked 14th for worst hip score, with the average score of the breed being 18 45  The average lifespan is 12 to 15 years 

Eye disorders
Welsh Springers can be prone to entropion, which is a disorder that affects the eyelids  The condition causes them to curl inwards, pressing the eyelashes against the surface of the eye itself and causing them to scratch it  This can lead to irritation and damage to the cornea  In most cases it only affects the lower eyelid on one or both eyes, but in some cases the upper eyelid can be affected as well  Symptoms can include tearing, squinting, the rubbing of the eyes, thick discharge from the eyes and rolling of the eyelid along with wetness on the hairs next to the eyelids  There is no medical treatment for entropion, and surgical correction may be necessary depending on the severity of the case  This condition may be present soon after birth, or later in life as a secondary condition to other eye related diseases or infections  Other breeds also affected by the condition include the Chow Chow, Great Dane, Golden Retriever and the English Springer Spaniel Narrow/closed angle glaucoma is an autosomal dominant inheritable trait in the breed  It is a leading cause of blindness in dogs, and is where there is increased fluid pressure within the eye  If the fluid is not reduced, the pressure causes permanent damage to the retina and optic nerve  Loss of eyesight can happen as quickly as within 24 hours if the pressure if elevated enough, or slowly over time if it is only a mild elevation  The sudden, rapid elevation of pressure is more common with narrow/closed angle glaucoma which is more common to the breed than the slower open angle glaucoma  Symptoms can include redness in the eye, the eye itself looking cloudy, sensitivity to light and the dog may rub at their eye, or even rub it along other objects and carpet as the condition is moderate to extremely painful  Treatment can vary depending on the severity of the condition but if inherited glaucoma appears in one eye then it usually occurs in the other eye eventually 

See also
Hunting dog
Sporting Group



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