prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which is a flowering plant, Pueraria or Pleiospilos?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Pueraria
Pueraria is a genus of 15–20 species of legumes native to Asia  The best known member is kudzu, also called Japanese arrowroot  The genus is named after 19th century Swiss botanist Marc Nicolas Puerari 
The genus, as traditionally circumscribed, is polyphyletic, with different species being more related to other species in the tribe Phaseoleae  Current research, reproduced below, splits the genus into five clades, one of which defines the current monophyletic genus 

Species
The genus Pueraria is highly polyphyletic; the below list is divided by clade following the result of A N Egan & B Pan (2016)  In 2015, the authors validly published their proposal in Phytotaxa  As of February 2022, Kew Plants of the World Online database accepts these names 

Pueraria sensu stricto
Pueraria sensu stricto includes the vast majority of species in the genus  They fall into a single clade sister to or containing Nogra 
P  alopecuroides Craib
P  calycina Franch 
P  candollei  Benth 
P  edulis Pamp 
P  imbricata Maesen
P  lacei Craib
P  mirifica Airy Shaw & Suvat  (= P  candollei var  mirifica in Egan)
P  montana (Lour ) Merr  – US invasive population comes from a hybrid of more than one of the subspecies Pueraria montana var  chinensis (Ohwi) Sanjappa & Pradeep (= P  chinensis, although ILDS and the plant list instead consider P  thomsonii the synonym)
Pueraria montana var  lobata (Willd ) Sanjappa & Pradeep (= P  lobata)
Pueraria montana var  thomsonii (Benth ) Wiersema ex D B  Ward (= P  thomsonii, missing in ILDS)
P  pulcherrima (Koord ) Koord -Schum 
P  sikkimensis Prain
P  tuberosa (Roxb ex Willd ) DC  – type species

Provisionally retained
The following are not included in the 2016 study due to insufficient material for sequencing  They are accepted by POWO 
P  bella Prain: conflicting proposals assigning either to the main clade or to Neonotonia (morphology) 
P  bouffordii H  Ohashi: presumably in the main clade (morphology) 
P  grandiflora Bo Pan & Bing Liu: presumably in the main clade (morphology) 
P  xyzhuii H  Ohashi & Iokawa: presumably in the main clade (morphology) The following are not included in Egan et al  2016 for other reasons, but are accepted by Kew POWO:

P  garhwalensis L R Dangwal & D S Rawat: excluded per van der Maesen (2002)
P  neocaledonica Harms: not mentioned
P  maesenii Niyomdham: not mentioned

Former members
The rest of the genus fall into four clades, sorted by distance from the main clade:
Neustanthus Benth  – sister to Sinodolichos
P  phaseoloides (Roxb ) Benth  → N  phaseoloides (Roxb ) Benth P  edulis, P  montana, and N  phaseoloides make up what is known as kudzu  The morphological differences between these species are subtle 
N  phaseoloides var  javanicus (= P  javanica (Benth ) Benth )
N  phaseoloides var  phaseoloides
N  phaseoloides var  subspicatus
Teyleria
P  stricta Kurz → T  stricta
Toxicopueraria A N Egan & B Pan – sister to Cologania
P  peduncularis Grah  → T  peduncularis
P  yunnanensis Franchet → T  yunnanensis
Haymondia A N Egan & B Pan – notably lies out of Glycininae near Kennediinae; known for a long time to be misplaced
P  wallichii DC  → H  wallichiiThe following names are not accepted even before Egan 2016 but have seen valid publication:

P  omeiensis Wang et Tang – P  montana: unaccepted name after Mount Omei 
P  stracheyi Baker → Apios carnea (Wall ) Benth  ex Baker 
P  maclurei (F  P  Metcalf) F  J  Herm  → Sinodolichos lagopus – still accepted by WFO
Passage 2:
Pleiospilos nelii
Pleiospilos nelii, the split rock, splitrock or living granite, is a species of flowering plant in the family Aizoaceae, native to South Africa  It grows in semi-arid areas with rainfall of between 150mm and 300mm, in the Karoo of South Africa 

Etymology
The species epithet nelii honours the South African botanist Gert Cornelius Nel  The common name "split rock" refers to the appearance of the plant's leaves 

Description
Pleiospilos nelii is a succulent perennial which can reach a height of 5–8 cm (2–3 in) and a diameter of about 10 cm (4 in)  This very short-stemmed, nearly stemless plant has one or more pairs of opposite, almost hemispherical, grey-green or brownish leaves  The surface of the leaves has many small dark spots  A new pair of leaves is produced each year, replacing an older pair  This plant closely resembles a small cracked rock (hence the common name), an appearance which may have evolved as a defence against herbivory  The superficially daisy-like flowers are yellow-orange, 6–7 5 cm (2–3 in) across, and emerge from the plant's apical bud  The flowers are large in relation to the size of the plant  Each flower opens in the afternoon and closes at sunset, over a bloom period of several days 

Cultivation
P  nelii is one of several plants cultivated for their rocklike appearance  They are sometimes collectively called mesembs  In temperate regions it is grown under glass for protection from excessive rain and hard freezes  It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit 

Gallery
Passage 3:
Pleiospilos simulans
Pleiospilos simulans (liver plant, split rock plant) is a species of flowering plant in the family Aizoaceae, once endemic to the Eastern Cape of South Africa  Known populations of the plant in the wild are now extinct due its collection as an ornamental plant for succulent collectors  It is a small, low-growing, perennial with succulent leaves and orange or yellow many-petaled flowers 
Passage 4:
Pleiospilos
Pleiospilos is a genus of succulent flowering plants of the family Aizoaceae, native to South Africa  The name is derived from the Greek pleios "many" and spìlos "spot"  The plants are also known as kwaggavy ("Quagga mesemb"), lewerplant ("liver plant"), lewervygie ("liver mesemb"), klipplant ("stone plant"), split rock or mimicry plant 
Pleiospilos species have two or four opposite, very fleshy, grey-green leaves growing from a short stem that may be underground  The leaves, with their hemispherical shape and pitted texture, often strongly resemble a pile of split pebbles to deter predators  Flowers emerge from the center of the leaves, and may be very big in relation to the overall size of the plant They reproduce both sexually and asexually  Vegetative offshoots emerge from the root system  Seed set occurs in early spring around March The species P  bolusii and  P  nelii are cultivated as ornamentals 

Species
Pleiospilos bolusii
Pleiospilos compactus
P  compactus subsp  compactus
P  compactus subsp  canus
P  compactus subsp  minor
P  compactus subsp  fergusoniae
P  compactus subsp  sororius
Pleiospilos nelii
Pleiospilos simulans
Passage 5:
Pleiospilos bolusii
Pleiospilos bolusii, the mimicry plant, is a species of flowering plant in the family Aizoaceae, native to the Eastern Cape of South Africa, where it grows at an altitude of 750–1,100 m (2,461–3,609 ft)  The species epithet bolusii honours Harry Bolus, a 19th-century South African botanist 
It is a small, stemless succulent perennial growing to 8 cm (3 in) tall by 15 cm (6 in) wide, with two or four opposite grey-green leaves, quite thick, fused at the base, almost triangular, with entire margins  The leaves are longer and more angular than those of the closely related P  nelii, but in both cases the shape and texture of the leaves resemble a pile of split pebbles, possibly to deter predators  The yellow, many-petaled, daisy-like flowers emerge from the center of the leaves, and are 6–8 cm (2–3 in) in diameter - large in relation to the overall size of the plant  The flowers are often coconut-scented  The flowering period extends from August to September 
The plant is one of several species cultivated for their rocklike appearance, which are sometimes collectively called mesembs  With a minimum temperature of 7 °C (45 °F), in temperate regions it is grown under glass  It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Joe Fincham
Joe Fincham (born October 6, 1964) is a former American football coach  He served as the head football coach at Wittenberg University in Springfield, Ohio from 1996 to 2021, compiling a record of 224–51  Fincham played football at Ohio University from 1983 to 1986  On September 25, 2010, Fincham won his 130th game, passing Dave Maurer for the most wins in Wittenberg Tigers football history 

Head coaching record
See also
List of college football coaches with 200 wins
Passage 2:
James C  Donnelly
James Corcoran Donnelly (December 9, 1881 – March 24, 1952) was an American college football player and coach in the early 1900s  He played football at Worcester's Classical High School then went on to Dartmouth where he played football  After graduation in 1905 he went to Harvard Law School and was admitted to the bar in 1908  He practiced law and served as head football coach at Worcester Polytechnic Institute (1909, 1911, 1915), Howard College in Birmingham, Alabama (1910), and Miami University in Oxford, Ohio (1912–1914), compiling a career college football record of 22–32–4  In 1931, he was appointed a Superior Court judge  His younger brother, Charley Donnelly also coached football at the high school and college level  His youngest brother, Ralph E  Donnelly, was also a standout football player and war hero 

Early life
Donnelly was born on December 9, 1881 in Clinton, Massachusetts  Donnelly was the oldest of seven children born to John E  Donnelly and Mary Ellen Corcoran Donnelly  His father immigrated from England and was a machinist in Clinton  James graduated from Classical High School in Worcester, where he had starred in football 

College career
He attended Dartmouth College where he graduated with an A B  in 1905  He excelled in football where he played end on the first Dartmouth football team to beat Harvard  In 1904, his final year, he lettered under coach Fred Folsom  That year, he helped the Dartmouth eleven to an undefeated record of 9–0–1 with a scoreless tie to national power Harvard  Donnelly played alongside three Walter Camp All-Americans, Joseph Gilman at guard (2nd team), Ralph Glaze at end (3rd team) and James Vaughn at halfback (3rd team)  The team out scored its opponents by a combined score of 143 to 13  After graduating from Dartmouth, Donnelly attended Harvard Law School and graduated in 1907 

Legal career
After graduating from Harvard, he was admitted to the bar in 1908 and became a lawyer in Worcester, Massachusetts  Early in his career, he clerked in the law office of Thayer & Cobb, where he worked with Webster Thayer, later the judge in the Sacco and Vanzetti Trial  In 1908, he became law partners with Charles F  Campbell  In 1931, he was appointed as a judge in the Superior Court in Worcester by Governor Joseph B  Ely  His appointment was aided partly by the political connections of his family and his law partner but was hailed by the legal community because he was known for his consistency and fairness 

Coaching career
In the fall of 1905 he began coaching local high schools and colleges in the area  During the period from 1905 to 1909 he was the football coach of one or two teams per season including at Worcester High School, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, and Highland Military Academy of Worcester  In 1910 he took the head football job at Howard College (now known as Samford University) in Birmingham, Alabama  His team finished the season with a 1–8 record and was outscored 304 to 10  In 1911 he returned to coach at Worcester Polytechnic Institute until he was hired for the 1912 football season as an acting professor of physical education and football coach at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio  In the three years as head coach at Miami he had a combined record 14–8–2  Donnelly was replaced as head football coach for the 1915 season by Chester J  Roberts  At the time Miami was changing their philosophy of athletics by moving to an all-year athletic coach  Donnelly was unable to be in Oxford for the entire school year since he could only take a limited amount of time off from his law practice in Massachusetts 

Personal life
Donnelly married Mary O'Reilly of Worcester on October 21, 1920  They had three children: James, Jr , Rosemary, and Elizabeth Ann  Donnelly was killed in a traffic accident in Ashland, Virginia on the way back from Florida, on March 24, 1952  His car was hit head on by a truck  His wife and his daughter, Rosemary were also in the car at the time of the accident, with Rosemary also being killed 

Head coaching record
College football
Passage 3:
Joe Simmons (coach)
Joseph F  Simmons (June 5, 1895 – March 4, 1973) was an American football, basketball, and baseball coach   He served as the head football coach at Central Michigan University for one season in 1920, compiling a record of 4–3–1   He was also the head basketball and head baseball coach at Central Michigan during the same academic year   Simmons graduated from Carthage College, where played football, basketball, and baseball, and ran track   He coached high school football at South Milwaukee High School in the late 1920s and at Milwaukee Country Day School from 1928 to 1936   He was an assistant football coach at Yale University from 1937 to 1939 

Head coaching record
College football
Passage 4:
Joe Odom
Joseph Edward Odom (born December 14, 1979) is a former National Football League (NFL) linebacker   He was selected in the sixth round of the 2003 NFL Draft with the 191st overall pick by the Chicago Bears out of Purdue University  On August 23, 2006, Odom was claimed off of waivers by the Buffalo Bills  After suffering a career ending knee injury, he was forced to medically retire after the 2006 season  Joe currently works for the Stephen Gould Corporation out of Tampa, FL  He is married to Aline Odom from Brazil and has three daughters: Stella Odom, Luna Odom, and Beatriz Odom  They currently live on a small farm in Myakka City, FL 
Passage 5:
Sammy Joe Odom
Sammy Joe Odom (November 13, 1941 - January 18, 2001) was a professional football player, who played for the Houston Oilers in 1964 Odom was born November 13, 1941, in Shreveport, Louisiana, and attended Minden High School in Minden, Louisiana, and then Northwestern State University, playing for the Northwestern State Demons football as a linebacker/defensive tackle in the Gulf States Conference  He was drafted in the seventh round of the 1964 NFL Draft with pick 95 by the Cleveland Browns and pick 78 in the tenth round of the  1964 AFL Draft by the Houston Oilers He opted to go to the Oilers and played fourteen games as a defensive tackle with the Oilers in 1964, making two interceptions for 22 yards  The following year he moved to the Richmond Rebels, as part of their inaugural team playing in the newly established Continental Football League  He did not play a game for the team and was delisted 
Odom died on January 18, 2001, in Mansfield, Louisiana 
Passage 6:
Purdue University
Purdue University (or simply Purdue) is a public land-grant research university in West Lafayette, Indiana, and the flagship campus of the Purdue University system  The university was founded in 1869 after Lafayette businessman John Purdue donated land and money to establish a college of science, technology, and agriculture in his name  The first classes were held on September 16, 1874, with six instructors and 39 students  It has been ranked as among the best public universities in the United States by major institutional rankings, and is known for its engineering program The main campus in West Lafayette offers more than 200 majors for undergraduates, over 70 masters and doctoral programs, and professional degrees in pharmacy, veterinary medicine, and doctor of nursing practice  In addition, Purdue has 18 intercollegiate sports teams and more than 1000 student organizations  Purdue is the founding member of the Big Ten Conference and enrolls the largest student body of any individual university campus in Indiana, as well as the ninth-largest foreign student population of any university in the United States Purdue University is a member of the Association of American Universities and is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity"  Purdue faculty, students, alumni and other affiliates have reached many notable and influential positions in business, media, politics, and science  Purdue has been affiliated with 13 Nobel laureates, 1 Turing Award laureate, 2 World Food Prize laureates, 3 Pulitzer Prize winners, 18 Olympic medalists, 3 National Medal of Technology and Innovation recipients, 2 National Medal of Science recipients, 3 Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients, 7 members of Congress, 3 U S  governors, and 2 heads of state  Purdue has over 400,000 living alumni  Its alumni have included 26 astronauts, 6 current Fortune 500 CEOs, 2 Rhodes Scholars, 4 Truman Scholars and 3 Gates Scholars 

History
In 1865, the Indiana General Assembly voted to take advantage of the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act of 1862 and began plans to establish an institution with a focus on agriculture and engineering  Communities throughout the state offered facilities and funding in bids for the location of the new college  Popular proposals included the addition of an agriculture department at Indiana State University, at what is now Butler University  By 1869, Tippecanoe County's offer included $150,000 (equivalent to $3 3 million in 2022) from Lafayette business leader and philanthropist John Purdue; $50,000 from the county; and 100 acres (0 4 km2) of land from local residents On May 6, 1869, the General Assembly established the institution in Tippecanoe County as Purdue University, in the name of the principal benefactor  Classes began at Purdue on September 16, 1874, with six instructors and 39 students  Professor John S  Hougham was Purdue's first faculty member and served as acting president between the administrations of presidents Shortridge and White  A campus of five buildings was completed by the end of 1874  In 1875, Sarah A  Oren, the State Librarian of Indiana, was appointed professor of botany Purdue issued its first degree, a Bachelor of Science in chemistry, in 1875  The first female student was admitted that autumn Emerson E  White, the university's president from 1876 to 1883, followed a strict interpretation of the Morrill Act  Rather than emulate the classical universities, White believed Purdue should be an "industrial college" and devote its resources toward providing a broad, liberal education with an emphasis on science, technology, and agriculture  He intended not only to prepare students for industrial work, but also to prepare them to be good citizens and family members Part of White's plan to distinguish Purdue from classical universities included a controversial attempt to ban fraternities, which was ultimately overturned by the Indiana Supreme Court, leading to White's resignation  The next president, James H  Smart, is remembered for his call in 1894 to rebuild the original Heavilon Hall "one brick higher" after it had been destroyed by a fire By the end of the nineteenth century, the university was organized into schools of agriculture, engineering (mechanical, civil, and electrical), and pharmacy; former U S  President Benjamin Harrison served on the board of trustees  Purdue's engineering laboratories included testing facilities for a locomotive, and for a Corliss steam engine—one of the most efficient engines of the time  The School of Agriculture shared its research with farmers throughout the state, with its cooperative extension services, and would undergo a period of growth over the following two decades  Programs in education and home economics were soon established, as well as a short-lived school of medicine  By 1925, Purdue had the largest undergraduate engineering enrollment in the country, a status it would keep for half a century 

President Edward C  Elliott oversaw a campus building program between the world wars  Inventor, alumnus, and trustee David E  Ross coordinated several fundraisers, donated lands to the university, and was instrumental in establishing the Purdue Research Foundation  Ross's gifts and fundraisers supported such projects as Ross–Ade Stadium, the Memorial Union, a civil engineering surveying camp, and Purdue University Airport  Purdue Airport was the country's first university-owned airport and the site of the country's first college-credit flight training courses Amelia Earhart joined the Purdue faculty in 1935 as a consultant for these flight courses and as a counselor on women's careers  In 1936, the Purdue Research Foundation provided the funds for the Lockheed Electra 10-E Earhart flew on her attempted round-the-world flight  
Every school and department at the university was involved in some type of military research or training during World War II  During a project on radar receivers, Purdue physicists discovered properties of germanium that led to the making of the first transistor  The Army and the Navy conducted training programs at Purdue and more than 17,500 students, staff, and alumni served in the armed forces  Purdue set up about a hundred centers throughout Indiana to train skilled workers for defense industries  As veterans returned to the university under the G I  Bill, first-year classes were taught at some of these sites to alleviate the demand for campus space  Four of these sites are now degree-granting regional campuses of the Purdue University system  On-campus housing became racially desegregated in 1947, following pressure from Purdue President Frederick L  Hovde and Indiana Governor Ralph F  Gates After the war, Hovde worked to expand the academic opportunities at the university  A decade-long construction program emphasized science and research  In the late 1950s and early 1960s the university established programs in veterinary medicine, industrial management, and nursing, as well as the first computer science department in the United States  Undergraduate humanities courses were strengthened, although Hovde only reluctantly approved of graduate-level study in these areas  Purdue awarded its first Bachelor of Arts degrees in 1960  The programs in liberal arts and education, formerly administered by the School of Science, were soon split into an independent school 
The official seal of Purdue was officially inaugurated during the university's centennial in 1969  Consisting of elements from emblems that had been used unofficially since the 1890s, the current seal depicts a griffin, symbolizing strength, and a three-part shield, representing education, research, and service In 1975, Purdue University joined ARPANET, an early packet-switching network that would ultimately become the foundation for the modern internet In recent years, Purdue's leaders have continued to support high-tech research and international programs  In 1987, U S  President Ronald Reagan visited the West Lafayette campus to give a speech about the influence of technological progress on job creation In the 1990s, the university added more opportunities to study abroad and expanded its course offerings in world languages and cultures  The first buildings of the Discovery Park interdisciplinary research center were dedicated in 2004 Purdue launched a Global Policy Research Institute in 2010 to explore the potential impact of technical knowledge on public policy decisions On April 27, 2017, Purdue University announced plans to acquire for-profit college Kaplan University and convert it to a public university in the state of Indiana, subject to multiple levels of approval  That school now operates as Purdue University Global, and aims to serve adult learners 

Integration
Purdue had black graduates by the 1890s, and in 1905 a Black man ran for its track team  But some time in the 1910s the teams became segregated, and remained so until a student protest in 1947  Black students were not allowed to live in the residence halls until the 1940s  Black males were able to live in cooperatives, but Black females were not allowed to live anywhere in West Lafayette  In 1946 the women's dormitories were integrated by an order of the governor of Indiana Helen Williams became the first Black faculty member in 1968 

Campuses
Purdue's campus is situated in the small city of West Lafayette, near the western bank of the Wabash River, across which sits the larger city of Lafayette  State Street, which is concurrent with State Road 26, divides the northern and southern portions of campus  Academic buildings are mostly concentrated on the eastern and southern parts of campus, with residence halls and intramural fields to the west, and athletic facilities to the north  The Greater Lafayette Public Transportation Corporation (CityBus) operates eight campus loop bus routes on which students, faculty, and staff can ride free of charge with Purdue Identification 

Purdue Mall
The Purdue Mall is the central quad of Purdue University and was created to connect the academic campus with Ross-Ade Stadium  It is also known as the Engineering Mall due to its proximity to several engineering buildings  The most prominent feature of the Purdue Mall is the 38-foot (12 m)-tall concrete Engineering Fountain, and also features the Frederick L  Hovde Hall of Administration, which houses the office of the university president, Mitchell E  Daniels The Purdue Bell Tower is between the Stadium and Centennial Malls  The Bell Tower is considered an icon of the university and can be found on many Purdue logos and those of the cities of Lafayette and West Lafayette Southwest of the Stadium Mall is the Edward C  Elliott Hall of Music, one of the largest proscenium theaters in the world  Elliott Hall of Music serves as the home of the Purdue "All-American" Marching Band, Purdue Bands and Orchestras, the WBAA studio  Purdue's Student Concert Committee often invites famous entertainers to perform there for an audience of students, faculty, and the public West of the Elliott Hall of Music is the Armory Building  The Armory Building was rebuilt in 1918 after a fire and houses the university's ROTC programs and other clubs  In March 2019, university president Mitch Daniels described a proposal to repurpose the Armory Building, suggesting the space may be used for residential dining, retail, or classrooms but later said no changes would be made 

Memorial Mall
The Purdue Memorial Mall, south of the Purdue Mall, is the original section of campus  A popular meeting place for students, the grassy, open Memorial Mall is surrounded by the Stewart Center, Wetherill Laboratory of Chemistry, Stanley Coulter Hall, the Class of 1950 Lecture Hall, the Recitation Building, University Hall, and Stone Hall  The Memorial Mall also features the Hello Walk Near this section of campus is Felix Haas Hall, which was constructed in 1909 as Memorial Gymnasium in memory of the 17 Purdue University football players, coaches, alumni, and fans who perished in the Purdue Wreck railroad accident on October 31, 1903  The structure was renovated in 1985 to house the computer science department  In 2006, it was renamed in honor of retired Provost Felix Haas and began to also house the Statistics department  East of the Memorial Mall is the Purdue Memorial Union, Purdue's student union building, and the adjacent Union Club Hotel University Hall is the only building remaining from the original six-building campus  Construction began in 1871, when the building was known as "The Main Building"  The building was dedicated in 1877 and the project cost $35,000 to complete  University Hall originally housed the office of the president, a chapel, and classrooms, but was remodeled in 1961 to house only the department of history and classrooms used by the School of Liberal Arts  At the request of John Purdue, he was buried in the Memorial Mall, directly across from the main entrance of University Hall 

South Campus
The area south of State Street is home to Purdue's agricultural, fine arts, life sciences, and veterinary buildings  This area also includes the Krannert School of Management, Horticulture Gardens, Discovery Park, Lyles Porter Hall and the Purdue Airport  The Krannert School of Management has been nationally and globally ranked for both undergraduate and graduate degree programs  Krannert and Rawls Hall provide state of the art learning facilities to the majority of business classes on campus  Rawls Hall was built in 2006 with the help of a $10 million gift from Jerry S  Rawls, the largest in the management school's history Lyles Porter Hall houses interdisciplinary healthcare facilities and classroom space within the College of Health and Human Sciences as well as the West Lafayette branch of the Indiana University School of Medicine  Collectively, students and clinical faculty within Nursing, Health and Kinesiology, Nutrition Science, Psychological Sciences, and Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences see approximately 3,000 patients a year within this state-of-the-art interdisciplinary healthcare facility  The building features a nursing clinic, specialized preschool, exercise center, consultation space and demonstration kitchen for dietitians in training, clinical psychology facility, audiology and speech-language pathology clinics, cadaver laboratory for physicians in training, and research laboratories Purdue University Airport, which opened in 1930 was the first of its kind and remains one of only a few university-owned airports in the nation  Including the Niswonger Aviation Technology Building, which was dedicated in 2009, the facility symbolizes Purdue's storied relationship with aviation 

West Campus
The western portion of campus consists of student housing, dining, and recreation facilities  Students can play club and intramural sports at the Córdova Recreational Sports Center, the Morgan J  Burke Aquatic Center (named for former Purdue Men's Swimming & Diving Captain and longtime Vice President & Athletics Director), and the intramural playing fields in this area  The Córdova Recreational Sports Center, built in 1957, is the first building in the nation created solely to serve university student recreational needs  As a replacement for the previously separate women's and men's gymnasiums, it was originally called the "Co-recreational Gymnasium"  Despite several expansions and official name changes, it has been nicknamed "the Co-rec" ever since 

Stadium Avenue
Much of the northern part of campus sits on land purchased for the university by industrialist David E  Ross and author and humorist George Ade in the 1920s  Many of Purdue's athletic facilities are there, including Ross–Ade Stadium (American football), Mackey Arena (basketball), and Lambert Fieldhouse (indoor track and field)  This area also includes the Slayter Center of Performing Arts and Cary Quadrangle, one of the largest all-male housing units in the country Ross is one of three people buried on Purdue's campus, the others being John Purdue and former First Lady of Purdue, Jane Beering  Ross's and Beering's grave sites are in a garden atop Slayter Hill just to the west of the Slayter bandshell  Beering's husband, former Purdue President Steven Beering, will eventually join her atop the hill  Baseball's Alexander Field and other athletic facilities are a mile west of the stadium, at the newer Northwest Athletic Complex 

Organization and administration
The university president, appointed by the board of trustees, is the chief administrative officer of the university  The office of the president oversees admission and registration, student conduct and counseling, the administration and scheduling of classes and space, the administration of student athletics and organized extracurricular activities, the libraries, the appointment of the faculty and conditions of their employment, the appointment of all non-faculty employees and the conditions of employment, the general organization of the university, and the planning and administration of the university budget The Board of Trustees directly appoints other major officers of the university including a provost who serves as the chief academic officer for the university, several vice presidents with oversight over specific university operations, and the regional campus chancellors 

Academics
Admissions
Undergraduate
The 2022 annual ranking of U S  News & World Report categorizes Purdue University-West Lafayette as "more selective"  For the Class of 2025 (enrolled fall 2021), Purdue received 59,173 applications and accepted 40,759 (68 9%)  Of those accepted, 10,157 enrolled, a yield rate (the percentage of accepted students who choose to attend the university) of 24 9%  Purdue's freshman retention rate is 92%, with 81 5% going on to graduate within six years The university started test-optional admissions with the Fall 2021 incoming class in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and has extended this through Fall 2023  Of the 62% of the incoming freshman class who submitted SAT scores; the middle 50 percent Composite scores were 1190-1430  Of the 31% of enrolled freshmen in 2021 who submitted ACT scores; the middle 50 percent Composite score was between 26 and 33 Purdue University is a college-sponsor of the National Merit Scholarship Program and sponsored 88 Merit Scholarship awards in 2020  In the 2020–2021 academic year, 127 freshman students were National Merit Scholars 

Academic divisions
Purdue offers both undergraduate and graduate programs in over 211 major areas of study, and is well known for its competitive engineering curricula  The university has also been integral in America's history of aviation, having established the first college credit offered in flight training; the first four-year bachelor's degree in aviation; and the first university airport: Purdue University Airport  Purdue's aviation technology and aeronautical engineering programs remain among the most competitive aviation-specific programs in the world  In the mid-20th century, Purdue's aviation program expanded to encompass advanced spaceflight technology, giving rise to Purdue's nicknames Cradle of Astronauts and Mother of Astronauts  26 Purdue graduates have become astronauts, including Gus Grissom, one of the original Mercury Seven astronauts; Neil Armstrong, who was the first person to walk on the Moon; and Eugene Cernan, who was the last person to walk on the Moon The English department at Purdue launched the first Online Writing Lab (OWL), in 1994  Many colleges and universities use the Purdue OWL website as an academic writing reference source for proper word usage, punctuation, grammar, and style Purdue is organized into 10 colleges and schools  On July 1, 2010, the College of Health and Human Sciences was formed, through combining existing academic units, including the School of Nursing, the School of Health Sciences, the College of Consumer and Family Sciences, and non-humanities majors psychology and hearing and speech pathology from the College of Liberal Arts 

College of Agriculture
The university's College of Agriculture supports the university's agricultural, food, life, and natural resource science programs  The college also supports the university's charge as a land-grant university to support agriculture throughout the state; its agricultural extension program plays a key role in this 

College of Education
The College of Education offers undergraduate degrees in elementary education, social studies education, science education and special education, and graduate degrees in these and many other specialty areas of education  It has two departments: (a) Curriculum and Instruction and (b) Educational Studies 

College of Engineering
The Purdue University College of Engineering was established in 1874 with programs in Civil and Mechanical Engineering  The college now offers BS, MS, and PhD degrees in more than a dozen disciplines  Purdue's engineering program has also educated 24 of America's astronauts, including Neil Armstrong and Eugene Cernan who were the first and last astronauts to have walked on the Moon, respectively, and Gus Grissom, a member of the Mercury Seven  Many of Purdue's engineering disciplines are recognized as top-ten programs in the U S  The college as a whole is currently ranked 4th in the U S  of all doctorate-granting engineering schools by U S  News & World Report 

Exploratory Studies
The university's Exploratory Studies program supports undergraduate students who enter the university without having a declared major  It was founded as a pilot program in 1995 and made a permanent program in 1999 

College of Health and Human Sciences
The College of Health and Human Sciences was established in 2010 and is the newest college  It offers BS, MS and PhD degrees in all 10 of its academic units 

College of Liberal Arts
Purdue's College of Liberal Arts contains the arts, social sciences and humanities programs at the university  Liberal arts courses have been taught at Purdue since its founding in 1874  The School of Science, Education, and Humanities was formed in 1953  In 1963, the School of Humanities, Social Sciences, and Education was established, although Bachelor of Arts degrees had begun to be conferred as early as 1959  In 1989, the School of Liberal Arts was created to encompass Purdue's arts, humanities, and social sciences programs, while education programs were split off into the newly formed School of Education  The School of Liberal Arts was renamed the College of Liberal Arts in 2005 

Daniels School of Business
The Daniels School of Business offers management courses and programs at the undergraduate, master's, and doctoral levels 

College of Pharmacy
The university's College of Pharmacy was established in 1884 and is the 3rd oldest state-funded school of pharmacy in the United States  The school offers two undergraduate programs leading to the BS in Pharmaceutical Sciences (BSPS) and the Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm D ) professional degree  Graduate programs leading to MS and PhD degrees are offered in three departments (Industrial and Physical Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, and Pharmacy Practice)  Additionally, the school offers several non-degree certificate programs and post-graduate continuing education activities 

Purdue Polytechnic Institute
The Purdue Polytechnic Institute, formerly known as the College of Technology, offers bachelor's, master's and PhD degrees in a wide range of technology-related disciplines  With over 30,000 living alumni, it is one of the largest technology schools in the United States  In addition to the main school in West Lafayette, Purdue Polytechnic operates nine satellite campuses in Anderson, Columbus, Indianapolis, Kokomo, Lafayette, New Albany, Richmond, Vincennes, and South Bend  These locations offer certificate, associate, and/or bachelor's degrees, some of which are ABET-accredited technical degrees 
The Polytechnic Institute also maintains three high school campuses (two in Indianapolis and one in South Bend) that focus on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics and feature hands-on project-based learning 

College of Science
The university's College of Science houses the university's science departments: Biological Sciences; Chemistry; Computer Science; Earth, Atmospheric, & Planetary Sciences; Mathematics; Physics & Astronomy; and Statistics  The science courses offered by the college account for about one-fourth of Purdue's one million student credit hours 

College of Veterinary Medicine
The College of Veterinary Medicine is accredited by the AVMA to offer the Doctor of Veterinary Medicine degree, associate's and bachelor's degrees in veterinary technology, master's and PhD degrees, and residency programs leading to specialty board certification  Within the state of Indiana, the Purdue University College of Veterinary Medicine is the only veterinary school, while the Indiana University School of Medicine is one of only two medical schools (the other being Marian University College of Osteopathic Medicine)  The two schools frequently collaborate on medical research projects 

Honors College
Purdue's Honors College supports an honors program for undergraduate students at the university 

The Graduate School
The university's Graduate School supports graduate students at the university 

Purdue Online
Through Purdue Online, the administrative unit charged with planning and enabling the effort, Purdue has a growing online presence, in addition to Purdue Global, offering more than 200 programs through the university's four accredited institutions (Purdue West Lafayette, Purdue Northwest and Purdue Fort Wayne in Indiana and Purdue Global) including master's degree programs  Purdue Online, the unified online education initiative approved by Purdue President Mitch Daniels and the Purdue Board of Trustees in December 2018, is intended to radically expand these offerings by developing a "coordinated, unified system-wide portfolio of online course and degree offerings for students of all types " Students manage their Purdue University admin account using the BrightSpace Purdue Student Portal 

Research
The university expended $622 814 million in support of research system-wide in 2017, using funds received from the state and federal governments, industry, foundations, and individual donors  The faculty and more than 400 research laboratories put Purdue University among the leading research institutions  Purdue University is considered by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education to have "very high research activity"  Purdue also was rated the nation's fourth best place to work in academia, according to rankings released in November 2007 by The Scientist magazine  Purdue's researchers provide insight, knowledge, assistance, and solutions in many crucial areas  These include, but are not limited to Agriculture; Business and Economy; Education; Engineering; Environment; Healthcare; Individuals, Society, Culture; Manufacturing; Science; Technology; Veterinary Medicine The Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP), a global research consortium focused on global economic governance challenges (trade, climate, resource use) is also coordinated by the university  Purdue University generated a record $438 million in sponsored research funding during the 2009–10 fiscal year with participation from National Science Foundation, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the U S  departments of Agriculture, Defense, Energy, and Health and Human Services  Purdue University was ranked fourth in Engineering research expenditures amongst all the colleges in the United States in 2017, with a research expenditure budget of 244 8 million Purdue University established the Discovery Park to bring innovation through multidisciplinary action  In all of the eleven centers of Discovery Park, ranging from entrepreneurship to energy and advanced manufacturing, research projects reflect a large economic impact and address global challenges  Purdue University's nanotechnology research program, built around the new Birck Nanotechnology Center in Discovery Park, ranks among the best in the nation The Purdue Research Park which opened in 1961 was developed by Purdue Research Foundation which is a private, nonprofit foundation created to assist Purdue  The park is focused on companies operating in the arenas of life sciences, homeland security, engineering, advanced manufacturing and information technology  It provides an interactive environment for experienced Purdue researchers and for private business and high-tech industry  It currently employs more than 3,000 people in 155 companies, including 90 technology-based firms  The Purdue Research Park was ranked first by the Association of University Research Parks in 2004 Purdue's library system consists of fifteen locations throughout the campus, including an archives and special collections research center, an undergraduate library, and several subject-specific libraries  More than three million volumes, including one million electronic books, are held at these locations  The Library houses the Amelia Earhart Collection, a collection of notes and letters belonging to Earhart and her husband George Putnam along with records related to her disappearance and subsequent search efforts  An administrative unit of Purdue University Libraries, Purdue University Press has its roots in the 1960 founding of Purdue University Studies by President Frederick Hovde on a $12,000 grant from the Purdue Research Foundation  This was the result of a committee appointed by President Hovde after the Department of English lamented the lack of publishing venues in the humanities  Since the 1990s, the range of books published by the Press has grown to reflect the work from other colleges at Purdue University especially in the areas of agriculture, health, and engineering  Purdue University Press publishes print and ebook monograph series in a range of subject areas from literary and cultural studies to the study of the human-animal bond  In 1993 Purdue University Press was admitted to membership of the Association of American University Presses  Purdue University Press publishes around 25 books a year and 20 learned journals in print, in print & online, and online-only formats in collaboration with Purdue University Libraries 

Sustainability
Purdue's Sustainability Council, composed of university administrators and professors, meets monthly to discuss environmental issues and sustainability initiatives at Purdue  The university's first LEED Certified building was an addition to the Mechanical Engineering Building, which was completed in Fall 2011  The school is also in the process of developing an arboretum on campus  In addition, a system has been set up to display live data detailing current energy production at the campus utility plant  The school holds an annual "Green Week" each fall, an effort to engage the Purdue community with issues relating to environmental sustainability 

Rankings
In its 2022 edition, U S  News & World Report ranked Purdue University the 7th most innovative national university, tied for the 18th best public university in the United States, tied for 51st overall, and 127th best global university  U S  News & World Report also rated Purdue tied for 36th in "Best Undergraduate Teaching, 81st in "Best Value Schools", tied for 326th in "Top Performers on Social Mobility", and the undergraduate engineering program tied for 9th at schools whose highest degree is a doctorate 

Campus life
Student body
8,562 students from 126 countries around the world attended Purdue University in 2012  In 2012–13, 19,689 out of a total of 39,256 students enrolled were Indiana residents  As of 2013, the racial diversity of the US-resident undergraduate student body was 5 7% Asian, 4 4% Hispanic or Latino, and 4 0% black or African American  Of the undergraduate students, 42 6% were female  Domestic minorities constitute a total of 10 8% in the graduate student body population of which 37 3% are female  Twenty-two percent of the student body is international, representing 126 countries  In graduate and professional student population, non-Indiana residents occupy an overwhelming majority, about 75%  Almost all undergraduates and about 70% of the graduate student population attend full-time  The school's selectivity for admissions is "more selective" by USNWR: approximately 49% of applicants are admitted 

Housing
About one-third of the single undergraduate students on the West Lafayette campus live in university-owned buildings  The rest live in fraternities, sororities, cooperatives, or private off-campus housing  There are 11,844 spaces available for undergraduate students, graduate students, and student families who choose to live on campus  Sixteen percent of the undergraduate student body are members of the 40 fraternities and 20 sororities on campus 
Purdue University operates seventeen separate residence halls for its undergraduate and graduate students, including Cary Quadrangle, Earhart Hall, First Street Towers, Frieda Parker Hall, Harrison Hall, Hawkins Hall, Hillenbrand Hall, Hilltop Apartments, Honors College and Residences, McCutcheon Hall, Meredith Hall, Meredith South Hall, Owen Hall, Shreve Hall, Tarkington Hall, Wiley Hall, Winifred Parker Hall, and the 5 Windsor Halls: Duhme, Shealy, Warren, Wood, and Vawter  Of the residence halls, Cary, McCutcheon, Wiley, and Tarkington are male-only while Windsor, Meredith South Hall, and Meredith Hall are female-only; the rest of them are co-ed There are 12 cooperative houses at Purdue (five men's houses and seven women's houses)  The men's houses include Circle Pines, Fairway, Marwood, Chauncey, and Gemini  The women's houses include Ann Tweedale, Glenwood, Twin Pines, Maclure, Stewart, Devonshire, and Shoemaker  All cooperative houses are governed under the Purdue Cooperative Council which is led by Purdue University students who live in these houses  The cooperative system allows for a much lower cost of living than other types of housing, averaging $2900 annually with all-inclusive monthly rent ranging from $250–$625 varying by house  The members take an active role in sharing chores and cooking all meals themselves, as opposed to hiring out cleaning and cooking staff Purdue University hosts one of the nation's largest Greek community, with approximately 6,000 students participating in one of the roughly 40 men's fraternities or 30 women's sororities  Several of Purdue's most distinguished graduates are members of fraternities and sororities  Purdue's Greek system is very strong and works together in various aspects, including the Inter-Fraternity Council, Panhellenic, and many very successful philanthropies  Every chapter has national philanthropy dedicated to a certain cause that many chapters also participate in  Besides philanthropy, Purdue Greeks are involved all over campus, including College Mentors for Kids, Purdue University Dance Marathon, Boiler Gold Rush, Purdue Student Government, and other activities 

Activities and events
Students at Purdue participate in more than 900 student organizations that cover a variety of interests  Some of the notable clubs founded by Purdue students include the Purdue Reamer Club (a school spirit organization that cares for the Boilermaker Special mascot and raises funds for scholarships) and two clubs that eventually became nationwide organizations: the National Society of Black Engineers and the Rube Goldberg Machine Contest Several campus-wide programs are planned by the Purdue Alumni Student Experience (part of the Alumni Association), Purdue Student Union Board, Purdue Student Government (PSG), or the Purdue Graduate Student Government (PGSG)  PSG and PGSG are made up of representatives from each of the university's academic colleges and give recommendations to the faculty, administration, and sometimes to the state legislature Annual campus events include Boiler Gold Rush, Purdue University Dance Marathon, Spring Fest, and Grand Prix  Boiler Gold Rush (BGR) is Purdue's new-student orientation program  BGR, which takes place before each fall semester, was formed to ease the transition to college for incoming students and to help them get acquainted with successful college life  Boiler Gold Rush activities include speaker presentations from various academic, cultural, safety, and professional organizations on campus, campus tours led by Team Leaders, academic 'meet the schools' picnic and interest sessions, late-night events at the Purdue Memorial Union, Recreational Sports Center and local stores, and a sports pep rally  Purdue University Dance Marathon (PUDM) is an 18-hour no-sitting, no-sleeping, dance marathon that takes place each fall in the Cordova Recreation center  Each year over 2,000 students participate and the event raises over $1 million annually for Riley Hospital for Children in Indianapolis  PUDM is also one of the largest collegiate Dance Marathons in the country  Spring Fest is an annual carnival with entertaining exhibits from many academic departments  A highlight of the weekend is the Entomology Department's Bug Bowl, where the sport of cricket spitting was invented in 1997  The Purdue Grand Prix, a 50-mile, 160-lap go-kart race is "The Greatest Spectacle in College Racing" and wraps up Gala Week each year  All 33 participating karts are made from scratch by student teams  The event has been raising money for student scholarships since it began in 1958 

Religious life
Purdue has a number of religious organizations on and near the campus  St  Thomas Aquinas Catholic Church serves the Catholic community at Purdue and the surrounding community  There is also a non-denominational Christian church, Campus House, which is affiliated with the popular coffee-shop Greyhouse Coffee  The Purdue Hillel Foundation and Chabad at Purdue are the university's Jewish campus organizations  The Islamic Society of Greater Lafayette has an Islamic center serving the needs of the Muslim community on campus 

Media
The Purdue Exponent, an independent student newspaper, has the largest circulation of any Indiana college newspaper, with a daily circulation of 17,500 copies during the spring and fall semesters  From 1889 to 2008 Purdue published a yearbook called the Debris WBAA is a professional radio station operation owned by and licensed to Purdue University  The station operates three noncommercial stations: WBAA News, WBAA Classical, and WBAA Jazz  The stations can be heard on AM920, 101 3 FM, and 105 9 FM  WBAA also broadcasts on HD Radio and digital platforms including wbaa org and the WBAA app  Its studios are in the Edward C  Elliott Hall of Music on the Purdue campus, and the transmitters are in Lafayette, Indiana  WBAA is the longest continuously-operating radio station in Indiana, having been licensed on April 4, 1922  WBAA is a NPR member station  Despite some public disapproval, in 2022, Purdue sold WBAA to WFYI-FM  Purdue received $700,000 in underwriting credit while agreeing to provide an investment of $250,000 annually for two years to WFYI to offset initial operating costs There are also a few campus radio stations on campus  Currently, three radio stations operate from residence halls, broadcasting via internet only; WCCR from Cary Quadrangle (not to be confused with the current WCCR FM or WCCR-LP stations in other states), WILY from Wiley Hall, and WHHR from Harrison Hall W9YB is the callsign of the Amateur Radio Club at Purdue University  W9YB is the longest standing club on campus and also holds the self-declared title of having one of the largest and most active collegiate amateur radio stations in the country  W9YB actively participates in emergency management for the Tippecanoe County area and maintains ready status with its members in skills to assist  W9YB is among the longest standing amateur radio clubs in the United States, with the current callsign dating back to 1932 and the previous callsign 9YB dating back to 1920 The "Movie Tribute Show" was created in a small television studio (now known as the Erik Mygrant Studio) on campus in 1999 

Athletics
On October 26, 1891, a newspaper in Crawfordsville, Indiana, called Purdue's football team the "Boiler Makers" when writing about their trouncing of Wabash College  Lafayette newspapers soon picked up the name, and in October 1892, The Purdue Exponent, Purdue's student newspaper, gave it the stamp of approval  In the early days of Purdue football, the team was called other names as well, including "haymakers," "railsplitters," "sluggers," and "cornfield sailors " This heritage is reflected in Purdue's official mascot: the Boilermaker Special (a truck-like vehicle that resembles a locomotive) and the athletic mascot Purdue Pete (a muscular hammer-wielding boilermaker)  The school colors of old gold and black were selected by Purdue's first football team in 1887 to resemble the orange and black of Princeton's then-successful team  The best known fight song is "Hail Purdue!" 
Purdue has one of the few college athletic programs not funded by student fees or subsidized by the university  It is home to 18 Division I/I-A NCAA teams including football, basketball, cross country, tennis, wrestling, golf, volleyball, ice hockey (ACHA), and others  Purdue is a founding member of the Big Ten Conference, and played a central role in its creation  Traditional rivals include Big Ten colleagues the Indiana Hoosiers (see Indiana–Purdue rivalry), the Illinois Fighting Illini, and the Notre Dame Fighting Irish from the Atlantic Coast Conference (football program independent, however) Purdue's baseball facility was named in honor of two alumni, Anna Margaret Ross Alexander and her husband, John Arthur Alexander, when the new stadium was dedicated in 2013 

Football
The Boilermaker football team represents Purdue University in the NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS)  Ryan Walters is Purdue's current head coach, the 37th in the program's history  Purdue plays its home games at Ross-Ade Stadium on the campus of Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana  The Boilermakers compete in the Big Ten Conference as a member of the West Division  With a 592–515–48 record, Purdue has the 49th most victories among NCAA FBS programs  Purdue was originally classified as a Major College school in the 1937 season until 1972  Purdue received Division I classification in 1973, becoming a Division I-A program from 1978 to 2006 and an FBS program from 2006 to the present  The Boilermakers have registered 64 winning seasons in their history, with 19 of those seasons resulting in eight victories or more, 10 seasons resulting in at least nine wins, and just one season with ten victories or more  Of those successful campaigns, Purdue has produced five unbeaten seasons in its history, going 4–0 in 1891, 8–0 in 1892, 8–0 in 1929, 7–0–1 in 1932 and 9–0 in 1943  The Boilermakers have won a total of 12 conference championships in their history, including four Indiana Intercollegiate Athletic Association titles and eight Big Ten Conference titles  The program is also notable for being one of only two universities – the other being the University of Alabama – to produce three Super Bowl-winning quarterbacks Found on a farm in southern Indiana, the Old Oaken Bucket is one of the oldest American football trophies  The winner of Purdue's annual game against the Indiana University Hoosiers gets to keep the trophy until the next face-off and add a bronze "P" or "I" link to its chain  The first competition in 1925 led to a 0–0 tie, resulting in the first link on the chain being an "IP " As of 1 September 2021, Purdue leads the series 74–42–6 During "Breakfast Club", best described as a cross between a pep rally and a Halloween party, students and even some alumni dress up in costumes, from traditional Halloween garb to creative hand-made costumes, as they bar-hop before Boilermaker home football games  The Breakfast Club plays a significant role during the football season and is informally a part of Purdue tradition  Many Boilermaker fans are dedicated; getting up at 5:00 a m  on Saturdays and lining up at the bars on Chauncey Hill and the levee by 6:00 a m  on game days  The Breakfast Club tradition also takes place the day of the annual Purdue Grand Prix race in April  Another tradition is Saturday morning wake-ups, where the Boilermaker Special uses its many loud horns and whistles to wake dorm students up in preparation for the day's game 

Basketball
The Purdue Boilermakers men's basketball team competes in NCAA Division I and is a member of the Big Ten Conference  In 2005, Matt Painter became the head coach in West Lafayette  Painter took over the head coaching job from the winningest coach in school history, Gene Keady, becoming the second former Boilermaker basketball player to take the lead role  Purdue won its 25th Big Ten Conference Championship and 2nd Big Ten Tournament Championship in 2023  This mark leads the conference, as Indiana University Bloomington is second with 22 conference championshps  The Boilermakers were retroactively designated the 1932 national champions by the Helms Athletic Foundation and the Premo-Porretta Power Poll, but have not won an NCAA Championship  They were the 1969 runner-up, falling to legendary coach and former Purdue player John Wooden-led UCLA  They last went to the Final Four in 1980, again falling to UCLA  The Purdue men's team has sent more than 30 players to the NBA including two overall No  1 picks in the NBA draft  The Purdue women's basketball team were the 1999 NCAA Champions and 2001 runner-ups  The Boilermakers men's and women's basketball teams have won more Big Ten Championships than any other conference school, with 32 regular-season conference titles and 11 Big Ten Tournament titles  Purdue men's basketball achieved an all-time winning record against all Big Ten Schools when it gained a winning record over Ohio State with three wins in 2023, improving that record from 91-92 to 94-92  Purdue shares an all-sport rivalry with in-state foe Indiana University and holds a 125–92 series lead in men's basketball 

People
Faculty
The original faculty of six in 1874 has grown to 2,563 tenured and tenure-track faculty in the Purdue Statewide System by Fall 2007 totals  The number of faculty and staff members system-wide is 18,872  The current faculty includes scholars such as Arden L  Bement Jr  (director of the National Science Foundation), R  Graham Cooks, Douglas Comer, Louis de Branges de Bourcia (who proved the Bieberbach conjecture), Victor Raskin, David Sanders, Leah Jamieson, James L  Mohler (who has written several manuals of computer graphics), and Samuel S  Wagstaff Jr  (inventor of the Wagstaff prime) Purdue's tenured faculty comprises sixty Academic Deans, Associate Deans, and Assistant Deans; 63 Academic Department Heads; 753 Professors; 547 Associate Professors; and 447 Assistant Professors  Purdue employs 892 non-tenure-track faculty, Lecturers, and Postdoctoral Researchers at its West Lafayette campus  Purdue employs another 691 tenured and 1,021 Non-Tenure Track Faculty, Lecturers, and Postdoctoral Researchers at its Regional Campuses and Statewide Technology unit Two faculty members (chemists Herbert C  Brown and Ei-ichi Negishi) have been awarded Nobel Prizes while at Purdue  In all, 13 Nobel Prizes in five fields have been associated with Purdue including students, researchers, and current and previous faculty  Other notable faculty of the past have included Golden Gate Bridge designer Charles Alton Ellis, efficiency expert Lillian Gilbreth, food safety advocate Harvey Wiley, aviator Amelia Earhart, president of the National Association of Mathematicians Edray Goins, radio pioneer Reginald Fessenden, and Yeram S  Touloukian, founder of the Thermophysical Properties Research Center 

Alumni
Purdue alumni have achieved recognition in a range of areas, particularly in the science, engineering, and aviation industries  The university's alumni pool collectively holds over 15,000 United States patents Purdue alumni include 25 astronauts, including Gus Grissom, America's second man in space and first to fly in NASA's Gemini program, Neil Armstrong, the first to walk on the Moon, and Eugene Cernan, the last astronaut to do so  Over one-third of all of NASA's crewed space missions have had at least one Purdue graduate as a crew member In science, Purdue has also produced Nobel Prize–winning physicists in Edward Mills Purcell and Ben Roy Mottelson, as well as Nobel Prize–winning chemist Akira Suzuki  Other noted Purdue alumni in science include pioneer of robotics and remote control technology Thomas B  Sheridan; Debian founder Ian Murdock; Chinese physicist Deng Jiaxian, a founding father and key contributor to the Chinese nuclear weapon programs; mathematician Yitang Zhang; chemist Lawrence Rocks; biochemist Edwin T  Mertz, credited with the discovery of high-protein corn and beans; Indian chemist CNR Rao, who has been awarded the Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award in India; engineer Mohamed Atalla who invented the MOS transistor; physical organic chemist and advocate for women and minorities in science Nina Roscher, who received the ACS Award for Encouraging Women into Careers in the Chemical Sciences (1996) and the Presidential Award for Excellence in Science, Mathematics and Engineering Mentoring (1998); and professor Reuben J  Olembo, a geneticist and environmentalist who went on to become the deputy executive director of UNEP and a UN Assistant Secretary-General, and who was recognised by Purdue in 1994 with a Distinguished Alumni Award for Agriculture In business and economics, Purdue alumni include Stephen Bechtel, Jr , owner of Bechtel Corporation; Federal Reserve Bank president Jeffrey Lacker; and popcorn specialist Orville Redenbacher  In 2010, Bloomberg also revealed Purdue was one of the universities in America with the most undergraduate alumni serving as chief executive officers of S&P 500 firms  They are Gregory Wasson, president/CEO of Walgreens; Mark Miller, chairman/president/CEO of Stericycle; Charles Davidson, former chairman/CEO of Noble Energy; Samuel Allen, chairman /president/CEO of Deere & Company; Don Thompson, president/COO of McDonald's; and John C  Martin (businessman), chairman/CEO of Gilead Sciences, Inc In government and culture, Purdue alumni include Pulitzer Prize–winners Booth Tarkington and John T  McCutcheon, as well as Ginger Thompson, former New York Times reporter currently with ProPublica; Akinwumi Adesina, former Nigerian minister of Agriculture and Rural development and current President of the African Development Bank; Essam Sharaf, former Egyptian Prime Minister; Tom Moore, theater and television director; James Thomson, CEO of Rand Corporation; Brian Lamb, founder and CEO of C-SPAN; Harry G  Leslie, former Governor of Indiana; Kirk Fordice, former Governor of Mississippi; Earl Butz, former United States Secretary of Agriculture; Birch Bayh, former United States Senator; Herman Cain, 2012 Presidential candidate; David McKinley, current West Virginia Congressman; Sun Li-jen, former Kuomintang general; Rammohan Naidu Kinjarapu, Indian Parliament member; Dulquer Salmaan, Indian film actor; Blake Ragsdale Van Leer, former Georgia Tech president; Anthony W  Miller, former United States Deputy Secretary of Education; and Hugo F  Sonnenschein, former University of Chicago president  Richard O  Klemm, former CEO of Food Warming Equipment and Illinois state legislator, also graduated from Purdue University In sports, Purdue has produced basketball coach John Wooden; basketball Hall of Famers Stretch Murphy, Piggy Lambert, and Rick Mount; NBA Champions Paul Hoffman, Herm Gilliam, Frank Kendrick, Jerry Sichting, Glenn Robinson, and Brian Cardinal; and NBA All-Stars Glenn Robinson, Brad Miller, Terry Dischinger, and Joe Barry Carroll  Purdue has three NFL Super Bowl–winning quarterbacks in Drew Brees, Bob Griese, and Len Dawson  Additionally, a total of 19 Purdue alumni have been on a Super Bowl–winning team as of 2011  Purdue also produced Super Bowl IV winning coach Hank Stram  2008 Daytona 500 winner Ryan Newman graduated from Purdue with a bachelor's degree in vehicle structure engineering Three Purdue alumni have received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award of the United States: Neil Armstrong, Brian Lamb, and John Wooden The Dauch Alumni Center acts as a showcase for the university's alumni  The 67,000-square-foot (6,200 m2) center houses the offices of the Purdue Alumni Association and University Development  It is a destination and gathering area for the Purdue Alumni Association's 69,000 members and more than 410,000 living alumni 

Notes
Passage 7:
Joe West (umpire)
Joseph Henry West (born October 31, 1952), nicknamed "Cowboy Joe" or "Country Joe", is an American former baseball umpire  He worked in Major League Baseball (MLB) from 1976 to 2021, umpiring an MLB-record 43 seasons and 5,460 games 
Born in Asheville, North Carolina, he grew up in Greenville and played football at East Carolina University (ECU) and Elon College  West entered the National League (NL) as an umpire in 1976; he joined the NL staff full-time in 1978  As a young umpire, he worked Nolan Ryan's fifth career no-hitter, was on the field for Willie McCovey's 500th home run, and was involved in a 1983 pushing incident with manager Joe Torre  West resigned during the 1999 Major League Umpires Association mass resignation but was rehired in 2002  He served as crew chief for the 2005 World Series and officiated in the 2009 World Baseball Classic  On May 25, 2021, West broke Bill Klem's all-time record by umpiring his 5,376th game 
West worked several no-hitters, including a 2012 perfect game by Félix Hernández  He officiated six World Series, three All-Star Games, ten League Championship Series (LCS), eight League Division Series (LDS) and four Wild Card Games  West was president of the Major League Baseball Umpires Association through 2018  As the organization's president, he helped negotiate the largest umpiring contract in baseball history  He works with a sporting goods company to design and patent umpiring equipment endorsed by MLB 

Early life
West was born in Asheville, North Carolina, in 1952  He grew up in Greenville, North Carolina, where he played youth baseball and football  He graduated from JH Rose High School in Greenville  West played safety on the first-year football team at East Carolina University (ECU) in 1970 and he was a quarterback for Elon College (now Elon University) from 1971 to 1973   He intended to play his college football career at ECU, but head coach Mike McGee resigned after his first year, prompting West's transfer While in college, West hoped to play both baseball and football  However, spring practice for football interfered with West's ability to be on the baseball team  He concentrated on football and umpired high school baseball games on the side  In his three seasons at Elon, West was the starting quarterback and the team won three conference championships  He was named Most Valuable Player (MVP) on the 1973 team that lost the NAIA Division I title game to Abilene Christian; the Abilene Christian team was led by future professional football players Clint Longley and Wilbert Montgomery  West left Elon holding three passing records that were not broken for 20 years and was inducted into the Elon Sports Hall of Fame in 1986 

Umpiring career
Early career
While umpiring locally as a college student, West met Carolina League umpire supervisor Malcolm Sykes, who recommended that West attend an umpire training school  West went to umpire school and graduated at the top of his class  He worked in several minor-league circuits (the Western Carolinas League, Puerto Rican League, Florida Instructional League, Southern League and American Association) before he was promoted to the major leagues  West made his first National League (NL) appearance in 1976 and joined the full-time NL staff in 1978 In his first season as a full-time MLB umpire, West umpired the game in which Willie McCovey hit his 500th career home run  In the same year, he was at first base when Pete Rose tied the NL record for most consecutive games with a hit, and he was the home plate umpire when Rose broke it the following day  In 1981, West worked first base for Nolan Ryan's fifth career no-hitter  On October 13, 1981, West was 28 when he became the youngest NL umpire to call an LCS  In 1983, West was suspended for three days and fined US$500 for shoving Atlanta Braves manager Joe Torre  The manager was angry at the end of a game and had followed West into the walkway outside the umpires' dressing room to argue with him  On appeal, NL President Chub Feeney reduced West's fine to $300  Torre also received a fine stemming from the incident  This was believed to be the first incident of an umpire being suspended during a baseball season in decades 

1986–2001
West made his second NLCS appearance in 1986  He umpired his first All-Star Game in 1987  On September 28, 1988, West was on the field when Orel Hershiser set the MLB record for consecutive scoreless innings pitched  West returned to the NLCS in 1988 and was the plate umpire when Dodgers pitcher Jay Howell was ejected for having pine tar on his glove During a 1990 on-field brawl between the Philadelphia Phillies and New York Mets, West attempted to break up the fight by throwing Phillies pitcher Dennis Cook to the ground  The matter ultimately was handled among West, NL President Bill White, then-Commissioner Fay Vincent, and the umpires' union  West said White supported his actions in the brawl, but White quickly issued a statement saying he had prohibited West from making further physical contact with players  White was reported to have nearly resigned due to a lack of support from Vincent, but the NL president remained in his post after receiving approval from league owners  West met more controversy the following year when Chicago Cubs outfielder Andre Dawson bumped him after a called third strike during a game at Wrigley Field  After Dawson was ejected from the game, he walked back to the dugout and tossed 14 bats onto the field  Chicago fans threw debris onto the field, causing a delay in the game  Dawson received a one-game suspension and a $1,000 fine  On his check to the league, Dawson wrote "donation for the blind" In 1992, West made his first World Series appearance when the Atlanta Braves faced the Toronto Blue Jays  West was behind the plate in the first World Series game played in Canada and ejected Braves manager Bobby Cox for throwing a helmet onto the field  In 1993, he appeared in the NLCS  He worked another no-hitter on April 8, 1994, when Kent Mercker shut down the Los Angeles Dodgers  The 1995 NLDS was West's first League Division Series  The following year West worked in the NLCS  He returned to the World Series in 1997 when the Cleveland Indians faced the Florida Marlins In 1999, West was among 22 MLB umpires who engaged in mass resignations during a labor dispute  The strategy backfired when MLB accepted the resignations instead of entering into further negotiations with the umpiring union  The union filed charges against MLB with the National Labor Relations Board, saying the mass resignation was "a concerted action protected by law"  After arbitration and appeals, MLB settled with the union  A few umpires received severance pay and were allowed to retire under the settlement, but MLB rehired West and several other umpires in 2002 

2002–2021
In the same year he returned to the field, West worked in the ALDS  He also umpired in the 2003 and 2004 ALCS  In game six of the latter series, West's crew ruled Yankees batter Alex Rodriguez out for interference after Rodriguez appeared to swat the ball out of the glove of opposing pitcher Bronson Arroyo on his way to first base  Fans threw debris on the field, Red Sox manager Terry Francona pulled his team off the field, and NYPD officers in riot gear took to the field to calm the crowd  West said fans actually applauded the umpires for the correct call when they came onto the field the following day  West's first All-Star Game and World Series appearances after his rehire came in 2005; that year he umpired in his second ALDS and his third World Series, serving as World Series crew chief 
West was the home plate umpire when rookie pitcher Clay Buchholz threw a no-hitter against the Baltimore Orioles on September 1, 2007, at Fenway Park; West called a curveball strike three for the final out  He worked his 4,000th career game on July 30, 2009, at Miller Park in Milwaukee, Wisconsin; he ejected Washington Nationals manager Jim Riggleman from the contest  That same year he appeared in the American League Division Series and the World Series  He was also elected president of the World Umpires Association (WUA)  West and the union's governing board negotiated the largest umpiring contract in the history of MLB  The contract ran from 2010 through the 2014 season  West designed the chest protector sold commercially as the West Vest, now marketed by Wilson Sporting Goods  He held patents on the West Vest in the US, Australia, Canada, and Japan  He also designed Wilson's high-end umpiring gear, the only umpiring equipment endorsed by MLB In 2010, West sparked controversy by criticizing the slow pace of the recently completed series between the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox, which he called "pathetic and embarrassing"  Red Sox manager Terry Francona referred to the remarks as "troubling," while Yankees closer Mariano Rivera remarked, "If he has places to go, let him do something else " Columnist Wallace Matthews defended West, saying the umpire was simply expressing what people had been thinking for a long time  West was not fined by MLB for his comments but was "admonished firmly," according to press reports  On May 26, 2010, West made two controversial balk calls on Mark Buehrle and consequently ejected White Sox manager Ozzie Guillén for arguing and Buehrle for throwing his glove which led to the Chicago announcer asserting that West was becoming a "joke to the umpiring profession" and was "in need of a suspension " On August 26, 2010, West was the plate umpire for Albert Pujols' 400th career home run On September 14, 2014, West ejected Jonathan Papelbon for the lewd act of adjusting his groin, resulting in a confrontation where West grabbed Papelbon's jersey  MLB subsequently suspended Papelbon for seven games for his lewd act and West for one game for initiating contact with Papelbon  West later claimed Papelbon had initiated first contact, but Major League Baseball determined that the video replay showed West was not correct, and that the contact was initiated by West 
West umpired in his second NLDS (and fifth LDS) in 2011  The next year West was the first base umpire for Félix Hernández's August 15 perfect game against the Tampa Bay Rays  He umpired another NLDS that year, then appeared in his fifth World Series  His career has spanned the tenure of baseball commissioners Bowie Kuhn, Peter Ueberroth, Bart Giamatti, Fay Vincent, Bud Selig, and Rob Manfred  The 2015 season was West's 38th in MLB, making him MLB's most senior umpire  Umpire Bruce Froemming, who was previously the most senior umpire, spent 37 seasons in MLB, retiring at the end of the 2007 season On August 9, 2017, West was suspended for three games after making inappropriate comments about Adrián Beltré  Beltre defended West, stating that he thought the suspension was unnecessary and that West had made the comments in jest In the bottom of the first inning of Game 4 of the 2018 ALCS, a deep drive and potential two-run homer to right field by Houston's José Altuve, which Boston's Mookie Betts nearly caught with a leaping grab at the wall, was ruled by West to be an out due to fan interference  West, the crew chief for the series, made the call from his right field position; the call stood after review by video replay  The call was widely discussed in coverage of the game and on social media such as Twitter On August 14, 2019, West umpired his 5,164th Major League Baseball game to move past Bruce Froemming for the second-most number of major league games officiated  Only Bill Klem, who umpired from 1905 to 1941, had called more games than West On October 22, 2019, West filed a defamation lawsuit in New York against Paul Lo Duca and Action Network over comments that the former New York Mets catcher made on a podcast in April 2019  On the podcast, Lo Duca recalled his teammate Billy Wagner telling him in 2006–2007, "Joe loves antique cars so every time he comes into town I lend him my '57 Chevy so he can drive it around so then he opens up the strike zone for me " In the complaint, West denied this and said he suffered unspecified damages as a result of Lo Duca's comments  West was later awarded $500,000 in damages On July 30, 2020, while umpiring the Washington Nationals–Toronto Blue Jays game, West was hit on the side of the head when Bo Bichette lost his bat  He left the game in the bottom of the first inning but returned in the top of the third as the third base umpire On May 25, 2021, West surpassed Bill Klem's major league record by umpiring his 5,376th career game, in a contest between the White Sox and Cardinals at Guaranteed Rate Field  West announced he would retire after the 2021 postseason; his final assignment was the 2021 National League Wild Card Game, where he was the home plate umpire On February 4, 2022, West officially retired 

Reception
West has been mentioned in several polls of MLB players  In 2006, the spring after he was crew chief in the World Series, a Sports Illustrated survey asked 470 MLB players to identify the best and worst umpires  West was identified as the best MLB umpire by 2 percent of those players, ranking him ninth on that list  With respect to the worst umpire, 6 percent of players in the survey selected West, ranking him fourth  A 2007 review of umpire strike zones by The Hardball Times determined that West "had the fewest number of extra balls and strikes," which the outlet asserted "is a sign of consistency "In a 2010 poll of 100 players, West ranked as the second-worst umpire in the league  In a 2011 players poll, 41 percent of players polled (the "overwhelming" plurality) named West the worst umpire; only 5 percent of players polled named him as best In a 2019 study by Boston University's Mark T  Williams, West was identified as the umpire during the 2018 season with the second-highest percentage of bad ball-and-strike calls when working behind home plate  Over West's last eleven years, he has averaged 21 incorrect calls a game, or 2 3 per inning 

Outside baseball
West is known outside umpiring as a singer-songwriter  His involvement in country music and his demeanor on the field have earned him the nickname "Cowboy Joe"  West has described his music as "two chords and the truth      It's simple  It tells a story " In 2009, West said of his musical pursuits, "I was lucky  You know, the dues you have to pay to get here as an umpire are long and tedious, but the music business, because I was already in the major leagues, kind of opened a lot of doors I normally wouldn't have been able to open "West has appeared at the Grand Ole Opry  He has performed with Mickey Gilley, Johnny Lee, and Merle Haggard  West served as a pallbearer for Boxcar Willie West released his first album, Blue Cowboy, in 1987  Blue Cowboy is an album of three original songs and five covers  Chuck Yarborough of the Cleveland Plain Dealer said, "Listening to the first excerpt of his "Blue Cowboy" made me balk—you'll pardon the expression—at listening to the second  But I did  And the third  And so on  And now? Well, if I'm Nashville, I run West outta the game " In a September 2012 review, music blog Long After Dark said, "Blue Cowboy easily ranks with Ron Artest and Carl Lewis as one of the worst albums that a sports figure has cut     ever  I can say that I managed to make it through the record, although it was not easy "He released Diamond Dreams in 2008  The album was a collaboration with Kent Goodson, pianist for country star George Jones  It tells baseball stories inspired by West's umpiring career  Goodson later said, "As I look back on how this CD came together, I realize that I am a musician and Joe is an umpire  But his love for music and my love for baseball bonded us in this project " Sportswriter Doug Miller said that the album was "a fun, humorous and often touching collection of spoken-word gems in which the listener gets a perfect sampling of the true personality of Cowboy Joe West" West has made one film appearance, playing a third base umpire in the 1988 comedy film The Naked Gun: From the Files of Police Squad! He also made a cameo appearance on the television crime drama The Oldest Rookie  An avid golfer, West appears on the Celebrity Players Tour 

Personal life
West has been married twice  After the death of his first wife, West remarried In 2012, West was diagnosed with laryngeal cancer, which is now in remission 

See also
List of Major League Baseball umpires



ground_truth: Pleiospilos

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: When did the place in Canada where François Beaucourt (1740-1794) was mainly active acquired its present name?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Vaccine
A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious or malignant disease  The safety and effectiveness of vaccines has been widely studied and verified  A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins  The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and to further recognize and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future 
Vaccines can be prophylactic (to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by a natural or "wild" pathogen), or therapeutic (to fight a disease that has already occurred, such as cancer)  Some vaccines offer full sterilizing immunity, in which infection is prevented completely The administration of vaccines is called vaccination  Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases; widespread immunity due to vaccination is largely responsible for the worldwide eradication of smallpox and the restriction of diseases such as polio, measles, and tetanus from much of the world  The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that licensed vaccines are currently available for twenty-five different preventable infections The first recorded use of Inoculation to prevent smallpox occurred in the 16th century in China, with the earliest hints of the practice in China coming during the 10th century   It was also the first disease for which a vaccine was produced The folk practice of inoculation against smallpox was brought from Turkey to Britain in 1721 by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu 
The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae vaccinae (smallpox of the cow), the term devised by Edward Jenner (who both developed the concept of vaccines and created the first vaccine) to denote cowpox  He used the phrase in 1798 for the long title of his Inquiry into the Variolae vaccinae Known as the Cow Pox, in which he described the protective effect of cowpox against smallpox  In 1881, to honor Jenner, Louis Pasteur proposed that the terms should be extended to cover the new protective inoculations then being developed  The science of vaccine development and production is termed vaccinology 

Effects
There is overwhelming scientific consensus that vaccines are a very safe and effective way to fight and eradicate infectious diseases  The immune system recognizes vaccine agents as foreign, destroys them, and "remembers" them  When the virulent version of an agent is encountered, the body recognizes the protein coat on the agent, and thus is prepared to respond, by first neutralizing the target agent before it can enter cells, and secondly by recognizing and destroying infected cells before that agent can multiply to vast numbers Limitations to their effectiveness, nevertheless, exist  Sometimes, protection fails for vaccine-related reasons such as failures in vaccine attenuation, vaccination regimens or administration Failure may also occur for host-related reasons if the host's immune system does not respond adequately or at all  Host-related lack of response occurs in an estimated 2-10% of individuals, due to factors including genetics, immune status, age, health and nutritional status  One type of primary immunodeficiency disorder resulting in genetic failure is X-linked agammaglobulinemia, in which the absence of an enzyme essential for B cell development prevents the host's immune system from generating antibodies to a pathogen Host–pathogen interactions and responses to infection are dynamic processes involving multiple pathways in the immune system  A host does not develop antibodies instantaneously: while the body's innate immunity may be activated in as little as twelve hours, adaptive immunity can take 1–2 weeks to fully develop  During that time, the host can still become infected Once antibodies are produced, they may promote immunity in any of several ways, depending on the class of antibodies involved  Their success in clearing or inactivating a pathogen will depend on the amount of antibodies produced and on the extent to which those antibodies are effective at countering the strain of the pathogen involved, since different strains may be differently susceptible to a given immune reaction  
In some cases vaccines may result in partial immune protection (in which immunity is less than 100% effective but still reduces risk of infection) or in temporary immune protection (in which immunity wanes over time) rather than full or permanent immunity  They can still raise the reinfection threshold for the population as a whole and make a substantial impact  They can also mitigate the severity of infection, resulting in a lower mortality rate, lower morbidity, faster recovery from illness, and a wide range of other effects Those who are older often display less of a response than those who are younger, a pattern known as Immunosenescence Adjuvants commonly are used to boost immune response, particularly for older people whose immune response to a simple vaccine may have weakened The efficacy or performance of the vaccine is dependent on several factors:

the disease itself (for some diseases vaccination performs better than for others)
the strain of vaccine (some vaccines are specific to, or at least most effective against, particular strains of the disease)
whether the vaccination schedule has been properly observed 
idiosyncratic response to vaccination; some individuals are "non-responders" to certain vaccines, meaning that they do not generate antibodies even after being vaccinated correctly 
assorted factors such as ethnicity, age, or genetic predisposition If a vaccinated individual does develop the disease vaccinated against (breakthrough infection), the disease is likely to be less virulent than in unvaccinated cases Important considerations in an effective vaccination program:
careful modeling to anticipate the effect that an immunization campaign will have on the epidemiology of the disease in the medium to long term
ongoing surveillance for the relevant disease following introduction of a new vaccine
maintenance of high immunization rates, even when a disease has become rareIn 1958, there were 763,094 cases of measles in the United States; 552 deaths resulted  After the introduction of new vaccines, the number of cases dropped to fewer than 150 per year (median of 56)  In early 2008, there were 64 suspected cases of measles  Fifty-four of those infections were associated with importation from another country, although only thirteen percent were actually acquired outside the United States; 63 of the 64 individuals either had never been vaccinated against measles or were uncertain whether they had been vaccinated Vaccines led to the eradication of smallpox, one of the most contagious and deadly diseases in humans  Other diseases such as rubella, polio, measles, mumps, chickenpox, and typhoid are nowhere near as common as they were a hundred years ago thanks to widespread vaccination programs  As long as the vast majority of people are vaccinated, it is much more difficult for an outbreak of disease to occur, let alone spread  This effect is called herd immunity  Polio, which is transmitted only among humans, is targeted by an extensive eradication campaign that has seen endemic polio restricted to only parts of three countries (Afghanistan, Nigeria, and Pakistan)  However, the difficulty of reaching all children, cultural misunderstandings, and disinformation have caused the anticipated eradication date to be missed several times Vaccines also help prevent the development of antibiotic resistance  For example, by greatly reducing the incidence of pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, vaccine programs have greatly reduced the prevalence of infections resistant to penicillin or other first-line antibiotics The measles vaccine is estimated to prevent a million deaths every year 

Adverse effects
Vaccinations given to children, adolescents, or adults are generally safe  Adverse effects, if any, are generally mild  The rate of side effects depends on the vaccine in question  Some common side effects include fever, pain around the injection site, and muscle aches  Additionally, some individuals may be allergic to ingredients in the vaccine  MMR vaccine is rarely associated with febrile seizures Host-("vaccinee")-related determinants that render a person susceptible to infection, such as genetics, health status (underlying disease, nutrition, pregnancy, sensitivities or allergies), immune competence, age, and economic impact or cultural environment can be primary or secondary factors affecting the severity of infection and response to a vaccine  Elderly (above age 60), allergen-hypersensitive, and obese people have susceptibility to compromised immunogenicity, which prevents or inhibits vaccine effectiveness, possibly requiring separate vaccine technologies for these specific populations or repetitive booster vaccinations to limit virus transmission Severe side effects are extremely rare  Varicella vaccine is rarely associated with complications in immunodeficient individuals, and rotavirus vaccines are moderately associated with intussusception At least 19 countries have no-fault compensation programs to provide compensation for those with severe adverse effects of vaccination  The United States' program is known as the National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act, and the United Kingdom employs the Vaccine Damage Payment 

Types
Vaccines typically contain attenuated, inactivated or dead organisms or purified products derived from them  There are several types of vaccines in use  These represent different strategies used to try to reduce the risk of illness while retaining the ability to induce a beneficial immune response 

Attenuated
Some vaccines contain live, attenuated microorganisms  Many of these are active viruses that have been cultivated under conditions that disable their virulent properties, or that use closely related but less dangerous organisms to produce a broad immune response  Although most attenuated vaccines are viral, some are bacterial in nature  Examples include the viral diseases yellow fever, measles, mumps, and rubella, and the bacterial disease typhoid  The live Mycobacterium tuberculosis vaccine developed by Calmette and Guérin is not made of a contagious strain but contains a virulently modified strain called "BCG" used to elicit an immune response to the vaccine  The live attenuated vaccine containing strain Yersinia pestis EV is used for plague immunization  Attenuated vaccines have some advantages and disadvantages  Attenuated, or live, weakened, vaccines typically provoke more durable immunological responses  But they may not be safe for use in immunocompromised individuals, and on rare occasions mutate to a virulent form and cause disease 

Inactivated
Some vaccines contain inactivated, but previously virulent, micro-organisms that have been destroyed with chemicals, heat, or radiation – "ghosts", with intact but empty bacterial cell envelopes  They are considered an intermediate phase between the inactivated and attenuated vaccines  Examples include IPV (polio vaccine), hepatitis A vaccine, rabies vaccine and most influenza vaccines 

Toxoid
Toxoid vaccines are made from inactivated toxic compounds that cause illness rather than the micro-organism  Examples of toxoid-based vaccines include tetanus and diphtheria  Not all toxoids are for micro-organisms; for example, Crotalus atrox toxoid is used to vaccinate dogs against rattlesnake bites 

Subunit
Rather than introducing an inactivated or attenuated micro-organism to an immune system (which would constitute a "whole-agent" vaccine), a subunit vaccine uses a fragment of it to create an immune response  One example is the subunit vaccine against hepatitis B, which is composed of only the surface proteins of the virus (previously extracted from the blood serum of chronically infected patients but now produced by recombination of the viral genes into yeast)  Another example is edible algae vaccines, such as the virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine against human papillomavirus (HPV), which is composed of the viral major capsid protein  Another example is the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase subunits of the influenza virus  A subunit vaccine is being used for plague immunization 

Conjugate
Certain bacteria have a polysaccharide outer coat that is poorly immunogenic  By linking these outer coats to proteins (e g , toxins), the immune system can be led to recognize the polysaccharide as if it were a protein antigen  This approach is used in the Haemophilus influenzae type B vaccine 

Outer membrane vesicle
Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are naturally immunogenic and can be manipulated to produce potent vaccines  The best known OMV vaccines are those developed for serotype B meningococcal disease 

Heterotypic
Heterologous vaccines also known as "Jennerian vaccines", are vaccines that are pathogens of other animals that either do not cause disease or cause mild disease in the organism being treated  The classic example is Jenner's use of cowpox to protect against smallpox  A current example is the use of BCG vaccine made from Mycobacterium bovis to protect against tuberculosis 

Genetic vaccine
The subgroup of genetic vaccines encompass viral vector vaccines, RNA vaccines and DNA vaccines 

Viral vector
Viral vector vaccines use a safe virus to insert pathogen genes in the body to produce specific antigens, such as surface proteins, to stimulate an immune response 

RNA
An mRNA vaccine (or RNA vaccine) is a novel type of vaccine which is composed of the nucleic acid RNA, packaged within a vector such as lipid nanoparticles  Among the COVID-19 vaccines are a number of RNA vaccines to combat the COVID-19 pandemic and some have been approved or have received emergency use authorization in some countries  For example, the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine and Moderna mRNA vaccine are approved for use in adults and children in the US 

DNA
DNA vaccination – The proposed mechanism is the insertion and expression of viral or bacterial DNA in human or animal cells (enhanced by the use of electroporation), triggering immune system recognition  Some cells of the immune system that recognize the proteins expressed will mount an attack against these proteins and cells expressing them  Because these cells live for a very long time, if the pathogen that normally expresses these proteins is encountered at a later time, they will be attacked instantly by the immune system  One potential advantage of DNA vaccines is that they are very easy to produce and store 
In August 2021, Indian authorities gave emergency approval to ZyCoV-D  Developed by Cadila Healthcare, it is the first DNA vaccine approved for humans 

Experimental
Many innovative vaccines are also in development and use 

Dendritic cell vaccines combine dendritic cells with antigens to present the antigens to the body's white blood cells, thus stimulating an immune reaction  These vaccines have shown some positive preliminary results for treating brain tumors and are also tested in malignant melanoma 
Recombinant vector – by combining the physiology of one micro-organism and the DNA of another, immunity can be created against diseases that have complex infection processes  An example is the RVSV-ZEBOV vaccine licensed to Merck that is being used in 2018 to combat ebola in Congo 
T-cell receptor peptide vaccines are under development for several diseases using models of Valley Fever, stomatitis, and atopic dermatitis  These peptides have been shown to modulate cytokine production and improve cell-mediated immunity 
Targeting of identified bacterial proteins that are involved in complement inhibition would neutralize the key bacterial virulence mechanism 
The use of plasmids has been validated in preclinical studies as a protective vaccine strategy for cancer and infectious diseases  However, in human studies, this approach has failed to provide clinically relevant benefit  The overall efficacy of plasmid DNA immunization depends on increasing the plasmid's immunogenicity while also correcting for factors involved in the specific activation of immune effector cells 
Bacterial vector – Similar in principle to viral vector vaccines, but using bacteria instead 
Antigen-presenting cellWhile most vaccines are created using inactivated or attenuated compounds from micro-organisms, synthetic vaccines are composed mainly or wholly of synthetic peptides, carbohydrates, or antigens 

Valence
Vaccines may be monovalent (also called univalent) or multivalent (also called polyvalent)  A monovalent vaccine is designed to immunize against a single antigen or single microorganism  A multivalent or polyvalent vaccine is designed to immunize against two or more strains of the same microorganism, or against two or more microorganisms  The valency of a multivalent vaccine may be denoted with a Greek or Latin prefix (e g , bivalent, trivalent, or tetravalent/quadrivalent)  In certain cases, a monovalent vaccine may be preferable for rapidly developing a strong immune response 

Interactions
When two or more vaccines are mixed in the same formulation, the two vaccines can interfere  This most frequently occurs with live attenuated vaccines, where one of the vaccine components is more robust than the others and suppresses the growth and immune response to the other components 
This phenomenon was first noted in the trivalent Sabin polio vaccine, where the amount of serotype 2 virus in the vaccine had to be reduced to stop it from interfering with the "take" of the serotype 1 and 3 viruses in the vaccine  It was also noted in a 2001 study to be a problem with dengue vaccines, where the DEN-3 serotype was found to predominate and suppress the response to DEN-1, -2 and -4 serotypes 

Other contents
Adjuvants
Vaccines typically contain one or more adjuvants, used to boost the immune response  Tetanus toxoid, for instance, is usually adsorbed onto alum  This presents the antigen in such a way as to produce a greater action than the simple aqueous tetanus toxoid  People who have an adverse reaction to adsorbed tetanus toxoid may be given the simple vaccine when the time comes for a booster In the preparation for the 1990 Persian Gulf campaign, the whole cell pertussis vaccine was used as an adjuvant for anthrax vaccine  This produces a more rapid immune response than giving only the anthrax vaccine, which is of some benefit if exposure might be imminent 

Preservatives
Vaccines may also contain preservatives to prevent contamination with bacteria or fungi  Until recent years, the preservative thiomersal (a k a  Thimerosal in the US and Japan) was used in many vaccines that did not contain live viruses  As of 2005, the only childhood vaccine in the U S  that contains thiomersal in greater than trace amounts is the influenza vaccine, which is currently recommended only for children with certain risk factors  Single-dose influenza vaccines supplied in the UK do not list thiomersal in the ingredients  Preservatives may be used at various stages of the production of vaccines, and the most sophisticated methods of measurement might detect traces of them in the finished product, as they may in the environment and population as a whole Many vaccines need preservatives to prevent serious adverse effects such as Staphylococcus infection, which in one 1928 incident killed 12 of 21 children inoculated with a diphtheria vaccine that lacked a preservative  Several preservatives are available, including thiomersal, phenoxyethanol, and formaldehyde  Thiomersal is more effective against bacteria, has a better shelf-life, and improves vaccine stability, potency, and safety; but, in the U S , the European Union, and a few other affluent countries, it is no longer used as a preservative in childhood vaccines, as a precautionary measure due to its mercury content  Although controversial claims have been made that thiomersal contributes to autism, no convincing scientific evidence supports these claims  Furthermore, a 10–11-year study of 657,461 children found that the MMR vaccine does not cause autism and actually reduced the risk of autism by seven percent 

Excipients
Beside the active vaccine itself, the following excipients and residual manufacturing compounds are present or may be present in vaccine preparations:
Aluminum salts or gels are added as adjuvants  Adjuvants are added to promote an earlier, more potent response, and more persistent immune response to the vaccine; they allow for a lower vaccine dosage 
Antibiotics are added to some vaccines to prevent the growth of bacteria during production and storage of the vaccine 
Egg protein is present in the influenza vaccine and yellow fever vaccine as they are prepared using chicken eggs  Other proteins may be present 
Formaldehyde is used to inactivate bacterial products for toxoid vaccines  Formaldehyde is also used to inactivate unwanted viruses and kill bacteria that might contaminate the vaccine during production 
Monosodium glutamate (MSG) and 2-phenoxyethanol are used as stabilizers in a few vaccines to help the vaccine remain unchanged when the vaccine is exposed to heat, light, acidity, or humidity 
Thiomersal is a mercury-containing antimicrobial that is added to vials of vaccines that contain more than one dose to prevent contamination and growth of potentially harmful bacteria  Due to the controversy surrounding thiomersal, it has been removed from most vaccines except multi-use influenza, where it was reduced to levels so that a single dose contained less than a microgram of mercury, a level similar to eating ten grams of canned tuna 

Nomenclature
Various fairly standardized abbreviations for vaccine names have developed, although the standardization is by no means centralized or global  For example, the vaccine names used in the United States have well-established abbreviations that are also widely known and used elsewhere  An extensive list of them provided in a sortable table and freely accessible is available at a US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention web page  The page explains that "The abbreviations [in] this table (Column 3) were standardized jointly by staff of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, ACIP Work Groups, the editor of the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), the editor of Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (the Pink Book), ACIP members, and liaison organizations to the ACIP "Some examples are "DTaP" for diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis vaccine, "DT" for diphtheria and tetanus toxoids, and "Td" for tetanus and diphtheria toxoids  At its page on tetanus vaccination, the CDC further explains that "Upper-case letters in these abbreviations denote full-strength doses of diphtheria (D) and tetanus (T) toxoids and pertussis (P) vaccine  Lower-case "d" and "p" denote reduced doses of diphtheria and pertussis used in the adolescent/adult-formulations  The 'a' in DTaP and Tdap stands for 'acellular', meaning that the pertussis component contains only a part of the pertussis organism "Another list of established vaccine abbreviations is at the CDC's page called "Vaccine Acronyms and Abbreviations", with abbreviations used on U S  immunization records  The United States Adopted Name system has some conventions for the word order of vaccine names, placing head nouns first and adjectives postpositively  This is why the USAN for "OPV" is "poliovirus vaccine live oral" rather than "oral poliovirus vaccine" 

Licensing
A vaccine licensure occurs after the successful conclusion of the development cycle and further the clinical trials and other programs involved through Phases I–III demonstrating safety, immunoactivity, immunogenetic safety at a given specific dose, proven effectiveness in preventing infection for target populations, and enduring preventive effect (time endurance or need for revaccination must be estimated)  Because preventive vaccines are predominantly evaluated in healthy population cohorts and distributed among the general population, a high standard of safety is required  As part of a multinational licensing of a vaccine, the World Health Organization Expert Committee on Biological Standardization developed guidelines of international standards for manufacturing and quality control of vaccines, a process intended as a platform for national regulatory agencies to apply for their own licensing process  Vaccine manufacturers do not receive licensing until a complete clinical cycle of development and trials proves the vaccine is safe and has long-term effectiveness, following scientific review by a multinational or national regulatory organization, such as the European Medicines Agency (EMA) or the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Upon developing countries adopting WHO guidelines for vaccine development and licensure, each country has its own responsibility to issue a national licensure, and to manage, deploy, and monitor the vaccine throughout its use in each nation  Building trust and acceptance of a licensed vaccine among the public is a task of communication by governments and healthcare personnel to ensure a vaccination campaign proceeds smoothly, saves lives, and enables economic recovery  When a vaccine is licensed, it will initially be in limited supply due to variable manufacturing, distribution, and logistical factors, requiring an allocation plan for the limited supply and which population segments should be prioritized to first receive the vaccine 

World Health Organization
Vaccines developed for multinational distribution via the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) require pre-qualification by the WHO to ensure international standards of quality, safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy for adoption by numerous countries The process requires manufacturing consistency at WHO-contracted laboratories following Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)  When UN agencies are involved in vaccine licensure, individual nations collaborate by 1) issuing marketing authorization and a national license for the vaccine, its manufacturers, and distribution partners; and 2) conducting postmarketing surveillance, including records for adverse events after the vaccination program  The WHO works with national agencies to monitor inspections of manufacturing facilities and distributors for compliance with GMP and regulatory oversight Some countries choose to buy vaccines licensed by reputable national organizations, such as EMA, FDA, or national agencies in other affluent countries, but such purchases typically are more expensive and may not have distribution resources suitable to local conditions in developing countries 

European Union
In the European Union (EU), vaccines for pandemic pathogens, such as seasonal influenza, are licensed EU-wide where all the member states comply ("centralized"), are licensed for only some member states ("decentralized"), or are licensed on an individual national level  Generally, all EU states follow regulatory guidance and clinical programs defined by the European Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP), a scientific panel of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) responsible for vaccine licensure  The CHMP is supported by several expert groups who assess and monitor the progress of a vaccine before and after licensure and distribution 

United States
Under the FDA, the process of establishing evidence for vaccine clinical safety and efficacy is the same as for the approval process for prescription drugs  If successful through the stages of clinical development, the vaccine licensing process is followed by a Biologics License Application which must provide a scientific review team (from diverse disciplines, such as physicians, statisticians, microbiologists, chemists) and comprehensive documentation for the vaccine candidate having efficacy and safety throughout its development  Also during this stage, the proposed manufacturing facility is examined by expert reviewers for GMP compliance, and the label must have a compliant description to enable health care providers' definition of vaccine-specific use, including its possible risks, to communicate and deliver the vaccine to the public  After licensure, monitoring of the vaccine and its production, including periodic inspections for GMP compliance, continue as long as the manufacturer retains its license, which may include additional submissions to the FDA of tests for potency, safety, and purity for each vaccine manufacturing step 

India
Drugs Controller General of India is the head of department of the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization of the Government of India responsible for approval of licences of specified categories of drugs such as vaccines AND others like blood and blood products, IV fluids, and sera in India 

Postmarketing surveillance
Until a vaccine is in use for the general population, all potential adverse events from the vaccine may not be known, requiring manufacturers to conduct Phase IV studies for postmarketing surveillance of the vaccine while it is used widely in the public  The WHO works with UN member states to implement post-licensing surveillance  The FDA relies on a Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System to monitor safety concerns about a vaccine throughout its use in the American public 

Scheduling
In order to provide the best protection, children are recommended to receive vaccinations as soon as their immune systems are sufficiently developed to respond to particular vaccines, with additional "booster" shots often required to achieve "full immunity"  This has led to the development of complex vaccination schedules  Global recommendations of vaccination schedule are issued by Strategic Advisory Group of Experts and will be further translated by advisory committee at the country level with considering of local factors such as disease epidemiology, acceptability of vaccination, equity in local populations, and programmatic and financial constraint  In the United States, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, which recommends schedule additions for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, recommends routine vaccination of children against hepatitis A, hepatitis B, polio, mumps, measles, rubella, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, HiB, chickenpox, rotavirus, influenza, meningococcal disease and pneumonia The large number of vaccines and boosters recommended (up to 24 injections by age two) has led to problems with achieving full compliance  To combat declining compliance rates, various notification systems have been instituted and many combination injections are now marketed (e g , Pentavalent vaccine and MMRV vaccine), which protect against multiple diseases 
Besides recommendations for infant vaccinations and boosters, many specific vaccines are recommended for other ages or for repeated injections throughout life – most commonly for measles, tetanus, influenza, and pneumonia  Pregnant women are often screened for continued resistance to rubella  The human papillomavirus vaccine is recommended in the U S  (as of 2011) and UK (as of 2009)  Vaccine recommendations for the elderly concentrate on pneumonia and influenza, which are more deadly to that group  In 2006, a vaccine was introduced against shingles, a disease caused by the chickenpox virus, which usually affects the elderly Scheduling and dosing of a vaccination may be tailored to the level of immunocompetence of an individual and to optimize population-wide deployment of a vaccine when it supply is limited, e g  in the setting of a pandemic 

Economics of development
One challenge in vaccine development is economic: Many of the diseases most demanding a vaccine, including HIV, malaria and tuberculosis, exist principally in poor countries  Pharmaceutical firms and biotechnology companies have little incentive to develop vaccines for these diseases because there is little revenue potential  Even in more affluent countries, financial returns are usually minimal and the financial and other risks are great Most vaccine development to date has relied on "push" funding by government, universities and non-profit organizations  Many vaccines have been highly cost effective and beneficial for public health  The number of vaccines actually administered has risen dramatically in recent decades  This increase, particularly in the number of different vaccines administered to children before entry into schools may be due to government mandates and support, rather than economic incentive 

Patents
According to the World Health Organization, the biggest barrier to vaccine production in less developed countries has not been patents, but the substantial financial, infrastructure, and workforce requirements needed for market entry  Vaccines are complex mixtures of biological compounds, and unlike the case for prescription drugs, there are no true generic vaccines  The vaccine produced by a new facility must undergo complete clinical testing for safety and efficacy by the manufacturer  For most vaccines, specific processes in technology are patented  These can be circumvented by alternative manufacturing methods, but this required R&D infrastructure and a suitably skilled workforce  In the case of a few relatively new vaccines, such as the human papillomavirus vaccine, the patents may impose an additional barrier When increased production of vaccines was urgently needed during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021, the World Trade Organization and governments around the world evaluated whether to waive intellectual property rights and patents on COVID-19 vaccines, which would "eliminate all potential barriers to the timely access of affordable COVID-19 medical products, including vaccines and medicines, and scale up the manufacturing and supply of essential medical products" 

Production
Vaccine production is fundamentally different from other kinds of manufacturing – including regular pharmaceutical manufacturing – in that vaccines are intended to be administered to millions of people of whom the vast majority are perfectly healthy  This fact drives an extraordinarily rigorous production process with strict compliance requirements that go far beyond what is required of other products Depending upon the antigen, it can cost anywhere from US$50 to $500 million to build a vaccine production facility, which requires highly specialized equipment, clean rooms, and containment rooms  There is a global scarcity of personnel with the right combination of skills, expertise, knowledge, competence and personality to staff vaccine production lines  With the notable exceptions of Brazil, China, and India, many developing countries' educational systems are unable to provide enough qualified candidates, and vaccine makers based in such countries must hire expatriate personnel to keep production going Vaccine production has several stages  First, the antigen itself is generated  Viruses are grown either on primary cells such as chicken eggs (e g , for influenza) or on continuous cell lines such as cultured human cells (e g , for hepatitis A)  Bacteria are grown in bioreactors (e g , Haemophilus influenzae type b)  Likewise, a recombinant protein derived from the viruses or bacteria can be generated in yeast, bacteria, or cell cultures After the antigen is generated, it is isolated from the cells used to generate it  A virus may need to be inactivated, possibly with no further purification required  Recombinant proteins need many operations involving ultrafiltration and column chromatography  Finally, the vaccine is formulated by adding adjuvant, stabilizers, and preservatives as needed  The adjuvant enhances the immune response to the antigen, stabilizers increase the storage life, and preservatives allow the use of multidose vials  Combination vaccines are harder to develop and produce, because of potential incompatibilities and interactions among the antigens and other ingredients involved The final stage in vaccine manufacture before distribution is fill and finish, which is the process of filling vials with vaccines and packaging them for distribution  Although this is a conceptually simple part of the vaccine manufacture process, it is often a bottleneck in the process of distributing and administering vaccines Vaccine production techniques are evolving  Cultured mammalian cells are expected to become increasingly important, compared to conventional options such as chicken eggs, due to greater productivity and low incidence of problems with contamination  Recombination technology that produces genetically detoxified vaccines is expected to grow in popularity for the production of bacterial vaccines that use toxoids  Combination vaccines are expected to reduce the quantities of antigens they contain, and thereby decrease undesirable interactions, by using pathogen-associated molecular patterns 

Vaccine manufacturers
The companies with the highest market share in vaccine production are Merck, Sanofi, GlaxoSmithKline, Pfizer and Novartis, with 70% of vaccine sales concentrated in the EU or US (2013) : 42  Vaccine manufacturing plants require large capital investments ($50 million up to $300 million) and may take between 4 and 6 years to construct, with the full process of vaccine development taking between 10 and 15 years : 43  Manufacturing in developing countries is playing an increasing role in supplying these countries, specifically with regards to older vaccines and in Brazil, India and China : 47  The manufacturers in India are the most advanced in the developing world and include the Serum Institute of India, one of the largest producers of vaccines by number of doses and an innovator in processes, recently improving efficiency of producing the measles vaccine by 10 to 20-fold, due to switching to a MRC-5 cell culture instead of chicken eggs : 48  China's manufacturing capabilities are focused on supplying their own domestic need, with Sinopharm (CNPGC) alone providing over 85% of the doses for 14 different vaccines in China : 48  Brazil is approaching the point of supplying its own domestic needs using technology transferred from the developed world : 49

Delivery systems
One of the most common methods of delivering vaccines into the human body is injection 
The development of new delivery systems raises the hope of vaccines that are safer and more efficient to deliver and administer  Lines of research include liposomes and ISCOM (immune stimulating complex) Notable developments in vaccine delivery technologies have included oral vaccines  Early attempts to apply oral vaccines showed varying degrees of promise, beginning early in the 20th century, at a time when the very possibility of an effective oral antibacterial vaccine was controversial  By the 1930s there was increasing interest in the prophylactic value of an oral typhoid fever vaccine for example An oral polio vaccine turned out to be effective when vaccinations were administered by volunteer staff without formal training; the results also demonstrated increased ease and efficiency of administering the vaccines  Effective oral vaccines have many advantages; for example, there is no risk of blood contamination  Vaccines intended for oral administration need not be liquid, and as solids, they commonly are more stable and less prone to damage or spoilage by freezing in transport and storage  Such stability reduces the need for a "cold chain": the resources required to keep vaccines within a restricted temperature range from the manufacturing stage to the point of administration, which, in turn, may decrease costs of vaccines 
A microneedle approach, which is still in stages of development, uses "pointed projections fabricated into arrays that can create vaccine delivery pathways through the skin" An experimental needle-free vaccine delivery system is undergoing animal testing  A stamp-size patch similar to an adhesive bandage contains about 20,000 microscopic projections per square cm  This dermal administration potentially increases the effectiveness of vaccination, while requiring less vaccine than injection 

In veterinary medicine
Vaccinations of animals are used both to prevent their contracting diseases and to prevent transmission of disease to humans  Both animals kept as pets and animals raised as livestock are routinely vaccinated  In some instances, wild populations may be vaccinated  This is sometimes accomplished with vaccine-laced food spread in a disease-prone area and has been used to attempt to control rabies in raccoons 
Where rabies occurs, rabies vaccination of dogs may be required by law  Other canine vaccines include canine distemper, canine parvovirus, infectious canine hepatitis, adenovirus-2, leptospirosis, Bordetella, canine parainfluenza virus, and Lyme disease, among others 
Cases of veterinary vaccines used in humans have been documented, whether intentional or accidental, with some cases of resultant illness, most notably with brucellosis  However, the reporting of such cases is rare and very little has been studied about the safety and results of such practices  With the advent of aerosol vaccination in veterinary clinics, human exposure to pathogens not naturally carried in humans, such as Bordetella bronchiseptica, has likely increased in recent years  In some cases, most notably rabies, the parallel veterinary vaccine against a pathogen may be as much as orders of magnitude more economical than the human one 

DIVA vaccines
DIVA (Differentiation of Infected from Vaccinated Animals), also known as SIVA (Segregation of Infected from Vaccinated Animals) vaccines, make it possible to differentiate between infected and vaccinated animals  DIVA vaccines carry at least one epitope less than the equivalent wild microorganism  An accompanying diagnostic test that detects the antibody against that epitope assists in identifying whether the animal has been vaccinated or not The first DIVA vaccines (formerly termed marker vaccines and since 1999 coined as DIVA vaccines) and companion diagnostic tests were developed by J  T  van Oirschot and colleagues at the Central Veterinary Institute in Lelystad, The Netherlands  They found that some existing vaccines against pseudorabies (also termed Aujeszky's disease) had deletions in their viral genome (among which was the gE gene)  Monoclonal antibodies were produced against that deletion and selected to develop an ELISA that demonstrated antibodies against gE  In addition, novel genetically engineered gE-negative vaccines were constructed  Along the same lines, DIVA vaccines and companion diagnostic tests against bovine herpesvirus 1 infections have been developed The DIVA strategy has been applied in various countries to successfully eradicate pseudorabies virus from those countries  Swine populations were intensively vaccinated and monitored by the companion diagnostic test and, subsequently, the infected pigs were removed from the population  Bovine herpesvirus 1 DIVA vaccines are also widely used in practice  Considerable efforts are ongoing to apply the DIVA principle to a wide range of infectious diseases, such as classical swine fever, avian influenza, Actinobacillus pleuropneumonia and Salmonella infections in pigs 

History
Prior to the introduction of vaccination with material from cases of cowpox (heterotypic immunisation), smallpox could be prevented by deliberate variolation with smallpox virus  The earliest hints of the practice of variolation for smallpox in China come during the tenth century  The Chinese also practiced the oldest documented use of variolation, dating back to the fifteenth century  They implemented a method of "nasal insufflation" administered by blowing powdered smallpox material, usually scabs, up the nostrils  Various insufflation techniques have been recorded throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries within China : 60  Two reports on the Chinese practice of inoculation were received by the Royal Society in London in 1700; one by Martin Lister who received a report by an employee of the East India Company stationed in China and another by Clopton Havers 
Mary Wortley Montagu, who had witnessed variolation in Turkey, had her four-year-old daughter variolated in the presence of physicians of the Royal Court in 1721 upon her return to England  Later on that year, Charles Maitland conducted an experimental variolation of six prisoners in Newgate Prison in London  The experiment was a success, and soon variolation was drawing attention from the royal family, who helped promote the procedure  However, in 1783, several days after Prince Octavius of Great Britain was inoculated, he died  In 1796, the physician Edward Jenner took pus from the hand of a milkmaid with cowpox, scratched it into the arm of an 8-year-old boy, James Phipps, and six weeks later variolated the boy with smallpox, afterwards observing that he did not catch smallpox  Jenner extended his studies and, in 1798, reported that his vaccine was safe in children and adults, and could be transferred from arm-to-arm, which reduced reliance on uncertain supplies from infected cows  In 1804, the Spanish Balmis smallpox vaccination expedition to Spain's colonies Mexico and Philippines used the arm-to-arm transport method to get around the fact the vaccine survived for only 12 days in vitro  They used cowpox  Since vaccination with cowpox was much safer than smallpox inoculation, the latter, though still widely practiced in England, was banned in 1840 
Following on from Jenner's work, the second generation of vaccines was introduced in the 1880s by Louis Pasteur who developed vaccines for chicken cholera and anthrax, and from the late nineteenth century vaccines were considered a matter of national prestige  National vaccination policies were adopted and compulsory vaccination laws were passed  In 1931 Alice Miles Woodruff and Ernest Goodpasture documented that the fowlpox virus could be grown in embryonated chicken egg  Soon scientists began cultivating other viruses in eggs  Eggs were used for virus propagation in the development of a yellow fever vaccine in 1935 and an influenza vaccine in 1945  In 1959 growth media and cell culture replaced eggs as the standard method of virus propagation for vaccines Vaccinology flourished in the twentieth century, which saw the introduction of several successful vaccines, including those against diphtheria, measles, mumps, and rubella  Major achievements included the development of the polio vaccine in the 1950s and the eradication of smallpox during the 1960s and 1970s  Maurice Hilleman was the most prolific of the developers of the vaccines in the twentieth century  As vaccines became more common, many people began taking them for granted  However, vaccines remain elusive for many important diseases, including herpes simplex, malaria, gonorrhea, and HIV 

Generations of vaccines
First generation vaccines are whole-organism vaccines – either live and weakened, or killed forms  Live, attenuated vaccines, such as smallpox and polio vaccines, are able to induce killer T-cell (TC or CTL) responses, helper T-cell (TH) responses and antibody immunity  However, attenuated forms of a pathogen can convert to a dangerous form and may cause disease in immunocompromised vaccine recipients (such as those with AIDS)  While killed vaccines do not have this risk, they cannot generate specific killer T cell responses and may not work at all for some diseases Second generation vaccines were developed to reduce the risks from live vaccines  These are subunit vaccines, consisting of specific protein antigens (such as tetanus or diphtheria toxoid) or recombinant protein components (such as the hepatitis B surface antigen)  They can generate TH and antibody responses, but not killer T cell responses RNA vaccines and DNA vaccines are examples of third generation vaccines  In 2016 a DNA vaccine for the Zika virus began testing at the National Institutes of Health  Separately, Inovio Pharmaceuticals and GeneOne Life Science began tests of a different DNA vaccine against Zika in Miami  Manufacturing the vaccines in volume was unsolved as of 2016  Clinical trials for DNA vaccines to prevent HIV are underway  mRNA vaccines such as BNT162b2 were developed in the year 2020 with the help of Operation Warp Speed and massively deployed to combat the COVID-19 pandemic  In 2021, Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman received Columbia University's Horwitz Prize for their pioneering research in mRNA vaccine technology 

Trends
Since at least 2013, scientists have been trying to develop synthetic third-generation vaccines by reconstructing the outside structure of a virus; it was hoped that this will help prevent vaccine resistance Principles that govern the immune response can now be used in tailor-made vaccines against many noninfectious human diseases, such as cancers and autoimmune disorders  For example, the experimental vaccine CYT006-AngQb has been investigated as a possible treatment for high blood pressure  Factors that affect the trends of vaccine development include progress in translatory medicine, demographics, regulatory science, political, cultural, and social responses 

Plants as bioreactors for vaccine production
The idea of vaccine production via transgenic plants was identified as early as 2003  Plants such as tobacco, potato, tomato, and banana can have genes inserted that cause them to produce vaccines usable for humans  In 2005, bananas were developed that produce a human vaccine against hepatitis B 

Vaccine hesitancy
Vaccine hesitancy is a delay in acceptance, or refusal of vaccines despite the availability of vaccine services  The term covers outright refusals to vaccinate, delaying vaccines, accepting vaccines but remaining uncertain about their use, or using certain vaccines but not others  There is an overwhelming scientific consensus that vaccines are generally safe and effective  Vaccine hesitancy often results in disease outbreaks and deaths from vaccine-preventable diseases  The World Health Organization therefore characterized vaccine hesitancy as one of the top ten global health threats in 2019 

See also
Passage 2:
Marco Marcola
Marco Marcola (1740–1793) was an Italian painter, born and mainly active in Verona  He was initially apprenticed to his father Giovanni Battista Marcola  Among his pupils were Antonio Pachera, Bellino Bellini, and Domenico Zanconti  He is also known as Marco Marcuola  His sister Angela Marcola was also a painter 

Sources
Zannandreis, Diego (1891)   Giuseppe Biadego (ed )  Le vite dei pittori, scultori e architetti veronesi  Verona: Stabilimento Tipo-Litografico G  Franchini  p  478 
Passage 3:
Rue Lhomond
Rue Lhomond is a street in the 5th arrondissement of Paris, France  It is located in the quartier du Val-de-Grâce and has existed since the 15th century  It was once known as rue des Poteries after its Gallo-Roman pottery workshops (re-discovered in the 18th century), then from around 1600 as rue des Pots and finally rue des Postes  It was given its present name in 1867 after the priest, grammarian and scholar Charles François Lhomond (1727-1794) 

History
The street has housed several Catholic seminaries and convents, along with a British seminary established at number 22 by permission of Louis XIV of France in 1684 and active until 1790 Rue Lhomond features in the Georges Simenon novel ′Maigret Takes a Room′  In the novel Maigret takes a room in a boarding house to discover who shot his subordinate Janvier 

Buildings
Passage 4:
Vatos Locos
Vatos Locos is a Chicano slang term that means "crazy Dudes"  It is also used as the name of multiple small gangs around the USA, Canada and Mexico  Many "Vatos Locos" use the colors red, black, green or brown The film Blood In Blood Out (1993) which was written by poet Jimmy Santiago Baca, is based on the experiences of gang members of a fictional gang called Vatos Locos The video game Call of Juarez: The Cartel features a fictional Vatos Locos gang 

See also
List of gangs in Mexico
Passage 5:
Giuseppe Appiani
Giuseppe Appiani (1740 or 1754–1812) was an Italian painter of the Neoclassic periods  He was born in Vaprio d'Adda, near Milan, where he was mainly active  His parents moved to Monza, where his first mentor was the painter Giovanni Maria Gariboldi  At age 21, he moved to Milan, where he worked in the studios of Giorgi, and later Giuliano Traballesi  He was active in restoration of paintings  Another painter, Giuseppe Appiani (Porto, c  1700-Triefenstein, c  1785), was active in Germany 
Passage 6:
Massimiliano Soldani Benzi
Massimiliano Soldani or Massimiliano Soldani Benzi (15 July 1656 – 23 February 1740) was an Italian baroque sculptor and medallist, mainly active in Florence  Born at Montevarchi, the son of a Tuscan cavalry captain, Soldani was employed by the Medici for his entire career 

Name
He first went under the name Soldani but, claiming descent from the family of bishop Soldani of Fiesole and from the aristocratic Benzi family of Figline, he applied for and received, in 1693, an official letter acknowledging his nobility based on this ancestry  From this date forward, he called himself, and is referred to in many documents as, Soldani Benzi 

Life
Soldani began training in the Medici drawing school in Florence  He attracted the attention of Grand Duke Cosimo III de' Medici who sent Soldani to his grand-ducal academy in Rome to study under Ciro Ferri and Ercole Ferrata, and to train in coining  During his years in Rome (1678–81), he showed much promise and was asked by Queen Christina of Sweden to create several medals  He started this enterprise but left it unfinished as Cosimo transferred the artist to Paris to work with the famous medallist Joseph Roettiers While there in 1682, Soldani came into contact with Charles Le Brun and minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert  Learning that the artist was working on a medal portrait of Louis XIV, a courtier Soldani refers to the courtier as "Mons r Duca d'Homone"  (possibly Louis, duc d'Aumont who was very interested in the art of medals) introduced the young man to the king  The model for this medal of Louis XIV is now in the Art Gallery of Ontario in Toronto Grand Duke Cosimo in the meantime decided that it was time for Soldani to return to Florence and take charge of the Grand-ducal Mint, the job he was meant to occupy from the very start  Upon the death of the current director, Soldani was officially made Maestro dei Coni e Custode della Zecca in 1688  As such he had his workshop and living quarters in the Uffizi When he finally gave up work at the age of about 80, Soldani Benzi retired to his Villa Petrolo near Bucine where he died in 1740 

Work
Soldani developed into one of the finest bronze casters of his time in Europe  Though first specialising as a medallist, Soldani also produced bronze reliefs, bronze vases and free-standing figures and busts 
For Joseph Johann Adam, Prince of Liechtenstein, he produced a series of bronze copies of works of the Medici collection, mainly antique busts and figures but also after works by Michelangelo and Gianlorenzo Bernini Klaus Lankheit recognized in a small bronze Pietà attributed to Soldani at the Walters Art Museum a "balanced triangular composition" that is "almost a relief in form" and suggested that it had been composed first as a relief; A more elaborate version, with additional figures, in the Kress collection at the Seattle Art Museum, was identified as by Soldani by Ulrich Middeldorf  A second table bronze, Venus and the Wounded Adonis, on a richly-mounted ebony base raised on bronze paw feet, is also at the Walters Art Museum At rare intervals he exhibited terra cotta bozzetti at the irregularly staged exhibitions of the Accademia del Disegno, Florence: in 1715 a Pietà in terracotta by "Sig  M S " A highly finished terracotta relief, Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane, doubtless intended as a modello to be cast in bronze as a private devotional work, is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art A major document of his career is his autobiography, dated 1718, correspondence, and the inventory taken after his death A collection of his drawings is in the Uffizi in Florence 

Doccia
After his death, his heirs sold some of his wax models to marchese Carlo Ginori, who had them adapted by his chief modeller, Gaspero Bruschi, and reproduced in porcelain at his Doccia porcelain manufactory near Florence  Thus Soldani's Apollo in His Chariot, Venus Plucking the Wings of Cupid and Virtue Overpowering Vice all exist as Doccia porcelain groups 

Notes
Further reading
Klaus Lankheit, Soldani (Benzi), Massimiliano, Oxford Art Online

External links
(Fitzwilliam Museum) Leda and the Swan, bronze
Biografia em portugues
European sculpture and metalwork, a collection catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Benzi (see index)
Passage 7:
Francesco Corneliani
Francesco Corneliani (1740-1815) was an Italian painter, mainly active in a Neoclassic style in his native Milan 

He was born to Carlo Corneliani (or Corneliano), and was intended to become a jeweller  He  trained under Sangiorgi at the Accademia Ambrosiana  In 1760, influenced by the paintings of Anton Rafael Mengs, he left for Parma and worked under Carlo Calani  He returned to Milan where he painted lunette frescoes in the Casa Candiani 
He also painted the lunettes over the altars to the side of the chorus in the church of San Sebastiano  He made portraits of the family in the walls of the house of Castiglioni  He painted the four evangelists for the church of San Gervasio in Bergamo He was a close friend of Andrea Appiani and is described as a man alien to intrigue and vanity, pious without ostentation, he lived retired but always ready to work on works of art and piety He died in Milan 


== Sources ==
Passage 8:
François Beaucourt
François Beaucourt (1740–1794) is said to be the first native-born Canadian painter who studied in France with a professional reputation  He was active mainly in the Province of Quebec 

Career
François Malepart Beaucourt was born in Laprairie, Quebec  Paul Beaucourt, his father, was an amateur painter and military engineer  After he died, the family seems to have returned to France  In 1773, Beaucourt married the daughter of his painting master, Joseph Camagne, in Bordeaux, afterwards painting in France and Russia  He was accepted into the local academy in Bordeaux in 1784  In Canada, after 1786, he painted a wide variety of subjects, mostly portraits, including a self-portrait in the National Gallery of Canada  In 1792, he worked in Philadelphia but returned to Montreal that year  In 1794, he died in Montreal  One critic speaks of his "decorative and light provincial rococo" manner 
Passage 9:
Norman Newell
Norman Newell  (25 January 1919 – 1 December 2004) was an English record producer, who was mainly active in the 1950s and 1960s  He was also the co-writer of many notable songs  As an A&R manager for EMI, he worked with musicians such as Shirley Bassey, Dalida, Claude François, Vera Lynn, Russ Conway, Bette Midler, Judy Garland, Petula Clark, Jake Thackray, Malcolm Roberts, Bobby Crush and Peter and Gordon 
Newell was particularly known for his recorded productions of West End musicals  His songs have been covered by Judy Garland, Frank Sinatra, Celine Dion and Aretha Franklin  In 1999, Newell's song, "Portrait of My Love", originally recorded by Matt Monro in 1960, was honoured at the BMI Awards in London for having two million radio plays 

Early life
Newell was born in Plaistow, Essex (now part of Greater London) to a poor family  He aspired to be an actor, but expected to work for London Transport  During the Second World War, Newell befriended the variety performer Bill Waddington, and wrote lyrics to his music  Following the end of the war, Waddington found Newell a job selling sheet music at the Cinephonic Music Company on Charing Cross Road  He began his career as a songwriter for the London-based publisher 

Music producer
Newell joined EMI's Columbia label as a staff producer in 1949, and was head of the label for its most successful years  During this period, he produced records by Petula Clark, the French male voice choir Les Compagnons de la Chanson, Josef Locke, Ronnie Ronalde, The Beverley Sisters, Dorothy Squires and the bandleader Victor Silvester  He also discovered the singer Steve Conway, who recorded Newell's "My Thanks To You" (with music by Noel Gay) In 1953, Newell moved to the new Philips record label, and produced their first release by a British artist, Johnny Brandon  Newell asked Geoff Love to arrange the song, and this marked the start of their professional relationship, in which Love's albums as Manuel and his Music of the Mountains would be produced by Newell  Following six months working at MGM in America, Newell came back to EMI in 1954, whereupon he recorded the comedians Norman Wisdom and Joyce Grenfell  Although Newell "did not understand" rock 'n' roll, he produced albums of the television shows Drumbeat and 6 5 Special  He used Trevor Stanford as a rehearsal pianist, and began recording with him in 1957, under the name Russ Conway, the surname being a tribute to Steve Conway, who had died in 1952 Newell went freelance in 1965, and was then put under contract with EMI, where he produced the top selling single of 1965, "Tears", by comedian Ken Dodd 

Lyricist
Newell was also a much sought-after lyricist, sometimes writing under the pen-name David West, and responsible for co-writing songs that included "Portrait of My Love" (music by Cyril Ornadel), a UK Singles Chart hit for Matt Monro  In addition, he provided the English lyrics for "More" (the theme from the film Mondo Cane)  Newell also wrote the English lyrics of Shirley Bassey's 1961 No  1 hit "Reach for the Stars", (composed by Nini Oliviero and Riz Ortolani) and Bassey's "This Is My Life" ("La vita", written by Antonio Amurri and Bruno Canfora)  Commenting on the latter, Bassey said that "Norman knows more about me than I do "Further compositions by Newell were "The Importance of Your Love" ("Important C'est La Rose", by Gilbert Bécaud); "Born to Sing" ("Mourir Sur scène", by Dalida); "Monday Morning Again" ("Le Lundi au Soleil", by Claude François) and "Never, Never, Never" ("Grande grande grande"), which was a hit for Bassey in 1973  With the composer Philip Green, he co-wrote the United Kingdom's 1963 Eurovision Song Contest entry, "Say Wonderful Things", recorded by Ronnie Carroll  The song was later recorded in the United States by Patti Page He wrote the English lyrics to the German song "Sailor", a number one UK hit for Petula Clark and a top ten hit for Anne Shelton in 1961  In 1964, Newell produced Peter and Gordon's number one UK hit "A World Without Love", which also topped the charts in the United States and several other countries  The song "Forget Domani", from the film The Yellow Rolls-Royce (1964), with lyrics by Newell to music by Riz Ortolani, won a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song 
Newell wrote English-language lyrics to "The White Rose of Athens" for Nana Mouskouri, and Vicky Leandros's 1972 Eurovision Song Contest winning entry, "Après toi" ("Come What May")  "Come What May" reached No 2 on the UK and Republic of Ireland singles charts in 1972 
In his later years, Newell penned lyrics to Pietro Mascagni's "Intermezzo" from Cavalleria rusticana  The song, entitled "Pray For Love", was recorded by Vince Hill 
His numerous contacts in the music publishing industry in the United Kingdom assisted EMI in securing the rights for British recordings of cast albums for many American shows opening in London  Newell also wrote the lyrics for the West End musical Mister Venus (with music by Russ Conway), but the show was not a success  Despite starring Frankie Howerd, the show ran for just 16 performances at the Prince of Wales Theatre in 1958 

Later career
Newell continued working as a producer into the 1980s, including on Shirley Bassey's Gold selling album I Am What I Am, recorded with the London Symphony Orchestra  
He also wrote the English lyrics for the 1983 Julio Iglesias recording of "Hey", which featured in the Platinum selling album Julio He also produced several cast recordings of West End musicals for First Night Records: Seven Brides For Seven Brothers – Original London Cast (1986), Annie Get Your Gun – 1986 London Cast (starring Suzi Quatro and Eric Flynn), Kiss Me, Kate – 1987 Royal Shakespeare Company Cast (starring Paul Jones, Nichola McAuliffe and Fiona Hendley), and South Pacific – 1988 London Cast (starring Gemma Craven and Emile Belcourt)  George Martin said of Newell that he "always wanted to be a Stephen Sondheim," but noted that "his main strength came from his ability to handle big showbiz entertainers "Newell retired in 1990  However, he continued to write lyrics, and his final works were with Les Reed 

Honours
During his career, Norman Newell won a Grammy, an Emmy and three Ivor Novello Awards for his contribution to the entertainment industry, as well as six British Music Industry Awards  He was awarded an OBE in 2003 

Personal life and death
Newell, who was gay, lived in Rustington, West Sussex  After a series of debilitating strokes, he was moved to a local nursing home  He died on 1 December 2004, aged 85 
Passage 10:
Province of Quebec (1763–1791)
The Province of Quebec (French: Province de Québec) was a colony in British North America which comprised the former French colony of Canada  It was established by the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1763, following the conquest of New France by British forces during the Seven Years' War  As part of the Treaty of Paris, France gave up its claim to the colony; it instead negotiated to keep the small profitable island of Guadeloupe Following the Royal Proclamation of 1763, Canada was renamed the Province of Quebec, and from 1774 extended from the coast of Labrador on the Atlantic Ocean, southwest through the Saint Lawrence River Valley to the Great Lakes and beyond to the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers  Portions of its southwest, those areas south of the Great Lakes, were later ceded to the newly established United States in the Treaty of Paris (1783) at the conclusion of the American Revolution; although the British maintained a military presence there until 1796  In 1791, the territory north of the Great Lakes was reorganised and divided into Lower Canada and Upper Canada 

History
Under the Proclamation, Quebec included the cities of Quebec and Montreal, as well as a zone surrounding them, but did not extend as far west as the Great Lakes or as far north as Rupert's Land In 1774, the Parliament of Great Britain, Frederick North, Lord North, Prime Minister, passed the Quebec Act that allowed Quebec to restore the use of French customary law (Coutume de Paris) in private matters alongside the English common law system, and allowing the Catholic Church to collect tithes  The act also enlarged the boundaries of Quebec to include the Ohio Country and part of the Illinois Country, from the Appalachian Mountains on the east, south to the Ohio River, west to the Mississippi River and north to the southern boundary of lands owned by the Hudson's Bay Company, or Rupert's Land 
Prince Edward  Duke of Kent lived in Quebec City 
(Known as the Prince of Quebec)from 1791-1793 this was when Michigan territory was a part of Quebec and a member of Parliament  
Detroit was transferred to Quebec under the Quebec Act of 1774   
It was then the third-largest city in the Province of Quebec, after Montreal and Quebec  1792 Detroit, including settlements on both sides of the river, holds its first election, sending
three representatives to the Parliament of Upper Canada 
The Act Against Slavery, 1793, an anti-slavery act passed in Upper Canada  The Act was created partially in response to Loyalist refugees who brought slaves with them 
Michigan Territory was a part of Upper Canada from 1790-1796  British control of Detroit and Michigan after the American Revolution  When Quebec split into Lower and Upper Canada in 1791, Michigan was part of Kent County, Upper Canada  It held its first democratic elections in August 1792 to send delegates to the new provincial parliament at Newark (now  Niagara-on-the-Lake)  
Western District was one of four districts of the Province of Quebec created in 1788 in the western reaches of the Montreal District which were later detached in 1791 to create the new colony of Upper Canada  Known as Hesse District (named after Hesse in Germany) until 1792 
Through Quebec, the British Crown retained access to the Ohio and Illinois Countries after the Treaty of Paris (1783) ceded control of this land to the United States  By well-established trade and military routes across the Great Lakes, the British continued to supply not only their own troops but a wide alliance of Native American nations through Detroit, Fort Niagara, Fort Michilimackinac, and so on, until these posts were turned over to the United States following the Jay Treaty (1794) 
Quebec retained its seigneurial system after the conquest  Owing to an influx of Loyalist refugees from the American Revolutionary War, the demographics of Quebec came to shift and now included a substantial English-speaking Protestant element from the former Thirteen Colonies  These United Empire Loyalists settled mainly in the Eastern Townships, Montreal, and what was known then as the pays d'en haut west of the Ottawa River  The Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the colony in two at the Ottawa River, so that the western part (Upper Canada) could be under the English legal system, with English speakers in the majority  The eastern part was named Lower Canada 

Governors
In 1760, following the capitulation of Montreal, the colony was placed under military government, with civil government only instituted beginning in 1764  The following were the governors:

James Murray 1760–1766
Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester 1766–1778
Sir Frederick Haldimand 1778–1786
Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester 1786–1796There were also "lieutenant governors", but these were merely the deputies of the governors, and should not be confused with the subsequent to 1791 Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec 

Guy Carleton (lieutenant governor to James Murray)	1766–1768
Hector Theophilus de Cramahé (lieutenant governor to Guy Carleton)	1771–1782
Henry Hamilton (lieutenant governor to Frederick Haldimand)	1782–1785
Henry Hope (lieutenant governor to the Lord Dorchester)	1785–1788
Alured Clarke (lieutenant governor to the Lord Dorchester)	1790

Counsellors to the governor
The Province of Quebec did not have an elected legislature and was ruled directly by the governor with advice from counsellors  A council responsible to advise the governor (then James Murray) on all affairs of state was created in 1764  In 1774, the Quebec Act created a Council for the Affairs of the Province of Quebec to advise the governor on legislative affairs  The Legislative Council served as an advisory council to the governor until a legislative assembly was established after 1791 
The individuals James Murray called into the council from 1764 to 1766:

List of councillors under Carleton from 1766 to 1774:

Geography
Around 1763 to 1764, the province was divided into two judicial districts:

Montreal District – covering the western parts of Quebec along the St  Lawrence River including Montreal and much of Ontario (Eastern and Southern Ontario)
Quebec District – covering the eastern parts of Quebec along the St  Lawrence and LabradorIn 1790, the Trois-Rivières District was formed out of part of Quebec District 
The Trois-Rivières and Quebec districts continued after 1791 when Lower Canada came into existence, while Montreal District west of the Ottawa River became Upper Canada and east of the Ottawa River was partitioned into many electoral districts 

See also
Former colonies and territories in Canada
Territorial evolution of Canada after 1867



ground_truth: 1763

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where is the University Joe Odom played football for located?

The following are given passages.
Context 4:  Knight's interest in pop and dance music influenced Mill's tastes, which contributed to the direction of the album  The track "It's Only" was distinguished by the duo as "the most mature growth [on the album]" due to its more unconventional production The album's name is a reference to the duo's appreciation of returning home after a long period of touring In Return was released a few weeks earlier than intended due to fan anticipation  On September 18, 2015, the deluxe edition of the album was released containing live and instrumental tracks from the standard edition album, in addition to the single "Light" featuring Little Dragon 

Critical reception
In Return received positive reviews from critics  David Jeffries from AllMusic gave the album a rating of 4 out of 5, calling the album a "humble crowd-pleaser" while praising its variety  Renowned for Sound's Angus Fitz-Bugden gave a rating of 4/5, complimenting the album's ambience and production 

Accolades
In Return was nominated for Top Dance/Electronic Album at the 2016 Billboard Music Awards  The RAC remix of "Say My Name" was also nominated for Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards 

Commercial performance
In Return debuted at number 1 on the Top Dance/Electronic Albums chart, selling 6,000 album-equivalent units in the first week  The album also debuted and peaked at number 42 on the Billboard 200 

Track listing
Charts
Decade-end charts
Passage 6:
Angelspit
Angelspit is an electronic music band originally from Sydney, Australia, and currently based in Chicago, United States  The band was formed in 2004 by vocalists/synthesists Destroyx (Amelia Tan) and ZooG (Karl Learmont)  The band's music combines stylistic elements of horror, punk, pop and electronic music  Their work contains imagery revolving around medical experiments and grotesque societies  Angelspit has toured with Angel Theory, Ayria, Ikon, KMFDM, Tankt and The Crüxshadows, and have also shared the stage with bands such as The Sisters of Mercy, Nitzer Ebb, Skinny Puppy and Front Line Assembly  They performed with Lords of Acid during a 22-date U S  tour in March 2011 and toured the United States with Blood on the Dance Floor in October 2011 

History
Karl Learmont (ZooG) and Amelia Tan (Destroyx) met on an online zine forum  They shared an interest in zines and started the distro Vox Populis in 2002  They then started making zines for themselves which became the lyrical inspiration for releases to follow  Angelspit was formed in 2003, and the duo then self-released their debut EP, Nurse Grenade on 3 October 2004 
The band self-released their debut studio album, Krankhaus on 6 June 2006, and re-released it on 30 January 2007 with a bonus remix album, entitled Surgically Atoned, and in the US on Dancing Ferret Discs  The album featured remixes by Combichrist and Ego Likeness  A video for "Vena Cava" was released on 22 August 2007  The band toured Australia, the US and Europe where they lived in Berlin to record their second studio album, Blood Death Ivory 
The band released their second studio album, Blood Death Ivory on 11 June 2008  The album was written and recorded between 2006 and 2008  Again, the band continued to tour the new material around Europe and the USA  They released their debut remix album Black Kingdom Red Kingdom on 15 May 2009  Around this time the band began to produce "Blipverts", short video blogs and tutorials on various topics, including the production of the band's third studio album 
The band released their third studio album, Hideous and Perfect on 9 September 2009  A video for "Fuck the Revolution" was released on 28 September 2009  They released their second remix album Larva Pupa Tank Coffin on 10 October 2010  Larva Pupa Tank Coffin includes 4 brand new Angelspit tracks and remixes by the band themselves as well as other artists  A video for the remix of "Sleep Now" was released on 2 October 2010  They released their third remix album, Carbon Beauty on 8 March 2011  This new remix album contains 3 new tracks as well as 10 remixes of tracks from the Hideous and Perfect album  A video for "Toxic Girl" was released on 13 April 2011, and a video for "Like It? Lick It!" was released on 27 July 2011 
On 15 April 2011, Angelspit announced the addition of three new members: guitarist Valerie Gentile (Black Tape for a Blue Girl, The Crüxshadows), drummer Chris Kling (Hanzel und Gretyl, Mortiis) and videojammer The Liar  The new line-up of Angelspit released their fourth studio album, Hello My Name Is on 11 October 2011  Matt James replaced Chris Kling in early 2012, and former Crüxshadows guitarist George Bikos filled in for Valerie Gentile on the band's 2012 tour  On 23 March 2014, Angelspit announced DestroyX was taking time off to focus on her other projects and would be re-joining Angelspit on future recordings  She has now started a solo career under the name Amelia Arsenic 
Angelspit, now a four-piece led by ZooG (now known as Zoog Von Rock), has released two further albums - Cult of Fake in 2016 and Black Dog Bite in 2017 - while continuing to run their label Black Pill Red Pill  Zoog has also started a Patreon where he offers tips to aspiring musicians 

Band members
Current members
Zoog Von Rock (formerly ZooG) – vocals, programming (2003–present)
The Liar – video manipulation (2010–Present)
Matt Slegel – guitars, bass guitar (2017–present; live contributor: 2016)
Kitsu Noir – drums (2017–present)

Former members
Amelia Arsenic (formerly Destroyx) – vocals (2003–13)
Chris Kling – drums (2011–12; session musician: 2014)
Valerie Gentile – guitars, bass guitar (2011–2012)
George Bikos – guitars, bass guitar (2012–16; session musician: 2008, 2009, 2017)
Nick Delavega – programming, keyboards (2016; live contributor: 2015)
AJ Gapsevic – guitars, bass guitar (2016)
Lorelei – vocals (2016)

Live contributors
Peter Crane – keyboards (2007)
Roberto Massaglia – keyboards (2007)
John Von Ahlen – engineer (2007)
Matt James – drums (2012)
Miss Ballistic – vocals (2013; session musician: 2014)
Dita von Cheats – synthesizer (2013)

Session musicians
Graeme Charles Kent – guitars, bass guitar (2004–11, 2017)
Bradley R  Bills – drums (2014)
Alex Weaver – vocals (2014)

Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Live albums
Compilation albums
Remix albums
Extended plays
Singles
Video albums
Music videos
Passage 7:
Ammunition (Krewella EP)
Ammunition is the third extended play by American electronic dance music band Krewella  It was released on May 20, 2016 by Columbia Records on streaming and digital download music services  Ammunition was preceded by the release of the single "Beggars", on April 28, 2016, shortly followed by the promotional single "Broken Record", which was released on May 10, 2016  It is a six-track extended play, and the duo's first major release since the departure of former member Kris Trindl  It is also their first major release since their debut album Get Wet 

Background
Just over a year after the release of their debut album "Get Wet" in 2013, Kris Trindl publicly announced a lawsuit, suing them $5 million for against Yasmine and Jahan Yousaf claiming they kicked him out of Krewella to gain high profits after he sobered up out of his alcohol addiction  The sisters then followed up with a counter lawsuit which stated "While on stage, Kris would generally stand to the side of Jahan and Yasmine and pump his arms, while pretending to DJ; he was onstage primarily for the sake of image " "Because Kris did not know how to DJ, he only had two effect buttons " In August 2015 a settlement was reached, but the verdicts were not released to the public  The situation eventually led to Deadmau5 siding with Kris, causing Krewella to receive a large amount of internet hatred The band announced in 2015 that they had been working on a new extended play, intended to be completed in time for a 2016 tour  From that time out prior to the release there were many snippets of upcoming music including the songs "Broken Record", "Helter Skelter", "Beggars" (with Diskord), "Louder Than Bombs", "Friends", "Superstar" (which  featured Pegboard Nerds and NGHTMRE) and "Marchin On"  Only three of them made the final track listing, with "Superstar" later being released as a non-album single 
Before the liberation of the EP, two songs were released: "Say Goodbye" on November 24, 2014 and "Somewhere to Run" on March 25, 2015 respectively 

Singles
"Beggars" was released as the lead single from the EP on April 28, 2016, which featured electronic duo Diskord  The music video was released on the same day 

Promotional singles
"Broken Record" was teased before the release of the extended play on May 10, 2016  A music video was later released on June 8, 2016 as a part of their celebrations for the day in which the duo (at the time a trio) abandoned other studies to become full-time musicians 

Promotion
On April 29, 2016 Krewella released a 30-second video of Yasmine rapping to the tune of Kanye West's song "I Love Kanye" stating "F**k tomorrow, we'll show you the new Krewella" prior to the release of the single "Beggars" with Diskord  The music video for the song was released at the same time On the last few days before the release, teasers for "Surrender the Throne", "Marching On", "Beggars", "Broken Record", "Ammunition", and "Can't Forget You" were released, with the latter being released one day before Ammunition's release Krewella are going on a headline tour later in 2016, set to span across 16 dates in North America and Canada and will feature new music and their entire live band 

Commercial performance
On the week ending June 11, 2016 Ammunition reached no  2 on the Billboard Top Dance/Electronic Albums chart and sold 3,000 copies in its debut week  Its lead single, Beggars reached No 24 on the top Dance/Electronic Digital Songs chart and No 33 on the Hot Dance/Electronic Song chart 

Track listing
Charts
Passage 8:
Streets of Gold
Streets of Gold is the third studio album by American electronic music duo 3OH!3  It was released on June 29, 2010 in the United States and July 19, 2010 in the United Kingdom  The album debuted at number seven on the US Billboard 200, selling 41,000 copies in its first week  Upon its release, Streets of Gold received generally mixed reviews from most music critics 

Background
3OH!3 released a video for the song "House Party" on April 8 as a teaser for Streets of Gold  The group hired Andrew W K  to do a rock remix of "House Party", which was released virally on Friday April 16, 2010  3OH!3 had met Andrew W K  at a house party in Memphis, Tennessee  First single, "My First Kiss" was released on their website at 3:03 PM EST May 3  and digitally at midnight on May 4  On May 18, 2010, the song "Touchin' on My" was released exclusively on iTunes Store  3OH!3 planned to release a new song every other Tuesday up to the release of the album  "Déjà Vu" was released on June 1, and "Double Vision" was released on June 15  On June 8, the song "I Can Do Anything" was released to members only on the 3OH!3 website 
The song "I Know How To Say" was used in a trailer for the animated Disney film Mars Needs Moms  An excerpt from the instrumental version of the song can be heard on the official Mars Needs Moms website 

Critical reception
The album received mixed reviews from most music critics  At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has received an average score of 48, based on 11 reviews, which indicates "generally mixed or average reviews"  AllMusic writer David Jeffries noted "over-the-top performances" and stated "3OH!3 are nothing if not loud and shameless, so if you expect end-to-end excellence from their albums, you’ve got a lot to learn about cheap thrills"  Entertainment Weekly's Leah Greenblatt gave the album a C+ rating and wrote that "Streets of Gold's beats still sound garage-sale-Casio cheap, but the album yields several doofy, affable sing-alongs"  Jon Caramanica of The New York Times complimented its incorporation of hip hop, rock, and electro-pop styles and described it as "an oppressive and convincing wall of sounds"  Alternative Press gave the album 4 out of 5 stars and wrote that it "sweeps across a broad range of stylistic tones, maintaining levity while dabbling in comparably serious musical pursuits"  The Washington Post's Sean Fennessey called 3OH!3 "cheeky stylists with quips that frequently devolve into misogyny" and noted "little depth", but concluded "Still, this is a group that excels when no one is listening to what they're saying, only to how they sound, which is always committed and fearlessly grand" In contrast, BBC Online's Fraser McAlpine panned the album's lyrics and called it "dumb for sure, but no fun whatsoever"  Ben Weisz of MusicOMH gave it 2 out of 5 stars and stated "the lyrics are generally unimaginative, sacrificing any shred of credibility to chase the cheap rhyme"  Stacey Anderson of Spin criticized the songs' "witticisms" and noted "brutish synths and hammy bleats"  Giving it 1 out of 5 stars, Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone called it "grim stuff – a soundtrack for beer-pong tournaments" and panned its formula of "dopey electro rock bolstering 'raps' about drinking    and getting girls to 'touch on' their privates"  NME's Mark Beaumont gave the album a 0/10 rating and called 3OH!3 "electro-hip-pop white bread American scum", stating "If Streets Of Gold's lyrics are unlikely to bother the Nobel committee, musically 3OH!3 are a boyband pendulum: the threat of the latter tamed and glossed by the cash-hungry urge to be the former" 

Commercial performance
Streets of Gold debuted at number seven on the Billboard 200 with 41,000 copies sold in its first week  The album has sold more than 100,000 copies in US 

Track listing
Personnel
Credits for Streets of Gold adapted from AllMusic 

Musicians
Production
Charts
Passage 9:
Harnessed the Storm
Harnessed the Storm is the second studio album by American electronic music duo Drexciya  It was released on Tresor in 2002  Designed as the first of seven conceptually linked albums that the duo produced over the course of a single year, it is the only one credited to Drexciya  Different aliases were used for the others 

Critical reception
Philip Downey of Exclaim! described Harnessed the Storm as "forward-looking, vocal-less, sci-fi stuff"  Andy Battaglia of The A V  Club felt that Drexciya "still creates some of the most visionary electro around", but concluded that the album's "Detroit-style formalism" sounds "too old-fashioned to sneak the future into the past" In 2010, Resident Advisor placed Harnessed the Storm at number 97 on its list of the "Top 100 Albums of the 2000s"  In 2017, Pitchfork placed it at number 11 on its list of "The 50 Best IDM Albums of All Time" 

Track listing
Passage 10:
White Noise (Disclosure song)
"White Noise" is a song by British electronic music duo Disclosure, featuring vocals from electronic music duo AlunaGeorge  It was released as a digital download in the United Kingdom on 1 February 2013  The song peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart  The track is the second single from the duo's debut studio album, Settle (2013)  The song was written by Howard Lawrence, Guy Lawrence, Aluna Francis, George Reid and James Napier 

Reception
Critical reception
The track was met with very positive reviews upon its release  Pitchfork labeled it "Best New Music"  Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave the song a positive review stating:

For their latest track 'White Noise' they've hooked up with trendy newbies AlunaGeorge – a savvy collaboration that's been carefully timed following their shared domination of last month's ones-to-watch lists  That's not to say it sounds forced; Disclosure's humming bassline, swirling synths and addictive clubby beeps are perfectly tailored to Aluna's pitched vocal  The result strikes a rarely-heard balance between hipster-friendly and potential chart-dominator   

Freddie Holmes of The Underclassed gave the track a mixed review, stating that "It's a great track nonetheless, especially to someone that hasn't heard any of either group's previous material, but my superfan standpoint has rendered me to be overly critical" Billboard named it the eighth greatest song of 2013  The website wrote about the song, "In a year in which Disclosure and AlunaGeorge watched their audiences and cultural cache grow exponentially, the two duos' wiry, icy-cool collaboration represented a high point for each" 

Commercial performance
The song entered at number 28 on the UK Singles Chart  The following week, it climbed 26 places to number two on the chart, beaten to the top by "Thrift Shop" by Macklemore & Ryan Lewis, featuring Wanz 

Live performances
At the 2014 BRIT Awards, Disclosure and Lorde performed an electro version of Lorde's song "Royals", which transitioned into "White Noise", for which AlunaGeorge appeared on stage  The "Royals/White Noise" performance was released at iTunes Stores by the BRIT Awards on 19 February 2014; proceeds from its sales went to the charity War Child 

Music video
The song's music video has a security guard and he starts in an abandoned warehouse 

Track listings
Digital download"White Noise" (featuring AlunaGeorge) – 5:40BRITs performance digital download"Royals / White Noise" – 4:59

Charts and certifications
Release history



ground_truth: West Lafayette, Indiana