prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Arnold Richards was the former chair of what organization that is a member of the Center for Jewish History?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
YIVO
YIVO (Yiddish: ייִוואָ, [jiˈvɔ]) is an organization that preserves, studies, and teaches the cultural history of Jewish life throughout Eastern Europe, Germany, and Russia as well as orthography, lexicography, and other studies related to Yiddish  (The word yidisher means both "Yiddish" and "Jewish ")  Established in 1925 in Wilno in the Second Polish Republic (now Vilnius, Lithuania) as the Yidisher Visnshaftlekher Institut (Yiddish: ייִדישער װיסנשאַפֿטלעכער אינסטיטוט, pronounced [ˈjidiʃɛr ˈvisn ʃaftlɛχɛr instiˈtut], Yiddish Scientific Institute, its English name became Institute for Jewish Research after its relocation to New York City, but it is still known mainly by its Yiddish acronym  YIVO is now a partner of the Center for Jewish History  Formerly, they had linguists whose main occupation was deciding on grammar rules and new words, and during this time they were seen in the secular world to serve as the recognized language regulator of the Yiddish language  However, YIVO no longer serves this purpose  Nevertheless, the YIVO system is still commonly taught in universities and known as klal shprakh (spelled in Yiddish:כּלל־שפּראַך, meaning 'standard language') and sometimes "YIVO Yiddish" (spelled in Yiddish:ייִוואָ־ייִדיש) 

Activities
YIVO preserves manuscripts, rare books, and diaries, and other Yiddish sources   The YIVO Library in New York contains over 385,000 volumes dating from as early as the 16th century  Approximately 40,000 volumes are in Yiddish, making the YIVO Library the largest collection of Yiddish-language works in the world  The YIVO archives hold over 23,000,000 documents, photographs, recordings, posters, films, and other artifacts  Together, they comprise the world's largest collection of materials related to the history and culture of Central and East European Jewry and the American Jewish immigrant experience   The archives and library collections include works in twelve major languages, including English, French,  German, Hebrew, Russian, Polish, and Judaeo-Spanish YIVO also functions as a publisher of Yiddish-language books and of periodicals including YIVO Bleter (founded 1931), Yedies Fun YIVO (founded 1929), and Yidishe Shprakh (founded 1941)  It is also responsible for English-language publications such as the YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Studies (founded 1946) 

History
YIVO was initially proposed by Yiddish linguist and writer Nochum Shtif (1879–1933)  He characterized his advocacy of Yiddish as "realistic" Zionism, contrasted to the "visionary" Hebraists and the "self-hating" assimilationists who adopted Russian or Polish  Other key founders included philologist Max Weinreich (1894–1969) and historian Elias Tcherikower (1881–1943) YIVO was founded at a Berlin conference in 1925, but headquartered in Vilna, a city with a large Jewish population in the Second Polish Republic  The early YIVO also had branches in Berlin, Warsaw and New York City  Over the next decade, smaller groups arose in many of the other countries with Ashkenazi populations 
In YIVO's first decades, Tcherikover headed the historical research section, which also included Simon Dubnow, Saul M  Ginsburg, Abraham Menes, and Jacob Shatzky  Leibush Lehrer (1887–1964) headed a section including psychologists and educators Abraham Golomb, H  S  Kasdan, and Abraham Aaron Roback  Jacob Lestschinsky (1876–1966) headed a section of economists and demographers Ben-Adir, Liebmann Hersch, and Moshe Shalit  Weinreich's language and literature section included Judah Leib Cahan, Alexander Harkavy, Judah A  Joffe, Zelig Kalmanovich, Shmuel Niger, Noach Pryłucki, and Zalman Reisen  YIVO also collected and preserved ethnographic materials under the direction of its Ethnographic Committee   In 1925, YIVO's honorary board of trustees or "Curatorium" consisted of Simon Dubnow, Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Moses Gaster, Edward Sapir and Chaim Zhitlowsky 
From 1934 to 1940, YIVO operated a graduate training program known as the Aspirantur  Named after Zemach Shabad, YIVO's chairman, the program held classes and guided students in conducting original research in the field of Jewish studies  Many of the students' projects were sociological in nature (reflecting the involvement of Max Weinreich) and gathered information on contemporary Jewish life in the Vilna region The Nazi advance into Eastern Europe caused YIVO to move its operations to New York City  A second important center, known as the Fundacion IWO, was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina  All four directors of YIVO's research sections were already in the Americas when the war broke out or were able to make their way there  The organization's new headquarters were established in New York City  A portion of the Vilna archives was ransacked by the Nazis and sent to Frankfurt to become the basis of an anti-Semitic department of the Nazis' planned university  In 1946, the U S  Army recovered these documents and sent them to YIVO in New York The YIVO Library was looted by the Germans and the ERR, but an organization that called itself "The Paper Brigade" were able to smuggle out many books and preserve them from destruction  These materials were then saved from the Soviets by a Lithuanian librarian, Antanas Ulpis  These materials are now held in the Lithuanian Central State Archives and Martynas Mažvydas National Library of Lithuania  In 2014, with the cooperation of the government of the Republic of Lithuania, Brent established the landmark Edward Blank YIVO Vilna Online Collections project at The YIVO Institute to preserve and digitize over 1 5 million documents and approximately 12,200 books representing 500 years of Jewish history in Eastern Europe and Russia In addition to New York City and Buenos Aires, the Chicago YIVO Society is a third center active today 

Publications
YIVO has undertaken many major scholarly publication projects, the most recent being The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, published in March 2008 in cooperation with Yale University Press  Under the leadership of editor-in-chief Gershon David Hundert, professor of history and of Jewish Studies at McGill University in Montreal, this unprecedented reference work systematically represents the history and culture of Eastern European Jews from their first settlement in the region to the present day  More than 1,800 alphabetical entries encompass a vast range of topics including religion, folklore, politics, art, music, theater, language and literature, places, organizations, intellectual movements, and important figures  The two-volume set also features more than 1,000 illustrations and 55 maps  With original contributions from an international team of 450 distinguished scholars, the encyclopedia covers the region between Germany and the Ural Mountains, from which more than 2 5 million Jews emigrated to the United States between 1870 and 1920 

See also
Academy of the Hebrew Language, for Hebrew
Autoridad Nasionala del Ladino, for Ladino
Dina Abramowicz (long-time YIVO librarian)
Yiddish Book Center
League for Yiddish
Passage 2:
Israel Bartal
Israel Bartal (Hebrew: ישראל ברטל), is Avraham Harman Professor of Jewish History, member of Israel Academy of Sciences (2016), and the former Dean of the Faculty of Humanities at Hebrew University (2006–2010)  Since 2006 he is the chair of the Historical Society of Israel  He served as director of the Center for Research on the History and Culture of Polish Jewry, and the academic chairman of the Project of Jewish Studies in Russian at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem  Professor Bartal was the co-director of the Center for Jewish Studies and Civilization at Moscow State University  Bartal received his PhD from Hebrew University in 1981  He focuses his research on the history of the Jews in Palestine, the Jews of Eastern Europe, the Haskalah Movement, Jewish Orthodoxy  and modern Jewish historiography Professor Bartal taught at Harvard University, McGill University, University of Pennsylvania Rutgers University and Johns Hopkins, as well as at Moscow State University (MGU), the Central European University in Budapest (CEU), and Paideia in Stockholm   He was for many years a faculty member of the Open University of Israel and has contributed to the development of its teaching programs  Since November 1, 2010 he is a visiting scholar at the Simon-Dubnow-Institut, at Leipzig University  Bartal is one of the founders of Cathedra, the leading scholarly journal on the history of the Land of Israel, and had served as its co-editor for over twenty years  Since 1998 he is the editor of vestnik, a scholarly journal of Jewish studies in Russian  From 1995 to 2003 he chaired the Israeli history high-school curriculum committee 
Bartal has published many books and numerous articles on the history and culture of East European Jewry, Palestine in the pre-Zionist era, and Jewish nationalism 
Among his recent publications:

Poles and Jews: a Failed Brotherhood (with Magdalena Opalski, Hanover, University Press of New England, 1992);
Exile in the Land (published in Hebrew, Jerusalem, ha-Sifriya ha-Tsiyonit, 1994);
From Corporation to Nation: The Jews of Eastern Europe, 1772-1881 (Tel Aviv, Misrad ha-Bitahon Publishing House, 2002);
A Century  of Israeli Culture (editor, Jerusalem, The Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2002);
Kehal Yisrael vol  3 (editor, Jerusalem, Merkaz Shazar, 2004);
The Jews of Eastern Europe  1772-1881 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005, 2006, published also in Russian and German);
The Varieties of Haskalah (editor, with Shmuel Feiner, Jerusalem, the Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2005);
Cossack and Bedouin: Land and People in Jewish Nationalism, (Tel Aviv, Am Oved Publishers, 2007)
Tangled Roots, The Emergence of Israeli Culture, Brown Judaic Studies, (Providence RI, 2020);He is co-editor (with Antony Polonsky) of Polin, vol  12 (1999), which focuses on the Jews in Galicia, 1772–1914 

Edited books (in Hebrew)
(1975) יעקב צור, דיוקנה של התפוצה, הוצאת כתר, ירושלים
(1977) עם יהושע קניאל וזאב צחור), העלייה השנייה, א-ג, הוצאת יד יצחק בן צבי, ירושלים תשנ"ח)
(1987) משה בדורו, על משה מונטיפיורי ופעליו, אסופת מאמרים, משגב ירושלים - המכון לחקר מורשת יהדות ספרד והמזרח, תשמ"ז
(1993) עם חוה טורניאנסקי ועזרא מנדלסון), כמנהג אשכנז ופולין: ספר יובל לחנא שמרוק, קובץ מחקרים בתרבות יהודית, מרכז זלמן שזר, תשנ"ג)
(1994) עם רחל אליאור וחנא שמרוק) צדיקים ואנשי מעשה מחקרים בחסידות פולין, מוסד ביאליק, תשנ"ד)
(1994) עם יונתן פרנקל), בין פולין לרוסיה, מחקרים בתולדות יהודי מזרח אירופה, ספר זיכרון לשמואל אטינגר, מרכז שזר, ירושלים תשנ"ה)
(1998) עם ישעיהו גפני), ארוס, אירוסין ואיסורים, מיניות ומשפחה בהיסטוריה, הוצאת מרכז שזר, תשנ"ח)
(1999) עם יוסי בן ארצי ואלחנן ריינר, נוף מולדתו: מחקרים בגאוגרפיה של ארץ ישראל ובתולדותיה מוגשים ליהושע בן אריה, הוצאת ספרים ע"ש י"ל מאגנס, תש"ס
(1999) הקריאה לנביא, מחקרי היסטוריה וספרות, מאת חנא שמרוק, ירושלים: מרכז זלמן שזר, תש"ס
(2001) עם ישראל גוטמן), קיום ושבר, יהודי פולין לדורותיהם, מרכז זלמן שזר, תשנ"ז 1997-תשס"א)
(2002) עם דוד אסף), מווילנה לירושלים: מחקרים בתולדותיהם ובתרבותם של יהודי מזרח אירופה מוגשים לפרופסור שמואל ורסס, הוצאת ספרים ע"ש י"ל מאגנס, תשס"ב)
(2002) העגלה המלאה: מאה ועשרים שנות תרבות בישראל, הוצאת ספרים על שם י"ל מאגנס, תשס"ב
(2005) עם שמואל פיינר), ההשכלה לגווניה: עיונים חדשים בתולדות ההשכלה ובספרותה, הוצאת ספרים ע"ש י"ל מאגנס, בית הספרים הלאומי והאוניברסיטאי, ירושלים תשס"ה)
(2007) עם שמואל פיינר), היסטוריוגרפיה במבחן: עיון מחודש במשנתו של יעקב כ"ץ, מרכז שזר, תשס"ח)
(2010) עם חיים גורן), ספר ירושלים בשלהי התקופה העות'מאנית (1917-1800), הוצאת יד יצחק בן צבי, תש"ע)
(2010) עם אברהם גרינבוים ודן חרוב), ספרא וסייפא: שמעון דובנוב - היסטוריון ואיש ציבור, מרכז זלמן שזר, תשע"א)
יומן מסע ואגרות ארץ ישראל בשנות השלושים למאה הי"ט, יד יצחק בן-צבי, תשל"ד
עם שמואל אטינגר ומיכאל גרץ), ישן מול חדש: פעולותיהם של ארגונים יהודיים עולמיים בארץ-ישראל, במאה הי"ט ובימי המנדט, מרכז שזר, תש"ן)
Passage 3:
Gershon Galil
Gershon Galil is Professor of Biblical Studies and Ancient History and former chair of the Department of Jewish History at  the University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel 
Gershon Galil earned his doctorate from the Hebrew University in Jerusalem  His work, The Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Judah, suggests a new chronology for the kings of ancient Israel and ancient Judah   His thesis was published by Brill Academic Publishers in 1996 and his chronology contrasts with those presented by the more traditional William F  Albright or Edwin R  Thiele 
Galil's studies of  ancient Near Eastern culture and history include Israel and Assyria (Hebrew; Zmora-Bitan, 2001);  The Lower Stratum Families in the Neo-Assyrian Period (BRILL, 2007) and more  He also co-edited two volumes of the Supplement to Vetus Testamentum:
Studies in Historical Geography and Biblical Historiography presented to Zecharia Kallai (with M  Weinfeld, Brill, 2000); and Homeland and Exile: Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Honour of Bustenay Oded (with M  Geller and A  Millard, Brill, 2009) 

See also
Khirbet Qeiyafa
Passage 4:
Hikmet Tanyu
Hikmet Tanyu (1918 – 1992) was a Turkish scientist and college professor specializing in philosophy and the history of religions, with a particular focus on Jewish religious history  In the 1970s, he pursued studies in Israel  Tanyu authored a book titled Jews and Turks throughout History, which examines the history of Jews and the relations between Jewish and Turkish societies over time  This book is widely regarded as the first comprehensive study of Jewish history in Turkey 
During the 1940s, Tanyu was a dedicated nationalist in the Republic of Turkey  He faced trial in the Racism-Turanism trials  Following six months of imprisonment, he was acquitted and released  Due to the torture he endured during his time in prison, he filed a lawsuit against the Turkish authorities at the Council of State 
Passage 5:
Center for Jewish History
The Center for Jewish History is a partnership of five Jewish history, scholarship, and art organizations in New York City: American Jewish Historical Society, American Sephardi Federation, Leo Baeck Institute New York, Yeshiva University Museum, and YIVO Institute for Jewish Research  Together, housed in one location, the partners have separate governing bodies and finances, but collocate resources  The partners' collections make up the biggest repository of Jewish history in the United States  The Center for Jewish History also serves as a centralized place of scholarly research, events, exhibitions, and performances  Located within the center are the Lillian Goldman Reading Room, Ackman & Ziff Family Genealogy Institute and a Collection Management & Conservation Wing  The Center for Jewish History is also an affiliate of the Smithsonian Institution 

History
In 2000, the center was opened after six years of construction and planning with a goal of creating synergy among the five member organizations, each offering a different approach to Jewish history, scholarship and art  This was one of the first attempts at uniting differing views on Jewish culture and resulted in the largest repository documenting the Jewish experience outside of Israel leading some to refer to it as the Jewish Library of Congress In the late 1980s, Bruce Slovin, who was the chairman of YIVO, originated the concept of a unified center where the partners could share resources  The idea was triggered when he realized that the then home of YIVO, a mansion located at 86th and Fifth Avenue, was not able to meet the needs of its collections or visitors, resulting in an environment that was hazardous to the collection (it was not temperature-controlled) as well as made archival study difficult  The location on Museum Mile was not seen as an advantageous adjacency  Slovin saw YIVO and the partner organizations as being more academic-focused The Leo Baeck Institute was previously located at 129 East 73rd Street, and the American Jewish Historical Society, which had previously been a New York City-based institution prior to the early 1960s, was then located near Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts  The Yeshiva University Museum was located in the Washington Heights neighborhood uptown When it opened its doors to the public in October 2000, the center struggled with financial problems  In 2007, there were preliminary talks about a partnership with NYU's Skirball Department for Hebrew and Judaic Studies to the benefit of both organizations  In the end, the center and Skirball decided not to move forward  In 2010, the Center for Jewish History was able to raise $30 million to retire its construction debt  The amount was raised and donated by the chairman and founder of the center, Bruce Slovin; co-chairmen William Ackman and Joseph Steinberg; the Fairholme Foundation; and 19 other donors  These efforts meant that the center was debt-free  In 2012, the center received a top rating of four stars from the Charity Navigator non-profit evaluation service In 2013, the Lillian Goldman Charitable Trust awarded the center a $1 5 million grant to establish a reference services division 

Facilities
The center is located in Manhattan's Union Square neighborhood, and is a four-building 125,000 square feet (11,600 m2) campus built around a courtyard that has a central entrance on 16th Street  The center is made up of four previously existing buildings and two new buildings  The buildings are the former location of the American Foundation for the Blind/Helen Keller Institute  The cost of the complex was $4 4 million 

Collections
The partners' collections include more than 100 million documents, 500,000 books, thousands of art objects, textiles, ritual objects, music, films, and photographs  most of which had been poorly housed in the member institutions and were at risk of damage or destruction  The center is heavily involved with the preservation of records that define moments in Jewish immigration to New York City  A $670,000 grant awarded in 2007 helped with the cataloging of these materials 

Partner collection highlights
Original handwritten copy of Emma Lazarus' 1883 "The New Colossus" poem that was later inscribed on the base of the Statue of Liberty
Sandy Koufax's Brooklyn Dodgers jersey
Letter from Thomas Jefferson to New York's oldest Jewish congregation
First Hebrew prayer books printed in AmericaThe collections range from the early modern era in Europe and pre-colonial times in the Americas to present-day materials from across the globe  The center provides access to a comprehensive collection of historic archival materials, including Franz Kafka, Theodor Herzl, Moses Mendelssohn, Sigmund Freud and Albert Einstein  In addition to historical documents like the 1478 record of the trial of Simon of Trent, the center also includes holdings of artwork by Max Lieberman as well as Jewish ephemera like philosopher Moses Mendelssohn's eyeglasses 

Digital initiatives
In 2011, the Center for Jewish History began a 2-year project called, "Illuminating Hidden Collections at the Center for Jewish History," with a $229,600 grant from the Council on Library and Information Resources
In 2013, the Center for Jewish History donated 600 images to the Google Art Project, which is part of the Google Cultural Institute, an initiative that puts cultural material online  The center was one of four New York City-based institutions to donate at that time, joining eight others  The images are very high resolution and include rich metadata 
Passage 6:
Jeffrey S  Gurock
Jeffrey S  Gurock is Libby M  Klaperman Professor of Jewish History at Yeshiva University in New York City 

Biography
Gurock earned a bachelor's degree from the City College of New York and a master's degree from Columbia University  He served as associate editor to American Jewish History from 1982 to 2002 

Published works
He has written over a dozen books in the field of American Jewish history  His work focuses on the American Orthodox community and the variations in Orthodox practice and ritual over the course of American Jewish history  His books include Orthodox Jews in America (Indiana University Press, 2009), a comprehensive social and cultural history of this group and its relations to other Jews and mainstream American society, and Jews in Gotham (New York University Press, 2012), which chronicles New York Jewry from 1920 to 2010 

Awards and distinctions
For its 135th annual gala in 2015, the City College of New York honored Gurock as one of its distinguished alumni

Books
A Modern Heretic and a Traditional Community: Mordecai M  Kaplan, Orthodoxy, and American Judaism   Coauthor with Jacob J  Schacter, Columbia University Press (1997)

Further reading
Ruttman, Larry (2013)  "Jeffrey Gurock: Professor of Jewish History at Yeshiva University, Orthodox Jew, and Sportsman"  American Jews and America's Game: Voices of a Growing Legacy in Baseball  Lincoln, Nebraska and London, England: University of Nebraska Press  pp  429–437  ISBN 978-0-8032-6475-5 

Notes
External links
Jeffrey S  Gurock
Passage 7:
David N  Myers
David N  Myers (born November 2, 1960) is a professor of history at the University of California, Los Angeles, where he holds the Sady and Ludwig Kahn Chair in Jewish History  Myers was the president and CEO of the Center for Jewish History from July 2017 to August 2018   He serves as the President of the New Israel Fund Board 

Early life
A native of Scranton, Pennsylvania, Myers received his A B  cum laude from Yale University in 1982  He commenced graduate studies in Jewish history at Tel Aviv University (1982–84), where he studied with Anita Shapira, Yaakov Shavit, Matitiyahu Mintz, and Moshe Mishkinsky, before moving on to study medieval Jewish thought with Isadore Twersky at Harvard University (1984–85)  He then moved to Columbia University, where he worked under the supervision of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, whose work and thought left a profound impression on him and remain a source of ongoing scholarly interest  Myers received his Ph D  with distinction in 1991 

Academic career
Myers joined the faculty of the UCLA History Department in 1991 as a lecturer and 1992 as an assistant professor  He published his first book, Re-Inventing the Jewish Past: European Jewish Intellectuals and the Zionist Return to History, in 1995  Myers served for ten years as the director of the UCLA Center for Jewish Studies and, from 2010–15, as the Robert N  Burr Department Chair of the UCLA History Department  He also has served since 2003 as the co-editor, along with Elliott Horowitz and Natalie Dohrmann, of the Jewish Quarterly Review    He is an elected fellow of the American Academy for Jewish Research  He received the inaugural Sady and Ludwig Kahn Chair in Jewish History at UCLA in 2015 
In 2022, he completed a book with Nomi M  Stolzenberg on the Satmar Hasidic community of Kiryas Joel, New York  This book, American Shtetl, was awarded the National Jewish Book Award for American Jewish Studies in 2022 
Myers' early work focused on the intersection of the history of Jewish historiography and the history of Zionism in his dissertation and first book on the founding generation of the Institute for Jewish Studies of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem  His next book, Resisting History, continued his interest in intellectual history and modes of historical thought, but shifted focus to German Jewish thinkers in the late Wilhelmine and Weimar eras  Myers' next book, Between Jew and Arab, engaged the enigmatic Jewish thinker Simon Rawidowicz—and an intriguing essay on Palestinian refugees that he wrote for inclusion in his monumental book Bavel vi-Yerushalayim, but ultimately decided not to include  Myers then wrote a short synthesis on Jewish history as part of the Oxford University Press VSI series  His next book, The Stakes of History, was a reflection on the historian and historiographical practice that was initially delivered as the Franz Rosenzweig Lectures at Yale in 2014  Already in the early 2000s, Myers began to develop a scholarly interest in the history and politics of Haredi communities, especially Kiryas Joel, New York  For almost two decades, he worked together with his wife on a book on Kiryas Joel that was published in 2022 as American Shtetl  At present, Myers is working on a research project devoted to mid-twentieth-century population displacements through the lens of political and affective history 

Center For Jewish History
In 2017, Myers was appointed CEO of Center for Jewish History 
Following Myers' appointment, some in the Jewish community objected to his activism in organizations supportive of Israeli-Palestinian peace and co-existence, while simultaneously hundreds of Jewish historians responded by expressing their support for Myers  Those who demanded his resignation included Israeli Knesset Member Bezalel Smotrich, as well as the Zionist Organization of America and others  The right-wing Middle East Forum opined "Myers may present a moderate façade, but his academic & political affiliations expose his radical core "
 According to the Forward, "the campaign against Myers appears to have shaken the CJH," though Myers has stated that the protests were only a nuisance early in his tenure and were not the reason for his decision to leave the Center  “After the first two unpleasant months, I had a great time here,” Myers said 
Despite the attacks by groups associated with the Israeli right, Jewish studies scholars in the United States largely rallied behind Myers  In an op-ed defending Myers, Brandeis professors Jonathan Sarna and Rabbi David Ellenson wrote, "The writings of David Myers indisputably fall well within the scholarly mainstream of Jewish life and they are unquestionably supportive of Israel’s basic right to exist "Myers stepped down from this position in August 2018, returning to UCLA full time  “This is the result of months of deliberation spent on planes going back and forth and really asking myself, Where do I want to be in life?” he said 

New Israel Fund
He became President of the New Israel Fund board in October 2018 after serving as a board member  He also has served as an instructor for the Wexner Heritage Foundation, and writes frequently on matters of contemporary Jewish concern 

Published books
Authored
Re-Inventing the Jewish Past: European Jewish Intellectuals and the Zionist Return to History  New York: Oxford University Press, 1995 ISBN 978-0195098426
Resisting History: Historicism and its Discontents in German-Jewish Thought  Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003 ISBN 978-0691146607
Between Jew and Arab: The Lost Voice of Simon Rawidowicz  Hanover and London: Brandeis University Press, 2008 ISBN 978-1584657361
Jewish History: A Very Short Introduction   New York: Oxford University Press, 2016 ISBN 9780199730988
The Stakes of History: On the Use and Abuse of Jewish History for Life   New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018   ISBN 9780300228939
American Shtetl: The Making of Kiryas Joel, a Hasidic Village in Upstate New York   Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2022   ISBN 9780691199771

Edited
David N  Myers and William V  Rowe, eds  From Ghetto to Emancipation: Historical and Contemporary Reconsiderations of the Jewish Community, introduction by D  N  Myers  Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press, 1997 ISBN 9780940866720
David N  Myers and David B  Ruderman, eds  The Jewish Past Revisited: Reflections on Modern Jewish Historians, introduction by D  N  Myers  New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998 ISBN 9780300191530
Elisheva Carlebach, John M  Efron, and David N  Myers, eds  Jewish History and Jewish Memory: Essays in Honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi  Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1998 ISBN 978-0874518719
Richard Hovannisian and David N  Myers, eds  Enlightenment and Diaspora: The Armenian and Jewish Cases  Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999 ISBN 978-0788506048
Michael Brenner and David N  Myers, eds  Jüdische Geschichtsschreibung heute: Themen, Positionen, Kontroversen  Munich: Beck Verlag, 2002 ISBN 978-3406488788
David N  Myers et al  eds  Acculturation and its Discontents: The Italian Jewish Experience between Integration and Exclusion  Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008 ISBN 9780802098511
David N  Myers and Alexander Kaye, eds  The Faith of Fallen Jews: Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi and the Writing of Jewish History  Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2013 ISBN 978-1611684872
Michael A  Meyer and David N  Myers, eds  Between Jewish Tradition and Modernity: Essays in Honor of David Ellenson   Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2014 ISBN 9780814338599
David N  Myers, eds  The Eternal Dissident: Rabbi Leonard I  Beerman and the Radical Imperative to Think and Act  Oakland, CA, 2018   ISBN 978-0520297456
David N  Myers and Benjamin C I  Ravid, eds  Simon Rawidowicz: Between Babylon and Jerusalem: Select Writings  Goettingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co KG, 2022   ISBN 9783525311257
Passage 8:
Moses Rischin
Moses Rischin (1925-2020) was an American historian, author, lecturer, editor, and emeritus professor of history at San Francisco State University  He coined the phrase new Mormon history in a 1969 article of the same name Rischin is considered an authority on American ethnic and immigration history and a pioneer in the field of American Jewish history  Historian Selma Berrol, however, has challenged the minimal treatment Rischin has given to the tensions between earlier German Jews and later Russian Jews in America 

Biography
Rischin was born and raised in Brooklyn, New York City  His undergraduate studies were at Brooklyn College  Harvard University awarded him a Ph D  in 1957 Ruschin became a professor at San Francisco State University in 1964  In addition to his professorship, he sat on the board for the Journal of American Ethnic History and on the council of the American Jewish History Society  During the Monica Lewinsky scandal, Rischin was a signatory of "Historians in Defense of the Constitution" wherein 400 historians criticized efforts to impeach President Bill Clinton He was the longtime director of the Western Jewish History Center, at the Judah L  Magnes Museum, from its founding in 1967; from 2005 until approximately 2010, an annual lecture was given there in his name A collection of historical essays was published in Rischin's honor in 1996 A character in the 1967 novel Meyer Meyer by Helen Hudson may have been partly modeled after him 

Books
The Promised City: New York's Jews, 1870-1914 (Harvard University Press) ISBN 978-0674715011
Jews of the American West, with John Livingston (Wayne State University Press) ISBN 0-8143-2171-2

Articles and essays
"The New Mormon History", The American West 6, March 1969, 49 
"The Jewish Experience in America: A View from the West"
Foreword to California Jews (2003) Brandeis University Press

Awards
1963: National Jewish Book Award in The Promised City: New York's Jews, 1870-1914

See also
"I'll take Manhattan: reflections on Jewish studies" by Deborah Dash Moore
Passage 9:
Carole B  Balin
Carole Beth Balin (born 1964) is a Reform rabbi and professor of Jewish history at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion in New York City  Her research interests include Eastern European and American Jewish history, the history of Reform Judaism, and gender studies  She received laudatory reviews for her 2003 book To Reveal Our Hearts: Jewish Women Writers in Tsarist Russia, and has co-edited two other books  She is a co-curator of "Bat Mitzvah Comes of Age", a traveling exhibition sponsored by the Smithsonian-affiliated National Museum of American Jewish History and the Moving Traditions Jewish non-profit 

Early life and education
Carole Beth Balin grew up in Andover, Massachusetts, the daughter of Theodore G  Balin, a defense engineer, and Marcia Balin, a telemarketing sales trainer  She became bat mitzvah in 1977; her mother celebrated her own bat mitzvah in 1979 She earned her bachelor's degree in history at Wellesley College in 1986  Her senior honors thesis was "Unraveling an American-Jewish Synthesis: Rosa Sonneschein's The American Jewess, 1895–1899"  In 1989 she earned a master's degree in Hebrew letters at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, followed by rabbinic ordination in 1991 at the same institute  In 1994 she earned a Master of Philosophy degree at Columbia University, and in 1998 completed her PhD in history at Columbia  Her doctoral advisors were Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi and Michael Stanislawski 

Academic career
Balin was a visiting instructor at the Institute for Advanced Jewish Studies in Moscow in 1995  She joined the faculty of her alma mater, the Hebrew Union College, in 1997 as assistant professor of Jewish history, advancing to associate professor in 2004 and full professor in 2006  She was also a faculty member of the Wexner Heritage Foundation from 1999 to 2003 

Works
Balin's 2003 book To Reveal Our Hearts: Jewish Women Writers in Tsarist Russia was noted for its "pioneering" research by several reviewers, as she rediscovered the existence of 67 Jewish women writers (44 Russian-language, 17 Hebrew-language, and six Yiddish-language) in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through archival material in Russia, Israel, and North America  The book explores in-depth the lives of five of these writers Balin has written numerous book chapters and articles, including several biographies for the Jewish Women's Archive  She wrote the pieces "Betty Friedan’s 'Spiritual Daughters,' the ERA, and the CCAR" and "From Periphery to Center: A History of the Women's Rabbinic Network", which appear in the book The Sacred Calling: Four Decades of Women in the Rabbinate, published in 2016  She also blogs for The Huffington Post 

Other activities
In 1991 Balin became the spiritual leader of the Jewish Congregation of Kinnelon, New Jersey, which conducts joint worship services at St  David's, an Episcopal church  Her duties for the 300-member Reform congregation included officiating at religious services, planning seminars on religion, preparing youth for their bar mitzvah or bat mitzvah, and visiting hospitalized and homebound Jewish patients In 2008 she was one of the interviewees on the PBS documentary The Jewish People: A Story of Survival Balin is the co-curator, with Josh Perelman and Lori Perlow, of the traveling exhibition "Bat Mitzvah Comes of Age", which opened in April 2012 at the Jewish Community Center of Manhattan  The exhibition, a collaboration between the Smithsonian-affiliated National Museum of American Jewish History and the Moving Traditions Jewish non-profit, traces the history of bat mitzvahs in the United States through the stories of 150 American women, depicted in images and oral histories  It has since visited eight other locales She is a member of the board of Moving Traditions 

Personal life
Balin married Michael Eric Gertzman, a Harvard law student, in August 1988  From 1992 to 1996 Gertzman served as Assistant United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York  He is currently a partner at Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison in New York City  They have three children 

Bibliography
Books
'To Tread on New Ground': Selected Hebrew Writings of Hava Shapiro  Wayne State University Press  2014  ISBN 978-0814338704  (co-edited with Wendy I  Zierler)
Sisterhood: A Centennial History of Women of Reform Judaism  Hebrew Union College Press  2013  ISBN 978-0878202546  (co-edited with Dana Herman and Jonathan D  Sarna)
To Reveal Our Hearts: Jewish Women Writers in Tsarist Russia  Hebrew Union College Press  2003  ISBN 978-0878204564 

Selected chapters
Balin, Carole B  (2012)  "Preface"   In Cosgrove, Elliot J ; Wolpe, David J  (eds )  Jewish Theology in Our Time: A New Generation Explores the Foundations and Future of Jewish Belief  Jewish Lights Publishing  ISBN 978-1580236300 
Balin, Carole B  (2011)  "Making Every Forkful Count: Reform Jews, Kashrut, and Mindful Eating, 1840–2010"   In Zamore, Mary L  (ed )  The Sacred Table: Creating a Jewish Food Ethic  CCAR Press  pp  50–59  ISBN 978-0881231861 
Balin, Carole B  (2008)  "Moving Through the Movements: American denominations and their Haggadot"   In Arnow, David (ed )  My People's Passover Haggadah: Traditional texts, modern commentaries  Vol  1  Jewish Lights Publishing  pp  79–84  ISBN 978-1580233545 
Balin, Carole B  (2008)  "'Good to the Last Drop': The proliferation of the Maxwell House Haggadah"   In Arnow, David (ed )  My People's Passover Haggadah: Traditional texts, modern commentaries  Vol  1  Jewish Lights Publishing  pp  85–90  ISBN 978-1580233545 

Selected articles
"Leaning In to the Presidency: Hillary, Sheryl and Me"  The Huffington Post  11 June 2014 
"The Uniongram and the Cookie"  Women of Reform Judaism  10 September 2013  Archived from the original on 1 May 2016  Retrieved 25 April 2016 
"Bat Mitzvah Comes of Age: 90 Years of Transforming Jewish Girls to Women"  The Huffington Post  12 March 2012 
Passage 10:
Arnold Richards
Arnold Richards (born August 1934) is a psychoanalyst and former editor of The American Psychoanalyst and Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association (JAPA)  Richards also is the Training and Supervising Analyst at the New York Psychoanalytic Institute  He is the founder and Editor-in-Chief of the International Psychoanalysis net magazine  Richards is a board member and former chair of YIVO 

Career
Richards became an editor for The American Psychoanalyst in 1989  He redesigned the format and content of the newsletter during his term as editor  From 1994 to 2003, Richards was an editor for the Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association (JAPA)  He is a faculty member of the American Institute of Psychoanalysis and the Metropolitan Institute of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy  Richards presented the 50th annual Leo Baeck Memorial lecture in 2006  In 2014, he participated in the Senior Sino-American Continual Training Project of Psychoanalysis 

Writing and research
He presented "A A  Brill: The Politics of Exclusion and the Politics of Pluralism" in November 1995  He presented "The Organizational Structure of the American Psychoanalytic Association: The Politics of Exclusion" at the 37th annual conference of the International Psychohistorical Association in June 2014 

Awards and recognition
Richards received the Mary S  Sigourney Award in 2000  He is a member of the American Psychoanalytic Association and received its Distinguished Contributor Award in 2004  In 2013, Richards received the Hans W  Loewald award 

Personal life
Richards' parents were Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe; his father was from Podolia and his mother was from Galicia  Richards grew up in Brooklyn, New York in a Yiddish and English speaking household Richards is married to Arlene Kramer Richards, a practicing psychoanalyst, and lives in an apartment in Manhattan and a condo in Palm Beach, Florida 

Bibliography
Psychoanalysis: The Science of Mental Conflict - Essays in Honor of Charles Brenner (1986) ISBN 9780881630541
Fantasy, Myth, and Reality: Essays in Honor of Jacob A  Arlow (1988) ISBN 9780823618873
The Spectrum of Psychoanalysis: Essays in Honor of Martin S  Bergmann (1994) ISBN 9780823645053
The Perverse Transference and Other Matters: Essays in Honor of R  Horacio Etchegoyen (1997) ISBN 9780765700711
Psychology of Women: Psychoanalytic Perspectives (2000) ISBN 9780823655885
The Jewish World of Sigmund Freud: Essays on Cultural Roots and the Problem of Religious Identity (2010) ISBN 9780786444243

Selected publications
2013 Letter to the Editor re Paper by James Anderson, Clio’s Psyche 19(4) 486-388  http://internationalpsychoanalysis net/2013/10/15/letter-to-the-editor-response-to-jim-anderson-by-arnold-richards/
2014 APM Paper in The Bulletin of the Association for Psychoanalytic Medicine   http://internationalpsychoanalysis net/2013/05/10/apm-paper-by-arnold-richards/
2013 Book Essay on The Second Century of Psychoanalysis: Evolving Perspectives on Therapeutic Action Arnold D  Richards Journal of the American Psychoanalytic  Association Volume 61(1): pp  157–165 
2013   Freud's Free Clinics: A Tale of Two Continents  The Psychoanalytic Review Vol  100, No  6, pp  819–838 
2014 A Dangerous Legacy: Judaism and the Psychoanalytic Movement by Hans Reijzer Reviewed Arnold D  Richards in (2014)  The Psychoanalytic Review Vol  101, No  6, pp  925–938 
2015 What is Jewish about Psychoanalysis? A review of Hans Reijzer’s A Dangerous Legacy: Judaism and the Psychoanalytic Movement  Clio’s Psyche  In Press
2014 Freud’s Jewish identity and Psychoanalysis as a Science  Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 62:987-1003 
2014) A Dangerous Legacy: Judaism and the Psychoanalytic Movement  By Hans Reijzer  London: Karnac Books, 2011, 236 pp  £9 99 (paperback)   Psychoanal  Rev , 101(6):931-938 
2015  Psychoanalysis in Crisis: The Danger of Ideology  Psychoanalytic Review 102(3):389-405 
2018  A Cultural Citizen of the World: Sigmund Freud's Knowledge and use of British and American Writings: By S  S  Prawer  Abingdon, UK / New York: Modern Humanities Research Association / Routledge, 2009  156 pp   Psychoanalytic Quarterly 87(2):383-387 
2018  Dreams and the Wish for Immortality  Canadian Journal Psychoanalysis 26(1):142-158 
2018  Some Thoughts on Self-Disclosure  Psychoanalytic Review 105(2):137-156 
2020 The Organizational Life of Psychoanalysis, by Kenneth Eisold  Routledge, New York, 2018, 262 pp   Psychodynamic Psychology, 48(2):201-211 
2020  The Organizational Structure of the American Psychoanalytic Association: The Politics of Exclusion  Psychoanalytic Review 107(3):211-227 
Context 2: Passage 1:
Encounter with Werther
Encounter with Werther (German: Begegnung mit Werther) is a 1949 West German historical drama film directed by Karl-Heinz Stroux and starring Horst Caspar, Heidemarie Hatheyer and Paul Klinger  It is based on the writing of the 1774 novel The Sorrows of Young Werther by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe  It was released to commemorate the writer's second hundredth birthday in August 1949 
It was shot at the Bavaria Studios in Munich and on location in Limburg, Wetzlar and Marburg an der Lahn 
The film's sets were designed by the art director Paul Markwitz 

Cast
Horst Caspar as Werther
Heidemarie Hatheyer as Lotte
Paul Klinger as Albert
Rudolf Reiff as Amtmann as Lotte's Father
Paul Dahlke as Napoleon
Walter Kottenkamp as Goethe
Fritz Odemar as Graf
Harald Mannl as Gesandter
Christiane Felsmann as Frl  von Bassenheim
Arthur Mentz as Bauernbursche
Friedrich Siemers as Schreiber Heinrich
Karl Lieffen as Bediensteter Bursche
Passage 2:
Piano Quartet No  3 (Brahms)
The Piano Quartet No  3 in C minor, Op  60, completed by Johannes Brahms in 1875, is scored for piano, violin, viola and cello  It is sometimes called the Werther Quartet after Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther  The premiere took place in Vienna on November 18th 1875 to an anxious public  Richard Wagner and his wife Cosima were in attendance 

Structure
The quartet is in four movements:

Analysis
First movement
The first movement is a sonata-form movement in C minor in triple meter  It begins with the piano playing bare octaves on C  The violin, viola, and violoncello then play the first theme, consisting of two sighing gestures of a descending minor second, followed by a descending theme  Some have speculated that the sighing motive is a musical utterance of the name "Clara", in reference to Clara Schumann, the composer, pianist, and lifelong friend and love interest of Brahms  More clear is Brahms's transposed version of Robert Schumann's "Clara theme", found in various pieces such as his Bunte Blätter, Op  99 (1841), on which both Clara and Brahms wrote sets of piano variations  The Clara theme (C–B–A–G♯–A, often transposed: here E♭–D–C–B–C) was first detected by Eric Sams in his essays and books on Schumann and Brahms  In his 1971 essay “Brahms and his Clara Themes”, Sams writes on the “Clara content” in op  60: “The first sentence of that autobiographical work is doubly expressive of Clara  Furthermore, there is direct evidence that this melodic form actually embodied her, for Brahms as for Schumann ”After the first statement of the theme, the piano plays octaves on B♭  The opening motives, again played by the strings, becomes more chromatic and unsettling, until finally coming to rest on the dominant of C, G major  The viola and violin play pizzicato octaves on E♮ before the strings cascade down the C harmonic minor scale that ushers in the first theme, stated forte  After a brief development of this theme, an ascending gesture based on sixteenth-notes alternating between the notes of a minor second serves as the transition to the second theme in the relative major of C minor, E♭ major  This second theme is an uplifting eight-measure theme stated initially in the piano alone  Brahms then uses the technique of theme and variations to construct four variations on this theme, each eight measures long  A short idea based on the opening theme closes the exposition, which is not repeated 
The development section begins by restating the theme from measures 32–35 in E♭ minor  This moves to B major for a new fortissimo idea (perhaps a variation) based on the same theme  The quartet's opening sighing motives become developed in an E minor passage that incorporates a triplet figure on the second beat of the measure, and eventually the previous B major idea is restated identically in G major  The second theme from the exposition is then treated in imitative (almost canonic) counterpoint in C minor  After the beginning of the third contrapuntal treatment of this theme, a dominant pedal is sustained in octaves on G  This resolves unexpectedly to an A♭ major chord that is quickly brought down to C minor by the opening sighing motive in the piano 
The sighing motive indicates the beginning of the recapitulation  Rather than affirming the tonic of C minor, however, Brahms takes the recapitulation in a different direction: the opening section again ends on a dominant pedal on G with the violin and viola playing pizzicato octaves on E♮, but the E♮ is used to turn the music to E minor  Chromatic descent is employed to bring the music to a half-cadence on D, leading to the second theme in G major  This is perhaps the only sonata form movement in the minor mode in which the recapitulation features the second subject in the key of the major dominant  The second theme is first stated by the viola, which is then followed by three new variations (the first being played by the violin, the second and third by the piano), and one of the same variations as the exposition  A fifth variation leads to a short digression in C major but becomes chromatic and ends with a development the first theme, coming to a cadence on C  This is followed by a brief coda that expands on the first motives heard in the piece  Nevertheless, the key of C minor is arguably not clearly established by the recapitulation (the key signature of C minor is present at the end of the movement for less than two complete pages)  The movement ends with a clear tonic–dominant–tonic perfect cadence, stated piano  The expansive and exploratory nature of the movement, along with the quiet closing dynamic, helps make the conventional final cadential progression appear mysterious 

Second movement
The second movement is a tempestuous scherzo (ternary form) in compound duple meter in C minor, the same key as the first movement  Donald Francis Tovey argues that Brahms puts the scherzo in the same key as the first movement because the first movement does not sufficiently stabilize its own tonic and requires the second movement to "[furnish] the tonal balance unprovided for by the end of the first movement " Although it is the shortest scherzo of Brahms's piano quartets, it is formally and tonally very complex 
The movement begins with an opening motif of a descending octave on G and a rising minor second to A♭ stated by the piano, followed by a falling diatonic line accompanied by the strings  The first theme, which clearly derives from the opening motif, is immediately by the solo piano played after this and Brahms uses the technique of developing variation to expand this theme  Most melodic ideas can be traced to the opening motif or the ascending minor second of the opening motif, which, notably, is the inversion of the descending sighs of the introduction of the first movement  This scherzo is very chromatic and unstable tonally, although it does actually move to a secondary phrase on the dominant and returns to the tonic with frequency  The scherzo ends with a pedal on the tonic C minor 
The middle section is not demarcated by the title of trio as are the middle sections of the scherzi from Brahms's previous two piano quartets  Moreover, this middle section serves more as a section of contrasting material than as a structural contrast—it maintains the same key signature, time signature, and tempo as the scherzo, is not musically marked off in any clear way, and even develops the same themes as the scherzo  One may argue whether it is in fact a trio at all, as nineteenth century composers knew it  Nonetheless, the middle section begins with a new theme, an ascending line in quarter notes in the strings, accompanied by a descending triplet figure played by the piano  This instrumentation is soon reversed and earlier themes from the scherzo become further developed  The transition back to the scherzo develops and rhythmically diminishes the opening motif of the scherzo and is the most chromatic, rhythmically complex, loud, and dramatic section of the movement  The scherzo is repeated almost entirely, however, the section immediately preceding the tonic pedal is omitted and replaced with a climactic dominant chord in a very high register in the strings, ending with a tierce de picardie on C major with three loud declamations of the tonic major chord 

Third movement
The Andante is in a modified ternary form: ABCA′ with a coda  This is the only movement of the quartet that is not in C minor, and it is in the key of E major, a remote key in the context of C minor  This can be explained by its origin as the slow movement to a piano quartet in C-sharp minor, which Brahms revised and published as Op  60 in C minor  The key of E major is easily explained in the tonal context of C♯ minor, but the key choice of this movement was not revised as was the first movement; it should also be noted that the slow movement to Brahms's Symphony No  1 in C minor is also in E major 
The Andante begins with a luscious melody played by the violoncello in its upper register (Theme A) with only the piano as accompaniment, clearly inspired by Schumann's Piano Quartet, where a similarly sumptuous melody opens the slow movement  The opening thematic material of this melody is a sequence of descending thirds, a gesture frequently used by Brahms (such as in his Op  119, No  1, and the opening to Symphony No  4, to name two examples)  The violin eventually joins in with a new melody over the cello  The viola enters later with a tutti descending stepwise idea  The A section, which is itself in a sort of AAB form, ends in the conventional dominant key of B major 
The B section (in ABAB form) begins with a syncopated ascending stepwise melodic line in the violin to be played molto dolce (Theme B)  The piano begins to gain prominence with a distorted version of the opening cello line, played symmetrically across the piano (Theme C)  Another theme developed in the B section is a falling line with dotted rhythms (Theme D) 
The third section begins in B major but is highly chromatic  The piano plays a version of Theme B in broken octaves under consistent eighth-notes played by the violin and viola  This figure ends with a version of Theme C in broken octaves in the piano  This alternates with the string section, which develops Theme C  The piano rejoins and develops Themes C and D with the strings in E minor, but soon the violin plays Theme D over the other strings  At this point, the strings alternate with the piano, which plays Theme D in an unstable harmonic palette in broken octaves, while the strings play a combination of Themes C and D  This passage of alternating instruments moves from E minor to C minor to G♯ minor back to E major in the reprise of the A section 
The only significant differences between the first and second A sections are that in the second, the piano moves in triplets, there is a full string texture almost entirely throughout (often using pizzicato), and the piano begins the theme (although it is soon replaced by the cello)  The coda is introduced by a new chord progression in the first tutti idea and by a solo cello line  Theme B is presented first by the viola and then by the violin, and the movement ends with the first measure of Theme A, stated first by the cello and then by the piano, concluding with a pianissimo affirmation of the tonic 

Fourth movement
The finale is a sonata-allegro in C minor in cut time with a secondary subject in E♭ major  The tempo is Allegro comodo and the exposition is repeated  The piano accompaniment for the first theme, stated immediately in measure 1, is derived from the opening piano line of Felix Mendelssohn's Piano Trio in C minor, Op  66, movement 1  Mendelssohn's Piano Trio also features a quotation of a chorale melody taken from the sixteenth-century Genevan psalter 'Vor deinen Thron tret ich hiermit' (“Before Your Throne I Now Appear”)  Vincent C  K  Cheung has also observed that the opening G–E♭ motion in the violin, coupled with the G–G–G–C in the piano greatly points toward the “Fate theme” in Beethoven's Fifth Symphony  Brahms's piece thus operates on multiple levels of reference (both literary and musical) and quotation 
The movement begins with the violin playing a theme above piano accompaniment  Both lines are separate themes that are developed individually throughout the movement, but they are similar in one major respect: both are constructed of three ascending notes preceded by a pickup, which go to a neighbor tone of the highest note and move back to that note  The essential notes of the violin theme are B–C–D–E♭–F–E♭, and the essential notes of the piano theme are: G–C–E♭–G–F♯–G (the rest of the piano theme is a descending sequence of ascending seconds: G–A♭–F–G–E♭–F–D–E♭)  Therefore, the violin line uses an upper neighbor tone while the piano line uses a lower neighbor tone  This is crucial for understanding Brahms's development of the thematic ideas of this movement 
The violin melody is halting and primarily diatonic, played over an energetic piano accompaniment  It moves from C minor to G minor, although it ends with a change of mode to G major  After this, the violin plays a descending stepwise melody, which under close inspection is revealed to be an inversion of its own original theme (from B–C–D–E♭–F–E♭ to G–F–E♭–D–C–B) in successive quarter notes  The viola and cello soon accompany this figure  This builds up until measure 39, where a thunderous theme erupts in all instruments  This moves quickly to an idea constructed in triplets  Tonally, this passage is in C minor, and the final progression ends with an alternation between B-diminished and A♭ major  The piano plays a broken A♭ major chord, followed by a broken A♭ minor chord that is used to make a transition to E♭ major 
The section in the relative major begins with a theme clearly composed from the theme of the piano's accompaniment, in this case stated by the violin and viola moving in unison over a piano accompaniment based on the previous broken chordal figure  This briefly exchanges with a cello countermelody  When the violin and viola soar to an unexpectedly high register, the piano interrupts by playing an explosive broken dominant seventh chord  The strings respond by a piano, homophonic, homorythmic theme to be played mezza voce (medium voice)  This idea is taken directly from the opening string theme of the first movement  Rather than accompanying this theme, the piano plays a descending broken chord after each utterance  The exposition ends in E-flat major, and Brahms indicates that it should be repeated 
The development begins with an exploration of the descending third that begins the violin's opening theme; when sequenced, this produces a series of descending thirds that recalls the opening theme of the third movement (G♯–E–C–A)  The piano accompanies this with its initial theme  Brahms quickly eliminates accidentals from the key signature as the piece progresses to D major and A minor  Interspersed are descending chromatic phrases played by the piano  In measures 117–118, the cello introduces a new four-note idea (E–F–D–E) played pizzicato underneath the piano  This idea is taken from the second half of the first piano theme (G–A♭–F–G)  The viola plays the opening of the piano's first theme, which resembles an inversion of the sequenced thirds developed moments earlier  Brahms repeats this pattern almost exactly, moving from A minor to E minor to B minor  In B minor, the piano develops its initial theme to a greater extent  This part of the development section is concluded by syncopated phrases by the viola and piano, which echo the second half of the piano's first theme in B minor 
Austrian musicologist and educator Karl Geiringer has shown that the next section (measures 155–188) is an insertion "in order to mitigate the excessive conciseness of this movement " Later insertions were atypical of Brahms because of his "striving after compression," and it seems that he "for once overshot the mark " The later addition explains the motion away from B minor, only to return to the key some thirty measures later  This section continues with the homorhythmic theme in G major, then in E♭ major  What follows is a quick (Tempo I) development of the initial piano theme in C minor, with all strings playing the opening four notes (moving in the often used progression i – I – iv)  This exact sequence is used again in the coda to turn the movement from the minor mode to major  A dominant seventh chord in C minor is used as a pivot chord to return to B minor (a similar progression is used in Brahms's Ballade, Op  118, No  3, in which a dominant seventh chord built on G moves abruptly to B major)  The violin develops its initial theme in B minor and then D minor with all three string instruments  The final notes of the theme (F–E♭) are sequenced and inverted repeatedly, recalling the significance of descending seconds in the first movement of this quartet  This moves from D minor to G minor to C minor  The end of the development section sees a very high and prolonged A♭, which parallels the end of the development section of the first movement 
The recapitulation, which reinstates the key signature of C minor, begins with the initial violin theme stated forte by all strings, accompanied by the piano playing broken octaves in triplets, outlining the main notes of its theme  After the first statement, the piano resumes its original accompaniment and the strings are reduced to a piano dynamic  This proceeds similarly to the exposition, albeit with the themes developed more extensively  Notably, the music turns toward G minor more strongly and the key signature changes to C major, as the relative major section from the exposition is in the tonic major in the recapitulation  The rest of the recapitulation is nearly identical to the exposition, ending in C major 
The coda begins at measure 311, with the piano loudly declaring the homorhythmic theme, alternating with the strings  The violin theme is then played by the strings in C major, but it soon shifts back to C minor (the key signature too returns)  The four-note idea from the development section comes back, this time with its first note removed  The chromatic descending scale in the piano, an abbreviation of the violin theme in the viola, the four-note theme, and the chord progression (i – I – iv) indicate that the coda draws more from the development section than from the exposition or recapitulation  The music quietly subsides into a tranquillo section in which the inversion of the violin theme (first stated in measures 21–22 from the exposition) is sequenced across the strings while the piano continues to develop its initial theme  The violin and cello eventually sustain the tonic C for a great amount of time while the piano and viola begin to lean toward the tonic major in a continuing I – iv progression  All instruments continue to die down as the piano plays one last descending chromatic scale, the violin and viola combine the piano's initial theme with the quarter note rhythm of the violin theme, and the cello sustains a low C  As the piano and strings reach their final notes, a C major chord stated pianissimo is held briefly, shining out of the mist  Two sudden forte C major chords complete this quartet 
Passage 3:
William Render
William Render (fl  1800), grammarian and translator, was a native of Germany  He was a fellow student at Giessen University with a brother of Charlotte (Werther's inamorata), and was well acquainted with Werther himself  In an appendix to his English version of Goethe's romance, Render relates a conversation he had with Werther at Frankfort-on-the-Main a few days before the latter's suicide Render was ordained to the Lutheran ministry  Subsequently he acted as 'traveling guardian to the son of a distinguished personage'  He then traveled in western Germany with 'several English gentlemen', one of whom may have been Francis, afterwards the Marquis Hastings, to whom, as Earl of Moira, he dedicated his Tour through Germany  Render came to England about 1790, and settled in London  He taught German and other languages 'in several families of distinction ' Towards the end of the century he also became 'teacher of German' at Cambridge, Oxford, and Edinburgh  In 1798 he published an English version of Kotzebue's play Count Benyowsky, which reached a second edition within the year  
In 1800, Render further translated The Robbers, Don Carlos, Maria Stuart, and The Armenian of Schiller  In the following year appeared his version of The Sorrows of Werther, the first translation into English made direct from the original German  In the preface he speaks of 'his friend the baron Goethe', whom he may have met at Frankfurt  Render's Tour through Germany, particularly along the Banks of the Rhine, Mayne, also appeared in 1801  A vocabulary of familiar phrases in German and English is annexed for the benefit of travelers  The remainder of Render's publications were educational manuals  The chief of these, A concise Practical Grammar of the German Tongue (1799), was very successful  
A fifth edition, corrected and augmented with improvements made by the Berlin Academy, was issued in 1817  As a token of his appreciation of the work, Alexander I of Russia ordered Woronzow, his ambassador in England, to present Render with a ring and an autograph letter  Render also published German Exercises, a Pocket Dictionary in English and German, and other manuals of instruction in German 
Passage 4:
Werther, North Rhine-Westphalia
Werther is a town in the district of Gütersloh in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany  It is located near the Teutoburg Forest, approximately 10 km (6 miles) north-west of Bielefeld  It is best known for the Werther's Original caramel sweets, which are nowadays produced in the nearby city of Halle  Werther has one Gesamtschule and one Gymnasium, which has an exchange partnership with a Yarm School, an independent school in Yarm, England 

People
August Oberwelland, entrepreneur, August Storck company founder
Passage 5:
Odyssey
The Odyssey (; Ancient Greek: Ὀδύσσεια, romanized: Odýsseia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer  It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences  As with the Iliad, the poem is divided into 24 books  It follows the Greek hero Odysseus, king of Ithaca, and his journey home after the Trojan War  After the war, which lasted ten years, his journey lasted for ten additional years, during which time he encountered many perils and all of his crewmates were killed  In his absence, Odysseus was assumed dead, and his wife Penelope and son Telemachus had to contend with a group of unruly suitors who were competing for Penelope's hand in marriage 
The Odyssey was originally composed in Homeric Greek in around the 8th or 7th century BC and, by the mid-6th century BC, had become part of the Greek literary canon  In antiquity, Homer's authorship of the poem was not questioned, but contemporary scholarship predominantly assumes that the Iliad and the Odyssey were composed independently and that the stories formed as part of a long oral tradition  Given widespread illiteracy, the poem was performed by an aoidos or rhapsode and was more likely to be heard than read 
Crucial themes in the poem include the ideas of nostos (νόστος; "return"), wandering, xenia (ξενία; "guest-friendship"), testing, and omens  Scholars still reflect on the narrative significance of certain groups in the poem, such as women and slaves, who have a more prominent role in the epic than in many other works of ancient literature  This focus is especially remarkable when contrasted with the Iliad, which centres the exploits of soldiers and kings during the Trojan War 
The Odyssey is regarded as one of the most significant works of the Western canon  The first English translation of the Odyssey was in the 16th century  Adaptations and re-imaginings continue to be produced across a wide variety of media  In 2018, when BBC Culture polled experts around the world to find literature's most enduring narrative, the Odyssey topped the list 

Synopsis
Exposition (books 1–4)
The Odyssey begins after the end of the ten-year Trojan War (the subject of the Iliad), from which Odysseus (also known by the Latin variant Ulysses), king of Ithaca, has still not returned because he angered Poseidon, the god of the sea  Odysseus' son, Telemachus, is about 20 years old and is sharing his absent father's house on the island of Ithaca with his mother Penelope and the suitors of Penelope, a crowd of 108 boisterous young men who each aim to persuade Penelope for her hand in marriage, all the while reveling in the king's palace and eating up his wealth 
Odysseus' protectress, the goddess Athena, asks Zeus, king of the gods, to finally allow Odysseus to return home when Poseidon is absent from Mount Olympus  Disguised as a chieftain named Mentes, Athena visits Telemachus to urge him to search for news of his father  He offers her hospitality, and they observe the suitors dining rowdily while Phemius, the bard, performs a narrative poem for them 
That night, Athena, disguised as Telemachus, finds a ship and crew for the true prince  The next morning, Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens of Ithaca to discuss what should be done with the insolent suitors, who then scoff at Telemachus  Accompanied by Athena (now disguised as Mentor), the son of Odysseus departs for the Greek mainland to the household of Nestor, most venerable of the Greek warriors at Troy, who resided in Pylos after the war 
From there, Telemachus rides to Sparta, accompanied by Nestor's son  There he finds Menelaus and Helen, who are now reconciled  Both Helen and Menelaus also say that they returned to Sparta after a long voyage by way of Egypt  There, on the island of Pharos, Menelaus encounters the old sea-god Proteus, who tells him that Odysseus was a captive of the nymph Calypso  Telemachus learns the fate of Menelaus' brother, Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and leader of the Greeks at Troy: he was murdered on his return home by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus  The story briefly shifts to the suitors, who have only just realized that Telemachus is gone  Angry, they formulate a plan to ambush his ship and kill him as he sails back home  Penelope overhears their plot and worries for her son's safety 

Escape to the Phaeacians (books 5–8)
In the course of Odysseus' seven years as a captive of Calypso on the island Ogygia, she has fallen deeply in love with him, even though he spurns her offers of immortality as her husband and still mourns for home  She is ordered to release him by the messenger god Hermes, who has been sent by Zeus in response to Athena's plea  Odysseus builds a raft and is given clothing, food, and drink by Calypso  When Poseidon learns that Odysseus has escaped, he wrecks the raft, but helped by a veil given by the sea nymph Ino, Odysseus swims ashore on Scherie, the island of the Phaeacians  Naked and exhausted, he hides in a pile of leaves and falls asleep 
The next morning, awakened by girls' laughter, he sees the young Nausicaä, who has gone to the seashore with her maids after Athena told her in a dream to do so  He appeals for help  She encourages him to seek the hospitality of her parents, Arete and Alcinous  Alcinous promises to provide him a ship to return him home without knowing the identity of Odysseus  He remains for several days  Odysseus asks the blind singer Demodocus to tell the story of the Trojan Horse, a stratagem in which Odysseus had played a leading role  Unable to hide his emotion as he relives this episode, Odysseus at last reveals his identity  He then tells the story of his return from Troy 

Odysseus' account of his adventures (books 9–12)
Odysseus recounts his story to the Phaeacians  After a failed raid against the Cicones, Odysseus and his twelve ships were driven off course by storms  Odysseus visited the lotus-eaters who gave his men their fruit which caused them to forget their homecoming  Odysseus had to drag them back to the ship by force 
Afterward, Odysseus and his men landed on a lush, uninhabited island near the land of the Cyclopes  The men entered the cave of Polyphemus, where they found all the cheeses and meat they desired  Upon returning to his cave, Polyphemus sealed the entrance with a massive boulder and proceeded to eat Odysseus' men  Odysseus devised an escape plan in which he, identifying himself as "Nobody," plied Polyphemus with wine and blinded him with a wooden stake  When Polyphemus cried out, his neighbors left after Polyphemus claimed that "Nobody" had attacked him  Odysseus and his men finally escaped the cave by hiding on the underbellies of the sheep as they were let out of the cave 
As they escaped, however, Odysseus taunted Polyphemus and revealed himself  The Cyclops prayed to his father Poseidon, asking him to curse Odysseus to wander for ten years  After the escape, Aeolus gave Odysseus a leather bag containing all the winds except the west wind, a gift that should have ensured a safe return home  Just as Ithaca came into sight, the sailors opened the bag while Odysseus slept, thinking it contained gold  The winds flew out, and the storm drove the ships back the way they had come  Aeolus, recognizing that Odysseus had drawn the ire of the gods, refused to further assist him 

After the cannibalistic Laestrygonians destroyed all of his ships except his own, Odysseus sailed on and reached the island of Aeaea, home of witch-goddess Circe  She turned half of his men into swine with drugged cheese and wine  Hermes warned Odysseus about Circe and gave Odysseus an herb called moly, making him resistant to Circe's magic  Odysseus forced Circe to change his men back to their human forms and was seduced by her  They remained with her for one year  Finally, guided by Circe's instructions, Odysseus and his crew crossed the ocean and reached a harbor at the western edge of the world, where Odysseus sacrificed to the dead  Odysseus summoned the spirit of the prophet Tiresias and was told that he may return home if he is able to stay himself and his crew from eating the sacred livestock of Helios on the island of Thrinacia and that failure to do so would result in the loss of his ship and his entire crew  He then meets his dead mother Anticleia and first learns of the suitors and what happened in Ithaca in his absence  Odysseus also converses with his dead comrades from Troy 
Returning to Aeaea, they buried Elpenor and were advised by Circe on the remaining stages of the journey  They skirted the land of the Sirens  All of the sailors had their ears plugged up with beeswax, except for Odysseus, who was tied to the mast as he wanted to hear the song  He told his sailors not to untie him as it would only make him drown himself  They then passed between the six-headed monster Scylla and the whirlpool Charybdis  Scylla claimed six of his men 
Next, they landed on the island of Thrinacia, with the crew overriding Odysseus's wishes to remain away from the island  Zeus caused a storm that prevented them from leaving, causing them to deplete the food given to them by Circe  While Odysseus was away praying, his men ignored the warnings of Tiresias and Circe and hunted the sacred cattle  Helios insisted that Zeus punish the men for this sacrilege  They suffered a shipwreck, and all but Odysseus drowned as he clung to a fig tree  Washed ashore on Ogygia, he remained there as Calypso's lover 

Return to Ithaca (books 13–20)
Having listened to his story, the Phaeacians agree to provide Odysseus with more treasure than he would have received from the spoils of Troy  They deliver him at night, while he is fast asleep, to a hidden harbour on Ithaca  Odysseus awakens and believes that he has been dropped on a distant land before Athena appears to him and reveals that he is indeed on Ithaca  She hides his treasure in a nearby cave and disguises him as an elderly beggar so he can see how things stand in his household  He finds his way to the hut of one of his own slaves, swineherd Eumaeus, who treats him hospitably and speaks favorably of Odysseus  After dinner, the disguised Odysseus tells the farm laborers a fictitious tale of himself 
Telemachus sails home from Sparta, evading an ambush set by the suitors  He disembarks on the coast of Ithaca and meets Odysseus  Odysseus identifies himself to Telemachus (but not to Eumaeus), and they decide that the suitors must be killed  Telemachus goes home first  Accompanied by Eumaeus, Odysseus returns to his own house, still pretending to be a beggar  He is ridiculed by the suitors in his own home, especially Antinous  Odysseus meets Penelope and tests her intentions by saying he once met Odysseus in Crete  Closely questioned, he adds that he had recently been in Thesprotia and had learned something there of Odysseus's recent wanderings 
Odysseus's identity is discovered by the housekeeper Eurycleia when she recognizes an old scar as she is washing his feet  Eurycleia tries to tell Penelope about the beggar's true identity, but Athena makes sure that Penelope cannot hear her  Odysseus swears Eurycleia to secrecy 

Slaying of the Suitors (books 21–24)
The next day, at Athena's prompting, Penelope maneuvers the suitors into competing for her hand with an archery competition using Odysseus' bow  The man who can string the bow and shoot an arrow through a dozen axe heads would win  Odysseus takes part in the competition, and he alone is strong enough to string the bow and shoot the arrow through the dozen axe heads, making him the winner  He then throws off his rags and kills Antinous with his next arrow  Odysseus kills the other suitors, first using the rest of the arrows and then by swords and spears  Once the battle is won, Telemachus also hangs twelve of their household maids whom Eurycleia identifies as guilty of betraying Penelope or having sex with the suitors  Odysseus identifies himself to Penelope  She is hesitant but recognizes him when he mentions that he made their bed from an olive tree still rooted to the ground
Context 3: Passage 1:
Middletown, Kentucky
Middletown is an independent, home rule-class city in Jefferson County, Kentucky, United States, and a former neighborhood of Louisville  The population was 7,218 at the 2010 census 
The city is also home to the main campus of the largest church in the state (and one of the country's largest Protestant churches), the Southeast Christian Church 

History
The City of Middletown was originally incorporated in 1797 by the Jefferson County Court on 500 acres of land lying on a branch of the forks of Beargrass Creek that originally belonged to Jacob Meyers and Culberth Harrison  Though there is no recorded explanation why the city was named Middletown, it is commonly believed that that name was chosen because the town was in the "middle" of the two older cities of Louisville which was founded June 24, 1778, and Shelbyville, which was founded December 20, 1792  In 1871 the Kentucky General Assembly amended the original charter to increase Middletown's boundaries 
After failing to hold elections and collect taxes after 1919, Circuit Judge McCauley Smith dissolved the city's charter on July 26, 1960, and Middletown lost its 163-year-old city status  The city's charter was restored as a sixth-class city on August 7, 1976 with a commission form of government  On July 15, 1982, this was upgraded to the status of a fourth-class city 

Geography
Middletown is located at 38°14′36″N 85°31′51″W (38 243342, -85 530842)  in northeast Jefferson County, Kentucky near Louisville, Kentucky 
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 5 10 square miles (13 2 km2), of which 5 04 square miles (13 1 km2) is land and 0 061 square miles (0 16 km2) (1 20%) is water 

Demographics
2010
As of the census of 2010, there were 7,218 people, 3,292 households, and 1,966 families living in the city  The population density was 1,414 9 inhabitants per square mile (546 3/km2)  There were 3,547 housing units at an average density of 695 3 per square mile (268 5/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 87 1% White (85 1% non-Hispanic), 7 1% African American, 0 11% Native American or Alaska Native, 2 8% Asian, 0 07% Pacific Islander, 0 87% from other races, and 1 9% from two or more races  Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 3 2% of the population 
There were 3,292 households, out of which 26 7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45 4% were married couples living together, 11 5% had a female householder with no husband present, 2 9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40 3% were non-families  35 4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 19 and the average family size was 2 86 

The age distribution was 21 4% under 18, 5 7% from 18 to 24, 24 3% from 25 to 44, 30 2% from 45 to 64, and 18 4% who were 65 or older  The median age was 43 8 years  For every 100 females, there were 85 6 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80 0 males 

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 5,744 people, 2,391 households, and 1,654 families living in the city  The population density was 1,181 4 inhabitants per square mile (456 1/km2)  There were 2,543 housing units at an average density of 523 0 per square mile (201 9/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 90 39% White, 5 54% African American, 0 30% Native American or Alaska Native, 1 44% Asian, 0 09% Pacific Islander, 0 66% from other races, and 1 58% from two or more races  Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 1 50% of the population 
There were 2,391 households, out of which 33 0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55 7% were married couples living together, 11 2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30 8% were non-families  26 9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 40 and the average family size was 2 92 
The age distribution was 24 8% under the age of 18, 6 4% from 18 to 24, 31 1% from 25 to 44, 25 6% from 45 to 64, and 12 1% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 38 years  For every 100 females, there were 90 1 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84 5 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $53,608, and the median income for a family was $61,667  Males had a median income of $45,417 versus $33,135 for females  The per capita income for the city was $26,660  About 2 3% of families and 4 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3 6% of those under age 18 and 8 0% of those age 65 or over 

Education
Public education in Middletown is administered by Jefferson County Public Schools, which operates Eastern High School, Hite Elementary, Middletown Elementary, and Crosby Middle School in the Middletown area  Middletown also has multiple privately funded schools  There is also a branch of the Louisville Free Public Library 

Government Services
Anchorage-Middletown-Eastwood-Worthington fire and EMS operates out of 11 stations to provide fire protection to 90 square miles of the eastern Louisville Metro area  Middletown is also home to a small 24 hour paid police department based out of city hall  Middletown is also home to LMPD’s 8th division  EMS is serviced by the fire department and Louisville 
metro EMS 
Passage 2:
Grayson, Kentucky
Grayson is a home rule-class city in and the county seat of Carter County, Kentucky, United States, on US Route 60 and Interstate 64 in the state's northeastern region   It is approximately 21 miles west of Ashland   Within the city limits, the population was 4,217 at the 2010 census  Along with Carter County, the city is closely associated with the nearby Huntington-Ashland, WV-KY-OH Metropolitan Statistical Area and is often erroneously included  in the MSA being just 9 miles west of the M S A's western boundary 
The city has grown in size substantially since the opening of Interstate 64 in 1975 through Carter County  Immediately afterwards, Grayson experienced several years of commercial sector growth, mainly to serve the Interstate 64 traffic  Since 1990, the city has also seen significant growth in the residential sector with the Interstate making for a faster trip to and from Ashland  Beginning in 1995, AA Highway terminates in Grayson making the city a gateway to the Huntington-Ashland urban area 

History
After the Revolutionary War, George Washington's aide-de-camp Col  William Grayson received a 70,000-acre (280 km2) tract of land for his service during the war from the state of Virginia  By 1838, a small portion of this tract was set aside for the development of a town named for him  Although Grayson had only five streets and eighty lots, it was established by the General Assembly on February 6, 1844, and it was incorporated on February 22, 1860 
Grayson, Kentucky was a stop on the Eastern Kentucky Railway 

Geography
Grayson is located in east-central Carter County at 38°20′5″N 82°56′33″W (38 334738, -82 942368), along the Little Sandy River, a tributary of the Ohio River 
Route 60 passes through the city as Main Street and is intersected in downtown by Kentucky Routes 1 and 7 (Carol Malone Boulevard)  Interstate 64 runs through the northern end of the city, with access to KY 7 at Exit 172  Kentucky Route 9, the AA Highway, begins from KY 1-and-7 just north of the city limits and runs 111 miles (179 km) to the Cincinnati area  Huntington, West Virginia, is 29 miles (47 km) east of Grayson via I-64, and Lexington is 96 miles (154 km) to the west 
According to the United States Census Bureau, Grayson has a total area of 2 9 square miles (7 5 km2), of which 2 8 square miles (7 3 km2) is land and 0 039 square miles (0 1 km2), or 1 95%, is water 

Climate
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters   According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Grayson has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps  Since 2002, nine different severe storms have struck Grayson, with each storm causing enough damage to warrant federal assistance for disaster recovery 

Education
Grayson is served by the Carter County School District  Schools located within the city includes:

Heritage Elementary School
Prichard Elementary School
East Carter Middle School
East Carter High SchoolThe campus of Kentucky Christian University (formerly Kentucky Christian College) is located in Grayson 
Grayson has a lending library, a branch of the Carter County Public Library 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 3,877 people, 1,415 households, and 938 families residing in the city  The population density was 1,549 1 inhabitants per square mile (598 1/km2)  There were 1,538 housing units at an average density of 614 5 per square mile (237 3/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 98 32% White, 0 52% African American, 0 39% Native American, 0 28% Asian, 0 03% Pacific Islander, 0 18% from other races, and 0 28% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 77% of the population 
There were 1,415 households, out of which 31 0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46 9% were married couples living together, 16 0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33 7% were non-families  31 0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 31 and the average family size was 2 86 
In the city the population was spread out, with 21 9% under the age of 18, 19 0% from 18 to 24, 24 3% from 25 to 44, 18 5% from 45 to 64, and 16 3% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 32 years  For every 100 females, there were 83 0 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78 0 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $19,683, and the median income for a family was $26,280  Males had a median income of $32,022 versus $18,875 for females  The per capita income for the city was $11,879  About 27 7% of families and 31 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 44 8% of those under age 18 and 22 3% of those age 65 or over 

Notable residents
Charlie Borders, former Kentucky State Senator
Jason Smith, chef, TV personality
Robin L  Webb, Kentucky State Senator and former Kentucky State Representative
Carol Malone Operatic soprano at the Deutsche Oper Berlin, San Francisco and Metropolitan Operas 
Jill York, former member of the Kentucky House of Representatives
Montana Fouts, All American softball pitcher for University of Alabama

See also
East Carter High School shooting, a school shooting that occurred in Grayson in 1993
Passage 3:
Poplar Hills, Kentucky
Poplar Hills is a home rule-class city in Jefferson County, Kentucky, United States  It is a part of the Louisville Metro government, but operates as a city under the Mayor to Commissioner form of government  Per the 2020 census, the population was 380, but the city administration has made several annexation ordinances that have passed and awaits updated information  The current city population is estimated to be 2380  It currently has the highest population density for any city in Kentucky 

Geography
Poplar Hills is located in central Jefferson County at 38°10′35″N 85°41′37″W (38 176490, -85 693492)  It is bordered to the northeast by Watterson Park and on all other sides by consolidated Louisville/Jefferson County  Kentucky Route 864 (Poplar Level Road) runs along the northeast border of the community  Downtown Louisville is 7 miles (11 km) to the northwest 
According to the United States Census Bureau, Poplar Hills has a total area of 0 03 square miles (0 07 km2), all land 

Demographics
2020 census
2000 Census
As of the census of 2000, there were 396 people, 234 households, and 77 families residing in the city  The population density was 17,036 0 inhabitants per square mile (6,577 6/km2)  There were 240 housing units at an average density of 10,324 8 per square mile (3,986 4/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 40 15% White, 55 30% African American, 0 76% Asian, 1 52% from other races, and 2 27% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2 27% of the population 
There were 234 households, out of which 15 0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 15 4% were married couples living together, 12 8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 66 7% were non-families  50 9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 1 69 and the average family size was 2 36 
In the city, the population was spread out, with 14 4% under the age of 18, 20 7% from 18 to 24, 44 7% from 25 to 44, 17 4% from 45 to 64, and 2 8% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 28 years  For every 100 females, there were 85 9 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85 2 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $26,964, and the median income for a family was $22,000  Males had a median income of $31,000 versus $22,083 for females  The per capita income for the city was $19,879  About 19 1% of families and 19 7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 31 9% of those under age 18 and 46 2% of those age 65 or over 
Passage 4:
Jeffersontown, Kentucky
Jeffersontown is a home rule-class city in Jefferson County, Kentucky, United States  The population was 26,595 at the 2010 U S  census 
It is a major suburb of Louisville  When the Louisville Metro government was established in 2003, Jeffersontown chose to retain its status as an independent city  It is the metro area's largest municipality outside Louisville   Locally, the city is often referred to by the abbreviated name J-town 

History
Before European exploration, this was occupied by succeeding cultures of Native Americans  They hunted the area for its rich game, including bison herds  The bison created paths through the forests and meadows for their seasonal migrations that were later used by Native Americans and, in turn, by Europeans and Americans alike 
Located in southeastern Jefferson County, along the north central border of Kentucky, Jeffersontown was initially developed in the late 1700s as a stopover and trading station for early European-American pioneers on their way to the Falls of the Ohio at Louisville  Farmers began to cultivate the rich land, which was surveyed by Thomas Bullitt in 1773 and John Floyd the next year  The Hites, Tylers, and Oldhams all settled the area under land grants given to veterans for military service following the American Revolutionary War, as the new government was cash poor In 1794, Abraham Bruner purchased 122 acres (49 ha) of land  In May 1797, he successfully petitioned the Jefferson County Fiscal Court to incorporate a 40-acre (16 ha) section of his land as the city of Jefferson – named either after the county or after Thomas Jefferson, then the vice president of the United States  The city was long known as Bruner's Town or Brunerstown by its inhabitants, but the usage Jefferson Town eventually became adopted as its present name A large, 600-acre area from the pioneer days has been preserved since the late 20th century and recognized as the Tyler Settlement Rural Historic District  It is used largely for agricultural purposes  This district is east of Jeffersontown; it contains several of the Tylers' original log cabins and barns  A large portion of the Tyler settlement is known as the Blackacre Nature Preserve  This 170-acre tract is used by Jefferson County public schools as part of their environmental education 

Geography
Jeffersontown is located at 38°12′22″N 85°34′25″W (38 206102, -85 573619)  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 10 0 square miles (26 km2), of which 9 9 square miles (26 km2) is land and 0 10% is water 

Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 26,595 people, 10,653 households, and 7,275 families residing in the city  The population density was 2,675 9 inhabitants per square mile (1,033 2/km2)  There were 11,220 housing units at an average density of 1,127 3 per square mile (435 3/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 82 2% White, 11 1% African American, 0 2% Native American, 1 8% Asian, 0 1% Pacific Islander, 2 1% from other races, and 2 5% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5 04% of the population 

There were 10,653 households, out of which 32 9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54 3% were married couples living together, 10 7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31 7% were non-families  26 4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 46 and the average family size was 2 99 

In the city, the population was spread out, with 24 8% under the age of 18, 7 7% from 18 to 24, 33 4% from 25 to 44, 23 3% from 45 to 64, and 10 8% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 36 years  For every 100 females, there were 92 8 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89 1 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $51,999, and the median income for a family was $60,951  Males had a median income of $41,345 versus $29,537 for females  The per capita income for the city was $23,977  About 3 7% of families and 4 3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5 4% of those under age 18 and 5 4% of those age 65 or over 

Economy
The Bluegrass Commerce Park (formerly known as The Bluegrass Research & Industrial Park) opened in 1966 and encompasses 600 acres (2 4 km2)  It was the first such development in the United States  Today, Bluegrass Commerce Park has expanded to more than 1,800 acres (7 3 km2) and is home to approximately 850 businesses  The park is the largest in the state of Kentucky  The 38,000 employees who work there make the park and Jeffersontown the third-largest city of employment in the state 
The park's seven units include:

Bluegrass Commerce Park
Commonwealth Park
Watterson Trail Industrial Park
Plainview Office Park
Jeffersontown Industrial Park
Holloway Industrial Park
Blankenbaker CrossingsPapa John's Pizza has its headquarters in Jeffersontown 
In November 2020, the company announced its new global headquarters would be moved to the Three Ballpark Center at The Battery Atlanta 

Government
The city of Jeffersontown is governed by a mayor and eight city council members  The mayor serves a four-year term of office while the council members serve two-year terms  The city council members are elected at-large, made up of the top eight candidates receiving the most votes in the general election 

Education
Jeffersontown has a lending library, a branch of the Louisville Free Public Library 

Notable people
Jon Ackerson, politician who served in both houses of the Kentucky State Legislature; former Jeffersontown city council member

See also
2018 Jeffersontown shooting
Beechland (Jeffersontown, Kentucky)
Confederate Martyrs Monument in Jeffersontown
Passage 5:
Central City, Kentucky
Central City is a home rule-class city in Muhlenberg County, Kentucky, in the United States  The population was 5,819 at the 2020 census  It is the largest city in the county and the principal community in the Central City Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Muhlenberg County 

History
The site of present-day Central City was originally known as "Morehead's Horse Mill" after local resident Charles S  Morehead's steam-powered gristmill  A larger community began to develop after the 1870 advent of the Elizabethtown and Paducah Railroad  A post office was constructed the next year in 1871 and called "Owensboro Junction" after the projected 1872 completion of the Owensboro and Russellville Railroad  By 1873, the settlement was large enough to be incorporated by the state legislature as "Stroud City", after local landowner John Stroud The same year, however, the du Ponts' Central Coal and Iron Company began operation in the area and became so vital to the local economy that the city was reïncorporated in 1882 as "Central City"  Recessions replaced the E&P and the O&R with a procession of different companies, including the Owensboro and Nashville Railway, but the two rights of way always remained in separate hands, keeping Central City an important regional hub for the Illinois Central and the L&N, with train yards, roundhouses, and even an elevated rail station  Coal was mined from nearby fields, prompting explosions such as one in 1912 that killed five workers The expansion of automotive traffic in the early 20th century reduced some of Central City's importance, but it continues to service mainline freight traffic on the Paducah and Louisville Railway and trunk-line service for CSX from Madisonville to the Paradise Combined Cycle Plant, minutes south of the city 
Central City is the only city in Muhlenberg County that allows liquor to be sold by package stores and by the drink in restaurants seating at least 100 persons  Muhlenberg County is dry 

Geography
Central City is located in northeastern Muhlenberg County at 37°17′42″N 87°07′43″W (37 294989, -87 128622)  The Western Kentucky Parkway runs along the southern edge of the city, with access from Exit 58 (U S  Route 431)  The parkway leads northeast 80 miles (130 km) to Elizabethtown and west 57 miles (92 km) to Eddyville  U S  Route 62 passes through Central City south of the city center; it leads northeast 17 miles (27 km) to Beaver Dam and southwest 7 miles (11 km) to Greenville, the Muhlenberg county seat  US 431 passes through Central City's downtown, leading north 35 miles (56 km) to Owensboro and south 36 miles (58 km) to Russellville 
According to the United States Census Bureau, the Central City has a total area of 5 25 square miles (13 6 km2), of which 0 01 square miles (0 03 km2), or 0 21%, are water  Terrain in Central City is rolling hills to steep bluffs along the northern boundaries of the city along the Green River  The city, along its northwestern border, is known for its swamps and lowland area that remain at or near the water table year-round 
Most of Central City has a sandstone bedrock with #9 bituminous coal underlying the bedrock  Central City has a number of old underground coal mine shafts that still crisscross the city   Most of these old shafts date back to the early 1900s  The majority of terrain around the city limits is reclaimed land where surface mining has taken place 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 5,893 people, 2,065 households, and 1,410 families residing in the city  The population density was 1,126 2 inhabitants per square mile (434 8/km2)  There were 2,313 housing units at an average density of 442 0 per square mile (170 7/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 88 07% White, 10 67% African American, 0 05% Native American, 0 24% Asian, 0 02% Pacific Islander, 0 41% from other races, and 0 54% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 80% of the population 
There were 2,065 households, out of which 28 7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51 5% were married couples living together, 13 4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31 7% were non-families  29 5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 39 and the average family size was 2 95 
In the city, the population was spread out, with 20 1% under the age of 18, 10



ground_truth: YIVO

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Are Werther and The Odyssey both operas?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  She embraces him and they sleep 
The next day, Odysseus goes to his father Laertes's farm and reveals himself  Following them to the farm is a group of Ithacans, led by Eupeithes, father of Antinous, who are out for revenge for the murder of the suitors  A battle breaks out, but it is stopped by Athena and Zeus 

Structure
The Odyssey is 12,109 lines composed in dactylic hexameter, also called Homeric hexameter  It opens in medias res, in the middle of the overall story, with prior events described through flashbacks and storytelling  The 24 books correspond to the letters of the Greek alphabet; the division was likely made after the poem's composition, by someone other than Homer, but is generally accepted In the Classical period, some of the books (individually and in groups) were commonly given their own titles:

Book 1–4: Telemachy—the story focuses on the perspective of Telemachus 
Books 9–12: Apologoi—Odysseus recalls his adventures for his Phaeacian hosts 
Book 22: Mnesterophonia ('slaughter of the suitors'; Mnesteres, 'suitors' + phónos, 'slaughter') Book 22 concludes the Greek Epic Cycle, though fragments remain of the "alternative ending" of sorts known as the Telegony  The Telegony aside, the last 548 lines of the Odyssey, corresponding to Book 24, are believed by many scholars to have been added by a slightly later poet 

Geography
The events in the main sequence of the Odyssey (excluding Odysseus' embedded narrative of his wanderings) have been said to take place in the Peloponnese and in what are now called the Ionian Islands  There are difficulties in the apparently simple identification of Ithaca, the homeland of Odysseus, which may or may not be the same island that is now called Ithakē (modern Greek: Ιθάκη)  The wanderings of Odysseus as told to the Phaeacians, and the location of the Phaeacians' own island of Scheria, pose more fundamental problems, if geography is to be applied: scholars, both ancient and modern, are divided as to whether any of the places visited by Odysseus (after Ismaros and before his return to Ithaca) are real  Both antiquated and contemporary scholars have attempted to map Odysseus' journey but now largely agree that the landscapes, especially of the Apologia (Books 9 to 11), include too many mythological aspects as features to be unequivocally mappable  Classicist Peter T  Struck created an interactive map which plots Odysseus' travels, including his near homecoming which was thwarted by the bag of wind 

Influences
Scholars have seen strong influences from Near Eastern mythology and literature in the Odyssey  Martin West notes substantial parallels between the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey  Both Odysseus and Gilgamesh are known for traveling to the ends of the earth and on their journeys go to the land of the dead  On his voyage to the underworld, Odysseus follows instructions given to him by Circe, who is located at the edges of the world and is associated through imagery with the sun  Like Odysseus, Gilgamesh gets directions on how to reach the land of the dead from a divine helper: the goddess Siduri, who, like Circe, dwells by the sea at the ends of the earth, whose home is also associated with the sun  Gilgamesh reaches Siduri's house by passing through a tunnel underneath Mt  Mashu, the high mountain from which the sun comes into the sky  West argues that the similarity of Odysseus' and Gilgamesh's journeys to the edges of the earth are the result of the influence of the Gilgamesh epic upon the Odyssey In 1914, paleontologist Othenio Abel surmised the origins of the Cyclops to be the result of ancient Greeks finding an elephant skull  The enormous nasal passage in the middle of the forehead could have looked like the eye socket of a giant, to those who had never seen a living elephant  Classical scholars, on the other hand, have long known that the story of the Cyclops was originally a folk tale, which existed independently of the Odyssey and which became part of it at a later date  Similar stories are found in cultures across Europe and the Middle East  According to this explanation, the Cyclops was originally simply a giant or ogre, much like Humbaba in the Epic of Gilgamesh  Graham Anderson suggests that the addition about it having only one eye was invented to explain how the creature was so easily blinded 

Themes and patterns
Homecoming
Homecoming (Ancient Greek: νόστος, nostos) is a central theme of the Odyssey  Anna Bonafazi of the University of Cologne writes that, in Homer, nostos is "return home from Troy, by sea"  Agatha Thornton examines nostos in the context of characters other than Odysseus, in order to provide an alternative for what might happen after the end of the Odyssey  For instance, one example is that of Agamemnon's homecoming versus Odysseus'  Upon Agamemnon's return, his wife Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus, kill Agamemnon  Agamemnon's son, Orestes, out of vengeance for his father's death, kills Aegisthus  This parallel compares the death of the suitors to the death of Aegisthus and sets Orestes up as an example for Telemachus  Also, because Odysseus knows about Clytemnestra's betrayal, Odysseus returns home in disguise in order to test the loyalty of his own wife, Penelope  Later, Agamemnon praises Penelope for not killing Odysseus  It is because of Penelope that Odysseus has fame and a successful homecoming  This successful homecoming is unlike Achilles, who has fame but is dead, and Agamemnon, who had an unsuccessful homecoming resulting in his death 

Wandering
Only two of Odysseus's adventures are described by the narrator  The rest of Odysseus' adventures are recounted by Odysseus himself  The two scenes described by the narrator are Odysseus on Calypso's island and Odysseus' encounter with the Phaeacians  These scenes are told by the poet to represent an important transition in Odysseus' journey: being concealed to returning home Calypso's name comes from the Greek word kalúptō (καλύπτω), meaning 'to cover' or 'conceal', which is apt, as this is exactly what she does with Odysseus  Calypso keeps Odysseus concealed from the world and unable to return home  After leaving Calypso's island, the poet describes Odysseus' encounters with the Phaeacians—those who "convoy without hurt to all men"—which represents his transition from not returning home to returning home Also, during Odysseus' journey, he encounters many beings that are close to the gods  These encounters are useful in understanding that Odysseus is in a world beyond man and that influences the fact he cannot return home  These beings that are close to the gods include the Phaeacians who lived near the Cyclopes, whose king, Alcinous, is the great-grandson of the king of the giants, Eurymedon, and the grandson of Poseidon  Some of the other characters that Odysseus encounters are the cyclops Polyphemus, the son of Poseidon; Circe, a sorceress who turns men into animals; and the cannibalistic giants, the Laestrygonians 

Guest-friendship
Throughout the course of the epic, Odysseus encounters several examples of xenia ("guest-friendship"), which provide models of how hosts should and should not act  The Phaeacians demonstrate exemplary guest-friendship by feeding Odysseus, giving him a place to sleep, and granting him many gifts and a safe voyage home, which are all things a good host should do  Polyphemus demonstrates poor guest-friendship  His only "gift" to Odysseus is that he will eat him last  Calypso also exemplifies poor guest-friendship because she does not allow Odysseus to leave her island  Another important factor to guest-friendship is that kingship implies generosity  It is assumed that a king has the means to be a generous host and is more generous with his own property  This is best seen when Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, begs Antinous, one of the suitors, for food and Antinous denies his request  Odysseus essentially says that while Antinous may look like a king, he is far from a king since he is not generous According to J  B  Hainsworth, guest-friendship follows a very specific pattern:
The arrival and the reception of the guest 
Bathing or providing fresh clothes to the guest 
Providing food and drink to the guest 
Questions may be asked of the guest and entertainment should be provided by the host 
The guest should be given a place to sleep, and both the guest and host retire for the night 
The guest and host exchange gifts, the guest is granted a safe journey home, and the guest departs Another important factor of guest-friendship is not keeping the guest longer than they wish and also promising their safety while they are a guest within the host's home 

Testing
Another theme throughout the Odyssey is testing  This occurs in two distinct ways  Odysseus tests the loyalty of others and others test Odysseus' identity  An example of Odysseus testing the loyalties of others is when he returns home  Instead of immediately revealing his identity, he arrives disguised as a beggar and then proceeds to determine who in his house has remained loyal to him and who has helped the suitors  After Odysseus reveals his true identity, the characters test Odysseus' identity to see if he really is who he says he is  For instance, Penelope tests Odysseus' identity by saying that she will move the bed into the other room for him  This is a difficult task since it is made out of a living tree that would require being cut down, a fact that only the real Odysseus would know, thus proving his identity Testing also has a very specific type scene that accompanies it  Throughout the epic, the testing of others follows a typical pattern  This pattern is:
Odysseus is hesitant to question the loyalties of others 
Odysseus tests the loyalties of others by questioning them 
The characters reply to Odysseus' questions 
Odysseus proceeds to reveal his identity 
The characters test Odysseus' identity 
There is a rise of emotions associated with Odysseus' recognition, usually lament or joy 
Finally, the reconciled characters work together 

Omens
Omens occur frequently throughout the Odyssey  Within the epic poem, they frequently involve birds  According to Thornton, most crucial is who receives each omen and in what way it manifests  For instance, bird omens are shown to Telemachus, Penelope, Odysseus, and the suitors  Telemachus and Penelope receive their omens as well in the form of words, sneezes, and dreams  However, Odysseus is the only character who receives thunder or lightning as an omen  She highlights this as crucial because lightning, as a symbol of Zeus, represents the kingship of Odysseus  Odysseus is associated with Zeus throughout both the Iliad and the Odyssey Omens are another example of a type scene in the Odyssey  Two important parts of an omen type scene are the recognition of the omen, followed by its interpretation  In the Odyssey, all of the bird omens—with the exception of the first—show large birds attacking smaller birds  Accompanying each omen is a wish which can be either explicitly stated or only implied  For example, Telemachus wishes for vengeance and for Odysseus to be home, Penelope wishes for Odysseus' return, and the suitors wish for the death of Telemachus 

Textual history
Composition
The date of the poem is a matter of some disagreement among classicists  In the middle of the 8th century BC, the inhabitants of Greece began to adopt a modified version of the Phoenician alphabet to write down their own language  The Homeric poems may have been one of the earliest products of that literacy, and if so, would have been composed some time in the late 8th century BC  Inscribed on a clay cup found in Ischia, Italy, are the words "Nestor's cup, good to drink from " Some scholars, such as Calvert Watkins, have tied this cup to a description of King Nestor's golden cup in the Iliad  If the cup is an allusion to the Iliad, that poem's composition can be dated to at least 700–750 BC Dating is similarly complicated by the fact that the Homeric poems, or sections of them, were performed regularly by rhapsodes for several hundred years  The Odyssey as it exists today is likely not significantly different  Aside from minor differences, the Homeric poems gained a canonical place in the institutions of ancient Athens by the 6th century  In 566 BC, Peisistratos instituted a civic and religious festival called the Panathenaia, which featured performances of Homeric poems  These are significant because a "correct" version of the poems had to be performed, indicating that a particular version of the text had become canonised 

Textual tradition
The Iliad and the Odyssey were widely copied and used as school texts in lands where the Greek language was spoken throughout antiquity  Scholars may have begun to write commentaries on the poems as early as the time of Aristotle in the 4th century BC  In the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, scholars affiliated with the Library of Alexandria—particularly Zenodotus and Aristarchus of Samothrace—edited the Homeric poems, wrote commentaries on them, and helped establish the canonical texts The Iliad and the Odyssey remained widely studied and used as school texts in the Byzantine Empire during the Middle Ages  The Byzantine Greek scholar and archbishop Eustathios of Thessalonike (c  1115 – c  1195/6 AD) wrote exhaustive commentaries on both of the Homeric epics that became seen by later generations as authoritative; his commentary on the Odyssey alone spans nearly 2,000 oversized pages in a twentieth-century edition  The first printed edition of the Odyssey, known as the editio princeps, was produced in 1488 by the Greek scholar Demetrios Chalkokondyles, who had been born in Athens and had studied in Constantinople  His edition was printed in Milan by a Greek printer named Antonios Damilas Since the late 19th century, many papyri containing fragments of the Odyssey have been found in Egypt, some with content different from later medieval versions 
In 2018, the Greek Cultural Ministry revealed the discovery of a clay tablet near the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, containing 13 verses from the Odyssey's 14th book  While it was initially reported to date from the 3rd century AD, the date is unconfirmed 

English translations
George Chapman's English translations of the Odyssey and the Iliad, published together in 1616 but serialised earlier, were the first to enjoy widespread success  The texts had been published in translation before, with some translated not from the original Greek  Chapman worked on these for a large part of his life  In 1581, Arthur Hall translated the first 10 books of the Iliad from a French version  Chapman's translations persisted in popularity, and are often remembered today through John Keats' sonnet  "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" (1816)  Years after completing his translation of the Iliad, Alexander Pope began to translate the Odyssey because of his financial situation  His second translation was not received as favourably as the first Emily Wilson, a professor of classical studies at the University of Pennsylvania, notes that as late as the first decade of the 21st century, almost all of the most prominent translators of Greek and Roman literature had been men  She calls her experience of translating Homer one of "intimate alienation " Wilson writes that this has affected the popular conception of characters and events of the Odyssey, inflecting the story with connotations not present in the original text: "For instance, in the scene where Telemachus oversees the hanging of the slaves who have been sleeping with the suitors, most translations introduce derogatory language ("sluts" or "whores") [   ] The original Greek does not label these slaves with derogatory language " In the original Greek, the word used is hai, the feminine article, equivalent to "those female people" 

Legacy
The influence of the Homeric texts can be difficult to summarise because of how greatly they have impacted the popular imagination and cultural values  The Odyssey and the Iliad formed the basis of education for members of ancient Mediterranean society  That curriculum was adopted by Western humanists, meaning the text was so much a part of the cultural fabric that it became irrelevant whether an individual had read it  As such, the influence of the Odyssey has reverberated through over a millennium of writing  The poem topped a poll of experts by BBC Culture to find literature's most enduring narrative  It is widely regarded by western literary critics as a timeless classic and remains one of the oldest works of extant literature commonly read by Western audiences 

Literature
In Canto XXVI of the Inferno, Dante Alighieri meets Odysseus in the eighth circle of hell, where Odysseus appends a new ending to the Odyssey in which he never returns to Ithaca and instead continues his restless adventuring  Edith Hall suggests that Dante's depiction of Odysseus became understood as a manifestation of Renaissance colonialism and othering, with the cyclops standing in for "accounts of monstrous races on the edge of the world", and his defeat as symbolising "the Roman domination of the western Mediterranean" Irish poet James Joyce's modernist novel Ulysses (1922) was significantly influenced by the Odyssey  Joyce had encountered the figure of Odysseus in Charles Lamb's Adventures of Ulysses, an adaptation of the epic poem for children, which seems to have established the Latin name in Joyce's mind  Ulysses, a re-telling of the Odyssey set in Dublin, is divided into 18 sections ("episodes") which can be mapped roughly onto the 24 books of the Odyssey  Joyce claimed familiarity with the original Homeric Greek, but this has been disputed by some scholars, who cite his poor grasp of the language as evidence to the contrary  The book, and especially its stream of consciousness prose, is widely considered foundational to the modernist genre Modern writers have revisited the Odyssey to highlight the poem's female characters  Canadian writer Margaret Atwood adapted parts of the Odyssey for her novella, The Penelopiad (2005)  The novella focuses on Penelope and the twelve female slaves hanged by Odysseus at the poem's ending, an image which haunted Atwood  Atwood's novella comments on the original text, wherein Odysseus' successful return to Ithaca symbolises the restoration of a patriarchal system  Similarly, Madeline Miller's Circe (2018) revisits the relationship between Odysseus and Circe on Aeaea  As a reader, Miller was frustrated by Circe's lack of motivation in the original poem and sought to explain her capriciousness  The novel recontextualises the sorceress' transformations of sailors into pigs from an act of malice into one of self-defence, given that she has no superhuman strength with which to repel attackers 

Film and television
L'Odissea (1911) is an Italian silent film by Giuseppe de Liguoro 
Ulysses (1954) is a film adaptation starring Kirk Douglas as Ulysses, Silvana Mangano as Penelope and Circe, and Anthony Quinn as Antinous 
L'Odissea (1968) is an Italian-French-German-Yugoslavian television miniseries praised for its faithful rendering of the original epic 
Nostos: The Return (1989) is an Italian film about Odysseus' homecoming  Directed by Franco Piavoli, it relies on visual storytelling and has a strong focus on nature 
Ulysses' Gaze (1995), directed by Theo Angelopoulos, has many of the elements of the Odyssey set against the backdrop of the most recent and previous Balkan Wars 
The Odyssey (1997) is a television miniseries directed by Andrei Konchalovsky and starring Armand Assante as Odysseus and Greta Scacchi as Penelope 
O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000) is a crime comedy drama film written, produced, co-edited and directed by the Coen brothers and is very loosely based on Homer's poem 

Opera and music
Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria, first performed in 1640, is an opera by Claudio Monteverdi based on the second half of Homer's Odyssey 
Rolf Riehm composed an opera based on the myth, Sirenen – Bilder des Begehrens und des Vernichtens (Sirens – Images of Desire and Destruction), which premiered at the Oper Frankfurt in 2014 
Robert W  Smith's second symphony for concert band, The Odyssey, tells four of the main highlights of the story in the piece's four movements: "The Iliad", "The Winds of Poseidon", "The Isle of Calypso", and "Ithaca" 

Sciences
Psychiatrist Jonathan Shay wrote two books, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character  (1994) and Odysseus in America: Combat Trauma and the Trials of Homecoming (2002), which relate the Iliad and the Odyssey to posttraumatic stress disorder and moral injury as seen in the rehabilitation histories of combat veteran patients  
Passage 6:
Albert Odyssey (Super Famicom game)
Albert Odyssey (アルバートオデッセイ, Arubaato Odessei) is a tactical role-playing video game developed and published by Sunsoft and released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in Japan in March 1993  The game features strategy-based combat in addition to traditional role-playing game elements in two-dimensional environments  It is the first game in the Albert Odyssey series, and was followed by two sequels, Albert Odyssey 2: Jashin no Taidou in 1994, and Albert Odyssey: Legend of Eldean in 1996   On June 12, 1996, Albert Odyssey was made available as a full game download on the Satellaview add-on as BS Albert Odyssey (BSアルバートオデッセイ, BS Arubaato Odessei), and the original Albert Odyssey was re-released for Satellaview in March 1998 Players assume the role of Albert, the young heroic swordsman who lives in a fantasy world filled with monsters and mythical creatures  While much of the world remains in relative peace following a great war many years before, a military faction led by the dark magician Globus has emerged to conquer the newly pacified nations and expand their empire  With the help of Albert's friends as well as hired mercenaries, the player must travel the world and eventually confront Golbus and his forces to prevent another large-scale conflict 

Gameplay
Albert Odyssey is a role-playing video game with strategy elements where players must travel through a fantasy environment battling monsters and other enemies to advance the story  The game uses two-dimensional character sprites and environments accompanied by the Super Nintendo Entertainment System's Mode 7 graphics capabilities that give the impression of three dimensions  Players move their characters from a top-down perspective through towns and other peaceful areas, while the game's overworld and dungeons are rendered as large battlefields laden with enemies  Throughout the game, players take part in the story by interacting with non-player characters and performing story-driven quests that continually expand the game's narrative 
Using a turn-based system, both the player and computer opponent take turns moving and attacking across the field  A player may choose to move, attack, perform magic, use an item in their possession to aid themselves, or retreat to the nearest safe area to rest or restock supplies  Once two characters come in contact with one another, a battle sequence ensues where the attacking character deals damage to the opponent, lowering their health  When the player or enemy's health reaches zero, they are defeated and ejected from the field  Player's advance by confronting and defeating enemies, gaining experience points in the process that go towards making characters stronger and learn new abilities  A character can be further augmented with progressively more powerful weapons and equipment can be purchased in towns or found on defeated enemies  Progress is recorded by using save points found in set areas throughout the game that utilize the Famicom's battery backup-up system  If all of a player's characters are defeated at any time, they are forced to restart the game from the last recorded save file 

Audio
The music for Albert Odyssey was written and programmed by Sunsoft in-house composer Naoki Kodaka, with the game being his first Super Famicom and role-playing endeavor  On June 25, 1993, Sunsoft released an official soundtrack titled All Sounds of Albert Odyssey in Japan published by Datam Polystar featuring all background music and jingles from the game   Later that year, selected music from Albert Odyssey was performed by the Tokyo City Philharmonic Orchestra as part of the third Game Music Concert series in Tokyo, Japan, later made available as a commercial album the following December  The two tracks represented were "The Road Walked by Heroes" and "Hometown Tibelis", retitled as "Albert Odyssey Theme" and "God's People" respectively 

Sequel
Albert Odyssey 2: Jashin no Taidou (アルバートオデッセイ2 邪神の胎動, Aruberto Odesei Tsu Jashin no Taidou, lit  Albert Odyssey 2: Sign of the Devil) is a tactical role-playing video game developed and published by Sunsoft for the Super Famicom and released in December 1994  It is the sequel to the original Albert Odyssey and retains many of the same gameplay and story elements while featuring enhanced graphics and battle features 
The game is set ten years after the previous title and follows the story of Dean, a young warrior who is enthralled by the exploits of the hero Albert who saved the world a decade earlier from an evil magician   Setting off on his own journey to investigate the conflict, Dean becomes entangled in an adventure of his own while meeting characters from the previous game  He soon learns that the world is once again in danger from an ancient evil god known as Okutoba, and must become a hero himself to stop him from throwing the world into darkness 

Gameplay
Like its predecessor, Albert Odyssey 2 is a traditional strategy-based role-playing video game featuring two-dimensional character and background graphics  While towns and other safe areas are presented in a top-down fashion where players can move about freely, the game's overworld and dungeons take the appearance of a grid-like strategy board filled with monsters and other enemies   Using the Super Famicom's Mode 7 graphics function, environments can scroll and zoom smoothly based on the player's point of view, and give the appearance of three-dimensions  Players advance the game's story by taking part in large-scale battles and interacting with non-player characters 
The battle system in Albert Odyssey 2 has been modified slightly from the original   While players can still move in eight directions to engage opponents, the size of many battlefields, as well as the number of enemies represented, has been reduced, with the entire system becoming more streamlined  Characters move about the battle environment using a turn-based system where enemies and the player's party take turns attacking in phases, with one entire side acting before another  On a player's turn, characters may move, fight, use a magic attack, use an item from their inventory, or retreat to a nearby safe location  Battle are won when an entire enemy party has been defeated, yielding experience points that allow characters to gain levels and become stronger as well as give access to new abilities   Players record their progress using the game cartridge's built-in battery back-up system by accessing preset save points during gameplay 
Passage 7:
Sorrows of Werther
"Sorrows of Werther" is a satirical poem by William Makepeace Thackeray written in response to the enormous success of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's novel The Sorrows of Young Werther 


== Text ==
Passage 8:
Werther (film)
Werther is an opera by Jules Massenet 
Werther may also refer to:

Places
Werther, North Rhine-Westphalia, a town in western Germany
Werther, Thuringia, a municipality in eastern Germany

People with the surname
Gustav Werther (1815–1869), German chemist
Heinrich Wilhelm von Werther (1772–1859), Prussian diplomat and politician

Arts
The Sorrows of Young Werther, a novel by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe that the opera Werther is loosely based on
Werther (1986 film), a Spanish film based on the novel
Werther (1927 film), a Czech film

Others
Werther's Original, a toffee-and-cream candy
The New Werther, by the statistician Karl Pearson
Passage 9:
Werther
Werther is an opera (drame lyrique) in four acts by Jules Massenet to a French libretto by Édouard Blau, Paul Milliet and Georges Hartmann (who used the pseudonym Henri Grémont)  It is loosely based on Goethe's epistolary novel The Sorrows of Young Werther, which was based both on fact and on Goethe's own early life  Earlier examples of operas using the story were made by Kreutzer (1792) and Pucitta (1802) 

Performance history
Massenet started composing Werther in 1885, completing it in 1887  He submitted it to Léon Carvalho, the director of the Paris Opéra-Comique, that year, but Carvalho declined to accept it on the grounds that the scenario was too serious  With the disruption of the fire at the Opéra-Comique and Massenet's work on other operatic projects (especially Esclarmonde), it was put to one side, until the Vienna Opera, pleased with the success of Manon, asked the composer for a new work  Werther received its premiere on 16 February 1892 (in a German version translated by Max Kalbeck) at the Imperial Theatre Hofoper in Vienna The French-language premiere followed in Geneva on 27 December 1892  The first performance in France was given by the Opéra-Comique at the Théâtre Lyrique on the Place du Châtelet in Paris on 16 January 1893, with Marie Delna as Charlotte and Guillaume Ibos in the title role, conducted by Jules Danbé, but was not immediately successful Werther entered the repertoire at the Opéra-Comique in 1903 in a production supervised by Albert Carré, and over the next half-century the opera was performed over 1,100 times there, Léon Beyle becoming a distinguished interpreter of Werther The United States premiere with the Metropolitan Opera took place in Chicago on 29 March 1894 and then in the company's main house in New York City three weeks later  The UK premiere was a one-off performance at Covent Garden, London, on 11 June 1894 with Emma Eames as Charlotte, Sigrid Arnoldson as Sophie, and Jean de Reszke in the title role 
Werther is still regularly performed around the world and has been recorded many times  Although the role of Werther was written for a tenor, Massenet adjusted it for a baritone, when Mattia Battistini sang it in Saint Petersburg in 1902  It is very occasionally performed in this version, in which the changes affect only the vocal line for the title character  There are no other changes to the words, to the lines for other characters, or to the orchestration 

Roles
Instrumentation
2 flutes (2nd doubling piccolo),
2 oboes (doubling English horns),
2 clarinets in B-flat and A,
alto saxophone,
2 bassoons,
4 horns in F,
2 cornets in B-flat and A,
3 trombones,
tuba,
timpani,
percussion (1) (bass drum, triangle),
harp,
strings 

Synopsis
Time: Within the period July to December, in an undefined year in the 1780s 
Place: Wetzlar in Germany 

Act 1
In July, the widowed Bailiff (a Magistrate, rather than one who comes to seize property), is teaching his six youngest children a Christmas carol ("Noël! Jésus vient de naître")  His drinking companions, Johann and Schmidt, arrive as Charlotte, the eldest daughter, dresses for a ball  Since her fiancé Albert is away, she is to be escorted by Werther, whom the Bailiff and his companions find gloomy  Werther arrives ("O Nature, pleine de grâce"), and watches as Charlotte prepares her young siblings' supper, just as her mother had before she died  He greets her and they leave for the ball  Albert returns unexpectedly after a six-month trip  He is unsure of Charlotte's intentions and disappointed not to find her at home, but is reassured and consoled by Charlotte's younger sister Sophie  He leaves after promising to return in the morning  After an orchestral interlude, Werther and Charlotte return very late; he is already enamoured of her  His declaration of love is interrupted by the announcement of Albert's return  Charlotte recalls how she promised her dying mother she would marry Albert  Werther is in despair 

Act 2
It is three months later, and Charlotte and Albert are now married  They walk happily to church to celebrate the minister's 50th wedding anniversary, followed by the disconsolate Werther ("Un autre est son époux!")  First Albert and then Sophie ("Du gai soleil, plein de flamme") try to cheer him up  When Charlotte exits the church, he speaks to her of their first meeting  Charlotte begs Werther to leave her, though she indicates that she would be willing to receive him again on Christmas Day  Werther contemplates suicide ("Lorsque l'enfant revient d'un voyage")  He encounters Sophie but the tearful girl does not understand his distressing behavior  Albert now realizes that Werther loves Charlotte 

Act 3
Charlotte is at home alone on Christmas Eve  She spends time rereading the letters that she has received from Werther ("Werther! Qui m'aurait dit     Ces lettres!"), wondering how the young poet is and how she had the strength to send him away  Sophie comes in and tries to cheer up her older sister ("Ah! le rire est béni"), though Charlotte is not to be consoled ("Va! laisse couler mes larmes")  Suddenly Werther appears, and while he reads to her some poetry of Ossian ("Pourquoi me réveiller?"), he realizes that she does indeed return his love  They embrace for a moment, but she quickly bids him farewell  He leaves with thoughts of suicide  Albert returns home to find his wife distraught  Werther sends a messenger to Albert, requesting to borrow his pistols, explaining he is going on an extended trip  After the servant has taken them, Charlotte has a terrible premonition and hurries to find Werther  An orchestral intermezzo ("La nuit de Noël") leads without a break into the final Act 

Act 4
"The death of Werther": At Werther's apartment, Charlotte has arrived too late to stop him from shooting himself; he is dying  She consoles him by declaring her love  He asks for forgiveness  After he dies, Charlotte faints  Outside children are heard singing the Christmas carol 

Noted arias
Recordings
A well-regarded recording of the complete opera was made in January 1931 by French Columbia with a French cast and the orchestra and chorus of the Opéra-Comique under the direction of Élie Cohen  Henry Fogel of Fanfare magazine, writing in 1992, counted 14 complete recordings and considered it the finest of the lot  His colleague, James Camner, reviewing the Opera d'Oro reissue in 2003, called it "one of the treasures of recorded opera      Unfortunately, the transfer is over filtered  The high frequencies are lost, giving the performance an unwarranted flatness  Happily, Naxos offers the same recording expertly transferred by Ward Marston, and acquiring it is a must " Alan Blyth, while giving a very positive review of the reissue of the recording with Albert Lance as Werther and Rita Gorr as Charlotte in 2004, nevertheless pointed out that "neither quite has the ideal subtlety of the best Massenet singers, such as Vallin and Thill on the classic, pre-war set, now on Naxos" In addition, many of the greatest French and Italian singers of the past century or more have recorded individual arias from Massenet's masterwork 
Passage 10:
The Novel of Werther
The Novel of Werther (French: Le Roman de Werther) is a 1938 French historical drama film directed by Max Ophüls and starring Pierre Richard-Willm, Annie Vernay and Jean Galland  It is based on the 1774 novel The Sorrows of Young Werther by Goethe The film was made by Nero Film, a company run by German exiles who had left following the Nazi rise to power 

Cast
Pierre Richard-Willm as Werther
Annie Vernay as Charlotte
Jean Galland as Albert
Paulette Pax as Aunt Emma
Jean Périer as President
Edmond Beauchamp as murderer
Georges Bever as chamberlain
Geno Ferny as portraitist
Fernand Blot as Werther's colleague
Denise Kerny as the right one
Henri Guisol as Schertz, the clerk
Roger Legris as Franz, valet
Jean Buquet as little Gustave
Maurice Schutz as le sonneur
Léonce Corne asle majordome
Philippe Richard as Grand Duke
Charles Nossent as le cocher
Léon Larive as comedian
Georges Vitray as bailiff
Génia Vaury as girl
Henri Beaulieu
Henri Darbrey
Pierre Darteuil
Maurice Devienne
Martial Rèbe
Robert Rollis



ground_truth: no

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What rule-class city of 26,595 contains the neighborhood Plainview?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: 6% from 18 to 24, 30 8% from 25 to 44, 22 2% from 45 to 64, and 16 3% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 38 years  For every 100 females, there were 116 7 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 120 3 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $27,371, and the median income for a family was $32,959  Males had a median income of $29,284 versus $18,265 for females  The per capita income for the city was $12,637  About 18 4% of families and 20 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25 3% of those under age 18 and 21 4% of those age 65 or over 

Education
Central City is home to Central City Elementary School  Central City Elementary School is a feeder school for Muhlenberg North Middle School which, in turn, feeds Muhlenberg County High School 
Central City is also home to the Muhlenberg Campus of Madisonville Community College, completed in 2001 
Central City has a lending library, a branch of the Muhlenberg County Public Library 

Media
WMTA AM 1380, founded 1955
WNES AM, founded in 1955, owned by the Andy Anderson Corporation which founded the station 
WEKV FM 101 9, 100,000 watt station, owned and operated by Andy Anderson Corporation, licensed to Central City where the main studio is, tower and transmitter located in Pleasant Ridge, (Daviess County), Kentucky 
A number of regional radio stations have Radio repeater's located in Central City   Two are currently active while a third is under consideration 
Leader-News, weekly newspaper founded in Greenville Leader, moved to Central City in the 1960s and became the "Greenville Leader-Central City News", owned and published by the Andy Anderson Corporation 
Times Argus, formerly the Messenger Times Argus, founded in 1909, published weekly 

Economy
Major employers in Central City include: 

Brewco
Brewer, Inc 
Green River Correctional Complex
Kentucky Utilities Green River Generating Station
Armstrong Coal Company Parkway Mine
KenAmerican Paradise Underground Mine
Wal-Mart Supercenter
Central City Elementary School

Arts and culture
Everly Brothers Homecoming/Labor Day Cruise-In
On Labor Day Weekend 1988, Central City began hosting The Everly Brothers Homecoming event to raise money for a scholarship fund for Muhlenberg County students  The Homecoming became a popular annual event for fourteen years, before ending in 2002 Not to be discouraged, the citizens reformed the event as a weekend long cruise-in and car show that is still held annually on Labor Day Weekend 

Kentucky Women's Hall of Fame, Inc 
Sponsored by the Central City Business & Professional Women's Club, the Hall of Fame is located inside the Central City Public Library, 108 E  Broad Street and features a portrait and memorabilia gallery which includes former Governor Martha Layne Collins, Country & Western music giant Loretta Lynn, and local author, editorialist, historian, war correspondent for the Service Star and noted cultivator of roses Agnes S  Harralson  Central City Library hours are Monday 9 am - 7 pm; Tuesday - Friday 9 am - 5 pm; Saturday 9 am - 1 pm  www mcplib org for more info; Central City BPW meets the second Tuesday of each month in the library meeting room at 6:00 pm - visitors are welcome 

Muhlenberg County Rail Trail
The Muhlenberg County Rail Trail is a paved trail following an old Paducah and Louisville railway route between Central City and Greenville that is open to pedestrian and non-motorized vehicle traffic  Kentucky's most extensive rail trail conversion to date, the Muhlenberg Rail Trail opened October 20, 2000 and was named "Trail of the Month" by the Rails to Trails Conservancy in May 2004  A viewing platform and birding guide are available where the trail passes through a local wetland  The Muhlenberg County Rails to Trails Committee has obtained an additional 3 miles of abandoned rail, possibly for a later extension into McLean County 

Notable residents
Tom Christerson, second recipient of an artificial heart
T  Coleman du Pont, manager for the Central Coal & Iron Company, later president of Dupont and a Republican senator for Delaware
Don Everly of The Everly Brothers, musician
Bernard Hickman, former head coach of the Louisville Cardinals men's basketball team
Halley G  Maddox, US Army major general
Ziggy Sears, Major League Baseball umpire
Jim Walker, musician
Corky Withrow, baseball player
Passage 6:
Plainview, Louisville
Plainview is a neighborhood in the city of Jeffersontown, Kentucky and is located on the former site of the Plainview Dairy Farm  It is a Planned Unit Development which includes housing, workplaces, and shopping within a single development 
Plainview is located between I-64 and Shelbyville Road east of Hurstbourne Parkway 
The Plainview community has many amenities; such as the Swim & Tennis Center, where there is a swim team, with competitions throughout the year  There is also a yearly yard sale 

See also
R  C  Tway, owner of farmland that evolved into this neighborhood
Passage 7:
Hickman, Kentucky
Hickman is a city in and the county seat of Fulton County, Kentucky, United States  Located on the Mississippi River, the city had a population of 2,365 at the 2020 U S  census and is classified as a home rule-class city  Hickman is part of the Union City micropolitan area 

History
This area was long occupied by various cultures of indigenous peoples  European-American settlement of this area did not begin until decades after the American Revolutionary War  James Mills built the first cabin on the site in 1819  The community of Mills Point was large enough to receive a post office in 1830  Around 1834, G  Marr purchased much of the surrounding area and laid out more streets The community was renamed Hickman in 1837 after the maiden name of Marr's wife  The city was formally incorporated by the state assembly on February 18, 1841  In 1845, it became the county seat David Walker, his wife, and their four children were lynched in Hickman in 1908 after Mr  Walker was accused of using inappropriate language with a white woman  Two floods devastated Hickman, the first in 1912 and the second in 1913   The flood of 1912 began when a levee located near Hickman broke  Within a few hours the water had risen to the roofs of houses  The flood of 1913 began when a levee near West Hickman broke on April 4  Baseball pitcher Rube Waddell was among the many who helped save the city during both floods  Waddell came down with pneumonia after each flood; he died of tuberculosis 

Registered historic sites
Thomas Chapel C M E  Church is an historic African-American church on Moscow Avenue in Hickman, part of the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church formed by freedmen after the American Civil War  Freedmen set up their own denomination in order to be independent of white supervision in the Methodist Church, South, which had split away from northern congregations at the outbreak of war  (In 1954 the CME changed its name to Christian Methodist Episcopal Church ) The church in Hickman was built in 1895  It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3 6 square miles (9 3 km2), of which 3 6 square miles (9 3 km2) is land and 0 28% is water 

Climate
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters   According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Hickman has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps 

Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 United States Census, there were 2,365 people, 752 households, and 385 families residing in the city 

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,560 people, 1,015 households, and 665 families residing in the city  The population density was 718 1 inhabitants per square mile (277 3/km2)  There were 1,177 housing units at an average density of 330 2 per square mile (127 5/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 64 06% White, 34 96% African American, 0 08% Native American, 0 04% from other races, and 0 86% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 51% of the population 
There were 1,015 households, out of which 28 2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39 8% were married couples living together, 22 4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34 4% were non-families  32 1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 33 and the average family size was 2 94 
In the city, the population was spread out, with 24 9% under the age of 18, 10 9% from 18 to 24, 26 8% from 25 to 44, 23 0% from 45 to 64, and 14 4% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 36 years  For every 100 females, there were 94 2 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90 2 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $21,655, and the median income for a family was $27,384  Males had a median income of $25,625 versus $18,264 for females  The per capita income for the city was $11,573  About 24 8% of families and 27 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 35 0% of those under age 18 and 18 7% of those age 65 or over 

Notable people
Amy L  Bondurant, former U S  Ambassador to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
Robert Glen Coe, convicted murderer
S G  Goodman, singer-songwriter
Elvis Jacob Stahr Jr , President of Indiana University

Education
Hickman has a public library, a branch of the Fulton County Public Library 
Passage 8:
Moorland, Kentucky
Moorland is a home rule-class city in Jefferson County, Kentucky, United States  The population was 431 as of the 2010 census 

Geography
Moorland is located in northeastern Jefferson County at 38°16′23″N 85°34′45″W (38 273020, -85 579048)  It is bordered to the south, east, and west by Lyndon, and to the north by consolidated Louisville/Jefferson County  It is 11 miles (18 km) east of downtown Louisville 
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0 09 square miles (0 24 km2), all land 

Demographics
At the 2000 census there were 464 people in 206 households, including 127 families, in the city  The population density was 4,830 4 inhabitants per square mile (1,865 0/km2)  There were 213 housing units at an average density of 2,217 4 per square mile (856 1/km2)   The racial makeup of the city was 91 81% White, 4 74% African American, 0 43% Asian, 0 22% from other races, and 2 80% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0 65% Of the 206 households 29 1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44 2% were married couples living together, 13 1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38 3% were non-families  32 5% of households were one person and 4 4% were one person aged 65 or older  The average household size was 2 25 and the average family size was 2 85 
The age distribution was 24 1% under the age of 18, 5 8% from 18 to 24, 38 4% from 25 to 44, 24 4% from 45 to 64, and 7 3% 65 or older  The median age was 36 years  For every 100 females, there were 100 9 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90 3 males 
The median household income was $40,469 and the median family income  was $45,096  Males had a median income of $35,625 versus $25,625 for females  The per capita income for the city was $18,092  About 1 4% of families and 1 6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1 6% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over 
Passage 9:
Meadowbrook Farm, Kentucky
Meadowbrook Farm is a neighborhood of Louisville, Kentucky, United States  It is separately incorporated as a home rule-class city  The population was 136 as of the 2010 census 

Geography
Meadowbrook Farm is located in northeastern Jefferson County at 38°16′40″N 85°34′32″W (38 277772, -85 575669)  It is bordered to the southwest by Lyndon, to the northeast by Meadow Vale, and on all other sides by consolidated Louisville/Jefferson County  Downtown Louisville is 12 miles (19 km) to the southwest 
According to the United States Census Bureau, Meadowbrook Farm has a total area of 0 03 square miles (0 07 km2), all land 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 146 people, 53 households, and 41 families residing in the city  The population density was 4,828 7 inhabitants per square mile (1,864 4/km2)  There were 53 housing units at an average density of 1,752 9 per square mile (676 8/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 91 78% White, 7 53% African American, and 0 68% from two or more races 
There were 53 households, out of which 35 8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 67 9% were married couples living together, 5 7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20 8% were non-families  17 0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 75 and the average family size was 3 12 
In the city, the population was spread out, with 24 7% under the age of 18, 4 8% from 18 to 24, 36 3% from 25 to 44, 26 7% from 45 to 64, and 7 5% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 37 years  For every 100 females, there were 102 8 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100 0 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $63,542, and the median income for a family was $63,958  Males had a median income of $51,250 versus $38,125 for females  The per capita income for the city was $26,980  There were 4 4% of families and 5 2% of the population living below the poverty line, including 2 9% of under eighteens and none of those over 64 
Passage 10:
Corbin, Kentucky
Corbin is a home rule-class city in Whitley, Knox and Laurel counties in the southeastern portion of the U S  state of Kentucky  As of the 2020 census, the city population was 7,856  
Corbin is on Interstate 75 and US Route 25W, about halfway between Knoxville, Tennessee, and Lexington 

History
The first settlement in the Corbin area was known as Lynn Camp Station  The first post office was called Cummins, for community founder Nelson Cummins  It was discovered in 1885 that both Cummins and Lynn Camp were already in use as names for Kentucky post offices, and postmaster James Eaton was asked to select another name  He chose Corbin for the Rev  James Corbin Floyd, a local minister  The town was incorporated under that name in 1905 
Corbin has a troubled racial past, including a race riot in late October 1919 in which a white mob forced nearly all the town's 200 black residents onto a freight train out of town and a sundown town policy until the late 20th century  The event is the subject of a 1991 documentary, Trouble Behind  In October 2019, city leaders marked the riot's centennial with a proclamation acknowledging the riot and former sundown town policy For most of its history, the urbanized areas of Corbin in Laurel County were not incorporated into the city limits due to a state law prohibiting cities from being in more than two counties  However, a 2021 change to state law allowed cities to voluntarily annex property in a third county if the city already provides public infrastructure to that property  In March 2022, the Corbin City Commission approved an annexation request for a property in Laurel County 

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, Corbin has a total area of 7 9 sq mi (20 km2), with only a tiny fraction of 0 044 sq mi (0 11 km2), or 0 56%, consisting of water 
Corbin lies in the Cumberland Plateau region of Appalachia in southeastern Kentucky, along Interstate 75 and U S  Route 25W  I-75 provides access to the city from exit 25, leading north 89 miles (143 km) to Lexington and south 86 miles (138 km) to Knoxville, Tennessee  U S  25W runs through the center of town, leading north 14 miles (23 km) to London (via U S  Route 25) and south 21 miles (34 km) to Williamsburg 
The Pine Mountain Overthrust Fault, a geologic fault system several miles to the east, produces occasional tremors, the most recent in 2008 

Climate
Corbin exhibits a humid subtropical climate, typical of southeastern Kentucky  The region experiences four distinct seasons  Winters are cool to cold, with mild periods  Summers are generally hot and humid, with variable spring and fall seasons  Precipitation is common year-round but more prevalent in the summer months—the surrounding mountains somewhat moderate Corbin's climate 

Demographics
Corbin is in the London, Kentucky micropolitan area, whose current boundaries were established in 2013 by the U S  Office of Management and Budget in coordination with the United States Census Bureau  Previously, the London micropolitan area had consisted solely of Laurel County, while the Whitley County portion of Corbin was the principal city of its own micropolitan area that consisted solely of that county  Both entities were in turn the components of a statistical entity officially known as the "Corbin–London, KY Combined Statistical Area"  The CSA had a combined population of 94,486 at the 2010 census  The Knox County portion of Corbin was outside the former Corbin–London statistical area but is now included in the redefined London micropolitan area 
As of the 2010 census there were 7,304 people, 3,093 households, and 1,903 families residing in the city  The population density was 920 1 inhabitants per square mile (355 3/km2)  There were 3,507 housing units at an average density of 441 8 per square mile (170 6/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 97 41% White (96 69% non-Hispanic), 0 26% African American, 0 31% Native American or Alaska Native, 0 64% Asian, 0 26% from other races, and 1 11% from two or more races  No Pacific Islanders lived in the city in 2010  Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 1 19% of the population 
There were 3,093 households, out of which 29 8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41 3% were married couples living together, 16 0% had a female householder with no husband present, 4 2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38 5% were non-families  34 8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 27, and the average family size was 2 91 
The age distribution was 22 5% under 18, 8 5% from 18 to 24, 22 9% from 25 to 44, 25 3% from 45 to 64, and 20 8% who were 65 or older  The median age was 41 6 years  For every 100 females, there were 80 2 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75 8 males 
Income data from the 2010 Census for Kentucky locations have not yet been released  As of the 2000 Census, the median income for a household in the city was $22,203  The median income for a family was $32,784  Males had a median income of $27,323 versus $17,568 for females  The per capita income for the city was $14,200  About 15 5% of families and 21 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24 0% of those under age 18 and 16 4% of those age 65 or over 

Economy
Initially provided by L&N Railroad, rail transport was the backbone of the local economy in the first half of the 20th century  While the railroad (presently CSX) continues to play an important role, the decline of the rail industry in the latter half of the 20th century, as well as the loss of some manufacturing jobs, has prompted the community to begin diversifying its economy 

Culture
Each year in early August, Corbin hosts a festival called NIBROC (Corbin spelled backward) featuring open-air concerts, carnival attractions, a beauty pageant, parade, and other events  The festival is featured, if anachronistically, in the play Last Train to Nibroc by Arlene Hutton  (Though the play is set in the 1940s, the festival itself only dates to 1952 ) NIBROC often features free performances by popular musical acts such as 38 Special, Foghat, Joan Jett and the Blackhearts, Kansas, The Marshall Tucker Band, Percy Sledge, Rick Springfield, Starship, Styx and The Turtles  In episode 10 of the American reality-documentary television series On the Road with Austin & Santino on Lifetime entitled "We Love a Parade", the fashion designers visit Corbin to custom-design a dress for a local woman participating in the NIBROC parade 
Despite being in dry counties (Knox and Whitley), the city of Corbin allows full retail alcohol sales, following a successful local option election on February 14, 2012  The city had previously voted in 2004 to allow sales of alcohol by the drink in larger restaurants Corbin has an association with Kentucky Fried Chicken, having been the location of the chain's first restaurant, opened in 1930  Corbin appears in the animated cartoon South Park's episode "Medicinal Fried Chicken", wherein Eric Cartman visits the town to meet with Harland Sanders  Corbin is depicted as located in a lush rain forest in a parody of the 1983 film Scarface, wherein Tony Montana and Omar Suarez visit Bolivia to meet with a drug kingpin 

Government
Corbin is governed by a mayor and city commission and a city manager who runs the departments' day-to-day operations  Currently, Marlon Sams is the city manager  Since it does not have a mayor/alderman form of government, Corbin is considered home rule-class under Kentucky's city classification system that took effect in 2015  Susie Razmus is the current mayor  Trent Knuckles, David Grigsby Hart, Ed Tye, and Andrew Pennington are its four current commissioners Corbin is one of the few cities in Kentucky that lie in two counties—Whitley and Knox  Many built-up areas in neighboring Laurel County have a Corbin postal address but lie outside the city limits  This arrangement has created some problems with taxes and census records  The city receives a portion of the occupational tax collected in Whitley County  However, Knox County has refused to give Corbin any tax collected there  On March 10, 2008, the City Commission voted to file a lawsuit against Knox County to receive a portion of the tax collected within city limits  On May 23, 2014, the Kentucky Court of Appeals ruled that the "Stivers amendment", passed as part of KY HB 499 "Tax Amnesty" legislation in 2012, did not violate the state's constitution  The measure essentially canceled the effect of court rulings that would have enabled Corbin to keep all the revenue from the tax generated inside the city limits  Corbin's mayor, Willard McBurney, vowed to carry the fight to the state Supreme Court Corbin is in Kentucky's 5th congressional district 

Education
Corbin, like many communities of its size in southeastern Kentucky, has an independent school system (in Kentucky, a public school system not affiliated with a county; most such districts are associated with individual cities)  The district was officially established in 1916, and the 100th class graduated in 2017  The Corbin Independent School District includes:

Corbin Preschool Center
Corbin Primary (grades K-3)
Corbin Elementary (grades 4–5) (Currently housed by the newest building in the district after a complete remodeling of the former Middle School 
Corbin Middle (grades 6–8)
Corbin High (grades 9–12) (Currently housed by the oldest building in the district)
Corbin School Of InnovationThe community and school system place considerable emphasis on the success of academics and high school athletic teams  Corbin "Redhound" sports are important social events within the community 
In 2004, Eastern Kentucky University opened an extension campus in Corbin 
The annual Battle for the Brass Lantern, a college football rivalry game between the University of the Cumberlands and Union College, was played at Corbin High School's stadium in 2006 and 2007, as a neutral field roughly equidistant from the two campuses  The rivalry dates to 1905 Corbin was formerly home to Saint Camillus Academy, a private pre-K-8 Catholic school affiliated with the Diocese of Lexington  Established in 1908 by the Sisters of Divine Providence, the school has been successful as both a boarding school for national and international students and as a Montessori school  Its original schoolhouse, built in 1913, was demolished in summer 2008  The new school building is still situated atop a prominent hill overlooking the town, providing a striking backdrop to the streets of downtown Corbin  The school closed in 2012 after 99 years of service  The property and grounds of the school were sold to the Corbin School System to house a new Corbin Middle School due to the rapidly increasing student population and age of the current building 
Corbin has a lending library, the Corbin Public Library 

Transportation
Corbin straddles Interstate 75 and U S  Highway 25 (which splits into US 25E and US 25W in North Corbin)  The town is served by the CSX rail line 

Sites of interest
Cumberland Falls State Resort Park, the site of a waterfall, one of the few in the Western Hemisphere that regularly produces a moonbow, is 19 miles (31 km) to the southwest 
Harland Sanders Café and Museum, the birthplace of Kentucky Fried Chicken (though not sold as the KFC/Kentucky Fried Chicken brand at the time), is located in North Corbin  The restaurant and accompanying museum are popular with tour groups traveling along Interstate 75 
The Arena at the Southeastern Kentucky Ag and Expo Complex, a multi-purpose venue on top of a hill across from the Baptist Regional Medical Center, sits above the Corbin Center  This multi-purpose education center also houses the Corbin Tourism office 
Nearby Laurel River Lake, created by the U S  Army Corps of Engineers in 1974, is a popular recreational site for boating, fishing, water skiing, and scuba diving 
Cumberland Gap and Cumberland Gap National Historical Park are about 50 miles (80 km) south of Corbin on U S  Highway 25E at the Tennessee border 

Media
Newspapers
The Times-Tribune, a Tuesday And Thursday newspaper
News Journal, weekly newspaper covering both Corbin (headquarters) and the Whitley County, Kentucky, area including Williamsburg

Radio
WCTT AM 680 (Great 68; Oldies)
WKDP AM 1330
WEKF FM 88 5 (Eastern Ky Univ  affiliate)
WVCT FM 91 5 (Gospel Eagle; Southern Gospel)
WKDP FM 99 5 (Country)
WCTT FM 107 3 (T-107; Adult Contemporary)
WRHR-LPFM 95 3 (also known as Corbin's Own Red 95 3; broadcast by Corbin High School)

TV
WVTN (Channel 22 Time Warner Cable) - religious; broadcast from Corbin with local and regional churches and religious syndicated programs part of the radio station WVCT 91 5
RBS (Channel 18 Time Warner Cable) - Corbin school district information broadcasting the WRHR radio station Red 95 3
YHC (Channel 21 on Time Warner Cable) - broadcasts local and regional business infomercials and runs on-screen ads playing Contemporary Christian Music

Notable people
Rodger Bird, football player
Ensley A  Carpenter, doctor, once lived in Corbin, for whom the town of Carpenter, Kentucky was named
Ted Cremer, football player
Debbie Dean, pop singer, first white solo artist signed to Motown Records
Richie Farmer, politician and former basketball player
Roy Kidd, retired football coach, member of the College Football Hall of Fame, former head coach of Eastern Kentucky University football; was born, raised, and currently resides here
Arthur Lake, actor who played Dagwood Bumstead in the Blondie movies
Ronni Lundy, food and music writer, cookbook author, and Southern Foodways Alliance Lifetime Achievement Award winner
George McAfee, WW2 Veteran, football player, NFL Hall of Fame inductee 
Dan Neal, football player
Colonel Harland Sanders, entrepreneur and founder of Kentucky Fried Chicken restaurant chain
Frank Selvy, basketball player
B  F  Shelton, old-timey banjo player
Jarrett Stidham, quarterback for Baylor University, Auburn University and the New England Patriots 
Trent Taylor, NFL wide receiver for the San Francisco 49ers and Cincinnati Bengals, in college for Louisiana Tech, lived in Corbin as a child, from age 2 through the end of second grade
Mabel Martin Wyrick, writer



ground_truth: Jeffersontown, Kentucky