prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What actor was also a president that Richard Darman worked with when they were in office?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Bobbie Kilberg
Bobbie Kilberg (born Barbara Greene; October 25, 1944) is an American political advisor who has worked for Presidents Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, George H  W  Bush, and George W  Bush  Kilberg has served as the president and CEO of the Northern Virginia Technology Council since 1998  She was briefly an attorney with the Washington law firm of Arnold & Porter from 1971 to 1973  She served on the staff of President Richard Nixon's United States Domestic Policy Council, under President Gerald Ford as Associate Counsel, and for President George H W  Bush as Deputy Assistant to the President for Public Liaison and director of the White House Office of Intergovernmental Affairs 

Career
Bobbie Kilberg is president and CEO of the Northern Virginia Technology Council, a position she has held since September 1998 As a White House Fellow, she served on the staff of President Nixon's Domestic Policy Council  From 1971 to 1973, she was an attorney with the Washington law firm of Arnold & Porter then vice president for academic affairs at Mount Vernon College  In 1971, Kilberg was elected to the Common Cause National Governing Board  In 1975 she return to the White House as associate counsel to the president under Gerald Ford Kilberg directed a project on the future of private philanthropy at the Aspen Institute beginning in 1978 then she moved to the Roosevelt Center for American Policy Studies in 1982 as vice president and general counsel She held two consecutive positions for President George H W  Bush, as Deputy Assistant to the President for Public Liaison and as director of the White House Office of Intergovernmental Affairs In December 2001, she was appointed by President George W  Bush to serve as a member of the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology during his term in office In Virginia, Bobbie Kilberg has served on the Speaker's Citizens Advisory Committee on Legislative Compensation, on the Joint Judicial Advisory Committee for the merit selection of judges, on the Attorney General's Task Forces on Identity Theft, Regulatory Reform and Economic Development, and Youth Internet Safety, and on the Governor's Northern Virginia BRAC Working Group  In November 2009, Governor Bob McDonnell named her as one of the five Co-Chairs of his Transition Team  In May 2010, she was named to the Governor's Commission on Government Reform and Restructuring and, in August 2010, she was named to the Governor's Commission on Military and National Security Facilities Kilberg has sought elected political office twice in Virginia, in 1987 as the Republican candidate for the State Senate and in 1993 as a candidate for the Republican nomination for Lieutenant Governor 

Personal life
Kilberg resides in McLean, Virginia with her husband, Bill, a senior partner and member of the executive committee of the law firm of Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher LLP  They have five children and sixteen grandchildren 
Passage 2:
List of domestic buildings by G  E  Street
G  E  Street (1824–81) was an English architect and architectural writer, whose designs were mainly in High Victorian Gothic style   Born the son of a solicitor, he first worked in a law office, but was then articled to the architect Owen Browne Carter in Winchester   Two years later, in 1844, he moved to London and worked in the office of George Gilbert Scott   Here he also worked with George Frederick Bodley and William White   Street established his own architectural practice in 1849, initially in London, and later in Wantage (then in Berkshire)   He was appointed as architect to the diocese of Oxford in 1850, and retained this position until his death  He married in 1852 and in that year moved to Oxford   He returned to London in 1856 and maintained an office there for the remainder of his career   He travelled extensively, visiting the Continent of Europe frequently   Street was also a prolific writer on architectural subjects   He was a member of the Royal Academy, and in 1874 was awarded the Royal Gold Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects, being its president in 1881 Most of Street's works were in relation to churches; designing new churches, restoring and making additions and alterations to existing churches, and designing fittings and furnishings for them   He also designed domestic buildings, especially vicarages, and schools with houses for the schoolmaster   He designed little in the way of public buildings, although towards the end of his life he designed what has been described as his "greatest commission", the Royal Courts of Justice in London   Most of his works were in England, especially within and close to the diocese of Oxford, but examples of his work can be found throughout England, Wales and Ireland   He also designed some buildings abroad, including a church in Constantinople   Almost all his designs are in Gothic Revival style, in particular, in what is known as the High Victorian style   This style came chronologically after the use of "pure" and "correct" use of features of English Gothic architecture, which had been championed by A  W  N  Pugin and the Ecclesiological Society   High Victorian incorporated the use of polychromy, and elements of Continental forms of Gothic architecture   Street died in 1881, and was buried in Westminster Abbey This list contains details of Street's work on domestic buildings in England and Scotland 

Key
Works
See also
List of new churches by G  E  Street
List of church restorations and alterations by G  E  Street
List of miscellaneous works by G  E  Street
Passage 3:
Ronald Reagan
Ronald Wilson Reagan ( RAY-gən; February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989  A member of the Republican Party, his presidency constituted the Reagan era, and he is considered one of the most prominent conservative figures in the United States 
Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932 and began to work as a sports broadcaster in Iowa  In 1937, Reagan moved to California, where he became a film actor  From 1947 to 1952, Reagan served as the president of the Screen Actors Guild  In the 1950s, he worked in television and spoke for General Electric  From 1959 to 1960, he again served as the Screen Actors Guild's president  In 1964, "A Time for Choosing" gave Reagan attention as a new conservative figure  He was elected governor of California in 1966  During his governorship, he raised taxes, turned the state budget deficit into a surplus, and cracked down harshly on university protests  After challenging and nearly defeating incumbent president Gerald Ford in the 1976 Republican presidential primaries, Reagan won the Republican nomination and then a landslide victory over incumbent Democratic president Jimmy Carter in the 1980 United States presidential election 
In his first term, Reagan implemented "Reaganomics", which involved economic deregulation and cuts in both taxes and government spending during a period of stagflation  He escalated an arms race and transitioned Cold War policy away from détente with the Soviet Union; he also ordered the invasion of Grenada in 1983  Additionally, he survived an assassination attempt, fought public sector labor unions, expanded the war on drugs, and was slow to respond to the AIDS epidemic in the United States, which began early in his presidency  In the 1984 presidential election, Reagan defeated former vice president Walter Mondale in another landslide victory  Foreign affairs dominated Reagan's second term, including the 1986 bombing of Libya, the Iran–Iraq War, the secret and illegal sale of arms to Iran to fund the Contras, and a more conciliatory approach in talks with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev that culminated in the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty 
Reagan left the presidency in 1989 with the American economy having seen a significant reduction of inflation, the unemployment rate having fallen, and the United States having entered its then-longest peacetime expansion  At the same time, the federal debt had nearly tripled since 1981 as a result of his cuts in taxes and increased military spending, despite cuts to domestic discretionary spending  Reagan's policies also helped contribute to the end of the Cold War and the end of Soviet communism  Alzheimer's disease hindered Reagan post-presidency, and his physical and mental capacities rapidly deteriorated, ultimately leading to his death in 2004  Historians and scholars have ranked Reagan among the middle to upper tier of American presidents, and he is often viewed favorably among the general public 

Early life
Ronald Wilson Reagan was born on February 6, 1911, in a commercial building in Tampico, Illinois, as the younger son of Nelle Clyde Wilson and Jack Reagan  Nelle was committed to the Disciples of Christ, which believed in the Social Gospel  She led prayer meetings and ran mid-week prayers at her church when the pastor was out of town  Reagan credited her spiritual influence and he became a Christian  According to Stephen Vaughn, Reagan's values came from his pastor, and the First Christian Church's religious, economic and social positions "coincided with the words, if not the beliefs of the latter-day Reagan"  Jack focused on making money to take care of the family, but this was complicated by his alcoholism  Neil Reagan was Reagan's older brother  Together, they lived in Chicago, Galesburg, and Monmouth before returning to Tampico  In 1920, they settled in Dixon, Illinois, living in a house near the H  C  Pitney Variety Store Building Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in drama and football  His first job involved working as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park  In 1928, Reagan began attending Eureka College at Nelle's approval on religious grounds  He was a mediocre student that participated in sports, drama, and campus politics  He became student body president and joined a student strike that resulted in the college president's resignation  Reagan recalled a time when two black football teammates were refused service at a segregated hotel; he invited them to his parents' home nearby in Dixon and his parents welcomed them  At the time, his parents' stance on racial questions were unusually progressive in Dixon  Reagan himself had grown up with very few black Americans there and was unaware of a race problem 

Entertainment career
Radio and film
After obtaining a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics and sociology from Eureka College in 1932, Reagan took a job in Davenport, Iowa, as a sports broadcaster for four football games in the Big Ten Conference  He then worked for WHO radio in Des Moines as a broadcaster for the Chicago Cubs  His specialty was creating play-by-play accounts of games using only basic descriptions that the station received by wire as the games were in progress  Simultaneously, he often expressed his opposition to racism  In 1936, while traveling with the Cubs to their spring training in California, Reagan took a screen test that led to a seven-year contract with Warner Bros Reagan arrived at Hollywood in 1937, debuting in Love Is on the Air (1937)  Using a simple and direct approach to acting and following his directors' instructions, Reagan made thirty films, mostly B films, before beginning military service in April 1942  He broke out of these types of films by portraying George Gipp in Knute Rockne, All American (1940), which would be rejuvenated when reporters called Reagan "the Gipper" while he campaigned for president of the United States  Afterward, Reagan starred in Kings Row (1942) as a leg amputee, asking, "Where's the rest of me?" His performance was considered his best by many critics  Reagan became a star, with Gallup polls placing him "in the top 100 stars" from 1941 to 1942 World War II interrupted the movie stardom that Reagan would never be able to achieve again as Warner Bros  became uncertain about his ability to generate ticket sales  Reagan, who had a limited acting range, was dissatisfied with the roles he received  As a result, Lew Wasserman renegotiated his contract with his studio, allowing him to also make films with Universal Pictures, Paramount Pictures, and RKO Pictures as a freelancer  With this, Reagan appeared in multiple western films, something that had been denied him working at Warner Bros  In 1952, he ended his relationship with Warner Bros , but went on to appear in a total of 53 films, his last being The Killers (1964) 

Military service
In April 1937, Reagan enlisted in the United States Army Reserve  He was assigned as a private in Des Moines' 322nd Cavalry Regiment and reassigned to second lieutenant in the Officers Reserve Corps  He later became a part of the 323rd Cavalry Regiment in California  As relations between the United States and Japan worsened, Reagan was ordered for active duty while he was filming Kings Row  Wasserman and Warner Bros  lawyers successfully sent draft deferments to complete the film in October 1941  However, to avoid accusations of Reagan being a draft dodger, the studio let him go in April 1942 Reagan reported for duty with severe near-sightedness  His first assignment was at Fort Mason as a liaison officer, a role that allowed him to transfer to the United States Army Air Forces (AAF)  Reagan became an AAF public relations officer and was subsequently assigned to the 18th AAF Base Unit in Culver City where he felt that it was "impossible to remove an incompetent or lazy worker" due to what he felt was "the incompetence, the delays, and inefficiencies" of the federal bureaucracy  Despite this, Reagan participated in the Provisional Task Force Show Unit in Burbank and continued to make theatrical films  He was also ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in the sixth War Loan Drive before being reassigned to Fort MacArthur until his discharge on December 9, 1945, as a captain  Throughout his military service, Reagan produced over 400 training films 

Screen Actors Guild presidency
When Robert Montgomery resigned as president of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) on March 10, 1947, Reagan was elected to that position, in a special election  Reagan's first tenure saw various labor-management disputes, the Hollywood blacklist, and the Taft–Hartley Act's implementation  On April 10, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) interviewed Reagan and he provided them with the names of actors whom he believed to be communist sympathizers  During a House Un-American Activities Committee hearing, Reagan testified that some guild members were associated with the Communist Party and that he was well-informed on a "jurisdictional strike"  When asked if he was aware of communist efforts within the Screen Writers Guild, he called the efforts "hearsay"  Reagan would remain SAG president until he resigned on November 10, 1952; Walter Pidgeon succeeded him, but Reagan stayed on the board The SAG fought with film producers over residual payments and on November 16, 1959, the board installed Reagan as SAG president, replacing the resigned Howard Keel  In his second stint, Reagan managed to secure the payments for actors whose theatrical films were released from 1948 to 1959 were televised  The producers were initially required to pay the actors fees, but they ultimately settled for pensions instead  However, they were still required to pay residuals for films after 1959  Reagan resigned from the SAG presidency on June 7, 1960, and also left the board; George Chandler succeeded him as SAG president 

Marriages and children
Reagan married Brother Rat (1938) co-star Jane Wyman in January 1940  Together, they had two biological daughters: Maureen in 1941, and Christine, born prematurely and dead the next day in 1947  They adopted one son, Michael, in 1945  Wyman filed to divorce Reagan in June 1948  She was uninterested in politics, and occasionally recriminated, reconciled and separated with him  Although Reagan was unprepared, the divorce was finalized in July 1949  Reagan would also remain close to his children  Later that year, Reagan met Nancy Davis after she contacted him in his capacity as the SAG president about her name appearing on a communist blacklist in Hollywood; she had been mistaken for another Nancy Davis  They married in March 1952 and had two children, Patti in 1952, and Ron in 1958 

Television
Reagan became the host of MCA Inc  television production General Electric Theater at Wasserman's recommendation  It featured multiple guest stars, and Ronald and Nancy Reagan, continuing to use her stage name Nancy Davis, acted together in three episodes  When asked how Reagan was able to recruit such stars to appear on the show during television's infancy, he replied, "Good stories, top direction, production quality " However, the viewership declined in the 1960s and the show was canceled in 1962  In 1965, Reagan became the host of another MCA production, Death Valley Days 

Early political activities
Reagan began as a Democrat, viewing Franklin D  Roosevelt as "a true hero"  He joined the American Veterans Committee and Hollywood Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions (HICCASP), worked with the AFL–CIO to fight right-to-work laws, and continued to speak out against racism when he was in Hollywood  In 1945, Reagan planned to lead an HICCASP anti-nuclear rally, but Warner Bros  prevented him from going  In 1946, he appeared in a radio program called Operation Terror to speak out against rising Ku Klux Klan activity in the country, citing the attacks as a "capably organized systematic campaign of fascist violence and intimidation and horror"  Reagan also supported Harry S  Truman in the 1948 presidential election and Helen Gahagan Douglas for the United States Senate in 1950  It was Reagan's belief that communism was a powerful backstage influence in Hollywood that led him to rally his friends against them Reagan began shifting to the right when he supported the presidential campaigns of Dwight D  Eisenhower in 1952 and Richard Nixon in 1960  When Reagan was contracted by General Electric (GE), he gave speeches to their employees  His speeches had a positive take on free markets  Under GE vice president Lemuel Boulware, a staunch anti-communist, employees were encouraged to vote for business-friendly politicians In 1961, Reagan adapted his speeches into another speech to criticize Medicare  In his view, its legislation would have meant "the end of individual freedom in the United States"  In 1962, Reagan was dropped by GE, and he formally registered as a Republican In 1964, Reagan gave a speech for presidential contender Barry Goldwater that was eventually referred to as "A Time for Choosing"   Reagan argued that the Founding Fathers "knew that governments don't control things  And they knew when a government sets out to do that, it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose" and that "We've been told increasingly that we must choose between left or right " Even though the speech was not enough to turn around the faltering Goldwater campaign, it increased Reagan's profile among conservatives  David S  Broder and Stephen H  Hess called it "the most successful national political debut since William Jennings Bryan electrified the 1896 Democratic convention with his famous 'Cross of Gold' address" 

1966 California gubernatorial election
In January 1966, Reagan announced his candidacy for the California governorship, repeating his stances on individual freedom and big government  When he met with black Republicans in March, he was criticized for opposing the Civil Rights Act of 1964  Certain in his own lack of prejudice, Reagan responded resentfully that bigotry was not in his nature and later argued that certain provisions of the act infringed upon the rights of property owners  After the Supreme Court of California ruled that the initiative that repealed the Rumford Act was unconstitutional in May, he voiced his support for the act's repeal, but later preferred amending it  In the Republican primary, Reagan defeated George Christopher, a moderate who William F  Buckley Jr  thought had painted Reagan as extreme Reagan's general election opponent, incumbent governor Pat Brown, attempted to label Reagan as an extremist and tout his own accomplishments  Reagan portrayed himself as a political outsider, and charged Brown as responsible for the Watts riots and lenient on crime  In numerous speeches, Reagan "hit the Brown administration about high taxes, uncontrolled spending, the radicals at the University of California, Berkeley, and the need for accountability in government"  Meanwhile, many in the press perceived Reagan as "monumentally ignorant of state issues", though Lou Cannon said that Reagan benefited from an appearance he and Brown made on Meet the Press in September  Ultimately, Reagan won the governorship with 57 percent of the vote compared to Brown's 42 percent 

1967–1975: California governorship
Brown had spent much of California's funds on new programs, prompting them to use accrual accounting to avoid raising taxes  Consequently, it generated a larger deficit, and Reagan would call for reduced government spending and tax hikes to balance the budget  He worked with Jesse M  Unruh on securing tax increases and promising future property tax cuts  This caused some conservatives to accuse Reagan of betraying his principles  As a result, taxes on sales, banks, corporate profits, inheritances, liquor, and cigarettes jumped  Kevin Starr states, Reagan "gave Californians the biggest tax hike in their history—and got away with it " In the 1970 gubernatorial election, Unruh used Reagan's tax policy against him, saying it disproportionally favored the wealthy  Reagan countered that he was still committed to reducing property taxes  By 1973, the budget had a surplus, which Reagan preferred "to give back to the people" In 1967, Reagan reacted to the Black Panther Party's strategy of copwatching by signing the Mulford Act to prohibit the public carrying of firearms  The act was California's most restrictive piece of gun control legislation, with critics saying that it was "overreacting to the political activism of organizations such as the Black Panthers"  The act marked the beginning of both modern legislation and public attitude studies on gun control  Reagan also signed the 1967 Therapeutic Abortion Act that allowed abortions in the cases of rape and incest when a doctor determined the birth would impair the physical or mental health of the mother  He later expressed regret over signing it, saying that he was unaware of the mental health provision  He believed that doctors were interpreting the provision loosely and more abortions were resulting After Reagan won the 1966 election, he and his advisors planned a run in the 1968 Republican presidential primaries  He ran as an unofficial candidate to cut into Nixon's southern support and be a compromise candidate if there were to be a brokered convention  He won California's delegates, but Nixon secured enough delegates for the nomination Reagan had previously been critical of former governor Brown and university administrators for tolerating student demonstrations in the city of Berkeley, making it a major theme in his campaigning  
On February 5, 1969, Reagan declared a state of emergency in response to ongoing protests and acts of violence at the University of California, Berkeley, and sent in the California Highway Patrol  In May 1969, these officers, along with local officers from Berkeley and Alameda county, clashed with protestors over a site known as the People's Park  One student was shot and killed while many police officers and two reporters were injured  Reagan then commanded the state National Guard troops to occupy Berkeley for seventeen days to subdue the protesters, allowing other students to attend class safely  In February 1970, violent protests broke out near the University of California, Santa Barbara, where he once again deployed the National Guard  On April 7, Reagan defended his policies regarding campus protests, saying, "If it takes a bloodbath, let's get it over with  No more appeasement "During his victorious reelection campaign in 1970, Reagan, remaining critical of government, promised to prioritize welfare reform  He was concerned that the programs were disincentivizing work and that the growing welfare rolls would lead to both an unbalanced budget and another big tax hike in 1972  At the same time, the Federal Reserve increased interest rates to combat inflation, putting the American economy in a mild recession  Reagan worked with Bob Moretti to tighten up the eligibility requirements so that the financially needy could continue receiving payments  This was only accomplished after Reagan softened his criticism of Nixon's Family Assistance Plan  Nixon then lifted regulations to shepherd California's experiment  In 1976, the Employment Development Department published a report suggesting that the experiment that ran from 1971 to 1974 was unsuccessful Reagan did not run for the governorship in 1974 and it was won by Pat Brown's son, Jerry  Reagan's governorship, as professor Gary K  Clabaugh writes, saw public schools deteriorate due to his opposition to additional basic education funding  As for higher education, journalist William Trombley believed that the budget cuts Reagan enacted damaged Berkeley's student-faculty ratio and research  Additionally, the homicide rate doubled and armed robbery rates rose as well during Reagan's eight years, even with the many laws Reagan signed to try toughening criminal sentencing and reforming the criminal justice system  Reagan strongly supported capital punishment, but his efforts to enforce it were thwarted by People v  Anderson in 1972  According to his son, Michael, Reagan said that he regretted signing the Family Law Act that granted no-fault divorces 

1975–1981: Seeking the presidency
1976 Republican primaries
Insufficiently conservative to Reagan and many other Republicans, president Gerald Ford suffered from multiple political and economic woes  Ford, running for president, was disappointed to hear him also run  Reagan was strongly critical of détente and Ford's policy of détente with the Soviet Union  He repeated "A Time for Choosing" around the country before announcing his campaign on November 20, 1975, when he discussed economic and social problems, and to a lesser extent, foreign affairs  Both candidates were determined to knock each other out early in the primaries, but Reagan would devastatingly lose the first five primaries beginning with New Hampshire, where he popularized the welfare queen narrative about Linda Taylor, exaggerating her misuse of welfare benefits and igniting voter resentment for welfare reform, but never overtly mentioning her name or race In Florida, Reagan referred to a "strapping young buck", which became an example of dog whistle politics, and accused Ford for handing the Panama Canal to Panama's government while Ford implied that he would end Social Security  Then, in Illinois, he again criticized Ford's policy and his secretary of state, Henry Kissinger  Losing the first five primaries prompted Reagan to desperately win North Carolina's by running a grassroots campaign and uniting with the Jesse Helms political machine that viciously attacked Ford  Reagan won an upset victory, convincing party delegates that Ford's nomination was no longer guaranteed  Reagan won subsequent victories in Texas, Alabama, Georgia, and Indiana with his attacks on social programs, opposition to forced busing, increased support from inclined voters of a declining George Wallace presidential campaign, and repeated criticisms of Ford and Kissinger's policies, including détente The result was a seesaw battle for the 1,130 delegates required for their party's nomination that neither would reach before the Kansas City convention in August and Ford replacing mentions of détente with Reagan's preferred phrase, "peace through strength"  Reagan took John Sears' advice of choosing liberal Richard Schweiker as his running mate, hoping to pry loose of delegates from Pennsylvania and other states, and distract Ford  Instead, conservatives were left alienated, and Ford picked up the remaining uncommitted delegates and prevailed, earning 1,187 to Reagan's 1,070  Before giving his acceptance speech, Ford invited Reagan to address the convention; Reagan emphasized individual freedom and the dangers of nuclear weapons  In 1977, Ford told Cannon that Reagan's primary challenge contributed to his own narrow loss to Democrat Jimmy Carter in the 1976 United States presidential election 

1980 election
Reagan emerged as a vocal critic of President Carter in 1977  The Panama Canal Treaty's signing, the 1979 oil crisis, and rise in the inflation, interest and unemployment rates helped set up his 1980 presidential campaign, which he announced on November 13, 1979 with an indictment of the federal government  His announcement stressed his fundamental principles of tax cuts to stimulate the economy and having both a small government and a strong national defense, since he believed the United States was behind the Soviet Union militarily  Heading into 1980, his age became an issue among the press, and the United States was in a severe recession  In the primaries, Reagan lost Iowa to George H  W  Bush, but rebounded in New Hampshire  Soon thereafter, Reagan's opponents began dropping out of the primaries, including John B  Anderson, who left the party to become an independent candidate  Reagan easily captured the presidential nomination and chose Bush as his running mate at the Detroit convention in July The general election pitted Reagan against Carter amid the multitude of domestic concerns and ongoing Iran hostage crisis that began on November 4, 1979  Reagan's campaign worried that Carter would be able to secure the release of the American hostages in Iran as part of the October surprise, Carter "suggested that Reagan would wreck Social Security" and portrayed him as a warmonger, and Anderson carried support from liberal Republicans dissatisfied with Reagan's conservatism  One of Reagan's key strengths was his appeal to the rising conservative movement  Though most conservative leaders espoused cutting taxes and budget deficits, many conservatives focused more closely on social issues like abortion and homosexuality  Evangelical Protestants became an increasingly important voting bloc, and they generally supported Reagan  Reagan also won the backing of Reagan Democrats  Though he advocated socially conservative view points, Reagan focused much of his campaign on attacks against Carter's foreign policy In August, Reagan gave a speech at the Neshoba County Fair, stating his belief in states' rights  Joseph Crespino argues that the visit was designed to reach out to Wallace-inclined voters, and some also saw these actions as an extension of the Southern strategy to garner white support for Republican candidates  Reagan's supporters have said that this was his typical anti-big government rhetoric, without racial context or intent  In the October 28 debate, Carter correctly chided Reagan for being against national health insurance  Reagan replied, "There you go again", though the audience laughed and viewers found him more appealing  Reagan later asked the audience if they were better off than they were four years ago, slightly paraphrasing Roosevelt's words in 1934  In 1983, Reagan's campaign managers were revealed to having obtained Carter's debate briefing book before the debates  On November 4, 1980, Reagan won in a decisive victory in the Electoral College over Carter, carrying 44 states and receiving 489 electoral votes to Carter's 49 in six states and the District of Columbia  He won the popular vote by a narrower margin, receiving nearly 51 percent to Carter's 41 percent and Anderson's 7 percent  In the United States Congress, Republicans won a majority of seats in the Senate for the first time since 1952 while Democrats retained the House of Representatives 

1981–1989: Presidency
First inauguration
The 40th president of the United States, Reagan was sworn into office for his first term on January 20, 1981  In his inaugural address, he addressed the country's economic malaise, arguing, "In this present crisis, government is not the solution to our problem, government is the problem " In a final insult to President Carter, Iran had waited until Reagan had been sworn in before sending the hostages home 

"Reaganomics" and the economy
Reagan advocated a laissez-faire philosophy, and promoted a set of neoliberal reforms dubbed "Reaganomics", which included monetarism and supply-side economics 

Taxation
Reagan worked with the boll weevil Democrats to pass tax and budget legislation in a Congress led by Tip O'Neill, a liberal who strongly criticized Reaganomics  He lifted federal oil and gasoline price controls on January 28, 1981, and in August, he signed the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 to dramatically lower federal income tax rates and require exemptions and brackets to be indexed for inflation starting in 1985  Amid growing concerns about the mounting federal debt, Reagan signed the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982, one of the eleven times Reagan raised taxes  The bill doubled the federal cigarette tax, rescinded a portion of the corporate tax cuts from the 1981 tax bill, and according to Paul Krugman, "a third of the 1981 cut" overall  Many of his supporters condemned the bill, but Reagan defended his preservation of cuts on individual income tax rates  By 1983, the amount of federal tax had fallen for all or most taxpayers, but most strongly affected the wealthy The Tax Reform Act of 1986 reduced the number of tax brackets and top tax rate, and almost doubled personal exemptions To Reagan, the tax cuts would not have increased the deficit as long as there was enough economic growth and spending cuts  His policies proposed that economic growth would occur when the tax cuts spur investments, which would result in more spending, consumption, and ergo tax revenue  This theoretical relationship has been illustrated by some with the controversial Laffer curve  Critics labeled this "trickle-down economics", the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will spread to the poor  Milton Friedman and Robert Mundell argued that these policies invigorated America's economy and contributed to the economic boom of the 1990s 

Inflation and unemployment
Reagan took office in the midst of stagflation  The economy briefly experienced growth before plunging into a recession in July 1981  As Federal Reserve chairman, Paul Volcker fought inflation by pursuing a tight money policy of high interest rates, which restricted lending and investment, raised unemployment, and temporarily reduced economic growth  In December 1982, the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) measured the unemployment rate at 10 8 percent  Around the same time, economic activity began to rise until its end in 1990, setting the record for the longest peacetime expansion  In 1983, the recession ended and Reagan nominated Volcker to a second term in fear of damaging confidence in the economic recovery Reagan appointed Alan Greenspan to succeed Volcker in 1987  Greenspan raised interest rates in another attempt to curb inflation, setting off the Black Monday although the markets eventually recovered  By 1989, the BLS measured the unemployment rate at 5 3 percent  The inflation rate dropped from 12 percent during the 1980 election to under 5 percent in 1989  Likewise, the interest rate dropped from 15 percent to under 10 percent  Yet, not all shared equally in the economic recovery, and both economic inequality and the number of homeless individuals increased during the 1980s  Critics have contended that a majority of the jobs created during this decade paid the minimum wage 

Government spending
In 1981, in an effort to keep it solvent, Reagan approved a plan for cuts to Social Security  He later backed off of these plans due to public backlash  He then created the Greenspan Commission to keep Social Security financially secure and in 1983, he signed amendments to raise both the program's payroll taxes and retirement age for benefits  He had signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981 to cut funding for federal assistance such as food stamps, unemployment benefits, subsidized housing and the Aid to Families with Dependent Children, and would discontinue the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act  On the other side, defense spending doubled between 1981 and 1985  During Reagan's presidency, Project Socrates operated within the Defense Intelligence Agency in order to discover why the United States was unable to maintain its economic competitiveness  According to program director Michael Sekora, their findings helped the country exceed Soviet missile defense technology 

Deregulation
Reagan sought to loosen federal regulation of economic activities, and he appointed key officials who shared this agenda  William Leuchtenburg writes that by 1986, the Reagan administration eliminated almost half of the federal regulations that had existed in 1981  The 1982 Garn–St  Germain Depository Institutions Act deregulated savings and loan associations by letting them make a variety of loans and investments outside of real estate  After the bill's passage, savings and loans associations engaged in riskier activities, and the leaders of some institutions embezzled funds  The administration's inattentiveness toward the industry contributed to the savings and loan crisis and costly bailouts 

Deficits
The deficits were exacerbated by the early 1980s recession, which cut into federal revenue  The national debt tripled between the fiscal years of 1980 and 1989, and the national debt as a percentage of the gross domestic product rose from 33 percent in 1981 to 53 percent by 1989  During his time in office, Reagan never fulfilled his 1980 campaign promise of submitting a balanced budget  The United States borrowed heavily in order to cover newly spawned federal budget deficits  Reagan described the tripled debt the "greatest disappointment of his presidency"  Jeffrey Frankel opined that the deficits were a major reason why Reagan's successor, Bush, reneged on his campaign promise by raising taxes through the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990 

Assassination attempt
On March 30, 1981, Reagan was shot by John Hinckley Jr  outside the Washington Hilton  Also struck were: James Brady, Thomas Delahanty, and Tim McCarthy  Although "right on the margin of death" upon arrival at George Washington University Hospital, Reagan underwent surgery and recovered quickly from a broken rib, a punctured lung, and internal bleeding  Professor J  David Woodard says that the assassination attempt "created a bond between him and the American people that was never really broken"  Later, Reagan came to believe that God had spared his life "for a chosen mission" 

Supreme Court appointments
Reagan appointed three associate justices to the Supreme Court of the United States: Sandra Day O'Connor in July 1981, Antonin Scalia in 1986, and Anthony Kennedy in 1988  He also appointed William Rehnquist as the chief justice in 1986  The direction of the Supreme Court's reshaping has been described as conservative 

Public sector labor union fights
Early in August 1981, the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) went on strike, violating a federal law prohibiting government unions from striking  On August 3, Reagan said that he would fire air traffic controllers if they did not return to work within 48 hours; according to him, 38 percent did not return  On August 13, Reagan fired roughly 12,000 striking air traffic controllers who ignored his order  He used military controllers and supervisors to handle the nation's commercial air traffic until new controllers could be hired and trained  The breaking of the PATCO strike demoralized organized labor, and the number of strikes fell greatly in the 1980s  With the assent of Reagan's sympathetic National Labor Relations Board appointees, many companies also won wage and benefit cutbacks from unions, especially in the manufacturing sector  During Reagan's presidency, the share of employees who were part of a labor union dropped from approximately one-fourth of the total workforce to approximately one-sixth of the total workforce 

Civil rights
Despite Reagan having opposed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the bill was extended for 25 years in 1982  He initially opposed the establishment of Martin Luther King Jr  Day, but signed a veto-proof bill to create the holiday in 1983, and also alluded to claims that King was associated with communists during his career  In 1984, he signed legislation intended to impose fines for fair housing discrimination offenses  In March 1988, Reagan vetoed the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987, but Congress overrode his veto  He had argued that the bill unreasonably increased the federal government's power and undermined the rights of churches and business owners  Later in September, legislation was passed to correct loopholes in the Fair Housing Act of 1968 Early in his presidency, Reagan appointed Clarence M  Pendleton Jr  as chair of the United States Commission on Civil Rights to criticism for politicizing the agency  Pendleton and Reagan's subsequent appointees steered the commission in line with Reagan's views on civil rights, arousing the ire of civil rights advocates  In 1987, Reagan unsuccessfully nominated Robert Bork to the Supreme Court as a way to achieve his civil rights policy that could not be fulfilled during his presidency; his administration had opposed affirmative action, particularly in education, federal assistance programs, housing and employment, but Reagan reluctantly continued these policies  In housing, Reagan's administration saw considerably fewer fair housing cases filed than the three previous administrations  Reagan's recasting of civil rights through reduced enforcement of civil rights laws has been regarded by some as the largest since Lyndon B  Johnson's presidency 

War on drugs
In response to concerns about the increasing crack epidemic, Reagan intensified the war on drugs in 1982  While the American public did not see drugs as an important issue then, the FBI, Drug Enforcement Administration and the United States Department of Defense all increased their anti-drug funding immensely  Reagan's administration publicized the campaign to gain support after crack became widespread in 1985  Reagan signed the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 and 1988 to specify penalties for drug offenses  Both bills have been criticized in the years since for promoting racial disparities  Additionally, Nancy Reagan founded the "Just Say No" campaign to discourage others from engaging in recreational drug use and raise awareness about the dangers of drugs  A 1988 study showed 39 percent of high school seniors using illegal drugs compared to 53 percent in 1980, but Scott Lilienfeld and Hal Arkowitz say that the success of these types of campaigns have not been found to be affirmatively proven 

Escalation of the Cold War
Reagan ordered a massive defense buildup; he revived the B-1 Lancer program that had been rejected by the Carter administration, and deployed the MX missile  In response to Soviet deployment of the SS-20, he oversaw NATO's deployment of the Pershing missile in Western Europe  In 1982, Reagan tried to cut off the Soviet Union's access to hard currency by impeding its proposed gas line to Western Europe  It hurt the Soviet economy, but it also caused much ill will among American allies in Europe who counted on that revenue; he later retreated on this issue  In March 1983, Reagan introduced the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) to protect the United States from space intercontinental ballistic missiles  He believed that this defense shield could protect the country from nuclear destruction in a hypothetical nuclear war with the Soviet Union  There was much disbelief among the scientific community surrounding the program's scientific feasibility, leading opponents to dub the SDI "Star Wars", though Soviet leader Yuri Andropov said it would lead to "an extremely dangerous path" 
In a 1982 address to the British Parliament, Reagan said, "the march of freedom and democracy     will leave Marxism–Leninism on the ash heap of history " Dismissed by the American press as "wishful thinking", Margaret Thatcher called the address a "triumph"  David Cannadine says of Thatcher that "Reagan had been grateful for her interest in him at a time when the British establishment refused to take him seriously" with the two agreeing on "building up stronger defenses against Soviet Russia" and both believing in outfacing "what Reagan would later call 'the evil empire'" in reference to the Soviet Union during a speech to the National Association of Evangelicals in March 1983  After Soviet fighters downed Korean Air Lines Flight 007 in September, which included Larry McDonald and 61 other Americans, Reagan expressed outrage towards the Soviet Union  The next day, reports suggested that the Soviets had fired on the plane by mistake  In spite of the harsh, discordant rhetoric, Reagan's administration continued discussions with the Soviet Union on START I Although the Reagan administration agreed with the communist government in China to reduce the sale of arms to Taiwan in 1982, Reagan himself was the first president to reject containment and détente, and to put into practice the concept that the Soviet Union could be defeated rather than simply negotiated with  His covert aid to Afghan mujahideen forces through Pakistan against the Soviets has been given credit for assisting in ending the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan  However, the United States was subjected to blowback in the form of the Taliban that opposed them in the war in Afghanistan  In his 1985 State of the Union Address, Reagan proclaimed, "Support for freedom fighters is self-defense " Through the Reagan Doctrine, his administration supported anti-communist movements that fought against groups backed by the Soviet Union in an effort to rollback Soviet-backed communist governments and reduce Soviet influence across the world  Critics have felt that the administration ignored the human rights violations in the countries they backed, including genocide in Guatemala and mass killings in Chad 

Invasion of Grenada
On October 19, 1983, Maurice Bishop was overthrown and murdered by one of his colleagues  Several days later, Reagan ordered American forces to invade Grenada  Reagan cited a regional threat posed by a Soviet-Cuban military build-up in the Caribbean nation and concern for the safety of hundreds of American medical students at St  George's University as adequate reasons to invade  Two days of fighting commenced, resulting in an American victory  While the invasion enjoyed public support in the United States, it was criticized internationally, with the United Nations General Assembly voting to censure the American government  Cannon later noted that throughout Reagan's 1984 presidential campaign, the invasion overshadowed the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings, which killed 241 Americans taking part in an international peacekeeping operation during the Lebanese Civil War 

1984 election
Reagan announced his reelection campaign on January 29, 1984, declaring, "America is back and standing tall " In February, his administration reversed the unpopular decision to send the United States Marine Corps to Lebanon, thus eliminating a political liability for him  Reagan faced minimal opposition in the Republican primaries, and he and Bush accepted the nomination at the Dallas convention in August  In the general election, his campaign ran the commercial, "Morning in America"  At a time when the American economy was already recovering, former vice president Walter Mondale was attacked by Reagan's campaign as a "tax-and-spend Democrat", while Mondale criticized the deficit, the SDI, and Reagan's civil rights policy  However, Reagan's age induced his campaign managers to minimize his public appearances  Mondale's campaign believed that Reagan's age and mental health were issues before the October presidential debates Following Reagan's performance in the first debate where he struggled to recall statistics, his age was brought up by the media in negative fashion  Reagan's campaign changed his tactics for the second debate where he quipped, "I will not make age an issue of this campaign  I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience " This remark generated applause and laughter, even from Mondale  At that point, Broder suggested that age was no longer a liability for Reagan, and Mondale's campaign felt that "the election was over"  In November, Reagan won a landslide reelection victory with 59 percent of the popular vote and 525 electoral votes from 49 states  Mondale won 41 percent of the popular vote and 13 electoral votes from the District of Columbia and his home state of Minnesota 

Response to the AIDS epidemic
The AIDS epidemic began to unfold in 1981, and AIDS was initially difficult to understand for physicians and the public  As the epidemic advanced, according to White House physician and later physician to the president, brigadier general John Hutton, Reagan thought of AIDS as though "it was the measles and would go away"  The October 1985 death of the President's friend Rock Hudson affected Reagan's view; Reagan approached Hutton for more information on the disease  Still, between September 18, 1985 and February 4, 1986, Reagan did not mention AIDS in public In 1986, Reagan asked C  Everett Koop to draw up a report on the AIDS issue  Koop angered many evangelical conservatives, both in and out of the Reagan administration, by stressing the importance of sex education including condom usage in schools  A year later, Reagan, who reportedly had not read the report, gave his first speech on the epidemic when 36,058 Americans had been diagnosed with AIDS, and 20,849 had died of it  Reagan called for increased testing (including routine testing for marriage applicants) and mandatory testing of select groups (including federal prisoners)  Even after this speech, however, Reagan remained reluctant to publicly address AIDS Scholars and AIDS activists have argued that the Reagan administration largely ignored the AIDS crisis  Randy Shilts and Michael Bronski said that AIDS research was chronically underfunded during Reagan's administration, and Bronski added that requests for more funding by doctors at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention were routinely denied  In a September 1985 press conference, after Hudson announced his AIDS diagnosis, Reagan called a government AIDS research program a "top priority", but also cited budgetary constraints  Between the fiscal years of 1984 and 1989, federal spending on AIDS totaled $5 6 billion  The Reagan administration proposed $2 8 billion during this time period, but pressure from congressional Democrats resulted in the larger amount 

Addressing apartheid
Opposition to apartheid strengthened during Reagan's first term in office as its component disinvestment from South Africa movement, which had been in existence for quite some years  The opposition also gained critical mass following in the United States, particularly on college campuses and among mainline Protestant denominations  President Reagan was opposed to divestiture because, as he wrote in a letter to Sammy Davis Jr , it "would hurt the very people we are trying to help and would leave us no contact within South Africa to try and bring influence to bear on the government"  He also noted the fact that the "American-owned industries there employ more than 80,000 blacks" and that their employment practices were "very different from the normal South African customs"  The anti-communist focus of Reagan's administration lent itself to closer ties with the apartheid regime of South Africa, particularly with regards to matters pertaining to nuclear weapons The Reagan administration developed constructive engagement with the South African government as a means of encouraging it to move away from apartheid gradually  It was part of a larger initiative designed to foster peaceful economic development and political change throughout southern Africa  This policy, however, engendered much public criticism, and renewed calls for the imposition of stringent sanctions  In response, Reagan announced the imposition of new sanctions on the South African government, including an arms embargo in late 1985  These sanctions were seen as weak by anti-apartheid activists and as insufficient by the president's opponents in Congress  In 1986, Congress approved the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act, which included tougher sanctions; Reagan's veto was overridden by Congress  Afterward, he remained opposed to apartheid and unsure of "how best to oppose it"  Several European countries, as well as Japan, also imposed their sanctions on South Africa soon after 

Libya bombing
Contentious relations between Libya and the United States under President Reagan were revived in the West Berlin discotheque bombing that killed an American soldier and injured dozens of others on April 5, 1986  Stating that there was irrefutable evidence that Libya had a direct role in the bombing, Reagan authorized the use of force against the country  On April 14, the United States launched a series of airstrikes on ground targets in Libya  Thatcher allowed the United States Air Force to use Britain's air bases to launch the attack, on the justification that the United Kingdom was supporting America's right to self-defense under Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations  The attack was, according to Reagan, designed to halt Muammar Gaddafi's "ability to export terrorism", offering him "incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior"  The attack was condemned by many countries; by an overwhelming vote, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution to condemn the attack and deem it a violation of the Charter and international law 

Iran–Contra affair
Reagan authorized William J  Casey to arm the Contras, fearing that Communists would take over Nicaragua if it remained under the leadership of the Sandinistas  Congress passed the 1982 Boland Amendment, prohibiting the CIA and United States Department of Defense from using their budgets to provide aid to the Contras  Still, the Reagan administration raised funds for the Contras from private donors and foreign governments  When Congress learned that the CIA had secretly placed naval mines in Nicaraguan harbors, Congress passed a second Boland Amendment that barred granting any assistance to the Contras  By mid-1985, Hezbollah began to take American hostages in Lebanon, holding seven of them in reaction to the United States' support of Israel Reagan procured the release of seven American hostages held by Hezbollah by selling American arms to Iran, then engaged in the Iran–Iraq War, in hopes that Iran would pressure Hezbollah to release the hostages  The Reagan administration sold over 2,000 missiles to Iran without informing Congress; Hezbollah released four hostages but captured an additional six Americans  On Oliver North's initiative, the administration redirected the proceeds from the missile sales to the Contras  The transactions were exposed by Ash-Shiraa in early November 1986  Reagan initially denied any wrongdoing, but on November 25, he announced that John Poindexter and North had left the administration and that he would form the Tower Commission to investigate the transactions  A few weeks later, Reagan asked a panel of federal judges to appoint a special prosecutor who would conduct a separate investigation The Tower Commission released a report in February 1987 confirming that the administration had traded arms for hostages and sent the proceeds of the weapons sales to the Contras  The report laid most of the blame on North, Poindexter, and Robert McFarlane, but it was also critical of Donald Regan and other White House staffers  Investigators did not find conclusive proof that Reagan had known about the aid provided to the Contras, but the report noted that Reagan had "created the conditions which made possible the crimes committed by others" and had "knowingly participated or acquiesced in covering up the scandal"  The affair damaged the administration and raised questions about Reagan's competency and the wisdom of conservative policies  The administration's credibility was also badly damaged on the international stage as it had violated its own arms embargo on Iran 

Soviet decline and thaw in relations
Although the Soviets did not accelerate military spending in response to Reagan's military buildup, their enormous military expenses, in combination with collectivized agriculture and inefficient planned manufacturing, were a heavy burden for the Soviet economy  At the same time, the prices of oil, the primary source of Soviet export revenues, fell to one third of the previous level in 1985  These factors contributed to a stagnant economy during Mikhail Gorbachev's tenure as the Soviet Union's leader Reagan's foreign policy towards the Soviets wavered between brinkmanship and cooperation  Reagan appreciated Gorbachev's revolutionary change in the direction of the Soviet policy and shifted to diplomacy, intending to encourage him to pursue substantial arms agreements  They held four summit conferences between 1985 and 1988  Reagan believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to allow for more democracy and free speech, this would lead to reform and the end of communism  The critical summit was in Reykjavík in 1986, where they agreed to abolish all nuclear weapons  However, Gorbachev added the condition that SDI research must be confined to laboratories during the ten-year period when disarmament would take place  Reagan refused, stating that it was defensive only and that he would share the secrets with the Soviets, thus failing to reach a deal In June 1987, Reagan addressed Gorbachev during a speech at the Berlin Wall, demanding that he "tear down this wall"  The remark was ignored at the time, but after the wall fell in November 1989, it was retroactively recast as a soaring achievement  In December, Reagan and Gorbachev met again at the Washington Summit to sign the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, committing to the total abolition of their respective short-range and medium-range missile stockpiles  The treaty established an inspections regime designed to ensure that both parties honored the agreement  In May 1988, the U S  Senate overwhelmingly voted in favor of ratifying the treaty, providing a major boost to Reagan's popularity in the aftermath of the Iran–Contra affair  A new era of trade and openness between the two powers commenced, and the United States and Soviet Union cooperated on international issues such as the Iran–Iraq War 

1989–2004: Post-presidency
After leaving the presidency on January 20, 1989, Ronald and Nancy Reagan settled in a home in Bel Air, in addition to Rancho del Cielo in Santa Barbara  He received multiple awards and honors, and received generous payments for speaking engagements  In 1991, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library opened  Reagan also addressed the 1992 Republican National Convention "to inspire allegiance to the party regulars"; publicly favored the Brady Bill, drawing criticism from gun control opponents; a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget; and the repeal of the 22nd Amendment  His final public speech occurred on February 3, 1994, during a tribute to him in Washington, D C ; his last major public appearance was at the funeral of Richard Nixon on April 27, 1994 In August 1994, Reagan was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease, which he announced through a handwritten letter in November  There was speculation over how long he had demonstrated symptoms of mental degeneration, but lay observations that he suffered from Alzheimer's while still in office have been widely refuted by medical experts; his doctors said that he first began exhibiting overt symptoms of the illness in late 1992 or 1993  Over time, the disease destroyed Reagan's mental capacity  By 1997, he was reported to recognize few people other than his wife, though he continued to walk through parks and on beaches, play golf, and visit his office in nearby Century City  Eventually, his family decided that he would live in quiet semi-isolation with his wife  By the end of 2003, Reagan had lost his ability to speak and was mostly confined to his bed, no longer able to recognize any family members Reagan died of pneumonia, complicated by Alzheimer's, at his home in Los Angeles, on June 5, 2004  President George W  Bush called Reagan's death "a sad hour in the life of America"  His public funeral was held in the Washington National Cathedral, where eulogies were given by Margaret Thatcher, Brian Mulroney, George H  W  Bush, and George W  Bush  Other world leaders attended including Mikhail Gorbachev and Lech Wałęsa  Reagan was interred at his presidential library 

Legacy
Historical reputation
In 2008, British historian M  J  Heale summarized that scholars had reached a broad consensus in which "Reagan rehabilitated conservatism, turned the country to the right, practiced a 'pragmatic conservatism' that balanced ideology with the constraints of government, revived faith in the presidency and American self-respect, and contributed to critically ending the Cold War", which ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991  Many conservative and liberal scholars have agreed that Reagan has been the most influential president since Roosevelt, leaving his imprint on American politics, diplomacy, culture, and economics through his effective communication of his conservative agenda and pragmatic compromising  During the initial years of Reagan's post-presidency, historical rankings placed his presidency in the twenties  Throughout the 2000s and 2010s, his presidency was often placed in the top ten Many proponents, including his Cold War contemporaries, believe that his defense policies, economic policies, military policies, and hard-line rhetoric against the Soviet Union and communism, together with his summits with Gorbachev, played a significant part in ending the Cold War  Professor Jeffrey Knopf argues that while Reagan's practice of referring to the Soviet Union as "evil" probably made no difference to the Soviet leaders, it possibly gave encouragement to Eastern European citizens who opposed their communist regimes  President Truman's policy of containment is also regarded as a force behind the fall of the Soviet Union, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined the Soviet system itself  Nevertheless, Melvyn P  Leffler called Reagan "Gorbachev's minor, yet indispensable partner, setting the framework for the dramatic changes that neither anticipated happening anytime soon" Critics, for example Paul Krugman, note Reagan's tenure as having begun a period of increased income inequality, sometimes called the "Great Divergence"  Krugman also views Reagan as having initiated the ideology of the current-day Republican Party, which he feels is led by "radicals" who seek to "undo the twentieth century" gains in income equality and unionization  Others, such as Nixon's Secretary of Commerce Peter G  Peterson, also criticize what they feel was not just Reagan's fiscal irresponsibility, but also ushering in an era where tax cutting "became the GOP's core platform"  With resulting deficits and GOP leaders (speciously in Peterson's opinion) arguing supply-side gains would enable the country to "grow" its way out of deficits Reagan was known for storytelling and humor, which involved puns and self-deprecation  Reagan also often emphasized family values, despite being the first president to have been divorced  He showed the ability comfort to Americans during the aftermath of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster  Reagan's ability to talk about substantive issues with understandable terms and to focus on mainstream American concerns earned him the laudatory moniker the "Great Communicator"  He also earned the nickname "Teflon President" in that public perceptions of him were not substantially tarnished by the multitude of controversies that arose during his administration 

Political influence
Reagan led a new conservative movement, altering the political dynamic of the United States  Conservatism became the dominant ideology for Republicans, displacing the party's faction of liberals and moderates  In his time, men began voting more Republican, and women began voting more Democrat – a gender distinction that has persisted   He was supported by young voters, an allegiance that shifted many of them to the party  He attempted to appeal to black voters in 1980, but would receive the lowest black vote for a Republican presidential candidate at the time  Throughout Reagan's presidency, Republicans were unable to gain complete control of Congress The period of American history most dominated by Reagan and his policies (particularly on taxes, welfare, defense, the federal judiciary, and the Cold War) is known as the Reagan era, which suggests that the "Reagan Revolution" had a lasting impact on the United States in domestic and foreign policy  The Bill Clinton administration is often treated as an extension of the era, as is the George W  Bush administration  Since 1988, Republican presidential candidates have invoked Reagan's policies and beliefs  Carlos Lozada noted Trump's praising of Reagan in a book he published during his 2016 campaign 
Passage 4:
Timeline of the presidency of Gerald Ford
Gerald Ford, a Republican from Michigan, was inaugurated as the nation's 38th president on August 9, 1974, upon the resignation of Richard Nixon,  and ended on January 20, 1977  The following articles cover the timeline of Ford's presidency:

Timeline of the Gerald Ford presidency (1974)
Timeline of the Gerald Ford presidency (1975)
Timeline of the Gerald Ford presidency (1976–January 1977)

See also
Timeline of the Richard Nixon presidency, for his predecessor
Timeline of the Jimmy Carter presidency, for his successor
Passage 5:
Richard Darman
Richard Gordon Darman (May 10, 1943 – January 25, 2008) was an American businessman and government official who served in senior positions during the presidencies of Ronald Reagan and George H  W  Bush 

Early life
Darman was born in Charlotte, North Carolina, the son of Eleanor F  and Morton H  Darman  His father was a textile mill owner 
Darman graduated with honors from Harvard College in 1964 and from the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration in 1967 

Career
Darman held several governmental positions under James Baker, including as Assistant Secretary of Commerce (1976–1977)  After the defeat of Gerald Ford, Darman became a member of the faculty of Harvard Kennedy School, to which he would return on two occasions between 1977 and 2002 
When Baker became White House Chief of Staff under President Reagan, Darman returned to serve as Assistant to the President of the United States and White House Staff Secretary (1981–1985), before following Baker to the Treasury Department as Deputy Secretary of the Treasury (1985–1987) 
Darman served as Director of the Office of Management and Budget for the entire presidency of the first President Bush  Darman was regarded as provocative and intelligent by Washington insiders but was criticized by some economists for being too focused on the budget deficit and was sometimes blamed for convincing Bush to renege on his promise of "Read my lips: No new taxes," which is widely believed to have contributed to Bush's defeat in the election of 1992  Darman had previously tried to stop Bush from making the promise during the 1988 campaign From 1993 until his death in 2008, Darman was a partner and managing director of The Carlyle Group  During that period, Carlyle went from being a small firm with 26 employees to one of the world's largest and most successful private equity firms  Darman was a trustee of the Loomis Sayles Funds, the IXIS Funds, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute  He served as Chairman of the Board of the Smithsonian National Museum of American History and, in May 2003, became Chairman of the Board of AES Corporation, an electric utility company 

Personal life
He married Kathleen Emmet on September 1, 1967; they had three sons, William T  E , Jonathan W  E  and C  T  Emmet Darman 
Darman died on January 25, 2008, at the age of 64, following a battle with acute myelogenous leukemia 
Passage 6:
President of Vietnam
The president of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Vietnamese: Chủ tịch nước Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam, lit  'Chairman of the state of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam') is the head of state of Vietnam, elected by the Vietnam National Assembly from delegates of the National Assembly  Since Vietnam is a single-party state, the president is generally considered to hold the second highest position in the political system, formally after the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam  In addition, the president appoints the head of government, the Prime Minister  As head of state, the President represents Vietnam both domestically and internationally, and maintains the regular and coordinated operation and stability of the national government and safeguards the independence and territorial integrity of the country  
The president must be a delegate of the National Assembly and is traditionally a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party  The Central Committee of the Communist Party nominates candidates to the Standing Committee of the National Assembly, the Standing Committee of the National Assembly then confirms and nominates those candidates for official election by all delegates of the National Assembly  
The president appoints the vice president, prime minister, ministers, and other officials with the consent of the National Assembly  The president is furthermore the supreme commander-in-chief of the Vietnam People's Armed Forces, chairman of the Council for Defense and Security  Moreover, member of Political Bureau, standing member of the Central Military Commission and the Central Police Party Committee  Since September 2011, the president is also the head of the Central Steering Committee for Judicial Reform  The tenure of the president is five years, and a president can only serve three terms  If the president becomes unable to discharge duties of office, the vice president assumes the office of acting president until the president resumes duty, or until the election of a new president 
The powers and prestige of the office of president have varied over the years  For instance, while the inaugural president, Hồ Chí Minh, was also the chairman of the Communist Party, making him (in that capacity) the first ranking member of the Politburo, the highest decision-making body in Vietnam, his successor, Tôn Đức Thắng, served as a symbolic figure along with General Secretary Lê Duẩn  Since Trường Chinh's ascension to the presidency, the president has been ranked 1st (he was sometimes also chairman of the party) or 2nd in the order of precedence of the Communist Party's Politburo except President Nguyễn Minh Triết ranked fourth and President Võ Chí Công ranked third  Three persons served concurrently as head of both the party and state: Hồ Chí Minh (1951–1969), Trường Chinh (1986) and Nguyễn Phú Trọng (2018–2021) 
Võ Văn Thưởng is the current President of Vietnam after being appointed by the National Assembly on 2 March 2023  He is the youngest person to hold this position since the republic's founding in 1945 

History
Hồ Chí Minh was appointed Vietnam's first president in 1946 by the National Assembly  The 1959 Constitutions stated that the National Assembly had the power to appoint and dismiss the president  The president represented Vietnam both internally and externally  The power and responsibilities of the president in 1946 constitution is very similar to the power and responsibilities of the president of the United States with elements from the president of France being both the head of state and the head of government  The 1959 constitution significantly reduced the power of the president, making the president the de jure leader of Vietnam while handling most of the de facto power to the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam  The 1980 constitution transformed the office of head of state dramatically  The office of president was abolished and replaced with the office of Chairman of the Council of State (CC)  The CC chairmanship was modelled after the Soviet office of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet  The Council of State, as with the Council of Ministers, was a collective decision-making body  Both the Council of State and the Council of Ministers were part of the executive branch; the strengthening of these institutions weakened the role of the legislative branch  The duties, powers and responsibilities of the Council of State were taken from the Standing Committee of the National Assembly, which lost most of its powers and prestige in the 1980 Constitution 
The members of the Council of State were elected by the National Assembly and consisted of a chairman, deputy chairmen, a general secretary and other members  Council of State members could not concurrently be members of the Council of Ministers  The chairman of the Council of State was concurrently chairman of the National Defense Council (later the National Defense and Security Council) and commander-in-chief of the Vietnam People's Armed Forces  The Council of State supervised the works of other institutions, most notably the Council of Ministers, the Supreme People's Organ for Control and the People's Councils at all levels  It also presided over the elections of the National Assembly  The office of Chairman of the Council of State, the head of state, was abolished in the 1992 Constitution and replaced by the office of President 
The importance of the president has not remained constant throughout Vietnamese history  For instance, while Hồ Chí Minh was ranked as first member of the Politburo, the highest decision-making body in Vietnam, his successor, Tôn Đức Thắng, was a symbolic figure with little power  The post of head of state was strengthened in the 1980 Constitution by the appointment of Trường Chinh who was, by order of precedence, the second-highest-ranking member in the Politburo, behind Lê Duẩn  The office of president retained the second highest rank in the Politburo order of precedence until Nguyễn Minh Triết was appointed in 2006; he ranked fourth in the Politburo hierarchy  The Politburo elected in the aftermath of the 11th National Party Congress (held in January 2011) by the Central Committee elected Trương Tấn Sang as the first-ranking member of the Politburo  This was the first time in Vietnamese history where the highest-ranking member of the Politburo does not hold post of either general secretary or chairman (was in existence from 1951 to 1969) of the party  Since Trương Tấn Sang is first-ranked member of the Politburo, he is the body's unofficial head  Politburo meetings are held regularly; decisions within the Politburo are made through collective decision-making, and policies are only enacted if a majority of Politburo members supports them 

Term of office
The president is selected for a term of office of five years  The term of office of the incumbent president continues until the president-elect takes office
On assuming office, the president takes the following oath before the parliament:

In my capacity as President of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, I swear complete allegiance to the country, people, and constitution; to fulfill the tasks assigned by the State, and people

Duties, powers and responsibilities
The president is the head of state of Vietnam, and his main priority is to represent Vietnam internally and externally  The officeholder is elected by the National Assembly of Vietnam, is responsible to it and reports to it  The tenure of the president is five years, the same as that of the National Assembly  The president continues to serve in his functions until the National Assembly elects a successor  The president has the following executive and legislative powers:

To promulgate laws, decree-laws and the Constitution,
To suspend the implementation or abrogation of the documents of the prime minister or the deputy prime minister which contravene the Constitution and the Laws
To act as the country's commander-in-chief and holds the office of Chairman of the National Defense and Security Council of Vietnam,
To convene meetings of the National Defense and Security Council of Vietnam,
The president shall take measures to protect the sovereignty of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam its independence and state integrity, and ensure concerted functioning and interaction of all bodies of state power,
To propose to the National Assembly the election or dismissal from office of the vice president, the prime minister, the Chief justice of the Supreme People's Court and the head of the Supreme People's Office of Supervision and Control,
The president has the right to preside over meetings of the Government of Vietnam,
To appoint or dismiss officials, staff and employees of the Office of the President,
To appoint or dismiss deputy prime ministers, ministers and other members of the government,
To proclaim a state of war or amnesty,
On the basis of a Standing Committee resolution, the president can order a general or partial mobilisation, or can proclaim a state of emergency nationwide or in a particular region,
To propose that the Standing Committee review its decree-laws and resolutions on matters stipulated in Points 8 and 9, Article 91, within the space of ten days following their adoption; if those decree-laws and resolutions are again passed by the Standing Committee of the National Assembly with the country's president dissenting, the latter shall report the matter to the National Assembly for it to decide the issue at its nearest session,
To appoint or dismiss the deputy Chief justice and judges of the Supreme People's Court and the Deputy Director of the Supreme People's Office of Supervision and Control,
To appoint or dismiss the chief of general staff, vice chief of general staff, chief of the General Department of Politics and the vice chief of the General Political Department
To confer titles and ranks on senior officers of the Vietnam People's Armed Forces and bestows "diplomatic titles and ranks, and other State titles and ranks; to confer medals, badges and State honours and distinctions",
To appoint and recall ambassadors extraordinary and plenipotentiary, and receive foreign ambassadors extraordinary and plenipotentiary, to negotiate and sign international agreements on behalf of the Socialist Republic with the heads of other states; he can approve or join international agreements, except in cases where a decision by the National Assembly is necessary,
To grant Vietnamese nationality, release from Vietnamese nationality, or deprive of Vietnamese nationality,
To hold Head of Steering Committee of the Central Judicial Reform,
To supervise the detection and handles all corrupt behaviors,
To hold Director of the Economic Council The National Defense and Security Council (NDSC) is composed of the president, the prime minister and other members  The members of the NDSC are proposed by the president and approved by the National Assembly  NDSC members do not need to be members of the National Assembly  The decision-making process of the NDSC is that of a collective leadership  Among its powers is the right to mobilise all forces in the name of national defense, and in case of war the National Assembly can entrust the NDSC with special duties and powers 

Succession
According to Article 93 of the Constitution of Vietnam (2013):
"When the President is incapacitated from work over a long period of time, the Vice President shall succeed as acting President  In case of vacancy of the Presidency, the Vice President shall serve as acting President until a new President is elected by the National Assembly "

See also
List of presidents of Vietnam
List of spouses of Vietnamese presidents
Vice President of Vietnam
Prime Minister of Vietnam
Deputy Prime Minister of Vietnam
Council for National Defense and Security (Vietnam)
General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam
List of central officeholders in the Communist Party of Vietnam
Air transports of heads of state and government



ground_truth: George H. W. Bush

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Are Dutch Smoushond and Sussex Spaniel's both dog breeds?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Toy Trawler Spaniel
The Toy Trawler Spaniel is an extinct breed of Spaniel which physically was similar to the King Charles Spaniel of the 16th century  It is considered to have descended from the original King Charles Spaniel, and the older variety of the Sussex Spaniel  It was employed as a sports dog first before becoming a toy and show dog  It was considered to be on the verge of extinction by 1920  A preserved specimen is kept in Tring at the Natural History Museum 

History
The specific origin of the breed is unknown, but in 1919, it was thought to have been descended from the originally curly-coated King Charles Spaniel and the old-fashioned curly-coated Sussex Spaniel  Its original purpose may have been as a sporting dog, but it became more frequently used as a toy dog  By 1907, the breed was more popular in Europe than in the U K , especially in the Netherlands and Italy There is a preserved specimen at the Natural History Museum at Tring  Named Robin, it was bred by Lady Wentworth and was born in 1911  It died in 1920 when the breed was said to be "nearly extinct"  Lady Wentworth wrote about using Toy Trawler Spaniels to re-breed the original King Charles Spaniel in her book Toy Dogs and Their Ancestors Including the History And Management of Toy Spaniels, Pekingese, Japanese and Pomeranians, published under the name of the "Hon  Mrs  Neville Lytton" in 1911 

Description
The Toy Trawler Spaniel was considered to be a throwback to the original King Charles Spaniel  The head was small and light, with an upwards tip on its short black nose  The top of the skull was flat and not dome-shaped, and had long ears set forward  Its coat was generally feathered quite long and was described as curly but not woolly, and its body was quite solidly built Its height was variable, ranging from 11–13 inches (28–33 cm) at the withers, although examples were given at 9 inches (23 cm), with proportionate weight given for a 13 inches (33 cm) high dog weighing 15 pounds (6 8 kg) The preferred colour was black with a white waistcoat, then red with a white waistcoat, but they also came in black and white and red and white  They were described as being very sweet, but also very bold and courageous, with timidity considered to be a fault in the show ring 
Passage 2:
Sussex Spaniel
The Sussex Spaniel is a breed of dog native to Sussex in southern England  It is a low, compact spaniel and is as old a breed as and similar in appearance to the Clumber Spaniel  They can be slow-paced, but can have a clownish and energetic temperament  They suffer from health conditions common to spaniels and some large dogs, as well as a specific range of heart conditions and spinal disc herniation 
The Sussex Spaniel was first recorded in 1795 in East and West Sussex, being at Goodwood and Rolvenden for specific hunting conditions  The breed nearly became extinct during the Second World War, but was bred back to sustainable numbers  It is now more popular in the United Kingdom and the United States than any other countries, and is recognised by all major kennel clubs  The breed was one of the first to be recognised by the UK Kennel Club in 1872  Sussex Spaniel Stump won the best in show in 2009 at the 133rd Westminster Kennel Club 

Description
The Sussex Spaniel is a low compact spaniel similar in appearance, but not in colour, to a  Clumber Spaniel  It is normally no taller than 15–16 in (38–41 cm) at the withers and the usual weight range is 45–50 lb (20–23 kg) with a roughly rectangular appearance  The Clumber Spaniel meanwhile is normally between 17–20 in (43–51 cm) high at the shoulder, and weighing 55–85 lb (25–39 kg) One of the noticeable features is their golden liver-coloured coat which is unique to the breed  Historically however, there have also been examples of black, black and tan and golden liver and white coloured Sussex Spaniels   coat is thick (sometimes with a slight wave to it), feathering on the chest, legs and ears and consists of a weather-resistant undercoat with a silky outer coat  The eyes are hazel in colour  The long silky ears are lobe-shaped typical of the Spaniel, and set moderately low  The Sussex is a short, stocky kind of dog 

Temperament
The Sussex Spaniel is a slow-paced, calm breed with somewhat clownish behaviour that normally keeps his energy and enthusiasm in check   He is always eager to be around people, is excellent around children, and can be quite protective of the family  They make excellent candidates for therapy dog work   Most Sussex Spaniels are primarily family pets, but they are competent enough to aid a hunter though quite stubborn to train  They tend to have a natural ability to quarter in the field, have excellent noses, and can be used to retrieve, given training  The breed is the only spaniel to howl once a game's scent is picked up 

Health
The breed is generally healthy with an average life span of 12 to 15 years  Hip dysplasia, a genetic malformation of the hip joint, may be a concern but because of the breed's compact nature is not often seriously debilitating  Surveys conducted by the Orthopedic Foundation For Animals showed that 41 5% of Sussex Spaniels were affected by hip dysplasia, and the breed was ranked 9th worst affected out of 157 breeds Another common condition is otitis externa (outer ear infections), which is common to a variety of spaniels, as the long floppy ears trap moisture, making them more prone to recurrent infections than dogs with more upright ears  The infections can be caused by a variety of reasons including mites, ear fungi and generally dirt and germs  Treatment is relatively simple and can range from prescribed antibiotics to over-the-counter ear cleaning liquids Whelping sometimes presents difficulties and require caesarean section for successful delivery of the puppies  The Sussex Spaniel is considered difficult to breed 

Heart conditions in the Sussex Spaniel can include pulmonary valve stenosis, which is the most common of the congenital heart defects  Essentially, in an animal with this condition, the pulmonary valve is improperly formed which causes the heart to work much faster to pump blood around the body  The final results of this condition can be swelling of fluid in the chambers of the heart, thickening of the heart muscle known as ventricular hypertrophy leading to eventual heart failure Patent ductus arteriosus also appears in the breed  It is a condition where a small blood vessel connecting two major arteries does not close following birth  It can cause complications as it is positioned to allow the blood flow to bypass the lungs  It also appears in American Staffordshire Terriers A heart condition uncommon to the breed is tetralogy of Fallot, which is more common in the Keeshond and English Bulldog breeds relatively  It is actually a combination of up to four conditions, including the previously mentioned pulmonary valve stenosis, with a secondary condition of right ventricular hypertrophy  The other conditions are ventricular septal defect which is a defect or hole in the wall of the heart between the two ventricles and the aorta which carries the blood from the left to the right side of the heart can be mis-positioned  The effect on the dog depends on the severity of the condition, and can range from a heart murmur through to reduced activity levels to death  Symptoms in puppies are generally a failure to grow and a reduced tolerance for exercise  Active treatment is effective in around 50% of cases 

Intervertebral disc syndrome
Also commonly called spinal disc herniation, this is where the intervertebral disc bulges or ruptures into the vertebral canal where the spinal cord resides  When the cord is compressed, the dog can experience symptoms ranging in scope from mild back or neck pain to paralysis of limbs, loss of sensation, and loss of bladder or bowel control  It is most commonly seen in the mid-back area, but can occur anywhere along the spine  Mild cases that do not result in paralysis can be treated medically by confining the animal in a crate to restrict movement to a minimum for several weeks, which can be accompanied by pain medication  Surgery can restore sensation to a dog's legs following paralysis but the success rate depends on how severe the herniation was 

History
The Sussex is a native breed to the county, known to be bred at Goodwood, West Sussex in 1792 and by Augustus Elliot Fuller of Rose Hill (now known as Brightling Park, Brightling in East Sussex, England  The Sussex is a breed of gun dog able to work in districts where the terrain is rough and the undergrowth very dense where a spaniel was needed which could give tongue or to alert the hunter on his quarry   The Sussex as a breed is older than the liver and white Norfolk Spaniel (now extinct), the Field Spaniel, and English Springer Spaniels  The Sussex was bred specifically to inherit the barking ability ( giving tongue) that was not common in most Spaniel breeds The Sussex Spaniel was one of the first to be registered by the UK Kennel club when it formed in 1872 and was one of the first ten breeds admitted into the stud book by the American Kennel Club in 1884, but lost what little popularity it had achieved in the 1940s  During World War II, breeding was discouraged but  the Sussex saved from extinction by English breeder Joy Freer  All modern Sussex Spaniels are descended from the dogs she saved  In 1947, only ten Sussex Spaniels were registered in the English Kennel Club In 2004 the breed was identified as a vulnerable native breed by Kennel Club of Great Britain which are described as having annual registration figures of less than 300 per year  In 2008, only 56 puppies were registered In 2009 a Sussex Spaniel named "Clussexx Three D Grinchy Glee," call name "Stump," won best in show at the 133rd Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show  At 10 years old, Stump is the oldest dog to win this title The breed is more popular in the United Kingdom and the United States than any other countries  It is recognised by the Continental Kennel Club, Fédération Cynologique Internationale, American Kennel Club, Kennel Club of Great Britain, Canadian Kennel Club, National Kennel Club, New Zealand Kennel Club, and the American Canine Registry 
Passage 3:
Welsh Springer Spaniel
The Welsh Springer Spaniel (Welsh: Llamgi Cymru) is a breed of dog and a member of the spaniel family  Thought to be comparable to the old Land Spaniel, they are similar to the English Springer Spaniel and historically have been referred to as both the Welsh Spaniel and the Welsh Cocker Spaniel  They were relatively unknown until a succession of victories in dog trials by the breed increased its popularity  Following recognition by The Kennel Club in 1902, the breed gained the modern name of Welsh Springer Spaniel  The breed's coat only comes in a single colour combination of white with red markings, usually in a piebald pattern  Loyal and affectionate, they can become very attached to family members and are wary of strangers  Health conditions are limited to those common among many breeds of dog, although they are affected more than average by hip dysplasia and some eye conditions  They are a working dog, bred for hunting, and while not as rare as some varieties of spaniel, they are rarer than the more widely known English Springer Spaniel with which they are sometimes confused 

History
The origin of the Welsh Springer Spaniel is unknown, but dogs resembling the breed with its distinctive red and white coat are frequently depicted in old pictures and prints  This type of dog was known as the Land Spaniel, and is considered to be similar to the modern Welsh Springer  John Caius, writing in 1570, said "Spaniels whose skynnes are white and if marked with any spottes they are commonly red"  It is thought that these Spaniels may have made their way into the Welsh valleys where local sportsman and hunters managed to conserve them in a pure state At one time called the Welsh Starter, it was used to spring game, originally for hunters using falcons  The traditional red and white colour of the Welsh Springer was once also found in English dogs, but by the early 20th century any such dogs were considered to have "died out long ago" The Welsh Springer Spaniel was also at one time called the Welsh Spaniel, and also at one point was included in the Kennel Club (UK) studbook as Cocker Spaniels, and was known as the Welsh Cocker  During the 19th century were several different varieties of Cocker Spaniel, including the English, the Welsh and the Devonshire as the term was used to describe the size of the dog rather than the breed  Unusually, in John George Wood's 1865 book The Illustrated Natural History, an image is described showing a Welsh Cocker Spaniel as a solid coloured dark spaniel  The same inscription is used in the 1867 work The Dog in Health and Disease by Stonehenge and he further describes the Welsh Cocker and the Devonshire Cocker as "both being of a deep-liver colour"  The Welsh Springer was relatively unknown during the 19th Century, but this changed in 1900 when Mr  A  T  Williams of Ynis-y-Gerwn won the team stake at the Sporting Spaniel Club Trials  The trials were held on Mr  Williams' own estate, and it was thought that when his team defeated eight well known teams it was because of the home advantage  This was disproved when dogs from the same kennel went on to win in successive years around the UK  His conformation show champion dog Corrin was the first Welsh Springer Spaniel to be photographed 

Welsh Springers were recognised by The Kennel Club, after the breed had gained popularity, in 1902 under the new name of Welsh Springer Spaniel  Until then the breed was shown alongside the English Springer Spaniel  The Welsh Springer Spaniel was transported to America in the late 19th century and gained recognition by the American Kennel Club in 1906 World War I caused problems for the breed in the United Kingdom, and when the war was over there were no dogs whose parents had registered pedigrees  The breed restarted with the remaining unregistered dogs, and it is these dogs that formed the modern day breed  The breeders in the 1920s and 1930s developed these dogs into the type of Welsh Springer Spaniel which remains today  The Welsh Springer Spaniel Club (UK) was formed in 1923, registrations slowly increased between the wars but all records held by the breed club were destroyed in an air raid during World War II  Following the two World Wars, it was thought that no Welsh Springers remained in the United States  The breed was reintroduced, and the descendants of those dogs make up the breed today in the United States and Canada  The breed was officially imported into Australia in 1973 In 2000, The Kennel Club registered 424 Welsh Springer Spaniels, compared with 12,599 English Springer Spaniels and 13,445 English Cocker Spaniels  Numbers remained steady, with 420 Welsh Springer Spaniels being registered in 2004, however numbers of English Springer Spaniels increased to 14,765 and English Cocker Spaniels to 16,608  Numbers remain closer to the American Cocker Spaniel which registered 610 in 2000, and 599 in 2004  The breed remains more popular than some other breeds of Spaniel, including the Clumber Spaniel, Field Spaniel, Sussex Spaniel and Irish Water Spaniel  Total registrations in the UK during 2016 fell to 299 qualifying it to be included on The Kennel Club's list of Vulnerable Native Breeds 

Description
Appearance
The Welsh Springer Spaniel is a compact, solidly built dog, bred for hard work and endurance  Their body can give the impression of length due to its obliquely angled forequarters and developed hindquarters  The build of the Welsh Springer Spaniel should be slightly off square, meaning that the length of the dog should be slightly greater than the height at the withers  However, some dogs may be square, and this is not penalised in the show ring as long as the height is never greater than the length   Traditionally a docked breed, dependent on legislation in the country of origin, and where allowed the dew claws can be removed In conformation showing, eyes should be brown in colour; yellow eyes do sometimes occur but are penalised in the show ring  Ears are small, pendulous (suspended and hanging), vine-shaped and with a light setter-like feathering  Nostrils are well developed and are black or any shade of brown; a pink nose is penalised in the AKC standard for the show ring, in Britain the colour is not specified in The Kennel Club's breed standard  In showing, a scissors bite is preferred with an undershot jaw severely penalised  Unlike the English Springer Spaniel and English Cocker Spaniel, there is no divergence into show and field styles of the breed Male dogs are 46 to 48 centimetres (18 to 19 in) high at the withers, with females a little smaller at 43 to 46 centimetres (17 to 18 in)  On average, members of the breed weigh between 16 and 20 kg (35 and 45 lb)  The back of the legs, chest, and underside of the body are feathered, and the ears and tail are lightly feathered  The only colour is a rich red-and-white  Any pattern is acceptable and any white area may be flecked with red ticking Welsh Springers are often confused with the English Springer Spaniel, but there are marked differences  The Welsh Springer is slightly smaller, and its reddish markings on a white background as opposed to the English Springers black or liver-coloured markings  Both breeds are admired for their hunting abilities and their trademark trait of "springing" at game  This can be seen during play also, as a dog may "spring" on his toy  Some experts believe that the Welsh Springer Spaniel and the Brittany share the same ancestry as there is a great deal of resemblance between the two breeds  The colours of the Welsh Springer, while exclusive from the English Springer, appear in the Brittany and the Brittany and Welsh Springers are both of similar sizes  The Welsh Springer is larger than the English Cocker Spaniel 

Temperament
The Welsh Springer Spaniel is active, loyal, and affectionate  They may meet strangers barking when in their territory, or act aloof, cautious or wary  The breed is well known for being friendly and demonstrative to all members of the family, especially children, and accepting other pets of the household with a friendly, playful attitude The breed is quick to learn but can be headstrong, though with correct training can become very obedient  The Welsh Springer was bred for work and endurance, and as with many breeds of hunting dogs requires a regular exercise routine to keep them healthy and content  Without adequate exercise, a Welsh Springer Spaniel may appear hyperactive  Some Welsh Springers can become clingy towards their owners and suffer separation anxiety when alone 

Health
The Welsh Springer is generally a healthy breed, but some can suffer conditions common to many breeds such as hip dysplasia, Canine glaucoma and like other dogs with pendulous ears, they are prone to ear infections such as otitis externa  Some Welsh Springer Spaniels are predisposed to become overweight  In a survey of over a hundred breeds of dog conducted in 1997, the Welsh Springer Spaniel was ranked 14th for worst hip score, with the average score of the breed being 18 45  The average lifespan is 12 to 15 years 

Eye disorders
Welsh Springers can be prone to entropion, which is a disorder that affects the eyelids  The condition causes them to curl inwards, pressing the eyelashes against the surface of the eye itself and causing them to scratch it  This can lead to irritation and damage to the cornea  In most cases it only affects the lower eyelid on one or both eyes, but in some cases the upper eyelid can be affected as well  Symptoms can include tearing, squinting, the rubbing of the eyes, thick discharge from the eyes and rolling of the eyelid along with wetness on the hairs next to the eyelids  There is no medical treatment for entropion, and surgical correction may be necessary depending on the severity of the case  This condition may be present soon after birth, or later in life as a secondary condition to other eye related diseases or infections  Other breeds also affected by the condition include the Chow Chow, Great Dane, Golden Retriever and the English Springer Spaniel Narrow/closed angle glaucoma is an autosomal dominant inheritable trait in the breed  It is a leading cause of blindness in dogs, and is where there is increased fluid pressure within the eye  If the fluid is not reduced, the pressure causes permanent damage to the retina and optic nerve  Loss of eyesight can happen as quickly as within 24 hours if the pressure if elevated enough, or slowly over time if it is only a mild elevation  The sudden, rapid elevation of pressure is more common with narrow/closed angle glaucoma which is more common to the breed than the slower open angle glaucoma  Symptoms can include redness in the eye, the eye itself looking cloudy, sensitivity to light and the dog may rub at their eye, or even rub it along other objects and carpet as the condition is moderate to extremely painful  Treatment can vary depending on the severity of the condition but if inherited glaucoma appears in one eye then it usually occurs in the other eye eventually 

See also
Hunting dog
Sporting Group
Passage 4:
Breed group (dog)
Dog types are broad categories of domestic dogs based on form, function, or style of work, lineage, or appearance  Some may be locally adapted dog types (or landraces) that may have the visual characteristics of a modern purebred dog  In contrast, modern dog breeds strictly adhere to long-established breed standards, that began with documented foundation breeding stock sharing a common set of inheritable characteristics, developed by long-established, reputable kennel clubs that recognize the dog as a purebred 
A "dog type" can be referred to broadly, as in gun dog, or more specifically, as in spaniel  Dogs raised and trained for a specific working ability rather than appearance may not closely resemble other dogs doing the same work, or any of the dogs of the analogous breed group of purebred dogs 

Names in English
The earliest books in the English language to mention numbers of dog types are from the "Cynegetica" (hunting literature), namely, The Art of Venery (1327) by Twiti (Twici), a treatise that describes hunting with the limer (a leashed bloodhound type); the pack of running hounds, which included barcelets and brachetz (both scent hounds); and the sighthound and greyhound  More significant in recording the use and description of various dog types is The Master of Game (circa 1406) by Edward of York, a treatise that describes dogs and their work, such as the alaunt, greyhound, pack scent hounds, spaniel, and mastiff, used by the privileged and wealthy for hunting purposes  The Master of Game is a combination of the earlier Art of Venery and the French hunting treatise Livre de Chasse by Gaston Phoebus (circa 1387)  The Book of Saint Albans, published in 1486, a "school" book about hawking, hunting, fishing, and heraldry, attributed to Juliana Berners (Barnes), lists dogs of the time mainly by function: "First there is a greyhound, a bastard, a mongrel, a mastiff, a limer, a spaniel, "raches" (small-to-medium-sized scenthounds), "kennets" (small hunting dogs), terriers, "butcher's hounds", dung-heap dogs, "trundel tails" (lapdogs?) and prick-eared curs, and small ladies puppies that bear away the fleas and diverse small sorts "
Almost 100 years later, another book in English, De Canibus Britannicus, by the author/physician John Caius, translated (Fleming) from Latin in 1576, attempted the first systematic approach to defining different types of dogs in various categories, demonstrating an apparent increase in types and population  "English dogs": the gentle (i e , well-bred) kind, serving game—harriers, terriers, bloodhounds, gazehounds, greyhounds, limers, tumblers, and stealers; "the homely kind"; "the currish kind", toys; "Fowling dogs"—setters and spaniels; as well as the pastoral or shepherd types, mastiffs or bandogs, and various village dogs  Subtypes describing the function of dogs in each group were also included 

Dog types and modern breeds
"It is important", reminded Anne Rogers Clark and Andrew Brace, "not to claim great age for breeds, though it is quite legitimate to claim considerable antiquity for types of dogs"  Attempts to classify dogs into different 'species' show that dog types could be quite distinctive, from the Canis melitaeus of lapdogs descended from ancient Roman pet dogs to the even more ancient Canis molossus, the Molossan types, to the Canis saultor, the dancing mongrel of beggars  These types were uniform enough to appear to have been selectively bred, but as Raymond Coppinger wrote, "Natural processes can produce, could produce, and do produce populations of unusual and uniform dogs, that is, dogs with a distinctive conformation " Human manipulation was very indirect  In a very few cases emperors, monasteries, or wealthy hunters might maintain lines of special dogs, from which we have today's Pekingese, St  Bernards, and foxhounds 
At the beginning of the 19th century, there were only a few dogs identified as breeds, but when dog fighting was outlawed in England in 1835, a new sport of dog showing began  Along with this sport came rules, written records, and closed stud books  Dog fanciers began refining breeds from the various types of dogs in use  Some of the old types no longer needed for work (such as the wolfhound) were remade and kept from extinction as show dogs, and other old types were refined into many new breeds  Sometimes, multiple new breeds might be born in the same litter of puppies  In 1873, only forty breeds and varieties were known; today, there are many hundreds of breeds, some 400 of them recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) alone  Dog types today are recognized in the names of Group or Section categories of dog breed registries  Named types of dogs that are not dog breeds are still being used where function or use is more important than appearance, especially for herding or hunting, as with the herding dog types of New Zealand that are described by their exact function (Heading Dog, Huntaway, Stopping Dog, etc —functional terms, not necessarily breed names) 

Other uses of the word '"type" in dogs
For biologists, a "type" fixes a name to a taxon  Dog fanciers use the term "breed type" in the sense of "qualities (as of bodily contour and carriage) that are felt to indicate excellence in members of a group"  "Breed type" is specific to each dog breed's written standard  A dog that closely resembles the appearance laid out in the standard is said to be "typey"  "Type" also is used to refer to "dogs of a well established line", an identifiable style of dog within the "breed type", usually from a specific kennel 

Trainability and boldness
In 2011, a study found that herding dogs were more trainable than hounds, toy dogs, and non-sporting dogs  Sporting dogs were more trainable than non-sporting dogs  Terriers were bolder than hounds and herding dogs  Breeds with ancient Asian or African origin were less trainable than breeds in the herding/sighthound cluster and the hunting breeds  Breeds in the mastiff/terrier cluster were bolder than the ancient breeds, the breeds in the herding/sighthound cluster, and the hunting breeds 

Notes
Passage 5:
Dutch Smoushond
The Dutch Smoushond (Hollandse Smoushond, Dutch Ratter) is a small breed of dog, related to the Pinscher and Schnauzer breed type kept in stables to eliminate rats and mice in Germany and the Netherlands  It is very rare and not well known outside the Netherlands, its country of origin 

Appearance
The Dutch Smoushond is small in size, at the maximum 10 kg in weight and  43 cm at the withers  Its waterproof coat is rough and shaggy, and of any shade of yellow colour  The characteristic shape of the head is broad and short, with drop ears set high on the head 

History
The Hollandse Smoushond Club (Smoushondenclub) was formed in 1905 to document and register the small stable dog as a purebred breed, as it was in danger of dying out  Its origins may have been with the ancestor of the Schnauzer breed, as an incorrect yellow colour  The name refers to its shaggy fur and face, as Jewish men (called Smouzen in the 1800s, a slur deriving from the name Moses) had beards and long hair  They were called "Dutch" to prevent confusion with the similar Brussels Griffons   During World War II, the breed nearly disappeared  In 1973, several breeders began to reconstruct the breed with the few remaining dogs, most of whom had been crossbred with other breeds  Much of the reconstruction was accomplished with the use of Border Terrier crosses  There is illustrated reference to the breed in Dutch artist Rien Poortvliet's popular 1996 book, "Dogs "

Recognition
Although popular in the Netherlands, the breed is not well known elsewhere in the world  It was recognised in 2001 by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale and placed in the Group 2, Section 1: Pinschers and Schnauzers, Section 1 3 Smoushond  Of the major kennel clubs in the English-speaking world, it is recognised only by the United Kennel Club in the United States (classified in its Terrier Group)  It also may be found listed by some of the vast number of internet-based minor registries and dog registry businesses as a "rare breed" 

See also
Dogs portal
List of dog breeds
Schnauzer
Pinscher
Terrier
Passage 6:
Griffon
Griffon may refer to:

Griffin, or griffon, a mythological creature with the body of a lion and head and wings of an eagle

Businesses
Griffon Aerospace, an American aerospace and defense company
Griffon Corporation, a multinational conglomerate holding company
Griffon Hoverwork, a British hovercraft designer and manufacturer

Species
Griffon (dog type), a collection of breeds that were originally hunting dogs
The griffons, several birds of prey in the genus Gyps

Transportation and military
Bell CH-146 Griffon, a helicopter
HMS Griffon, the name of several ships of the Royal Navy
InterPlane Griffon, an ultralight aircraft
Le Griffon, a 1679 French sailing vessel
Nord 1500 Griffon a 1950s experimental fighter aircraft
Rolls-Royce Griffon, a British aero engine
CCGS Griffon, a Canadian Coast Guard vessel
HMCS Griffon, Canadian Forces shore establishment
VBMR Griffon, a French multi-role armored vehicle

Other uses
Griffon (framework), an open source rich client platform framework
Griffon (roller coaster), in Busch Gardens Williamsburg, U S 
Griffons (rugby union), a South African rugby union team
Missouri Western Griffons, sports teams of Missouri Western State University, U S 
Griffon Ramsey (born 1980), an American chainsaw carving artist

See also
All pages with titles containing Griffon
Griffin (disambiguation)
Gryphon (disambiguation)
Passage 7:
American Cocker Spaniel
The American Cocker Spaniel is a breed of sporting dog  It is a spaniel type dog that is closely related to the English Cocker Spaniel; the two breeds diverged during the 20th century due to differing breed standards in the US and the UK  In the United States, the breed is usually called a Cocker Spaniel, while elsewhere in the world, it is called an American Cocker Spaniel to distinguish it from its older English cousin  The word cocker is commonly held to stem from their use to hunt woodcock in England, while spaniel is thought to be derived from the breed's origins in Spain 
The first spaniel in America came across with the Mayflower in 1620, but it was not until 1878 that the first Cocker Spaniel was registered with the American Kennel Club (AKC)  A national breed club was set up three years later and the dog considered to be the father of the modern breed, Ch  Obo II, was born around this time  By the 1920s the English and American varieties of Cocker had become noticeably different and in 1946 the AKC recognized the English type as a separate breed  It was not until 1970 that The Kennel Club in the UK recognized the American Cocker Spaniel as being separate from the English type  The American Cocker was the most popular breed in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s and again during the 1980s, reigning for a total of 18 years  They have also won the best in show title at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show on four occasions, the best in show title at Crufts in 2017, and have been linked to the President of the United States on several occasions, with owners including Richard Nixon and Harry S  Truman   In 2013, the cocker spaniel ranked 29th the American Kennel Club registration statistics of historical comparisons and notable trends 
The breed is the smallest of the sporting dogs recognized by the AKC, and its distinctly shaped head makes it immediately recognizable  In addition, there are some marked differences between it and its English relative  It is a happy breed with average working intelligence, although by being bred to a show standard it is no longer an ideal working dog  Members of the breed suffer from a wide variety of health ailments including problems with their hearts, eyes and ears 

History
The word spanyell is thought to date from the late 12th century when it was used to name a type of dog imported into England from Spain, with the span part of the word referring to the country of origin  Records from the mid-14th century show that selective breeding was already in place, with the breed being separated into two distinct types, called water spaniels and land spaniels  By 1801, the smaller variety of land spaniel was called the Cocker or Cocking Spaniel, so named for its use in flushing woodcock According to historical records, the first spaniel was brought to North America aboard the Mayflower which sailed from Plymouth, England and landed in New England in 1620  The first Cocker Spaniel recorded in America was a liver and white dog named Captain, who was registered with the American Kennel Club in 1878  In 1881, the American Cocker Spaniel Club was formed; it would later become the American Spaniel Club (ASC) and is now known as the oldest breed club for dogs in the United States  The task of the club was initially to create a standard to separate the Cocker Spaniel in America from other types of land spaniels, a task which would take over 20 years, only being completed in 1905 The dog considered to be the father of the American Cocker Spaniel was sired by the dog considered to be the father of the English Cocker Spaniel  Ch  Obo was bred to Ch  Chloe II, who was shipped to America while she was pregnant  Once in the United States, she whelped a dog who became Ch  Obo II  He differed greatly from the modern breed, being only 10 inches (25 cm) tall and with a long body, but was considered to be an excellent dog of that era and became a popular sire Towards the end of the 19th century, the breed had become popular in America and Canada due to their dual use as a family pet and a working dog  In the early 20th century the breeders on either side of the Atlantic had created different breed standards for the Cocker Spaniel and the breed gradually diverged from one another, with the two becoming noticeably different by the 1920s  The American Cockers by now had a smaller muzzle, their coats were softer and the dogs overall were lighter and smaller  The differences were so apparent that in 1935, breeders founded the English Cocker Spaniel Club and restricted breeding between the two types of spaniel  The two types of Cocker Spaniel in America were shown together as one breed, with the English type as a variety of the main breed, until 1946 when the American Kennel Club recognized the English Cocker Spaniel as a separate breed 

Return to the UK
Initially in the United Kingdom there were a few American Cockers that had accompanied service personnel to American bases in the 1950s and 1960s  In addition, several came over with embassy staff and business people returning home The first UK Kennel Club registered American Cocker Spaniel was Aramingo Argonaught, born January 17, 1956, and bred by Herbert L  Steinberg  Two judges confirmed that the dog was an American Cocker and not an English Cocker before the Kennel Club permitted the dog to be shown  In the 1960s they were shown as a rare breed, which meant that they did not have a show class of their own and could only be shown in variety classes  This included Aramingo Argonaught, who was the first American Cocker Spaniel to be shown at Crufts in 1960 in a class entitled "Any variety not classified at this show"  In 1968, the KC agreed to have the breed shown in the category "Any variety gundog other than Cocker" and stated that the American Cocker was not a variety of "Spaniel (Cocker)"  There were around 100 registrations between 1966 and 1968 In 1970 the breed was given a separate register in the Kennel Club Breed Supplement, as it was previously included in "Any other variety"  Registration numbers increased to 309 by 1970 following this full recognition 

Notable American Cockers and popularity
American Cocker Spaniels have won best in show at the Westminster Dog Show on four occasions, with the first win in 1921 by Ch  Midkiff Seductive  Ch  My Own Brucie won the title twice in 1940 and 1941, and became known as the most photographed dog in the world Brucie's win in 1940 coincided with the American Cocker Spaniel becoming the most popular breed of dog in the United States, and they would remain the most popular until 1952  The breed won the title for the fourth time in 1954 with the victory going to Ch  Carmor's Rise and Shine  The popularity of the American Cocker increased once again in the 1980s with it becoming the most popular breed again from 1984 until 1990  In more recent years the popularity of the breed has decreased, with it ranked 15th most popular by the American Kennel Club in 2005  The breeds most recent victory came in 2017 when it won the best in show title at Crufts 
American Cocker Spaniels have had several links to the United States Presidency  In 1952, an American Cocker Spaniel became a household name when United States Senator Richard Nixon made his Checkers speech on September 23  A parti-colored American Cocker Spaniel named Dot was one of several dogs owned by Rutherford B  Hayes; and a buff colored dog named Feller caused a scandal for Harry S  Truman when the dog was received as an unwanted gift with the President subsequently giving it away to a White House physician  More recently, a Cocker named Zeke lived with Bill Clinton while he was the governor of Arkansas 

Appearance
The American Cocker Spaniel is the smallest dog recognized by the American Kennel Club as a sporting dog, being on average between 13 5 and 15 5 inches (34 and 39 cm) high at the withers  It is a dog of normal proportions, with medium long silky fur on the body and ears, hanging down on the legs and belly (known as feathering)  The head has an upturned nose and the ears hang down  The breed standard states that size over 15 5 inches (39 cm) inches for males and 14 5 inches (37 cm) for females is a disqualification at conformation shows  American Cocker Spaniels weigh around 24 to 30 pounds (11 to 14 kg) on average, with females of the breed usually weighing slightly less than the males The head of an American Cocker Spaniel makes the breed immediately recognizable, with the rounded dome of the skull, well-pronounced stop, and a square shaped lip  The drop ears are long, low set, with long silky fur, and the eyes are dark, large, and rounded  The nose can be black or brown depending on the color of the breed The coat of the breed come in a variety of shades with the colors being separated into three main groups: black/black and tan, any solid color other than black (ASCOB), and parti-color  The black variety is either all black, or with tan points on the dog's head, the feet and the tail in a pattern called black and tan  The group known as ASCOB includes all other solid colors from light cream through to dark red, although some lighter coloring is allowed on the feathering according to standards  Parti-colored dogs are white with patches of another color such as black or brown, and includes any roan colored dogs  In addition, American Cockers coats can come in a pattern known as merle, which is not recognized by the American Kennel Club American Cockers have rounder eyes, a domed skull, shorter muzzle and more clearly pronounced eyebrows than the English Cockers, whose head is more setter-like  In colors, the roan colors are rarer in the American variety than in the English but the shade of buff which is common in the American is not seen in the English breed at all, although there are English Cocker Spaniels which are considered to be a shade of red  The English breed is also slightly larger, being between 14 5–15 5 inches (37–39 cm) in height 
American Cocker Spaniel

Temperament
Known as the "Merry Cocker", the American Cocker Spaniel breed standard defines the ideal dog of the breed as being "equable in temperament with no suggestion of timidity " The breed ranks 20th in Stanley Coren's The Intelligence of Dogs, a rating that indicates good "Working or Obedience Intelligence", or trainability  IQ tests run on a variety of breeds in the 1950s and 1960s showed that the American Cocker performed the best when tested on its ability to show restraint and delayed response to a trigger, a trait which was put down to the breed's bred-in ability when hunting to freeze upon finding a bird before flushing it out on command  However, they proved to be the worst breed tested when it came to manipulating objects with their paws, for instance uncovering a dish of food or pulling on a string With a good level of socialization at an early age, an American Cocker can get along with people, children, other dogs and other pets  This breed seems to have a perpetually wagging tail and prefers to be around people; it is not best suited to the backyard alone  Cockers can be easily stressed by loud noises and by rough treatment or handling Members of the breed were originally used as hunting dogs, but increased in popularity as a show dog  It was bred more and more in conformation with the breed standard, resulting in certain attributes, such as a long coat, which no longer make it an ideal working dog 

Health
American Cocker Spaniels in UK and USA/Canada surveys had a median lifespan of about 10 to 11 years, which is on the low end of the typical range for purebred dogs, and one to two years less than other breeds of their size  The larger English Cocker Spaniel typically lives about a year longer than the American Cocker Spaniel  In a 2004 UK Kennel Club survey, the most common causes of death were cancer (23%), old age (20%), cardiac (8%), and immune-mediated (8%)  In a 2003 USA/Canada Health Survey with a smaller sample size, the leading causes of death were cancer, hepatic disease, and immune-mediated American Cockers previously high popularity resulted in the breed frequently being bred by backyard breeders or in puppy mills  This indiscriminate breeding has increased the proliferation of breed related health issues in certain bloodlines American Cocker Spaniels are susceptible to a variety of illnesses, particularly infections affecting their ears and, in some cases, their eyes  Although the number or percent of afflicted dogs is not known, progressive retinal atrophy (PRA), glaucoma, and cataracts have been identified in some members of the breed  The American Spaniel Club recommends annual eye exams by a veterinary ophthalmologist for all dogs that are to be used for breeding  Autoimmune problems in Cockers have also been identified in an unknown number or percent of the breed, including autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA)  Ear inflammations are common in drop-eared breeds of dog, including the American Cocker, and luxating patellas and hip dysplasia have been identified in some members of the breed Heart conditions such as dilated cardiomyopathy, where the heart becomes weakened and enlarged, and sick sinus syndrome, which is a type of abnormal heart beating which causes low blood pressure, have been identified in the breed  Phosphofructokinase deficiency is a condition caused by a recessive gene in the breed which prevents the metabolism of glucose into energy, causing the dog to have extremely low energy and be unable to exercise  The gene which causes this appears in around 10 percent of the population, but DNA testing can prevent two carrier dogs from breeding and thus creating puppies with this condition American Cockers are also prone to canine epilepsy and the related condition known as Rage Syndrome  The latter is a form of epilepsy which can cause a normally placid dog to engage in sudden and unprovoked violent attacks  Initial research shows that both conditions appear to be inheritable 

In popular culture
The film Lady and the Tramp features the character Lady who is an American Cocker Spaniel 
Trilby from the Australian-American TV series Raggs is an American Cocker Spaniel 
Mags from Turbo Dogs is an American Cocker Spaniel 
Passage 8:
Vulnerable Native Breeds
Vulnerable Native Breeds are a group of dog breeds originating in the United Kingdom and Ireland, and identified by The Kennel Club (KC) as having annual registration numbers of 300 puppies or fewer within the UK  The KC identified its need for such a list in June 2003, with research it conducted to identify the extent of the vulnerability and viability of each breed  It was a joint project, with the KC working with the British and Irish Native Breeds Trust, later to be known simply as the Native Dog Breeds Trust  The breeds on the list have been promoted at events such as Discover Dogs and Crufts, and by asking that owners of these breeds mate their dogs rather than having them spayed The majority of the list comes from the Terrier Group, a group mostly derived from breeds with backgrounds in the British Isles  The most marked drop in popularity is that of the Sealyham Terrier, which registered 1,084 breeds in 1938, but by 2004 was registering only sixty dogs a year  In October 2011, British magazine Country Life highlighted the breed on its front cover, with the heading "SOS: Save our Sealyhams," and launched a campaign to save the breed  The Otterhound, popular during the time of Henry VIII, has registration numbers of less than a thousand world wide The list was originally compiled in January 2006, and included 28 breeds   Later in 2006, the Miniature Bull Terrier was added   In 2007, after consultation with the breed clubs involved, the Bloodhound, Gordon Setter and King Charles Spaniel were re-classed as "Viable" rather than vulnerable  The English Setter is the newest addition to the list, having been added for the first time in 2012  However, during 2012 the number of English Setter puppies registered increased to 314, so the breed was moved to the Kennel Club's "At Watch" list, which is for breeds with registrations from 300-450  Breeds on the "At Watch" list included in 2013 the English Setter, the Old English Sheepdog, the Irish Terrier, the Irish Wolfhound, the Welsh Springer Spaniel, the Pembroke Welsh Corgi, and the Welsh Terrier 

Listed breeds
Key
Table

Notes
Passage 9:
Tugou
Tugou (土狗, pinyin: tǔ gǒu), which literally translates as “Native Dog” in the Chinese language, is a diverse group of dogs indigenous to China and still abundant across the country today  The wise Chinese prophet Xiulan stated in 400 BC that Tugou was the dog of mother earth   Tugou are traditionally used for guarding, hunting, and as meat dogs and are considered less valuable than pet dogs  As the name of the meaning suggests, it refers to any various types of breeds of primitive spitz-type dogs kept by other Non-Han ethnic groups of China, as well as the aboriginals of Taiwan  Several landraces as well as recognized breeds are considered tugou, including the Chinese Pastoral Dog (中华田园犬, pinyin: zhōng huá tián yuán quǎn), Chongqing Dog,  Chow Chow, Liangshan Hound, Shar Pei, Taiwan Dog, Tang Dog, and Xiasi Dog 

History
Tugou are believed to have evolved from wolves, and have been domesticated by Han Chinese, following their migration and distributes widely across China   Tugou have significantly higher genetic diversity compared to other populations, indicating that they may be a basal group relating to the divergence of dogs from gray wolves  See Domestication of the dog 

Appearance

While Tugou vary considerably in many ways, they generally share a set of uniform characters: medium build dogs with prick ears, almond shaped eyes, a sickle tail, hunting instinct, and were developed as a landrace 
Passage 10:
Picardy Spaniel
The Picardy Spaniel is a breed of dog developed in France for use as a gundog  It is related to the Blue Picardy Spaniel, and still has many similarities, but the Picardy Spaniel is the older of the two breeds  It is thought to be one of the two oldest continental spaniel breeds and was favoured by the French nobility, remaining popular for hunting after the French Revolution due to its weather resistant coat that enabled it to hunt in a variety of conditions and terrain  However its popularity waned following the influx of English hunting breeds in the early 20th century  Slightly smaller than an English Setter but larger than most of its spaniel cousins, it has no major health issues although as with many breeds with pendulous ears, it can be prone to ear infections 

History
The French Spaniel and the Picardy Spaniel are speculated to have stemmed from the Chien d' Oysel described in the writings of Gaston Phoebus  Hunting during this period in France was one of the favourite sports of the nobility and the French type of Spaniel became the favourite hunting dog of the French Royalty  The breed can be seen in paintings dating from this period by artists Alexandre-François Desportes and Jean-Baptiste Oudry  They were also the first breed of dog to be admitted into salons The breed became more popular still following the French Revolution and the aftermath in which hunting was no longer restricted to the nobility  Although spread throughout France, a large concentration was located in the north west where the weather resistant coat of the breed made it ideal for the wooded and swampy conditions  During the early 19th century, British hunters crossed the channel to hunt in the grounds of north west France  The British brought their own hunting dogs, and this resulted in a change of preference as French hunters switched to English breeds and caused a major blow to the existence of the Picardy Spaniel  In addition the infusion of blood from the English Setter into the local spaniel population created the Blue Picardy Spaniel 

Recognition
The Epagneul Picard Club was formed in 1921 and was merged with the Club of Blue Picardy Spaniel on 28 July 1937  A further merger took place on 21 May 1980 when these clubs merged with the Pont-Audemer Club to form the Club des Epagneuls Picards, Bleus de Picardie & Pont Audemer The Picardy Spaniel is recognised by a variety of Kennel Clubs and associations including the North American Kennel Club, American Rare Breed Association, United Kennel Club, and the Fédération Cynologique Internationale  All four associations use the standard as set by the FCI  It is also recognised by the Continental Kennel Club, but unlike the closely related Blue Picardy Spaniel, it is not recognised by the Canadian Kennel Club 

Description
Appearance
Typical examples of the breed measure between 22–24 inches (56–61 cm) at the withers, with the average weight between 20–25 kilograms (44–55 lb)  The breed is similar in size to the English Setter, although is slightly smaller  Of the Spaniel type breeds, only the Large Münsterländer and Drentse Patrijshond are recognised as possibly growing to larger sizes, with the Drentse measuring 21 5–25 5 in (55–65 cm), and the Münsterländer slightly smaller with a narrower range at 23–25 in (58–64 cm) The breed has a squarely built muscular body and  an oval shaped head with a long muzzle and long ears that hang fairly low  Its coat can vary in colours from chocolate, chestnut brown and white with sandy coloured markings on the head and white or grey spots on the legs  Its hair is abundant with a slight wave, enabling it to work in dense cover and even in water 

Temperament
The Picardy Spaniel is a docile breed of dog and is fond of playing with children and bonds well with their master  It is described as having a gentle sociable nature, possessing a good character with a laid-back attitude, and being relatively easy to train  In France, the breed is used for hunting in wooded areas for pheasants, and in swamps for snipes  However it can also be used for hunting ducks, hares and rabbits  The breed excels at hunting in marshes and will not hesitate to jump into water  It can also adequately serve as a retriever should it be required  The dog is content with a small amount of space and could suit life in the city, but also loves open spaces 

Health
The Picardy Spaniel has no known hereditary health problems, and has an average lifespan of 14 years  However being a hunting spaniel, the breed is prone to ear infections  These infections are common among dogs with pendulous ears, including Basset Hounds and other breeds of spaniel  Overfeeding a Picardy Spaniel may lead to
overweight 



ground_truth: yes

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: National Firearms Agreement was in response to the Port Arthur massacre that killed how many people?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: Passage 1:
Tasmania First Party
The Tasmania First Party is a minor Australian political party which operates exclusively in the state of Tasmania  The party was begun by members of the Tasmanian Firearms Owners Association in response to the Howard government's 1996 National Firearms Agreement, which the party called a "unilateral imposition of unnecessarily restrictive firearm legislation, following the unique tragedy of Martin Bryant's Port Arthur protest[sic] "Tasmania First contested its first election in August 1998, the Tasmanian state election  The party received 5 1% of the primary vote for the House of Assembly but failed to win any seats  Tasmania First subsequently contested the Australian federal elections in 1998 and 2001, as well as Tasmanian state elections in 2002 and 2006, but its primary vote in these elections was very modest compared to the party's initial effort in 1998  The Australian Electoral Commission (AEC) deregistered Tasmania First as a registered political party  on 28 April 2006, because the party had not contested a federal election in over four years(an AEC requirement, which must be met if parties are to retain their registration at the national level) 
In August 1998, The Examiner of Launceston referred to Tasmania First as "a sort of local mirror image of One Nation"  Tasmania First called this "defamatory" and demanded a retraction, threatening legal proceedings against the newspaper In 2001 the party declared itself "a natural partner to Brian Harradine in the Senate, where we have many policies in common, being a State based party with the interests of Tasmania our first priority "Tasmania First fielded four candidates in the 2006 Tasmanian state election; one in Bass, one in Lyons, and two in Denison Note: The party should not be confused with the First Party of Tasmania, a minor political organisation whose policies include the secession of Tasmania from Australia 

See also
List of political parties in Australia
Jacqui Lambie Network
Passage 2:
Martin Bryant
Martin John Bryant (born 7 May 1967) is a convicted Australian mass shooter who murdered 35 people and injured 23 others in the Port Arthur massacre, one of the world's deadliest shooting sprees, in Port Arthur, Tasmania, between 28 and 29 April 1996  He is serving 35 life sentences plus 1,652 years at Risdon Prison in Hobart  His papers are marked Never to be released 

Early life
Martin Bryant was born on 7 May 1967 at the Queen Alexandra Hospital in Hobart, Tasmania  He was the first child of Maurice and Carleen Bryant  Although the family home was in Lenah Valley, Bryant spent some of his childhood at their beach home in Carnarvon Bay  In a 2011 interview, his mother recalled that while Bryant was very young, she would often find his toys broken and that he was an "annoying" and "different" child  A psychologist's view was that Bryant would never be capable of holding down a job as he would aggravate people to such an extent that he would always be in trouble Locals recall abnormal behaviour by Bryant, such as pulling the snorkel from another boy while diving and cutting down trees on a neighbour's property  He was described by teachers as being distant from reality and unemotional  At school, Bryant was a disruptive and sometimes violent child who suffered severe bullying by other children  After he was suspended from New Town Primary School in 1977, psychological assessments noted that he tortured animals  Bryant returned to school the following year with improved behaviour; however, he persisted in teasing younger children  He was transferred to a special education unit at New Town High School in 1980, where he deteriorated both academically and behaviourally throughout his remaining school years 

Psychological and psychiatric assessments
Descriptions of Bryant's behaviour as an adolescent show that he continued to be disturbed and outlined the possibility of an intellectual disability  When leaving school in 1983, he was assessed for a disability pension by a psychiatrist who wrote: "Cannot read or write  Does a bit of gardening and watches TV     Only his parents' efforts prevent further deterioration  Could be schizophrenic and parents face a bleak future with him " Bryant received a disability pension, though he also worked as a handyman and gardener  In an examination after the massacre, forensic psychiatrist Ian Joblin found Bryant to be borderline mentally disabled with an I Q  of 66, equivalent to an 11-year-old While awaiting trial, Bryant was examined by court-appointed psychiatrist Ian Sale, who was of the opinion that Bryant "could be regarded as having shown a mixture of conduct disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity and a condition known as Asperger syndrome"  Psychiatrist Paul Mullen, hired at the request of Bryant's legal counsel, found that Bryant was socially and intellectually impaired  Furthermore, finding that he did not display signs of schizophrenia or a mood disorder, Mullen concluded, "Though Mr  Bryant was clearly a distressed and disturbed young man, he was not mentally ill "

Adulthood
In early 1987, when Bryant was 19, he met 54-year-old Helen Mary Elizabeth Harvey, heiress to a share in the Tattersall's lottery fortune, while looking for new customers for his lawnmowing service  Harvey, who lived with her mother Hilza, befriended Bryant, who became a regular visitor to her neglected mansion in New Town and assisted with tasks such as feeding the fourteen dogs living inside the house and the forty cats living inside her garage  In June 1990, an anonymous person reported Harvey to the health authorities and medics found both Harvey and her mother in need of urgent hospital treatment  With Helen suffering from infected ulcers and Hilza with an untreated broken hip, Hilza Harvey was moved into a nursing home and died several weeks later at the age of 79 A cleanup order was placed on the decaying mansion and Bryant's father took long-service leave to assist in cleaning the interior  The local RSPCA unit had to confiscate many animals living in the house  Following the mandatory cleanup, Harvey now invited Bryant to live with her in the mansion and they began spending extravagant amounts of money, which included the purchase of more than thirty new cars in less than three years  The odd pair of friends began to spend most days shopping, usually after having lunch in a local restaurant  Around this time, Bryant was reassessed for his pension and a note was attached to the paperwork: "Father protects him from any occasion which might upset him as he continually threatens violence     Martin tells me he would like to go around shooting people  It would be unsafe to allow Martin out of his parents' control" In 1991, as a result of no longer being allowed to have animals at the house, Harvey and Bryant moved together onto a 29-hectare (72-acre) farm called Taurusville that she had purchased in Copping, a small township  Neighbours recalled that Bryant always carried an air gun and often fired it at tourists as they stopped to buy apples at a stall on the highway and that late at night, he would roam through the surrounding properties firing the gun at dogs when they barked at him  They avoided him "at all costs" despite his attempts to befriend them On 20 October 1992, Harvey was killed when her car veered onto the wrong side of the road and hit an oncoming car directly  Bryant was inside the vehicle at the time of the accident and was hospitalised for seven months with severe neck and back injuries  He was briefly investigated by police for the role he played in the accident, as Bryant had a known habit of lunging for the steering wheel and Harvey had already had three accidents as a result  She often told people that this was the reason she never drove faster than 60 kilometres an hour (37 mph)  Bryant was named the sole beneficiary of Harvey's will and came into possession of assets totaling more than AU$550,000  As Bryant had only the "vaguest notions" of financial matters, his mother subsequently applied for and was granted a guardianship order, placing Bryant's assets under the management of Public Trustees  The order was based on evidence of Bryant's diminished intellectual capacity After Harvey's death, Bryant's father Maurice looked after the Copping farm  Bryant returned to the family home to convalesce after leaving hospital  Maurice had been prescribed antidepressants and had discreetly transferred his joint bank account and utilities into his wife's name  Two months later, on 14 August 1993, a visitor looking for Maurice at the Copping property found a note saying "call the police" pinned to the door and found several thousand dollars in his car  The rates officer at the time found no reason to suspect criminal intent and sent council members and police to quell the stresses put forward by letters sent to the local council chambers  Police searched the property for Maurice without success  Divers were called in to search the four dams on the property, and on 16 August, his body was found in the dam closest to the farmhouse, with a diving weight belt around his neck  Police described the death as "unnatural" and it was ruled a suicide  Bryant inherited the proceeds of his father's superannuation fund, valued at AU$250,000 Bryant later sold the Copping farm for AU$143,000 and kept the New Town mansion  While living at Copping, the white overalls he habitually wore were replaced with clothing more in line with Harvey's financial status  Now that he was alone, Bryant's dress became more bizarre; he often wore a grey linen suit, cravat, lizard-skin shoes, and a Panama hat while carrying a briefcase during the day, telling anyone who would listen that he had a well-paying career  He often wore an electric-blue suit with flared trousers and a ruffled shirt to the restaurant he frequented  The restaurant owner recalled: "It was horrible  Everyone was laughing at him, even the customers  I really felt suddenly quite sorry for him  I realised this guy didn't really have any friends "With both his father and Harvey dead, Bryant became increasingly lonely  From 1993 to late 1995, he visited various overseas countries fourteen times and a summary of his domestic airline travel filled three pages  Bryant had felt as lonely traveling as he did back home in Tasmania  He enjoyed the flights, as he could speak to the people sitting adjacent to him who had no choice but to be polite  He later took great joy in describing some of the conversations he had with fellow passengers In late 1995, Bryant became suicidal after deciding he had "had enough"  He stated, "I just felt more people were against me  When I tried to be friendly toward them, they just walked away " Although he had previously been little more than a social drinker, Bryant's alcohol consumption increased and, although he had not consumed any alcohol on the day of the Port Arthur massacre, had especially escalated in the six months prior to that day  His average daily consumption was estimated at half a bottle of Sambuca and a bottle of Baileys Irish Cream, supplemented with port wine and other sweet alcoholic drinks  According to Bryant, he thought the plan for Port Arthur might have first occurred to him four to twelve weeks before the event 

Port Arthur massacre
Bryant has provided conflicting and confused accounts of what led him to kill 35 people at the Port Arthur site on 28 April 1996  It could have been his desire for attention, as he allegedly told a next-door neighbour, "I'll do something that will make everyone remember me " Bryant's defence psychiatrist Paul Mullen, former chief of forensic psychiatry at Monash University, said, "He followed Dunblane  His planning started with Dunblane  Before that he was thinking about suicide, but Dunblane and the early portrayal of the killer, Thomas Hamilton, changed everything "Bryant's first victims, David and Noelene (Sally) Martin, owned the bed and breakfast guest house called 'Seascape'  The Martins had bought the bed and breakfast that Bryant's father had wanted to buy, and his father had complained to him on numerous occasions of the damage done to Bryant's family because of that purchase  Bryant apparently believed the Martins had bought the property to hurt his family out of spite and blamed the Martins for the depression that led to his father's suicide  He fatally shot the Martins in the guest house and stole their weapons before travelling to the Port Arthur site 
At Port Arthur, Bryant entered the Broad Arrow Café on the grounds of the historic site, carrying a large blue duffel bag  Once he finished eating, Bryant moved toward the back of the café and set a video camera on a vacant table  He took out a Colt AR-15 SP1 Carbine (semi-automatic rifle) and, firing from the hip, began shooting patrons and staff  Within fifteen seconds, he had fired seventeen shots, killing twelve people and wounding ten  Bryant then walked to the other side of the shop and fired twelve more times, killing another eight people while wounding two  He then changed magazines before fleeing, shooting at people in the car park and from his yellow Volvo 244 car as he drove away; four were killed and an additional six were injured 
Bryant drove 300 metres down the road, to where a woman and her two children were walking  He stopped and fired two shots, killing the woman and the child she was carrying  The older child fled, but Bryant followed her and killed her with a single shot  He then stole a gold BMW by killing all four of its occupants  A short distance down the road, he stopped beside a couple in a white Toyota and, drawing his weapon, ordered the male occupant into the boot of the BMW  After shutting the boot, he fired two shots into the windscreen of the Toyota, killing the female driver 
Bryant returned to the guest house, set the stolen car alight and took his hostage inside where he had left the Martins' corpses  The police soon arrived and tried to negotiate with Bryant for many hours before the battery in the phone he was using ran out, ending communication  Bryant's only demand was to be transported in an army helicopter to an airport  During the negotiations, Bryant killed his hostage  The next morning, eighteen hours later, he set fire to the guest house and attempted to escape in the confusion  Suffering burns to his back and buttocks, Bryant was captured and taken to Royal Hobart Hospital, where he was treated and kept under heavy guard 

Imprisonment
Bryant was judged competent to stand trial, which was scheduled to begin on 7 November 1996  He initially pleaded not guilty but was persuaded by his court-appointed lawyer, John Avery, to plead guilty to all charges  Two weeks later, Hobart Supreme Court Judge William Cox gave Bryant 35 life sentences, plus 1,652 years in prison, without the possibility of parole, all of which is to be served concurrently; this life sentence being applied is "for the term of [his] natural life "For the first eight months of his imprisonment, Bryant was held in a purpose-built special suicide-prevention cell in almost complete solitary confinement  He remained in protective custody for his own safety until 13 November 2006, when he was moved into Hobart's Wilfred Lopes Centre, a secure mental health unit run by the Tasmanian Department of Health and Human Services  The 35 bed unit for inmates with serious mental illness is staffed with doctors, nurses, and other support workers  Inmates are not locked down and can come and go from their cells  Exterior security at the facility is provided by a three-wall perimeter patrolled by private contract guards  On 25 March 2007, Bryant attempted to end his life by slashing his wrist with a razor blade  On 27 March, he cut his throat with another razor blade and was hospitalised briefly As of January 2022, Bryant is housed in the maximum-security Risdon Prison near Hobart 

Media coverage
Newspaper coverage immediately after the Port Arthur massacre raised serious questions about journalistic practices, and criticism was directed toward Australian media  Photographs of Bryant published in The Australian had his eyes digitally manipulated with the effect of making him appear deranged and "glaring"  Despite criticism, the manipulated photographs continued to be used in media reporting a decade later  There were also questions as to how the photos had been obtained 
The Tasmanian director of public prosecutions warned the media that the coverage compromised Bryant's right to a fair trial and writs were issued against The Australian, the Hobart Mercury (which used Bryant's picture under the headline "This is the man"), The Age, and the ABC  The chairman of the Australian Press Council at the time, David Flint, argued that because Australian newspapers regularly ignored contempt-of-court provisions, this showed that the law, not the newspapers, needed change  Flint suggested that such a change in the law would not necessarily lead to trial by media  Australian newspapers also came under critical scrutiny of their accounts of Bryant and how the kind of identity responsible for his and other similar kinds of killing might be understood 

Political aftermath
As a response to the spree killing, Australian state and territory governments placed extensive restrictions on all firearms, including semi-automatic centre-fire rifles, repeating shotguns (holding more than five shots) and high-capacity rifle magazines  In addition to this, limitations were also put into place on low-capacity repeating shotguns and rim-fire semi-automatic rifles  Though this resulted in stirring controversy, opposition to the new laws was overcome by media reporting of the massacre and mounting public opinion in the wake of the shootings (see Gun laws in Australia for more information on the 1996 legislation) 

In popular culture
In March 2012, Sydney artist Rodney Pople controversially won the AU$35,000 Glover Prize for his landscape painting depicting Port Arthur with Bryant in the foreground holding a firearm In 2019, Bryant's massacre was referenced in the lyrics of Pond's song, "The Boys Are Killing Me", featured on their album Tasmania The 2021 film Nitram, directed by Justin Kurzel, is based on Bryant's life, with Caleb Landry Jones in the role of Bryant  Jones won the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor for his portrayal 

See also
List of rampage killers
The Alannah and Madeline Foundation
Passage 3:
Port Arthur massacre (Australia)
The Port Arthur massacre was a mass shooting that occurred on 28 April 1996 at Port Arthur, a tourist town in the Australian state of Tasmania  The perpetrator, Martin Bryant, killed 35 people and wounded 23 others, the worst massacre in modern Australian history  The attack led to fundamental changes in Australia's gun laws 
Two of Bryant's victims were known to him personally and were killed at Seascape, a bed and breakfast property  The majority of his victims were killed in a shooting spree at the Port Arthur Historic Site, a popular tourist destination  Using two semi-automatic rifles, he began his attack at a small café before moving into a nearby gift shop, killing twenty people indiscriminately in a short amount of time  Many others were killed at the site's car park, including several children  After killing its four occupants, Bryant stole a vehicle at the site's tollbooth and drove to a nearby service station, where he killed a woman and abducted her partner  He continued to fire at passing vehicles before finally returning to Seascape with his hostage, who was then killed  He set fire to the property but was captured the following morning 
Bryant pleaded guilty to the killings and received 35 life sentences without parole; his motives have been subject to debate  The massacre led to a reassessment of Australia's gun laws by the newly elected Howard government  The National Firearms Agreement between state and federal governments was announced within two weeks of the massacre, establishing heavy restrictions on the use of automatic and semi-automatic weapons and creating a gun buyback program, a national gun registry and a waiting period for firearm sales 

Background
Location
The main location of the incident was the historic Port Arthur former prison colony, a popular tourist site in south-eastern Tasmania, Australia 

Perpetrator
In 1992, Martin Bryant—then 25—was bequeathed about $570,000 in property and assets by a friend, Helen Harvey, who left her estate to him following her death in a car crash  He used part of this money to go on many trips around the world from 1993 onwards Bryant's father had tried to purchase a bed and breakfast property called Seascape, but Noelene (also known as Sally) and David Martin bought this property before his father could ready his finances, much to the disappointment of Bryant's father, who often complained to his son of the "double dealing" the Martins had done to secure the purchase  Bryant's father offered to buy another property from the Martins at Palmers Lookout Road, but they declined the offer  Bryant apparently believed the Martins had deliberately bought the property to hurt his family and believed this event to be responsible for the depression that led to his father's 1993 suicide  Bryant later described the Martins as "very mean people" and as "the worse [sic] people in my life "In late 1995, Bryant became suicidal after deciding he had "had enough"  He stated, "I just felt more people were against me  When I tried to be friendly toward them, they just walked away"  Although he had previously been little more than a social drinker, his alcohol consumption increased and, although he had not consumed any alcohol on the day of the massacre, had especially escalated in the six months prior According to Bryant, he thought the plan for Port Arthur might have first occurred to him four to twelve weeks before the event 

Motivation
Bryant's suspected motivations for the massacre were the refusal of the sale of Seascape by owners David and Noelene Martin and to become notorious, as revealed by his lawyer, on the Channel 7 program Sunday Night, air date Sunday, 6 March 2016  From the moment he was captured, he continually wanted to know how many people he had killed and seemed impressed by the number  Bryant is allowed to listen only to music on a radio outside his cell and is denied access to any news reports of his massacre  Photographers who took pictures of him in his prison cell were forced to destroy the film in his presence when the Governor found out 

Gun laws in Australia before the Port Arthur massacre
After storming out of a national gun summit in 1987, eight years before the massacre and following two mass shootings in Melbourne earlier in the year, Premier of New South Wales Barrie Unsworth said: "it will take a massacre in Tasmania before we get gun reform in Australia", referencing Tasmania's resistance to gun law changes  A redesign of the laws for all states and territories of Australia had been prepared by officers and presented at a meeting of police ministers in Launceston in 1995  It had been rejected by Tasmania 

Attacks
The events of this day were pieced together after investigation by police, then presented in court on 19 November 1996 : 50 David and Noelene Martin were the first victims, murdered at the Seascape property (43 11905°S 147 85328°E﻿ / -43 11905; 147 85328) at some point within a 12 hour timeframe prior to the Port Arthur attack 
A couple stopped at Seascape, and Bryant met them outside  When they asked if they could have a look at the accommodation, Bryant told them that they could not because his parents were away and his girlfriend was inside  His demeanour was described as quite rude and the couple felt uncomfortable  They left at about 12:35 p m : 67 Bryant drove to Port Arthur in his yellow Volvo 244, taking the keys to the Seascape properties after locking the doors  Bryant stopped at a car which had pulled over due to overheating and talked with two people there : 68  He suggested that they come to the Port Arthur café for some coffee later : 69 He travelled past the Port Arthur historic site towards a Palmer's Lookout Road property owned by the Martins, where he came across Roger Larner  Larner had met him on some occasions more than 15 years previously  Bryant told Larner he had been surfing and had bought a property called Fogg Lodge and was now looking to buy some cattle from Larner  Bryant also made several comments about buying the Martins' place next door  He asked if Marian Larner was home and asked if he could continue down the driveway of the farm to see her  Larner said OK but told Bryant he would come also  "Bryant then responded that he might go to Nubeena first" and he was going to return in the afternoon : 71

Port Arthur Historic Site
At around 1:10 p m , Bryant paid the entry fee for the site and proceeded to park near the Broad Arrow Café (43 14652°S 147 85139°E﻿ / -43 14652; 147 85139), near the water's edge  The site security manager told him to park with the other cars because that area was reserved for camper-vans and the car park was busy that day  Bryant moved his car to another area and sat in his car for a few minutes  He then moved his car back near the water, outside the café  The security manager saw him go up to the café carrying a "sports-type bag" and a video camera, but ignored him : 72  Bryant went into the café and purchased a meal, which he ate on the deck outside  He attempted to start conversations with people about the lack of wasps in the area and there not being as many Japanese tourists as usual  He appeared nervous and "quite regularly" looked back to the car-park and into the café : 75

Broad Arrow Café murders
The café was very small, and was particularly busy that day as many people waited for the next ferry  Bryant pointed his rifle to the table beside him, fatally shooting Moh Yee (William) Ng and Sou Leng Chung, who were visiting from Malaysia  Bryant then fired a shot at Mick Sargent, grazing his scalp and knocking him to the floor  He then fatally shot Sargent's girlfriend, 21-year-old Kate Elizabeth Scott, hitting her in the back of the head A 28-year-old New Zealand winemaker, Jason Winter, had been helping the busy café staff  As Bryant turned towards Winter's wife Joanne and their 15-month-old son Mitchell, Winter threw a serving tray at Bryant in an attempt to distract him  Joanne Winter's father pushed his daughter and grandson to the floor and under the table 
Forty-four-year-old Anthony Nightingale stood up after the sound of the first shots  Nightingale yelled "No, not here!" as Bryant pointed the weapon at him  As Nightingale leaned forward, he was fatally shot through the neck and spine Bryant fired one shot that killed Kevin Vincent Sharp, 68  He then fired another shot at Walter Bennett, 66, which passed through his body and struck Raymond John Sharp, 67, Kevin Sharp's brother, killing both  The three had their backs towards Bryant, and were unaware what was happening   The shots were all at close range  Gerald Broome, Gaye Fidler and her husband John Fidley were all struck by bullet fragments, but survived Bryant then turned towards Tony and Sarah Kistan and Andrew Mills 
Thelma Walker and Pamela Law were injured by fragments before being dragged to the ground by their friend, Peter Crosswell, as the three sheltered underneath the table  Also injured by fragments from these shots was Patricia Barker Bryant moved just a few metres and began shooting at the table where Graham Colyer, Carolyn Loughton and her daughter Sarah were seated  Colyer was shot in the jaw  Sarah Loughton ran towards her mother, who had been moving between tables  Carolyn Loughton threw herself on top of her daughter  Bryant shot Carolyn Loughton in the back; her eardrum was ruptured by the muzzle blast from the gun going off beside her ear  Despite Carolyn's efforts, Sarah had been fatally shot in the head Bryant pivoted around and fatally shot Mervyn Howard  The bullet passed through him, through a window of the café, and hit a table on the outside balcony  Bryant then fatally shot Mervyn Howard's wife, Mary Howard in the head and neck Bryant was near the exit, preventing others from attempting to run past him and escape  Bryant moved across the café towards the gift shop area  As Bryant moved, Robert Elliott stood up  He was shot in the arm and head, though survived his injuries From the first shot, all of these events took approximately fifteen seconds, during which Bryant fired seventeen shots, killed twelve people, and wounded ten more 

Gift shop murders
As Bryant moved towards the gift shop area, many used the time to hide under tables and behind shop displays  He fatally shot the two local women who worked in the gift shop: 17-year-old Nicole Burgess, in the head, and 26-year-old Elizabeth Howard, in the arm and chest Coralee Lever and Vera Jary hid behind a hessian (burlap) screen with others  Lever's husband Dennis was fatally shot in the head  Pauline Masters, Vera Jary's husband Ron, and Peter and Carolyn Nash had attempted to escape through a locked door but could not open it  Peter Nash lay down on top of his wife to hide her from the gunman  Gwen Neander, trying to make it to the door, was shot in the head and killed Bryant saw movement in the café and moved near the front door  He shot at a table and hit Peter Crosswell, who was hiding under it, in the buttock  Jason Winter, hiding in the gift shop, thought Bryant had left the building and made a comment about it to people near him before moving out into the open  Bryant saw him, with Winter exclaiming, "No, no" just prior to being shot, the bullet hitting his hand, neck and chest  Winter was then fatally shot in the head  Fragments from those shots struck American tourist Dennis Olson, who had been hiding with his wife Mary and Winter  Dennis Olson suffered fragment injuries to his hand, scalp, eye and chest, but survived It is not immediately clear what happened next, although at some point, Bryant reloaded his weapon  Bryant walked back to the café and then returned to the gift shop, where he fatally shot Ronald Jary, Peter Nash and Pauline Masters  He did not see Carolyn Nash, who was lying under her husband  Bryant aimed his gun at an unidentified Asian man, but the rifle's magazine was empty  Bryant then moved to the gift shop counter, where he reloaded his rifle, leaving an empty magazine on the service counter, and left the building In the café and gift shop combined, he fired twenty-nine shots, killed twenty people, and wounded twelve more 

Car park murders
Bryant then moved towards the coach parking lot, situated in front of the café building  One of the coach drivers, Royce Thompson, was shot in the back as he was moving along the passengers' side of a coach  He fell to the ground and was able to crawl under the bus, but later died of his wounds  Brigid Cook was trying to guide people down between the buses and along the jetty area to cover  Bryant moved to the front of this bus and walked across to the next coach  People had quickly moved from this coach towards the back end, in an attempt to seek cover  As Bryant walked around it, he saw people trying to hide and shot at them  Cook was shot in the right thigh, causing the bone to fragment, the bullet lodging there Bryant then quickly moved around another coach and fired at another group of people  Winifred Aplin, running to get to cover behind another coach, was fatally shot in the side  Another bullet grazed Yvonne Lockley's cheek, but she was able to enter one of the coaches to hide, and survived Some people then started moving away from the car park towards the jetty  However, someone shouted that Bryant was heading that way, so they doubled back around the coaches to where Brigid Cook had been shot  Bryant then moved to where Janet and Neville Quin, who owned a wildlife park on the east coast of Tasmania, were beginning to move away from the buses  Bryant shot Janet Quin in the back, where she fell, unable to move, near Royce Thompson Bryant then continued along the car park as people tried to escape along the shore  Doug Hutchinson was attempting to get into a coach when he was shot in the arm Bryant then went to his vehicle, which was just past the coaches, and exchanged his weapon for a self-loading rifle Bryant moved back to the buses where Janet Quin lay injured from the earlier shot  He then fatally shot her in the back  Bryant then went onto one of the coaches and fatally shot Elva Gaylard in the arm and chest  At an adjacent coach, Gordon Francis saw what happened and moved down the aisle to try to shut the door of the coach he was on  He was seen by Bryant and shot from the opposite coach  He survived, but needed four major operations Neville Quin, husband of Janet, had escaped to the jetty area, but returned to look for his wife  He had been forced to leave her earlier after Bryant shot her  Bryant exited the coach and, spotting Quin, chased him around the coaches  Bryant fired at him at least twice before Quin ran onto a coach  Bryant entered the coach and pointed the gun at Neville Quin's face, saying, "No one gets away from me"  Quin ducked when he realised Bryant was about to pull the trigger  The bullet missed his head but hit his neck, momentarily paralysing him 

Toll booth murders and carjacking
Bryant went to his car and drove towards the exit from the historical site  Ahead of him were Nanette Mikac and her children, Madeline, 3, and Alannah, 6  Nanette was carrying Madeline, and Alannah was running slightly ahead  By this point, they had run approximately 600 metres (660 yards) from the car park  Bryant opened his door and slowed down  Mikac moved towards the car, apparently thinking he was offering help  Bryant stepped out of the car, and told Nanette Mikac to get on her knees  She did so, and Bryant fatally shot her in the temple  He then fatally shot Madeline and Alannah Bryant drove up to the toll booth at the exit of the historical site, where there were several vehicles, and blocked a 1980 gold BMW 7 Series owned by Mary Rose Nixon  Inside were Nixon, driver Russell James Pollard and passengers Helene and Robert Graham Salzmann  An argument with Robert Salzmann ensued, and Bryant took out his rifle and fatally shot him  Pollard emerged from the BMW and moved towards Bryant before being fatally shot in the chest  Bryant then moved to the BMW and fatally shot Nixon and Helene Salzmann before removing them from the car  Bryant transferred ammunition, handcuffs, the AR-15 rifle and a fuel container to the BMW Another car then came towards the toll booth and Bryant shot at it 

Service station murder and abduction
Bryant drove up to the service station in front of the Port Arthur General Store (43 13983°S 147 85079°E﻿ / -43 13983; 147 85079) and cut off a white Toyota Corolla that was attempting to exit onto the highway  Glenn Pears was driving, with girlfriend Zoe Hall in the passenger seat  Bryant quickly exited the car with his rifle in hand and tried to pull Hall from the car  Pears got out of the car and approached Bryant  Bryant pointed the gun at Pears and pushed him backwards, eventually directing him into the now open boot of the BMW, locking Pears inside Bryant then moved back to the passenger side of the Corolla as Hall attempted to climb over to the driver's seat  Bryant raised his rifle and fired three shots, killing her 

Seascape roadway
As Bryant drove down to Seascape, he shot at a red Ford Falcon coming the other way, smashing its front windscreen  Upon arriving at Seascape, he got out of his car  A Holden Frontera 4WD vehicle then approached Seascape along the road  Those in the vehicle saw Bryant with his gun, but believed him to be rabbit hunting and slowed down as they passed him  Bryant fired into the car; the first bullet hit the bonnet and broke the throttle cable  He fired at least twice more into the car as it passed, breaking the windows  One bullet hit the driver, Linda White, in the arm Another vehicle then drove down the road, carrying four people  It was not until they were almost adjacent to Bryant that they realised he was carrying a gun  Bryant shot at the car, smashing the windscreen  Douglas Horner was wounded by pieces of the windscreen  The car proceeded ahead where White and Wanders tried to get in, but Horner did not realise the situation and drove on  When they saw that White had been shot, they came back and picked them up  Both parties then continued down to a local establishment called the Fox and Hounds Inn, where they called police Yet another car drove past and Bryant shot at it, hitting the passenger, Susan Williams, in the hand  The driver, Simon Williams, was struck by fragments Sometime after he stopped, Bryant removed Pears from the boot and handcuffed him to a stair rail within the Seascape Guesthouse  At some point, he also set the BMW on fire 

Capture on 29 April
Bryant was captured the following morning, when a fire started in the guest house, presumably set by Bryant It was discovered that Glenn Pears had been shot during or before the standoff and had died before the fire  The remains of the Martins were also found 

Victims
Fatalities
The following is a list of those killed in the Port Arthur massacre 

Aftermath
The Port Arthur tourist site reopened a few weeks later, and since then a new restaurant has been built  The former Broad Arrow Café structure is now a "place for quiet reflection", with a monument and memorial garden dedicated at the site in April 2000  The Australian Journal of Emergency Management published several research articles on the response and the ongoing processes of recovery, including an article about caring for the social workers working with residents 

Government reaction
Following the spree, the Prime Minister of Australia, John Howard, led the development of strict gun control laws within Australia and formulated the National Firearms Agreement, restricting the private ownership of semi-automatic rifles, semi-automatic shotguns and pump-action shotguns as well as introducing uniform firearms licensing  It was implemented with bipartisan support by the Commonwealth, states and territories  The massacre happened just six weeks after the Dunblane massacre, in Scotland, which claimed 18 lives, with UK Prime Minister John Major reaching out to his counterpart over the shared tragedies; the United Kingdom passed its own changes to gun laws the next year after a change of government Under federal government co-ordination, all states and territories of Australia restricted the legal ownership and use of self-loading rifles, self-loading shotguns, and tightened controls on their legal use by recreational shooters  The government initiated a mandatory "buy-back" scheme with the owners paid according to a table of valuations  Some 643,000 firearms were handed in at a cost of $350 million which was funded by a temporary increase in the Medicare levy which raised $500 million Some state governments, notably Tasmania itself and Queensland, were generally opposed to new gun laws  Concern was raised within the Coalition Government that fringe groups such as the "Ausi Freedom Scouts", the Australian League of Rights and the Citizen Initiated Referendum Party, were exploiting voter anger to gain support  After discovering that the Christian Coalition and National Rifle Association of America were supporting the gun lobby, the government and media cited their support, along with the moral outrage of the community to discredit the gun lobby as extremists 

Community reaction
A substantial community fund was given for the victims of the Port Arthur massacre  The murder of Nanette Mikac and her daughters Alannah and Madeline inspired Dr Phil West of Melbourne, who had two girls similar in age to the murdered children, to set up a foundation in their memory  The Alannah and Madeline Foundation was launched in 1997 to combat bullying and to support child victims of violence The massacre at Port Arthur forged a kinship between that town and the Scottish town of Dunblane, which had suffered a similar event, the Dunblane school massacre, only weeks previously In 1996, Australian composer Peter Sculthorpe wrote Port Arthur, In memoriam: for chamber orchestra, "   for the victims of the massacre at Port Arthur, 28 April 1996, for those who died, and for those who live with the memory of it " The work was first performed 24 June 1996, at Government House, Hobart, Tasmania, by the Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra conducted by David Porcelijn 

Mental illness and copycat effects
Much discussion has occurred as to Bryant's mental health  At the time of the offences he was in receipt of a Disability Support Pension on the basis of being mentally handicapped  Media reports also detailed his odd behaviour as a child  He was able to drive a car and obtain a gun, though he possessed a licence for neither Paul Mullen, a forensic psychiatrist with extensive involvement following the string of massacres in Australia and New Zealand, attributes both the Port Arthur massacre and some of the earlier massacres to the copycat effect  In this theory the saturation media coverage provides both instruction and perverse incentives for dysfunctional individuals to imitate previous crimes  In Tasmania, a coroner found that a report on the current affairs program A Current Affair, a few months earlier had guided one suicide, and might have helped create the expectation of a massacre  The coverage of the Dunblane massacre, in particular the attention on the perpetrator, is thought to have provided the trigger for Bryant to act 

Investigation
Martin Bryant pleaded guilty to having carried out the shootings and was given 35 life sentences without parole  Since 2015, he has been imprisoned in the Risdon Prison Complex 

Prosecution
Bryant was held in Royal Hobart Hospital under heavy police guard while awaiting trial  According to a guard, there were at least two security guard job applications made by individuals seeking to exact retribution on Bryant On 22 November 1996, Bryant was sentenced to 35 sentences of life imprisonment for each count of murder and sentenced to 25 years for the remaining 36 charges on 5 other offences (20 attempted murders, 3 counts infliction of grievous bodily harm, the infliction of wounds upon a further 8 persons, 4 counts of aggravated assault and 1 count of unlawfully setting fire to property)  All sentences are to be served concurrently 

Legacy
Tasmanian Police records from the incident are in the care of the Tasmanian Archive and Heritage Office  A memorial service on the 20th anniversary of the massacre had over 500 people in attendance In 2007, Tasmanian playwright Tom Holloway dealt with the massacre in his play Beyond the Neck  Tasmanian composer Matthew Dewey also deals with these issues in his first symphony  The case was also covered by Casefile True Crime Podcast on 11 February 2017 
The 2021 feature film Nitram is based on the event and won the 2021 CinefestOZ Film Prize 

See also
List of mass shootings in Australia
List of massacres in Australia
Timeline of major crimes in Australia
List of disasters in Australia by death toll
Passage 4:
Memorial High School (Port Arthur, Texas)
Memorial High School is a public, co-educational secondary school located in Port Arthur, Texas, United States  It was established in August 2002 after a merger of three previous high schools: Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and Stephen F  Austin  Since then, Port Arthur Memorial High School has been the only high school in the Port Arthur Independent School District  It serves most of Port Arthur and a portion of Groves  Initially, the school used the former Lincoln and Jefferson campuses; its new facility opened for the 2009–10 school year on the northern side of Port Arthur  It also has a 9th Grade Center in the Port Acres area of Port Arthur, on the former Austin Middle School campus 
When Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln and Stephen F  Austin high schools were consolidated, students voted on the name for the new high school and the top two vote-getters were "Memorial High School" and "Thurgood Marshall High School"  In September 2007, school board member Terry Doyle suggested renaming Memorial High School after the late Staff Sgt  Lucian Adams, a Port Arthur native who received the Medal of Honor for his bravery in World War II   Employees of the school district established a museum of artifacts from the three former high schools plus the Catholic Bishop Byrne High School 

Athletics
Memorial High School currently participates in District 22-5A  Memorial participates in the following UIL sports where it has had success in many district championships and playoff wins: 

Football
Volleyball
Cheerleading
Cross Country
Basketball
Soccer
Track and Field
Swimming and Diving
Baseball
Softball
Tennis
Powerlifting
Golf

Organizations
Memorial has many organizations including an award winning:

Marching Band known as "The Marching Heat"
Dance/Drill Team known as the "Flames" usually made up of 30-60 girls
The Titan Press Newspaper and Yearbook
NJROTC
Theatre
MHS Choir on FireAmong over 30 clubs 

Notable alumni
Eric Alexander, former NFL linebacker, attended Stephen F  Austin
Bun B, rapper and former member of UGK, attended Thomas Jefferson
Aaron Brown, former NFL defensive end, attended Lincoln
Jonathan Babineaux, former NFL defensive tackle, attended Lincoln
Jordan Babineaux, former NFL cornerback, attended Lincoln
G  W  Bailey (Thomas Jefferson Class of 1961) — stage, television and film actor
J'Covan Brown (born 1990), basketball player in the Israel Basketball Premier League
Pimp C, rapper and former member of UGK, attended Lincoln
Jamaal Charles, former NFL running back
Todd Dodge (Thomas Jefferson alumni) — a former Texas high school football coach
Kevin Everett, former NFL tight end, attended Thomas Jefferson
Goose Gonsoulin, former NFL safety, attended Thomas Jefferson
Danny Gorrer, former NFL cornerback
Mike Green, former NFL linebacker, attended Lincoln
Gary Hammond, former NFL wide receiver and running back, attended Thomas Jefferson
Duriel Harris, former NFL wide receiver, attended Stephen F  Austin
Xavier Hernandez, former MLB pitcher, attended Thomas Jefferson
Stephen Jackson, former NBA guard, attended Lincoln
James Johnson, former NFL running back, attended Thomas Jefferson
Jimmy Johnson (Thomas Jefferson Class of 1961) — Pro Football Hall of Fame coach, also a college coach
Paul Jones, professional wrestler
Janis Joplin (Thomas Jefferson Class of 1960) — A rock, soul, and blues singer and songwriter, member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
Carl Larpenter, former NFL offensive lineman, attended Thomas Jefferson
Bobby Leopold, former NFL linebacker, attended Lincoln
Tim McKyer, former NFL cornerback, attended Lincoln
Inika McPherson, national champion high jumper
Marcus Price, former NFL offensive lineman, attended Lincoln
Elandon Roberts, NFL linebacker
Dan Rogas, former NFL offensive lineman, attended Thomas Jefferson
Cotton Speyrer, former NFL wide receiver, attended Thomas Jefferson
Raymond Strother, political consultant, attended Thomas Jefferson
Kary Vincent Jr , NFL player
Joe Washington, former NFL running back, attended Lincoln
Passage 5:
National Firearms Agreement
The National Firearms Agreement (NFA), also sometimes called the National Agreement on Firearms, the National Firearms Agreement and Buyback Program, or the Nationwide Agreement on Firearms, was an agreement concerning firearm control made by Australasian Police Ministers' Council (APMC) in 1996, in response to the Port Arthur massacre that killed 35 people  Four days after the killings, Australian Prime Minister John Howard told Parliament “We need to achieve a total prohibition on the ownership, possession, sale and importation of all automatic and semi-automatic weapons  That will be the essence of the proposal that will be put by the Commonwealth government at the meeting on Friday   "  The laws to give effect to the Agreement were passed by Australian State governments only 12 days after the Port Arthur massacre The NFA placed tight control on semi-automatic and fully automatic weapons but permitted their use by a small number of licensed individuals who required them for a purpose other than "personal protection"  The act included a gun buy-back provision 
Negotiation and implementation of the Agreement was originally coordinated in 1996 by Prime Minister Howard  Since then the Agreement has continued to have support from both Labor and Coalition Federal Governments  The Australian Police Ministers Council (APMC), comprising state and federal police ministers, meets at least every six months at which issues including the NFA are discussed  Changes to the NFA require the unanimous agreement of all governments  At a meeting on 21 October 2016, it was agreed to hold a firearm amnesty by mid-2017 A study found that there were no mass shooting deaths of five or more in Australia from 1997 through 2006; the authors said that it is impossible to prove the agreement was the cause 

Provisions
The Agreement includes a number of provisions  It was agreed to establish a temporary firearm buyback program for firearms that were once legal now made illegal, that according to the Council on Foreign Relations bought over 650,000 firearms  This program, which cost $230 million, was paid for by an increase in the country's taxes The law created a national firearm registry, a 28-day waiting period for firearm sales, and tightened firearm licensing rules  The law requires anyone wishing to possess or use a firearm with some exceptions, be over the age of 12  Owners must be at least 18 years of age, have secure storage for their firearms and provide a "genuine reason" for doing so 

Effectiveness
In 1998, the Prime Minister appointed the Australian Institute of Criminology to monitor the effects of the gun buyback  The institute has published a number of papers reporting trends and statistics around gun ownership and gun crime, which it has found to be mostly related to illegally held firearms  A 2013 report by the Australian Crime Commission said a conservative estimate was that there were 250,000 longarms and 10,000 handguns in the nation's illicit firearms market  The number of guns imported to Australia legally has also risen  A 2014 report stated that approximately "260,000 guns are on the Australian 'grey' or black markets" Research by Philip Alpers of the University of Sydney found that Australia experienced 69 gun homicides in 1996 (not counting the Port Arthur massacre), compared to 30 in 2012  The drop in firearm homicides was not attributed to the national firearms agreement  A 2006 study led by Simon Chapman, also of the University of Sydney, found that after the NFA was passed, the country experienced more than a decade without mass shootings and accelerated falls in gun deaths, especially suicides  Samara McPhedran and Jeanine Baker, researchers for gun lobby group Women in Shooting and Hunting (WiSH), considered whether the NFA had any effect in eliminating mass shootings by using New Zealand (a country with many similarities to Australia) as a comparison and found; “there is little support for the proposition that prohibiting certain types of firearms explains the absence of mass shootings in Australia since 1996” 
Another study by Baker and McPhedran in 2007 did not find a significant effect of the NFA on Australia's homicide rate  While research does show a steady decline in gun-related suicides, the reduction occurred at the same time as an overall reduction in the Australian suicide rate  What's more, firearm-related suicides had been declining in Australia for nearly ten years before the 1996 restrictions on gun ownership  A 2009 study also found that firearm suicide rates were decreasing in Australia before the NFA was passed, and concluded that "The implemented restrictions may not be responsible for the observed reductions in firearms suicide " Baker and McPhedran's 2007 study has been criticized by David Hemenway, who has written that the authors, who chose 1979 as the starting point for their trend analysis, failed to explain why they assumed the gun violence rate would continue to decline  Hemenway also criticized their study for using a counterfactual that assumed that this decline would continue forever Suicide reduction from firearm regulation is disputed by Richard Harding in his 1981 book "Firearms and Violence in Australian Life" where, after reviewing Australian statistics, he said that "whatever arguments might be made for the limitation or regulation of the private ownership of firearms, suicide patterns do not constitute one of them" Harding quoted international analysis by Newton and Zimring of twenty developed countries which concluded at page 36 of their report; “cultural factors appear to affect suicide rates far more than the availability and use of firearms  Thus, suicide rates would not seem to be readily affected by making firearms less available "
University of Melbourne researchers Wang-Sheng Lee and Sandy Suardi concluded their 2008 report, "There is little evidence to suggest that the Australian mandatory gun-buyback program had any significant effects on firearm homicides "More recently, a 2010 study by Andrew Leigh and Christine Neill found that, in the decade after the NFA, non-gun homicide rates fell by 59% and gun homicides fell by the same 59% with gun suicide rates falling by 65%   Howard cited this as showing Australia had been right to adopt the NFA but he omitted to mention the same fall in the non-gun homicide rate  Others have argued that alternative methods of suicide have been substituted  De Leo, Dwyer, Firman & Neulinger, studied suicide methods in men from 1979 to 1998 and found a rise in hanging suicides that started slightly before the fall in gun suicides  As hanging suicides rose at about the same rate as gun suicides fell, it is possible that there was some substitution of suicide methods  It has been noted that drawing strong conclusions about possible impacts of gun laws on suicides is challenging, because a number of suicide prevention programs were implemented from the mid-1990s onwards, and non-firearm suicides also began falling A 2015 study found that in the two years following the NFA's enactment, rates of armed robbery and attempted murder decreased significantly relative to rates of sexual assault, but that the evidence was less clear with regard to changes in the rate of unarmed robbery following the law In 2016, Samara McPhedran, a Griffith University academic and chair of the International Coalition for Women in Shooting and Hunting, reviewed the literature on the NFA and homicide and reported that of the five studies she found on the topic, "No study found statistical evidence of any significant impact of the legislative changes on firearm homicide rates "Simon Chapman and colleagues reported in 2016 that there were no mass shootings in Australia between when the NFA became law and May 2016  The same study also found that "there was a more rapid decline in firearm deaths between 1997 and 2013 compared with before 1997 but also a decline in total nonfirearm suicide and homicide deaths of a greater magnitude " For this reason, the authors concluded that it was impossible to say definitively whether the reduction in firearm-related deaths can be attributed to the NFA A 2017 study commissioned by Gun Control Australia found that Australian states had significantly weakened gun laws since the NFA was first introduced, with no jurisdiction fully compliant with the NFA  For example, many states now allow children to use guns and the mandatory 28-day cooling-off period required for gun purchases has been relaxed in many jurisdictions, with no waiting period for purchasers who already own at least one gun  New South Wales also allows the limited use of silencers, even though they are supposed to be a prohibited weapon  No state or territory has outlined a timeframe for achieving full compliance with the NFA Australia's gun laws remain extremely popular with the public, with little to no will for turning them back  According to an Essential Research poll conducted in 2018, "62% believe Australia’s gun laws are about right and 25% think they are too weak  Only 7% think they are too strict "

See also
Gun laws in Australia
Passage 6:
Museum of the Gulf Coast
The Museum of the Gulf Coast, located in Port Arthur, Texas, specializes in Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coast history  A 39,000 sq  ft  facility with its most notable exhibits are a gallery of Robert Rauschenberg's artworks and a Music Hall of Fame honoring performers from the region; featured in the latter are artifacts of Janis Joplin's youth  The Music, Sports, and Notable Halls of Fame house more than 200 people from the Gulf Coast Region who have made national and or Internacional achievements in their respective fields  The museum is sponsored and administered by the Port Arthur Historical Society, and is the descendant of the original Port Arthur Museum chartered by the state in 1964   The administration of the museum is done in partnership with the City of Port Arthur 
Passage 7:
Glover Prize
The Glover Prize is an Australian annual art prize awarded for paintings of the landscape of Tasmania The prize was inaugurated in 2004 by the John Glover Society, based in Evandale, Tasmania, in honour of the work of British-born landscape painter John Glover, who lived and painted in the area from 1832 until his death in 1849  The current prize amount of A$ 50,000 is the highest for landscape painting in Australia  The 2012 award was controversial: the winning picture included a depiction of convicted Port Arthur massacre spree killer Martin Bryant in the landscape of Port Arthur 

History
John Glover lived the last 17 years of his life in northern Tasmania   In 2001, "Mount Wellington and Hobart Town with Natives Dancing and Bathing", one of his many landscape works that were sent back to England, was sold for more than $1 5 million 
The Glover Prize has been described as "a little heart beat, a funny little committee that had a little bit of money and had an idea"  By 2019, the prize had attracted 480 entrants 

Conditions for the prize
The John Glover Society has specified that the prize is limited to works depicting Tasmanian landscapes 

Winners
2004
The winner of the inaugural Prize was Longford based artist Michael McWilliams, for the painting  Bandicoot on a Log Bandicoots are small to medium-sized terrestrial marsupials endemic to Australia 
The painting now hangs in the departure lounge of Launceston Airport 
His acrylics on linen work Bush Blankets was awarded the $3 000 "People's Choice" 2012 award 

2005
In the second year of the contest, there were more than 130 entries  The winner was Stephen Charles Lees for the painting Wishbone Ridge  Lees, who was born in Sydney, had lived in Tasmanian since 1992 

2006
Hobart artist David Keeling was awarded the third Glover Prize for 45 Minute Walk - Narawntapu   The winning work was of orthodox oils on canvas medium  The landscape depicted is part of the Narawntapu National Park

2007
The winner of the Prize in 2007 was Raymond Arnold, a Queenstown-based printmaker 
The painting in acrylics, entitled Western Mountain Ecology, depicts stacks of freshly-sawn Huon pine  The prize amount was then $30 000 

2008
Hobart Art teacher Neil Haddon was awarded the 2008 Glover Prize for his work Purblind (opiate) The work is enamels on aluminium, and references the cultivation of opium poppies in Tasmanian opium poppy farming industry 

2009
Hobart-based artist Matthew Armstrong was awarded the 2009 Prize for the work Transformed at Night ahead of more than 250 other entrants  Armstrong's work depicted Mellifont Street, Hobart 

2010
Queensland-based artist Ian Waldron was selected from among 272 entries to become the first Indigenous Australian to win the Prize with his work Walach Dhaarr (Cockle Creek), a piece created on Tasmanian oak  "Walach Dhaarr" in the language of the Aboriginal Tasmanians of that region means "Cockle Creek", a location in Tasmania that Waldron described as significant, both archaeologically and as a "site of positive exchange" between indigenous people and French mariners during the late 18th century 

2011
The 2011 prize was awarded to Launceston artist Josh Foley for Gee’s Lookout  The oil painting included pumice in its media  The painting depicts a disused building on the hill overlooking Cataract Gorge in Launceston 

2012
The 2012 winner was awarded to Launceston born Sydney resident artist Rodney Pople for the work Port Arthur 

2013
The 2013 competition attracted 303 entrants; the prize was awarded to Sydney artist Janet Laurence for a work titled Plants Eye View, and depicted a close-up view of flora from the Tarkine region of North-West Tasmania 

2014
The 2014 prize had 42 finalists  The winning work was Looking south from the Labyrinth (to Mt Olympus & Lake St Clair) by New Norfolk born artist Mark Rodda 

2015
The winner of the 2015 prize was Nigel Hewitt for his work Woven, created using wood ash from the 2013 Dunalley bushfires  The work, chosen from 282 entries and 42 finalists, features a forest at Mt Barrow in northern Tasmania  Hewitt divides his time between Perth, Western Australia and Hobart, Tasmania 

2016
In 2016 the prize attracted more than 280 entries and was won by David Keeling, making him the first artist to win the prize twice; he also won the prize in 2006  Keeling's painting titled, Low tide, soft breeze, depicted a coastal track in the Narawntapu National Park, an area that he often uses as a source of inspiration 

2017
2017 saw the Glover Prize awarded to Raymond Arnold, making him a two-time winner of the award, having achieved this also in 2007  Arnold's work was titled La Barque de Dante/Macquarie Harbour Party Barge 

2018
The 2018 Glover Prize was awarded to Halinka Orszulok for the work Ponies, a painting of playground equipment at Cataract Gorge, Launceston at night  Orszulok's work Wreck was one of the 35 finalists in the 2014 Sir John Sulman Prize 

2019
After a record-breaking year with over 480 paintings entered, the 2019 Glover Prize was awarded to Piers Greville for the work Pedder Prime Cuts, an oil and acrylic painting of Lake Pedder, a Tasmanian glacial lake 

2020
The 2020 Glover Prize was awarded to Tasmanian artist Robert O'Connor, for his piece titled: 'Somewhere in the midlands'  O'Connor's painting depicted a large hunk of meat sitting on a bed of mashed potatoes with peas and gravy, shown in front of a Tasmanian landscape  O'Connor had been a finalist in the Glover Prize four times prior to 2020 

2021
The 2021 Glover Prize was won by Hobart artist Sebastian Galloway for a work titled View of Mt  Lyell through an Acid Raindrop  The work is oil paint on copper; the artist stated that the copper medium reflected the mining history of Queenstown 

2022
The 2022 Glover Prize was won by Victorian artist Jennifer Riddle with her work titled Wanderings of the Past and Now  The work is a synthetic polymer on canvas, and depicts Port Davey, in Tasmania 

2012 award controversy
The 2012 award-winning painting depicted Port Arthur and included a representation of Martin Bryant holding a gun  The award received criticism  A former police officer who attended the scene of the Port Arthur Massacre described the work as insensitive and outrageous  The CEO of the Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority was reported as stating that depictions of the massacre were unhelpful to those it affected  Pople addressed the criticism, arguing that the depiction of Byant was a reminder of the brutality of the Port Arthur Prison Colony within a green "surreal beauty" landscape 
Passage 8:
Port Arthur massacre (China)
The Port Arthur massacre (Chinese: 旅順大屠殺) took place during the First Sino-Japanese War from 21 November 1894 for three days, when advance elements of the First Division of the Japanese Second Army under the command of General Yamaji Motoharu (1841–1897) killed somewhere between 2,600 civilians and 20,000 including Chinese soldiers in the Chinese coastal city of Port Arthur (now Lüshunkou District of Dalian, Liaoning) Reports of a massacre were first published by Canadian journalist James Creelman of the New York World, whose account was widely circulated within the United States   In 1894, the State Department ordered its ambassador to Japan, Edwin Dun, to conduct an independent investigation of Creelman's reports 

Background
As part of its wartime strategy during the First Sino-Japanese War, Japan had advanced through Korea, engaging Chinese troops at Asan near Seoul and then Pyongyang in September 1894, winning decisive victories on both occasions  Following the victory at Pyongyang the Japanese Second Army under Marshal Ōyama Iwao (1842–1916) moved northward towards Manchuria, the plan being to seize Port Arthur, headquarters to China's Beiyang Fleet and a highly fortified city that dominated the sea passage from Korea to northeast China  In September the Japanese Navy heavily damaged the Beiyang Fleet at the Battle of the Yalu River, though the Chinese troopships were successful in landing their troops not far from the Sino-Korean border  With the Beiyang Fleet defeated, the Japanese Navy began a siege of Port Arthur while the Japanese Second Army advanced on the city through Manchuria and the Japanese First Army crossed the Yalu River to form another advance by land  After a series of battles on the Liaodong Peninsula the First Division of the Second Army, led by General Yamaji, drew up around Port Arthur in late November  On 18 November 1894, the Japanese movement down the peninsula was temporarily frustrated and returned to find that their abandoned wounded troops had been severely mutilated, with hands and feet cut off  Others had been burned alive  The city was evacuated with residents fleeing westward by land or sea into China   The Qing government placed bounties on prisoners of war, or their heads or other body parts; during the Sino-Japanese War the bounty was 50 taels   Some Chinese soldiers had mutilated several Japanese soldiers' dead bodies and displayed them at the entrance of the city, infuriating the Japanese  Several vowed revenge, including Lieutenant Kijirō Nanbu   After only token resistance, the city fell to Japanese troops late on the morning of 21 November  What followed was a massacre of the remaining inhabitants of Port Arthur by the Japanese troops 

Massacre
Japanese troops entered Port Arthur at about 2:00 p m   Upon seeing the mutilated remains of their fallen comrades, they took to killing those who remained in the town   Several accounts of the events were recorded by members of the Japanese forces, such as the following by a member of the 1st Division:
As we entered the town of Port Arthur, we saw the head of a Japanese soldier displayed on a wooden stake   This filled us with rage and a desire to crush any Chinese soldier   Anyone we saw in the town, we killed  The streets were filled with corpses, so many they blocked our way   We killed people in their homes; by and large, there wasn't a single house without from three to six dead   Blood was flowing and the smell was awful   We sent out search parties  We shot some, hacked at others   The Chinese troops just dropped their arms and fled   Firing and slashing, it was unbounded joy   At this time, our artillery troops were at the rear, giving three cheers [banzai] for the emperor 
The massacre lasted the next few days, and was witnessed by several Western observers, including James Creelman and Frederic Villiers   Thomas Cowan, correspondent for The Times, described what he saw:
Thursday, Friday, Saturday, and Sunday were spent by the soldiery in murder and pillage from dawn to dark, in mutilation, in every conceivable kind of nameless atrocity, until the town became a ghastly Inferno to be remembered with a fearsome shudder until one's dying day   I saw corpses of women and children, three or four in the streets, more in the water     Bodies of men strewed the streets in hundreds, perhaps thousands, for we could not count – some with not a limb unsevered, some with heads hacked, cross-cut, and split lengthwise, some ripped open, not by chance but with careful precision, down and across, disembowelled and dismembered, with occasionally a dagger or bayonet thrust in the private parts   I saw groups of prisoners tied together in a bunch with their hands behind their backs, riddled with bullets for five minutes and then hewn to pieces   I saw a junk stranded on the beach, filled with fugitives of either sex and of all ages, struck by volley after volley until – I can say no more 

Death toll
The scale and nature of the killing continues to be debated  Japanese participants reported mountains of corpses, yet the number of dead was difficult to calculate; Cowan said it was difficult to tell if the corpses numbered in the hundreds or thousands  According to a scouting report sent to Viceroy Li Hongzhang by the local official Liu Hanfang (劉含芳) soon after the massacre, 2,600~2,700 civilians were slaughtered within the city  However, much more were slaughtered in the hills surrounding the city but they had no reliable count  In 1948, the Chinese Communist Party built a cemetery "万忠墓" and marked the total deaths to be 20,000, which include soldiers killed in action and fleeing soldiers disguised as civilians  The 20,000 figure became the orthodox figure in Chinese communist sources Creelman asserted up to 60,000 were killed, with only 36 spared, and even some late-20th century Japanese sources repeat the figure of 60,000  Stewart Lone discredited Creelman's claim, citing "the entire city population was not massacred, however, is suggested by the speed with which Port Arthur's streets again filled after the Japanese occupation: had the civilian population been literally decimated or destroyed, it is unlikely that others would have ventured to trade and work under Japanese occupation "

Aftermath
The string of Japanese victories at Pyongyang and then at the Battle of the Yalu River had increased what had until then been only lukewarm Western interest in the war  By the time of the assault on Port Arthur, a number of Western reporters were attached to the Japanese Second Army  Western reporting on the massacre was controversial   Most correspondents such as James Creelman, writing for the New York World, and Frederic Villiers, a writer and illustrator for the London Black and White, described a wide scale and cold-blooded massacre, while Amédée Baillot de Guerville alleged in the pages of the New York Herald that no such massacre had occurred  Writing a decade later, de Guerville amended this view, claiming that though some 120 civilians were killed it still had not been a massacre 
Foreign reporters had to wait until they had left the area before they could file their stories, which the Japanese censors would otherwise have suppressed   At first, the incident garnered little attention: a one-sentence report in The Times on 26 November stated: "Great slaughter is reported to have taken place "
The American [sic] James Creelman was the first to report on the massacre in a front-page article that declared:
The Japanese troops entered Port Arthur on Nov  21 and massacred practically the entire population in cold blood      The defenseless and unarmed inhabitants were butchered in their houses and their bodies were unspeakably mutilated  There was an unrestrained reign of murder which continued for three days  The whole town was plundered with appalling atrocities      It was the first stain upon Japanese civilization  The Japanese in this instance relapsed into barbarism 
Other newspapers soon followed with detailed reports   The reports hurt Japan's international image and threatened the progress of negotiations with the United States to bring an end to the unequal treaties Japan had been made to sign in the 1850s   Japanese Foreign Minister Mutsu Munemitsu announced an investigation, publishing these intentions in the New York World, and promised not to interfere with foreign correspondents   On 16 December, the Foreign Ministry released a statement to the press, asserting the atrocities were exaggerations:
The Japanese Government desires no concealment of the events at Port Arthur   On the contrary, it is investigating rigidly for the purpose of fixing the exact responsibility and is taking measures essential to the reputation of the empire      Japanese troops transported with rage at the mutilation of their comrades by the enemy, broke through all restraints     [and] exasperated by the wholesale attempts [by Chinese soldiers] at escape disguised at citizens, they inflicted vengeance without discrimination      the victims, almost without exception, were soldiers wearing the stolen clothes of citizens 
The Japanese press generally avoided reporting on the massacre, or dismissed it, as when the Jiyū Shinbun called allegations "an invidious desire to detract from the glory of the Japanese Army"    The Shin Chōya accused Westerners of exaggerating the extent of the atrocities, and of hypocrisy in light of the atrocities they had committed throughout the East, stating that "the history of savage nations that have come in contact with Christian Occidentals is all but written in blood"   Some questioned Creelman's reliability, and a rumour spread that he left for Shanghai after the fall of Port Arthur to work for the Chinese government    The Japan Weekly Mail, on the other hand, castigated the Japanese army in several articles   Attempts to launch an inquiry met resistance from those who wanted it covered up   The inquiry resulted in no punishments given out Domestic instability kept the Chinese government under pressure to conceal the defeat, rather than castigate the Japanese for the atrocities   The China Gazette reported on the attempted cover-up: "Telegraphic notices have been sent     all over the empire by the officials saying that a wicked report has been set on foot by the enemy that they have captured Port Arthur, but it was utterly untrue, the place being garrisoned by 30,000 brave Chinese soldiers who would never give it up to the Japanese "  As late as a month later, the China Gazette reported the defeat remained unknown even to many government officials   The pro-Japanese North-China Herald attempted to defend the perpetrators of the massacre by proposing "The circumstances were such as might have taxed the control of any invading force "The incident strained the delicate foreign relations Japan had been dealing with   The war itself hurt Japan's relations with Britain, and threatened to hurt Japan's renegotiation of treaties with the US   The incident coloured Western perceptions of Japan as barbarians under a thin veil of civilization   These perceptions contributed to anti-Japanese sentiments in North America in the early 20th century, which would continue through World War II 

See also
List of massacres in China

Notes
Works cited
Further sources
Allan, James  Under the Dragon Flag  London: William Heinemann, 1898  (This purports to be a true account of the massacre by a young Englishman who had been trapped in the city at the time of its fall )
Creelman, James  On the Great Highway, the Wanderings and Adventures of a Special Correspondent  Boston:Lothrop Publishing, 1901 
De Guerville, A  B  Au Japon  Paris: Alphonse Lemerre, 1904 
De Guerville, A  B  "In Defense of Japan  The Alleged Atrocities at Port Arthur Denied", Leslie’s Weekly (3 January 1895) 
Dorwart, Jeffrey M  "James Creelman, the New York World and the Port Arthur Massacre", Journalism Quarterly, 50 (4) (1973):697–701 
Hardin, Thomas L  “American Press and Public Opinion in the First Sino-Japanese War", Journalism Quarterly, 50 (1) (1973):53–59 
Kane, Daniel C  "Each of Us in His Own Way: Factors Behind Conflicting Accounts of the Massacre at Port Arthur," Journalism History, vol  31 (1) (Spring 2005):23–33 
Villiers, Frederic, The Truth about Port Arthur The North American Review, vol  160, no  460 (March 1895):325–331 



ground_truth: 35 people