prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The Pluralist school is said to have included what creator of the theory of atomism? 

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Buddhist atomism
Buddhist atomism is a school of atomistic Buddhist philosophy that flourished on the Indian subcontinent during two major periods  During the first phase, which began to develop prior to the 6th century CE, Buddhist atomism had a very qualitative, Aristotelian-style atomic theory  This form of atomism identifies four kinds of atoms, corresponding to the standard elements  Each of these elements has a specific property, such as solidity or motion, and performs a specific function in mixtures, such as providing support or causing growth   Like the Hindus and Jains, the Buddhists were able to integrate a theory of atomism with their logical presuppositions  

According to Noa Ronkin, this kind of atomism was developed in the Sarvastivada and Sautrantika schools for whom material reality can be: reduced to discrete momentary atoms, namely, the four primary elements  These momentary atoms, through their spatial arrangement and by their concatenation with prior and posterior atoms of the same type, create the illusion of persisting things as they appear in our everyday experience  Atomic reality is thus understood first and foremost as change, though not in the sense of a thing x transforming into y  That is, change itself is the very nature of atomic reality rather than its being made of enduring substances the qualities of which undergo change  Atoms that appear to endure are, in fact, a series of momentary events that ascend and fall in rapid succession and in accordance with causal relations  Unlike the atoms of the Vaifesika, the atoms of the Sarvastivada-Vaibhasika and the Sautrantika are not permanent: they come into being and cease from one moment to the next going through a process of birth, continuance, decay and destruction  Yet the material compounds that consist of these atoms are real, if only in the minimal, phenomenological sense The second phase of Buddhist atomism, which flourished in the 7th century CE, was very different from the first  Indian Buddhist philosophers, including Dharmakirti and Dignāga, considered atoms to be point-sized, durationless, and made of energy  In discussing Buddhist atomism, Stcherbatsky writes:
    The Buddhists denied the existence of substantial matter altogether  Movement consists for them of moments, it is a staccato movement, momentary flashes of a stream of energy    "Everything is evanescent,"     says the Buddhist, because there is no stuff     Both systems [Sānkhya and later Indian Buddhism] share in common a tendency to push the analysis of Existence up to its minutest, last elements which are imagined as absolute qualities, or things possessing only one unique quality  They are called "qualities" (guna-dharma) in both systems in the sense of absolute qualities, a kind of atomic, or intra-atomic, energies of which the empirical things are composed  Both systems, therefore, agree in denying the objective reality of the categories of Substance and Quality,     and of the relation of Inference uniting them  There is in Sānkhya philosophy no separate existence of qualities  What we call quality is but a particular manifestation of a subtle entity  To every new unit of quality corresponds a subtle quantum of matter which is called guna "quality", but represents a subtle substantive entity  The same applies to early Buddhism where all qualities are substantive     or, more precisely, dynamic entities, although they are also called dharmas ("qualities") 

See also
Atomism
Dharmakirti
Dignaga
Kalapas
Mereological nihilism

Notes
Passage 2:
Leucippus
Leucippus (; Greek: Λεύκιππος, Leúkippos; fl  5th century BCE) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who has been credited as the first philosopher to develop a theory of atomism 
Leucippus' reputation, even in antiquity, was obscured by the reputation of his much more famous pupil, Democritus, who is also credited with the first development of atomic theory  Few details about Leucippus' life are known, and even his historical existence has on occasion been questioned 

Biography
Leucippus's dates are not recorded and he is often mentioned in conjunction with his more well-known pupil Democritus  Diogenes Laertius lists possible birthplaces as Miletus, Abdera and Elea  Some sources claim that around 440 or 430 BCE Leucippus founded a school at Abdera, with which his pupil, Democritus, was closely associated  There is mention that a Leucippus founded the city of Metapontum, which honored this Leucippus with a coin 

Philosophical views
"Nothing happens at random, but everything from reason and by necessity "
Leucippus is typically associated with atomism—the idea that the only two things are atoms, which are imperishable, indivisible elements that compose everything, and void, which is the space that atoms do occupy or can occupy  It is difficult to determine which contributions to atomism come from Democritus and which come from Leucippus  Aristotle and his student Theophrastus explicitly credit Leucippus with the invention of atomism  In Aristotelian terms, Leucippus agreed with the Eleatic argument that "true being does not admit of vacuum" and there can be no movement in the absence of vacuum  Leucippus contended that since movement exists, there must be empty space  However, he concludes that vacuum is identified with nonbeing, since "nothing" cannot really be  According to Aristotle, Leucippus differed from the Eleatics in not being encumbered by the "conceptual intermingling" of being and non-being, and Plato made the necessary distinction between "grades of being and types of negation" 

Writings
According to Theophrastus, Leucippus was the author of a work called The Great World System that was otherwise typically attributed to Democritus, which has not survived  A single quotation survives from another work attributed to him called On Mind 

Legacy
A brief notice in Diogenes Laërtius's life of Epicurus says that on the testimony of Epicurus, Leucippus never existed  As the philosophical heir of Democritus, Epicurus's word has some weight, and indeed a controversy over this matter raged in German scholarship for many years at the close of the 19th century  Furthermore, in his Corpus Democriteum, Thrasyllus of Alexandria, an astrologer and writer living under the emperor Tiberius (14–37 CE), compiled a list of writings on atomism that he attributed to Democritus to the exclusion of Leucippus  The present consensus among the world's historians of philosophy is that this Leucippus is historical  Moreover, it is not clear how to interpret Epicurus' comment in the first place  Epicurus said that there was no philosopher Leucippus, which might mean that Leucippus never existed, but it also might mean that Leucippus existed but was not a philosopher  As far as ancient evidence of his existence is concerned, it must be mentioned that Aristotle, who lived closer in time to Leucippus than Epicurus, attributes to Leucippus the framework of atomism as a philosophical system, lending more credibility to the thesis that Leucippus existed 
Fragments and doxographical reports about Leucippus were collected by Hermann Diels (1848–1922), firstly in Doxographi Graeci (Berlin, 1879, reprint Berlin: de Gruyter, 1929) and then in Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Berlin, 1903, 6th ed , rev  by Walther Kranz (Berlin: Weidmann, 1952; the editions after the 6th are mainly reprints with little or no change ) Diels was the leading proponent for a historical Leucippus 

See also
Indeterminism
Kanada

Notes
Bibliography
Surviving Fragments and Testimonia
In the Diels-Kranz numbering system for fragments of the pre-Socratic philosophers, Leucippus is number 67  The following works contain Diels-Kranz fragments 
 Laërtius, Diogenes (1925)  "Others: Leucippus"   Lives of the Eminent Philosophers  Vol  2:9  Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed )  Loeb Classical Library  § 30-33  - A1
 Laërtius, Diogenes (1925)  "Epicurus"   Lives of the Eminent Philosophers  Vol  2:10  Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed )  Loeb Classical Library  § 13  - A2
Simplicius, Commentary on Aristotle's Physics - A3, A8, A13-14,20
Clement of Alexandria, Stromata - A4, A37
Pseudo-Galen, History of philosophy - A5
Aristotle, Metaphysics - A6, A18
Aristotle, On Generation and Corruption -A7, A9
Aristotle, On The Heavens - A19
Aristotle, On the Soul - A28
Hippolytus, Refutation of all Heresies A10
Cicero, Academica - A11
Stobaeus, Anthologium - A12, A15, A16, A21, A22, A23, A24, A25, A26, A29, A30, A31, A32, A34, A35, A36, B2
Epiphanius - A33
Achilles Tatius - B1These fragments are collected together in:

Hermann Diels; Walther Kranz (1963)  Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (in Ancient Greek)  Vol  2  Hildesheim Weidmann  ISBN 978-3-615-12200-8  Retrieved 8 April 2022 
Passage 3:
Atomism (social)
Atomism or social atomism is a sociological theory arising from the scientific notion atomic theory, coined by the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus and the Roman philosopher Lucretius  In the scientific rendering of the word, atomism refers to the notion that all matter in the universe is composed of basic indivisible components, or atoms  When placed into the field of sociology, atomism assigns the individual as the basic unit of analysis for all implications of social life  This theory refers to "the tendency for society to be made up of a collection of self-interested and largely self-sufficient individuals, operating as separate atoms " Therefore, all social values, institutions, developments and procedures evolve entirely out of the interests and actions of the individuals who inhabit any particular society  The individual is the "atom" of society and therefore the only true object of concern and analysis 

Political implications
Political theorists such as John Locke and Thomas Hobbes extend social atomism to the political realm  They assert that human beings are fundamentally self-interested, equal, and rational social atoms that together form an aggregate society of self-interested individuals  Those participating in society must sacrifice a portion of their individual rights in order to form a social contract with the other persons in society  Ultimately, although some rights are renounced, self-interested cooperation occurs for the mutual preservation of the individuals and for society at large 
According to the philosopher Charles Taylor, The term "atomism" is used loosely to characterize the doctrines of social contract theory which arose in the seventeenth century and also successor doctrines which may not have made use of the concept of social contract but which inherited a vision of society as in some sense constituted by individuals for the fulfilment of ends which were primarily individual  Certain forms of utilitarianism are successor doctrines in this sense  The term is also applied to contemporary doctrines which hark back to social contract theory, or which try to defend in some sense the priority of the individual and his rights over society, or which present a purely instrumental view of society 

Critiques
Those who criticize the theory of social atomism believe that it neglects the idea of the individual as unique  The sociologist Elizabeth Wolgast asserts that, From the atomistic standpoint, the individuals who make up a society are interchangeable like molecules in a bucket of water – society a mere aggregate of individuals  This introduces a harsh and brutal equality into our theory of human life and it contradicts our experience of human beings as unique and irreplaceable, valuable in virtue of their variety – in what they don't share – not in virtue of their common ability to reason  Those who question social atomism argue that it is unjust to treat all persons equally when individual necessities and circumstances are clearly dissimilar 

See also
Anomie
Differentiation (sociology)
Holism
Id, ego and super-ego § Ego
Independence
Individualism
Social alienation
Social integration
Socialization
Passage 4:
Pluralist school
Pre-Socratic philosophy, also known as Early Greek Philosophy, is ancient Greek philosophy before Socrates  Pre-Socratic philosophers were mostly interested in cosmology, the beginning and the substance of the universe, but the inquiries of these early philosophers spanned the workings of the natural world as well as human society, ethics, and religion  They sought explanations based on natural law rather than the actions of gods  Their work and writing has been almost entirely lost  Knowledge of their views comes from testimonia, i e  later authors' discussions of the work of pre-Socratics  Philosophy found fertile ground in the ancient Greek world because of the close ties with neighboring civilizations and the rise of autonomous civil entities, poleis 
Pre-Socratic philosophy began in the 6th century BCE with the three Milesians: Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes  They all attributed the arche (a word that could take the meaning of "origin," "substance" or "principle") of the world to, respectively, water, apeiron (the unlimited), and air  Another three pre-Socratic philosophers came from nearby Ionian towns: Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Pythagoras  Xenophanes is known for his critique of the anthropomorphism of gods  Heraclitus, who was notoriously difficult to understand, is known for his maxim on impermanence, ta panta rhei, and for attributing fire to be the arche of the world  Pythagoras created a cult-like following that advocated that the universe was made up of numbers  The Eleatic school (Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, and Melissus) followed in the 5th century BCE  Parmenides claimed that only one thing exists and nothing can change  Zeno and Melissus mainly defended Parmenides' opinion  Anaxagoras and Empedocles offered a pluralistic account of how the universe was created  Leucippus and Democritus are known for their atomism, and their views that only void and matter exist  The Sophists advanced philosophical relativism 
The impact of the pre-Socratics has been enormous  The pre-Socratics invented some of the central concepts of Western civilization, such as naturalism and rationalism, and paved the way for scientific methodology 

Terminology
Pre-Socratic is a term adopted in the 19th century to refer to this group of philosophers  It was first used by the German philosopher J A  Eberhard as "vorsokratische Philosophie' in the late 18th century  In earlier literature they were referred to as physikoi ("physicists", after physis, "nature"), and their activity, as physiologoi (physical or natural philosophers), with this usage arising with Aristotle to differentiate them from theologoi (theologians) and mythologoi (storytellers and bards who conveyed Greek mythology), who attributed natural phenomena to the gods The term was coined to highlight a fundamental change in philosophical inquiries between the philosophers who lived before Socrates, who were interested in the structure of nature and cosmos (i e , the universe, with the implication that the universe had order to it), and Socrates and his successors, who were mostly interested in ethics and politics  The term comes with drawbacks, as several of the pre-Socratics were highly interested in ethics and how to live the best life  Further, the term implies that the pre-Socratics are less significant than Socrates, or even that they were merely a stage (implying teleology) to classical era philosophy  The term is also chronologically inaccurate, as the last of the pre-Socratics were contemporaries of Socrates According to James Warren, the distinction between the pre-Socratic philosophers and philosophers of the classical era is demarcated not so much by Socrates, but by geography and what texts survived  The shift from the pre-Socratic to the classical periods involves a shift from philosophers being dispersed throughout the Greek-speaking world to their being concentrated in Athens  Further, starting in the classical period we have complete surviving texts, whereas in the pre-Socratic era we have only fragments  Scholar André Laks distinguishes two traditions of separating pre-Socratics from Socratics, dating back to the classical era and running through current times  The first tradition is the Socratic-Ciceronian, which uses the content of their philosophical inquires to divide the two groups: the pre-Socratics were interested in nature whereas Socrates focused on human affairs  The other tradition, the Platonic-Aristotelian, emphasizes method as the distinction between the two groups, as Socrates moved to a more epistemological approach of studying various concepts  Because of the drawbacks of the term pre-Socratic, Early Greek Philosophy is also used, most commonly in Anglo-Saxon literature André Laks and Glenn W  Most have especially popularized this shift in describing the era as "Early Greek Philosophy" over "Pre-Socratic Philosophy" through their comprehensive, nine volume Loeb editions of Early Greek Philosophy  In their first volume, they distinguish their systematic approach from that of Hermann Diels, beginning with the choice of "Early Greek Philosophy" over "pre-Socratic philosophy" most notably because Socrates is contemporary and sometimes even prior to philosophers traditionally considered "pre-Socratic" (e g , the Atomists) 

Sources
Very few fragments of the works of the pre-Socratic philosophers have survived  The knowledge we have of the pre-Socratics derives from the accounts of later writers such as Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, Diogenes Laërtius, Stobaeus, and Simplicius, and some early Christian theologians, especially Clement of Alexandria and Hippolytus of Rome  Many of the works are titled Peri Physeos, or On Nature, a title probably attributed later by other authors  These accounts, known as testimonia (testimonies), often come from biased writers  Consequently, it is sometimes difficult to determine the actual line of argument some pre-Socratics used in supporting their views  Adding more difficulty to their interpretation is the obscure language they used  Plato paraphrased the pre-Socratics and showed no interest in accurately representing their views  Aristotle was more accurate, but saw them under the scope of his philosophy  Theophrastus, Aristotle's successor, wrote an encyclopedic book Opinion of the Physicists that was the standard work about the pre-Socratics in ancient times  It is now lost, but Simplicius relied on it heavily in his accounts In 1903, the German professors H  Diels and W  Kranz published Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (The Fragments of the pre-Socratics), which collected all of the known fragments  Scholars now use this book to reference the fragments using a coding scheme called Diels–Kranz numbering  The first two characters of the scheme are "DK" for Diels and Kranz  Next is a number representing a specific philosopher  After that is a code regarding whether the fragment is a testimonia, coded as "A", or "B" if is a direct quote from the philosopher  Last is a number assigned to the fragment, which may include a decimal to reflect specific lines of a fragment  For example, "DK59B12 3" identifies line 3 of Anaxagoras fragment 12  A similar way of referring to quotes is the system prefixed with "LM" by André Laks and Glenn W  Most who edited Early Greek Philosophy in 2016 Collectively, these fragments are called doxography (derived from the latin doxographus; derived from the Greek word for "opinion" doxa) 

Historical background
Philosophy emerged in ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE  The pre-Socratic era lasted about two centuries, during which the expanding Persian Achaemenid Empire was stretching to the west, while the Greeks were advancing in trade and sea routes, reaching Cyprus and Syria  The first pre-Socratics lived in Ionia, on the western coast of Anatolia  Persians conquered the towns of Ionia c  540 BCE and Persian tyrants then ruled them  The Greeks revolted in 499 BCE, but ultimately were defeated in 494 BCE  Slowly but steadily Athens became the philosophical center of Greece by the middle of the fifth century  Athens was entering its Classical Era, with philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, but the impact of the pre-Socratics continued Several factors contributed to the birth of pre-Socratic philosophy in Ancient Greece  Ionian towns, especially Miletus, had close trade relations with Egypt and Mesopotamia, cultures with observations about the natural world that differed from those of the Greeks  Apart from technical skills and cultural influences, of paramount significance was that the Greeks acquired the alphabet c  800 BCE Another factor was the ease and frequency of intra-Greek travel, which led to the blending and comparison of ideas  During the sixth century BCE, various philosophers and other thinkers moved easily around Greece, especially visiting pan-Hellenic festivals  While long-distance communication was difficult during ancient times, persons, philosophers, and books moved through other parts of the Greek peninsula, the Aegean islands, and Magna Graecia, a coastal area in Southern Italy The democratic political system of independent poleis also contributed to the rise of philosophy  Most Greek towns were not ruled by autocrats or priests, allowing citizens to question freely a wide range of issues  Various poleis flourished and became wealthy, especially Miletus  which was a centre of trade and production during the early phases of pre-Socratic philosophy  Trade of grain, oil, wine, and other commodities among each polis and colonies meant these towns were not isolated but embedded – and economically dependent – on a complex and changeable web of trade routes Greek mythology also influenced the birth of philosophy  The philosophers' ideas, were, to a certain extent, answers to questions that were subtly present in the work of Homer and Hesiod  The pre-Socratics arose from a world dominated by myths, sacred places, and local deities  The work of epic poets such as Homer, Hesiod and others reflected this environment  They are considered predecessors of the pre-Socratics since they seek to address the origin of the world and to organize traditional folklore and legends systematically  Greek popular religion contained many features of the religions of neighboring civilizations, such as the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, and Hittites  The first pre-Socratic philosophers also traveled extensively to other lands, meaning that pre-Socratic thought had roots abroad as well as domestically Homer, in his two epic poems, not only personifies gods and other natural phenomena, such as the Night, but he hints at some views on the origin and the nature of the world that came under scrutiny by the pre-Socratics  In his epic poem Theogony (literally meaning the birth of gods) Hesiod (c  700 BCE) describes the origin of gods, and apart from the solid mythical structure, one can notice an attempt towards organizing beliefs using some form of rationalization; an example would be that Night gives birth to Death, Sleep and Dreams   Transmigration of life, a belief of the Orphics, a religious cult originating from Thrace, had affected the thought of the 5th century BCE but the overall influence of their cosmology on philosophy is disputed  Pherecydes, a poet, magician, and contemporary of Thales, in his book describes a particular cosmogony, asserting that three gods pre-existed – a step towards rationality 

General features
The most important feature of pre-Socratic philosophy was the use of reason to explain the universe  The pre-Socratic philosophers shared the intuition that there was a single explanation that could explain both the plurality and the singularity of the whole – and that explanation would not be direct actions of the gods  The pre-Socratic philosophers rejected traditional mythological explanations of the phenomena they saw around them in favor of more rational explanations, initiating analytic and critical thought  Their efforts were directed at the investigation of the ultimate basis and essential nature of the external world  Many sought the material principle (arche) of things, and the method of their origin and disappearance  They emphasized the rational unity of things and rejected supernatural explanations, seeking natural principles at work in the world and human society  The pre-Socratics saw the world as a cosmos, an ordered arrangement that could be understood via rational inquiry  In their effort to make sense of the cosmos they coined new terms and concepts such as rhythm, symmetry, analogy, deductionism, reductionism, mathematization of nature and others An important term that is met in the thought of several pre-Socratic philosophers is arche  Depending on the context, it can take various related meanings  It could mean the beginning or origin with the undertone that there is an effect on the things to follow  Also, it might mean a principle or a cause (especially in Aristotelian tradition) A common feature of the pre-Socratics is the absence of empiricism and experimentation in order to prove their theories  This may have been because of a lack of instruments, or because of a tendency to view the world as a unity, undeconstructable, so it would be impossible for an external eye to observe tiny fractions of nature under experimental control According to Jonathan Barnes, a professor of ancient philosophy, pre-Socratic philosophy exhibits three significant features: they were internal, systematic and economical  Internal meaning they tried to explain the world with characteristics found within this world  Systematic because they tried to universalize their findings  Economical because they tried to invoke only a few new terms  Based on these features, they reached their most significant achievement, they changed the course of human thought from myth to philosophy and science The pre-Socratics were not atheists; however, they minimized the extent of the gods' involvement in natural phenomena such as thunder or totally eliminated the gods from the natural world Pre-Socratic philosophy encompasses the first of the three phases of ancient Greek philosophy, which spanned around a thousand years  The pre-Socratic phase itself is divided into three phases  The first phase of pre-Socratic philosophy, mainly the Milesians, Xenophanes, and Heraclitus, consisted of rejecting traditional cosmogony and attempting to explain nature based on empirical observations and interpretations  A second phase – that of the Eleatics – resisted the idea that change or motion can happen  Based on their radical monism, they believed that only one substance exists and forms Kosmos  The Eleatics were also monists (believing that only one thing exists and everything else is just a transformation of it)   In the third phase, the post-Eleatics (mainly Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and Democritus) opposed most Eleatic teaching and returned to the naturalism of the Milesians The pre-Socratics were succeeded by the second phase of ancient philosophy, where the philosophical movements of Platonism, Cynicism, Cyrenaicism, Aristotelianism, Pyrrhonism, Epicureanism, Academic skepticism, and Stoicism rose to prominence until 100 BCE  In the third phase, philosophers studied their predecessors 

Pre-Socratic philosophers
Milesian beginning: Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes
The Milesian school was located in Miletus, Ionia, in the 6th century BCE   It consisted of Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, who most probably had a teacher-pupil relationship  They were mainly occupied with the origin and substance of the world; each of them attributed the Whole to a single arche (beginning or principle), starting the tradition of naturalistic monism 

Thales
Thales (c  624–546 BCE) is considered to be the father of philosophy  None of his writings have survived  He is considered the first western philosopher since he was the first to use reason, to use proof, and to generalize  He created the word cosmos, the first word to describe the universe  He contributed to geometry and predicted the eclipse of 585 BCE  Thales may have been of Phoenician ancestry  Miletus was a meeting point and trade centre of the then great civilizations, and Thales visited the neighbouring civilizations, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete, and Phoenicia   In Egypt, geometry was advanced as a means of separating agricultural fields  Thales, though, advanced geometry with his abstract deductive reasoning reaching universal generalizations  Proclus, a later Athenian philosopher, attributed the theorem now known as Thales's theorem to Thales  He is also known for being the first to claim that the base angles of isosceles triangles are equal, and that a diameter bisects the circle  Thales visited Sardis, as many Greeks then, where astronomical records were kept and used astronomical observations for practical matters (oil harvesting)  Thales was widely considered a genius in ancient times and was revered as one of the Seven Sages of Greece Most importantly, what marks Thales as the first philosopher is the posing of the fundamental philosophical question about the origin and the substance of the world, while providing an answer based on empirical evidence and reasoning  He attributed the origin of the world to an element instead of a divine being  Our knowledge of Thales' claim derives from Aristotle  Aristotle, while discussing opinions of previous philosophers, tells us that "Thales, the founder of this type of philosophy, says the principle (arche) is water " What he meant by arche, is a matter of interpretation (might be the origin, the element, or an ontological matrix), but regardless of the various interpretations, he conceived the world as One thing instead of a collection of various items and speculated on the binding/original elements Another important aspect of Thales' philosophy is his claim that everything is full of gods  What he meant by that is again a matter of interpretation, that could be from a theistic view to an atheist one  But the most plausible explanation, suggested by Aristotle, is that Thales is advocating a theory of hylozoism, that the universe, the sum of all things that exist, is divine and alive  Lastly, another notable claim by Thales is that earth "rests on water"- maybe that was a conclusion after observing fish fossils on land 

Anaximander
Anaximander (610–546 BCE), also from Miletus, was 25 years younger than Thales  He was a member of the elite of Miletus, wealthy and a statesman  He showed interest in many fields, including mathematics and geography  He drew the first map of the world, was the first to conclude that the earth is spherical, and made instruments to mark time, something like a clock  In response to Thales, he postulated as the first principle an undefined, unlimited substance without qualities (apeiron), out of which the primary opposites, hot and cold, moist and dry, became differentiated  His answer was an attempt to explain observable changes by attributing them to a single source that transforms to various elements  Like Thales, he provided a naturalistic explanation for phenomena previously given supernatural explanations  He is also known for speculating on the origin of mankind  He proclaimed that the earth is not situated in another structure but lies unsupported in the middle of the universe  Further, he developed a rudimentary evolutionary explanation for biodiversity in which constant universal powers affected the lives of animals  According to Giorgio de Santillana, a philosophy professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Anaximander's conception of a universe governed by laws shaped the philosophical thinking of centuries to come and was as important as the discovery of fire or Einstein's breakthroughs in science 

Anaximenes
Little is known of Anaximenes' (585–525 BCE) life  He was a younger contemporary and friend of Anaximander, and the two worked together on various intellectual projects  He also wrote a book on nature in prose  Anaximenes took for his principle aēr (air), conceiving it as being modified, via thickening and thinning, into the other classical elements: fire, wind, clouds, water, and earth  While his theory resembled that of Anaximander, as they both claimed a single source of the universe, Anaximenes suggested sophisticated mechanisms in which air is transformed to other elements, mainly because of changes of density  Since the classical era, he was considered the father of naturalistic explanations  Anaximenes expanded Anaximander's attempt to find a unitary cause explaining natural phenomena both living and nonliving, without, according to James Warren, having to "reduce living things in some way to mere locations of material change" 

Xenophanes
Xenophanes was born in Colophon, an Ionian town near Miletus  He was a well-traveled poet whose primary interests were theology and epistemology  Concerning theology, he pointed out that we did not know whether there was one god or many gods, or in such case whether there was a hierarchy among them  To critique the anthropomorphic representation of the gods by his contemporary Greeks, he pointed out that different nations depicted their gods as looking like themselves  He famously said that if oxen, horses, or lions could draw, they would draw their gods as oxen, horses, or lions  This critique was not limited to the looks of gods but also their behaviour  Greek mythology, mostly shaped by the poets Homer and Hesiod, attributed moral failures such as jealously and adultery to the gods  Xenophanes opposed this  He thought gods must be morally superior to humans  Xenophanes, however, never claimed the gods were omnipotent, omnibenevolent, or omniscient  Xenophanes also offered naturalistic explanations for phenomena such as the sun, the rainbow and St  Elmo's fire  Traditionally these were attributed to divine intervention but according to Xenophanes they were actually effects of clouds  These explanations of Xenophanes indicate empiricism in his thought and might constitute a kind of proto-scientism  Scholars have overlooked his cosmology and naturalism since Aristotle (maybe due to Xenophanes' lack of teleology) until recently but current literature suggests otherwise  Concerning epistemology,  Xenophanes questioned the validity of human knowledge  Humans usually tend to assert their beliefs are real and represent truth  While Xenophanes was a pessimist about the capability of humans to reach knowledge, he also believed in gradual progress through critical thinking  Xenophanes tried to find naturalistic explanations for meteorological and cosmological phenomena Ancient philosophy historian Alexander Mourelatos notes Xenophanes used a pattern of thought that is still in use by modern metaphysics  Xenophanes, by reducing meteorological phenomena to clouds, created an argument that "X in reality is Y", for example B32, "What they call Iris [the rainbow] that too is in reality a cloud: one that
appears to the eye as purple, red, and green  This is still use[d] today 'lightning is massive electrical discharge' or 'items such as tables are a cloud of micro-particles' " Mourelatos comments that the type of analogy that the cloud analogy is remains present in scientific language and "   is the modern philosopher's favourite subject for illustrations of inter-theoretic identity" According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, Xenophanes was Parmenides' teacher; but is a matter of debate in current literature whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic 

Heraclitus
The hallmark of Heraclitus' philosophy is flux  In fragment DK B30, Heraclitus writes: This world-order [Kosmos], the same of all, no god nor man did create, but it ever was and is and will be: everliving fire, kindling in measures and being quenched in measures  Heraclitus posited that all things in nature are in a state of perpetual flux  Like previous monist philosophers, Heraclitus claimed that the arche of the world was fire, which was subject to change – that makes him a materialist monist  From fire all things originate and all things return to it again in a process of eternal cycles  Fire becomes water and earth and vice versa  These everlasting modifications explain his view that the cosmos was and is and will be  The idea of continual flux is also met in the "river fragments"  There, Heraclitus claims we can not step into the same river twice, a position summarized with the slogan ta panta rhei (everything flows)  One fragment reads: "Into the same rivers we both step and do not step; we both are and are not" (DK 22 B49a)  Heraclitus is seemingly suggesting that not only the river is constantly changing, but we do as well, even hinting at existential questions about humankind Another key concept of Heraclitus is that opposites somehow mirror each other, a doctrine called unity of opposites  Two fragments relating to this concept state, "As the same thing in us is living and dead, waking and sleeping, young and old  For these things having changed around are those, and those in turn having changed around are these" (B88) and "Cold things warm up, the hot cools off, wet becomes dry, dry becomes wet" (B126)   Heraclitus' doctrine on the unity of opposites suggests that unity of the world and its various parts is kept through the tension produced by the opposites  Furthermore, each polar substance contains its opposite, in a continual circular exchange and motion that results in the stability of the cosmos  Another of Heraclitus' famous axioms highlights this doctrine (B53): "War is father of all and king of all; and some he manifested as gods, some as men; some he made slaves, some free", where war means the creative tension that brings things into existence A fundamental idea in Heraclitus is logos, an ancient Greek word with a variety of meanings; Heraclitus might have used a different meaning of the word with each usage in his book  Logos seems like a universal law that unites the cosmos, according to a fragment: "Listening not to me but to the logos, it is wise to agree (homologein) that all things are one" (DK 22 B50)  While logos is everywhere, very few people are familiar with it  B 19 reads: [hoi polloi] "   do not know how to listen [to Logos] or how to speak [the truth]"  Heraclitus' thought on logos influenced the Stoics, who referred to him to support their belief that rational law governs the universe 

Pythagoreanism
Pythagoras (582–496 BCE) was born on Samos, a small island near Miletus  He moved to Croton at about age 30, where he established his school and acquired political influence  Some decades later he had to flee Croton and relocate to Metapontum Pythagoras was famous for studying numbers and the geometrical relations of numbers  A large following of Pythagoreans adopted and extended his doctrine  They advanced his ideas, reaching the claim that everything consists of numbers, the universe is made by numbers and everything is a reflection of analogies and geometrical relations  Numbers, music and philosophy, all interlinked, could comfort the beauty-seeking human soul and hence Pythagoreans espoused the study of mathematics Pythagorianism perceived the world as perfect harmony, dependent on number, and aimed at inducing humankind likewise to lead a harmonious life, including ritual and dietary recommendations  Their way of life was ascetic, restraining themselves from various pleasures and food  They were vegetarians and placed enormous value on friendship   Pythagoras politically was an advocate of a form of aristocracy, a position which later Pythagoreans rejected, but generally, they were reactionary and notably repressed women  Other pre-Socratic philosophers mocked Pythagoras for his belief in reincarnation Notable Pythagorians included Philolaus (470-380 BCE), Alcmaeon of Croton, Archytas (428-347 BCE) and Echphantus  The most notable was Alcmaeon, a medical and philosophical writer  Alcmaeon noticed that most organs in the body come in pairs and suggested that human health depends on harmony between opposites (hot/cold, dry/wet), and illness is due to an imbalance of them  He was the first to think of the brain as the center of senses and thinking  Philolaus advanced cosmology through his discovery of heliocentricism – the idea that the Sun lies in the middle of the earth's orbit and other planets Pythagoreanism influenced later Christian currents as Neoplatonism, and its pedagogical methods were adapted by Plato  Furthermore, there seems to be a continuity in some aspects of Plato's philosophy  As Prof  Carl Huffman notes, Plato had a tendency to invoke mathematics in explaining natural phenomena, and he also believed in the immortality, even divinity of the human soul 

The Eleatics: Parmenides, Zeno and Melissus
The Eleatic school is named after Elea, an ancient Greek town on the southern Italian Peninsula  Parmenides is considered the founder of the school  Other eminent Eleatics include Zeno of Elea and Melissus of Samos  According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, Xenophanes was Parmenides' teacher, and it is debated whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic   Parmenides was born in Elea to a wealthy family around 515 BCE  Parmenides of Elea was interested in many fields, such as biology and astronomy  He was the first to deduce that the earth is spherical  He was also involved in his town's political life 

Parmenides' contributions were paramount not only to ancient philosophy but to all of western metaphysics and ontology  Parmenides wrote a hard to interpret poem, named On Nature or On What-is, that substantially influenced later Greek philosophy  Only 150 fragments of this poem survive  It tells a story of a young man (kouros in ancient Greek) dedicated to finding the truth carried by a goddess on a long journey to the heavens  The poem consists of three parts, the proem (i e , preface), the Way of Truth and the Way of Opinion   Very few pieces from the Way of Opinion survive  In that part, Parmenides must have been dealing with cosmology, judging from other authors' references  The Way of Truth was then, and is still today, considered of much more importance  In the Way of Truth, the goddess criticizes the logic of people who do not distinguish the real from the non-existent ("What-is" and "What-is-Not")  In this poem Parmenides unfolds his philosophy: that all things are One, and therefore nothing can be changed or altered  Hence, all the things that we think to be true, even ourselves, are false representations  What-is, according to Parmenides, is a physical sphere that is unborn, unchanged, and infinite  This is a monist vision of the world, far more radical than that of Heraclitus  The goddess teaches Kouros to use his reasoning to understand whether various claims are true or false, discarding senses as fallacious  Other fundamental issues raised by Parmenides' poem are the doctrine that nothing comes from nothing and the unity of being and thinking  As quoted by DK fragment 3: To gar auto noein estin te kai einai (For to think and to be is one and the same) Zeno and Melissus continued Parmenides' thought on cosmology  Zeno is mostly known for his paradoxes, i e , self-contradictory statements which served as proofs that Parmenides' monism was valid, and that pluralism was invalid  The most common theme of those paradoxes involved traveling a distance, but since that distance comprises infinite points, the traveler could never accomplish it  His most famous is the Achilles paradox, which is mentioned by Aristotelis: "The second is called the 'Achilles' and says that the slowest runner will never be caught by the fastest, because it is necessary for the pursuer first to arrive at the point from which the pursued set off, so it is necessary that the slower will always be a little ahead " (Aristotle Phys  239b14–18 [DK 29 A26]) Melissus defended and advanced Parmenides' theory using prose, without invoking divinity or mythical figures  He tried to explain why we think various non-existent objects exist The Eleatics' focus on Being through means of logic initiated the philosophical discipline of ontology  Other philosophers influenced by the Eleatics (such as the Sophists, Plato, and Aristotle) further advanced logic, argumentation, mathematics and especially elenchos (proof)  The Sophists even placed Being under the scrutiny of elenchos  Because of the Eleatics reasoning was acquiring a formal method 

The Pluralists: Anaxagoras and Empedocles
The Pluralist school marked a return to Milesian natural philosophy, though much more refined because of Eleatic criticism Anaxagoras was born in Ionia, but was the first major philosopher to emigrate to Athens  He was soon associated with the Athenian statesman Pericles and, probably due to this association, was accused by a political opponent of Pericles for impiety as Anaxagoras held that the sun was not associated with divinity; it was merely a huge burning stone  Pericles helped Anaxagoras flee Athens and return to Ionia  Anaxagoras was also a major influence on Socrates Anaxagoras is known for his "theory of everything"  He claimed that "in everything there is a share of everything " Interpretations differ as to what he meant  Anaxagoras was trying to stay true to the Eleatic principle of the everlasting (What-is) while also explaining the diversity of the natural world  Anaxagoras accepted Parmenides' doctrine that everything that exists (What-is) has existed forever, but contrary to the Eleatics, he added the ideas of panspermia and nous  All objects were mixtures of various elements, such as air, water, and others  One special element was nous, i e , mind, which is present in living things and causes motion  According to Anaxagoras, Nous was one of the elements that make up the cosmos  Things that had nous were alive   According to Anaxagoras, all things are composites of some basic elements; although it is not clear what these elements are  All objects are a mixture of these building blocks and have a portion of each element,  except nous  Nous was also considered a building block of the cosmos, but it exists only in living objects  Anaxagoras writes: "In everything there is a portion (moira) of everything except mind (nous), but there are some things in which mind too is present " Nous was not just an element of things, somehow it was the cause of setting the universe into motion   Anaxagoras advanced Milesian thought on epistemology, striving to establish an explanation that could be valid for all natural phenomena  Influenced by the Eleatics, he also furthered the exploration of metatheoretical questions such as the nature of knowledge Empedocles was born in Akragas, a town in the southern Italian peninsula  According to Diogenes Laertius, Empedocles wrote two books in the form of poems: Peri Physeos (On nature) and the Katharmoi (Purifications)  Some contemporary scholars argue these books might be one; all agree that interpreting Empedocles is difficult On cosmological issues, Empedocles takes from the Eleatic school the idea that the universe is unborn, has always been and always will be  He also continues Anaxagoras' thought on the four "roots" (i e , classical elements), that by intermixing, they create all things around us  These roots are fire, air, earth, and water  Crucially, he adds two more components, the immaterial forces of love and strife  These two forces are opposite and by acting upon the material of the four roots unite in harmony or tear apart the four roots, with the resulting mixture being all things that exist  Empedocles uses an analogy of how this is possible: as a painter uses a few basic colors to create a painting, the same happens with the four roots  It is not quite clear if love and strife co-operate or have a greater plan, but love and strife are in a continual cycle that generates life and the earth we live in  Other beings, apart from the four roots and love and strife, according to Empedocles' Purifications are mortals, gods, and daemons  Like Pythagoras, Empedocles believed in the soul's transmigration and was vegetarian 

Atomists: Leucippus and Democritus
Leucippus and Democritus both lived in Abdera, in Thrace  They are most famous for their atomic cosmology even though their thought included many other fields of philosophy, such as ethics, mathematics, aesthetics, politics, and even embryology  The atomic theory of Leucippus and Democritus was a response to the Eleatic school, who held that motion is not possible because everything is occupied with What-is  Democritus and Leucippus reverted the Eleatic axiom, claiming that since motions exist, What-is-not must also exist; hence void exists  Democritus and Leucippus were skeptics regarding the reliability of our senses, but they were confident that motion exists  Atoms, according to Democritus and Leucippus, had some characteristics of the Eleatic What-is: they were homogeneous and indivisible  These characteristics allowed answers to Zeno's paradoxes  Atoms move within the void, interact with each other, and form the plurality of the world we live in, in a purely mechanical manner One conclusion of the Atomists was determinism - the philosophical view that all events are determined completely by previously existing causes  As Leucippus said, (DK 67 B2) "Nothing comes to be random but everything is by reason and out of necessity " Democritus concluded that since everything is atoms and void, several of our senses are not real but conventional  Color, for example, is not a property of atoms; hence our perception of color is a convention  As Democritus said, (DK 68 B9) "By convention sweet, by convention bitter, by convention hot, by convention cold, by convention colour; in reality atoms and void " This can be interpreted in two ways  According to James Warren there is an eliminativist interpretation, such that Democritus means that color is not real, and there is a relativist interpretation, such that Democritus means that color and taste are not real but are perceived as such by our senses through sensory interaction 

Sophists
The sophists were a philosophical and educational movement that flourished in ancient Greece before Socrates  They attacked traditional thinking, from gods to morality, paving the way for further advances of philosophy and other disciplines such as drama, social sciences, mathematics, and history Plato disparaged the sophists, causing long-lasting harm to their reputation  Plato thought philosophy should be reserved for those who had the appropriate intellect to understand it; whereas the sophists would teach anyone who would pay tuition  The sophists taught rhetoric and how to address issues from multiple viewpoints  Since the sophists and their pupils were persuasive speakers at court or in public, they were accused of moral and epistemological relativism, which indeed some sophists appeared to advocate  Prominent sophists include Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, Thrasymachus, Prodicus, Callicles, Antiphon, and Critias Protagoras is mostly known for two of his quotes  One is that  "[humans are  ] the measure of all things, of things that are that they are, of things that are not that they are not" which is commonly interpreted as affirming philosophical relativism, but it can also be interpreted as claiming that knowledge is only relevant to humankind, that moral rightness and other forms of knowledge are relevant to and limited to human mind and perception  The other quote is, "Concerning the gods, I cannot ascertain whether they exist or whether they do not, or what form they have; for there are many obstacles to knowing, including the obscurity of the question and the brevity of human life "Gorgias wrote a book named On Nature, in which he attacked the Eleatics' concepts of What-is and What-is-not  He claimed it is absurd to hold that nonexistence exists, and that What-is was impossible since it had to either be generated or be unlimited and neither is sufficient  There is an ongoing debate among modern scholars whether he was a serious thinker, a precursor of extreme relativism and skepticism, or merely a charlatan Antiphon placed natural law against the law of the city  One need not obey the city's laws as long as one will not get caught  One could argue that Antiphon was a careful hedonist—rejecting dangerous pleasures 

Philolaous of Croton and Diogenes of Apollonia
Philolaus of Croton and Diogenes of Apollonia from Thrace (born c  460 BCE) are considered the last generation of pre-Socratics  Rather than advancing a cosmological perspective on how our universe is constructed, they are mostly noted for advancing abstract thinking and argumentation 
Pythagorianism, Anaxagoras and Empedocles influenced Philolaus  He attempted to explain both the variety and unity of the cosmos  He addressed the need to explain how the various masses of the universe interact among them and coined the term Harmonia, a binding force that allows mass to take shape  The structure of the cosmos consisted of apeira (unlimiteds) and perainonta (limiters) 
Diogenes of Apollonia returned to Milesian monism, but with a rather more elegant thought  As he says in DK64 B2 "It seems to me, overall, that all things are alterations of the same things and are the same thing"  He explains that things, even when changing shapes, remain ontologically the same 

Topics
Knowledge
The mythologoi, Homer and Hesiod, along with other poets, centuries before the pre-Socratics, thought that true knowledge was exclusive to the divine  But starting with Xenophanes, the pre-Socratics moved towards a more secular approach to knowledge  The pre-Socratics sought a method to understand the cosmos, while being aware that there is a limit to human knowledge While Pythagoras and Empedocles linked their self-proclaimed wisdom to their divinely inspired status, they tried to teach or urge mortals to seek the truth about the natural realm—Pythagoras by means of mathematics and geometry and Empedocles by exposure to experiences  Xenophanes thought that human knowledge was merely an opinion that cannot be validated or proven to be true  According to Jonathan Warren, Xenophanes set the outline of the nature of knowledge  Later, Heraclitus and Parmenides stressed the capability of humans to understand how things stand in nature through direct observation, inquiry, and reflection 

Theology
Pre-Socratic thought contributed to the demythologization of the Greek popular religion  The narrative of their thought contributed to shifting the course of ancient Greek philosophy and religion away from the realm of divinity and even paved the way for teleological explanations  They attacked the traditional representations of gods that Homer and Hesiod had established and put Greek popular religion under scrutiny, initiating the schism between natural philosophy and theology   Pre-Socratic philosophers did not have atheistic beliefs, but it should be kept in mind that being an atheist those days was not without social or legal dangers  Despite that, arguments rejecting deities were not barred from the public sphere which can be seen in Protagoras's quotation on the gods: "About the gods I am able to know neither that they exist nor that they do not exist "The theological thought starts with the Milesian philosophers  It is evident in Anaximander's idea of the apeiron steering everything, which had other abilities usually attributed to Zeus  Later, Xenophanes developed a critique of the anthropomorphism of the gods  Xenophanes set three preconditions for God: he had to be all good, immortal and not resembling humans in appearance, which had a major impact on western religious thought The theological thought of Heraclitus and Parmenides is not entirely certain, but it is generally accepted that they believed in some kind of divinity  The Pythagoreans and Empedocles believed in the transmigration of souls  Anaxagoras asserted that cosmic intelligence (nous) gives life to things  Diogenes of Appollonia expanded this line of thinking and might have constructed the first teleological argument "it would not be possible without Intellection for it so to be divided up that it has the measures of all things — of winter and summer and night and day and rains and winds and fair weather  The other things, too, if one wishes to consider them, one would find disposed of in the best possible way " While some pre-Socratics were trying to find alternatives to divinity, others were setting the foundation of explaining the universe in terms of teleology and intelligent design by a divine force 

Medicine
Prior to the pre-Socratics, health and illness were thought to be governed by gods  Pre-Socratic philosophy and medicine advanced in parallel, with medicine as a part of philosophy and vice versa  It was Hippocrates (often hailed as the father of medicine) who separated – but not completely – the two domains  Physicians incorporated pre-Socratic philosophical ideas about the nature of the world in their theoretical framework, blurring the border between the two domains  An example is the study of epilepsy, which in popular religion was thought to be a divine intervention to human life, but Hippocrates' school attributed it to nature, just as Milesian rationalism demythologized other natural phenomena such as earthquakes  The systematic study of anatomy, physiology, and illnesses led to the discovery of cause-effect relations and a more sophisticated terminology and understanding of the diseases that ultimately yielded rational science 

Cosmology
The pre-Socratics were the first to attempt to provide reductive explanations for a plethora of natural phenomena Firstly, they were preoccupied with the mystery of the cosmic matter—what was the basic substance of the universe? Anaximander suggested apeiron (limitless), which hints, as Aristotle analyzed, there is no beginning and no end to it, both chronologically and within the space  Anaximenes placed aêr (air) as the primary principle, probably after realizing the importance of air to life and/or the need to explain various observable changes  Heraclitus, also seeking to address the issue of the ever changing world, placed fire as the primary principle of the universe, that transforms to water and earth to produce the universe  Ever-transforming nature is summarized by Heraclitus' axiom panta rhei (everything is in a state of flux)  Parmenides suggested two ever-lasting primary building blocs, night and day, which together form the universe  Empedocles increased the building blocks to four and named them roots, while also adding Love and Strife, to serve as the driving force for the roots to mingle  Anaxagoras extended even more the plurality of Empedocles, claiming everything is in everything, myriads of substances were mixing among each other except one, Nous (mind) that orchestrates everything—but did not attribute divine characteristics to Nous  Leucippus and Democritus asserted the universe consists of atoms and void, while the motion of atoms is responsible for the changes we observe 

Rationalism, observation and the beginning of scientific thought
The pre-Socratic intellectual revolution is widely considered to have been the first step towards liberation of the human mind from the mythical world and initiated a march towards reason and scientific thought that yielded modern western philosophy and science  The pre-Socratics sought to understand the various aspects of nature by means of rationalism, observations, and offering explanations that could be deemed as scientific, giving birth to what became Western rationalism   Thales was the first to seek for a unitary arche of the world  Whether arche meant the beginning, the origin, the main principle or the basic element is unclear, but was the first attempt to reduce the explanations of the universe to a single cause, based on reason and not guided by any sort of divinity   Anaximander offered the principle of sufficient reason, a revolutionary argument that would also yield the principle that nothing comes out of nothing  Most of pre-Socratics seemed indifferent to the concept of teleology, especially the Atomists who fiercely rejected the idea  According to them, the various phenomena were the consequence of the motion of atoms without any purpose  Xenophanes also advanced a critique of anthropomorphic religion by highlighting in a rational way the inconsistency of depictions of the gods in Greek popular religion Undoubtedly, pre-Socratics paved the way towards science, but whether what they did could constitute science is a matter of debate  Thales had offered the first account of a reduction and a generalization, a significant milestone towards scientific thought  Other pre-Socratics also sought to answer the question of arche, offering various answers, but the first step towards scientific thought was already taken  Philosopher Karl Popper, in his seminal work Back to Presocratics (1958) traces the roots of modern science (and the West) to the early Greek philosophers  He writes: "There can be little doubt that the Greek tradition of philosophical criticism had its main source in Ionia     It thus leads the tradition which created the rational or scientific attitude, and with it our Western civilization, the only civilization, which is based upon science (though, of course, not upon science alone) " Elsewhere in the same study Popper diminishes the significance of the label they should carry as purely semantics  "There is the most perfect possible continuity of thought between [the Presocratics'] theories and the later developments in physics  Whether they are called philosophers, or pre-scientists, or scientists, matters very little " Other scholars did not share the same view  F  M  Cornford considered the Ionanians as dogmatic speculators, due to their lack of empiricism 

Reception and legacy
Antiquity
The pre-Socratics had a direct influence on classical antiquity in many ways  The philosophic thought produced by the pre-Socratics heavily influenced later philosophers, historians and playwrights  One line of influence was the Socrato-Ciceronian tradition, while the other was the Platonic-Aristotelian Socrates, Xenophon and Cicero were highly influenced by the physiologoi (naturalists) as they were named in ancient times  The naturalists impressed young Socrates and he was interested in the quest for the substance of the cosmos, but his interest waned as he became steadily more focused on epistemology, virtue, and ethics rather than the natural world  According to Xenophon, the reason was that Socrates believed humans incapable of comprehending the cosmos  Plato, in the Phaedo, claims that Socrates was uneasy with the materialistic approach of the pre-Socratics, particularly Anaxagoras  Cicero analyzed his views on the pre-Socratics in his Tusculanae Disputationes, as he distinguished the theoretical nature of pre-Socratic thought from previous "sages" who were interested in more practical issues  Xenophon, like Cicero, saw the difference between pre-Socratics and Socrates being his interest in human affairs (ta anthropina) The pre-Socratics deeply influenced both Plato and Aristotle  Aristotle discussed the pre-Socratics in the first book of Metaphysics, as an introduction to his own philosophy and the quest for arche  He was the first to state that philosophy starts with Thales  It is not clear whether Thales talked of water as arche, or that was a retrospective interpretation by Aristotle, who was examining his predecessors under the scope of his views  More crucially, Aristotle  criticized the pre-Socratics for not identifying a purpose as a final cause, a fundamental idea in Aristotelian metaphysics  Plato also attacked pre-Socratic materialism Later, during the Hellenistic era, philosophers of various currents focused on the study of nature and advanced pre-Socratic ideas  The Stoics incorporated features from Anaxagoras and Heraclitus, such as nous and fire respectively  The Epicureans saw Democritus' atomism as their predecessor while the Sceptics were linked to Xenophanes 

Modern era
The pre-Socratics, along with the rest of ancient Greece,  invented the central concepts of Western civilization: freedom, democracy, individual autonomy and rationalism  Francis Bacon, a 16th-century philosopher known for advancing the scientific method, was probably the first philosopher of the modern era to use pre-Socratic axioms extensively in his texts  He criticized the pre-Socratic theory of knowledge by Xenophanes and others, claiming that their deductive reasoning could not yield meaningful results—an opinion contemporary philosophy of science rejects  Bacon's fondness for the pre-Socratics, especially Democritus' atomist theory, might have been because of his anti-Aristotelianism Friedrich Nietzsche admired the pre-Socratics deeply, calling them "tyrants of the spirit" to mark their antithesis and his preference against Socrates and his successors  Nietzsche also weaponized pre-Socratic antiteleology, coupled with the materialism exemplified by Democritus, for his attack on Christianity and its morals  Nietzsche saw the pre-Socratics as the first ancestors of contemporary science—linking Empedocles to Darwinism and Heraclitus to physicist Helmholtz  According to his narrative, limned in many of his books, the pre-Socratic era was the glorious era of Greece, while the so-called Golden Age that followed was an age of decay, according to Nietzsche  Nietzsche incorporated the pre-Socratics in his Apollonian and Dionysian dialectics, with them representing the creative Dionysian aspect of the duo Martin Heidegger found the roots of his phenomenology and later thinking of Things and the Fourfold in the pre-Socratics, considering Anaximander, Parmenides, and Heraclitus as the original thinkers on being, which he identified in their work as physis [φύσις] (emergence, contrasted against κρύπτεσθαι, kryptesthai, in Heraclitus’ Fragment 123) or aletheia [αλήθεια] (truth as unconcealment) 
Passage 5:
Pluralist theories of truth
A pluralist theory of truth is a theory of truth which posits that there may be more than one property that makes a proposition true 

Overview
Most traditional theories of truth are monist: that is, they hold that there is one and only property the having of which makes a belief or proposition true  Pluralist theories of truth deny this assumption  According to pluralism, ethical propositions might be true by more than one property, for example by virtue of coherence; propositions about the physical world might also be true by corresponding to the objects and properties they are about  Pluralism, in short, holds out the prospect that propositions might be "true in more than one way" 
Crispin Wright is the most well-known advocate of pluralism about truth  In his 1992 book Truth and Objectivity, Wright argued that any predicate which satisfied certain platitudes about truth qualified as a truth predicate  In some discourses, Wright argued, the role of the truth predicate might be played by the notion of superassertibility Michael Lynch (philosopher) has recently advocated a different type of pluralism about truth  In a series of articles and in his 2009 book Truth as One and Many Lynch argues that we should see truth as a functional property capable of being multiply manifested in distinct properties like correspondence or coherence 

See also
Criteria of truth
Degrees of truth
Passage 6:
Ann Pettifor
Ann Pettifor (born February 1947) is a British economist who advises governments and organisations  She has published several books  Her work focuses on the global financial system, sovereign debt restructuring, international finance and sustainable development  Pettifor is best known for correctly predicting the financial crisis of 2007–08  She was one of the leaders of the Jubilee 2000 debt cancellation campaign 
She is the director of Policy Research In Macroeconomics (PRIME) a network of economists researching Keynesian monetary theory and policies, an honorary research fellow at the Political Economy Research Centre at City, University of London (CITYPERC), Chair of the  Political Economy Research Centre's Advisory Board at Goldsmiths, a fellow of the New Economics Foundation, a director of  Advocacy International and a trustee of the PREP Foundation for pluralist economics  Pettifor is a member of the Green New  Deal Group of economists, environmentalists and entrepreneurs 

Biography
Lynda Ann Pettifor was born in South Africa in February 1947, and graduated with a degree in politics and economics from the University of the Witwatersrand  In the 1980s she held several posts as adviser to Frances Morrell, the leader of the Inner London Education Authority and later advised  Greater London Council, Ken Livingstone  She also advised the Right Hon  Margaret Beckett MP who went on to serve in the 1997 Labour government  She also worked as a lobbyist for Ian Greer Associates 
Pettifor co-founded the Jubilee 2000 worldwide campaign for the cancellation of the debts of the poorest countries  In 1998 Jubilee 2000 organised a human chain of approximately 70,000 people, which surrounded the 1998 G8 summit in Birmingham, United Kingdom  In 1999 at the Cologne G8 Summit the G8 agreed to write off approximately $100 billion of third world debt owed by 37 countries, in large part due to the campaign  Jubilee 2000 had supporters including Pope John Paul II, Muhammad Ali, Bono, Tony Blair, Gordon Brown and Bill Clinton  The Independent would later describe her work on the campaign as 'genius' At the conclusion of the Jubilee 2000 campaign Pettifor joined the New Economics Foundation in London where she headed their research unit on global macro-economics Pettifor became a member of the Green New  Deal Group of economists, environmentalists and entrepreneurs that published The Green New Deal in July 2008  The group argued that "The triple crunch of financial meltdown, climate change and ‘peak oil’ has its origins firmly rooted in the current model of globalisation  Financial deregulation has facilitated the creation of almost limitless credit  With this credit boom have come irresponsible and often fraudulent patterns of lending, creating inflated bubbles in assets such as property, and powering environmentally unsustainable consumption "
In the 2010 general election Pettifor attempted to stand for Parliament as a Labour candidate and was shortlisted in the North West Durham selection process but lost to Pat Glass  She has also unsuccessfully stood as a local election candidate for the West End ward on Westminster City Council 
As a director of Advocacy International she worked on designing and promoting the MamaYe campaign together with Options Consultancy Services  Working in five African countries the campaign makes life-saving changes for mothers and babies during pregnancy and childbirth In September 2015, she was appointed to the British Labour Party's Economic Advisory Committee, convened by Shadow Chancellor John McDonnell and reporting to Labour Party Leader Jeremy Corbyn, regarding which she stated that she was honoured to be asked to serve with such distinguished colleagues and that she hoped to play her part in overturning the Chancellor's deficit fetishism, and his employment of it as a smokescreen for an attack on the state  She currently resides in London, England 
Pettifor contributed an article to the Labour in the City Anthology in October 2018, which was launched at the City Corporation by Alistair Darling  Pettifor argues that far more radical reforms are needed to prevent a recurrence of the 2008 crisis 

Awards
Pettifor was granted the freedom of the city of Callao in Peru in 1999 (for her work on debt cancellation for Peru); and the Pax Christi International Peace Award in 2000  In 2001 she was awarded an honorary doctorate by Lord Patten, Vice-Chancellor of Newcastle University, and in the same year was honoured with a Masters of Letters Degree (a Lambeth Degree) by the Archbishop of Canterbury  The President of Nigeria, President Obasanjo made her a Member of the Order of the Niger (MON) for her work in leading the campaign to write off billions of dollars of debt owed by Africa's poorest countries  In 2018, she was awarded with the Hannah Arendt Prize 

Works
Pettifor is known for correctly predicting the global financial crises in several publications including in the book The Real World Economic Outlook, and summarised in the New Statesman in an article published on 1 September 2003 entitled "Coming soon: The new poor”  This was followed by her September 2006 book The Coming First World Debt Crisis 
1996: Debt, the Most Potent Form of Slavery: : a discussion of the role of Western lending policies in subordinating the economies of poor countries  Debt Crisis Network 
2000: Kicking the Habit: Finding a Lasting Solution to Addictive Lending and Borrowing and Its Corrupting Side-Effects (Joseph Hanlon & Angela Travis)  Jubilee 2000 Coalition 
2001: It Takes Two to Tango: Creditor Co-Responsibility for Argentina's Crisis – and the Need for Independent Resolution (with Liana Cisneros & Alejandro Olmos)  New Economics Foundation 
2002: Chapter 9/11?: Resolving International Debtcrises – The Jubilee Framework for International Insolvency  New Economics Foundation  ISBN 978-1-899407-44-6
2003: The Real World Economic Outlook Palgrave Macmillan  ISBN 978-1-4039-1794-2
2006: The Coming First World Debt Crisis  Palgrave Macmillan  ISBN 978-0-230-00784-0
2008: The Green New Deal – Joined up policies to solve the triple crunch of credit crises, climate change and high oil prices  New Economics Foundation  ISBN 978-1-904882-35-0
2013: National Plan for the UK: From Austerity to the Age of the Green New Deal New Economics Foundation
2014: Just Money: How Society Can Break the Despotic Power of Finance  Commonwealth Publishing 
2017: The Production of Money – How to Break the Power of Bankers, Verso ISBN 9781786631374
2019: The Case for the Green New Deal  Verso ISBN 9781788738156
Context 3: Passage 1:
Lev Ivanov
Lev Ivanovich Ivanov (Russian: Лев Ива́нович Ива́нов; 2 March 1834, Moscow – 24 December 1901, Saint Petersburg) was a Russian ballet dancer and choreographer and later, Second Balletmaster of the Imperial Ballet  As a performer with the Imperial Ballet, he achieved prominence after performing as an understudy in a benefit performance of La Fille Mal Gardée   He is most famous as the choreographer of Acts II and IV of Swan Lake, which include the Dance of the Little Swans, Act II of Cinderella, and The Nutcracker, which he choreographed alongside Marius Petipa 

Biography
Ivanov entered the Moscow School of Dance, but in 1844 moved to Saint Petersburg where he studied at the Imperial Ballet, becoming an official member of the Corps de ballet in 1852   Among his teachers during this time were Jean-Antoine Petipa, Alexandr Pimenov, Pierre Frédéric Malavergne and Emile Gredlu (Эмиль Гредлю) 
Historically, Ivanov is credited with choreographing the entirety of premiere of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's ballet The Nutcracker in 1892 due to the ill health of the ballet master, Marius Petipa  While some contemporary and modern accounts dispute this, Ivanov is still mentioned in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Second Edition with choreographing at least the majority of the ballet as Petipa had reportedly not progressed very far in his work  Regardless of the amount of work he actually did, Petipa's was the only name listed for choreography on posters for the first production in St  Petersburg Ivanov worked with Petipa on a new restaging of Tchaikovsky's Swan Lake ballet in 1895   Ivanov choreographed the entirety of the lakeside acts or "white acts", Act II and Act IV   This includes the Dance of the Little Swans, an iconic pas de quatre where the four cygnets huddle together and dance in unison, before breaking the chain and falling to the floor whilst attempting to fly  Ivanov also choreographed the Danse Vénitienne (Neapolitan/Venetian Dance) and the Pas Hongrois (Hungarian Dance) of the third bier scene In his last years Ivanov was in financial straits  On the strength of his 50 years' service he petitioned the Imperial Theatres for financial assistance 

Ballets
Original works
La Forêt enchantée (en  The Enchanted Forest)  Ballet-fantastique in one act  Music by Riccardo Drigo  Imperial Ballet School, 5 April [O S  24 March] 1887  Imperial Mariinsky Theatre, 15 May [O S  3 May] 1887 
revival by Marius Petipa  Peterhof, July 1889 
La Tulipe de Haarlem (en  The Harlem Tulip)  Ballet-fantastique in three acts  Music by Baron Boris Fitinhoff-Schell  Imperial Mariinsky Theatre, 16 October [O S  4 October] 1887 
revival by Claudia Kulichevskaya and Pavel Gerdt  Imperial Ballet School, 16 April [O S  3 April] 1902 
revival by Alexander Shiryaev  Imperial Mariinsky Theatre, 29 April [O S  16 April] 1903 
La Flûte magique (en  The Magic Flute)  Ballet-comique in one act  Music by Riccardo Drigo  Imperial Ballet School, 22 March [O S  10 March] 1889  Imperial Mariinsky Theatre, 23 April [O S  11 April] 1889 
La Ruse de Cupidon (en  Cupid's Prank)  Ballet-anacréontique in one act  Music by Alexander Friedman  Krasnoe Selo, 6 August [O S  24 July] 1890  Imperial Mariinsky Theatre, 23 November [O S  11 November] 1890 
La Beauté de Séville (en  The Beauty of Seville)  Divertissement-ballet in one act  Music by various composers  Krasnoe Selo, 10 August [O S  29 July] 1889 
La Fête des bateliers (en  The Boatman's Festival)  Divertissement-ballet in one act  Music by Alexander Friedman  Krasnoe Selo, 7 August [O S  26 July] 1890 
The Nutcracker  Ballet-féerie in two acts  Choreographed jointly with Marius Petipa   Music by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky  Imperial Mariinsky Theatre, 18 December [O S  6 December] 1892 
Cinderella (a k a  Zolushka)  Ballet-féerie in three acts  Staged jointly with Enrico Cecchetti and Marius Petipa  Music by Baron Boris Fitinhoff-Schell  Imperial Mariinsky Theatre, 17 December [O S  5 December] 1893 
revival by Lev Ivanov  Bolshoi Theatre, Moscow, 12 March [O S  28 February] 1898
Swan Lake  Ballet-fantastique in three acts  Staged jointly with Marius Petipa  Music by Pyotr Illyich Tchaikovsky, revised by Riccardo Drigo  Imperial Mariinsky Theatre, 27 January [O S  15 January] 1895 
Acis et Galatée (en  Acis and Galatea)  Ballet-mythologique in one act  Music by Andrei Kadlets  Imperial Mariinsky Theatre, 2 February [O S  21 January] 1896 
revival by Alexander Shirayev  Imperial Ballet School, 3 May [O S  20 April] 1905 
La Fille du Mikado (en  The Mikado's Daughter)  Ballet-fantastique in three acts  Music by Baron Vasily Wrangell  Imperial Mariinsky Theatre, 21 November [O S  9 November] 1897 
Egyptian Nights (a k a  Une Nuit d'Egypte or Nuits égyptiennes)  Divertissement-ballet in one act  Music by Anton Arensky  Never premiered 
revival by Mikhail Fokine  Imperial Mariinsky Theatre, 8 March [O S  24 February] 1908 
revival by Mikhail Fokine as Cléopâtre for the Ballets Russes  Théâtre du Châtelet, Paris, 2 June 1909 
Sylvia  Ballet-mythologique in three acts  Music by Léo Delibes  Staging completed by Pavel Gerdt due to Ivanov's final illness and death  Imperial Mariinsky Theatre, 15 December [O S  2 December] 1901 
Passage 2:
The Nutcracker (Willam Christensen)
Tchaikovsky's now-classic 1892 ballet The Nutcracker received its first complete production in the U S  on 24 December 1944, performed by the San Francisco Ballet  This production used the ballet's original plot and was choreographed by Willam Christensen, who danced the role of the Cavalier  Gisella Caccialanza, the wife of Lew Christensen, danced the role of the Sugar Plum Fairy  The staging was a huge success and one critic wrote: "We can't understand why a vehicle of such fantastic beauty and originality could be produced in Europe in 1892 with signal success [a factually erroneous claim] and never be produced in its entirety in this country until 1944  Perhaps choreographers will make up for lost time from now on " The company was the first in the U S  to make the ballet an annual tradition, and for ten years, the only company in the United States performing the complete ballet, until George Balanchine's production opened in New York in 1954  (Annual productions of the San Francisco Ballet Nutcracker began in 1949 )
The San Francisco Ballet performs The Nutcracker annually to this day, though not necessarily with Christensen's choreography (their most recent version is choreographed by Helgi Tomasson)  Christensen's Nutcracker continues in Salt Lake City, where it is performed annually by Christensen's Ballet West  The stage success of the Christensen version marked the first step in making productions of The Nutcracker annual Christmas season traditions all over the world – a phenomenon that did not really come to flower until the late 1960s 
Passage 3:
Adam Cooper (dancer)
Adam Cooper (born 22 July 1971) is an English actor, choreographer, dancer and theatre director  He works as both a performer and choreographer in musical theatre, and has choreographed and/or starred in award-winning shows such as On Your Toes, Singin' in the Rain and Grand Hotel  He began his professional career as a dancer of classical ballet and contemporary ballet and is a former Principal of the Royal Ballet, a major international ballet company based in London  He became internationally recognised for creating the lead role of Swan/Stranger in Matthew Bourne's contemporary dance production of the ballet Swan Lake, a role that was briefly featured in the 2000 film Billy Elliot, in which Cooper played the adult version of the titular character 

Biography
Adam Cooper was born 22 July 1971 in Tooting, London to a musician father and a social worker mother  He has an older brother, Simon Cooper, who is also a dancer and they trained at the same schools  From a young age, he and his brother studied tap and ballet at the Jean Winkler School of Dance in Tooting  They also played various musical instruments and sang in a choir  At age 11, Cooper won a place at ArtsEd, a specialist performing arts school in London where he studied classical ballet, character, modern, tap, jazz and contemporary dance, as well as singing, acting and stage combat  After completing his secondary education at the school, aged 16, he was accepted into the Royal Ballet Upper School 
At his graduation performance he played the lead role of Young Man in Ashton's the Two Pigeons Cooper married Sarah Wildor in 2000  She was a principal dancer with the Royal Ballet She has become an Olivier-nominated actress  Their first child, a daughter, was born in 2008  They also have a  son 

Dance
Royal Ballet
In 1989 Cooper joined the Royal Ballet and was quickly promoted to First Artist and Soloist in 1991, First Soloist 1993 and Principal Dancer in 1994  He was recognized for his performances in the classic as well as dramatic and contemporary ballet works, and he excelled in playing cruel but sexy villains  While with the Royal Ballet he worked extensively with choreographers Kenneth MacMillan and William Tuckett partnering all the leading ballerinas of the company including Sylvie Guillem and Darcey Bussell  He also performed works choreographed by George Balanchine, Ashley Page, Fokine, Bronislava Nijinska, Mikhail Baryshnikov, Christopher Wheeldon, Matthew Hart, and William Forsythe  He left the Royal Ballet in 1997 to freelance and expand his career opportunities 

Adventures in Motion Pictures
In 1995 Matthew Bourne recruited Cooper to join Adventures in Motion Pictures (now renamed New Adventures) for his radically re-interpreted production of Swan Lake  Together they created the basic Swan movement motifs and Cooper also contributed to the choreography  Cooper performed the dual Swan/Stranger role (the analog of the white and black swan in the classic version) all over the world and his performances won him international acclaim, multiple awards and a strong fan following  Cooper's performance was described as one of "tremendous excitement, subtlety,emotional depth and sheer sexiness"  The popular press embraced him and his photo appeared in many magazines For his performances as the Swan/Stranger he received the Time Out Award in 1995, the Evening Standard Dance Award in 1997 and the 1999 Astaire Award for Best Dancer  He was also nominated for the 1999 Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical  He appeared briefly at the end of the 2000 film Billy Elliot as the adult version of the title character, who is seen performing the role of the Swan  A DVD recording of the Swan Lake with Cooper and the original cast was issued in 1996 and can be seen on Youtube com  Excerpts from Swan Lake (Bourne) appeared on the 1998 Royal Variety TV program and he repeated his Swan/Stranger role for the TV audience  His performance in the Billy Elliot film and in the Swan Lake (Bourne) DVD inspired at least one of the boys playing Billy Elliot in the stage production to join New Adventures in the hopes of performing The Swan role  In 2003 Cooper once again played the Swan/Stranger when AMP toured in Japan, and there was enormous enthusiasm for his performance and he acquired a large number of new fans 
In 1997 Cooper was invited by Bourne to take part in the initial planning of AMP's next show, Cinderella  This version of the dance took place in London during the Blitz, but used the same Prokofiev music as the classic version Cinderella (Prokofiev)  Cooper helped to create and performed the role of Pilot (the Prince analog) in the initial 1997 London run and also played the Angel (the Godmother analog), and Sarah Wildor was his partner when she played the title role 
The production was also performed in Los Angeles in 1999 

Freelance dancer and choreographer
In 1998 Cooper worked with the Scottish Ballet to choreograph Just Scratching the Surface  He also performed the Hoffmann role in their production of Tales of Hoffmann  Since then he has gone on to choreograph for other ballet companies and for musical theatre 
Cooper appeared as a dancer and choreographer at the Exeter Festival for 3 years, heading evenings of dance co-produced with Iain Webb  In 2002 Cooper and Sarah Wildor presented a tribute to Sir Kenneth MacMillan at Exeter and in Japan  The Adam Cooper Company represented the UK at the Washington International Ballet Festival in 2003 performing a revival of Sir Kenneth MacMillan's Sea of Troubles Cooper has frequently danced as a guest artist with the Royal Ballet since leaving the company, performing lead roles in Romeo and Juliet, Ondine and Onegin  and others  In 2002 he created the role of Badger in William Tuckett's Wind in the Willows  In 2004 created the title role in Tuckett's The Soldier's Tale, which he reprised in 2005 and later performed in Japan in 2009 and 2015 In 2005 he realized a long-held vision with his own production of Les Liaisons dangereuses, a mixture of theater and dance  Co-directed and designed by Lez Brotherston, the production was choreographed by Cooper and he also played the lead role of Viscomte de Valmont  The piece premiered in Japan early in the year before a summer season at Sadler's Wells, with a cast which included Simon Cooper and Sarah Wildor In 2009 Cooper joined Russell Maliphant to dance in Maliphant's 2:4:10 contemporary dance program- an evening of works celebrating Maliphant's 10 years as a choreographer 

Musical theatre
2002 to 2010
In Cooper's first venture into the musical theatre he was both the choreographer and actor (playing the lead role of Junior Dolan) in On Your Toes  In 2002 it played at Leicester Haymarket, and was in transferred in 2003 to the Royal Festival in the West End of London  Sarah Wildor joined the production in 2003 to play the role of Vera Baronova  He was lauded by both the critics and the audience for his contributions and was rewarded with the Critics' Circle National Dance Award for Best Choreography and Most Popular Dancer  In 2004 the production also had a successful tour in Japan In 2002 Cooper provided the choreography for the Swedish production of Garbo-the Musical  Cooper also played the lead role of Don Lockwood and choreographed Paul Kerryson's Singin' in the Rain in 2004 at Sadler's Wells Theatre, Leicester Haymarket, and was nominated for Critic's Circle Award for Choreography of a Musical  He was nominated for a Laurence Olivier Award for his choreography of the 2004 Grand Hotel for The Donmar Warehouse  The production won the 2005 Olivier Award in the category of Outstanding Musical Production In 2005, Cooper and Wildor performed a two-person play, Wallflowering, at the Seven Oaks Playhouse  Their roles were primarily dialogue with intermittent bits of ballroom dancing  Following this, he designed the choreography for the revival of Promises, Promises at Sheffield's Crucible Theatre In 2006 Cooper appeared alongside Neil Morrissey and Patrick Swayze playing Sky Masterson in Guys and Dolls at The Piccadilly Theatre, London and in 2007 he provided the musical staging for Side by Side by Sondheim for The Venue Theatre, London 2008 saw Cooper's return to the stage, creating the role of Ramon in Zorro the Musical for the UK tour  He also played the Tin Man in the Royal Festival Hall's summer staging of the musical The Wizard of Oz, after which he turned his attention back to choreography  First, he choreographed Carousel for director Lindsay Posner which had a very successful UK tour and West End run at the Savoy Theatre  Then Cooper was asked by Paul Kerryson to direct and choreograph the first new show, Simply Cinderella, at the brand new Curve Theatre, Leicester In 2009 Cooper unveiled Shall We Dance at Sadler's Wells, an ambitious all-dance show based on Richard Rodgers' songs  For this production he was the box-office star, director, creator, librettist and choreographer  Later that year, he provided choreography for Lindsay Posner's production of the Donizetti opera Roberto Devereux at the Holland Park Theatre, Kensington, London Cooper co-starred in the touring stage version of Irving Berlin's White Christmas during the Christmas season in 2009 2010 and 2011  He played the role of Phil Davis 

2011 to the present
Cooper was the above-the-title star playing the role of Don Lockwood in Jonathan Church's highly successful 2011–2013 production of Singin' in the Rain, with choreography by Andrew Wright  Its first sold-out run was at the Chichester Festival Theatre and then a longer run at West End's Palace Theatre  He also performed the iconic Singin' in the Rain scene on the 2011 Royal Variety Performance TV show  The stage show was nominated for the Best Musical Revival and several other Laurence Olivier and other awards  A cast recording of Singin' in the Rain was issued in 2012  Good Mornin' was performed at the 2012 Olivier Awards Ceremony  The show, starring Cooper, played in Japan for three weeks of November 2014 In 2013 Cooper choreographed Matthew White's well-received production of Candide at the Menier Chocolate Factory  Reviewer Sam Smith wrote "Adam Cooper's choreography is racy, and the production finds a particular affinity with the 'Surrealism' of the piece " In late 2013 Cooper was invited to Denmark to choreograph Daniel Bohr's Danish language version of Evita at the Det Ny Teater (The New Theater) in Copenhagen  The show premiered in January 2014  For Evita, Adam Cooper created a choreography with continuous tango elements merged into the rest of the dance Cooper provided the "energetic" 60's choreography for Sunny Afternoon Musical at the Hampstead Theatre in London  The show ran from April to end of May in 2014 and then in October 2014 it transferred to The Harold Pinter Theatre (formerly The Comedy Theatre) 
at the West End  Its run was extended several times due to its popularity with the audience and positive critical reviews  It was nominated for numerous awards and won 4 Olivier Awards in 2015  Details are at Sunny Afternoon 
Cooper had another opportunity to present a stage version of Les Liaisons dangereuses (Gefährliche Liebschaften) in 2015   He choreographed and co-directed with Josef E  Köpplinger a German musical version of the novel with a newly commissioned book, lyrics and score for the itinerant Staatstheater am Gärtnerplatz company in Munich, Germany 
In 2019, Cooper appeared in the UK Tour of New Adventures' The Red Shoes, playing the role of Boris Lermontov 

Films and TV
The Soldier's Tale (2010) TV Movie (The Soldier)
Bourne to Dance (2001) TV Movie (himself)
Billy Elliot (2000) Arts Council of England, BBC Films, Working Title Films (Billy, Aged 25)
Madame Bovary (2000) TV Movie (Vicomte)
The Sandman (2000) Channel 4 TV Movie
Jason and the Argonauts (2000) Hallmark Entertainment & Panfilm TV Movie (Eros)
Dance Ballerina Dance (1998) BBC2 TV (himself)
Swan Lake (Bourne) (1998) PBS Great Performances TV Series with Adventures in Motion Pictures (Swan/Stranger)
Royal Variety Performance TV Show (1998) Excerpts from Swan Lake (Bourne) (Swan/Stranger)
The South Bank show: Matthew Bourne's Adventures in Motion Pictures (1997) TV Documentary (himself)
Swan Lake (Bourne) (1996) BBC/NVC with Adventures in Motion Pictures (Swan/Stranger)
Mayerling (ballet) (1994) BBC with the Royal Ballet (Hungarian officer)
Gala Tribute to Tchaikovsky (1993) TV Special (Principal Dancer)
Winter Dreams (1992) BBC TV with the Royal Ballet (Staff Captain Vassily Vasilyevich Solyony)
La Bayadère, The Sleeping Beauty (ballet), Winter Gala with Royal Ballet for BBC TV
Prince of the Pagodas (1990) with the Royal Ballet
Merry Wives of Windsor (1982) BBC TV (fairy)

Other
(2000) National Portrait Gallery (London), portrait of Adam Cooper by Stuart Pearson Wrightoil on gesso on oak panel, NPG 6542
(2014) Imperial Classical Ballet Faculty Patrons, Adam Cooper and Sarah Wildor

Awards
(1988) Ursula Moreton Choreographic Competition
(1989) Professional Level Prize @ Prix de Lausanne
(1996) Time Out Award for Best Performance in AMP's Swan Lake
(1997) Evening Standard Award for his performance as The Swan in AMP's Swan Lake
(1997) Drama League Award for Best Performance as The Swan in AMP's Swan Lake (Los Angeles Season)
(1999) Astaire Award for outstanding Male Dancer for his performance as The Swan in AMP's Swan Lake
(1999) Nominated for Best Actor in a Musical Tony Award for the Broadway Season of Swan Lake
(2002) Nominated for Best Male Dancer by the Critics' Circle National Dance Awards for his performances with the Royal Ballet and On Your Toes 
(2003) Critics' Circle National Dance Awards for Best Choreography for On Your Toes
(2003) Critics' Circle National Dance Awards for Most Popular Dancer 
(2003) Nominated for Whatsonstage com Theatregoers' Choice Awards – for Best Choreographer and Best Actor in a Musical for On Your Toes
(2004) Nominated by Critics' Circle National Dance Awards for Best Choreography (Musical Theater) for Singin' in the Rain
(2005) Nominated for What's Onstage Award for choreography of the 2004 Grand Hotel for The Donmar Warehouse 
(2005) Nominated for a Laurence Olivier Award for choreography of the 2004 Grand Hotel for The Donmar Warehouse 
(2013) Nominated for What's Onstage Award as Best Actor in a Musical for Singin in the Rain
Passage 4:
The Nutcracker (1993 film)
The Nutcracker, also known as George Balanchine's The Nutcracker, is a 1993 American Christmas musical film based on Peter Martins's stage production and directed by Emile Ardolino  It stars Darci Kistler, Damian Woetzel, Kyra Nichols, Bart Robinson Cook, Macaulay Culkin, Jessica Lynn Cohen, Wendy Whelan, Margaret Tracey, Gen Horiuchi, Tom Gold, and the New York City Ballet 
The film was released by Warner Bros  under their Warner Bros  Family Entertainment label on November 24, 1993, four days after director Ardolino died  It received mixed reviews and was a box office failure, grossing only $2 million 

Plot
The film follows the traditional plot of the Nutcracker 

Act I
Scene 1: The Stahlbaum Home

It is Christmas Eve  Family and friends have gathered in the parlor to decorate the beautiful Christmas tree in preparation for the party  Once it is finished, the children are sent for  They stare in awe at it sparkling with candles and decorations 
The party begins  A march is played  Presents are given out to the children  Suddenly, as the owl-topped grandmother clock strikes eight, a mysterious figure enters the room  It is Herr Drosselmeyer, a local councilman, magician, and Marie's godfather  He is also a talented toymaker who has brought gifts for the children, including four lifelike dolls who dance to the delight of all  He then has them put away for safekeeping 
Marie and her brother, Fritz, are sad to see the dolls being taken away, but Drosselmeyer has yet another toy for them: a wooden nutcracker carved in the shape of a little man  The other children ignore it, but Marie immediately takes a liking to it



ground_truth: Leucippus

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who did the actor that plays Sean Tully defeat in a dancing contest?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Salsa (1988 film)
Salsa is a 1988 romance film directed by Boaz Davidson and starring Robby Rosa, Rodney Harvey, Angela Alvarado and Miranda Garrison  The film, about a Puerto Rican dancer who decides to enter a salsa dancing contest, earned a Razzie Award nomination for Rosa as Worst New Star 

Plot
In a nightly escape from his day job as a mechanic, Rico (Robby Rosa) enters his true element: the wild exuberance of "La Luna" , a salsa club located in East Los Angeles, California  Dreaming of making himself and Vicky (Angela Alvarado), his girlfriend the "King and Queen of Salsa", Rico pours all his energy into winning La Luna's Grand Salsa Competition  But when Luna (Miranda Garrison), the club's gorgeous owner sets her sights on making Rico her dance partner, Rico must decide what drives him, his ambition or his heart 

Cast
As themselves

Reception
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 20% approval rating based on five reviews 

Soundtrack
"Margarita" - H  Wilkins
"Chicos y chicas" - Mavis Vegas Davis
"Cali Pachanguero" - Grupo Niche
"Your Love" - Laura Branigan
"Good Lovin'" - Kenny Ortega, Chain Reaction, The Edwin Hawkins Singers
"Under My Skin" - Robby Rosa
"Oye Como Va" - Tito Puente
"I Know" - Marisela Esqueda, The Edwin Hawkins Singers
"Spanish Harlem" - Ben E  King
"Puerto Rico" - Bobby Caldwell, Marisela Esqueda, Michael Sembello, H  Wilkins, Mongo Santamaría, Charlie Palmieri, The Edwin Hawkins Singers
Passage 2:
2014 St Helens RLFC season
The 2014 St Helens R F C  season is the club's 140th in its history; its 119th in rugby league  The Saints will be looking to end a 6-year silverware drought this season by competing for the Super League XIX title as well as the 113th edition of the Challenge Cup  This season marks Australian Nathan Brown's second season as head coach of the club, continuing from his first season in 2013 which ended in a 5th-place finish and an early playoff exit courtesy of an 11–10 defeat at Leeds Rhinos  They began their season by taking on last seasons runner-up Warrington Wolves at the Halliwell Jones Stadium, which ended in an 8–38 win for Saints  This win sent Saints on a win streak that lasted for eight Super League games before being defeated on 18 April 2014 by arch-rivals Wigan Warriors at Langtree Park in the annual Good Friday derby match  Easter was a period to forget for the Saints as they were beaten by Widnes Vikings for their second league defeat in a row, following the Good Friday defeat to bitter rivals Wigan, and then by Leeds Rhinos in Round 5 of the Challenge Cup meaning the Saints will miss out on the trophy for a sixth year  The Saints bounced back however on 1 May with a 48–18 win over the London Broncos  Saints suffered another Magic Weekend to the Warrington Wolves on 18 May with the game ending 41–24 to the Wolves  Results picked up after the Magic Weekend with two straight wins at home against Huddersfield & Salford however the Saints then traveled to Perpignan where they suffered a humiliating 42–0 loss to the Catalans Dragons  Once again, the Saints bounced back with an impressive win over Castleford Tigers at Langtree Park and with another outstanding performance in a pulsating game at the DW Stadium against arch-rivals Wigan Warriors that ended 12–16 in favour of the Saints; the win avenging the Good Friday defeat at Langtree Park  Following this win, Saints suffered a shock 40–10 defeat to Hull Kingston Rovers but bounced back with three straight wins before losing to Hull KR's cross-town rivals, Hull FC, 19–12  However, a 40–16 win over Wakefield Trinity Wildcats & an extremely tight 12–13 win over Leeds Rhinos at Headingley put the Saints in a position where a win against Warrington on 4 September would hand them their first League Leaders' Shield since the 2008 season; with Castleford Tigers being the only other team in contention for the top spot  Despite losing their last two games of the regular season, Saints acquired the League Leaders' Shield following Castleford's failure to beat Catalans Dragons in their last game of the season; meaning that the Saints took their first piece of silverware since 2008  The unlikely success of the 2014 season culminated in a 14–6 win over arch-rivals Wigan Warriors in the 2014 Super League Grand Final at Old Trafford making Saints the Super League champions for the first time since 2006 in an extremely lively, well-fought contest that saw Wigan player Ben Flower sent off for a sucker punch on a defenceless Lance Hohaia in the 2nd minute of the game 

2014 transfers
Players In

Players Out

2014 squad
* Announced on 15 November 2013:

Other staff
Technical staff
Boardroom staff
Pre Season
Saints began their pre-season by taking on Batley Bulldogs in January 2014; taking a 20–0 victory at home  Following this victory, Saints then took on bitter rivals Wigan Warriors in a 'friendly game', again at Langtree Park, for James Roby's testimonial match, sinking to a disappointing 16–28 defeat  They bounced back however for their last pre-season game before the season began with a 6–62 win away at Rochdale Hornets with a St Helens Select XIII team 

Super League XIX Fixtures/Results/Table
Super League XIX – Play-Off Series
Even without key players Luke Walsh, Jon Wilkin & Jonny Lomax for the majority of the second half of the season, Saints managed to battle through the play-offs to reach an unprecedented 10th Grand Final  Even though they also lost Lance Hohaia in the second minute of the game via a disgraceful punch from Ben Flower, Saints overcame the solid defence of Wigans remaining 12 men to claim their 5th Super League title 

2014 Tetley's Challenge Cup Fixtures\Results
Passage 3:
Showmatch
Showmatch was an Argentine television program, broadcast by eltrece  It replaced the comedy show Videomatch in 2004, and from 2006 has produced the dancing contest Bailando por un Sueño ("Dancing for a Dream"), along with similar contests such as Cantando por un Sueño ("Singing for a Dream"), Patinando por un Sueño ("Skating for a Dream"), and El Musical de tus Sueños ("The Musical of your Dreams")  In 2009, it presented "Gran Cuñado" ("Big Brother-in-Law"), a parody of the reality show Big Brother, a segment carried over from Videomatch 
Showmatch is one of Argentina's most-watched programs, and scored as the country's highest-rated TV show in 2010 and 2011 It has played host to a number of celebrity guests from around the world, including former boxer Mike Tyson and footballer Ronaldinho 

History
Showmatch is the new name of the program presented by Marcelo Tinelli, succeeding Videomatch, a sports and comedy show 
On September 2, 2005, Tinelli signed a major contract with Artear, operator of eltrece, thus opting to move to the channel of the solcito (little sun), where he eventually would set the program since 19 September 2005  The negotiations between the two companies had begun in April, at the initiative of Adrian Suar, director of programming of the station  As background, Suar and Tinelli already had preliminary negotiations in an attempt to moving during 1997 
"This is a bet that transcends economics, I feel it is a long-term path that tends to insert the program into a broader platform, which will open more possibilities to Argentine production and international expansion," Tinelli said when closing the contract  Meanwhile, Federico Hoppe and Pablo Prada became the main producers of the program  Since its inception, the program's eight seasons remained to be issued consecutively until the end of the cycle in 2012, where the program stopped being broadcast until 2014, the year in which the program retakes its emissions 
In its first season (2005) and half of Season 2 (2006) the program continued the format of its predecessor Videomatch, with the famous hidden cameras, music, skits with guest artists, humorous sketches, among others, but due to the popularity of the segment Bailando por un Sueño (Dancing for a dream), since 2007, it became an annual competition and the program was entirely based upon this, as well as Cantando por un Sueño (Singing for a dream) and Patinando por un Sueño (Skating for a dream) 
In 2009 upon celebrating 20 years, it returned to the original format during the first half of the year, also incorporating the segments Gran Cuñado (Big Brother-in-Law) and Bailando Kids  As of August it began airing the contest El Musical de tus Sueños (The musical of your dreams) 
In 2010, a new segment called Baila Argentina was incorporated, in which cities across the country competed through dances with massive people calling, but after some emissions, it stopped airing in Showmatch because of time, and it became part of Sábado Show (a show broadcast by the same channel and hosted by cast member José María Listorti) 
In 2011, the show only aired Bailando por un sueño, and in the last 7 seasons (2012, 2014-2019), in addition to this classic contest, there were parodies of celebrities, politicians and people from the show business appearing to interact with the host and the judges 

Production
Performances
An important feature of the show are televised performances made for the start of each season, which dubs of movies or series with a humorous tone are shown, parodies of several films, and large shows of presentation, in which different musical pieces are mixed accompanied by several choreography parts, carried out by the show's team of dancers and artists from different acrobatic disciplines  These stagings are prepared months in advance to be presented to the season premiere 
Within the format Bailando por un Sueño, there were other outstanding artistic productions: the so-called "special rhythms" which usually consist of acrobatic discipline performances, full of visual effects  For example, the productions known as:

"Bailando bajo la lluvia" (Dancing under the rain): where participants must dance under water in a scenery set to simulate a city street  Such show is that each couple occupies this space to develop different storylines with dancing  The climatic effect is achieved using more than 25 sprinklers that spew water steadily toward the track  For this, the studio is fitted with a drain system to support the flow of water  Producers were based on the film Singin' in the Rain for the realization of the "rhythm" 
"Cuarto giratorio" (Rotating room): which was incorporated during the seventh season, based on a cubic element of about three meters and a half edge, similar to a room with bare front, where a camera is put only inside the cube  There is where couples must develop the choreography, while this is driven by a hydraulic mechanism which in turn is controlled with a command joystick, by the coach of the couple, who imbues speed to the unidirectional room (right-left)  While transmitted by television, the effect of seeing the participants as if they walked through the roof and side is shown  The construction of the cube is done in a steel structure, in which a wooden room is decorated differently, according to the theme of the choreography 
"Bioesfera" (Biosphere) is another example of these assemblies, which is an orbit built with the same material as the pole dance pole, whose pendulous movement depends on a ball bearing that rotates over its own axis  It is hung in the middle of the studio, and there, the participants must perform their stunts while the music plays 
"Aquadance", to this day, is the production with most technical requirement  It is a "rhythm" created in the third season, after the idea of finding and preparing new choreography to capture the attention of the audience  With this, the producers decided to make a big show of aquatic acrobatics, similar to those made in Las Vegas  This discipline was adapted and presented in the program as one of the dance rhythms  In the routine, the program's couples were immersed in acrylic fountains, making figures to the beat of a music track  It was so successful that since then, the show was held every year, having been modified three times  The second time it was done, there were three fountains used with a dancing water system that worked with the progression of the performance, fireworks combined with music and projection effects  Finally, since 2011, the three acrylic fountains mounted in one piece, with two slides and iron supports holding a fourth fountain, located more than 2 meters high, are used  From there the scenery is mounted in a fiberglass pool, covering the dance floor, with two waterfalls and 22 peaks of dancing waters  For all three occasions, the pools were filled with more than 10,000 liters of warm water, and counted with a new recycling system 

Controversy
The show has also been an ongoing source of controversy, and has been accused of sexual discrimination and objectification of women 

Awards
Passage 4:
Sean Tully
Sean Tully is a fictional character from the British soap opera Coronation Street, played by Antony Cotton  He made his first appearance during the episode broadcast on 13 July 2003  Following that appearance, the character returned full-time on 12 April 2004 

Storylines
Sean is introduced as a gay colleague of Martin Platt (Sean Wilson) and Karl Foster (Chris Finch)  Some months after his first appearance Sean comes to Coronation Street, desperately looking for somewhere to live  Karl's ex-boyfriend Todd Grimshaw (Bruno Langley) recognises Sean and takes him for a drink at The Rovers  When Todd's mother Eileen Grimshaw (Sue Cleaver) meets Sean she likes him and offers him a place to stay  Her other son, Jason Grimshaw (Ryan Thomas), is not pleased but later warms to the idea  Sean gets a job at Underworld, where he makes friends with Fiz Brown (Jennie McAlpine) and Kelly Crabtree (Tupele Dorgu) 
Violet Wilson (Jenny Platt), Sean's close friend, moves to the Street and begins dating Jamie Baldwin (Rupert Hill), who Sean also becomes close to  When Jamie seems to be losing interest in Violet she fears he is secretly gay, she asks Sean to spend time with him to see if he can find out — unaware that Sean has fallen for Jamie himself  However, Sean is shocked to discover that Jamie is actually in love with his stepmother, Frankie Baldwin (Debra Stephenson)  Sean supports both Violet and Jamie when Violet ends their relationship 
When Violet suffers an ectopic pregnancy, she is told her chances of conceiving have been reduced  Violet then becomes desperate to have a baby and suggests she and Sean should consider having a child together  Sean agrees and, despite her fertility issues, Violet becomes pregnant via self-administered artificial insemination (after the two try and fail to have sex)  Sean accompanies Violet to her 12-week scan, where he becomes attracted to the sonographer, Marcus Dent (Charlie Condou)  Violet matchmakes between the two and they begin dating, although they hit a rough patch when Sean tricks Marcus into telling him Violet is expecting a baby boy when she had wanted the gender to be a surprise 
When Violet gets back together with Jamie, she begins to find Sean's presence during the pregnancy stifling, especially after he lends her and Jamie money for a flat deposit and begins coming and going as he pleases  When Violet realises she is in labour at the Rovers' it is Sean, not Jamie, at her side as Jamie is in London  Sean is delighted that he was the first person that his son saw and bonds with Dylan while Violet is in hospital, upsetting both her and Jamie  Sean suggests calling him "Dylan Wilson-Tully" and asks Violet to put his name on the birth certificate  Violet ignores both suggestions, naming her son "Dylan James Wilson" and putting Jamie's name on the birth certificate  Fed up with Sean being a third wheel, Jamie and Violet move to London with Dylan, devastating Sean when Violet throws her mobile away so he can't contact her 
Sean becomes close friends with Tom Kerrigan (Philip McGinley), a business partner of his boss, Carla Connor (Alison King) and begins to develop feelings for him  When Sean tries to kiss Tom, he tells him that he is straight and actually interested in Sean's friend Kelly  Realising things are awkward between Sean and Tom, Marcus questions Sean, who lies and says Tom made a pass at him rather than the other way around  Marcus angrily punches Tom but is furious to then discover Sean was the one in the wrong  With Sean having already been jealous of Marcus's friendships with other gay men, Marcus realises there is no trust left in their relationship and departs for London 
After joining a gym with Jason, Sean becomes attracted to fellow member Leon (Andrew Langtree)  When Leon mistakenly thinks Jason is Sean's ex-boyfriend Sean doesn't correct him, and is pleased that Leon seems happy to hear he is single  However, Sean is left disappointed when it turns out that Leon is actually interested in Jason and "doesn't fancy camp men" 
Sean decides that he wants to track down Violet and Dylan, as his son would now be two years old  He finds Violet via a social networking site and sets up a page using Liz McDonald's (Beverley Callard) identity  However, the scheme backfires when Liz finds out what Sean has done and she fires him from the Rovers  She later softens towards him and reinstates him, and also has a word with Violet on Sean's behalf  Violet agrees to Sean visiting Dylan in London  However, on one of his visits, Sean is surprised to see Marcus at Violet's house, unaware that they were still in touch  The two realise they still have feelings for one another and reunite  When Violet and Jamie split, Sean begins looking after Dylan more often, with Dylan living with the pair for several weeks after Violet has a car accident  Marcus enjoys being part of Dylan's life and suggest they adopt a child of their own; however, Sean doesn't feel the need to have another child  The issue eventually drives the pair apart, with Sean later horrified to discover Marcus has begun a relationship with his close friend Maria Connor (Samia Ghadie), despite having shown no interest in women before  Sean accuses Marcus of only dating Maria to become a father to her son, Liam and the two fall out 
When Todd returns to Manchester after several years in London, Sean wonders if there is a chance for romance between them  However, Todd is only interested in getting Sean to spend money on him, turning his romantic attention towards Marcus instead  Sean is shocked when he catches Marcus cheating on Maria with Todd and encourages him to be honest with both Maria and himself 
Depressed at being alone, Sean goes on a night out to Manchester's gay village with his colleague Sinead Tinker (Katie McGlynn) and meets Billy Mayhew (Daniel Brocklebank)  The two exchange phone numbers and meet again, but Sean is shocked when Emily Bishop (Eileen Derbyshire) introduces Billy as the new local vicar a few days later  Although Sean struggles with Billy's job, the two begin dating, with Sean even trying to become involved with the church  However, when Emily seems distant from Billy and unwilling to involve herself with his new ideas for the church, Sean accuses her of homophobia  Emily is upset and denies this, telling Sean that she simply prefers more traditional church activities  Billy is angry with Sean and makes him apologise, telling Sean that he has to put his parishioners first and that being gay in the church involves some discretion  The pair briefly split, but Emily matchmakes to bring them back together 
Sean later accompanies the Underworld staff to an awards ceremony, but events take a nasty turn when a group of racers cause the minibus driver, Steve McDonald (Simon Gregson), to swerve and crash the vehicle, which is now narrowly balancing on the edge of a quarry  Sean is one of the first people to awaken from unconsciousness and he, Steve and Julie Carp (Katy Cavanagh) escape the wreckage  Steve flees as he comes to terms with the events, while Julie re-enters the vehicle to retrieve the trapped passengers  Sean looks after the staff once they are out, but he soon suffers a panic attack as the reality of the minibus crash dawns on him  Once everybody is out, Sean is the first person to realise that Carla is still trapped in the front seat of the minibus  Tracy Barlow (Kate Ford) risks her life to save Carla and nearly falls to her own death when the wreckage begins to slide off the edge of the quarry, but she leaps out just in time  At the hospital, Sean is met by Billy, who reveals how proud he is of him 

Characterisation
Antony Cotton said that playing Sean is easy because he just has to act like himself  Speaking to The People, Cotton said that Sean looks and he sounds like him  Cotton later admitted that not all of the reviews about him are positive  Some of the gay press have accused Cotton of making Sean a stereotype  Of this he said, "You've got people like Blanche Hunt, Emily Bishop and Norris Cole and there were the classic characters like Bet Lynch and Annie Walker  They're all more camp than Sean — I'm Grant Mitchell compared to them "

Development
In an interview with Digital Spy, Cotton was asked why Sean has always been so unlucky in love  He answered; "When I first came into the show, a lot of the old-school writers that are no longer here had never written a gay character  At that time, Raquel had just gone so they basically wrote Sean as Raquel  Hilda and Raquel are my favourite ever Corrie characters and one of the reasons that I've always loved Raquel is that she was unlucky in love  Even when she was in the gutter battered and bruised, she was always looking up at the stars thinking that the next one was around the corner  I thought that was an interesting way to play Sean, so he's always unlucky in love because Raquel was, is the short answer! That's just the way it worked out — but I like playing that "In January 2011, it was confirmed that Charlie Condou who played Sean's ex-boyfriend Marcus Dent between 2007 and 2008 would return to the serial  A Coronation Street spokesperson teased the upcoming reunion saying; "There are eventful times ahead for Sean as his old flame Marcus Dent returns to the cobbles  Marcus arrives back in Weatherfield and the relationship between him and Sean is rekindled "In September 2014, it was revealed that Sean would begin a relationship with a vicar named Billy portrayed by Daniel Brocklebank  Producer Stuart Blackburn said: "It's about time Sean had a romance, he's been unlucky in love for a long time  Billy is a great guy who is sincere about his feelings for Sean, but his first love is and always will be God and the Church  We will be exploring this very modern relationship in the coming months and are delighted to have Daniel on board to play Billy " Cotton added: "I am thrilled that Sean is to find love again especially with this unique and exciting storyline  I'm sure it'll have its ups and downs, but that's what makes Coronation Street great  Hopefully it will be tender, funny and honest  Heaven!" In January 2015, Cotton revealed in an interview that he was surprised by the positive response to Sean's relationship with Billy storyline 

Reception
Antony Cotton has won a number of awards since the character's first appearance, including a prestigious National Television Award  In 2006 he won an award for Funniest Character at the Inside Soap Awards  along with Best Actor at the British Soap Awards in 2007 
Passage 5:
Mira quién baila
Mira quién baila may refer to:

Mira quién baila (Spanish TV series)
Mira quién baila (American TV series), a 2010 American game show
Mira quién baila (season 1)
Mira quién baila (season 2)
Mira quién baila (season 3)
Mira quién baila (season 4)
Mira quién baila (season 5)
Passage 6:
Antony Cotton
Antony Cotton  (born Antony Dunn; 5 August 1975) is an English actor and comedian, known for portraying the role of Sean Tully in Coronation Street, as well as portraying Alexander Perry in the original Queer as Folk series  In 2007, Cotton hosted his own talk show titled That Antony Cotton Show, which was cancelled after one series  In March 2013, he won Let's Dance for Comic Relief 

Early and personal life
Cotton was born Antony Dunn in Bury, Greater Manchester, the son of actress Enid Dunn  He attended Woodhey High School at Holcombe Brook, Ramsbottom, and the Oldham Theatre Workshop  He has an elder brother, Andrew  Cotton supports the Terrence Higgins Trust and is a patron of the LGF The Albert Kennedy Trust and the 'Queer Up North' festival 
In August 2009, it was reported in Digital Spy that Cotton is "openly gay"  In March 2010, it was reported that Cotton had exchanged rings with his partner, Peter Eccleston  In January 2012, footballer Michael Ball was fined by the Football Association for a homophobic rant on Twitter about Cotton 

Career
Cotton currently plays barman and factory worker Sean Tully on Coronation Street, a role which he has continuously played since 2003  His Mother, Enid Dunn, also played several parts in Coronation Street between 2002 and 2014  Cotton played "Alexander" in the original UK version of Queer as Folk  He has also appeared in episodes of Absolutely Fabulous as "Damon"  In 2007, Cotton won the second series of ITV's Soapstar Superstar  He donated his winning money, £200,000, to the Elton John Aids Foundation In July 2007, it was announced that Cotton would be fronting his own teatime chat show on ITV  The show, That Antony Cotton Show, was filmed with a live studio audience at Granada Television studios in Manchester, and combined celebrity chat with topical humour  It was first broadcast on 13 August 2007  Following the end of the first series, ITV announced that the show was axed and would not return for a second series  He appeared on Family Fortunes on 20 September 2008 winning £10,000 for his chosen charity  In December 2008, he appeared with co-star Suranne Jones on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? He also took part in the eleventh series of I'm a Celebrity   Get Me Out of Here! which began airing on 13 November 2011  He left on 2 December 2011, after 21 days in the jungle, placing fourth  Cotton also starred in an episode of Mad Mad World on ITV1 in Spring 2012  He won first place in a series of Let's Dance for Comic Relief in March 2013  Cotton was a contestant for the 2018 revamp of Dancing on Ice 
Cotton made his film debut opposite Daniel Craig and Derek Jacobi in the 1998 film Love Is the Devil: Study for a Portrait of Francis Bacon  He also appeared in the 1998 film, The Wisdom of Crocodiles  Cotton has appeared in several shows at the Oldham Coliseum, including The Fifteen Streets and The Hobbit at Manchester's Palace Theatre and Opera House  He appeared in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs at the Middlesbrough Theatre 

Honours, awards and recognition
In 2005, Cotton won the Most Popular Newcomer category at the National Television Awards for his role in Coronation Street  Cotton won the 2005 Inside Soap Awards for Best Newcomer and Funniest Performance  In 2006, he won the award for Funniest Performance  At the 2007 British Soap Awards, Cotton was awarded the Best Actor award, which was voted for by the public  Also in 2007 he won Best Actor at the Inside Soap Awards Cotton was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2022 Birthday Honours for services to the British Army, personnel and veterans 

Filmography
FilmTelevision

See also
List of Dancing on Ice contestants
List of I'm a Celebrity   Get Me Out of Here! (British TV series) contestants
Passage 7:
Motofuji Akiko
Akiko Motofuji (1928–2003) was born in Tokyo  From her childhood she studied ballet and modern dance  In 1947, Nobutoshi Tsuda dancing principal, and she established Asbestos Studio in 1950  In 1955, in the International Dancing Contest held in Vienna, she won 4th prize in the individual performance section  She met Tatsumi Hijikata in 1956, and they started to perform on stage together, searching for a new way of expression using ballet and Neue Tanz techniques  This was the basis of Butoh, an original expression which gazes at body and soul severely  Later they got married  She went back to the stage in 1992, performing the piece "Together with Tatsumi Hijikata", and after that made great works, one after another  Her original world showed such colorful features as charm, overflowing humor, and severely shaved form, but always with the theme "repeated life and death" at the bottom  At big halls, in small spaces, outdoors, and so on, her inspiration spread out in three dimensions and caught and kept the audience interested  She also tackled collaboration with artists of other genres: direction with engravers, improvisation with musicians, joint production with Magdalena Abakanowicz, etc , and continued searching for the possibility of new expression  She died from hemopericardium on October 19, 2003 

Quotes
One of her famous quotes is:

"When viewing life, the blossoming of youth is beautiful, certainly  But in contrast, when something is withering, there's a beauty in that as well    is there not beauty within ugliness?"
Passage 8:
Nach Baliye
Nach Baliye (transl  Dance partner) is an Indian Hindi-language celebrity dance reality television series that airs on Star Plus  It is loosely based on Dancing With The Stars 

Production
Concept
The show is a competition wherein 10 television celebrity couples compete against each other  Contestants dance to a different tune, different theme and different styles every week and scores are given by the judges  Each week one couple is eliminated based on public voting and their scores 
In Season 9, the contestant ratings were changed to be on a scale from 1 to 100 

Reception
In 2012, when season 5 premiered the show did very well throughout the season  The grand premiere has gained 4 1 TRP 

Series
Season 1
Nach Baliye 1 is the first season of the dance reality show, Nach Baliye 
It started on 17 October 2005 and ended on 19 December 2005 with Sachin Pilgaonkar and Supriya Pilgaonkar as the winners  The judges were Saroj Khan, Malaika Arora Khan and Farhan Akhtar with Sangeeta Ghosh and Shabbir Ahluwalia serving as the hosts  The series was produced by SOL Productions 

Contestants
Supriya Pilgaonkar and Sachin Pilgaonkar, winners
Poonam Narula and Manish Goel, runners-up
Rajeshwari Sachdev and Varun Badola, 3rd position
Delnaaz Irani and Rajeev Paul, 4th position
Archana Puran Singh and Parmeet Sethi, 5th position
Shilpa Saklani and Apurva Agnihotri, 6th position
Neeru Bajwa and Amit Sadh, 7th position
Sai Deodhar and Shakti Anand, 8th position
Manini Mishra and Mihir Mishra, 9th position
Manasi Joshi Roy and Rohit Roy, 10th position

Season 2
Nach Baliye 2 is the second season of the dance reality show, Nach Baliye 
It started on 25 September 2006 and ended on 18 December 2006 with Hussain Kuwajerwala and Tina Kuwajerwala as the winners  Saroj Khan, Malaika Arora Khan and Kunal Kohli were the judges   Sangeeta Ghosh and Shabbir Ahluwalia hosted the season  SOL Productions produced the second season as well 

Contestants
Hussain Kuwajerwala and Tina Kuwajerwala, winners
Yash Tonk and Gauri Tonk, runners-up
Tannaz Irani and Bakhtiyaar Irani, 3rd position
Gauri Pradhan and Hiten Tejwani, 4th position
Shweta Kawatra and Manav Gohil, 5th position
Shweta Tiwari and Raja Choudhary, 6th position
Gurdeep Kohli and Arjun Punj, 7th position
Keerti Gaekwad Kelkar and Sharad Kelkar, 8th position
Narayani Shastri and Gaurav Chopra, 9th position
Ketki Dave and Rasik Dave, 10th position

Season 3
Nach Baliye 3 is the third season of the dance reality show, Nach Baliye 
It started on 21 September 2007 and ended on 22 December 2007 with Sanjeeda Sheikh and Aamir Ali as the winners  The judges were Vaibhavi Merchant, Isha Koppikar and David Dhawan  The winners of the second season, Hussain Kuwajerwala and Tina Kuwajerwala, hosted the show  It was produced by Diamond Pictures and moved from Star One to Star Plus  It was created by Anil Jha who was also the Showrunner for Season 3,4, and later 9 

Contestants
Sanjeeda Sheikh and Aamir Ali, winners
Rakhi Sawant and Abhishek Avasthi, runners-up
Kashmera Shah and Krushna Abhishek, 3rd position
Karan Patel and Amita Chandekar, 4th position
Indraneil Sengupta and Barkha Sengupta, 5th position
Sweta Keswani and Alexx O'Nell, 6th position
Pooja Bedi and Hanif Hilal, 7th position
Karan Grover and Kavita Kaushik, 8th position
Vikas Sethi and Amita Sethi, 9th position
Shakti Kapoor and Shivangi Kapoor, 10th position; quit
Kiran Janjani and Ritu Janjani, 11th position

Season 4
Nach Baliye 4 is the fourth season of the dance reality show, Nach Baliye 
It started on 17 October 2008 and ended on 1 February 2009 with Shalin Bhanot and Dalljiet Kaur as the winners Sanjeeda Sheikh and Aamir Ali were the initial hosts but Sara Khan and Ali Merchant hosted in Week 5 and Hiten Tejwani and Gauri Pradhan Tejwani hosted in Week 8 
Farah Khan, Karisma Kapoor, and Arjun Rampal were the judges 

Contestants
Shalin Bhanot and Dalljiet Kaur, winners
Naman Shaw and Megha Gupta, runners-up
Kapil Nirmal and Anjali Abrol, semi-finalists
Yash Tonk and Gauri Tonk, wildcards; semi-finalists
Vineet Raina and Tanushree Kaushal, eliminated
Reshmi Ghosh and Amit Gupta, eliminated
Karanvir Bohra and Teejay Sidhu, quit
Mohit Malik and Addite Shirwaikar , eliminated
Sudeep Sahir and Anantika Sahir, eliminated
Mazher Sayed and Mouli Ganguly, eliminated
Jaspal Bhatti and Savita Bhatti, eliminated
Jatin Shah and Priya Bathija, eliminated
Abhijeet Sawant and Shilpa Sawant, eliminated
Chetan Hansraj and Lavinia Pereira, wildcards; eliminated

Season 5
Nach Baliye 5 is the fifth season of the dance reality show -  Nach Baliye 
It started on 29 December 2012 and ended on 23 March 2013 with Mahhi Vij and Jay Bhanushali as the winners 
Karan Wahi and Gautam Rode hosted the season  The judges were Shilpa Shetty, Sajid Khan and Terrence Lewis 

Contestants
Jay Bhanushali and Mahi Vij, winners
Sargun Mehta and Ravi Dubey, first runners-up
Neelu Vaghela and Arvind Kumar, second runners-up
Suhasi Dhami and Jaisheel Dhami, third runners-up
Karan Mehra and Nisha Rawal, eliminated on 16 March 2013
Charlie Chauhan and Kunwar Amarjeet Singh, eliminated on 9 March 2013
Shefali Jariwala and Parag Tyagi, eliminated on 2 March 2013
Dimpy Mahajan and Rahul Mahajan, eliminated on 23 February 2013
Elena Boeva and Kushal Tandon, eliminated on 3 February 2013
Smita Bansal and Ankush Mohla, eliminated on 27 January 2013
Deepshikha Nagpal and Keshav Arora, eliminated on 13 January 2013

Guests
Drashti Dhami

Shriman V/s Shrimati
Nach Baliye Shriman V/s Shrimati is an extension of the Nach Baliye series, and ran in April 2013  In Shriman V/s Shrimati, the celebrity couples did not dance together but instead competed against each other  The series ended in a tie Gurmeet Choudhary was declared the Best Performer of the series 

Season 6
Nach Baliye 6 is the sixth season of the dance reality show, Nach Baliye 
It premiered on 9 November 2013 on Star Plus  Shilpa Shetty, Sajid Khan and Terrence Lewis were the judges and Gautam Rode and Karan Wahi hosted the season 
Rithvik Dhanjani and Asha Negi were declared as the winners of Nach Baliye Season 6 on 1 February 2014  Gurmeet Choudhary and Debina Bonnerjee were declared the runners-up Sara Khan did a cameo dance performance in the wild card special episode along with Paras Chhabra 
Writing for Rediff com, Paloma Sharma gave the show 2 5 stars out of 5 in its first week, stating "perhaps the hosts and the judges could keep their clothes on and refrain from excessive flirting since Nach Baliye does happen to be a 'family show' "

Contestants
Rithvik Dhanjani and Asha Negi, winners on 1 February 2014
Gurmeet Chaudhary and Debina Bonnerjee, first runners-up on 1 February 2014
Ripudaman Handa and Shivangi Verma, second runners-up on 1 February 2014
Vinod Thakur and Raksha Thakur, third runners-up on 1 February 2014
Kiku Sharda and Priyanka Sharda (5th position), eliminated on 25 January 2014
Raqesh Bapat  and Ridhi Dogra (6th position), eliminated
Kanika Maheshwari and Ankur Ghai (7th position), quit on 11 January 2014
Bruna Abdullah and Omar Herror (8th position), eliminated on 8 December 2013; re-entered as wild card entrants, eliminated on 4 January 2014
Raju Srivastav and Shikha Raju (9th position), eliminated on 15 December 2013
Amrapali Gupta and Yash Sinha (10th position), eliminated on 1 December 2013
Sanjeev Seth and Lata Sabharwal (11th position), eliminated on 24 November 2013

Guests
Hina Khan
Barun Sobti
Deepika Singh
Rucha Hasabnis
Vishal Singh
Ishita Dutta
Mouni Roy
Mahek Chahal
Dharmesh Yelande
Sayantani Ghosh
Rashami Desai

Scoring chart
In this season, the scores per judge are out of 10 with the highest possible score of 30 
Red number indicates the lowest score 
Green number indicates the highest score 
  indicates the couple eliminated that week 
  indicates the returning couple that finished in the bottom three 
  indicates the returning couple that finished in the bottom two 
  indicates the winning couple 
  indicates the runner-up couple 
  indicates the third-place couple 

Season 7
Nach Baliye 7 is the seventh season of the dance reality show, Nach Baliye 
It premiered on 26 April 2015 on Star Plus  The series was produced by Ekta Kapoor and Shobha Kapoor under their banner Balaji Telefilms  The series aired from Monday to Saturday nights and on Sunday evenings  The season ended on 19 July 2015 
It was hosted by Rithvik Dhanjani and Karan Patel  Marzi Pestonji, Preity Zinta  and Chetan Bhagat were the judges Kunwar Amar, Karanvir Bohra, Mukti Mohan, Sargun Mehta and Salman Yusuf Khan also appeared in a special episode 

Contestants
Scoring chart
In this season, the scores per judge are out of 10 with the highest possible score of 30 
Red number indicates the lowest score 
Green number indicates the highest score 
  Eliminated
  Bottom three
  Bottom two
  Winning couple
  Runner-up couple
  Second runner-up couple

Season 8
Nach Baliye 8 is the eighth season of the dance reality show, Nach Baliye 
It premiered on 2 April 2017 on Star Plus  The show was produced by BBC Worldwide  Sonakshi Sinha, Terence Lewis and Mohit Suri were the judges  Karan Tacker and Upasana Singh were the hosts for the show  Divyanka Tripathi Dahiya and Vivek Dahiya were declared as the winners 

Contestants
Guests
Salman Khan and Sohail Khan
Ranbir Kapoor
Arjun Kapoor and Shraddha Kapoor
Arjun Kapoor and Anil Kapoor
Sridevi
Hrithik Roshan
Diljit Dosanjh
Parineeti Chopra
Remo D'souza
Karan Patel

Scoring chart
Red number Lowest score
Green number Highest score
  Eliminated
  Bottom two
  Winning couple
  Runner-up couple
  Second runner-upThe scores per judge were out of 10 with the highest possible score of 30 
The elimination was based on public votes plus the score given by judges in the previous week 

Notes
Season 9
Nach Baliye 9 is the ninth season of the dance reality show, Nach Baliye 
It premiered on 19 July 2019  Produced by Salman Khan, it was judged by Raveena Tandon & Ahmed Khan and hosted by Manish Paul & Waluscha De Sousa 
Vighnesh Pande and his puppet character 'Anna' appeared as a comic relief for episodes featuring South Indian Megastar Prabhas and another with the Bollywood celebrity Sanjay Dutt 
The season was won by Prince Narula and Yuvika Chaudhary on 3 November 2019 

Contestants
Scoring chart
Current Couple
  Former CoupleRed number Lowest score
Green number Highest score
  Eliminated
  Bottom Two
  Winners
  Runner-ups
  Second runner-ups
  Hi5
  UnwellThe scores per judge were out of 100  Then the average score is calculated from the scores of both judges 
The elimination was based on public votes and the score given by judges 
In Week 2, Rohit and Anita did not perform as Rohit was down with Jaundice so the doctor had advised rest to him  Ahmed and Raveena saved them and they advanced to the next week without nomination 
In Week 7, Faisal & Muskaan had to quit the show as Faisal got injured 
In Week 9, Pooja & Sandeep had to quit the show as Pooja got injured 
In Week 11, The couples had to perform solo  Ridhima, Prince, Anuj, Shraddha and Vishal got a High 5, however both the partners had to score 50/50 to receive a High 5 
In week 12, every couple has to perform twice  In the first round they are getting marks out of 90  And the second round is battle between two couple  Whoever wins will get 10 marks & other get zero 
In Quarter Finale (Week 13) also, the couples had to perform twice  In first round, they performed with different  dance groups and got marks out of 100  The couples who received a High 5 were RoNita, NiShaan and ShAlam  In second round, they performed their usual performances (Theme-Retro )and got marks out of 100 The average of both the rounds was taken as their final score 
In Semi Finale (Week 14) also, the couples had to perform twice 
Passage 9:
Christian Clarke
Christian Clarke is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders, portrayed by John Partridge  He first appeared in the show's 3,509th episode, originally broadcast in the United Kingdom on 17 January 2008, and was introduced as the brother of established character Jane Beale (Laurie Brett)  He was introduced as a new homosexual character for the show, following the popularity of Coronation Street's Sean Tully (Antony Cotton)  Christian and Partridge's casting were announced on 20 November 2007 Christian's storylines have mostly revolved around his relationship with Syed Masood (Marc Elliott), but his other storylines have included a friendship with Roxy Mitchell (Rita Simons) and being involved in the coming out storylines of  Ben Mitchell (Joshua Pascoe)  On 17 September 2012, it was announced that Partridge would be leaving his role, following Elliott's decision to leave the show  They left together in the 4,532nd episode, originally broadcast on 15 November 2012 Partridge returned to the show for two episodes in May 2014 which saw Christian attend the funeral of Lucy Beale (Hetti Bywater)  Christian appeared in two episodes on 19 and 20 May 2014   In January 2015, it was confirmed that Partridge would be returning for the show's 30th anniversary celebrations in February 2015  Partridge appeared in four episodes between 17 and 20 February 2015, including a fully live episode, which saw Christian attend Jane's wedding to Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt)  On 8 April 2016, it was reported that Partridge would reprise the role again in "early summer" 2016  Christian returned on 26 May 2016 and departed again on 30 May 

Storylines
2008–2012
Christian is first mentioned when his older sister Jane Beale (Laurie Brett) receives an invitation to his civil ceremony with partner Ashley Jennings (Tony Boncza)  Jane throws the invitation away but it is later found by Jane's husband Ian (Adam Woodyatt)  Jane refuses to tell Ian why she does not want to go to the ceremony but Ian wants to meet Christian, and invites him and Ashley to dinner at Fargo's Restaurant  Christian reveals that he was once in love with Jane's first husband David Collins (Dan Milne)  Ashley storms out of the restaurant and the couple end their relationship  Christian is tricked by Ian's daughter Lucy (Melissa Suffield) into letting her use his flat so she can spend some "quality time" with her boyfriend, Olly Greenwood (Bart Edwards)  Christian walks in on them about to have sex and stops them  Ian punches Christian over what happened with Lucy and Olly, but when he catches Lucy attempting to leave with Olly, he insists she move in with Christian again 
Christian is surprised to see his mother Linda (Lynda Baron) after having lost contact with her for nearly 20 years  At first, Christian dislikes her because she still disapproves of his sexuality, but when Ian's son Peter (Thomas Law) tells him how he lost his mother Cindy (Michelle Collins), Christian makes amends with her  Roxy unexpectedly goes into premature labour, and Christian offers to help raise the baby, Amy, as her marriage to Sean Slater (Robert Kazinsky) has ended  However, Roxy leaves Christian heartbroken when she gets back with Sean  She later tells Christian that he is to be Amy's godfather  Roxy gives her daughter the middle name Christina, after Christian  Christian's colleague at Masala Queen, Syed Masood (Marc Elliott), argues with him over his sexuality, saying that homosexuality goes against his God's will, but then unexpectedly kisses and has sex with Christian  Syed tries to avoid Christian, although Christian wants to begin a relationship with him  Syed refuses him although they continue with their affair, Syed eventually denies that he is gay and proposes to his girlfriend Amira Shah (Preeya Kalidas)  On the day of Syed and Amira's engagement party, Christian takes a man called Luke back to his flat, but Luke beats Christian up after revealing he is not gay and hates gay men cottaging in public places  Following this, Christian becomes agoraphobic, but Syed helps Christian return to a normal life  Christian's friend James Mackie (Paul Keating) turns up, and Syed sees them together and is jealous  After James admits that he has feelings for Christian, Syed tries to put him off  Christian finds out and tells Syed that he will be with him but he must break up with Amira, but Syed cannot go through with it, so Christian starts a relationship with James  However, one day Christian takes Syed down an alleyway and kisses him, not realising they have been seen  Christian then breaks off his romance with James and restarts his secret affair with Syed  Christian and Syed are photographed looking cosy in an alleyway  Syed is blackmailed and Christian discovers it is Lucy  Syed soon breaks off the affair, and Christian tells Syed he cannot help arrange his wedding any more 
On the wedding day, Syed admits to Christian that he is gay but cannot come out because he is not just gay, but a son, a brother and a Muslim  When he runs away, distressed, Syed's mother Zainab (Nina Wadia) sees and confronts Christian who tells her everything, but she does not believe him and attacks him verbally and physically  She then goes to the wedding and confronts Syed who eventually confesses, and she tells him to marry Amira  When Syed and Amira return from their honeymoon, Christian introduces a man called Leyton (Daniel Crowder) as his boyfriend to make Syed jealous, which works as Syed is clearly upset  However, after Syed and Amira consummate their marriage, Syed tells Christian that they are planning a baby, and says he and Christian can both move on as Christian has Leyton and Syed has Amira  However, Christian tells Syed he has broken up with Leyton and was only with him to make Syed jealous  At Syed's and Amira's flat, Christian and Syed argue, but are then seen kissing on floor of the flat by Syed's father, Masood (Nitin Ganatra)  This leads to the exposure of their affair, and Syed comes out to his family and friends, and Amira leaves Walford  However Syed rejects Christian again  Amira's father Qadim (Ramon Tikaram) and his associates track down Christian, wanting to know where Syed is  Christian says he does not know, so they beat him and leave him outside on the pavement  When Syed returns, he apologises to Christian but Christian calls him a coward, saying he never wants to see him again  Syed has therapy to attempt to cure his same-sex attraction, and he tells Christian he no longer feels anything for him  However, Syed soon admits to Christian that his therapy has not worked and he wants to admit his true feelings  Christian pushes him away, but the next day he accepts Syed when he says he chooses Christian and turns his back on his family  The pair then move in with each other  On New Year's Eve, Christian attends a party at The Queen Victoria pub, and shares a kiss with a man  Christian tells Syed, and Syed is angry, but later forgives him  They decide they would like a child and a drunken Roxy offers to be the surrogate mother  However, despite their attempt, she does not become pregnant  Syed and Christian decide to adopt, and Christian later proposes to Syed, and Syed agrees  They continue with their plans to adopt and Christian finds a new flat for them  However, Syed almost changes his mind and the couple split up until Syed realises that he does want children 
Christian starts working at the local boxing club, and whilst there, 15-year-old Ben Mitchell (Joshua Pascoe) confides to him that he is gay  Christian gives advice to the teenager, but Ben develops a crush on Christian, which he discourages  Amira returns to Walford with hers and Syed's baby, Yasmin  She promptly tells Syed that she wants him to be a part of their baby's life but bans Christian from seeing her  Syed starts to secretly see Amira and Yasmin, and Ben reports this to Christian  Christian confronts Syed and declares that Syed has to choose between him and the baby  However, he relents and gives Syed his blessing to see his child  However, Yusef Khan (Ace Bhatti) suggests to Christian that Yasmin may not be Syed's child, casting doubt in Christian's mind  Christian then asks Yusef to perform a secret paternity test on Yasmin  The results of the test state that Syed is not the father of Yasmin, and Christian reveals this to Syed and Amira  Syed is devastated, but Amira continues to claim that he is the father  Syed doubts Christian, believing that he may have falsified the test  However, it emerges that it was Yusef who falsified the paternity test  Christian feels hurt that Syed suspected him of lying, but he reluctantly agrees to let Amira and Yasmin stay with him and Syed as they have nowhere else to go  Christian is annoyed to discover that Syed is helping Amira get a home in Walford  When Christian and Ben watch a film together, they talk about Christian and Syed's relationship and Ben misreads the signals, and tries to kiss Christian  Christian is horrified and Ben runs out of the flat, seen by Zainab and Yusef  Ben later lies to Yusef that Christian touched him inappropriately, and Yusef takes Ben to tell his father, Phil Mitchell (Steve McFadden)  Phil confronts Christian in the pub, and Christian punches Phil when he calls him a "nonce"  Phil leaves but later turns up at Christian's flat, smashing it up and hitting Christian with a baseball bat  Ben is forced to tell the truth so Phil leaves  However, Christian is upset with Syed for not trusting him, and when Amira tells Christian that he will be judged by the community, Christian decides to break up with Syed and leave Walford  Christian returns to Albert Square to spend Christmas with Jane  When he sees Syed and Amira, he mocks them for behaving like a couple  Syed is determined to win Christian back and asks Amira for a divorce  Christian and Syed reunite, but Amira vows to stay around  Amira later teases Christian that he will never be invited to Masood family occasions, and he tells her that her business with Syed is a smokescreen and she really wants him back   However, Amira soon tires of Walford without a husband, and leaves her daughter Yasmin in the care of Syed and Christian 
During a Masood family crisis, Christian is asked to look after Zainab on her own, and they talk  She tells him about how she lied to Yusef so that he would be killed (Zainab told him that his daughter Afia (Meryl Fernandes) was trapped in a burning building)  She wonders who will forgive her, and Christian tells her that he does  He explains that they never chose to be the people they are, and she asks if he loves Syed  He says that he does and she realises that when he said it before, she never really listened  They make amends and Zainab invites Christian to a family dinner and to the mosque  When Christian decides to enter Yasmin into a "beautiful baby" competition, Syed is angry, and refers to Yasmin as his daughter, not his and Christian's, leading to an argument between them  Before their wedding, Syed reveals to Christian that he kissed Danny Pennant (Gary Lucy), but Christian says it was just a kiss and they marry  However, Syed is in debt to Danny, who texts him  Christian sees the texts and meets Danny, who reveals that he had sex with Syed  Christian punches Danny and Syed then finds Christian badly beaten  Christian lies that he was the victim of a homophobic attack, and refuses to give Syed any details  Syed calls the police to report the assault  However, Christian is arrested for the assault on Danny  Danny tells Syed he will only retract his police statement if Syed returns £500 he owes  However, Masood threatens to tell the police about Danny's dodgy investments, so Danny withdraws the allegations  Christian asks Syed for his reassurance of their love and marriage or he will end their relationship  Syed cannot give it, so Christian moves out  Amira returns, wanting to take Yasmin to live with her and her new fiancé in Birmingham  Syed allows Amira to take her, not telling Christian, who is angry when he finds out  He plans to move to America to live with Jane  Syed discovers this through Masood, and brands Christian a hypocrite  Zainab and Lucy lock the pair in the Masoods' restaurant where they reunite  Refusing to leave without Syed, Christian has Jane book them both tickets and they leave together to go to America, planning to live closer to Amira and Yasmin once they return to the UK 

2014–2016
In May 2014, Ian visits Christian at his home in Birmingham following Lucy's death, where Jane is also staying  Christian comforts Ian and expresses his condolences  Ian asks after his son Bobby (Rory Stroud/Eliot Carrington), who is also staying with them and meets Yasmin, who Christian is babysitting whilst Syed is at work  Christian promises to attend the funeral and after Ian has left, Jane returns home and tells Christian that she won't be attending the funeral  Christian is disappointed by her behaviour  The following day, Christian returns to Walford with Bobby to attend the funeral, travelling in the family car to the church with Ian, Peter and Bobby  Following the service, Christian catches up with Roxy and asks after Amy  He then returns to Birmingham with Jane and Bobby  In February 2015, Christian returns for Jane's wedding  He calls Jane pretending that he has to work, but he arrives in the salon where Jane is getting ready moments later to surprise her 
In May 2016, Christian returns after Jane is attacked by Bobby with a hockey stick  While Jane is comatose, Ian tells Christian that Bobby killed Lucy and Jane covered it up   The next day, Linda reveals that Christian has gone back to Birmingham 

Creation
In November 2007, it was announced that a new gay character was to join the cast of EastEnders, as the show's bosses had seen how popular Antony Cotton was in the role of Sean Tully in Coronation Street  However, Partridge's character is not as camp as Cotton's, and is described as "very suave and a real charmer" and a "savvy, bright character [who is] very fun " Partridge commented that it would be "stupid" to copy Cotton's character, adding that "it's about time EastEnders had a gay character in the show " He later told Attitude that Cotton's character in Coronation Street is the reason Christian is in EastEnders due to his popularity, and that Christian was created to be the opposite of Sean  Partridge said of his character, "I think he's going to upset the apple cart at the Beales'" and "Christian, like me, is an openly proud gay man and he is certainly going to ruffle a few feathers when he arrives "
Christian 'kiss-my-guns' Clarke has the biceps of a god, and an innate inability to live a quiet life  It’s no surprise that he's Roxy Mitchell’s best mate, then  His put-downs are legendary, but Christian's brash exterior is very much that  The Christian that his friends and family know is sensitive, generous and fiercely loyal  If you're feeling down, he'll take you out for the best night of your life and provide a shoulder to cry on in the taxi home 
Talking about his casting in the role of Christian, Partridge has disclosed: "I'm slightly terrified when I come into work every day  It's an enormous machine  Plus, the actors I work with the most, Adam Woodyatt (Ian) and Laurie Brett (Jane), are such consummate professionals that I don't want to weaken the Beale family or bring anyone down   I want to stand up there with them and be seen as a good team player "

Development
Partridge has commented that one aspect of his character he most enjoys is "that he weaves in and out of lots of characters' stories, so I have interaction with loads of different people   Take his friendship with Roxy, for example — I absolutely love it, and working with Rita Simons, who plays her, is such a pleasure   We're very natural in that set-up " In turn, Simons has commented that her own character, Roxy, would be "really lost without (Christian)  He's her rock"  Partridge has also denied that Christian is a stereotypical gay man, saying "Christian wears slightly brighter colours than I would normally wear but you know it is a BBC show and we have to show that I am gay you know? I don't think it's stereotypical at all because there are what I call seven shades of gay and that goes from real straight acting to camp and I like to think that Christian has all of those elements as I do as a gay man "In June 2009, Christian begins an affair with Muslim character Syed Masood, played by Marc Elliott  The storyline is said to be controversial, as homosexuality is strictly forbidden according to mainstream interpretations of Islam  However, the show's executive producer Diederick Santer explained that the storyline will not be a moral tale, but one of human interest, adding: "[Syed] struggles with his sexuality when he finds himself drawn to Christian and he believes this goes against his faith  This is not a story about Syed and Christian's physical relationship — we don't see anything beyond one kiss " Santer also said that EastEnders always tries to "reflect modern life in multicultural Britain and [tell] social issue stories relevant to [its] diverse audience " Partridge commented on the storyline, saying: "I'm thrilled this storyline is being done  People fall in love in impossible circumstances all the time  Why are Christian and Syed any different?"Partridge told entertainment website Digital Spy that lessons were learnt after a kiss between Christian and his then-boyfriend Lee Thompson in 2008 prompted 145 complaints from viewers, saying: "Even after [the gay kiss] story, Diederick [Santer, executive producer], Dominic Treadwell-Collins, series story producer] and the BBC were brave enough to push forward with this current storyline  Everybody learned lessons from that [gay kiss] as to how to tell this story    so as not to offend people, not to be gratuitous and not to let something like a kiss be something that overshadows the story we're trying to tell  I'm immensely proud of that and immensely proud of this storyline  I'm honoured that they've allowed me to be a face for it "In December 2009, Santer was asked what his favourite storyline of the year had been  He replied "I'm really pleased with the Christian/Syed storyline  It's bold and we thought long and hard before we did it to make sure we got it right and I'm really proud with what we've done  Marc [Elliott] and John [Partridge] have absolutely stepped up to the plate and like all good EastEnders stories, we're not even half done with it yet  There's miles to go "In 2010, Christian will get a beating once his and Syed's secret is revealed  A source explained: "It seems that Christian is going to take the brunt of Syed's problems  Syed and Amira's wedding achieved one of the highest ratings of the year, so we're expecting viewers to again be gripped when this storyline reaches its dramatic climax  "There will be lots of twists and turns along the way  And sadly for poor Christian, he'll be the one who ends up taking a battering  There will also be lots of complaints " Tahir Shah from the Muslim Public Affairs Committee criticised the storyline as soon as it was reported for portraying Muslims in a negative light "EastEnders is known for its gritty and realistic storylines but we cannot condone such violence from a Muslim character," he explained  However, gay rights campaigner Peter Tatchell described the plot as "groundbreaking", adding: "No storyline in any drama will ever reflect the totality of the many diverse gay lifestyles and experiences  Full credit to the BBC for having a gay Muslim character  The lives of gay Muslims are very rarely in the media "

Departure (2012)
On 7 September 2012, it was announced that Syed and Christian would be departing in November 2012 in an explosive storyline that bosses did not reveal at the time  Executive producer, Lorraine Newman said: "Marc and John have been a fantastic part of the show and their characters have been a huge success  Their storylines have broken boundaries that have not been seen in a soap before and the love for them by the viewers can be seen in their 'Chryed' fans  When Marc announced he had decided to move on, we had a tough decision to make  After numerous conversations, which included John, it was decided that there is only one outcome for Syed and Christian  We wish them both all the best for the future " Syed and Christian left together on 15 November 2012 

Returns (2014–2016)
On 7 April 2014, it was announced that Christian would be returning in May 2014 for the funeral of Lucy Beale (Hetti Bywater), who was to be killed as part of a new storyline (see Who Killed Lucy Beale?)   It was revealed on 11 May 2014 that Christian would return when Jane's ex-husband, Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt) visited him "in search of Jane"  Christian returned for two episodes on 19 and 20 May 2014  On 17 January 2015, it was announced that Partridge would be returning again, this time for the show's thirtieth anniversary which would see Christian return for Ian and Jane's wedding  Of his return, Partridge said, "I am honoured to be returning to EastEnders at this most exciting time to celebrate 30 years of the show, and more importantly to find out who killed Lucy!" The show's executive producer, Dominic Treadwell-Collins, joked that Jane could not get married without having her brother at the occasion and said that the EastEnders team were "thrilled to have him [Partridge] back" for the anniversary  Treadwell-Collins then promised that Partridge's "extensive theatre experience" would be utilised as he "is plunged into EastEnders' live week " Spoiler images released on 10 February 2015 teased Partridge's return to the show, revealing that Christian would surprise Jane by initially telling her that he is unable to attend the wedding, before revealing himself to her  Partridge later teased another return to the show, saying, "I can always be lured back!"On 8 April 2016, it was announced that Partridge would be "briefly" returning for a third guest stint in "early summer" 2016, alongside Lynda Baron who plays his on-screen mother, Linda Clarke  Their return storyline was billed as "explosive" for the Beale family, "unmissable", and something that would see "change in the Beale family forever"  Partridge was confirmed to be filming EastEnders as well as touring with the production of Chicago The Musical  Of his return, Partridge said, "I am thrilled to be able to return to EastEnders whilst touring the UK with Chicago  Christian is never far from my mind – I turn my back for five minutes and look what happens " Partridge returned to filming on 14 April 2016, filming scenes which he believed would air "around June"  He described returning to filming as "wonderful" and compared to "putting on a nice, comfortable pair of shoes " He also praised the EastEnders team for being "very welcoming", adding that it "seemed so natural to be back" and felt like he had "never been away"  Partridge confirmed that he would feature in a lot of scenes with Brett as Christian will return to "look after Jane Beale"  He teased that his return may involve the 'Who Killed Lucy Beale?' storyline and would be part of a "big year" for the Beale family 

Reception
The character's introduction to EastEnders was welcomed by critics, with the Pink News deeming him to be "a realistic portrayal of a London-based, slightly older gay man " Gareth McLean of The Guardian praised the character, saying "he brings EastEnders a step closer to more accurately resembling London "In October 2008, a kiss between Christian and new love interest Lee prompted 145 complaints from viewers who were displeased that homosexual kissing had been broadcast before the 9pm watershed  The BBC released a statement defending the incident, stating: "EastEnders aims to reflect real life, and this means including and telling stories about characters from many different backgrounds, faiths, religions and sexualities  We approach our portrayal of homosexual relationships in the same way as we do heterosexual relationships  In this instance, Christian is enjoying the first flush of romance and we've shown him being affectionate with his new boyfriend in the same way any couple would  We also aim to ensure that depictions of affection or sexuality between couples are suitable for pre-watershed viewing  We believe that the general tone and content of EastEnders is now widely recognised, meaning that parents can make an informed decision as to whether they want their children to watch "

See also
List of EastEnders characters (2008)
List of LGBT characters in television and radio
List of soap operas with LGBT characters



ground_truth: Jodie Prenger

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who choreographed one who is said to be the last muse for the choreographer and starred in the Nutcracker?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  Fritz, however, breaks it, and she is heartbroken 
During the night, after everyone else has gone to bed, Marie returns to the parlor to check on her beloved nutcracker  As she reaches the little bed she put it on, the clock strikes midnight and she looks up to see Drosselmeyer perched atop it  Suddenly, mice begin to fill the room and the Christmas tree begins to grow to dizzying heights  The nutcracker also grows to life size  Marie finds herself in the midst of a battle between an army of gingerbread soldiers and the mice, led by their king  They begin to eat the soldiers 
The nutcracker appears to lead the soldiers, who are joined by tin soldiers, and dolls who serve as doctors to carry away the wounded  As the Mouse King advances on the still-wounded nutcracker, Marie throws her slipper at him, distracting him long enough for the nutcracker to stab him Scene 2: A Pine Forest
The mice retreat and the nutcracker is transformed into a handsome Prince  He leads Marie through the moonlit night to a pine forest in which the snowflakes come to life and dance around them, beckoning them on to his kingdom as the first act ends 

Act II
Scene 1: The Land of Sweets

Marie and the Prince travel to the beautiful Land of Sweets, ruled by the Sugar Plum Fairy in the Prince's place until his return  He recounts for her how he had been saved from the Mouse King by Marie and transformed back into himself 
In honor of the young heroine, a celebration of sweets from around the world is produced: chocolate from Spain, coffee from Arabia, tea from China, and candy canes from Russia all dance for their amusement; Danish shepherdesses perform on their flutes; Mother Ginger has her children, the Polichinelles, emerge from under her enormous hoop skirt to dance; a string of beautiful flowers perform a waltz  To conclude the night, the Sugar Plum Fairy and her Cavalier perform a dance A final waltz is performed by all the sweets, after which the Sugar Plum Fairy ushers Marie and the Prince down from their throne  He bows to her, she kisses Marie goodbye, and leads them to a reindeer-drawn sleigh  It takes off as they wave goodbye to all the subjects who wave back 

Cast
Darci Kistler as The Sugar Plum Fairy
Damian Woetzel as The Sugar Plum Fairy's Cavalier
Kyra Nichols as Dewdrop
Wendy Whelan as Coffee
Margaret Tracey as Marzipan
Gen Horiuchi as Tea
Tom Gold as Candy Cane
Lourdes López as Hot Chocolate
Nilas Martins as Hot Chocolate
William Otto as Mother Ginger
Peter Reznick as Fritz
Karin von Aroldingen as Grandparent
Edward Bigelow as Grandparent
Heather Watts as Frau Stahlbaum
Robert LaFosse as Dr  Stahlbaum
Bart Robinson Cook as Herr Drosselmeyer
Jessica Lynn Cohen as Marie Stahlbaum
Macaulay Culkin as The Nutcracker/Prince/Drosselmeyer's Nephew
Kevin Kline as Narrator
Katrina Killian as Harlequin
Roma Sosenko as Columbine
Michael Byars as Soldier
Robert D  Lyon as Mouse King
Maureen C  McFadden Devlin as Drummer

Reception
Critical response
The film received generally mixed reviews from critics  Based on eight reviews, it holds a rotten rating of 50% on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 6/10  The film was criticized by James Berardinelli for not capturing the excitement of a live performance; he wrote that it "opts to present a relatively mundane version of the stage production   utilizing almost none of the advantages offered by the (film) medium " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times was mixed on it, and gave it 2 out of 4 stars criticizing it for not adapting the dance for a film audience and also its casting of Culkin who, he writes, "seems peripheral to all of the action, sort of like a celebrity guest or visiting royalty, nodding benevolently from the corners of shots " In The Washington Post, Lucy Linfield echoed Ebert's criticism of Culkin, stating that "it's not so much that he can't act or dance; more important, the kid seems to have forgotten how to smile   all little Mac can muster is a surly grimace " She praised the dancing, however, as "strong, fresh and in perfect sync" and Kistler's Sugar Plum Fairy as "the Balanchinean ideal of a romantic, seemingly fragile beauty combined with a technique of almost startling strength, speed and knifelike precision " The New York Times' Stephen Holden also criticized Culkin, calling his performance the film's "only serious flaw", but praised the cinematography as "very scrupulous in the way it establishes a mood of participatory excitement, then draws back far enough so that the classic ballet sequences choreographed by Balanchine and staged by Peter Martins can be seen in their full glory "

Box office
During its theatrical run, the film grossed $2,119,994  In North America, it opened at number 16 in its first weekend with $783,721 

See also
List of Christmas films
Passage 5:
Dennis Courtney
Dennis H  Beaulne (born April 30, 1958), better known by his stage name Dennis Courtney, is an American stage director, choreographer, actor and teacher of master classes in auditioning for the theatre  As a director, he is notable for winning the 2008 Israeli National Theatre Prize (Israel's TONY Award equivalent) for his work in the Cameri Theatre production of Fiddler On The Roof, in Tel Aviv  The production closed on January 27, 2016 after a near 8-year run  As an actor, he made his Broadway debut in the 1979 production of Peter Pan with Sandy Duncan and George Rose  Subsequent Broadway/National Tour/Production credits include Shenandoah with John Raitt (1984), Joseph And The Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat (1984), Roza (1987) and Starlight Express (1989-1990)  He directed and choreographed a production of My Way, for the Riverside Center Theatre in Virginia and It Shoulda Been You starring Kim Zimmer and 8 Track: The Sounds of the 70's for Gretna Theatre in July and August 2016  In early 2017, he directed and choreographed Kiss Me, Kate at Kent State  In March 2017 he directed the pre-Broadway workshop production of The Last Adam, a new musical by George Alex Livings and Jonathan Hickey  He has collaborated with playwright David Brian Colbert on a new play with music about the life of legendary performer, Ethel Waters, entitled Still Waters: The Life of the Legendary Ethel Waters  The play is currently in development 

Personal life
Born Denis Beaulne in Detroit, Michigan to French Canadian parents, Albert Beaulne and Claudette Perron   He took the stage name Dennis Courtney with his first union acting job in 1978   Courtney has 2 siblings - a sister, Rachelle Beaulne McKevlin and a brother, Raymond Beaulne   He also has a step-sister, Lori Hurren Harrell and a step-brother, William Hurren  Dennis' parents divorced in 1967 and both remarried   His mother married Harry Parr and his father married Anna Pasternacki   Harry Parr died in 1986, Anna Pasternacki Beaulne died on December 5, 2011  Albert Beaulne is currently living in Cornelius, NC   Dennis' mother, Claudette, died on June 6, 2010  Dennis has been in a long term relationship with entrepreneur, Grant Wheaton, since 2000  Dennis and Grant became engaged on Christmas Day 2016 and married on July 29, 2017 
He graduated from Anderson High School in Cincinnati, Ohio and studied theatre at the University of Cincinnati   He currently resides in New York City and has homes in Sarasota, Florida and Palm Desert, California 

Notes
External links
Official Website - http://www denniscourtney com
Dennis Courtney (http://ibdb com/person php?id=92973) at the Internet Broadway Database
Dennis Courtney (http://www broadwayworld com/people/Dennis-Courtney/#) at BroadwayWorld com
Passage 6:
Stephen Nicholas (actor)
Stephen Charles Nicholas (born 23 August 1978)  music artist and presenter from Doncaster, South Yorkshire, England 
As an actor Stephens first role was on Sky One's Dream Team, where he played Scott Ward  From there, he filmed the first in the trilogy Goal! (In which he played a Newcastle United Reserves player)  Following this, he moved to Los Angeles, where he played Smith in the feature film Futbaal: The Price of Dreams 
Stephen then returned to the UK to make a Bollywood film called Dhana Dhana Goal with John Abraham 
Stephen then experienced her first opportunity in reality TV with the show Premier League All Stars for Sky One, as well as playing a footballer, he was on-hand to present celebrity gossip and pitch side reports 
He then appeared in Celebrity Most Haunted and Date the Enemy  From there he then went on to star in Goal 3 where he not only acted in the film he also became the football choreographer and choreographed all the football scenes in the film 
Nicholas then starred in the film Damned United where he played Welsh international Alan Durban, the film was filmed in Chesterfield and Leeds and was directed by Oscar winner Tom Hooper and also starred Oscar nominated Michael Sheen 
Stephens next production was the feature film called 'No Way Back Now'about the notorious Manchester district of Moss Side, where Stephen played the lead actor Stuart Gavin  The feature is roughly based on the notorious Gooch gang that terrorised Manchester throughout the years 
The next move for Stephen was pantomime where he was part of the production Aladdin over the Christmas period of 2015 in Doncaster playing Abanaza the main villain which he did until 7 January 2016! 
He Was also in the Feature Film 'Whiteblade' where he will played Thurstan the head Warlord Whiteblade Stephen shot his scenes in August 2016 
In September 2016 Stephen presenting the Sky TV show 'Britz go Bollywood' the show consists of a group of Celebrities being dressed by The best Indian designers, stephen was the main presenter of the show 

Music
Nicholas instigated and was part of a group called U K  Flow  The group was made up of 14 celebrities from television and sport 

Football
Nicholas was a Sunday league footballer at various clubs

Filmography
External links
Official Site
Stephen Nicholas at IMDb
Passage 7:
The Nutcracker (Balanchine)
Choreographer George Balanchine's production of Tchaikovsky's 1892 ballet The Nutcracker has become the most famous stage production of the ballet performed in the U S  (Mikhail Baryshnikov's production is the most famous television version, although it too originated onstage ) It uses the plot of the Alexandre Dumas, père, version of E T A  Hoffmann's tale, "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King" (1816)  Its premiere took place on February 2, 1954, at City Center, New York, with costumes by Karinska and sets by Horace Armistead  It has been staged in New York every year since 1954, and many other productions throughout the United States either imitate it, or directly use the Balanchine staging  However, although it is often cited as being the production that made the ballet famous in the U S , it was Willam Christensen's 1944 production for the San Francisco Ballet which first introduced the complete work to the United States 

Staging
In Balanchine's version, the leading roles of Clara (here called Marie) and the Nutcracker/Prince are danced by children, and so their dances are choreographed to be less difficult than the ones performed by the adults  Marie does not dance at all in the second act of this version  The Prince's dancing in Act II is limited to the pantomime that he performs "describing" his defeat of the Mouse King  Instead, Marie and the Prince sit out nearly all of Act II watching other dancers perform for them, and unlike most other versions, neither one of them takes part in the ballet's Final Waltz 
Because Marie and the Nutcracker / Prince are played by children approximately ten years old in the Balanchine Nutcracker, no adult romantic interest between them is even implied, although Marie and Drosselmeyer's nephew, who looks exactly like the Prince, are clearly drawn to each other during the Christmas party  However, the 1958 Playhouse 90 telecast of the Balanchine Nutcracker, which changed Marie's name back to Clara and stated that the Prince was Drosselmeyer's nephew, had narrator June Lockhart saying at the end that "From that day on, Drosselmeyer's nephew is Clara's Prince and Clara is his Princess, and I need not tell you that they lived happily ever after " (But Drosselmeyer's nephew is there when the Nutcracker is broken during the Christmas party, so it is difficult to believe that he is the Nutcracker/ Prince, unless Marie dreams her fantasy adventures, and it is unclear in this version whether she does or not ) Years later, movie critic Stephen Holden, in reviewing the 1993 film version of the Balanchine Nutcracker, referred to Marie as the Prince's sweetheart  And oddly enough, throughout Act II of the 1993 film of Balanchine's version, Marie does wear a veil that resembles a bridal veil 
The Balanchine version uses perhaps more real children than any other version  (In other versions, the children are sometimes played by adult women ) The rôles of Clara and the Nutcracker/ Prince are performed by adults in many other versions, and in these productions of the ballet, there is usually more than a hint of budding romance between the two 
The Journey Through the Snow sequence, in many other productions danced by Clara and the Nutcracker immediately after his transformation into a Prince, is not danced at all in the Balanchine version, although the music is played  Instead, Marie faints and falls on the bed after the battle, and the Nutcracker exits  Marie's bed moves by itself across the stage as the music plays, and at its climax, the Nutcracker reappears and through the use of a stage effect, turns into a Prince  He awakens Marie, places on her head one of the crowns that he took from the dead seven-headed Mouse King, and they exit  (In the 1993 film of Balanchine's Nutcracker, the bed flies through the air rather than simply moving across the stage  This is achieved by visual effects created by Industrial Light & Magic )

On the screen
Balanchine's Nutcracker has since been staged in New York every year, filmed once, and performed live on television three times – although its first television edition, telecast by CBS in 1957 on the TV anthology The Seven Lively Arts, was severely abridged  Some sources say it was complete, but it could not have been because The Seven Lively Arts was only an hour long  This marked the first telecast not only of the Balanchine version but of any staging of the ballet  CBS's Playhouse 90 broadcast a more complete (but still abridged) version of the Balanchine Nutcracker, narrated by actress June Lockhart, who was then starring as the mother in CBS's Lassie, on Christmas Day in 1958; it was the first Nutcracker (and only installment of the entire Playhouse 90 series) broadcast in color  There were only four commercial breaks  This television production starred Balanchine himself as Drosselmeyer, Diana Adams as the Sugar Plum Fairy, Bonnie Bedelia in an early role as Clara, and Robert Maiorano as the Nutcracker/ Prince Excerpts from the Balanchine production were performed several times on various television shows of the time, notably The Bell Telephone Hour and The Ed Sullivan Show The complete Balanchine version was eventually made into a poorly received full-length feature film by Elektra Entertainment and Regency Enterprises  It was distributed and released by Warner Bros  Family Entertainment in 1993, and starred Macaulay Culkin in his only screen ballet rôle, as the Nutcracker, the Prince, and Drosselmeyer's nephew  The film was directed by Emile Ardolino, with narration spoken by Kevin Kline  From the billing in this film, the Prince and the nephew would seem to be two different characters, though that may not have been what the filmmakers intended  Director Ardolino died of AIDS only a few days before the film's release  The other rôles in the film were played by members of the New York City Ballet, including Darci Kistler as the Sugar Plum Fairy, Damian Woetzel as the Fairy's Cavalier, Bart Cook as Drosselmeyer, Jessica Lynn Cohen as Marie (a k a  Clara), and Wendy Whelan as Coffee in the Arabian Dance During the 2011 Christmas season, PBS, for the very first time, presented the complete Balanchine Nutcracker on Live from Lincoln Center, although it was not seen on all PBS affiliates, since the affiliates have a choice of which programs they will air locally  This was not the 1993 film, but the production's latest revival, and the production was telecast by PBS on December 14, 2011  This presentation, directed by Alan Skog, marked the first U S  telecast of the Balanchine version (aside from cable and "on demand" showings of the 1993 theatrical film) in more than fifty years  It was nominated for an Emmy Award in July 2012 

Casts
Original
NYCB revivals
Television
(1958)

Television
(2011)

Theatrical Film Version
(1993)

Music
Balanchine adds to Tchaikovsky's score an entr'acte that the composer wrote for Act II of The Sleeping Beauty, but which is now seldom played in productions of that ballet  In Balanchine's Nutcracker, it is used as a transition between the departure of the guests and the battle with the mice  During this transition, the mother of Marie (as she is usually called in this version) appears in the living room and throws a blanket over the girl, who has crept downstairs and fallen asleep on the sofa; then Drosselmeyer appears, repairs the Nutcracker, and binds the jaw with a handkerchief  In addition, the Dance Of The Sugar Plum Fairy is moved from near the end of Act II to near the beginning of the second act, just after the Sugar Plum Fairy makes her first appearance  To help the musical transition, the tarantella that comes before the dance is cut  In the 1993 film version of the Balanchine version, just as in the telecast of the Baryshnikov one, the Miniature Overture is cut in half, and the opening credits are seen as the overture is heard  The film's final credits feature a reprise of the Trepak and the Waltz of the Flowers 

Footnotes
External links
George Balanchine’s The Nutcracker at the Balanchine Trust website
Passage 8:
Darci Kistler
Darci Kistler (born June 4, 1964) is an American ballerina   She is often said to be the last muse for choreographer George Balanchine 

Early life
Kistler was born in Riverside, California, the fifth child (with four older brothers) of a medical doctor and his wife   Her brothers excelled in amateur wrestling, and she followed them into water-skiing, basketball, football and horseback riding 

Ballet career
At age 4, Kistler received her first tutu and began ballet training that same year  She claimed although she was always athletic, she could never keep to her brothers—so ballet turned out to be one cornerstone she had mastered  After seeing a ballet performance of Rudolf Nureyev and Margot Fonteyn, she decided she wanted to take up ballet herself  She studied with Mary Lynn at Mary Lynn's Ballet Arts and later with Irina Kosmovska in Los Angeles 
In early 1979, Kistler was selected to study at New York City Ballet's School of American Ballet (SAB), where she met George Balanchine  She joined the New York City Ballet (NYCB) corps de ballet in 1980, and was featured in a Time article before the end of the year Kistler was promoted to (NYCB) soloist in 1981 and principal dancer in 1982, the youngest ever at 17 years  Signature roles include Balanchine's Jewels (Diamonds), Agon, Prodigal Son and Symphony in C  She danced the rôle of the Sugarplum Fairy in City Ballet's 1993 film version of The Nutcracker  She eventually wrote her own autobiography "Ballerina: My Story" as a children's book 
Kistler joined the SAB's permanent faculty in 1994 
Throughout her career, she had numerous dance-related injuries, including a broken ankle that sidelined her for three years  She went through several surgeries, including for her back In February 2009, Kistler announced her retirement from New York City Ballet at the end of the 2010 season  Her farewell performance took place on June 27, 2010, and consisted of ballets choreographed by Balanchine and Martins:

Personal life
Kistler married New York City Ballet's balletmaster-in-chief Peter Martins in 1991  In July 1992, Martins was arrested and held for five hours after Kistler phoned the police for help  Kistler filed an affidavit accusing him of assaulting her, pushing and slapping her, and cutting and bruising her arms and legs, leading to a charge of third-degree assault (a misdemeanor)  Kistler dropped the charges a few days later, saying she preferred to resolve the matter without the court's intervention  When she next performed in a ballet two days later, she reportedly wore heavy makeup to conceal bruises she had suffered  Several people who knew the two well claimed it wasn't the first time Martins had hit Kistler Kistler and Martins have one daughter, Talicia Tove Martins, born June 13, 1996 

Jerome Robbins
Ulysses Dove
Red Angels

Robert La Fosse
Danses de Cour

Peter Martins
Featured roles
George Balanchine
Jerome Robbins
Peter Martins
Television
PBS Dance in America
Bournonville Dances William Tell pas de deux
Serenade
PBS Kennedy Center Honors tribute to Alexandra Danilova
Swan Lake pas de deux
PBS Dance in America The Balanchine Celebration
PBS Live from Lincoln Center New York City Ballet's Diamond Project: Ten Years of New Choreography, 2002
Them Twos
PBS Live from Lincoln Center Lincoln Center Celebrates Balanchine 100, 2004
Liebeslieder Walzer
Passage 9:
Gwen Verdon
Gwyneth Evelyn "Gwen" Verdon (January 13, 1925 – October 18, 2000) was an American actress and dancer  She won four Tony Awards for her musical comedy performances, and served as an uncredited choreographer's assistant and specialty dance coach for theater and film  Verdon was a critically acclaimed performer on Broadway in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, having originated many roles in musicals, including Lola in Damn Yankees, the title character in Sweet Charity and Roxie Hart in Chicago  She is also strongly identified with her second husband, director-choreographer Bob Fosse, remembered as the dancer-collaborator-muse for whom he choreographed much of his work and as the guardian of his legacy after his death 

Early life
Verdon was born in Culver City, California, the second child of Gertrude Lilian (née Standring) and Joseph William Verdon, British immigrants to the United States by way of Canada  Her brother was William Farrell Verdon  Her father was an electrician at MGM Studios, and her mother was a former vaudevillian of the Denishawn dance troupe, as well as a dance teacher As a toddler, she suffered from rickets, which left her legs so badly misshapen she was called "Gimpy" by other children and spent her early years in orthopedic boots and rigid leg braces  At age three, her mother enrolled her in dance classes  Further ballet training strengthened her legs and improved her carriage 
By age six, she was dancing on stage  She went on to study multiple dance forms, ranging from tap, jazz, ballroom and flamenco to Balinese  She also studied juggling  At age 11, she appeared as a solo ballerina in the musical romance film The King Steps Out (1936), directed by Josef von Sternberg and starring Grace Moore and Franchot Tone  She attended Hamilton High School in Los Angeles and studied under ballet enthusiast Ernest Belcher  While in high school, she was cast in a revival of Show Boat 
In 1942, Verdon's parents asked her to marry family friend and tabloid reporter James Henaghan after he got her pregnant at 17 years old, and she quit her dancing career to raise their child  In 1945, she appeared as a dancer in the movie musical Blonde From Brooklyn  After her divorce, she entrusted her son Jimmy to the care of her parents 

Career
Early on, Verdon found a job as assistant to choreographer Jack Cole, whose work was respected by both Broadway and Hollywood movie studios  During her five-year employment with Cole, she took small roles in movie musicals as a "specialty dancer"  She also taught dance to stars such as Jane Russell, Fernando Lamas, Lana Turner, Rita Hayworth, Betty Grable and Marilyn Monroe 
Verdon started out on Broadway going from one chorus line to another  Her breakthrough role finally came when choreographer Michael Kidd cast her as the second female lead in Cole Porter's musical Can-Can (1953), starring French prima donna Lilo  Out-of-town reviewers hailed Verdon's interpretation of Eve in the Garden of Eden ballet as a performance that upstaged the show's star, who reputedly demanded Verdon's role be cut to only two featured dance numbers  With her role reduced to little more than an ensemble part, Verdon formally announced her intention to quit by the time the show premiered on Broadway  But her opening-night Garden of Eden performance was so well-received that the audience screamed her name until the startled actress was brought from her dressing room in a towel to take a curtain call  Verdon received a pay increase and her first Tony Award for her performance 
Verdon's biggest critical and commercial success was her following show, George Abbott's Damn Yankees (1955), based on the novel The Year the Yankees Lost the Pennant  The musical ran for 1,019 performances  Verdon won another Tony and went to Hollywood to repeat her role in the 1958 movie version Damn Yankees, famously singing "Whatever Lola Wants"  (Fosse can be seen partnered with her in the original mambo duet "Who's Got the Pain" )
Verdon won another Tony for her performance in the musical New Girl in Town as a hard-luck girl fleeing from her past as a prostitute  She won her fourth Tony for the murder-mystery musical Redhead, Fosse's Broadway debut as a director/choreographer  In 1960, Fosse and Verdon wed 
In 1966, Verdon returned to the stage in the role of Charity in Sweet Charity, which like many of her earlier Broadway triumphs was choreographed and directed by husband Fosse  The show is loosely based on Federico Fellini's screenplay for Nights of Cabiria  It was followed by a movie version starring  Shirley MacLaine as Charity, featuring Ricardo Montalbán, Sammy Davis Jr  and Chita Rivera, with Fosse at the helm of his very first film as director and choreographer  Verdon helped with the choreography  The numbers include the famed "Big Spender", "Rhythm of Life", "If My Friends Could See Me Now", and "I'm a Brass Band"  Verdon also traveled to Berlin to help Fosse with Cabaret, the musical film for which he won an Oscar for Best Director 
Although estranged as a couple, Verdon and Fosse continued to collaborate on projects such as the musical Chicago (1975) (in which she originated the role of murderess Roxie Hart) and the musical Dancin' (1978), as well as Fosse's autobiographical movie All That Jazz (1979)  The helpmate/peer played by Leland Palmer in that film is based on the role Verdon played in Fosse's real life   She also developed a close working relationship with Fosse's partner, Broadway dancer Ann Reinking, and was an instructor for Reinking's musical theatre classes 
After originating the role of Roxie opposite Chita Rivera's Velma Kelly in Chicago, Verdon focused on film acting, playing character roles in movies such as The Cotton Club (1984), Cocoon (1985) and Cocoon: The Return (1988)  She continued to teach dance and musical theater and to act  She received three Emmy Award nominations for appearances on Magnum, P I  (1988), Dream On (1993) and Homicide: Life on the Street (1993)  Verdon appeared as the title character's mother in the Woody Allen movie Alice (1990) and as Ruth in Marvin's Room (1996), co-starring Meryl Streep, Diane Keaton, and Leonardo DiCaprio  In 1999, Verdon served as artistic consultant on a Broadway musical designed to showcase examples of classic Fosse choreography   Called simply Fosse, the revue was conceived and directed by Richard Maltby Jr  and Ann Reinking and choreographed by Reinking and Chet Walker  Verdon's daughter Nicole received a "special thanks" credit  The show won a Tony Award for Best Musical 
In 1997 Verdon appeared in an episode of Walker Texas Ranger as Maisie Whitman  She reprised the role in 1999 
Verdon played Alora in the movie Walking Across Egypt (1999) and appeared in the film Bruno, released in 2000  Verdon received a total of four Tonys, for best featured actress for Can-Can (1953) and best leading actress for Damn Yankees (1955), New Girl in Town (1957) and Redhead (1959)  She also won a Grammy Award for the cast recording of Redhead Verdon was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame in 1981  In 1998, she was awarded the National Medal of Arts 

Personal life
Verdon was married twice and had two children  She married tabloid reporter James Archibald Henaghan in 1942  They had a son, Jim, the following year and divorced in 1947  In 1960, Verdon married choreographer Bob Fosse  They had a daughter, Nicole, in 1963  Fosse's extramarital affairs put a strain on their marriage, and by 1971, Verdon and Fosse were separated, but never divorced  She was involved in relationships with actor Scott Brady and actor Jerry Lanning, son of Roberta Sherwood  Verdon was with Fosse when he suffered a fatal heart attack at the Willard Hotel in Washington, D C , in September 1987 Verdon was a cat fancier, having up to six cats at one time, with the pets carrying names such as "Feets Fosse", "Junie Moon", and "Tidbits Tumbler Fosse" Verdon was a mental health-care advocate; later in life, she openly spoke about the positive effects of mental-health counseling  Along with teaching dance as a form of therapy, she sat on the board of directors for the New York Postgraduate Center for Mental Health, and actively raised funds to support mental health-care research 

Popular culture
Fosse/Verdon is an 8-part American miniseries starring Sam Rockwell as Fosse and Michelle Williams as Verdon  The series, which tells the story of the couple's troubled personal and professional relationship, is based on the biography Fosse by Sam Wasson  It premiered in eight parts on April 9, 2019, on FX  At the 71st Primetime Emmy Awards, Fosse/Verdon received seventeen nominations, including Outstanding Limited Series and acting nominations for Rockwell, Williams, and Margaret Qualley (as Ann Reinking)  Williams won the Emmy for Outstanding Actress in a Limited Series 

Death and legacy
Verdon died from a heart attack on October 18, 2000, aged 75, at her daughter's home in Woodstock, Vermont  Later that night, at 8 pm, all marquee lights on Broadway were dimmed in a tribute to Verdon 

Work
Stage
Film
Television
Music
In 1956, Verdon released an album titled The Girl I Left Home For  The album includes her covers of popular jazz standards of the time 

Awards and nominations
† Tied with co-star Thelma Ritter
 
†† Tied with Ethel Merman for Gypsy

††† Shared with Bob Fosse
Passage 10:
Mansi Aggarwal
Mansi Aggarwal is an Indian filmmaker, writer, producer and choreographer who has written, directed, produced films and choreographed songs in Indian film industry  She is best known for choreographing the song, "Bharat Mata ki Jai", from the movie Shanghai that starred actor Emraan Hashmi - the song gained a lot of popularity and became a hit in India  She has worked with path breaking actors - Priyanka Chopra in Mary Kom, Rajkumar Rao in Kai Po Che, and with Abhay Deol in the movie Dev D She has been nominated for the Filmfare award for the song "Bharat Mata ki Jai" from Shanghai starring the actor Emraan Hashmi, the song was loved by the audience and became popular in India  The song "Suno na Sangmarmar" from the movie Youngistaan was also nominated for Stardust and Filmfare awards She also choreographed commercials for big brands like Nykaa, Biba, Zandu Balm, etc  She was published as the youngest choreographer in the eminent magazine Femina   In 2018, she made her debut as a writer-director with her first short film The Handbag, which was posted on ‘Humara Movie’ YouTube channel  She came with her second film Raani, which got selected for Lift Off Global Networks, London and was also screened at the Darbhanga International Film Festival  It was a finalist at the Golden Jury International Film Festival and won the Best Actor award at the same  Raani released on Disney Hotstar and is streaming on MX Player  The films The Handbag and Raani were produced under the banner Yin Yang Films 

Early life and career
Mansi was born on 10 June 1984 and raised in Delhi where she also took training in Indian classical dance, Kathak  Her Kathak training started when she was only 7 years old and she later became a Visharad (graduate) in the dance form  She studied Economics at Hansraj College in Delhi University and after finishing her graduation she opened her dance institute in Delhi—Mansi Dance Creations Her career in Bollywood movies started when she was first spotted by the film director, Anurag Kashyap, during a dance performance in Delhi  Anurag offered her to choreograph the critically acclaimed film, Gulaal  However, the movie got delayed and Mansi shifted her focus to academics until Anurag came to her for the second time with the proposal of choreographing Abhay Deol-starrer, Dev D Mansi is married to cinematographer Arindam Bhattacharjee 

Choreography in Indian Film Industry
Mansi has choreographed the following Bollywood movies:

Filmography as Director, Producer and Writer



ground_truth: George Balanchine