prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How are elephants connected to Gajabrishta?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Elephant
Elephants are the largest existing land animals  Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant  They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae and the order Proboscidea; extinct relatives include mammoths and mastodons  Distinctive features of elephants include a long proboscis called a trunk, tusks, large ear flaps, pillar-like legs, and tough but sensitive grey skin  The trunk is prehensile, bringing food and water to the mouth, and grasping objects  Tusks, which are derived from the incisor teeth, serve both as weapons and as tools for moving objects and digging  The large ear flaps assist in maintaining a constant body temperature as well as in communication  African elephants have larger ears and concave backs, whereas Asian elephants have smaller ears, and convex or level backs 
Elephants are scattered throughout sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia and are found in different habitats, including savannahs, forests, deserts, and marshes  They are herbivorous, and they stay near water when it is accessible  They are considered to be keystone species, due to their impact on their environments   Elephants have a fission–fusion society, in which multiple family groups come together to socialise  Females (cows) tend to live in family groups, which can consist of one female with her calves or several related females with offspring  The leader of a female group, usually the oldest cow, is known as the matriarch 
Males (bulls) leave their family groups when they reach puberty and may live alone or with other males  Adult bulls mostly interact with family groups when looking for a mate  They enter a state of increased testosterone and aggression known as musth, which helps them gain dominance over other males as well as reproductive success  Calves are the centre of attention in their family groups and rely on their mothers for as long as three years  Elephants can live up to 70 years in the wild  They communicate by touch, sight, smell, and sound; elephants use infrasound and seismic communication over long distances  Elephant intelligence has been compared with that of primates and cetaceans  They appear to have self-awareness, and possibly show concern for dying and dead individuals of their kind 
African bush elephants and Asian elephants are listed as endangered and African forest elephants as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)  One of the biggest threats to elephant populations is the ivory trade, as the animals are poached for their ivory tusks  Other threats to wild elephants include habitat destruction and conflicts with local people  Elephants are used as working animals in Asia  In the past, they were used in war; today, they are often controversially put on display in zoos, or exploited for entertainment in circuses  Elephants have an iconic status in human culture and have been featured in art, folklore, religion, literature, and popular culture 

Etymology
The word "elephant" is based on the Latin elephas (genitive elephantis) ("elephant"), which is the Latinised form of the Greek ἐλέφας (elephas) (genitive ἐλέφαντος (elephantos), probably from a non-Indo-European language, likely Phoenician  It is attested in Mycenaean Greek as e-re-pa (genitive e-re-pa-to) in Linear B syllabic script  As in Mycenaean Greek, Homer used the Greek word to mean ivory, but after the time of Herodotus, it also referred to the animal  The word "elephant" appears in Middle English as olyfaunt (c  1300) and was borrowed from Old French oliphant (12th century) 

Taxonomy
Elephants belong to the family Elephantidae, the sole remaining family within the order Proboscidea  Their closest extant relatives are the sirenians (dugongs and manatees) and the hyraxes, with which they share the clade Paenungulata within the superorder Afrotheria  Elephants and sirenians are further grouped in the clade Tethytheria Three species of living elephants are recognised; the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) and Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)  African elephants were traditionally considered a single species, Loxodonta africana, but molecular studies have affirmed their status as separate species  Mammoths (Mammuthus) are nested within living elephants as they are more closely related to Asian elephants than to African elephants  Another extinct genus of elephant, Palaeoloxodon, is also recognised, which appears to have close affinities with and to have hybridised with African elephants 

Evolution
Over 180 extinct members of order Proboscidea have been described  The earliest proboscideans, the African Eritherium and Phosphatherium are known from the late Paleocene  The Eocene included Numidotherium, Moeritherium and Barytherium from Africa  These animals were relatively small and some, like Moeritherium and Barytherium were probably amphibious  Later on, genera such as Phiomia and Palaeomastodon arose; the latter likely inhabited more forested areas  Proboscidean diversification changed little during the Oligocene  One notable species of this epoch was Eritreum melakeghebrekristosi of the Horn of Africa, which may have been an ancestor to several later species 
A major event in proboscidean evolution was the collision of Afro-Arabia with Eurasia, during the Early Miocene, around 18-19 million years ago allowing proboscideans to disperse from their African homeland across Eurasia, and later, around 16-15 million years ago into North America across the Bering Land Bridge  Proboscidean groups prominent during the Miocene include the deinotheres, along with the more advanced elephantimorphs, including mammutids (mastodons), gomphotheres, amebelodontids (which includes the "shovel tuskers" like Platybelodon), choerolophodontids and stegodontids  Around 10 million years ago, the earliest members of the family Elephantidae emerged in Africa, having originated from gomphotheres Elephantids are distinguished from earlier proboscideans by a major shift in the molar morphology to parallel lophs rather than the cusps of earlier proboscideans, allowing them to become higher crowned (hypsodont) and more efficient in consuming grass  The Late Miocene saw major climactic changes, which resulted in the decline and extinction of many proboscidean groups  The earliest members of modern genera of Elephantidae appeared during the latest Miocene-early Pliocene around 5 million years ago  The elephantid genera Elephas (which includes the living Asian elephant) and Mammuthus (mammoths) migrated out of Africa during the late Pliocene, around 3 6 to 3 2 million years ago Over the course of the Early Pleistocene, all non-elephantid probobscidean genera outside of the Americas became extinct with the exception of Stegodon, with gomphotheres dispersing into South America as part of the Great American interchange, and mammoths migrating into North America around 1 5 million years ago  At the end of the Early Pleistocene, around 800,000 years ago the elephantid genus Palaeoloxodon dispersed outside of Africa, becoming widely distributed in Eurasia  Proboscideans underwent a dramatic decline during the Late Pleistocene, with all remaining non-elephantid proboscideans (including Stegodon, mastodons, and the gomphotheres Cuvieronius and Notiomastodon) and Palaeoloxodon becoming extinct, with mammoths only surviving in relict populations on islands around the Bering Strait into the Holocene, with their latest survival being on Wrangel Island around 4,000 years ago Over the course of their evolution, probobscideans grew larger in size  With that came longer limbs and wider feet with a more digitigrade stance along with a larger head and shorter neck  The trunk evolved and grew longer to provide reach  The number of premolars, incisors and canines decreased and the cheek teeth (molars and premolars) became longer and more specialised  The incisors developed into tusks of different shapes and sizes  Several species of proboscideans became isolated on islands and experienced insular dwarfism, some dramatically reducing in body size, such as the 1 metre (3 3 ft) tall dwarf elephant species Palaeoloxodon falconeri 

Living species
Anatomy
Elephants are the largest living terrestrial animals  The skeleton is made up of 326–351 bones  The vertebrae are connected by tight joints, which limit the backbone's flexibility  African elephants have 21 pairs of ribs, while Asian elephants have 19 or 20 pairs  The skull contains air cavities (sinuses) that reduce the weight of the skull while maintaining overall strength  These cavities give the inside of the skull a honeycomb-like appearance  By contrast, the lower jaw is dense  The cranium is particularly large and provides enough room for the attachment of muscles to support the entire head  The skull is built to withstand great stress, particularly when fighting or when using the tusks  The brain is surrounded by arches in the skull which serve as protection  Because of the size of the head, the neck is relatively short to provide better support 
Elephants are homeotherms, and maintain their average body temperature at ~ 36 °C (97 °F), with minimum 35 2 °C (95 4 °F) during cool season, and maximum 38 0 °C (100 4 °F) during hot dry season 

Ears and eyes
Elephant ear flaps, or pinnae are 1–2 mm (0 039–0 079 in) thick in the middle with a thinner tip and supported by a thicker base  They contain numerous blood vessels called capillaries  Warm blood flows into the capillaries, freeing excess heat into the environment  This effect is increased by flapping the ears back and forth  Larger ear surfaces contain more capillaries, and more heat can be released  Of all the elephants, African bush elephants live in the hottest climates, and have the largest ear flaps  The ossicles are adapted for hearing low frequencies, being most sensitive at 1 kHz Lacking a lacrimal apparatus (tear duct), the eye relies on the harderian gland in the orbit to keep it moist  A durable nictitating membrane shields the globe  The animal's field of vision is compromised by the location and limited mobility of the eyes  Elephants are considered to be dichromats and they can see well in dim light but not in bright light 

Trunk
The elongated and prehensile trunk, or proboscis, consists of both the nose and upper lip, which fuse in early fetal development  This versatile appendage contains up to 150,000 separate muscle fascicles, with no bone and little fat  These paired muscles consist of two major types: superficial (surface) and internal  The former are divided into dorsals, ventrals, and laterals while the latter are divided into transverse and radiating muscles  The muscles of the trunk connect to a bony opening in the skull  The nasal septum consists of small elastic muscles between the nostrils which are divided by cartilage at the base  A unique proboscis nerve – a combination of the maxillary and facial nerves – lines each side of the appendage As a muscular hydrostat, the trunk moves by finely controlled muscle contractions, working both with and against each other  Using three basic movements: bending, twisting, and longitudinal stretching/retracting, the trunk has near unlimited flexibility  Objects grasped by the end of the trunk can be moved to the mouth by curving the appendage inwards  The trunk can also bend at different points by creating stiffened "pseudo-joints"  The tip can be moved in a way similar to the human hand  The skin is more elastic on the dorsal side of the elephant trunk than underneath; allowing the animal to stretch and coil while maintaining a strong grasp  The African elephants have two finger-like extensions at the tip of the trunk that allow them to pluck small food  The Asian elephant has only one and relies more on wrapping around a food item  Asian elephant trunks have better motor coordination 

The trunk's extreme flexibility allows it to forage and wrestle other elephants with it  It is powerful enough to lift up to 350 kg (770 lb), but also has the precision to crack a peanut shell without breaking the seed  With its trunk, an elephant can reach items up to 7 m (23 ft) high and dig for water in the mud or sand below  It also uses it to clean itself  Individuals may show lateral preference when grasping with their trunks: some prefer to twist them to the left, others to the right  Elephant trunks are capable of powerful siphoning  They can expand their nostrils 30% around, leading to a 64% greater nasal volume, and can breathe in almost 30 times faster than a human sneeze, at over 150 m/s (490 ft/s)  They suck up water which is squirted into the mouth or over the body  The trunk of an adult Asian elephant is capable of retaining 8 5 L (2 2 US gal) of water   They will also sprinkle dust or grass on themselves  When underwater, the elephant uses its trunk as a snorkel The trunk also acts as a sense organ  Its sense of smell may be four times greater than a bloodhound's nose  The infraorbital nerve, which makes the trunk sensitive to touch, is thicker than both the optic and auditory nerves  Whiskers grow all along the trunk, and are particularly packed at the tip, where they contribute to its tactile sensitivity  Unlike those of many mammals, such as cats and rats, elephant whiskers do not move independently ("whisk") to sense the environment; the trunk itself must move to bring the whiskers into contact with nearby objects  Whiskers grow in rows along each side on ventral surface of the trunk, which is thought to be essential in helping elephants balance objects there, whereas they are more evenly arranged on the dorsal surface  Number and patterns of whiskers are distinctly different between species Damaging the trunk would be detrimental to an elephant's survival, although in rare cases, individuals have survived with shortened ones  One trunkless elephant has been observed to graze using its lips with its hind legs in the air and balancing on its front knees  Floppy trunk syndrome is a condition of trunk paralysis recorded in African bush elephants and involves the degeneration of the peripheral nerves and muscles  The disorder has been linked to lead poisoning 

Teeth
Elephants usually have 26 teeth: the incisors, known as the tusks, 12 deciduous premolars, and 12 molars  Unlike most mammals, teeth are not replaced by new ones emerging from the jaws vertically  Instead, new teeth start at the back of the mouth and push out the old ones  The first chewing tooth on each side of the jaw falls out when the elephant is two to three years old  This is followed by four more tooth replacements at the ages of four to six, 9–15, 18–28 and finally in their early 40s  The final (usually sixth) set must last the elephant the rest of its life  Elephant teeth have loop-shaped dental ridges, which are more diamond-shaped in African elephants 

Tusks
The tusks of an elephant are modified second incisors in the upper jaw  They replace deciduous milk teeth at 6–12 months of age and keep growing at about 17 cm (7 in) a year  As the tusk develops, it is topped with smooth cone-shaped enamel that eventually wanes  The dentine is known as ivory and has a cross-section of intersecting lines, known as "engine turning", which create diamond-shaped patterns  Being living tissue, tusks are fairly soft; about as dense as the mineral calcite  The tusk protrudes from a socket in the skull and most of it is external  At least one-third of the tusk contains the pulp and some have nerves which stretch even further  Thus it would be difficult to remove it without harming the animal  When removed, ivory will dry up and crack if not kept cool and wet  Tusks function in digging, debarking, marking, moving objects and fighting Elephants are usually right- or left-tusked, similar to humans, who are typically right- or left-handed  The dominant or "master" tusk, is typically more worn down, as it is shorter and blunter  For the African elephants, tusks are present in both males and females, and are around the same length in both sexes, reaching up to 300 cm (9 ft 10 in), but those of males tend to be more massive  In the Asian species, only the males have large tusks  Female Asians have very small tusks, or none at all  Tuskless males exist and are particularly common among Sri Lankan elephants  Asian males can have tusks as long as Africans', but they are usually slimmer and lighter; the largest recorded was 302 cm (9 ft 11 in) long and weighed 39 kg (86 lb)  Hunting for elephant ivory in Africa and Asia has led to natural selection for shorter tusks and tusklessness 

Skin
An elephant's skin is generally very tough, at 2 5 cm (1 in) thick on the back and parts of the head  The skin around the mouth, anus, and inside of the ear is considerably thinner  Elephants are typically grey, but African elephants look brown or reddish after rolling in coloured mud  Asian elephants have some patches of depigmentation, particularly on the head  Calves have brownish or reddish hair, with the head and back being particularly hairy  As elephants mature, their hair darkens and becomes sparser, but dense concentrations of hair and bristles remain on the tip of the tail and parts of the head and genitals  Normally the skin of an Asian elephant is covered with more hair than its African counterpart  Their hair is thought to help them lose heat in their hot environments Although tough, an elephant's skin is very sensitive and requires mud baths to maintain moisture and protect it from burning and insect bites  After bathing, the elephant will usually use its trunk to blow dust onto its body and this dries into a protective crust  Elephants have difficulty releasing heat through the skin because of their low surface-area-to-volume ratio, which is many times smaller than that of a human  They have even been observed lifting up their legs, to expose their soles to the air  Elephants only have sweat glands between the toes, but the skin allows water to disperse and evaporate, cooling the animal  In addition, cracks in the skin may reduce dehydration and allow for increased thermal regulation in the long term 

Legs, locomotion, and posture
To support the animal's weight, an elephant's limbs are positioned more vertically under the body than in most other mammals  The long bones of the limbs have cancellous bone in place of medullary cavities  This strengthens the bones while still allowing haematopoiesis (blood cell creation)  Both the front and hind limbs can support an elephant's weight, although 60% is borne by the front  The position of the limbs and leg bones allow an elephant to stand still for extended periods of time without tiring  Elephants are incapable of turning their manus, as the ulna and radius of the front legs are secured in pronation  Elephants may also lack the pronator quadratus and pronator teres muscles or have very small ones  The circular feet of an elephant have soft tissues or "cushion pads" beneath the manus or pes, which allow them to bear the animal's great mass  They appear to have a sesamoid, an extra "toe" similar in placement to a giant panda's extra "thumb", that also helps in weight distribution  As many as five toenails can be found on both the front and hind feet Elephants can move both forwards and backwards, but are incapable of trotting, jumping, or galloping  They can move on land only by walking or ambling: a faster gait similar to running   In walking, the legs act as pendulums, with the hips and shoulders moving up and down while the foot is planted on the ground  The fast gait does not meet all the criteria of running, since there is no point where all the feet are off the ground, although the elephant uses its legs much like other running animals, and can move faster by quickening its stride  Fast-moving elephants appear to 'run' with their front legs, but 'walk' with their hind legs and can reach a top speed of 25 km/h (16 mph)  At this speed, most other quadrupeds are well into a gallop, even accounting for leg length  Spring-like kinetics could explain the difference between the motion of elephants and other animals  The cushion pads expand and contract, and reduce both the pain and noise that would come from a very heavy animal moving  Elephants are capable swimmers: they can swim for up to six hours while staying at the surface, moving at 2 1 km/h (1 mph) and traversing up to 48 km (30 mi) continuously 

Internal systems
The brain of an elephant weighs 4 5–5 5 kg (10–12 lb) compared to 1 6 kg (4 lb) for a human brain  It is the largest of all terrestrial mammals  While the elephant brain is larger overall, it is proportionally smaller than the human brain  At birth, an elephant's brain already weighs 30–40% of its adult weight  The cerebrum and cerebellum are well developed, and the temporal lobes are so large that they bulge out laterally  Their temporal lobes are proportionally larger than in other animals, including humans  The throat of an elephant appears to contain a pouch where it can store water for later use  The larynx of the elephant is the largest known among mammals  The vocal folds are anchored close to the epiglottis base  When comparing an elephant's vocal folds to those of a human, an elephant's are proportionally longer, thicker, with a greater cross-sectional area  In addition, they are located further up the vocal tract with an acute slope 

The heart of an elephant weighs 12–21 kg (26–46 lb)  Its apex has two pointed ends, an unusual trait among mammals  In addition, the ventricles of the heart split towards the top, a trait also found in sirenians  When upright, the elephant's heart beats around 28 beats per minutes and actually speeds up to 35 beats when it lays down  The blood vessels are thick and wide and can hold up during blood pressures  The lungs are attached to the diaphragm, and breathing relies less on the expanding of the ribcage  Connective tissue exists in place of the pleural cavity  This may allow the animal to deal with the pressure differences when its body is underwater and its trunk is breaking the surface for air  Elephants inhale mostly with the trunk, but also with the mouth  They have a hindgut fermentation system, and their large and small intestines together reach 35 m (115 ft) in length  Less than half of an elephant's food intake gets digested, despite the process lasting a day 

Sex organs
A male elephant's testes are located internally near the kidneys  The penis can be as long as 100 cm (39 in) with a 16 cm (6 in) wide base  It curves to an 'S' when fully erect and has an orifice shaped like a Y  The female's clitoris may be 40 cm (16 in)  The vulva is found lower than in other herbivores, between the hind legs instead of under the tail  Determining pregnancy status can be difficult due to the animal's large belly  The female's mammary glands occupy the space between the front legs, which puts the suckling calf within reach of the female's trunk  Elephants have a unique organ, the temporal gland, located in both sides of the head  This organ is associated with sexual behaviour, and males secrete a fluid from it when in musth  Females have also been observed with these secretions 

Natural history
Elephants are herbivorous and will eat leaves, twigs, fruit, bark, grass and roots  African elephants mostly browse while Asian elephants mainly graze  They can eat as much as 300 kg (660 lb) of food and drink 40 L (11 US gal) of water in a day  Elephants tend to stay near water sources  They have morning, afternoon and nighttime feeding sessions  At midday, elephants rest under trees and may doze off while standing  Sleeping occurs at night while the animal is lying down  Elephants average 3–4 hours of sleep per day  Both males and family groups typically move no more than 20 km (12 mi) a day, but distances as far as 180 km (112 mi) have been recorded in the Etosha region of Namibia  Elephants go on seasonal migrations in response to changes in environmental conditions  In northern Botswana, they travel 325 km (202 mi) to the Chobe River after the local waterholes dry up in late August 

Because of their large size, elephants have a huge impact on their environments and are considered keystone species  Their habit of uprooting trees and undergrowth can transform savannah into grasslands; smaller herbivores can access trees mowed down by elephants  When they dig for water during drought, they create waterholes that can be used by other animals  When they use waterholes, they end up making them bigger  At Mount Elgon, elephants dig through caves and pave the way for ungulates, hyraxes, bats, birds and insects  Elephants are important seed dispersers; African forest elephants consume and deposit many seeds over great distances, with either no effect or a positive effect on germination  In Asian forests, large seeds require giant herbivores like elephants and rhinoceros for transport and dispersal  This ecological niche cannot be filled by the smaller Malayan tapir  Because most of the food elephants eat goes undigested, their dung can provide food for other animals, such as dung beetles and monkeys  Elephants can have a negative impact on ecosystems  At Murchison Falls National Park in Uganda, elephants numbers have threatened several species of small birds that depend on woodlands  Their weight causes the soil to compress, leading to run off and erosion Elephants typically coexist peacefully with other herbivores, which will usually stay out of their way  Some aggressive interactions between elephants and rhinoceros have been recorded  The size of adult elephants makes them nearly invulnerable to predators  Calves may be preyed on by lions, spotted hyenas, and wild dogs in Africa and tigers in Asia  The lions of Savuti, Botswana, have adapted to hunting elephants, mostly calves, juveniles or even sub-adults  There are rare reports of adult Asian elephants falling prey to tigers  Elephants tend to have high numbers of parasites, particularly nematodes, compared to many other mammals  This is due to them being largely immune to predators, which would otherwise kill off many of the individuals with significant parasite loads 

Social structure
Elephants are generally gregarious animals  African bush elephants in particular have a complex, stratified social structure  Female elephants spend their entire lives in tight-knit matrilineal family groups  They are led by the matriarch which is often the eldest female  She remains leader of the group until death or if she no longer has the energy for the role; a study on zoo elephants found that the death of the matriarch led to greater stress in the surviving elephants  When her tenure is over, the matriarch's eldest daughter takes her place instead of her sister (if present)  One study found that younger matriarchs take potential threats less seriously  Large family groups may split if they cannot be supported by the local resources At Amboseli National Park, Kenya, female groups may consist of around ten members, including four adults and their dependent offspring  Here, a cow's life involves interaction with those outside her group  Two separate families may associate and bond with each other, forming what are known as bond groups  During the dry season, elephant families may aggregate together into clans  These may number around nine groups, which clans do not form strong bonds, but defend their dry-season ranges against other clans  The Amboseli elephant population is further divided into the "central" and "peripheral" subpopulations Female Asian elephants tend to have more fluid social associations  In Sri Lanka, there appear to be stable family units or "herds" and larger, looser "groups"  They have been observed to have "nursing units" and "juvenile-care units"  In southern India, elephant populations may contain family groups, bond groups and possibly clans  Family groups tend to be small, with only one or two adult females and their offspring  A group containing more than two cows and their offspring is known as a "joint family"  Malay elephant populations have even smaller family units and do not reach levels above a bond group  Groups of African forest elephants typically consist of one cow with one to three offspring  These groups appear to interact with each other, especially at forest clearings 

Adult males live separate lives  As he matures, a bull associates more with outside males or even other families  At Amboseli, young males may be away from their families 80% by 14–15 years of age  When males permanently leave, they either live alone or with other males  The former is typical of bulls in dense forests  A dominance hierarchy exists among males, whether they are social or solitary  Dominance depends on the age, size and sexual condition  Male elephants can be quite sociable when not competing for mates and form vast and fluid social networks  Older bulls act as the leaders of these groups  The presence of older males appears to subdue the aggression and "deviant" behaviour of younger ones  The largest all-male groups can reach close to 150 individuals  Adult males and females come together to breed  Bulls will accompany family groups if a cow is in oestrous 

Sexual behaviour
Musth
Adult males enter a state of increased testosterone known as musth  In a population in southern India, males first enter musth at 15 years old, but it is not very intense until they are older than 25  At Amboseli, no bulls under 24 were found to be in musth, while half of those aged 25–35 and all those over 35 did  In some areas, there may be seasonal influences on the timing of musths  The main characteristic of a bull's musth is a fluid discharged from the temporal gland that runs down the side of his face  Behaviours associated with musth include walking with a high and swinging head, nonsynchronous ear flapping, picking at the ground with the tusks, marking, rumbling, and urinating in the sheath  The length of this varies between males of different ages and conditions, lasting days to months Males become extremely aggressive during musth  Size is the determining factor in agonistic encounters when the individuals have the same condition  In contests between musth and non-musth individuals, musth bulls win the majority of the time, even when the non-musth bull is larger  A male may stop showing signs of musth when he encounters a musth male of higher rank  Those of equal rank tend to avoid each other  Agonistic encounters typically consist of threat displays, chases, and minor sparring  Rarely do they full-on fight 

Mating
Elephants are polygynous breeders, and most copulations occur during rainfall  An oestrus cow uses pheromones in her urine and vaginal secretions to signal her readiness to mate  A bull will follow a potential mate and assess her condition with the flehmen response, which requires him to collect a chemical sample with his trunk and taste it with the vomeronasal organ at the roof of the mouth  The oestrous cycle of a cow lasts 14–16 weeks with the follicular phase lasting 4–6-weeks and luteal phase 8- to 10-weeks  While most mammals have one surge of luteinizing hormone during the follicular phase, elephants have two  The first (or anovulatory) surge, appears to change the female's scent, signaling to males that she is in heat, but ovulation does not occur until the second (or ovulatory) surge  Cows over 45–50 years of age are less fertile Bulls engage in a behaviour known as mate-guarding, where they follow oestrous females and defend them from other males  Most mate-guarding is done by musth males, and females seek them out, particularly older ones  Musth appears to signal to females the condition of the male, as weak or injured males do not have normal musths  For young females, the approach of an older bull can be intimidating, so her relatives stay nearby for comfort  During copulation, the male rests his trunk on the female  The penis is mobile enough to move without the pelvis  Before mounting, it curves forward and upward  Copulation lasts about 45 seconds and does not involve pelvic thrusting or ejaculatory pause Homosexual behaviour is frequent in both sexes  As in heterosexual interactions, this involves mounting  Male elephants sometimes stimulate each other by playfighting and "championships" may form between old bulls and younger male  Female same-sex behaviours have been documented only in captivity where they engage in mutual masturbation with their trunks 

Birth and development
Gestation in elephants typically lasts between one and a half and two years and the female will not give birth again for at least four years  The relatively long pregnancy is supported by several corpus luteums and gives the foetus more time to develop, particularly the brain and trunk  Births tend to take place during the wet season  Typically, only a single young is born, but twins sometimes occur  Calves are born roughly 85 cm (33 in) tall and with a weight of around 120 kg (260 lb)  They are precocial and quickly stand and walk to follow their mother and family herd  A newborn calf will attract the attention of all the herd members  Adults and most of the other young will gather around the newborn, touching and caressing it with their trunks  For the first few days, the mother limits access to her young  Alloparenting – where a calf is cared for by someone other than its mother – takes place in some family groups  Allomothers are typically aged two to twelve years For the first few days, the newborn is unsteady on its feet and needs its mother's help  It relies on touch, smell, and hearing, as its eyesight is less developed  With little coordination in its trunk, it can only flop it around which may cause it to trip  When it reaches its second week, the calf can walk with more balance and has more control over its trunk  After its first month, the trunk can grab and hold objects, but still lacks sucking abilities, and the calf must bend down to drink  It continues to stay near its mother as it is still reliant on her  For its first three months, a calf relies entirely on its mother's milk, after which it begins to forage for vegetation and can use its trunk to collect water  At the same time, there is progress in lip and leg movements  By nine months, mouth, trunk and foot coordination are mastered  Suckling bouts tend to last 2–4 min/hr for a calf younger than a year  After a year, a calf is fully capable of grooming, drinking, and feeding itself  It still needs its mother's milk and protection until it is at least two years old  Suckling after two years may improve growth, health and fertility Play behaviour in calves differs between the sexes; females run or chase each other while males play-fight  The former are sexually mature by the age of nine years while the latter become mature around 14–15 years  Adulthood starts at about 18 years of age in both sexes  Elephants have long lifespans, reaching 60–70 years of age  Lin Wang, a captive male Asian elephant, lived for 86 years 

Communication
Elephants communicate in various ways  Individuals greet one another by touching each other on the mouth, temporal glands and genitals  This allows them to pick up chemical cues  Older elephants use trunk-slaps, kicks, and shoves to control younger ones  Touching is especially important for mother–calf communication  When moving, elephant mothers will touch their calves with their trunks or feet when side-by-side or with their tails if the calf is behind them  A calf will press against its mother's front legs to signal it wants to rest and will touch her breast or leg when it wants to suckle Visual displays mostly occur in agonistic situations  Elephants will try to appear more threatening by raising their heads and spreading their ears  They may add to the display by shaking their heads and snapping their ears, as well as tossing around dust and vegetation  They are usually bluffing when performing these actions  Excited elephants also raise their heads and spread their ears but additionally may raise their trunks  Submissive elephants will lower their heads and trunks, as well as flatten their ears against their necks, while those that are ready to fight will bend their ears in a V shape Elephants produce several vocalisations—some of which pass though the trunk—for both short and long range communication  This includes trumpeting, bellowing, roaring, growling, barking, snorting, and rumbling  Elephants can produce infrasonic rumbles  For Asian elephants, these calls have a frequency of 14–24 Hz, with sound pressure levels of 85–90 dB and last 10–15 seconds  For African elephants, calls range from 15 to 35 Hz with sound pressure levels as high as 117 dB, allowing communication for many kilometres, possibly over 10 km (6 mi) Elephants are known to communicate with seismics, vibrations produced by impacts on the earth's surface or acoustical waves that travel through it  An individual foot stomping or mock charging can create seismic signals that can be heard at travel distances of up to 32 km (20 mi)  Seismic waveforms produced by rumbles travel 16 km (10 mi) 

Intelligence and cognition
Elephants are among the most intelligent animals  They exhibit mirror self-recognition, an indication of self-awareness and cognition that has also been demonstrated in some apes and dolphins  One study of a captive female Asian elephant suggested the animal was capable of learning and distinguishing between several visual and some acoustic discrimination pairs  This individual was even able to score a high accuracy rating when re-tested with the same visual pairs a year later  Elephants are among the species known to use tools  An Asian elephant has been observed fine-tuning branches for use as flyswatters  Tool modification by these animals is not as advanced as that of chimpanzees  Elephants are popularly thought of as having an excellent memory  This could have a factual basis; they possibly have cognitive maps which give them long lasting memories of their environment on a wide scale  Individuals may be able to remember where their family members are located Scientists debate the extent to which elephants feel emotion  They are attracted to the bones of their own kind, regardless of whether they are related  As with chimpanzees and dolphins, a dying or dead elephant may elicit attention and aid from others, including those from other groups  This has been interpreted as expressing "concern"; however, the Oxford Companion to Animal Behaviour (1987) said that "one is well advised to study the behaviour rather than attempting to get at any underlying emotion" 

Conservation
Status
African bush elephants were listed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2021, and African forest elephants were listed as Critically Endangered in the same year  In 1979, Africa had an estimated population of at least 1 3 million elephants, possibly as high as 3 0 million  A decade later, the population was estimated to be 609,000; with 277,000 in Central Africa, 110,000 in Eastern Africa, 204,000 in Southern Africa, and 19,000 in Western Africa  The population of rainforest elephants was lower than anticipated, at around 214,000 individuals  Between 1977 and 1989, elephant populations declined by 74% in East Africa  After 1987, losses in elephant numbers hastened, and savannah populations from Cameroon to Somalia experienced a decline of 80%  African forest elephants had a total loss of 43%  Population trends in southern Africa were various, with unconfirmed losses in Zambia, Mozambique and Angola while populations grew in Botswana and Zimbabwe and were stable in South Africa  The IUCN estimated that total population in Africa is estimated at around to 415,000 individuals for both species combined as of 2016 African elephants receive at least some legal protection in every country where they are found  Successful conservation efforts in certain areas have led to high population densities while failures have lead to declines as high as 70% or more of the course of ten years  As of 2008, local numbers were controlled by contraception or translocation  Large-scale cullings stopped in the late 1980s and early 1990s  In 1989, the African elephant was listed under Appendix I by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), making trade illegal  Appendix II status (which allows restricted trade) was given to elephants in Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe in 1997 and South Africa in 2000  In some countries, sport hunting of the animals is legal; Botswana, Cameroon, Gabon, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe have CITES export quotas for elephant trophies In 2020, the IUCN listed the Asian elephant as endangered due to the population declining by half over "the last three generations"  Asian elephants once ranged from Western to East Asia and south to Sumatra  and Java  It is now extinct in these areas, and the current range of Asian elephants is highly fragmented  The total population of Asian elephants is estimated to be around 40,000–50,000, although this may be a loose estimate  Around 60% of the population is in India  Although Asian elephants are declining in numbers overall, particularly in Southeast Asia, the population in Sri Lanka appears to have risen and elephant numbers in the Western Ghats may have stablised 

Threats
The poaching of elephants for their ivory, meat and hides has been one of the major threats to their existence  Historically, numerous cultures made ornaments and other works of art from elephant ivory, and its use was comparable to that of gold  The ivory trade contributed to the fall of the African elephant population in the late 20th century  This prompted international bans on ivory imports, starting with the United States in June 1989, and followed by bans in other North American countries, western European countries, and Japan  Around the same time, Kenya destroyed all its ivory stocks  Ivory was banned internationally by CITES in 1990  Following the bans, unemployment rose in India and China, where the ivory industry was important economically  By contrast, Japan and Hong Kong, which were also part of the industry, were able to adapt and were not as badly affected  Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Malawi wanted to continue the ivory trade and were allowed to, since their local populations were healthy, but only if their supplies were from culled individuals or those that died of natural causes The ban allowed the elephant to recover in parts of Africa  In February 2012, 650 elephants in Bouba Njida National Park, Cameroon, were slaughtered by Chadian raiders  This has been called "one of the worst concentrated killings" since the ivory ban  Asian elephants are potentially less vulnerable to the ivory trade, as females usually lack tusks  Still, members of the species have been killed for their ivory in some areas, such as Periyar National Park in India  China was the biggest market for poached ivory but announced they would phase out the legal domestic manufacture and sale of ivory products in May 2015, and in September 2015, China and the United States said "they would enact a nearly complete ban on the import and export of ivory" due to causes of extinction Other threats to elephants include habitat destruction and fragmentation  The Asian elephant lives in areas with some of the highest human populations and may be confined to small islands of forest among human-dominated landscapes  Elephants commonly trample and consume crops, which contributes to conflicts with humans, and both elephants and humans have died by the hundreds as a result  Mitigating these conflicts is important for conservation  One proposed solution is the protection of wildlife corridors which give populations greater interconnectivity and space  Chili pepper products as well as guarding with defense tools have been found to be effective in preventing crop-raiding by elephants  Less effective tactics include beehive and electric fences 

Human relations
Working animal
Elephants have been working animals since at least the Indus Valley civilization over 4,000 years ago and continue to be used in modern times  There were 13,000–16,500 working elephants employed in Asia in 2000  These animals are typically captured from the wild when they are 10–20 years old when they are both more trainable and can work for more years  They were traditionally captured with traps and lassos, but since 1950, tranquillisers have been used  Individuals of the Asian species have been often trained as working animals  Asian elephants are used to carry and pull both objects and people in and out of areas as well as lead people in religious celebrations  They are valued over mechanised tools as they can perform the same tasks but in more difficult terrain, with strength, memory, and delicacy  Elephants can learn over 30 commands  Musth bulls are difficult and dangerous to work with and so are chained up until their condition passes In India, many working elephants are alleged to have been subject to abuse  They and other captive elephants are thus protected under The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act of 1960  In both Myanmar and Thailand, deforestation and other economic factors have resulted in sizable populations of unemployed elephants resulting in health problems for the elephants themselves as well as economic and safety problems for the people amongst whom they live The practice of working elephants has also been attempted in Africa  The taming of African elephants in the Belgian Congo began by decree of Leopold II of Belgium during the 19th century and continues to the present with the Api Elephant Domestication Centre 

Warfare
Historically, elephants were considered formidable instruments of war  They were described in Sanskrit texts as far back as 1500 BC  From South Asia, the use of elephants in warfare spread west to Persia and east to Southeast Asia  The Persians used them during the Achaemenid Empire (between the 6th and 4th centuries BC) while Southeast Asian states first used war elephants possibly as early as the 5th century BC and continued to the 20th century  War elephants were also employed in the Mediterranean and North Africa throughout the classical period since the reign of Ptolemy II in Egypt  The Carthaginian general Hannibal famously took African elephants across the Alps during his war with the Romans and reached the Po Valley in 218 BC with all of them alive, but died of disease and combat a year later Their heads and sides were equipped with armour, the trunk may have had a sword tied to it and tusks were sometimes covered sharpened iron or brass  Trained elephants would attack both humans and horses with their tusks  They might have grasped an enemy soldier with the trunk and tossed him to their mahout, or pinned the soldier to the ground and speared him  Some shortcomings of war elephants included their great visibility, which made them easy to target, and limited maneuverability compared to horses  Alexander the Great achieved victory over armies with war elephants by having his soldiers injure the trunks and legs of the animals which caused them to panic and become uncontrollable 

Zoos and circuses
Elephants have traditionally been a major part of zoos and circuses around the world  In circuses, they are trained to perform tricks  The most famous circus elephant was probably Jumbo (1861 – 15 September 1885), who was a major attraction in the Barnum & Bailey Circus  These animals do not reproduce well in captivity, due to the difficulty of handling musth bulls and limited understanding of female oestrous cycles  Asian elephants were always more common than their African counterparts in modern zoos and circuses  After CITES listed the Asian elephant under Appendix I in 1975, imports of the species almost stopped by the end of the 1980s  Subsequently, the US received many captive African elephants from Zimbabwe, which had an overabundance of the animals Keeping elephants in zoos has met with some controversy  Proponents of zoos argue that they allow easy access to the animals and provide fund and knowledge for preserving their natural habitats, as well as safekeeping for the species  Opponents claim that animals in zoos are under physical and mental stress  Elephants have been recorded displaying stereotypical behaviours in the form of wobbling the body or head and pacing the same route both forwards and backwards  This has been observed in 54% of individuals in UK zoos  Elephants in European zoos appear to have shorter lifespans than their wild counterparts at only 17 years, although other studies suggest that zoo elephants live just as long The use of elephants in circuses has also been controversial; the Humane Society of the United States has accused circuses of mistreating and distressing their animals  In testimony to a US federal court in 2009, Barnum & Bailey Circus CEO Kenneth Feld acknowledged that circus elephants are struck behind their ears, under their chins and on their legs with metal-tipped prods, called bull hooks or ankus  Feld stated that these practices are necessary to protect circus workers and acknowledged that an elephant trainer was rebuked for using an electric prod on an elephant  Despite this, he denied that any of these practices hurt the animals  Some trainers have tried to train elephants without the use of physical punishment  Ralph Helfer is known to have relied on positive reinforcement when training his animals  Barnum and Bailey circus retired its touring elephants in May 2016 

Attacks
Elephants can exhibit bouts of aggressive behaviour and engage in destructive actions against humans  In Africa, groups of adolescent elephants damaged homes in villages after cullings in the 1970s and 1980s  Because of the timing, these attacks have been interpreted as vindictive  In parts of India, male elephants have entered villages at night, destroying homes and killing people  From 2000 to 2004, 300 people died in Jharkhand, and in Assam, 239 people were reportedly killed between 2001 and 2006 
Throughout the country, 1,500 people were killed by elephants between 2019 and 2022, which led to 300 elephants being killed in kind  Local people have reported their belief that some elephants were drunk during their attacks, though officials have disputed this  Purportedly drunk elephants attacked an Indian village in December 2002, killing six people, which led to the retaliatory slaughter of about 200 elephants by locals 

Cultural depictions
Elephants have a universal presence in global culture  They have been represented in art since Paleolithic times  Africa, in particular, contains many examples of elephant rock art, especially in the Sahara and southern Africa  In Asia, the animals are depicted as motifs in Hindu and Buddhist shrines and temples  Elephants were often difficult to portray by people with no first-hand experience of them  The ancient Romans, who kept the animals in captivity, depicted elephants more accurately than medieval Europeans who portrayed them more like fantasy creatures, with horse, bovine and boar-like traits, and trumpet-like trunks  As Europeans gained more access to captive elephants during the 15th century, depictions of them became more accurate, including one made by Leonardo da Vinci Elephants have been the subject of religious beliefs  The Mbuti people of central Africa believe that the souls of their dead ancestors resided in elephants  Similar ideas existed among other African societies, who believed that their chiefs would be reincarnated as elephants  During the 10th century AD, the people of Igbo-Ukwu, in modern day Nigeria, placed elephant tusks underneath their death leader's feet in the grave  The animals' importance is only totemic in Africa but is much more significant in Asia  In Sumatra, elephants have been associated with lightning  Likewise in Hinduism, they are linked with thunderstorms as Airavata, the father of all elephants, represents both lightning and rainbows  One of the most important Hindu deities, the elephant-headed Ganesha, is ranked equal with the supreme gods Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma in some traditions  Ganesha is associated with writers and merchants and it is believed that he can give people success as well as grant them their desires, but could also take these things away  In Buddhism, Buddha is said to have been a white elephant reincarnated as a human 

In Western popular culture, elephants symbolise the exotic, especially since – as with the giraffe, hippopotamus and rhinoceros – there are no similar animals familiar to Western audiences  As characters, elephants are most common in children's stories, where they are portrayed positively  They are typically surrogates for humans with ideal human values  Many stories tell of isolated young elephants returning to or finding a family, such as "The Elephant's Child" from Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories, Disney's Dumbo, and Kathryn and Byron Jackson's The Saggy Baggy Elephant  Other elephant heroes given human qualities include Jean de Brunhoff's Babar, David McKee's Elmer, and Dr  Seuss's Horton Several cultural references emphasise the elephant's size and strangeness  For instance, a "white elephant" is a byword for something that is weird, unwanted, and has no value  The expression "elephant in the room" refers to something that is being ignored but ultimately must be addressed  The story of the blind men and an elephant involves blind men touching different parts of an elephant and trying to figure out what it is 

See also
Animal track
Desert elephant
Elephants' graveyard
List of individual elephants
Motty, captive hybrid of an Asian and African elephant
National Elephant Day (Thailand)
World Elephant Day
Passage 2:
Gajabrishta
Gaja in Sanskrit means elephant  'Brishta' is the back or hip portion of a sitting elephant  The later Cholas of the Chola empire in the Indian subcontinent, especially the ones in Thondai Mandalam around the North Tamil Nadu area constructed temples which had vimanas in this style 
The sanctum sanctorum of these temples, especially Shiva temples, had this style of vimana 

See also
Shiva Temples of Tamil Nadu
Context 2: Passage 1:
John C  Sigler
John C  Sigler  (born 1945) is an American lawyer, gun rights activist, former chair of the Republican State Committee of Delaware and former president of the National Rifle Association (NRA) 
Sigler graduated from Milford High School in 1964 and attended Appalachian State Teacher's College  He earned a bachelors degree in criminal justice administration from Wilmington College in 1981, a Master of Business Administration from Central Michigan University, and a Juris Doctor from Widener University School of Law in 1987  He served in the United States Navy from 1967 to 1971 on the USS George Bancroft (SSBN-643) and USS Hardhead (SS-365), and worked for the police department in Dover, Delaware from 1972 to 1991  He retired as a captain and subsequently worked as a lawyer 
Sigler joined the NRA in 1970 and was elected to the board of directors in 1996  He was named president at the 2007 annual meeting in St  Louis, succeeding Sandra Froman to become the 59th president of the organization  He served two terms and was succeeded by Ron Schmeits in 2009 
In 2013, Sigler abruptly resigned as chair of the Delaware Republican Party 
Passage 2:
Jubilee doctor
A jubilee doctor (Swedish: jubeldoktor, Finnish: riemutohtori, Latin: doctor jubilaris) or golden doctor (German: Goldene Doktor) is in some countries a person who has held a doctorate for 50 years or more  When 50 years have passed, the doctor is invited again by his or her university to the ceremony where the doctorates are conferred and is made jubilee/golden doctor and celebrated as a guest of honour  This custom is common in Germany, Sweden and Finland  In Germany, this ceremony is referred to as the "Golden Promotion" (Goldene Promotion)  In Sweden, a person so honoured who holds, for instance, a doctorate of philosophy, may use the academic title fil jubeldr instead of the regular fil dr 
Passage 3:
Doctorate
A doctorate (from Latin docere, "to teach"), doctor's degree (from Latin doctor, "teacher"), or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi ("licence to teach")  In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific profession  There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to scientific disciplines 
In the United States and some other countries, there are also professional degrees that include "doctor" in their name and are classified as doctorates  
Many universities also award honorary doctorates to individuals deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or  other contributions to the university or society 

History
Middle Ages
The term doctor derives from Latin, meaning "teacher" or "instructor"  The doctorate (Latin: doctoratus) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin (licentia docendi) at a university  Its roots can be traced to the early church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers, and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible The right to grant a licentia docendi (i e  the doctorate) was originally reserved to the Catholic Church, which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance, and pay a fee  The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed access—at that time essentially free of charge—to all able applicants  Applicants were tested for aptitude  This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the universities, slowly distancing themselves from the Church  In 1213 the right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris, where it became a universal license to teach (licentia ubique docendi)  However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (baccalaureus), the latter was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the master's degree (magister) and doctorate, both of which now became the accepted teaching qualifications  According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150 by the University of Paris George Makdisi theorizes that the ijazah issued in early Islamic madrasahs was the origin of the doctorate later issued in medieval European universities  Alfred Guillaume and Syed Farid al-Attas agree that there is a resemblance between the ijazah and the licentia docendi  However, Toby Huff and others reject Makdisi's theory  Devin J  Stewart notes a difference in the granting authority (individual professor for the ijzazah and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate) 

17th and 18th centuries
The doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century (likely c  1652)  The term "philosophy" does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy  Still, it is used in a broader sense under its original Greek meaning: "love of wisdom"  In most of Europe, all fields (history, philosophy, social sciences, mathematics, and natural philosophy/natural sciences) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as the "faculty of philosophy"  The Doctorate of Philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though most degrees are not for the study of philosophy  Chris Park explains that it was not until formal education and degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the Doctorate of Philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree, abbreviated as Dr  phil  (similar to Ph D  in Anglo-American countries)  Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in philosophy and doctorates in the natural sciences, abbreviated as Dr  rer  nat  and also doctorates in the social/political sciences, abbreviated as Dr  rer  pol , similar to the other traditional doctorates in medicine (Dr  med ) and law (Dr  jur ) 
University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild  The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations  Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree 
University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men  The first women to be granted doctorates were Juliana Morell in 1608 at Lyons or maybe Avignon (she "defended theses" in 1606 or 1607, although claims that she received a doctorate in canon law in 1608 have been discredited), Elena Cornaro Piscopia in 1678 at the University of Padua, Laura Bassi in 1732 at Bologna University, Dorothea Erxleben in 1754 at Halle University and  María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda in 1785 at Complutense University, Madrid 

Modern times
The use and meaning of the doctorate have changed over time and are subject to regional variations  For instance, until the early 20th century, few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders  After that time, the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread  Universities' shift to research-oriented education (based upon the scientific method, inquiry, and observation) increased the doctorate's importance  Today, a research doctorate (PhD) or its equivalent (as defined in the US by the NSF) is generally a prerequisite for an academic career  However, many recipients do not work in academia 

Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward  The first professional doctorate offered in the United States was the M D  at Kings College (now Columbia University) after the medical school's founding in 1767  However, this was not a professional doctorate in the modern American sense  It was awarded for further study after the qualifying Bachelor of Medicine (M B ) rather than a qualifying degree  The MD became the standard first degree in medicine in the US during the 19th century, but as a three-year undergraduate degree  It did not become established as a graduate degree until 1930  As the standard qualifying degree in medicine, the MD gave that profession the ability (through the American Medical Association, established in 1847 for this purpose) to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice In the shape of the German-style PhD, the modern research degree was first awarded in the US in 1861, at Yale University  This differed from the MD in that the latter was a vocational "professional degree" that trained students to apply or practice knowledge rather than generate it, similar to other students in vocational schools or institutes  In the UK, research doctorates initially took higher doctorates in Science and Letters, first introduced at Durham University in 1882  The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada and was instituted at all British universities from 1917  The first (titled a DPhil) was awarded at the University of Oxford Following the MD, the next professional doctorate in the US, the Juris Doctor (JD), was established by the University of Chicago in 1902  However, it took a long time to be accepted, not replacing the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) until the 1960s, by which time the LLB was generally taken as a graduate degree  Notably, the JD and LLB curriculum were identical, with the degree being renamed as a doctorate, and it (like the MD) was not equivalent to the PhD, raising criticism that it was "not a 'true Doctorate'"  When professional doctorates were established in the UK in the late 1980s and early 1990s, they did not follow the US model  Still, they were set up as research degrees at the same level as PhDs but with some taught components and a professional focus for research work Now usually called higher doctorates in the United Kingdom, the older-style doctorates take much longer to complete since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects  These doctorates are less common than the PhD in some countries and are often awarded honoris causa  The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU   It involves either a long new thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications  The habilitation (highest available degree) demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate supportive funding  The habilitation follows the research doctorate, and in Germany, it can be a requirement for appointment as a Privatdozent or professor 

Types
Since the Middle Ages, the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities have proliferated throughout the world  Practice varies from one country to another  While a doctorate usually entitles a person to be addressed as "doctor", the use of the title varies widely depending on the type and the associated occupation 

Research doctorate
Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of publishable academic research, at least in principle, in a peer-reviewed academic journal  The best-known research degree title in the English-speaking world, is Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated Ph D , PhD or, at some British universities, DPhil) awarded in many countries throughout the world  In the U S , for instance, although the most typical research doctorate is the PhD, accounting for about 98% of the research doctorates awarded, there are more than 15 other names for research doctorates  Other research-oriented doctorates (some having a professional practice focus) include the Doctor of Education (Ed D  or EdD), the Doctor of Science (D Sc  or Sc D ),
Doctor of Arts (D A ), Doctor of Juridical Science (J S D  or S J D ), Doctor of Musical Arts (D M A ), Doctor of Professional Studies/Professional Doctorate (ProfDoc or DProf), Doctor of Public Health (Dr P H ), Doctor of Social Science (D S Sc  or DSocSci), Doctor of Management (D M  or D Mgt ), Doctor of Business Administration (D B A   or DBA), the UK Doctor of Management (DMan), various doctorates in engineering, such as the US Doctor of Engineering (D Eng , D E Sc  or D E S , also awarded in Japan and South Korea), the UK Engineering Doctorate (EngD), the German engineering doctorate Doktoringenieur (Dr -Ing ) the German natural science doctorate Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr  rer  nat ) and the economics and social science doctorate Doctor rerum politicarum (Dr  rer  pol )  The UK Doctor of Medicine (MD or MD (Res)) and Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) are research doctorates  The Doctor of Theology (Th D , D Th  or ThD), Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT) and the Doctor of Sacred Theology (S T D , or D S Th ) are research doctorates in theology Criteria for research doctorates vary but typically require completion of a substantial body of original research, which may be presented as a single thesis or dissertation, or as a portfolio of shorter project reports (thesis by publication)  The submitted dissertation is assessed by a committee of, typically, internal, and external examiners  It is then typically defended by the candidate during an oral examination (called viva (voce) in the UK and India) by the committee, which then awards the degree unconditionally, awards the degree conditionally (ranging from corrections in grammar to additional research), or denies the degree  Candidates may also be required to complete graduate-level courses in their field and study research methodology 
Criteria for admission to doctoral programs vary  Students may be admitted with a bachelor's degree in the U S  and the U K   However, elsewhere, e g  in Finland and many other European countries, a master's degree is required  The time required to complete a research doctorate varies from three years, excluding undergraduate study, to six years or more 

Licentiate
Licentiate degrees vary widely in their meaning, and in a few countries are doctoral-level qualifications  Sweden awards the licentiate degree as a two-year qualification at the doctoral level and the doctoral degree (PhD) as a four-year qualification  Sweden originally abolished the Licentiate in 1969 but reintroduced it in response to demands from business  Finland also has a two-year doctoral level licentiate degree, similar to Sweden's  Outside of Scandinavia, the licentiate is usually a lower-level qualification  In Belgium, the licentiate was the basic university degree prior to the Bologna Process and was equivalent to a bachelor's degree  In France and other countries, it is the bachelor's-level qualification in the Bologna process  In the Pontifical system, the Licentiate in Sacred Theology (STL) is equivalent to an advanced master's degree, or the post-master's coursework required in preparation for a doctorate (i e  similar in level to the Swedish/Finnish licentiate degree)  While other licences (such as the Licence in Canon Law) are at the level of master's degrees 

Higher doctorate and post-doctoral degrees
A higher tier of research doctorates may be awarded based on a formally submitted portfolio of published research of an exceptionally high standard  Examples include the Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD), Doctor of Divinity (DD), Doctor of Letters (DLitt or LittD), Doctor of Law or Laws (LLD), and Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the traditional doctorates in Scandinavia 
The habilitation teaching qualification (facultas docendi or "faculty to teach") under a university procedure with a thesis and an exam is commonly regarded as belonging to this category in Germany, Austria, France, Liechtenstein, Switzerland, Poland, etc  The degree developed in Germany in the 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation"  In many federal states of Germany, the habilitation results in an award of a formal "Dr  habil " degree or the holder of the degree may add "habil " to their research doctorate such as "Dr  phil  habil " or "Dr  rer  nat  habil " In some European universities, especially in German-speaking countries, the degree is insufficient to have teaching duties without professor supervision (or teaching and supervising PhD students independently) without an additional teaching title such as Privatdozent   In Austria, the habilitation bestows the graduate with the facultas docendi, venia legendi  Since 2004, the honorary title of "Privatdozent" (before this, completing the habilitation resulted in appointment as a civil servant)  In many Central and Eastern Europe countries, the degree gives venia legendi, Latin for "the permission to lecture", or ius docendi, "the right to teach", a specific academic subject at universities for a lifetime  The French academic system used to have a higher doctorate, called the "state doctorate" (doctorat d'État), but, in 1984, it was superseded by the habilitation (Habilitation à diriger des recherches, "habilitation to supervise (doctoral and post-doctoral) research", abbreviated HDR) which is the prerequisite to supervise PhDs and to apply to Full Professorships 
While this section has focused on earned qualifications conferred in virtue of published work or the equivalent, a higher doctorate may also be presented on an honorary basis by a university — at its own initiative or after a nomination — in recognition of public prestige, institutional service, philanthropy, or professional achievement  In a formal listing of qualifications, and often in other contexts, an honorary higher doctorate will be identified using language like "DCL, honoris causa", "HonLLD", or "LittD h c " 

Professional doctorate
Depending on the country, professional doctorates may also be research degrees at the same level as PhDs  The relationship between research and practice is considered important and professional degrees with little or no research content are typically aimed at professional performance  Many professional doctorates are named "Doctor of [subject name] and abbreviated using the form "D[subject abbreviation]" or "[subject abbreviation]D", or may use the more generic titles "Professional Doctorate", abbreviated "ProfDoc" or "DProf", "Doctor of Professional Studies" (DPS)  or "Doctor of Professional Practice" (DPP) In the US, professional doctorates (formally "doctor's degree – professional practice" in government classifications) are defined by the US Department of Education's National Center for Educational Statistics as degrees that require a minimum of six years of university-level study (including any pre-professional bachelor's or associate degree) and meet the academic requirements for professional licensure in the discipline  The definition for a professional doctorate does not include a requirement for either a dissertation or study beyond master's level, in contrast to the definition for research doctorates ("doctor's degree – research/scholarship")  However, individual programs may have different requirements  There is also a category of "doctor's degree – other" for doctorates that do not fall into either the "professional practice" or "research/scholarship" categories  All of these are considered doctoral degrees In contrast to the US, many countries reserve the term "doctorate" for research degrees  If, as in Canada and Australia, professional degrees bear the name "Doctor of    ", etc , it is made clear that these are not doctorates  Examples of this include Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD), Doctor of Medicine (MD), Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP), and Juris Doctor (JD)  Contrariwise, for example, research doctorates like Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Education (EdD) and Doctor of Social Science (DSS) qualify as full academic doctorates in Canada though they normally incorporate aspects of professional practice in addition to a full dissertation  In the Philippines, the University of the Philippines Open University offers a Doctor of Communication (DComm) professional doctorate All doctorates in the UK and Ireland are third cycle qualifications in the Bologna Process, comparable to US research doctorates  Although all doctorates are research degrees, professional doctorates normally include taught components, while the name PhD/DPhil is normally used for doctorates purely by thesis  Professional, practitioner, or practice-based doctorates such as the DClinPsy, MD, DHSc, EdD, DBA, EngD and DAg are full academic doctorates  They are at the same level as the PhD in the national qualifications frameworks; they are not first professional degrees but are "often post-experience qualifications" in which practice is considered important in the research context  In 2009 there were 308 professional doctorate programs in the UK, up from 109 in 1998, with the most popular being the EdD (38 institutions), DBA (33), EngD/DEng (22), MD/DM (21), and DClinPsy/DClinPsych/ClinPsyD (17)  Similarly, in Australia, the term "professional doctorate" is sometimes applied to the Scientiae Juridicae Doctor (SJD), which, like the UK professional doctorates, is a research degree 

Honorary doctorate
When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or philanthropic efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree honoris causa ('for the sake of the honor'), waiving the usual requirements for granting the degree  Some universities do not award honorary degrees, for example, Cornell University, the University of Virginia, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

National variations
Argentina
In Argentina the doctorate (doctorado) is the highest academic degree  The intention is that candidates produce original contributions in their field knowledge within a frame of academic excellence  A dissertation or thesis is prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director  It is reviewed by a Doctoral Committee composed of examiners external to the program and at least one examiner external to the institution  The degree is conferred after a successful dissertation defence  In 2006, there were approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees  Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation, an agency in Argentina's Ministry of Education, Science and Technology 

Brazil
Doctoral candidates are normally required to have a master's degree in a related field  Exceptions are based on their individual academic merit  A second and a third foreign language are other common requirements, although the requirements regarding proficiency commonly are not strict  The admissions process varies by institution  Some require candidates to take tests while others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview only  In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant 
Requirements usually include satisfactory performance in advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam and submitting a thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge  The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external  After completion, which normally consumes 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of Doutor (Doctor) followed by the main area of specialization, e g  Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Ciências da Computação (Doctor of Computer Sciences), Doutor em Filosofia (Doctor of Philosophy), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering) or Doutor em Medicina (Doctor of Medicine)  The generic title of Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences) is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i e  Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc )
All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free (mandated by the Brazilian constitution)  Some graduate students are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico) and CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior)  Personal scholarships are provided by the various FAP's (Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa) at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of São Paulo, FAPERJ in the state of Rio de Janeiro and FAPEMIG in the state of Minas Gerais  Competition for graduate financial aid is intense and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies  The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil is between US$500 and $1000 
A degree of Doutor usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to a US assistant professor  Progression to full professorship, known as Professor Titular requires that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes additional years  In the federal university system, doctors who are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to the rank of associate professor, then become eligible to take the competitive exam for vacant full professorships  In São Paulo state universities, associate professorships and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship are conditioned on the qualification of Livre-docente and requires, in addition to a doctorate, a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications, a public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and a written exam 
In recent years some initiatives as jointly supervised doctorates (e g  "cotutelles") have become increasingly common in the country, as part of the country's efforts to open its universities to international students 

Denmark
Denmark offers four levels of degrees:

A three-year bachelor's degree program (e g  Bachelor of Arts)
A subsequent, two-year master's degree program (e g  Master of Arts) – in Danish traditionally referred to as a "kandidatgrad", i e  a candidate's degree (e g  cand mag : Candidatus/Candidata Magisterii); usually, both titles appear on the diplomas issued 
A three-year ph d  degree program, which replaced the equivalent licentiat in 1992, and does not grant the holder the right to the title dr  or doktor  At the same time, a minor, two-year research training program, leading to a title of "magister", was phased out to meet the international standards of the Bologna Process 
A 'full' doctor's degree (e g  dr phil , Doctor Philosophiae, for humanistic and STEM subjects) – the higher doctorate – introduced in 1479  The second part of the title communicates the field of study – e g  dr scient (in the sciences), dr jur (in law), dr theol (in theology) For the ph d  degree, the candidates (ph d  students or fellows) – who are required to have a master's degree – enroll at a ph d  school at a university and participate in a research training program, at the end of which they each submit a thesis and defend it orally at a formal disputation  In the disputation, the candidates defend their theses against three official opponents, and may take opponents or questions from those present in the auditorium (ex auditorio) 
For the higher doctorate, the candidate (referred to as præses) is required to submit a thesis of major scientific significance, and to proceed to defend it orally against two official opponents, as well as against any and all opponents from the auditorium (ex auditorio) – no matter how long the proceedings take  The official opponents are required to be full professors  The candidate is required to have a master's degree, but not necessarily a ph d 
The ph d  was introduced as a separate title from the higher doctorate in 1992 as part of the transition to a new degree structure, since the changes in the degree system would otherwise leave a significant amount of academics without immediately recognizable qualifications in international settings  The original vision was purported to be to phase out the higher doctorate in favor of the ph d  (or merge the two), but so far, there are no signs of this happening  Many Danish academics with permanent positions wrote ph d  dissertations in the 90s when the system was new, since at that time, a ph d  degree or equivalent qualifications began to be required for certain academic positions in Denmark  Until the late 20th century, the higher doctorate was a condition for attaining full professorship; it is no longer required per se for any positions, but is considered amply equivalent to the ph d  when applying for academic positions 

Egypt
In Egypt, the highest degree doctorate is awarded by Al-Azhar University est  970, which grants ( العالمية Ālimiyya\ Habilitation) 
The Medical doctorate (abbreviated as M D ) is equivalent to the Ph D  degree  To earn an M D  in a science specialty, one must have a master's degree (M Sc ) (or two diplomas before the introduction of M Sc  degree in Egypt) before applying  The M D  degree involves courses in the field and defending a dissertation  It takes on average three to five years 
Many postgraduate medical and surgical specialties students earn a doctorate  After finishing a 6-year medical school and one-year internship (house officer), physicians and surgeons earn the M B  B Ch  degree, which is equivalent to a US MD degree  They can then apply to earn a master's degree or a speciality diploma, then an MD degree in a specialty 
The Egyptian M D  degree is written using the name of one's specialty  For example, M D  (Geriatrics) means a doctorate in Geriatrics, which is equivalent to a Ph D  in Geriatrics 

Finland
The Finnish requirement for the entrance into doctoral studies is a master's degree or equivalent  All universities have the right to award doctorates  The ammattikorkeakoulu institutes (institutes of higher vocational education that are not universities but often called "Universities of Applied Sciences" in English) do not award doctoral or other academic degrees  The student must:

Demonstrate understanding of their field and its meaning, while preparing to use scientific or scholarly study in their field, creating new knowledge 
Obtain a good understanding of development, basic problems and research methods
Obtain such understanding of the general theory of science and letters and such knowledge of neighbouring research fields that they are able to follow the development of these fields The way to show that these general requirements have been met is:

Complete graduate coursework 
Demonstrate critical and independent thought
Prepare and publicly defend a dissertation (a monograph or a compilation thesis of peer-reviewed articles)  In fine arts, the dissertation may be substituted by works and/or performances as accepted by the faculty Entrance to a doctoral program is available only for holders of a master's degree; there is no honors procedure for recruiting Bachelors  Entrance is not as controlled as in undergraduate studies, where a strict numerus clausus is applied  Usually, a prospective student discusses their plans with a professor  If the professor agrees to accept the student, the student applies for admission  The professor may recruit students to their group  Formal acceptance does not imply funding  The student must obtain funding either by working in a research unit or through private scholarships  Funding is more available for natural and engineering sciences than in letters  Sometimes, normal work and research activity are combined Prior to introduction of the Bologna process, Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1,800 hours) of formal coursework  The requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision to individual universities, which may delegate the authority to faculties or individual professors  In Engineering and Science, required coursework varies between 40 and 70 ECTS 
The duration of graduate studies varies  It is possible to graduate three years after the master's degree, while much longer periods are not uncommon  The study ends with a dissertation, which must present substantial new scientific/scholarly knowledge  The dissertation can either be a monograph or it an edited collection of 3 to 7 journal articles  Students unable or unwilling to write a dissertation may qualify for a licentiate degree by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually summarizing one year of research 
When the dissertation is ready, the faculty names two expert pre-examiners with doctoral degrees from the outside the university  During the pre-examination process, the student may receive comments on the work and respond with modifications  After the pre-examiners approve, the doctoral candidate applies the faculty for permission to print the thesis  When granting this permission, the faculty names the opponent for the thesis defence, who must also be an outside expert, with at least a doctorate  In all Finnish universities, long tradition requires that the printed dissertation hang on a cord by a public university noticeboard for at least ten days prior to for the dissertation defence The doctoral dissertation takes place in public  The opponent and the candidate conduct a formal debate, usually wearing white tie, under the supervision of the thesis supervisor  Family, friends, colleagues and the members of the research community customarily attend the defence  After a formal entrance, the candidate begins with an approximately 20-minute popular lecture (lectio praecursoria), that is meant to introduce laymen to the thesis topic  The opponent follows with a short talk on the topic, after which the pair critically discuss the dissertation  The proceedings take two to three hours  At the end the opponent presents their final statement and reveals whether he/she will recommend that the faculty accept it  Any member of the public then has an opportunity to raise questions, although this is rare  Immediately after the defence, the supervisor, the opponent and the candidate drink coffee with the public  Usually, the attendees of the defence are given the printed dissertation  In the evening, the passed candidate hosts a dinner (Finnish: karonkka) in honour of the opponent  Usually, the candidate invites their family, colleagues and collaborators Doctoral graduates are often Doctors of Philosophy (filosofian tohtori), but many fields retain their traditional titles: Doctor of Medicine (lääketieteen tohtori), Doctor of Science in Technology (tekniikan tohtori), Doctor of Science in Arts (Art and Design), etc 
The doctorate is a formal requirement for a docenture or professor's position, although these in practice require postdoctoral research and further experience  Exceptions may be granted by the university governing board, but this is uncommon, and usually due to other work and expertise considered equivalent 

France
HistoryBefore 1984 three research doctorates existed in France: the State doctorate (doctorat d'État, "DrE", the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (Doctorat de troisième cycle, also called doctorate of specialty, Doctorat de spécialité, created in 1954 and shorter than the State doctorate) and the diploma of doctor-engineer (diplôme de docteur-ingénieur created in 1923), for technical research 
During the first half of the 20th century, following the submission of two theses (primary thesis, thèse principale, and secondary thesis, thèse complémentaire) to the Faculty of Letters (in France, "letters" is equivalent to "humanities") at the University of Paris, the doctoral candidate was awarded the Doctorat ès lettres  There was also the less prestigious "university doctorate" Doctorat d'université which could be received for the submission of a single thesis 
In the 1950s, the Doctorat ès lettres was renamed to Doctorat d'État  In 1954 (for the sciences) and 1958 (for letters and human sciences), the less demanding Doctorat de troisième cycle degree was created on the model of the American Ph D  with the purpose to lessen what had become an increasingly long period of time between the typical students' completion of their Diplôme d'études supérieures, roughly equivalent to a Master of Arts) and their Doctorat d'État After 1984, only one type of doctoral degree remained: the "doctorate" (Doctorat)  A special diploma was created called the "accreditation to supervise research" (Habilitation à diriger des recherches), a professional qualification to supervise doctoral work  (This diploma is similar in spirit to the older State doctorate, and the requirements for obtaining it are similar to those necessary to obtain tenure in other systems ) Before only professors or senior full researchers of similar rank were normally authorized to supervise a doctoral candidate's work  Now habilitation is a prerequisite to the title of professor in university (Professeur des universités) and to the title of Research Director (Directeur de recherche) in national public research agency such as CNRS, INRIA, or INRAE 

AdmissionToday, the doctorate (doctorat) is a research-only degree  It is a national degree and its requirements are fixed by the minister of higher education and research  Only public institutions award the doctorate  It can be awarded in any field of study  The master's degree is a prerequisite  The normal duration is three years  The writing of a comprehensive thesis constitutes the bulk of the doctoral work  While the length of the thesis varies according to the discipline, it is rarely less than 150 pages, and often substantially more  Some 15,000 new doctoral matriculations occur every year and ~10,000 doctorates are awarded Doctoral candidates can apply for a three-year fellowship  The most well known is the Contrat Doctoral (4,000 granted every year with a gross salary of 1758 euros per month as of September 2016) 
Since 2002 candidates follow in-service training, but there is no written examination for the doctorate  The candidate has to write a thesis that is read by two external reviewers  The head of the institution decides whether the candidate can defend the thesis, after considering the external reviews  The jury members are designated by the head of the institution  The candidate's supervisor and the external reviewers are generally jury members  The maximum number of jury members is 8  The defense generally lasts 45 minutes in scientific fields, followed by 1 – 2 and a half hours of questions from the jury or other doctors present  The defense and questions are public  The jury then deliberates in private and then declares the candidate admitted or "postponed"  The latter is rare  New regulations were set in 2016 and do not award distinctions 
The title of doctor (docteur) can also be used by medical and pharmaceutical practitioners who hold a doctor's State diploma (diplôme d'État de docteur, distinct from the doctorat d'État mentioned above)  The diploma is a first-degree 
A guidelines with good practices and legal analysis has been published in 2018 by Association nationale des docteurs (ANDès) & Confédération des Jeunes Chercheurs (CJC) with funding of french Ministry of research 

Germany
Doctoral degrees in Germany are research doctorates and are awarded by a process called Promotion  The concept of a US-style professional doctorate as an entry-level professional qualification does not exist  Most doctorates are awarded with specific Latin designations for the field of research (except for engineering, where the designation is German), instead of a general name for all fields (such as the Ph D )  The most important degrees are:

Dr  rer  nat  (rerum naturalium; natural and formal sciences, i e  physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, computer science and information technology, or psychology);
Dr  phil  (philosophiae; humanities such as philosophy, philology, history, and social sciences such as sociology, political science, or psychology as well);
Dr  iur  (iuris; law);
Dr  oec  (oeconomiae; economics);
Dr  rer  pol  (rerum politicarum; economics, business administration, political science);
Dr  theol  (theologiae; theology);
Dr  med  (medicinae; medicine);
Dr  med  dent  (medicinae dentariae; dentistry);
Dr  med  vet  (medicinae veterinariae; veterinary medicine);
Dr -Ing  (engineering) In medicine, "doctoral" dissertations are often written alongside undergraduate study therefore, European Research Council decided in 2010 that such Dr  med  degrees do not meet the international standards of a Ph D  research degree  The duration of the doctorate depends on the field: a doctorate in medicine may take less than a full-time year to complete; those in other fields, two to six years 
Over fifty doctoral designations exist, many of them rare or no longer in use  As a title, the degree is commonly written in front of the name in abbreviated form, e g , Dr  rer  nat  Max Mustermann or Dr  Max Mustermann, dropping the designation entirely  However, leaving out the designation is only allowed when the doctorate degree is not an honorary doctorate, which must be indicated by Dr  h c  (from Latin honoris causa)  Although the honorific does not become part of the name, holders can demand that the title appear in official documents  The title is not mandatory  The honorific is commonly used in formal letters  For holders of other titles, only the highest title is mentioned  Multiple holders of doctorate degrees can be addressed as Dres  (from Latin doctores)  Professional doctorates obtained in other countries, not requiring a thesis or not being third cycle qualifications under the Bologna process, can only be used postnominally, e g , "Max Mustermann, MD", and do not allow the use of the title Dr  In contrast to English, in which a person's name is preceded by at most one title (except in very ceremonious usage), the formal German mode of address permits several titles in addition to "Herr" or "Frau" (which, unlike "Mr" or "Ms", is not considered a title at all, but an Anrede or "address"), including repetitions in the case of multiple degrees, as in "Frau Prof  Dr  Dr  Schmidt", for a person who would be addressed as "Prof  Schmidt" in English 
In the German university system it is common to write two doctoral theses, the inaugural thesis (Inauguraldissertation), completing a course of study, and the habilitation thesis (Habilitationsschrift), which opens the road to a professorship  Upon completion of the habilitation thesis, a Habilitation is awarded, which is indicated by appending habil  (habilitata/habilitatus) to the doctorate, e g , Dr  rer  nat  habil  Max Mustermann  It is considered as an additional academic qualification rather than an academic degree formally  It qualifies the owner to teach at German universities (facultas docendi)  The holder of a Habilitation receives the authorization to teach a certain subject (venia legendi)  This has been the traditional prerequisite for attaining Privatdozent (PD) and employment as a full university professor  With the introduction of Juniorprofessuren—around 2005—as an alternative track towards becoming a professor at universities (with tenure), Habilitation is no longer the only university career track 

India
In India, doctorates are offered by universities  Entry requirements include master's degree  Some universities consider undergraduate degrees in professional areas such as engineering, medicine or law as qualifications for pursuing doctorate level degrees  Entrance examinations are held for almost all programs  In most universities, coursework duration and thesis is 5–6 years  The most common doctoral degree is Ph D 

Italy
Until the introduction of the dottorato di ricerca in the mid-1980s, the laurea generally constituted the highest academic degree obtainable in Italy  The first institution in Italy to create a doctoral program was Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1927 under the historic name "Diploma di Perfezionamento"  Further, the dottorato di ricerca was introduced by law and presidential decree in 1980, in a reform of academic teaching, training and experimentation in organisation and teaching methods Italy uses a three-level degree system following the Bologna Process  The first-level degree, called a laurea (Bachelor's degree), requires three years and a short thesis  The second-level degree, called a laurea magistrale (Master's degree), is obtained after two additional years, specializing in a branch of the field  This degree requires more advanced thesis work, usually involving academic research or an internship  The final degree is called a dottorato di ricerca (Ph D ) and is obtained after three years of academic research on the subject and a thesis 
Alternatively, after obtaining the laurea or the laurea magistrale, one can complete a "Master's" (first-level Master's after the laurea; second-level Master's after the laurea magistrale) of one or two years, usually including an internship  An Italian "Master's" is not the same as a master's degree; it is intended to be more focused on professional training and practical experience 
Regardless of the field of study, the title for Bachelors Graduate students is Dottore/Dottoressa (abbrev  Dott /Dott ssa, or as Dr ), not to be confused with the title for the Ph D , which is instead Dottore/Dottoressa di Ricerca  A laurea magistrale grants instead the title of Dottore/Dottoressa magistrale  Graduates in the fields of Education, Art and Music are also called Dr  Prof  (or simply Professore) or Maestro  Many professional titles, such as ingegnere (engineer) are awarded only upon passing a post-graduation examination (esame di stato), and registration in the relevant professional association 
The Superior Graduate Schools in Italy (Italian: Scuola Superiore Universitaria), also called Schools of Excellence (Italian: Scuole di Eccellenza) such as Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa and Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies keep their historical "Diploma di Perfezionamento" title by law and MIUR Decree 

Japan
Dissertation-only
Until the 1990s, most natural science and engineering doctorates in Japan were earned by industrial researchers in Japanese companies  These degrees were awarded by the employees' former university, usually after years of research in industrial laboratories  The only requirement is submission of a dissertation, along with articles published in well-known journals  This program is called ronbun hakase (論文博士)  It produced the majority of engineering doctoral degrees from national universities  University-based doctoral programs called katei hakase (課程博士), are gradually replacing these degrees  By 1994, more doctoral engineering degrees were earned for research within university laboratories (53%) than industrial research laboratories (47%)  Since 1978, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) has provided tutorial and financial support for promising researchers in Asia and Africa  The program is called JSPS RONPAKU 

Professional degree
The only professional doctorate in Japan is the Juris Doctor, known as Hōmu Hakushi (法務博士) The program generally lasts two or three years  This curriculum is professionally oriented, but unlike in the US the program does not provide education sufficient for a law license  All candidates for a bar license must pass the bar exam (Shihou shiken), attend the Legal Training and Research Institute and pass the practical exam (Nikai Shiken or Shihou Shushusei koushi) 

Netherlands and Flanders
The traditional academic system of the Netherlands provided basic academic diploma: propaedeuse and three academic degrees: kandidaat (the lowest degree), depending on gender doctorandus or doctoranda (drs ) (with equivalent degrees in engineering – ir  and law – mr ) and doctor (dr )  After successful completion of the first year of university, the student was awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree)  In some fields, this diploma was abolished in the 1980s  In physics and mathematics, the student could directly obtain a kandidaats (candidate) diploma in two years  The candidate diploma was all but abolished by 1989  It used to be attained after completion of the majority of courses of the academic study (usually after completion of course requirements of the third year in the program), after which the student was allowed to begin work on their doctorandus thesis  The successful completion of this thesis conveyed the doctoranda/us title, implying that the student's initial studies were finished  In addition to these 'general' degrees, specific titles equivalent to the doctorandus degree were awarded for law: meester (master) (mr ), and for engineering: ingenieur (engineer)(ir )  Following the Bologna protocol the Dutch adopted the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees  The old candidate's degree was revived to become the bachelor's degree and the doctorandus' (mr and ir degree) were replaced by master's degrees 
Students can only enroll in a doctorate system after completing a research university level master's degree; although dispensation can be granted on a case-by-case basis after scrutiny of the individual's portfolio  The most common way to conduct doctoral studies is to work as promovendus/assistent in opleiding (aio)/onderzoeker in opleiding (oio) (research assistant with additional courses and supervision), perform extensive research and write a dissertation consisting of published articles (over a period of four or more years, averaging about 5 5 to 6)  Research can also be conducted without official research assistant status, for example through a business-sponsored research laboratory 
Every Ph D  thesis has to be promoted by a full university professor or an associate professor  who has the role of principal advisor and holds the right to do so (ius promovendi)  The promotor (professor) determines whether the thesis quality suffices and can be submitted to the committee of experts  A committee of experts in the field review the thesis  Failures at this stage are rare because supervisors withhold inadequate work  The supervisors and promotor lose prestige among their colleagues should they allow a substandard thesis to be submitted 
After reviewer approval, the candidate publishes the thesis (generally more than 100 copies) and sends it to colleagues, friends and family with an invitation to the public defense  The degree is awarded in a formal, public, defense session, in which the thesis is defended against critical questions of the "opposition" (the review committee)  Failure during this session is possible, but rare  Before the defense there may or may not be a public presentation, lasting 10 minutes (e g  Eindhoven University of Technology) to exactly half hour (e g  Delft University of Technology)  The actual defense lasts exactly the assigned time slot (45 minutes to 1 hour exactly depending on the university) after which the defense is stopped by the bedel who closes the process 
The doctor's title is the highest academic title in the Netherlands  In research doctorates the degree is always Ph D  or dr  with no distinction between disciplines  Three Dutch universities of technology (Eindhoven University of Technology, Delft University of Technology, and University of Twente) also award a 2-year (industry oriented) Professional Doctorate in Engineering (PDEng), named EngD from September 2022 onwards  Those who obtained a degree in a foreign country can only use one of the Dutch titles drs , mr , ir , or dr if approved by the Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs though according to the opportunity principle, little effort monitors such frauds  Dutch doctors may use PhD behind their name instead of the uncapitalized shortcut dr  before their name Those who have multiple doctor (dr ) titles may use the title dr mult  Those who have received honoris causa doctorates may use dr h c  before their own name In Belgium's Flemish Community the doctorandus title was only used by those who actually started their doctoral work  Doctorandus is still used as a synonym for a Ph D  student  The licentiaat (licensee) title was in use for a regular graduate until the Bologna reform changed the licentiaat degree to the master's degree (the Bologna reform abolished the two-year kandidaat degree and introduced a three-year academic bachelor's degree instead) 

Russia
In the Russian Empire the academic degree "doctor of the sciences" (doktor nauk) marked the highest academic degree that can be achieved by an examination  (The "doctor nauk" degree was introduced in Russia in 1819, abolished in 1917, and revived in the USSR in 1934 ) This system was generally adopted by the USSR/Russia and many post-Soviet countries  A lower degree, "candidate [doctor] of the sciences" (kandidat nauk; first introduced in the USSR on January 13, 1934, by a decision of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR), is, roughly, the Russian equivalent to the research doctorate in other countries 

Spain
Doctoral degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R D  778/1998), Real Decreto (in Spanish)  They are granted by the university on behalf of the king  Its diploma has the force of a public document  The Ministry of Science keeps a national registry of theses called TESEO  According to the National Institute of Statistics (INE), fewer than 5% of M Sc  degree holders are admitted to Ph D  programmes 

All doctoral programs are research-oriented  A minimum of 4 years of study is required, divided into 2 stages:

A 2-year (or longer) period of studies concludes with a public dissertation presented to a panel of 3 Professors  Upon approval from the university, the candidate receives a Diploma de Estudios Avanzados (part qualified doctor, equivalent to M Sc )  From 2008 it is possible to substitute the former diploma by a recognized master program 
A 2-year (or longer) research period includes extensions for up to 10 years  The student must present a thesis describing a discovery or original contribution  If approved by their thesis director, the study is presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars  Any Doctor attending the public defense is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions  If approved, the candidate receives the doctorate  Four marks used to be granted: Unsatisfactory (Suspenso), Pass (Aprobado), Remarkable (Notable), "Cum laude" (Sobresaliente), and "Summa cum laude" (Sobresaliente Cum Laude)  Those Doctors granted their degree "Summa Cum Laude" were allowed to apply for an "Extraordinary Award" Since September 2012 and regulated by Royal Decree (R D  99/2011) (in Spanish), three marks can be granted: Unsatisfactory (No apto), Pass (Apto) and "Cum laude" (Apto Cum Laude) as maximum mark  In the public defense the doctor is notified if the thesis has passed or not passed  The Apto Cum Laude mark is awarded after the public defense as the result of a private, anonymous vote  Votes are verified by the university  A unanimous vote of the reviewers nominates Doctors granted Apto Cum Laude for an "Extraordinary Award" (Premio Extraordinario de Doctorado) 
In the same Royal Decree the initial 3-year study period was replaced by a Research master's degree (one or two years; Professional master's degrees do not grant direct access to Ph D  Programs) that concludes with a public dissertation called Trabajo de Fin de Máster or Proyecto de Fin de Máster  An approved project earns a master's degree that grants access to a Ph D  program and initiates the period of research 
A doctorate is required in order to teach at the university Only Ph D  holders, Grandees and Dukes can sit and cover their heads in the presence of the King From 1857, Complutense University was the only one in Spain authorised to confer the doctorate  This law remained in effect until 1954, when the University of Salamanca joined in commemoration of its septcentenary  In 1970, the right was extended to all Spanish universities All doctorate holders are reciprocally recognised as equivalent in Germany and Spain (according to the "Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994") 

United Kingdom
History of the UK doctorate
The doctorate has long existed in the UK as, originally, the second degree in divinity, law, medicine and music  But it was not until the late 19th century that the research doctorate, now known as the higher doctorate, was introduced  The first higher doctorate was the Doctor of Science at Durham University, introduced in 1882  This was soon followed by other universities, including the University of Cambridge establishing its ScD in the same year, the University of London transforming its DSc from an advanced study course to a research degree in 1885, and the University of Oxford establishing its Doctor of Letters (DLitt) in 1900 

The PhD was adopted in the UK following a joint decision in 1917 by British universities, although it took much longer for it to become established  Oxford became the first university to institute the new degree, although naming it the DPhil  The PhD was often distinguished from the earlier higher doctorates by distinctive academic dress  At Cambridge, for example, PhDs wear a master's gown with scarlet facings rather than the full scarlet gown of the higher doctors, while the University of Wales gave PhDs crimson gowns rather than scarlet  Professional doctorates were introduced in Britain in the 1980s and 1990s  The earliest professional doctorates were in the social sciences, including the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Education (EdD) and Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy) 

British doctorates today
Today, except for those awarded honoris causa (honorary degrees), all doctorates granted by British universities are research doctorates, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of an extensive and substantial thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university   UK doctorates are categorised as:
Junior doctorates

Subject specialist doctorates – normally PhD/DPhil; the most common form of doctorate
Integrated subject specialist doctorates – integrated PhDs including teaching at master's level
Doctorates by publication – PhD by Published Works; only awarded infrequently
Professional / practice-based / practitioner doctorates – e g  EdD, ProfDoc/DProf, EngD, etc ; usually include taught elements and have an orientation that combines professional and academic aspectsHigher doctorates
e g  DD, LLD, DSc, DLitt; higher level than junior doctorates, usually awarded either for a substantial body of work over an extended period or as honorary degrees The Quality Assurance Agency states in the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies (which covers junior doctorates but not higher doctorates) that:
Doctoral degrees are awarded to students who have demonstrated:
the creation and interpretation of new knowledge, through original research or other advanced scholarship, of a quality to satisfy peer review, extend the forefront of the discipline, and merit publication
a systematic acquisition and understanding of a substantial body of knowledge which is at the forefront of an academic discipline or area of professional practice
the general ability to conceptualise, design and implement a project for the generation of new knowledge, applications or understanding at the forefront of the discipline, and to adjust the project design in the light of unforeseen problems
a detailed understanding of applicable techniques for research and advanced academic enquiry
In the UK, the (junior) doctorate is a qualification awarded at FHEQ level 8/level 12 of the FQHEIS on the national qualifications frameworks  The higher doctorates are stated to be "A higher level of award", which is not covered by the qualifications frameworks 

Subject specialist doctorates
These are the most common doctorates in the UK and are normally awarded as PhDs  While the master/apprentice model was traditionally used for British PhDs, since 2003 courses have become more structured, with students taking courses in research skills and receiving training for professional and personal development  However, the assessment of the PhD remains based on the production of a thesis or equivalent and its defence at a viva voce oral examination, normally held in front of at least two examiners, one internal and one external  Access to PhDs normally requires an upper second class or first class bachelor's degree, or a master's degree  Courses normally last three years, although it is common for students to be initially registered for MPhil degrees and then formally transferred onto the PhD after a year or two  Students who are not considered likely to complete a PhD may be offered the opportunity to complete an MPhil instead Integrated doctorates, originally known as 'New Route PhDs', were introduced from 2000 onwards  These integrate teaching at master's level during the first one or two years of the degree, either alongside research or as a preliminary to starting research  These courses usually offer a master's-level exit degree after the taught courses are completed  While passing the taught elements is often required, examination of the final doctorate is still by thesis (or equivalent) alone  The duration of integrated doctorates is a minimum of four years, with three years spent on the research component In 2013, Research Councils UK issued a 'Statement of Expectations for Postgraduate Training', which lays out the expectations for training in PhDs funded by the research councils  In the latest version (2016), issued together with Cancer Research UK, the Wellcome Trust and the British Heart Foundation, these include the provision of careers advice, in-depth advanced training in the subject area, provision of transferable skills, training in experimental design and statistics, training in good research conduct, and training for compliance with legal, ethical and professional frameworks  The statement also encourages peer-group development through cohort training and/or Graduate schools 

Higher doctorates
Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body of original research undertaken over the course of many years  Typically the candidate submits a collection of previously published, peer-refereed work, which is reviewed by a committee of internal and external academics who decide whether the candidate deserves the doctorate  The higher doctorate is similar in some respects to the habilitation in some European countries  However, the purpose of the award is significantly different  While the habilitation formally determines whether an academic is suitably qualified to be a university professor, the higher doctorate does not qualify the holder for a position but rather recognises their contribution to research Higher doctorates were defined by the UK Council for Graduate Education (UKCGE) in 2013 as:
an award that is at a level above the PhD (or equivalent professional doctorate in the discipline), and that is typically gained not through a defined programme of study but rather by submission of a substantial body of research-based work 
In terms of number of institutions offering the awards, the most common doctorates of this type in UKCGE surveys carried out in 2008 and 2013 were the Doctor of Science (DSc), Doctor of Letters (DLitt), Doctor of Law (LLD), Doctor of Music (DMus) and Doctor of Divinity (DD); in the 2008 survey the Doctor of Technology (DTech) tied with the DD  The DSc was offered by all 49 responding institutions in 2008 and 15 out of 16 in 2013 and the DLitt by only one less in each case, while the DD was offered in 10 responding institutions in 2008 and 3 in 2013  In terms of number of higher doctorates awarded (not including honorary doctorates) the DSc was most popular, but the number of awards was very low: the responding institutions had averaged an award of at most one earned higher doctorate per year over the period 2003–2013 

Honorary degrees
Most British universities award degrees honoris causa to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field  Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending on the candidate's achievements  However, some universities differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates, using the degree of Doctor of the University (D Univ ) for these purposes, and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research 

United States
U S  research doctorates are awarded for advanced study followed by successfully completing and defending independent research presented in the form of a dissertation  Professional degrees may use the term "doctor" in their titles, such as Juris Doctor and Doctor of Medicine, but these degrees rarely contain an independent research component and are not research doctorates  Law school graduates, although awarded the J D  degree, are not normally addressed as "doctor"  In legal studies, the  Doctor of Juridical Science is considered the equivalent to a Ph D 
Many universities offer Ph D /D Phil  followed by a professional doctorate or joint Ph D /D Phil  with a professional degree  Often, Ph D  work is sequential to the professional degree, e g , Ph D /D Phil  in law after a J D  or equivalent in physical therapy after DPT, in pharmacy after Pharm D  Such professional degrees are referred to as an entry level doctorate program and Ph D  as a post-professional doctorate 

Research degrees
The most common research doctorate is the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph D  or D Phil )  This degree was first awarded in the U S  at the 1861 Yale University commencement  The University of Pennsylvania followed in 1871, with Cornell (1872), Harvard (1873), Michigan (1876)   and Princeton (1879) following suit  Controversy and opposition followed the introduction of the Ph D  into the U S  educational system, lasting into the 1950s, as it was seen as an unnecessary artificial transplant from a foreign (Germany) educational system, which corrupted a system based on England's Oxbridge model Ph D s and other research doctorates in the U S  typically entail successful completion of coursework, passing a comprehensive examination, and defending a dissertation The median number of years for completion of U S  doctoral degrees is seven  Doctoral applicants were previously required to have a master's degree, but many programs accept students immediately following undergraduate studies  Many programs gauge the potential of applicants to their program and grant a master's degree upon completion of the necessary course work  When so admitted, the student is expected to have mastered the material covered in the master's degree despite not holding one, though this tradition is under heavy criticism  Successfully finishing Ph D  qualifying exams confers Ph D  candidate status, allowing dissertation work to begin 
The International Affairs Office of the U S  Department of Education has listed 18 frequently awarded research doctorate titles identified by the National Science Foundation (NSF) as representing degrees equivalent in research content to the Ph D 

Professional degrees
Many fields offer professional doctorates (or professional master's) such as engineering, pharmacy, medicine, public health, dentistry, optometry, psychology, speech–language pathology,  physical therapy, occupational therapy, health science, advanced practice registered nurse, chiropractic, naturopathic medicine, law, architecture, education, teaching, business, management, and others that require such degrees for professional practice or licensure  Some of these degrees are also termed "first professional degrees", since they are the first field-specific master's or doctoral degrees 
A Doctor of Engineering (DEng) is a professional degree  In contrast to a PhD in Engineering where students usually conduct original theory-based research, DEng degrees are built around applied coursework and a practice-led project and thus designed for working engineers in the industry  DEng students defend their thesis at the end of their study before a thesis committee in order to be conferred a degree 
A Doctor of Pharmacy is awarded as the professional degree in pharmacy replacing a bachelor's degree  It is the only professional pharmacy degree awarded in the US  Pharmacy programs vary in length between 4 years for matriculants with a B S /B A  to 6 years for others 
In the twenty-first century professional doctorates appeared in other fields, such as the Doctor of Audiology in 2007  Advanced Practice Registered Nurses were expected to completely transition to the Doctor of Nursing Practice by 2015, and physical therapists to the Doctor of Physical Therapy by 2020  Professional associations play a central role in this transformation amid criticisms on the lack of proper criteria to assure appropriate rigor  In many cases Masters level programs were relabeled as doctoral programs 

Revocation
A doctoral degree can be revoked or rescinded by the university that awarded it  Possible reasons include plagiarism, criminal or unethical activities of the holder, or malfunction or manipulation of academic evaluation processes 

See also
Postdoctoral researcher
Compilation thesis
Habilitation thesis
Doctor (title)
Eurodoctorate
List of fields of doctoral studies
Passage 4:
Sandra Pizzarello
Sandra Pizzarello, D Bi Sc  was a Venetian biochemist known for her co-discovery of amino acid enantiomeric excess in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites  Her research interests concerned the characterization of meteoritic organic compounds in elucidating the evolution of planetary homochirality  Pizzarello was a project collaborator and co-investigator for the NASA Astrobiology Institute (NAI), the president of the International Society for the Study of the Origin of Life (2014-2017), and an emerita professor at Arizona State University (ASU) 

Early life and education
Sandra Pizzarello was born in Venice, Italy in 1933  In 1955, she graduated summa cum laude from the University of Padua earning her Doctor of Biological Sciences degree under her adviser Professor Roncato  Pizzarello went on to work as a research associate developing tranquilizers for Farmitalia Research Laboratories in the Department of Neuropharmacology  Over the course of several years, Pizzarello transitioned from research to raising a family  Following a career opportunity for her husband, an aeronautical engineer and computer scientist, she moved her family to Phoenix, Arizona in 1970 
Once Pizzarello's youngest of four children finished primary school, her focus returned to her career after a decade away from scientific research  She audited a graduate biochemistry seminar course at ASU where she met Professor John Cronin, future co-discoverer of amino acid enantiomeric excess in meteorites  Due to her outstanding performance in the course, she was offered a job to work with Cronin at the university as a research professor in analyzing the recently recovered Murchison meteorite 
Sandra Pizzarello died on October 24, 2021 

Research
Sandra Pizzarello's research over the last forty years involved the analysis of organic compounds in several carbonaceous chondrites, particularly molecular, chiral, and isotopic characterization of amino acids  Because the formation of these organic-rich meteorites pre-date the origin of life, they had been under investigation as potential sites of primal organic compounds which could shed light on abiogenesis, specifically the origin of biological homochirality  Such studies, however, had been inconclusive until 1997 when Cronin and Pizzarello detected 7-9% L-enantiomeric excesses of three abiological amino acids while analyzing the Murchison meteorite Given Earth's history of meteoric impacts and the observation that meteors contain an excess of the biologically relevant L-stereoisomer of certain amino acids, Pizzarello studied the effect of meteoritic amino acids in enantiomeric excess on the formation of other biological molecules  In one study, Pizzarello found that nonracemic solutions of abiological isovaline and proteinogenic alanine can direct the condensation of  glycolaldehyde to produce nonracemic solutions of threose and erythrose via an aldol reaction concluding that amino acids can act as asymmetric catalysts in carbohydrate synthesis  These findings support the origin of life hypothesis that homochirality originated prior to life and from extraterrestrial origins  However, Pizzarello's theoretical inquiries into cosmochemical evolution remain debated based on suspect analytical evidence of meteoritic enantiomeric excesses 

External links
# https://nai nasa gov/directory/pizzarello-sandra/ NASA gov
https://webapp4 asu edu/directory/person/274781
Passage 5:
Sandra Eades
Sandra Eades  (born 1967) is a Noongar physician, researcher and professor, and the first Aboriginal medical practitioner to be awarded a Doctorate of Philosophy in 2003  As of March 2020 she is Dean of Medicine at Curtin University 

Early life and education
Sandra Eades was born in Mount Barker, Western Australia and at the age of 12 moved to Perth with her family  In primary school she wanted to be a doctor but thought she would not have that opportunity as an Aboriginal girl  In 1985, at the age of 17, she arrived at University of Newcastle as one of four Aboriginal students selected for a special program to study medicine  She graduated from the University of Western Australia with a PhD in 2003 

Career
Eades worked in the public hospital system after graduating from medical school, and was a general practitioner with the Aboriginal Medical Service for seven years  She began her career researching the epidemiology of Indigenous child health in Australia at the Telethon Institute for Child Health Research  Her first research opportunity into causes of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) in Aboriginal infants in Western Australia, was introduced to her by 2003 Australian of the Year, Fiona Stanley  She has been recognised for "identifying links between social factors such as housing and infant health" As Head of Indigenous Maternal and Child Health, and Associate Head of Preventative Health Research at Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Eades won a number of grants for research in Indigenous health studies  She was senior research fellow at The Sax Institute in Sydney from 2004 to 2008, and an Adjunct Senior Lecturer in the School of Public Health at the University of Sydney from 2012 to 2013  Moving to Melbourne in mid-2008 she joined the Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute and in 2018 she became Associate Dean Indigenous at the University of Melbourne Eades was appointed Dean of the Curtin Medical School in March 2020 

Awards and honours
Eades's work in pediatric and perinatal epidemiology has improved the lives of Aboriginal women and children 
2005: Deadly award for Outstanding Achievement in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health, which she dedicated to her three-year-old child 
2006: NSW Woman of the Year  Nominated by Frank Sartor, the Minister for Science and Medical Research 
2014: Elected Fellow of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences (FAHMS) 
2015: Inaugural winner, Lowitja Institute Cranlana Award
2020: Elected Fellow of the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia (FASSA) 
2022: Officer of the Order of Australia for "distinguished service to medical research, to Indigenous health, and to professional organisations"
Passage 6:
Herbert A  Shepard
Herbert Allen Shepard (1919–1985) was a Canadian-born American organization behaviorist and economist who made a significant contribution to Organization Development He held faculty posts at several universities including M I T , where he received his doctorate in Industrial Economics  He founded and directed the first doctoral program in Organization Development at Case Western Reserve; developed a residency in administrative psychiatry at Yale University School of Medicine, and was also President of The Gestalt Institute of Cleveland and The Professional Development Institute 
Shepard conducted the first large-scale experiments in Organization Development, while at Esso in the late fifties, and served as principal consultant to TRW Systems in the applications of behavioral science to organizations and teams  He has published widely and was chairman of the Douglas Memorial Award Committee of the Journal of Applied Behavioral Science  His research advanced our understanding of human behavior and social systems from dyads (doctor-patient or consultant-client) to organizations (synergy, alternative dispute resolution, structure, building consensus and caring about the powerless)  It opened the way for further developments in the psychology of teams, leadership and  interpersonal compatibility; cognitive behavior therapy, social cognitive theory (educational psychology); choice theory;"Principled Negotiation"  26 September 2022 , positive psychology and organization development 
In management consulting, Shepard's clients included Bell-Northern Research, Syncrude, Esso, TRW, Connecticut General Life Insurance Company, Union Carbide, USAID and most of the departments of the federal governments of the U S A  and Canada 
Context 3: Passage 1:
Jerry Schumacher
Jerry Schumacher is an American coach for the University of Oregon track and field and cross country program, specializing in distance running  He has coached Olympic silver medalist and the former American women's 10k record holder Shalane Flanagan, former Canadian 10k record holder Simon Bairu, the former men's American 10k record holder Chris Solinsky, the men's American two mile record holder Matt Tegenkamp, and the women's NCAA 10k record holder Lisa Koll  Prior to 2008 he was the head coach of the University of Wisconsin–Madison track and field team During his college years at the University of Wisconsin, Schumacher specialized in the 1500m, an event in which he would become an All-American and set a personal best of 3:39 
After a brief period of post-collegiate running, Schumacher quickly transitioned into coaching, accepting a job as an assistant coach at the University of North Carolina 
The Head Men's Distance Coaching job at Wisconsin opened up, and it was an easy decision to move back to his home state and coach the Badgers  Over the next 9 years, Schumacher established Wisconsin as one of the premier distance schools in the country by bringing in top-level recruits and slowly developing his athletes 
He is now the coach of the Bowerman Track Club, a running club based in Portland, Oregon which has produced 28 Olympians during his tenure  In July 2022, the University of Oregon announced the hire of Schumacher as head Cross Country and Track and Field Coach, replacing Robert Johnson Schumacher is the father of 4 children 
Passage 2:
Ato Boldon
Ato Jabari Boldon  (born 30 December 1973) is a Trinidadian former track and field athlete, politician, and four-time Olympic medal winner  He holds the Trinidad and Tobago national record in the 50, 60 and 200 metres events with times of 5 64, 6 49 and 19 77 seconds respectively, and also the Commonwealth Games record in the 100 m  He also held the 100m national record at 9 86s, having run it four times until Richard Thompson ran 9 85s on 13 August 2011 
After retiring from his track career, Boldon was an Opposition Senator in the Trinidad and Tobago Parliament, representing the United National Congress from 2006–2007  Boldon works as an NBC Sports television broadcast analyst for track and field 

Career
Early life and junior career
Boldon was born in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago to a Jamaican mother, and Trinidadian father, Hope and Guy Boldon  He attended Fatima College (Secondary School) in Trinidad before leaving for the United States at age fourteen  In December 1989, as a soccer player at Jamaica High School in Queens, New York City, head track and field coach Joe Trupiano noticed his sprinting abilities during a soccer practice session In his first track season at age 16, Boldon finished with 21 20 seconds in the 200 metres and 48 40 seconds in the 400 metres, recording a double win at the Queens County Championships in 1990, and earning MVP honours  After transferring for his final year from Jamaica High to Piedmont Hills High School in San Jose, California, Boldon was selected to the San Jose Mercury News' Santa Clara all-county soccer team  He also continued to sprint, placing third in the 200 m at the CIF California State Meet in 1991  Athletics became his primary focus and he won the Junior Olympic Title that summer in Durham, North Carolina, in 200 m 
At 18, Boldon represented Trinidad and Tobago at 100 metres and 200 m in the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona but did not qualify in the first round of either event  Boldon returned to the junior circuit, winning the 100 m and 200 m titles at the IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics in Seoul, South Korea to become the first double sprint champion in World Junior Championships history 
Boldon was also an NCAA Champion while enrolled as a sociology major at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) in 1995 in the 200 m  In 1996, he secured an NCAA 100 m Championship in Eugene, Oregon in the final race of his collegiate career, setting an NCAA meet record of 9 92  Boldon also held the collegiate 100 m record with 9 90 s from 1996 until it was broken by Travis Padgett, who ran 9 89s, in 2008  Ngonidzashe Makusha later equalled this record at the 2011 NCAA Championships in Des Moines, Iowa

Senior athletics
Boldon won his first international senior-level medal at the 1995 World Championships, taking home the bronze in the 100 m  At the time, he was the youngest athlete ever at 21 years of age to win a medal in that event  The following year at the 1996 Summer Olympics, he again placed third in the 100 m and 200 m events, both behind world records  In 1997, he won the 200 m at the World Championships in Athens, Greece; his country's first world title in the Athletics World Championships  This made him one of only a few male sprinters to win both a World Junior and World Senior title 
The following year saw Boldon reaching the peak of his career, setting a new personal best and national record of 9 86 s in the 100 m at the Mt  SAC Relays in Walnut, California on 19 April and repeating the feat in Athens on 17 June  He picked up gold in the 100 m at the 1998 Commonwealth Games held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, setting a record time of 9 88 s, beating Namibia's Frankie Fredericks (9 96 s) and Barbados' Obadele Thompson (10 00 s)  The Commonwealth Games 100 m record remains unbroken In 1999, Boldon ran 9 86 s twice in the 100 m before sustaining a serious hamstring injury which forced him to miss the World Championships in Seville – the only Championship he missed in his career due to injury 
A silver medal in the 100 m and a bronze in the 200 m were Boldon's results of the 2000 Summer Olympics, which was a personal victory, considering his comeback from a career-threatening injury the year before  This win made him the most successful individual Olympic medallist from Trinidad and Tobago with four Olympic medals 
In 2001, Boldon tested positive at an early-season relay meet for the stimulant ephedrine, and was given a warning, but was not suspended or sanctioned, since ephedrine is a substance found in many over the counter remedies, and Boldon had been treating a cold  "It is in no way something where the blame is laid on the athlete," said IAAF General Secretary István Gyulai of the positive result 
Also in 2001, at the World Championships in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, Boldon finished fourth and out of the medals in the 100 m with 9 98 s, and then ran the second leg of his country's 4 x 100-metre relay, finishing third in the finals  This was Trinidad and Tobago's first 4 x 100 m relay medal in either World or Olympic competition and Boldon states that making national history with this team of young men (the average age of his teammates was 19) was his greatest accomplishment in his career  The colours of his 2001 World Championship medals would change in 2005 as both his placings were improved – he received bronze in the 100 m and the bronze relay medals were upgraded to silver after all the times and performances of the American sprinter Tim Montgomery (who was second in the 100 m and won the 4 x 100 m with the US team) were nullified due to serious doping violations  That brought Boldon's career total to four World Championship medals, to match his four Olympic medals 
Boldon was seriously injured in a head-on crash with a drunk driver in Barataria, Trinidad and Tobago, in July 2002, and never again ran sub-ten seconds in the 100 m or sub-twenty seconds for 200 m, something he had done on 37 separate occasions prior to 2002  In 2006, a judge in Trinidad found that Boldon was not at fault in that accident, and he was paid substantial damages as a result  That accident left Boldon with a serious hip injury, and he was a shadow of his former self as a sprinter  In 2004 at the Athens Olympic Games, he failed to advance out of the first round of the 100 m heats but captained his country's 4 x 100 m relay team to their first-ever Olympic final, where they finished seventh 
Boldon is the eighth person to win a medal for Trinidad and Tobago at the Olympics and currently has the third most wind-legal sub-10 second 100 m performances in history with 28, behind former training partner Maurice Greene, who has 52, and Jamaica's former 100 m World Record holder Asafa Powell, who leads with 97 
On 20 April 2008 The Observer published the contents of a letter believed to be by Boldon to John Smith, his former coach, accusing Smith, Maurice Greene of betraying him by obtaining banned drugs without his knowledge, lying about Greene competing without drugs and damaging his own career  But for a quote on the matter to HellenicAthletes com, a website he wrote for at the time, Boldon has had no further official comment 

Broadcasting
At the 1999 World Championships in Seville, Spain, Boldon could not compete due to a serious injury  The British Broadcasting Corporation hired him to do commentary and analysis for their coverage of those Championships  He proved popular with the audience and was invited back as a track-side analyst for the BBC coverage of the U S  Olympic Track and Field Trials in 2000, from Sacramento, California 
From 2005 to 2009, Boldon was in the broadcast booth for the U S  Television network CBS as part of their commentary team for the NCAA Outdoor Track and Field Championships  In June 2007, he made his debut for NBC Sports as an analyst for the 2007 U S  National Championships, and he also was an integral part of Versus and NBC's coverage of 2007 Osaka World Championships  In 2008, he was the sprint analyst at the US Olympic Track and Field Trials and the 2008 Summer Olympics for NBC Sports  Boldon was widely praised for his NBC work by the press, including the Los Angeles Times, USA Today and The New York Times which called him "one of NBC's best analysts, a blend of athletic smarts, charisma, precise analysis and brashness " In 2010, Boldon joined the only U S  track and field broadcast team he had not previously been a regular part of, ESPN, after the departure of their long-time analyst, Larry Rawson  In 2012, he continued his role as the NBC track and field analyst for the 2012 Summer Olympics  In 2013, for his 2012 London Olympic commentary, Boldon became the first and only track and field broadcaster in US history to be nominated for a Sports Emmy Award  He was nominated in the category of Outstanding Sports Personality, Sports Event Analyst  Cris Collinsworth, his friend and colleague from NBC Sports' Sunday Night Football, eventually won the Emmy, his fifth win in a row  Alongside Tom Feuer, Boldon has served as a game analyst for Track & Field events for the Pac-12 NetworkIn 2017, Boldon joined NASCAR on NBC's broadcast as a features contributor 

Politics
Boldon was sworn in on 14 February 2006 as a Senator representing the Opposition United National Congress following the resignation of former Senator Roy Augustus, who resigned on 13 February in a dispute over the leadership style of then Leader of the Opposition Basdeo Panday  Boldon resigned on 11 April 2007 after 14 months as a senator, also citing issues with Panday's leadership ability 

Media
In 2006, Boldon wrote, produced and directed a 73-minute DVD film entitled Once in a Lifetime: Boldon in Bahrain which documented his voyage with fellow fans and Trinidad and Tobago nationals to the Kingdom of Bahrain, where the country's soccer team, the Soca Warriors, defeated Bahrain 1–0 in a playoff to become the smallest country ever to qualify for the FIFA World Cup, qualifying to play at the Germany 2006 tournament 

Coaching
Boldon began coaching Khalifa St  Fort around 2012 and helped her improve her 100 m from 12 3 to 11 5 seconds after one month  St  Fort won the silver medal at the 2015 World Youth Championships in Athletics and a bronze in the relay at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics 

Personal life
Boldon married entertainment executive/manager Cassandra Mills in 1998 after a three-year courtship  Boldon and Mills divorced in 2007  They had no children together  He has one daughter from a previous relationship  He had a daughter with news anchor Neki Mohan in 2007  They split up in 2018  He resides in Florida  Boldon also holds U S  citizenship In 2000, Boldon was made a sports ambassador by the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago and given a diplomatic passport  He is widely viewed as one of the all-time leading sportsmen in the history of the Caribbean, as well as one of its most internationally recognizable spokesmen  When Trinidad and Tobago hosted the 2001 FIFA U-17 World Championship in association football, one of the new stadiums constructed for the tournament was located in Couva and named Ato Boldon Stadium  The only other island sprinter to have a stadium named after him is 1976 Olympic champion Hasely Crawford (Hasley Crawford Stadium located in the capital Port of Spain) 
Boldon is a qualified pilot, having earned his private pilot's license in August 2005  He is a member of the AOPA, Aircraft Owners and Pilot's Association 

Achievements
On 4 November 2011, Boldon was inducted into the UCLA Athletics Hall of Fame 

Competition record
Personal bests
All information taken from IAAF profile 
Passage 3:
Richard Thompson (sprinter)
Richard "Torpedo" Thompson (born 7 June 1985) is a sprinter from Trinidad and Tobago who specializes in the 100 metres  His personal best of 9 82 seconds, set in June 2014, was one of the top ten fastest of all time, and a national record  In the 200 meters he has the fourth fastest time by a Trinidad and Tobago athlete Thompson studied at Louisiana State University (LSU) and broke the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) indoor 60 metres record in 2008, his final season of collegiate athletics At the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Thompson was the silver medalist in the 100 meters, running a then personal best of 9 89 seconds, and the gold medalist in the 4x100 meters relay along with Emmanuel Callender, Keston Bledman and Marc Burns  He also won the silver medal in the 4x100 meters at the 2012 Olympics with the same team he competed in the 2008 Olympics with  Also in the 2012 Olympics, he finished 6th following the disqualification of Tyson Gay in the final of the 100 meters  Thompson is a five time Trinidad and Tobago national champion  His current personal best of 9 82 was set at the 2014 Trinidad and Tobago national championships In 2017, fellow sprinter and 2008 Olympic Games men's relay gold medalist Nesta Carter was sanctioned by the International Olympic Committee for doping at the 2008 event, retroactively awarding the Trinidad and Tobago team which included Thompson Olympic Gold 

Early life
Born on 7 June 1985 in Cascade, Port of Spain, Thompson is the last of four children of Ruthven and Judith Thompson  He attended Queen's Royal College in Port of Spain where he was coached by Ashwin Creed  He competed at the 2004 Hampton Games running a time of 10 65 in the 100 meters 

Amateur career
He ran for Louisiana State University as a member of the LSU Tigers track and field team and set NCAA Indoor record in the 60 metres in 2008   That year he won the NCAA Men's Outdoor Track Athlete of the Year Award and the SEC Men's Outdoor Track Athlete of the Year award 

Professional career
In his first World Championships in Athletics in Osaka in 2007, Thompson reached the second round but finished eighth in a time of 10 44 seconds  His personal best time is 9 89 seconds, achieved in August 2008 in Beijing, China, during the Olympic 100 m final where he won silver  Thompson's personal best for the 200 metres is 20 18 s which ran in Fayetteville for LSU  His 60 metres best is 6 51 s, achieved in March 2008 in Fayetteville  He won the relay gold medal at the 2008 Central American and Caribbean Championships with Trinidad and Tobago 
In the 2008 Summer Olympics he competed in the 100 m sprint and placed first in his heat ahead of Martial Mbandjock with a time of 10 24 s  He qualified for the second round, beating Tyson Gay and Mbandjock, with a winning time of 9 99 s  He qualified in the semi-finals with a time of 9 93 s, finishing second to Asafa Powell  In the final he finished in second place; he was far behind winner Usain Bolt (9 69 s) but his time of 9 89 s was enough to win the silver medal and set a new personal best  His new best time made him the second fastest Trinidadian 100 m sprinter ever, after Ato Boldon Together with Keston Bledman, Aaron Armstrong and Marc Burns he also competed at the 4 x 100 metres relay  In their qualification heat they placed first in front of Japan, the Netherlands and Brazil  Their time of 38 26 s was the fastest of all sixteen teams participating in the first round and they qualified for the final  Armstrong was replaced by Emmanuel Callender for the final race and they sprinted to a time of 38 06 s, the second time after the Jamaican team, winning the silver medal  In 2022, Thompson and his teammates received the gold medal due to Jamaica's Nesta Carter testing positive for the prohibited substance methylhexaneamine Thompson was involved in a car accident on 1 January 2009, resulting in minor injuries which caused him to miss the indoor athletics season  He competed at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics and reached the 100 m final, finishing in fifth place with a season's best of 9 93 seconds in fastest ever race at that point in time  He teamed up with fellow finalist Marc Burns for the relay and ran a national record time of 37 62 seconds to finish as runners-up behind the Jamaican team He achieved a 100/200 m double at the 2010 national championships  His season was highlighted by a win on the 2010 IAAF Diamond League circuit, taking the 100 m at the Prefontaine Classic with a wind-assisted time of 9 89 seconds  In August Thompson broke the national record with a run of 9 85 s at the 2011 national championships  The achievement, which ranked him ninth fastest in all-time lists, eclipsed Ato Boldon's record by 0 01 seconds  Despite this form, he failed to make the 100 m final at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics, being eliminated in the semis, although he did anchor the relay team to fifth place in the final 
At the 2012 national championships he had his win streak beaten by Keston Bledman and had to settle for second with his time of 9 96 seconds In the 2012 100m Olympic final, he gained the distinction of becoming the first man to break ten seconds and finish in seventh place



ground_truth: Sanskrit

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What organization does Sandra Pizzarello and Doctorate have in common?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: Passage 1:
Capital Cities (band)
Capital Cities is an American pop duo from Los Angeles, California, formed in 2008 by Ryan Merchant (vocals, keyboard, guitar) and Sebu Simonian (vocals, keyboard)  Their debut EP was released on June 7, 2011, with lead single "Safe and Sound" which became their first, and only, top ten hit single  The band currently consists of Ryan Merchant, Sebu Simonian, Manny Quintero on bass guitar, Spencer Ludwig on trumpet, Nick Merwin on guitar and Channing Holmes on drums 
A subsequent single, "Kangaroo Court", was released on March 27, 2012  The band was featured on the Pop Up #1 compilation selected by Perez Hilton that was released on August 7, 2012  The band's song "Safe and Sound" charted at #1 on the US Alternative Songs chart  The song was also used in a German Vodafone commercial, in a television commercial in the United States and Canada for the 2014 Mazda 3, and in an Air New Zealand in-flight safety video  The song "Center Stage" was featured on ESPN's First Take where they played a short segment of the retro-sounding track before going to commercial breaks 
The band's debut album, In a Tidal Wave of Mystery, was released June 4, 2013 via Capitol Records in partnership with Lazy Hooks  It was the first release of new material on Capitol with a Universal Music Group catalog number  The album debuted at number sixty-six on the Billboard 200 chart 

History
The two musicians met after Merchant responded to Simonian's open ad on Craigslist offering his production services  They began jingle-writing together  After three years successfully  composing music for commercials and advertising campaigns, the duo formed Capital Cities  The band released its debut, self-titled EP in June 2011 via their label, Lazy Hooks 
In 2012, the band signed with Capitol Records  In partnership with Lazy Hooks, the label released In a Tidal Wave of Mystery, the band's debut album, on June 4, 2013  The album takes its name from the lyrics of its top 10 Modern Rock radio hit "Safe and Sound",  the album's first single  The song has been used in promotional campaigns for HBO, Smart Car, Microsoft, Mazda and many other spots  The album includes the songs "Kangaroo Court" and "I Sold My Bed, But Not My Stereo"  Outkast's André 3000, vocalist Shemika Secrest and NPR's Frank Tavares are featured on the song "Farrah Fawcett Hair"  The album is produced and mixed entirely by the pair of Merchant and Simonian  The artwork is by Brazilian artist João Lauro Fonte 

The band embarked on its first-ever North American outing, the "Dancing with Strangers" tour, with special guests Gold Fields, which kicked off on April 23, 2013, at the Crescent Ballroom in Phoenix, Arizona  Capital Cities' May 9 show at New York City's Irving Plaza sold out two months in advance as well two nights at the El Rey Theatre in Los Angeles  All proceeds from the June 7 show at the El Rey went to MusiCares and a Place Called Home  The band has also appeared and performed at Sundance, SXSW, SweetLife, and ULTRA 
The band premiered the official video of "Safe and Sound" on April 25, 2013 on Vevo  The clip was directed by Grady Hall (who also has worked with Beck and Modest Mouse)  In the video, the song fuels a mash-up of the past 100 years of dance, presided over by the band at the newly restored Los Angeles Theater in downtown Los Angeles  The video featured work from Emmy-nominated choreographer Mandy Moore  The video was nominated for two 2013 MTV Video Music Awards: Best Art Direction and Best Visual Effects  The video won a 2013 MTV Video Music Award for Best Visual Effects 
In May 2013, "Safe and Sound" reached number one on the German Singles Chart 
September 5, 2013 marked the premiere of the "Kangaroo Court" music video  The video features appearances from Darren Criss, Shannon Woodward, and Channing Holmes  The story tells of a zebra (Merchant) who has been forbidden from a club, The Kangaroo Court  Attempting entry disguised as a horse, he falls for a lapdog (Woodward)  Her date that night, a bulldog (Criss), becomes jealous and reveals the zebra for who he actually is  The zebra is placed under arrest for his crime and sent to court to face a kangaroo judge (Holmes)  He is found guilty immediately and is executed by lion (Simonian) 
The band was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Music Video 
Capital Cities joined Katy Perry on the North American leg of her Prismatic World Tour 
In April and May 2016, nearly three years after the release of the band's debut album, the official Capital Cities Facebook page made two posts strongly suggesting that new music was in the works  Two years later, the band released four singles within the span of four weeks and followed up with the release of Solarize on August 10, 2018 as their latest album to date 

Discography
Studio albums
Extended plays
Singles
Notes
Awards and nominations
Passage 2:
Capital Cities/ABC Inc 
Capital Cities/ABC Inc  was an American media company  It was founded in 1985 when Capital Cities Communications purchased the much larger American Broadcasting Company  It was eventually acquired by The Walt Disney Company and re-branded itself as Disney–ABC Television Group (now Disney General Entertainment Content) in 1996 

History
Origins
Capital Cities/ABC Inc  origins trace back in 1946, when Hyman Rosenblum (1911–1996), a local Albany businessman, and several investors, including future Congressman Leo William O'Brien and local advertising executive Harry L  Goldman decided to bid for a new radio station license in Albany  Rosenblum was also instrumental in help co-founding Hudson Valley Community College in Troy several years later, when he was on the Board of Trustees from 1953 to 1957 and then became the board's secretary in 1957, holding that position until his death in 1996  The company was incorporated as Hudson Valley Broadcasting Company on April 5, 1946   when the company received the license for WROW radio in Albany, New York  In October 1953, it opened the Albany-Schenectady-Troy area's second television station, WROW-TV on channel 41  In the late fall of 1954, a group of New York City-based investors, led by famous radio broadcaster and author Lowell Thomas, bought majority control of Hudson Valley Broadcasting from Rosenblum and associates  Thomas' manager/investing partner, Frank Smith became the President of the company 

The Capital Cities era
In 1956, WROW-TV moved from channel 41 to channel 10 and became WCDA  In 1957, Hudson Valley Broadcasting merged with Durham Broadcasting Enterprises, the owners of WTVD television in Durham, North Carolina   The new company took the name Capital Cities Television Corporation in November 1957, as both WROW/WCDA (now WTEN) and WTVD served the capital regions of their respective states  Capital Cities then began purchasing stations, starting with WPRO-AM-FM-TV in Providence, Rhode Island (another capital city) in 1959  In December 1959, the company's name was changed to Capital Cities Broadcasting During the 1960s, Capital Cities' holdings grew with the separate 1961 purchases of WPAT-AM-FM in Paterson, New Jersey, and WKBW radio and WKBW-TV in Buffalo, New York; and of the Goodwill Stations, which included WJR-AM-FM in Detroit, WJRT-TV in Flint, Michigan, and WSAZ-AM-TV in Huntington, West Virginia (serving the Charleston capital region), in 1964   CapCities entered the Los Angeles market in 1966 with its purchase of KPOL (later KZLA and now the present-day KMPC) and KPOL-FM (later KZLA-FM and now KLLI)  As a result of the Goodwill Stations purchase, and to adhere to Federal Communications Commission rules limiting ownership of VHF television stations to five per company, Capital Cities spun off WJRT-TV to Poole Broadcasting, a company owned by former CapCities shareholder John B  Poole  Poole's own Poole Broadcasting firm would later purchase two other television stations from CapCities: the second was WPRO-TV (now WPRI-TV) in 1967, coinciding with CapCities' purchase of KTRK-TV in Houston from the Houston Chronicle in June of that year In 1968, Capital Cities entered the publishing business by acquiring Fairchild Publications, publisher of several magazines including Women's Wear Daily   The following year the firm purchased its first newspaper, The Oakland Press of Pontiac, Michigan 
The following year, the company made another big purchase—acquiring WFIL-AM-FM-TV in Philadelphia, WNHC-AM-FM-TV in New Haven, Connecticut (in another capital region), and KFRE-AM-FM-TV in Fresno, California from Triangle Publications, as well as its syndicated television unit Triangle Program Sales  Capital Cities would immediately sell the radio stations to new owners, and, so as to comply with an FCC rule in place then that prohibited TV and radio stations in the same market, but different ownership from sharing the same callsigns, changed the television stations' calls to WPVI-TV, WTNH-TV, and KFSN-TV respectively  The acquisitions of WPVI and WTNH gave them seven VHF stations, two stations over the FCC limit at the time, and WTEN and WSAZ-TV were respectively spun off by CapCities to Poole Broadcasting and Lee Enterprises not long after the Triangle purchase was finalized  After the sale was consummated, its syndicated unit was renamed to Capital Cities Television Productions  Charles Keller was named general manager of the unit  WSAZ radio in Huntington was divested to Stoner Broadcasting (it is now WRVC), also as a result of the Triangle deal  To reflect the diversity of their holdings, the company changed its name to Capital Cities Communications on May 4, 1973 In 1974, Capital Cities bought WBAP and KSCS-FM in Fort Worth, Texas, along with its purchase of the Fort Worth Star-Telegram  The firm also increased its newspaper and publishing holdings during the middle-1970s  In 1974, Capital Cities acquired the Oregon-based Jackson Newspapers chain, which included the Albany Democrat-Herald, the Ashland Daily Tidings, and several other local newspapers and magazines  The Kansas City (Missouri) Star was acquired in 1977, and the following year CapCities bought Times Leader of Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania In 1977, the company was a lead plaintiff in a lawsuit by the owners of Buffalo-based TV stations against the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission over that country's simultaneous substitution rules  The Supreme Court of Canada ruled against the broadcasters 
Returning to broadcasting, WBIE-FM (now WKHX-FM) in Marietta, Georgia (near Atlanta, another capital city), was bought in 1981   WROW radio in Albany, the company's first station, and its FM counterpart (which is now WYJB) were sold in 1983, and in 1984 the company made its last pre-ABC-merger purchases with independent station WFTS-TV in Tampa, Florida and KLAC radio in Los Angeles (concurrent with the sale of KZLA) 

Capital Cities/ABC
On March 19, 1985, Capital Cities announced that it would purchase ABC for $3 5 billion, which shocked the media industry, as ABC was some four times bigger than Capital Cities was at the time  Berkshire Hathaway chairman Warren Buffett helped to finance the deal in exchange for a 25 percent share in the combined company  The deal was, at the time, the largest non-oil merger in world business history  However, this record would be surpassed by year's end by the merger of General Electric and RCA (the latter company then being the parent company of rival network NBC) The newly merged company, known as Capital Cities/ABC (or CapCities/ABC), was forced to sell off some stations due to FCC ownership limits  Between them, ABC and CapCities owned more television stations than FCC rules allowed at the time  Also, the two companies owned several radio stations in the same markets  Of the former Capital Cities television stations, the new company opted to keep the outlets in Philadelphia, Houston, Durham, and Fresno  WFTS and ABC's WXYZ-TV in Detroit were divested as a pair to the E  W  Scripps Company's broadcasting division (then known as Scripps-Howard Broadcasting)  WTNH and WKBW-TV were sold separately to minority-owned companies; WKBW-TV would eventually be acquired by E W  Scripps by 2014  WTNH would have been sold in any event due to a significant city-grade signal overlap with ABC flagship WABC-TV in New York City  At the time, the FCC normally did not allow companies to own two television stations with common coverage areas (known commonly as the "one-to-a-market" rule), and would not even consider granting a waiver for a city-grade overlap 
The merged company could have been forced to sell off WPVI as well due to a large Grade B signal overlap with WABC-TV  Citing CBS' ownership of television stations in New York City (WCBS-TV) and Philadelphia (at the time WCAU-TV) under grandfathered status, Capital Cities/ABC requested, and was granted a permanent waiver from the FCC allowing it to keep WPVI-TV  Had the waiver request been denied, WXYZ-TV would have been retained 
WPVI-TV and KTRK-TV had long been ABC affiliates (in fact, two of ABC's strongest affiliates), while WTVD and KFSN-TV, longtime CBS affiliates, respectively switched to ABC in August and September 1985 (CBS went to WRAL-TV and KJEO now KGPE) 
On the radio side, new owners were found for CapCities' WPAT stations (Park Communications was the buyer), WKBW (Price Communications, the new owner, changed its call letters to WWKB, which was necessitated due to an FCC regulation in effect then that forbade TV and radio stations in the same city, but with different owners from sharing the same call letters) and KLAC and KZLA-FM (to Malrite Communications), and ABC's WRIF-FM in Detroit (to a minority-owned concern), among others The merger was completed on January 3, 1986   The new company retained ABC's radio and television combinations in New York City (WABC, WABC-TV and WPLJ), Los Angeles (KABC, KABC-TV and KLOS), Chicago (WLS, WLS-FM and WLS-TV), and San Francisco (KGO and KGO-TV), along with WMAL and WRQX-FM in Washington, D C ; CapCities' aforementioned television outlets and the Detroit, Providence, Marietta and Fort Worth radio stations; Fairchild Publications; the Fort Worth Star-Telegram and the Kansas City Star; and other broadcasting and publishing properties  Orbis Communications immediately purchased the syndication rights to the Capital Cities production library In May 1991, Capital Cities/ABC's Farm Progress Cos  closed its purchase of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc 's 12-magazine farm publishing group  In 1992, Capital Cities/ABC sold Word Inc 's music and book publishing to Thomas Nelson  In 1992, ABC launched its new home video unit ABC Video, which was headed by former Vestron Video employee Jon Peisinger  In February 1993, the company formed a television production joint venture with Brillstein-Grey Entertainment to tap into their managed talent and to take advantage of relaxed production regulations   In July, CC/ABC purchased a majority ownership in animation studio DIC Animation City, forming a joint venture called DIC Entertainment L P  Later in July, CC/ABC reorganized into 4 groups, ABC TV Network Group, CC/ABC Publishing Group, the CC/ABC Broadcast Group, and a newly formed CC/ABC Multimedia Group overseeing the network, magazines & newspapers, stations and new technology & miscellaneous operations respectively  Network Group president Bob Iger was also promoted to executive president of CC/ABC  Also in 1993, ABC launched a new video line Signet Video, which were designed to release feature films for theatrical release or telemovies  It was subsequently changed its name to Summa Video, and signed a deal with Paramount Home Video to handle distribution of the titles In 1994, CC/ABC agreed to a $200 million seven-year television production joint venture with the original DreamWorks live-action studio  Also that year, CC/ABC formed a partnership with Brillstein/Grey Entertainment to launch Brillstein/Grey Communications During the 1994-1996 United States broadcast TV realignment, the Fox Broadcasting Company agreed to a multi-year, multi-station affiliation deal with New World Communications  Unless Scripps told that they would affiliate the other three stations to ABC and threatened to flip WEWS and WXYZ to CBS, Capital Cities/ABC and Scripps-Howard Broadcasting reached a deal to affiliate five of the Scripps-Howard TV properties with ABC (WEWS, WXYZ, two outgoing Fox affiliates KNXV and WFTS, and NBC affiliate WMAR-TV), with one additional outlet received in a separate deal (CBS affiliate WCPO) in September 1995  As a contingency, ABC bought WJRT-TV in Flint, Michigan and WTVG in Toledo, Ohio from SJL Broadcasting in 1995  In a separate deal, Allbritton Communications purchased WCFT-TV and WJSU-TV, and made them full power satellites of WBMA-LP; this prompted Allbritton to sign a groupwide affiliation deal with ABC which caused WCIV and Brunswick sister station WBSG-TV (now Ion Television O&O WPXC-TV) to become ABC affiliates  The latter had joined ABC as a semi-satellite of WJXX, which replaced WJKS as Jacksonville's ABC affiliate upon its 1997 sign-on)  In a separate deal, McGraw-Hill had to switch KERO-TV (channel 23) in Bakersfield, California; and KMGH-TV (channel 7) in Denver to ABC, and a renewal of the affiliation agreements with existing ABC affiliates WRTV (channel 6) in Indianapolis and KGTV (channel 10) in San Diego  This deal was made in response of the agreement stemming from NBC's acquisition of WCAU and the trade of KCNC and KUTV to CBS The Walt Disney Company announced that it would merge with Capital Cities/ABC in 1995  This merger of equals led to the formation of a new subsidiary, ABC, Inc , on September 19, 1996 

Structure at Disney acquisition
ABC Television Network Group
ABC News
ABC Sports
ABC Entertainment
ABC Daytime
ABC Children's Programming
CC/ABC Broadcasting Group
ABC Radio Network
eight TV stations
21 radio stations
ABC Cable and International Broadcast Group
ESPN Inc  (80%)
Eurosport (33 3%, England)
TV Sport (10%, France; Eurosport affiliate)
The Japan Sports Channel (20%)
A&E Television Networks (37 5%)
Lifetime Television (50%)
Tele-Muchen (50%, Germany)
RTL2 20%
Hamster Productions  (33%, France)
DIC Entertainment (Limited Partnerships with Andy Heyward)
DIC Entertainment, L P  (100%)
DIC Productions, L P  (95%)
Scandinavian Broadcasting System (23%, Luxembourg)
CC/ABC Publishing Group
Fairchild Publications
Chilton Publications
multiple newspapers from a dozen dailies  and more weeklies
Ft  Worth Star-Telegram
The Kansas City Star
Belleville News-Democrat
Times Leader
Pacific Northwest GroupAlbany Democrat-Herald
Ashland Daily Tidings
The Sandy Post
Lebanon Express
Cottage Grove Sentinel
The Outlook
News-Times (Newport)
The Oakland Press
dozens more publications in the fields of business and law trade journals
Farm Progress
Los Angeles Magazine
Institutional Investor
CC/ABC Multimedia GroupCreative Wonders (Joint-venture with Electronic Arts)

Former Capital Cities-owned stations
Stations are listed alphabetically by state and city of license 
Notes:

(**) – indicates a station built and signed on by a predecessor company of Capital Cities 

Television stations
This list does not include WTVG in Toledo, Ohio  That station, which switched its affiliation from NBC to ABC, was purchased by Capital Cities/ABC in 1995, and was completed just before Disney's acquisition of the combined group was finalized  In addition, WJRT-TV was reacquired in the same deal 

Radio stations
All stations currently under ownership of Cumulus Media were previously owned by Citadel Broadcasting before Cumulus acquired the company on September 16, 2011  Most of these same stations were owned by the Walt Disney Company until Citadel's purchase of ABC Radio Networks and these stations on June 12, 2007 (except for WPRO-AM-FM, which were sold by Capital Cities/ABC in 1993 and acquired by Citadel in 1997) 

Financial results
Passage 3:
Thomas Murphy (broadcasting)
Thomas Sawyer Murphy (May 31, 1925 – May 25, 2022) was an American broadcasting executive, and was chair and chief executive officer of Capital Cities / ABC, Inc  until 1996  Together with fellow Capital Cities executive Daniel Burke, Murphy engineered the acquisition of the American Broadcasting Company in 1986 for $3 5 billion  Murphy and Burke, who served as president and chief executive of ABC until 1994, are credited with increasing the profitability and efficiency of ABC 

Early life
Murphy was born in Brooklyn on May 31, 1925   His father, Charles, was a lawyer involved in Democratic Party politics and later worked as a judge in the Judiciary of New York; his mother, Elizabeth (Sawyer), was a homemaker   Murphy initially studied at Princeton University, before enlisting in the US Navy and serving from 1943 to 1946   He then studied mechanical engineering at Cornell University, graduating with a Bachelor of Science in 1945   After his application to Harvard Business School was rejected, he was employed by Texaco as an oil salesman for a year   He was later accepted by Harvard and obtained a Master of Business Administration in 1949, graduating as a Baker Scholar 

Career
Murphy first worked at Kenyon & Eckhardt as an account executive, before becoming a brand manager for Lever Brothers   His fortunes changed when broadcaster and author Lowell Thomas, and his business manager/partner, Frank Smith, led a New York City-based investor group to buy control of Albany, New York-based Hudson Valley Broadcasting Company, in 1954 and hired Murphy to run the WROW stations as their new general manager  Although Murphy did not have any broadcast experience, his leadership and conservative financial restraint helped bring WROW-TV (now WTEN) to profitability three years later   In December 1957, Hudson Valley merged with Durham Television Enterprises, owners of WTVD in Durham, North Carolina, to form Capital Cities Television Corporation, which later became Capital Cities Broadcasting Corp  in 1960 and Capital Cities Communications thirteen years later Murphy moved up quickly in the ranks of the company   He became Capital Cities' first vice president in 1960   Four years later, he was promoted to president while Smith moved up to become the company's first chairman   After Smith's unexpected death in 1966, Murphy became chairman and chief executive officer, a position that he held for the next 30 years   Under his leadership, he helped build Capital Cities from a small broadcasting company into a multibillion-dollar media conglomerate  He then got into the publishing and newspaper business by buying Fairchild Publications in 1968, and then bought several newspapers including The Kansas City Star and Fort Worth Star-Telegram  Murphy's biggest acquisition came in 1985 when he bought the American Broadcasting Company for $3 5 billion to form Capital Cities/ABC  The merger was engineered by Murphy and the man who replaced him as WTEN's station manager, Daniel B  Burke, who became ABC's president 
In 1995 Capital Cities / ABC was bought by Disney  He was a member of the board of directors of Berkshire Hathaway, General Housewares Corp , Texaco, Inc , Johnson & Johnson, and IBM Corporation and a life trustee and honorary vice chair of New York University 

Personal life and death
Murphy was married to Suzanne Crosby Murphy until her death in 2009  Together, they had four children: Emilie, Thomas Jr , Kathleen, and Mary  Murphy died on May 25, 2022, at his home in Rye, New York 

Awards
Television Hall of Fame
1996 NATPE Lifetime Achievement Award

Citations
General and cited sources
"Thomas S  Murphy", Encyclopedia of television, Editor Horace Newcomb, CRC Press, 2004, ISBN 978-1-57958-411-5
Forbes, Malcolm S  "Mighty CEOs Who are Also All-round Nice Guys are Rare " Forbes (New York), December 11, 1989 
Gibbs, Nancy  "Easy as ABC " Time (New York), August 14, 1995 
Hawver, W  Capital Cities/ABC The Early Years: 1954-1986 How the Minnow Came to Swallow The Whale  Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton, 1994 
Ländler, Mark  "Creators of the Big Deal, Capital Cities' Tandem Team " The New York Times, August 1, 1995 
Roberts, Johnnie L  "The Men Behind the Big Megadeals " Newsweek (New York), August 14, 1995 

External links
"TOM MURPHY", Harvard Business School, December 2000, Amy Blitz
Passage 4:
Wandu
Hwando (Chinese: 丸都; pinyin: Wandu) is a mountain fortress of the ancient Korean kingdom of Goguryeo, built to protect Goguryeo's second capital, Gungnae  It is located in present-day Ji'an city of the province of Jilin, China 
The fortress is located 2 5 km west of Ji'an, Jilin province in Northeast China, near the North Korean border  It is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom, together with nearby Gungnae City and the Ohnyeosan City, because of its historical importance and exceptional architecture 

History
In 3 CE, King Yuri of Goguryeo moved the capital to Gungnae Fortress, and built the Wina Rock fortress  Gungnae Fortress, the capital, was a fortress on Amnok River's plain, while "Wina Rocks fortress" (Hangul: 위나암성, Hanja: 尉那巖城) was a fortified city in the mountain which was later renamed to Hwando by King Sansang of Goguryeo 
Goguryeo consolidated its power and began to threaten the Chinese commanderies, under the nominal control of Wei  In 242, Dongcheon attacked a Chinese fortress near the mouth of the Amnok River leading to the Goguryeo–Wei War; in 244, Wei invaded Goguryeo and sacked Hwando Goguryeo ended China's presence on the Korean peninsula by conquering the Lelang commandery in 313  However, Goguryeo faced opposition by the proto-Mongol Xianbei who had conquered northern China; the Murong clan of the Xianbei attacked Goguryeo and sacked Hwando in 341, capturing thousands of prisoners to provide cheap labor  The Xianbei also devastated Buyeo in 346, accelerating Buyeo migration to the Korean peninsula



ground_truth: University

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In what event was Harold Davis a former record holder, but now is held by Usain Bolt?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  However, upon the disqualification of Tyson Gay due to doping, Thompson was promoted to sixth place 
During the 2014 national championships he won the finals, improving the national record with a run of 9 82 s, becoming one of the 10 fastest 100 m runners ever 

Major competition record
1Disqualified in the final

Personal bests
60 m and 200 m taken from IAAF profile
100 m taken from NAAA TT Website

Notes
Passage 4:
Harold Davis (athlete)
Harold Davis may refer to:

H  L  Davis (1894–1960), Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist
Harold A  Davis, pulp fiction author working under the pseudonym Kenneth Robeson, 1930s, 1940s
Harold Davis (American football) (1934–2007), American quarterback
Harold Davis (footballer) (1933–2018), Scottish footballer who played for Rangers F C 
Harold Davis (sprinter) (1921–2007), American sprinter and former world record holder
Harold Davis (photographer) (born 1953), American photographer and author
Harold Thayer Davis (1892–1974), American mathematician

See also
Harold Davies (disambiguation)
Harry Davis (disambiguation)
Passage 5:
I Am Bolt
I Am Bolt is a 2016 British biographical documentary sports film co-directed by Benjamin Turner and Gabe Turner and produced by Leo Pearlman  It is based on the life of Jamaican sprinter and three times Olympic gold medalist and World Record holder for 100m, 200m, 4×100m relay, Usain Bolt, the fastest man in recorded human history The film describes Bolt's journey in winning nine gold medals and the incidents surrounding the Olympic titles  The film was released on 28 November 2016 in United Kingdom and then worldwide  The film received mostly positive reviews from critics 

Cast
Usain Bolt himself
Pelé himself
Neymar himself
Serena Williams herself
Asafa Powell himself
Sebastian himself
Ziggy Marley himself
Nas with voice
Glen Mills himself
Ricky Simms himself
Chronixx himself
Yohan Blake himself
Maurice Greene himself
Wellesley and Jennifer Bolt – his parents themselves
Dwayne Jarrett – Bolt's school coach himself
Nugent Walker – Bolt's manager himself
Dwayne Barnett himself

Reception
Critical response
I Am Bolt received positive reviews  On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 83% based on 242 reviews, with an average rating of 7/10  The site's critical consensus reads, "
Bolt's golden era may be too recent and the sponsors too dominant for any real warts to be included, but his charm and sheer physical wonder make this a compelling watch regardless "Justin Lowe of The Hollywood Reporter reacted positively, saying: "Athletic achievements don’t get much more unbeatable than the records held by Jamaican runner Usain Bolt, who’s won nine consecutive Olympic gold medals and even more World Championship awards  Considered the fastest sprinter who’s ever logged track time, Bolt is a hero to millions and admired on a level comparable to global sports legends like Muhammad Ali and Pele "Xan Brooks of The Guardian gave it 2/5, stating "Fans of Usain Bolt will find much to relish in this gushing homage to the nine-time Olympic gold medallist, which chases its idol from his 2015 slump, via scenes of downtime in Jamaica to the podium in Rio 
Passage 6:
Glen Mills
Glen Mills OD (born 14 August 1949) is a sprinting athletics coach from Jamaica  He was the head coach of the Jamaican Olympic athletics team between 1987 and 2009  He is currently head coach of the Racers Track Club which includes world and Olympic record holder Usain Bolt and the 100-metre World Champion Yohan Blake  Other athletes that he has coached in the past include Kim Collins, and Ray Stewart 

Early years
Mills enjoyed athletics from an early age and, after moving to Camperdown High School, promptly joined the sprinting team at age 13  After his first year he was dissatisfied with his performances and gave up on the idea of becoming a professional sprinter  Despite this setback Mills was still enamoured with athletics and frequently attended the practice meetings to watch the others run  The high school coach, Henry McDonald Messam, noticed his interest and reluctance to participate and so assigned him various tasks and chores to keep him busy  Two years after, Mills had learnt well from the head coach and was given the job of coaching a class of younger track and field athletes  He retained the job after graduation, progressing to form an official part of the Camperdown High School coaching staff  The arrival of a new head of the sports department threatened Mills coaching opportunities and he was sacked in favour of a more experienced coach  The move backfired as many of the school's better athletes chose to stand by Mills, training with him at his new, unofficial training ground  Mills was quickly reinstated at the school and went on to train many successful sprinters, including Olympic silver medallist Raymond Stewart By the early 1970s, Mills had trained a significant number of male sprinters in the national junior team  The Jamaica Amateur Athletic Association (JAAA) called on him to work on the team, for the CARIFTA Games  Following this appointment Mills became a prominent coach in the Jamaican athletics scene  He continued to work on his coaching style and earned a diploma from the International Olympic Committee training centre in Mexico and a qualification in High-Level Sprint Tech training at the IAAF Training Centre in Puerto Rico  During his time as a coach in Jamaica he has worked with a number of Caribbean athletes including Yohan Blake, Aleen Bailey, Xavier Brown, Leroy Reid and Kim Collins  In addition, Mills also coached British sprinter Dwain Chambers when his athletics ban expired 

Training Bolt
Mills was approached by Usain Bolt shortly after the Athens Olympics and he became the sprinter's coach in late 2004  Bolt was initially a 200 metres specialist but Mills suggested that his young charge should improve his stamina to run over 400 metres  With upcoming competitions for Bolt, there was no time for him to prepare for 400m and Bolt asked if he could run the 100m  Bolt completed 100m in 10 03, an excellent time without any explosive training    At the 2007 Jamaican Championships in June, Bolt broke Donald Quarrie's 36-year-old record by 0 11 seconds, running 19 75 seconds  Mills agreed to Bolt's demands and let him run the 100 m event  The acceptance of the request paid dividends for both sprinter and coach as Mills was impressed with Bolt's new drive and focus in training  By the end of 2007, Mills was pleased with Bolt's performances and the coaching had improved his technique, particularly with a more efficient stride frequency and better balancing  In a trade-off the two agreed to a two part training programme in preparation for the 2008 Beijing Olympics  Mills would help Bolt work on his speed for the 100 m initially then turn his focus to the stamina needed for the 200 m  The program paid off as Bolt set three world records and took gold in both 100 m and 200 m events in Beijing  Bolt praised Mills, saying it was his coaching which made him improve, not only as an athlete, but also as a person  Despite Bolt's unprecedented achievements in Beijing, Mills still felt he could improve if his stride frequency was further improved and his technique perfected Mills stepped down as the Olympic Jamaican athletics coach in late 2009, having overseen athletes to 71 world championship and 33 Olympic medals in his 22 years in the role  He said other prominent coaches deserved a chance at undertaking the position and decided he wanted to focus more on his Racers Track Club team 

Drug controversy
In June 2009, five Jamaican athletes were found positive for banned substances  At least two of the athletes belong to the Racers Track Club and were coached by Mills  The athletes were later revealed to be Yohan Blake, Marvin Anderson, Allodin Fothergill, Lansford Spence and Sheri-Ann Brooks, who all tested positive for the stimulant Methylhexanamine, a compound similar to Tuaminoheptane, and were subsequently banned for three months by the Jamaica Anti-Doping Commission 

Awards
NACAC Coach of the Year 2008
Passage 7:
Kozo Haraguchi
Kozo Haraguchi (原口 幸三, Haraguchi Kōzō, June 20, 1910 in Kobayashi, Miyazaki – January 11, 2011 in Miyazaki City, Kyushu) was a track and field athlete and former World Masters Athletics record holder in the 100 m sprint for men aged 90–94 (18 08 seconds, 2000) as well as the former record holder for men aged 95–100 (21 69 seconds, August 27, 2005)  Haraguchi began competing in track and field events when he turned 65, with his exercise regimen which included a one-hour walk every morning 
Passage 8:
Mosito Lehata
Mosito Lehata (born 8 April 1989 in Maseru) is a Mosotho athlete competing in sprinting events  He is the current holder of the Lesotho national record for the 100-meter at 10 11 seconds, and has consistently won the national track championships on shorter tracks  He was eliminated in the first round of the men's 200 m event at the 2012 Summer Olympics  Lehata found success in the 200 m event at the 2013 World Championships in Athletics when he finished in the first round ahead of Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt and advanced to the semifinals   He set a new national record in the 200 m at the 2014 Commonwealth Games, finishing in 4th, four hundredths of a second behind the bronze medal winner At the 2016 Summer Olympics, he competed in the 100 m and 200 m events  He finished 4th in his heat for the 100 m with a time of 10 25 seconds and did not qualify for the semifinals  He finished 7th in his heat for the 200 m with a season best time of 20 65 seconds, but did not qualify for the semifinals  He was the flagbearer for Lesotho during the Parade of Nations 

Competition record
1Did not start in the semifinals
2Disqualified in the semifinals
3Did not finish in the semifinals

Personal bests
Outdoor

100 metres – 10 11 (+1 4 m/s, Réduit 2015)
200 metres – 20 36 (+0 5 m/s, Glasgow 2014)Indoor

60 metres – 7 00 (Istanbul 2012)
Passage 9:
Warren Weir
Warren Weir (born October 1989) is a retired Jamaican sprinter, who specialized in the 200 metres  He was the bronze medallist in the event at the 2012 London Olympics, helping Jamaica sweep the medals  In 2013 at the Moscow World Championships, Warren Weir won the silver medal equalling his personal best  He finished behind Usain Bolt who set a World Leading time  His personal best is 19 79 seconds set at the National Stadium in his home country Kingston, Jamaica  He has since equalled his personal best in Moscow, in the World Championship final  He trained with the Glen Mills-coached Racers Track Club, alongside Usain Bolt and Yohan Blake 

Career
At the start of his career, Weir competed in the short sprints and the 110 metres hurdles  Born in Trelawny Parish, he ran the 100 m and 200 m for Calabar High School at the Jamaican High School Championships  At the 2007 Jamaican junior championships he set a hurdles best of 13 65 seconds for second place and set a 100 m dash best of 10 69 seconds  He was a hurdles finalist at the 2007 Pan American Junior Athletics Championships and a silver medallist at the 2008 CARIFTA Games, where he also shared in the 4×100 metres relay gold medal  In his first appearance on the global stage, Weir reached the semi-finals at the 2008 World Junior Championships in Athletics  He competed sparingly in his first years as a senior, although he did run personal bests in the 100 m (10 50) and the 400 metres hurdles (53 28) in 2009 Weir began to emerge as a 200 m specialist in 2011 after joining the Racers Track Club under coach Glen Mills  He and Mills noticed that the hurdles were leaving him with knee pain and both decided that Weir should focus on sprinting instead  He dipped under 21 second for the first time and placed sixth at the Jamaican Championships  He was invited to European meetings for the first time and performed well at his first Diamond League meeting, taking second place to Walter Dix with a personal best of 20 43 seconds into a strong headwind  He began 2012 by bringing his 200 m best down to 20 21, then 20 13 seconds  A time of 20 08 seconds brought him third place at the Adidas Grand Prix in New York in June At the Jamaican Olympic Trials in 2012, Weir broke twenty seconds with a personal best of 19 99 seconds in the 200 m semi final and a third-place finish in the final, behind Yohan Blake and Usain Bolt, earned him a spot on the Jamaican team for the 2012 Summer Olympics  In the Olympic 200 m final he was a surprise bronze medallist, securing a new personal best of 19 84 seconds in the process  His medal made it an all-Jamaican podium finish alongside fellow Racers Track Club athletes Bolt and Blake – the first time Jamaican men had achieved such a medal sweep at the Olympics Weir started out his 2013 season with a victory of 20 11 seconds in the Adidas Grand Prix in New York City  In June, he registered a 10 02 100m run, a massive personal best from his previous record of 10 51 seconds in 2008  Later in the 2013 Jamaican National Championships, Weir cruised to the finish line in the 200m final in 19 79 seconds, tying Bolt's world leading mark at that point  Having won the first two of his diamond league 200m races (in the Golden Grand Prix and the Adidas Grand Prix), Weir finished second to Bolt at the Meeting Areva, where Bolt set a world lead and meeting record of 19 73  Despite the clear loss to Bolt in Paris, Weir looked to be the closest to a challenger for Bolt at the World Championships that year  At the London Anniversary Games Weir clocked an impressive 19 89 and followed this up with a meeting record in the relay, clocking 37 75 
Come the 2013 World Championships in Athletics, Weir took the heats easily and made it to the final  In the final, Bolt won the race in a world leading time of 19 66 to become the first man to win the 200m at the world championships three times  Weir got clear silver at 19 79, equalling his best, and Curtis Mitchell the bronze in 20 04  Weir would later collect a gold in the 4 × 100 m, after running in the heats  Weir finished his season off by winning the 200m at the Memorial Van Damme in Brussels and hence won the Diamond League 
In 2014, Weir competed in the Commonwealth Games, running the 200m   After winning his heats, Weir won the silver medal in the final 
He is known for saying "No English, straight Patois," sparking calls on social networks for T-shirts to be printed with the phrase In August 2017 Weir announced his retirement from competition via his Instagram account, after not advancing from the heats in the 200m at the 2017 World Championships in Athletics in London In a change of sport, Weir was a member of the Jamaica rugby sevens team that came third at the 2018 Central American and Caribbean Games 

Statistics
Personal bests
100 metres: 10 02 sec (2013)
200 metres: 19 79 sec (2013)
400 metres: 46 10 sec (2013)
110 metres hurdles (junior): 13 65 sec (2007)
400 metres hurdles: 53 28 sec (2009)

International competition record
Passage 10:
Men's 100 metres world record progression
The first record in the 100 metres for men (athletics) was recognised by the International Amateur Athletics Federation, now known as World Athletics, in 1912 
As of 21 June 2011, the IAAF had ratified 67 records in the event, not including rescinded records 

Unofficial progression before the IAAF
IAAF record progression
"Wind" in these tables refers to wind assistance, the velocity of the wind parallel to the runner - positive values are from the starting line towards the finish line, negative are from the finish line towards the starting line, 0 is no wind in either direction, and all values are measured in metres per second   Any wind perpendicular to the runners (from left to right, right to left, or up to down or down to up, although the conditions of the track generally preclude those wind directions) is ignored and not listed 
"Auto" refers to automatic timing, and for the purposes of these lists, indicates auto times which were either also taken for hand-timed records, or were rounded to the tenth or hundredth of a second (depending on the rounding rules then in effect) for the official record time 

Records 1912–1976
The first manual time of 9 9 seconds was recorded for Bob Hayes in the final of the 100 metres at the 1964 Olympics  Hayes' official time of 10 0 seconds was determined by rounding down the electronic time of 10 06 to the nearest tenth of a second, giving the appearance of a manual time  This method was unique to the Olympics of 1964 and 1968, and the officials at the track recorded Hayes' time as 9 9 seconds 

Records since 1977
Since 1975, the IAAF has accepted separate automatically electronically timed records for events up to 400 metres  Starting on January 1, 1977, the IAAF has required fully automatic timing to the hundredth of a second for these events Jim Hines' October 1968 Olympic gold medal run was the fastest recorded fully electronic 100 metre race up to that date, at 9 95 seconds  Track and Field News has compiled an unofficial list of automatically timed records starting with the 1964 Olympics and Bob Hayes' gold medal performance there  Those marks are included in the progression 
The event is linked on some of the dates 

Low-altitude record progression 1968–1987
The IAAF considers marks set at high altitude as acceptable for record consideration  However, high altitude can significantly assist sprint performances  One estimate suggests times in the 200 m sprint can be assisted by between 0 09 s and 0 14 s with the maximum allowable tailing wind of (2 0 m/s), and gain 0 3 s at altitudes over 2000 m  For this reason, unofficial low-altitude record lists have been compiled 
After the IAAF started to recognise only electronic times in 1977, the then-current record and subsequent record were both set at altitude  It was not until 1987 that the world record was equalled or surpassed by a low-altitude performance  The following progression of low-altitude records therefore starts with Hines's low-altitude "record" when the IAAF started to recognise only electronic timing in 1977, and continues to Lewis's low-altitude performance that equalled the high-altitude world record in 1987  (Ben Johnson's 9 95 run in 1986 and 9 83 run in 1987 are omitted )

See also
Women's 100 metres world record progression
Men's 200 metres world record progression
100-yard dash

Notes



ground_truth: 100 metres