prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: How are elephants connected to Gajabrishta?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Elephant
Elephants are the largest existing land animals  Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant  They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae and the order Proboscidea; extinct relatives include mammoths and mastodons  Distinctive features of elephants include a long proboscis called a trunk, tusks, large ear flaps, pillar-like legs, and tough but sensitive grey skin  The trunk is prehensile, bringing food and water to the mouth, and grasping objects  Tusks, which are derived from the incisor teeth, serve both as weapons and as tools for moving objects and digging  The large ear flaps assist in maintaining a constant body temperature as well as in communication  African elephants have larger ears and concave backs, whereas Asian elephants have smaller ears, and convex or level backs 
Elephants are scattered throughout sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia and are found in different habitats, including savannahs, forests, deserts, and marshes  They are herbivorous, and they stay near water when it is accessible  They are considered to be keystone species, due to their impact on their environments   Elephants have a fission–fusion society, in which multiple family groups come together to socialise  Females (cows) tend to live in family groups, which can consist of one female with her calves or several related females with offspring  The leader of a female group, usually the oldest cow, is known as the matriarch 
Males (bulls) leave their family groups when they reach puberty and may live alone or with other males  Adult bulls mostly interact with family groups when looking for a mate  They enter a state of increased testosterone and aggression known as musth, which helps them gain dominance over other males as well as reproductive success  Calves are the centre of attention in their family groups and rely on their mothers for as long as three years  Elephants can live up to 70 years in the wild  They communicate by touch, sight, smell, and sound; elephants use infrasound and seismic communication over long distances  Elephant intelligence has been compared with that of primates and cetaceans  They appear to have self-awareness, and possibly show concern for dying and dead individuals of their kind 
African bush elephants and Asian elephants are listed as endangered and African forest elephants as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)  One of the biggest threats to elephant populations is the ivory trade, as the animals are poached for their ivory tusks  Other threats to wild elephants include habitat destruction and conflicts with local people  Elephants are used as working animals in Asia  In the past, they were used in war; today, they are often controversially put on display in zoos, or exploited for entertainment in circuses  Elephants have an iconic status in human culture and have been featured in art, folklore, religion, literature, and popular culture 

Etymology
The word "elephant" is based on the Latin elephas (genitive elephantis) ("elephant"), which is the Latinised form of the Greek ἐλέφας (elephas) (genitive ἐλέφαντος (elephantos), probably from a non-Indo-European language, likely Phoenician  It is attested in Mycenaean Greek as e-re-pa (genitive e-re-pa-to) in Linear B syllabic script  As in Mycenaean Greek, Homer used the Greek word to mean ivory, but after the time of Herodotus, it also referred to the animal  The word "elephant" appears in Middle English as olyfaunt (c  1300) and was borrowed from Old French oliphant (12th century) 

Taxonomy
Elephants belong to the family Elephantidae, the sole remaining family within the order Proboscidea  Their closest extant relatives are the sirenians (dugongs and manatees) and the hyraxes, with which they share the clade Paenungulata within the superorder Afrotheria  Elephants and sirenians are further grouped in the clade Tethytheria Three species of living elephants are recognised; the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) and Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)  African elephants were traditionally considered a single species, Loxodonta africana, but molecular studies have affirmed their status as separate species  Mammoths (Mammuthus) are nested within living elephants as they are more closely related to Asian elephants than to African elephants  Another extinct genus of elephant, Palaeoloxodon, is also recognised, which appears to have close affinities with and to have hybridised with African elephants 

Evolution
Over 180 extinct members of order Proboscidea have been described  The earliest proboscideans, the African Eritherium and Phosphatherium are known from the late Paleocene  The Eocene included Numidotherium, Moeritherium and Barytherium from Africa  These animals were relatively small and some, like Moeritherium and Barytherium were probably amphibious  Later on, genera such as Phiomia and Palaeomastodon arose; the latter likely inhabited more forested areas  Proboscidean diversification changed little during the Oligocene  One notable species of this epoch was Eritreum melakeghebrekristosi of the Horn of Africa, which may have been an ancestor to several later species 
A major event in proboscidean evolution was the collision of Afro-Arabia with Eurasia, during the Early Miocene, around 18-19 million years ago allowing proboscideans to disperse from their African homeland across Eurasia, and later, around 16-15 million years ago into North America across the Bering Land Bridge  Proboscidean groups prominent during the Miocene include the deinotheres, along with the more advanced elephantimorphs, including mammutids (mastodons), gomphotheres, amebelodontids (which includes the "shovel tuskers" like Platybelodon), choerolophodontids and stegodontids  Around 10 million years ago, the earliest members of the family Elephantidae emerged in Africa, having originated from gomphotheres Elephantids are distinguished from earlier proboscideans by a major shift in the molar morphology to parallel lophs rather than the cusps of earlier proboscideans, allowing them to become higher crowned (hypsodont) and more efficient in consuming grass  The Late Miocene saw major climactic changes, which resulted in the decline and extinction of many proboscidean groups  The earliest members of modern genera of Elephantidae appeared during the latest Miocene-early Pliocene around 5 million years ago  The elephantid genera Elephas (which includes the living Asian elephant) and Mammuthus (mammoths) migrated out of Africa during the late Pliocene, around 3 6 to 3 2 million years ago Over the course of the Early Pleistocene, all non-elephantid probobscidean genera outside of the Americas became extinct with the exception of Stegodon, with gomphotheres dispersing into South America as part of the Great American interchange, and mammoths migrating into North America around 1 5 million years ago  At the end of the Early Pleistocene, around 800,000 years ago the elephantid genus Palaeoloxodon dispersed outside of Africa, becoming widely distributed in Eurasia  Proboscideans underwent a dramatic decline during the Late Pleistocene, with all remaining non-elephantid proboscideans (including Stegodon, mastodons, and the gomphotheres Cuvieronius and Notiomastodon) and Palaeoloxodon becoming extinct, with mammoths only surviving in relict populations on islands around the Bering Strait into the Holocene, with their latest survival being on Wrangel Island around 4,000 years ago Over the course of their evolution, probobscideans grew larger in size  With that came longer limbs and wider feet with a more digitigrade stance along with a larger head and shorter neck  The trunk evolved and grew longer to provide reach  The number of premolars, incisors and canines decreased and the cheek teeth (molars and premolars) became longer and more specialised  The incisors developed into tusks of different shapes and sizes  Several species of proboscideans became isolated on islands and experienced insular dwarfism, some dramatically reducing in body size, such as the 1 metre (3 3 ft) tall dwarf elephant species Palaeoloxodon falconeri 

Living species
Anatomy
Elephants are the largest living terrestrial animals  The skeleton is made up of 326–351 bones  The vertebrae are connected by tight joints, which limit the backbone's flexibility  African elephants have 21 pairs of ribs, while Asian elephants have 19 or 20 pairs  The skull contains air cavities (sinuses) that reduce the weight of the skull while maintaining overall strength  These cavities give the inside of the skull a honeycomb-like appearance  By contrast, the lower jaw is dense  The cranium is particularly large and provides enough room for the attachment of muscles to support the entire head  The skull is built to withstand great stress, particularly when fighting or when using the tusks  The brain is surrounded by arches in the skull which serve as protection  Because of the size of the head, the neck is relatively short to provide better support 
Elephants are homeotherms, and maintain their average body temperature at ~ 36 °C (97 °F), with minimum 35 2 °C (95 4 °F) during cool season, and maximum 38 0 °C (100 4 °F) during hot dry season 

Ears and eyes
Elephant ear flaps, or pinnae are 1–2 mm (0 039–0 079 in) thick in the middle with a thinner tip and supported by a thicker base  They contain numerous blood vessels called capillaries  Warm blood flows into the capillaries, freeing excess heat into the environment  This effect is increased by flapping the ears back and forth  Larger ear surfaces contain more capillaries, and more heat can be released  Of all the elephants, African bush elephants live in the hottest climates, and have the largest ear flaps  The ossicles are adapted for hearing low frequencies, being most sensitive at 1 kHz Lacking a lacrimal apparatus (tear duct), the eye relies on the harderian gland in the orbit to keep it moist  A durable nictitating membrane shields the globe  The animal's field of vision is compromised by the location and limited mobility of the eyes  Elephants are considered to be dichromats and they can see well in dim light but not in bright light 

Trunk
The elongated and prehensile trunk, or proboscis, consists of both the nose and upper lip, which fuse in early fetal development  This versatile appendage contains up to 150,000 separate muscle fascicles, with no bone and little fat  These paired muscles consist of two major types: superficial (surface) and internal  The former are divided into dorsals, ventrals, and laterals while the latter are divided into transverse and radiating muscles  The muscles of the trunk connect to a bony opening in the skull  The nasal septum consists of small elastic muscles between the nostrils which are divided by cartilage at the base  A unique proboscis nerve – a combination of the maxillary and facial nerves – lines each side of the appendage As a muscular hydrostat, the trunk moves by finely controlled muscle contractions, working both with and against each other  Using three basic movements: bending, twisting, and longitudinal stretching/retracting, the trunk has near unlimited flexibility  Objects grasped by the end of the trunk can be moved to the mouth by curving the appendage inwards  The trunk can also bend at different points by creating stiffened "pseudo-joints"  The tip can be moved in a way similar to the human hand  The skin is more elastic on the dorsal side of the elephant trunk than underneath; allowing the animal to stretch and coil while maintaining a strong grasp  The African elephants have two finger-like extensions at the tip of the trunk that allow them to pluck small food  The Asian elephant has only one and relies more on wrapping around a food item  Asian elephant trunks have better motor coordination 

The trunk's extreme flexibility allows it to forage and wrestle other elephants with it  It is powerful enough to lift up to 350 kg (770 lb), but also has the precision to crack a peanut shell without breaking the seed  With its trunk, an elephant can reach items up to 7 m (23 ft) high and dig for water in the mud or sand below  It also uses it to clean itself  Individuals may show lateral preference when grasping with their trunks: some prefer to twist them to the left, others to the right  Elephant trunks are capable of powerful siphoning  They can expand their nostrils 30% around, leading to a 64% greater nasal volume, and can breathe in almost 30 times faster than a human sneeze, at over 150 m/s (490 ft/s)  They suck up water which is squirted into the mouth or over the body  The trunk of an adult Asian elephant is capable of retaining 8 5 L (2 2 US gal) of water   They will also sprinkle dust or grass on themselves  When underwater, the elephant uses its trunk as a snorkel The trunk also acts as a sense organ  Its sense of smell may be four times greater than a bloodhound's nose  The infraorbital nerve, which makes the trunk sensitive to touch, is thicker than both the optic and auditory nerves  Whiskers grow all along the trunk, and are particularly packed at the tip, where they contribute to its tactile sensitivity  Unlike those of many mammals, such as cats and rats, elephant whiskers do not move independently ("whisk") to sense the environment; the trunk itself must move to bring the whiskers into contact with nearby objects  Whiskers grow in rows along each side on ventral surface of the trunk, which is thought to be essential in helping elephants balance objects there, whereas they are more evenly arranged on the dorsal surface  Number and patterns of whiskers are distinctly different between species Damaging the trunk would be detrimental to an elephant's survival, although in rare cases, individuals have survived with shortened ones  One trunkless elephant has been observed to graze using its lips with its hind legs in the air and balancing on its front knees  Floppy trunk syndrome is a condition of trunk paralysis recorded in African bush elephants and involves the degeneration of the peripheral nerves and muscles  The disorder has been linked to lead poisoning 

Teeth
Elephants usually have 26 teeth: the incisors, known as the tusks, 12 deciduous premolars, and 12 molars  Unlike most mammals, teeth are not replaced by new ones emerging from the jaws vertically  Instead, new teeth start at the back of the mouth and push out the old ones  The first chewing tooth on each side of the jaw falls out when the elephant is two to three years old  This is followed by four more tooth replacements at the ages of four to six, 9–15, 18–28 and finally in their early 40s  The final (usually sixth) set must last the elephant the rest of its life  Elephant teeth have loop-shaped dental ridges, which are more diamond-shaped in African elephants 

Tusks
The tusks of an elephant are modified second incisors in the upper jaw  They replace deciduous milk teeth at 6–12 months of age and keep growing at about 17 cm (7 in) a year  As the tusk develops, it is topped with smooth cone-shaped enamel that eventually wanes  The dentine is known as ivory and has a cross-section of intersecting lines, known as "engine turning", which create diamond-shaped patterns  Being living tissue, tusks are fairly soft; about as dense as the mineral calcite  The tusk protrudes from a socket in the skull and most of it is external  At least one-third of the tusk contains the pulp and some have nerves which stretch even further  Thus it would be difficult to remove it without harming the animal  When removed, ivory will dry up and crack if not kept cool and wet  Tusks function in digging, debarking, marking, moving objects and fighting Elephants are usually right- or left-tusked, similar to humans, who are typically right- or left-handed  The dominant or "master" tusk, is typically more worn down, as it is shorter and blunter  For the African elephants, tusks are present in both males and females, and are around the same length in both sexes, reaching up to 300 cm (9 ft 10 in), but those of males tend to be more massive  In the Asian species, only the males have large tusks  Female Asians have very small tusks, or none at all  Tuskless males exist and are particularly common among Sri Lankan elephants  Asian males can have tusks as long as Africans', but they are usually slimmer and lighter; the largest recorded was 302 cm (9 ft 11 in) long and weighed 39 kg (86 lb)  Hunting for elephant ivory in Africa and Asia has led to natural selection for shorter tusks and tusklessness 

Skin
An elephant's skin is generally very tough, at 2 5 cm (1 in) thick on the back and parts of the head  The skin around the mouth, anus, and inside of the ear is considerably thinner  Elephants are typically grey, but African elephants look brown or reddish after rolling in coloured mud  Asian elephants have some patches of depigmentation, particularly on the head  Calves have brownish or reddish hair, with the head and back being particularly hairy  As elephants mature, their hair darkens and becomes sparser, but dense concentrations of hair and bristles remain on the tip of the tail and parts of the head and genitals  Normally the skin of an Asian elephant is covered with more hair than its African counterpart  Their hair is thought to help them lose heat in their hot environments Although tough, an elephant's skin is very sensitive and requires mud baths to maintain moisture and protect it from burning and insect bites  After bathing, the elephant will usually use its trunk to blow dust onto its body and this dries into a protective crust  Elephants have difficulty releasing heat through the skin because of their low surface-area-to-volume ratio, which is many times smaller than that of a human  They have even been observed lifting up their legs, to expose their soles to the air  Elephants only have sweat glands between the toes, but the skin allows water to disperse and evaporate, cooling the animal  In addition, cracks in the skin may reduce dehydration and allow for increased thermal regulation in the long term 

Legs, locomotion, and posture
To support the animal's weight, an elephant's limbs are positioned more vertically under the body than in most other mammals  The long bones of the limbs have cancellous bone in place of medullary cavities  This strengthens the bones while still allowing haematopoiesis (blood cell creation)  Both the front and hind limbs can support an elephant's weight, although 60% is borne by the front  The position of the limbs and leg bones allow an elephant to stand still for extended periods of time without tiring  Elephants are incapable of turning their manus, as the ulna and radius of the front legs are secured in pronation  Elephants may also lack the pronator quadratus and pronator teres muscles or have very small ones  The circular feet of an elephant have soft tissues or "cushion pads" beneath the manus or pes, which allow them to bear the animal's great mass  They appear to have a sesamoid, an extra "toe" similar in placement to a giant panda's extra "thumb", that also helps in weight distribution  As many as five toenails can be found on both the front and hind feet Elephants can move both forwards and backwards, but are incapable of trotting, jumping, or galloping  They can move on land only by walking or ambling: a faster gait similar to running   In walking, the legs act as pendulums, with the hips and shoulders moving up and down while the foot is planted on the ground  The fast gait does not meet all the criteria of running, since there is no point where all the feet are off the ground, although the elephant uses its legs much like other running animals, and can move faster by quickening its stride  Fast-moving elephants appear to 'run' with their front legs, but 'walk' with their hind legs and can reach a top speed of 25 km/h (16 mph)  At this speed, most other quadrupeds are well into a gallop, even accounting for leg length  Spring-like kinetics could explain the difference between the motion of elephants and other animals  The cushion pads expand and contract, and reduce both the pain and noise that would come from a very heavy animal moving  Elephants are capable swimmers: they can swim for up to six hours while staying at the surface, moving at 2 1 km/h (1 mph) and traversing up to 48 km (30 mi) continuously 

Internal systems
The brain of an elephant weighs 4 5–5 5 kg (10–12 lb) compared to 1 6 kg (4 lb) for a human brain  It is the largest of all terrestrial mammals  While the elephant brain is larger overall, it is proportionally smaller than the human brain  At birth, an elephant's brain already weighs 30–40% of its adult weight  The cerebrum and cerebellum are well developed, and the temporal lobes are so large that they bulge out laterally  Their temporal lobes are proportionally larger than in other animals, including humans  The throat of an elephant appears to contain a pouch where it can store water for later use  The larynx of the elephant is the largest known among mammals  The vocal folds are anchored close to the epiglottis base  When comparing an elephant's vocal folds to those of a human, an elephant's are proportionally longer, thicker, with a greater cross-sectional area  In addition, they are located further up the vocal tract with an acute slope 

The heart of an elephant weighs 12–21 kg (26–46 lb)  Its apex has two pointed ends, an unusual trait among mammals  In addition, the ventricles of the heart split towards the top, a trait also found in sirenians  When upright, the elephant's heart beats around 28 beats per minutes and actually speeds up to 35 beats when it lays down  The blood vessels are thick and wide and can hold up during blood pressures  The lungs are attached to the diaphragm, and breathing relies less on the expanding of the ribcage  Connective tissue exists in place of the pleural cavity  This may allow the animal to deal with the pressure differences when its body is underwater and its trunk is breaking the surface for air  Elephants inhale mostly with the trunk, but also with the mouth  They have a hindgut fermentation system, and their large and small intestines together reach 35 m (115 ft) in length  Less than half of an elephant's food intake gets digested, despite the process lasting a day 

Sex organs
A male elephant's testes are located internally near the kidneys  The penis can be as long as 100 cm (39 in) with a 16 cm (6 in) wide base  It curves to an 'S' when fully erect and has an orifice shaped like a Y  The female's clitoris may be 40 cm (16 in)  The vulva is found lower than in other herbivores, between the hind legs instead of under the tail  Determining pregnancy status can be difficult due to the animal's large belly  The female's mammary glands occupy the space between the front legs, which puts the suckling calf within reach of the female's trunk  Elephants have a unique organ, the temporal gland, located in both sides of the head  This organ is associated with sexual behaviour, and males secrete a fluid from it when in musth  Females have also been observed with these secretions 

Natural history
Elephants are herbivorous and will eat leaves, twigs, fruit, bark, grass and roots  African elephants mostly browse while Asian elephants mainly graze  They can eat as much as 300 kg (660 lb) of food and drink 40 L (11 US gal) of water in a day  Elephants tend to stay near water sources  They have morning, afternoon and nighttime feeding sessions  At midday, elephants rest under trees and may doze off while standing  Sleeping occurs at night while the animal is lying down  Elephants average 3–4 hours of sleep per day  Both males and family groups typically move no more than 20 km (12 mi) a day, but distances as far as 180 km (112 mi) have been recorded in the Etosha region of Namibia  Elephants go on seasonal migrations in response to changes in environmental conditions  In northern Botswana, they travel 325 km (202 mi) to the Chobe River after the local waterholes dry up in late August 

Because of their large size, elephants have a huge impact on their environments and are considered keystone species  Their habit of uprooting trees and undergrowth can transform savannah into grasslands; smaller herbivores can access trees mowed down by elephants  When they dig for water during drought, they create waterholes that can be used by other animals  When they use waterholes, they end up making them bigger  At Mount Elgon, elephants dig through caves and pave the way for ungulates, hyraxes, bats, birds and insects  Elephants are important seed dispersers; African forest elephants consume and deposit many seeds over great distances, with either no effect or a positive effect on germination  In Asian forests, large seeds require giant herbivores like elephants and rhinoceros for transport and dispersal  This ecological niche cannot be filled by the smaller Malayan tapir  Because most of the food elephants eat goes undigested, their dung can provide food for other animals, such as dung beetles and monkeys  Elephants can have a negative impact on ecosystems  At Murchison Falls National Park in Uganda, elephants numbers have threatened several species of small birds that depend on woodlands  Their weight causes the soil to compress, leading to run off and erosion Elephants typically coexist peacefully with other herbivores, which will usually stay out of their way  Some aggressive interactions between elephants and rhinoceros have been recorded  The size of adult elephants makes them nearly invulnerable to predators  Calves may be preyed on by lions, spotted hyenas, and wild dogs in Africa and tigers in Asia  The lions of Savuti, Botswana, have adapted to hunting elephants, mostly calves, juveniles or even sub-adults  There are rare reports of adult Asian elephants falling prey to tigers  Elephants tend to have high numbers of parasites, particularly nematodes, compared to many other mammals  This is due to them being largely immune to predators, which would otherwise kill off many of the individuals with significant parasite loads 

Social structure
Elephants are generally gregarious animals  African bush elephants in particular have a complex, stratified social structure  Female elephants spend their entire lives in tight-knit matrilineal family groups  They are led by the matriarch which is often the eldest female  She remains leader of the group until death or if she no longer has the energy for the role; a study on zoo elephants found that the death of the matriarch led to greater stress in the surviving elephants  When her tenure is over, the matriarch's eldest daughter takes her place instead of her sister (if present)  One study found that younger matriarchs take potential threats less seriously  Large family groups may split if they cannot be supported by the local resources At Amboseli National Park, Kenya, female groups may consist of around ten members, including four adults and their dependent offspring  Here, a cow's life involves interaction with those outside her group  Two separate families may associate and bond with each other, forming what are known as bond groups  During the dry season, elephant families may aggregate together into clans  These may number around nine groups, which clans do not form strong bonds, but defend their dry-season ranges against other clans  The Amboseli elephant population is further divided into the "central" and "peripheral" subpopulations Female Asian elephants tend to have more fluid social associations  In Sri Lanka, there appear to be stable family units or "herds" and larger, looser "groups"  They have been observed to have "nursing units" and "juvenile-care units"  In southern India, elephant populations may contain family groups, bond groups and possibly clans  Family groups tend to be small, with only one or two adult females and their offspring  A group containing more than two cows and their offspring is known as a "joint family"  Malay elephant populations have even smaller family units and do not reach levels above a bond group  Groups of African forest elephants typically consist of one cow with one to three offspring  These groups appear to interact with each other, especially at forest clearings 

Adult males live separate lives  As he matures, a bull associates more with outside males or even other families  At Amboseli, young males may be away from their families 80% by 14–15 years of age  When males permanently leave, they either live alone or with other males  The former is typical of bulls in dense forests  A dominance hierarchy exists among males, whether they are social or solitary  Dominance depends on the age, size and sexual condition  Male elephants can be quite sociable when not competing for mates and form vast and fluid social networks  Older bulls act as the leaders of these groups  The presence of older males appears to subdue the aggression and "deviant" behaviour of younger ones  The largest all-male groups can reach close to 150 individuals  Adult males and females come together to breed  Bulls will accompany family groups if a cow is in oestrous 

Sexual behaviour
Musth
Adult males enter a state of increased testosterone known as musth  In a population in southern India, males first enter musth at 15 years old, but it is not very intense until they are older than 25  At Amboseli, no bulls under 24 were found to be in musth, while half of those aged 25–35 and all those over 35 did  In some areas, there may be seasonal influences on the timing of musths  The main characteristic of a bull's musth is a fluid discharged from the temporal gland that runs down the side of his face  Behaviours associated with musth include walking with a high and swinging head, nonsynchronous ear flapping, picking at the ground with the tusks, marking, rumbling, and urinating in the sheath  The length of this varies between males of different ages and conditions, lasting days to months Males become extremely aggressive during musth  Size is the determining factor in agonistic encounters when the individuals have the same condition  In contests between musth and non-musth individuals, musth bulls win the majority of the time, even when the non-musth bull is larger  A male may stop showing signs of musth when he encounters a musth male of higher rank  Those of equal rank tend to avoid each other  Agonistic encounters typically consist of threat displays, chases, and minor sparring  Rarely do they full-on fight 

Mating
Elephants are polygynous breeders, and most copulations occur during rainfall  An oestrus cow uses pheromones in her urine and vaginal secretions to signal her readiness to mate  A bull will follow a potential mate and assess her condition with the flehmen response, which requires him to collect a chemical sample with his trunk and taste it with the vomeronasal organ at the roof of the mouth  The oestrous cycle of a cow lasts 14–16 weeks with the follicular phase lasting 4–6-weeks and luteal phase 8- to 10-weeks  While most mammals have one surge of luteinizing hormone during the follicular phase, elephants have two  The first (or anovulatory) surge, appears to change the female's scent, signaling to males that she is in heat, but ovulation does not occur until the second (or ovulatory) surge  Cows over 45–50 years of age are less fertile Bulls engage in a behaviour known as mate-guarding, where they follow oestrous females and defend them from other males  Most mate-guarding is done by musth males, and females seek them out, particularly older ones  Musth appears to signal to females the condition of the male, as weak or injured males do not have normal musths  For young females, the approach of an older bull can be intimidating, so her relatives stay nearby for comfort  During copulation, the male rests his trunk on the female  The penis is mobile enough to move without the pelvis  Before mounting, it curves forward and upward  Copulation lasts about 45 seconds and does not involve pelvic thrusting or ejaculatory pause Homosexual behaviour is frequent in both sexes  As in heterosexual interactions, this involves mounting  Male elephants sometimes stimulate each other by playfighting and "championships" may form between old bulls and younger male  Female same-sex behaviours have been documented only in captivity where they engage in mutual masturbation with their trunks 

Birth and development
Gestation in elephants typically lasts between one and a half and two years and the female will not give birth again for at least four years  The relatively long pregnancy is supported by several corpus luteums and gives the foetus more time to develop, particularly the brain and trunk  Births tend to take place during the wet season  Typically, only a single young is born, but twins sometimes occur  Calves are born roughly 85 cm (33 in) tall and with a weight of around 120 kg (260 lb)  They are precocial and quickly stand and walk to follow their mother and family herd  A newborn calf will attract the attention of all the herd members  Adults and most of the other young will gather around the newborn, touching and caressing it with their trunks  For the first few days, the mother limits access to her young  Alloparenting – where a calf is cared for by someone other than its mother – takes place in some family groups  Allomothers are typically aged two to twelve years For the first few days, the newborn is unsteady on its feet and needs its mother's help  It relies on touch, smell, and hearing, as its eyesight is less developed  With little coordination in its trunk, it can only flop it around which may cause it to trip  When it reaches its second week, the calf can walk with more balance and has more control over its trunk  After its first month, the trunk can grab and hold objects, but still lacks sucking abilities, and the calf must bend down to drink  It continues to stay near its mother as it is still reliant on her  For its first three months, a calf relies entirely on its mother's milk, after which it begins to forage for vegetation and can use its trunk to collect water  At the same time, there is progress in lip and leg movements  By nine months, mouth, trunk and foot coordination are mastered  Suckling bouts tend to last 2–4 min/hr for a calf younger than a year  After a year, a calf is fully capable of grooming, drinking, and feeding itself  It still needs its mother's milk and protection until it is at least two years old  Suckling after two years may improve growth, health and fertility Play behaviour in calves differs between the sexes; females run or chase each other while males play-fight  The former are sexually mature by the age of nine years while the latter become mature around 14–15 years  Adulthood starts at about 18 years of age in both sexes  Elephants have long lifespans, reaching 60–70 years of age  Lin Wang, a captive male Asian elephant, lived for 86 years 

Communication
Elephants communicate in various ways  Individuals greet one another by touching each other on the mouth, temporal glands and genitals  This allows them to pick up chemical cues  Older elephants use trunk-slaps, kicks, and shoves to control younger ones  Touching is especially important for mother–calf communication  When moving, elephant mothers will touch their calves with their trunks or feet when side-by-side or with their tails if the calf is behind them  A calf will press against its mother's front legs to signal it wants to rest and will touch her breast or leg when it wants to suckle Visual displays mostly occur in agonistic situations  Elephants will try to appear more threatening by raising their heads and spreading their ears  They may add to the display by shaking their heads and snapping their ears, as well as tossing around dust and vegetation  They are usually bluffing when performing these actions  Excited elephants also raise their heads and spread their ears but additionally may raise their trunks  Submissive elephants will lower their heads and trunks, as well as flatten their ears against their necks, while those that are ready to fight will bend their ears in a V shape Elephants produce several vocalisations—some of which pass though the trunk—for both short and long range communication  This includes trumpeting, bellowing, roaring, growling, barking, snorting, and rumbling  Elephants can produce infrasonic rumbles  For Asian elephants, these calls have a frequency of 14–24 Hz, with sound pressure levels of 85–90 dB and last 10–15 seconds  For African elephants, calls range from 15 to 35 Hz with sound pressure levels as high as 117 dB, allowing communication for many kilometres, possibly over 10 km (6 mi) Elephants are known to communicate with seismics, vibrations produced by impacts on the earth's surface or acoustical waves that travel through it  An individual foot stomping or mock charging can create seismic signals that can be heard at travel distances of up to 32 km (20 mi)  Seismic waveforms produced by rumbles travel 16 km (10 mi) 

Intelligence and cognition
Elephants are among the most intelligent animals  They exhibit mirror self-recognition, an indication of self-awareness and cognition that has also been demonstrated in some apes and dolphins  One study of a captive female Asian elephant suggested the animal was capable of learning and distinguishing between several visual and some acoustic discrimination pairs  This individual was even able to score a high accuracy rating when re-tested with the same visual pairs a year later  Elephants are among the species known to use tools  An Asian elephant has been observed fine-tuning branches for use as flyswatters  Tool modification by these animals is not as advanced as that of chimpanzees  Elephants are popularly thought of as having an excellent memory  This could have a factual basis; they possibly have cognitive maps which give them long lasting memories of their environment on a wide scale  Individuals may be able to remember where their family members are located Scientists debate the extent to which elephants feel emotion  They are attracted to the bones of their own kind, regardless of whether they are related  As with chimpanzees and dolphins, a dying or dead elephant may elicit attention and aid from others, including those from other groups  This has been interpreted as expressing "concern"; however, the Oxford Companion to Animal Behaviour (1987) said that "one is well advised to study the behaviour rather than attempting to get at any underlying emotion" 

Conservation
Status
African bush elephants were listed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2021, and African forest elephants were listed as Critically Endangered in the same year  In 1979, Africa had an estimated population of at least 1 3 million elephants, possibly as high as 3 0 million  A decade later, the population was estimated to be 609,000; with 277,000 in Central Africa, 110,000 in Eastern Africa, 204,000 in Southern Africa, and 19,000 in Western Africa  The population of rainforest elephants was lower than anticipated, at around 214,000 individuals  Between 1977 and 1989, elephant populations declined by 74% in East Africa  After 1987, losses in elephant numbers hastened, and savannah populations from Cameroon to Somalia experienced a decline of 80%  African forest elephants had a total loss of 43%  Population trends in southern Africa were various, with unconfirmed losses in Zambia, Mozambique and Angola while populations grew in Botswana and Zimbabwe and were stable in South Africa  The IUCN estimated that total population in Africa is estimated at around to 415,000 individuals for both species combined as of 2016 African elephants receive at least some legal protection in every country where they are found  Successful conservation efforts in certain areas have led to high population densities while failures have lead to declines as high as 70% or more of the course of ten years  As of 2008, local numbers were controlled by contraception or translocation  Large-scale cullings stopped in the late 1980s and early 1990s  In 1989, the African elephant was listed under Appendix I by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), making trade illegal  Appendix II status (which allows restricted trade) was given to elephants in Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe in 1997 and South Africa in 2000  In some countries, sport hunting of the animals is legal; Botswana, Cameroon, Gabon, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe have CITES export quotas for elephant trophies In 2020, the IUCN listed the Asian elephant as endangered due to the population declining by half over "the last three generations"  Asian elephants once ranged from Western to East Asia and south to Sumatra  and Java  It is now extinct in these areas, and the current range of Asian elephants is highly fragmented  The total population of Asian elephants is estimated to be around 40,000–50,000, although this may be a loose estimate  Around 60% of the population is in India  Although Asian elephants are declining in numbers overall, particularly in Southeast Asia, the population in Sri Lanka appears to have risen and elephant numbers in the Western Ghats may have stablised 

Threats
The poaching of elephants for their ivory, meat and hides has been one of the major threats to their existence  Historically, numerous cultures made ornaments and other works of art from elephant ivory, and its use was comparable to that of gold  The ivory trade contributed to the fall of the African elephant population in the late 20th century  This prompted international bans on ivory imports, starting with the United States in June 1989, and followed by bans in other North American countries, western European countries, and Japan  Around the same time, Kenya destroyed all its ivory stocks  Ivory was banned internationally by CITES in 1990  Following the bans, unemployment rose in India and China, where the ivory industry was important economically  By contrast, Japan and Hong Kong, which were also part of the industry, were able to adapt and were not as badly affected  Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Malawi wanted to continue the ivory trade and were allowed to, since their local populations were healthy, but only if their supplies were from culled individuals or those that died of natural causes The ban allowed the elephant to recover in parts of Africa  In February 2012, 650 elephants in Bouba Njida National Park, Cameroon, were slaughtered by Chadian raiders  This has been called "one of the worst concentrated killings" since the ivory ban  Asian elephants are potentially less vulnerable to the ivory trade, as females usually lack tusks  Still, members of the species have been killed for their ivory in some areas, such as Periyar National Park in India  China was the biggest market for poached ivory but announced they would phase out the legal domestic manufacture and sale of ivory products in May 2015, and in September 2015, China and the United States said "they would enact a nearly complete ban on the import and export of ivory" due to causes of extinction Other threats to elephants include habitat destruction and fragmentation  The Asian elephant lives in areas with some of the highest human populations and may be confined to small islands of forest among human-dominated landscapes  Elephants commonly trample and consume crops, which contributes to conflicts with humans, and both elephants and humans have died by the hundreds as a result  Mitigating these conflicts is important for conservation  One proposed solution is the protection of wildlife corridors which give populations greater interconnectivity and space  Chili pepper products as well as guarding with defense tools have been found to be effective in preventing crop-raiding by elephants  Less effective tactics include beehive and electric fences 

Human relations
Working animal
Elephants have been working animals since at least the Indus Valley civilization over 4,000 years ago and continue to be used in modern times  There were 13,000–16,500 working elephants employed in Asia in 2000  These animals are typically captured from the wild when they are 10–20 years old when they are both more trainable and can work for more years  They were traditionally captured with traps and lassos, but since 1950, tranquillisers have been used  Individuals of the Asian species have been often trained as working animals  Asian elephants are used to carry and pull both objects and people in and out of areas as well as lead people in religious celebrations  They are valued over mechanised tools as they can perform the same tasks but in more difficult terrain, with strength, memory, and delicacy  Elephants can learn over 30 commands  Musth bulls are difficult and dangerous to work with and so are chained up until their condition passes In India, many working elephants are alleged to have been subject to abuse  They and other captive elephants are thus protected under The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act of 1960  In both Myanmar and Thailand, deforestation and other economic factors have resulted in sizable populations of unemployed elephants resulting in health problems for the elephants themselves as well as economic and safety problems for the people amongst whom they live The practice of working elephants has also been attempted in Africa  The taming of African elephants in the Belgian Congo began by decree of Leopold II of Belgium during the 19th century and continues to the present with the Api Elephant Domestication Centre 

Warfare
Historically, elephants were considered formidable instruments of war  They were described in Sanskrit texts as far back as 1500 BC  From South Asia, the use of elephants in warfare spread west to Persia and east to Southeast Asia  The Persians used them during the Achaemenid Empire (between the 6th and 4th centuries BC) while Southeast Asian states first used war elephants possibly as early as the 5th century BC and continued to the 20th century  War elephants were also employed in the Mediterranean and North Africa throughout the classical period since the reign of Ptolemy II in Egypt  The Carthaginian general Hannibal famously took African elephants across the Alps during his war with the Romans and reached the Po Valley in 218 BC with all of them alive, but died of disease and combat a year later Their heads and sides were equipped with armour, the trunk may have had a sword tied to it and tusks were sometimes covered sharpened iron or brass  Trained elephants would attack both humans and horses with their tusks  They might have grasped an enemy soldier with the trunk and tossed him to their mahout, or pinned the soldier to the ground and speared him  Some shortcomings of war elephants included their great visibility, which made them easy to target, and limited maneuverability compared to horses  Alexander the Great achieved victory over armies with war elephants by having his soldiers injure the trunks and legs of the animals which caused them to panic and become uncontrollable 

Zoos and circuses
Elephants have traditionally been a major part of zoos and circuses around the world  In circuses, they are trained to perform tricks  The most famous circus elephant was probably Jumbo (1861 – 15 September 1885), who was a major attraction in the Barnum & Bailey Circus  These animals do not reproduce well in captivity, due to the difficulty of handling musth bulls and limited understanding of female oestrous cycles  Asian elephants were always more common than their African counterparts in modern zoos and circuses  After CITES listed the Asian elephant under Appendix I in 1975, imports of the species almost stopped by the end of the 1980s  Subsequently, the US received many captive African elephants from Zimbabwe, which had an overabundance of the animals Keeping elephants in zoos has met with some controversy  Proponents of zoos argue that they allow easy access to the animals and provide fund and knowledge for preserving their natural habitats, as well as safekeeping for the species  Opponents claim that animals in zoos are under physical and mental stress  Elephants have been recorded displaying stereotypical behaviours in the form of wobbling the body or head and pacing the same route both forwards and backwards  This has been observed in 54% of individuals in UK zoos  Elephants in European zoos appear to have shorter lifespans than their wild counterparts at only 17 years, although other studies suggest that zoo elephants live just as long The use of elephants in circuses has also been controversial; the Humane Society of the United States has accused circuses of mistreating and distressing their animals  In testimony to a US federal court in 2009, Barnum & Bailey Circus CEO Kenneth Feld acknowledged that circus elephants are struck behind their ears, under their chins and on their legs with metal-tipped prods, called bull hooks or ankus  Feld stated that these practices are necessary to protect circus workers and acknowledged that an elephant trainer was rebuked for using an electric prod on an elephant  Despite this, he denied that any of these practices hurt the animals  Some trainers have tried to train elephants without the use of physical punishment  Ralph Helfer is known to have relied on positive reinforcement when training his animals  Barnum and Bailey circus retired its touring elephants in May 2016 

Attacks
Elephants can exhibit bouts of aggressive behaviour and engage in destructive actions against humans  In Africa, groups of adolescent elephants damaged homes in villages after cullings in the 1970s and 1980s  Because of the timing, these attacks have been interpreted as vindictive  In parts of India, male elephants have entered villages at night, destroying homes and killing people  From 2000 to 2004, 300 people died in Jharkhand, and in Assam, 239 people were reportedly killed between 2001 and 2006 
Throughout the country, 1,500 people were killed by elephants between 2019 and 2022, which led to 300 elephants being killed in kind  Local people have reported their belief that some elephants were drunk during their attacks, though officials have disputed this  Purportedly drunk elephants attacked an Indian village in December 2002, killing six people, which led to the retaliatory slaughter of about 200 elephants by locals 

Cultural depictions
Elephants have a universal presence in global culture  They have been represented in art since Paleolithic times  Africa, in particular, contains many examples of elephant rock art, especially in the Sahara and southern Africa  In Asia, the animals are depicted as motifs in Hindu and Buddhist shrines and temples  Elephants were often difficult to portray by people with no first-hand experience of them  The ancient Romans, who kept the animals in captivity, depicted elephants more accurately than medieval Europeans who portrayed them more like fantasy creatures, with horse, bovine and boar-like traits, and trumpet-like trunks  As Europeans gained more access to captive elephants during the 15th century, depictions of them became more accurate, including one made by Leonardo da Vinci Elephants have been the subject of religious beliefs  The Mbuti people of central Africa believe that the souls of their dead ancestors resided in elephants  Similar ideas existed among other African societies, who believed that their chiefs would be reincarnated as elephants  During the 10th century AD, the people of Igbo-Ukwu, in modern day Nigeria, placed elephant tusks underneath their death leader's feet in the grave  The animals' importance is only totemic in Africa but is much more significant in Asia  In Sumatra, elephants have been associated with lightning  Likewise in Hinduism, they are linked with thunderstorms as Airavata, the father of all elephants, represents both lightning and rainbows  One of the most important Hindu deities, the elephant-headed Ganesha, is ranked equal with the supreme gods Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma in some traditions  Ganesha is associated with writers and merchants and it is believed that he can give people success as well as grant them their desires, but could also take these things away  In Buddhism, Buddha is said to have been a white elephant reincarnated as a human 

In Western popular culture, elephants symbolise the exotic, especially since – as with the giraffe, hippopotamus and rhinoceros – there are no similar animals familiar to Western audiences  As characters, elephants are most common in children's stories, where they are portrayed positively  They are typically surrogates for humans with ideal human values  Many stories tell of isolated young elephants returning to or finding a family, such as "The Elephant's Child" from Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories, Disney's Dumbo, and Kathryn and Byron Jackson's The Saggy Baggy Elephant  Other elephant heroes given human qualities include Jean de Brunhoff's Babar, David McKee's Elmer, and Dr  Seuss's Horton Several cultural references emphasise the elephant's size and strangeness  For instance, a "white elephant" is a byword for something that is weird, unwanted, and has no value  The expression "elephant in the room" refers to something that is being ignored but ultimately must be addressed  The story of the blind men and an elephant involves blind men touching different parts of an elephant and trying to figure out what it is 

See also
Animal track
Desert elephant
Elephants' graveyard
List of individual elephants
Motty, captive hybrid of an Asian and African elephant
National Elephant Day (Thailand)
World Elephant Day
Passage 2:
Gajabrishta
Gaja in Sanskrit means elephant  'Brishta' is the back or hip portion of a sitting elephant  The later Cholas of the Chola empire in the Indian subcontinent, especially the ones in Thondai Mandalam around the North Tamil Nadu area constructed temples which had vimanas in this style 
The sanctum sanctorum of these temples, especially Shiva temples, had this style of vimana 

See also
Shiva Temples of Tamil Nadu
Context 2: Passage 1:
Tommie Smith
Tommie C  Smith (born June 6, 1944) is an American former track and field athlete and former wide receiver in the American Football League  At the 1968 Summer Olympics, Smith, aged 24, won the 200-meter sprint finals and gold medal in 19 83 seconds – the first time the 20-second barrier was broken officially  His Black Power salute with John Carlos atop the medal podium to protest racism and injustice against African Americans in the United States caused controversy, as it was seen as politicizing the Olympic Games  It remains a symbolic moment in the history of the Black Power movement 

Early life and career
Tommie Smith was born on June 6, 1944, in Clarksville, Texas, the seventh of twelve children born to Richard and Dora Smith  He suffered from pneumonia as a child, but still grew to be an athletic youth  While attending Lemoore High School in Lemoore, California, Smith showed great potential, setting most of the school's track records, many of which remain  He won the 440-yard dash in the 1963 CIF California State Meet  He was voted Lemoore's "Most Valuable Athlete" in basketball, football, and track and field, and was also voted vice president of his senior class  His achievements earned him a scholarship to San José State University On May 7, 1966, while he was at San Jose State, Smith set a world best of 19 5 seconds in the 200m straight, which he ran on a cinder track  That record for 200m was finally beaten by Tyson Gay on May 16, 2010, just over 44 years later, though Smith still holds the record for the slightly longer 220-yard event  Since the IAAF has abandoned ratifying records for the event, Smith still retains the official record for the straightaway 200m/220 yards in perpetuity A few weeks later, on June 11, 1966, Smith set the record for 200 meters and 220 yards around a turn at 20 0, the first man to do that in 20 seconds  Six days later he won the NCAA Men's Outdoor Track and Field Championship  Smith also won the national collegiate 220-yard (201 17 m) title in 1967 before adding the AAU furlong (201 17m) crown as well  He traveled to Japan for the 1967 Summer Universiade and won the 200m gold medal  He repeated as U S  200m champion in 1968 and made the Olympic team 

1968 Summer Olympics
Leading up to the Olympics, at the U S  Olympic Trials at Echo Summit, California, San Jose State teammate John Carlos beat Smith and his world record, running 19 92A  John Carlos' record was disallowed because of the brush spike shoes he was wearing, as was a similar record by Vince Matthews in the 400 meters As a member of the Olympic Project for Human Rights (OPHR) Smith originally advocated a boycott of the 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games unless four conditions were met: South Africa and Rhodesia uninvited from the Olympics, the restoration of Muhammad Ali's world heavyweight boxing title, Avery Brundage to step down as president of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), and the hiring of more African-American assistant coaches  As the boycott failed to achieve support after the IOC withdrew invitations for South Africa and Rhodesia, he decided, together with Carlos, to not only wear their gloves but also go barefoot to protest poverty, wear beads to protest lynchings, and wear buttons that said OPHR At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico, Smith nursed an injured groin into the 200m final  In the race, teammate Carlos powered out to the lead through the turn, while Smith got a slow start  Coming off the turn, Smith charged past Carlos and sped to victory   Knowing he had passed his training partner and closest opponent, his victory was so clear, he raised his arms to celebrate 10m before the finish line  Still, he improved upon his own world record that would last for 11 years until Pietro Mennea would surpass it on the same track  Smith's time of 19 83 was among the first automatically timed world records for the event as recorded by the IAAF 

Carlos and Smith made headlines around the world by raising their black-gloved fists at the medal award ceremony  Both athletes wore black socks and no shoes on the podium to represent African-American poverty in the United States  In support, Peter Norman, the silver medalist who was a white athlete from Australia, participated in the protest by wearing an OPHR badge IOC president Avery Brundage deemed it to be a domestic political statement unfit for the apolitical, international forum the Olympic Games were intended to be  In response to their actions, he ordered Smith and Carlos suspended from the US team and banned from the Olympic Village  When the US Olympic Committee refused, Brundage threatened to ban the entire US track team  This threat led to the expulsion of the two athletes from the Games A spokesman for the IOC said Smith and Carlos's actions were "a deliberate and violent breach of the fundamental principles of the Olympic spirit " Brundage, who was president of the United States Olympic Committee in 1936, had made no objections against Nazi salutes during the Berlin Olympics  He argued that the Nazi salute, being a national salute at the time, was acceptable in a competition of nations, while the athletes' salute was not of a nation and therefore unacceptable Smith and Carlos faced consequences for challenging white authority in the U S  Ralph Boston, a black U S  long jumper at the 1968 games, stated: "The rest of the world didn't seem to find it such a derogatory thing  They thought it was very positive  Only America thought it was bad " The men's gesture had lingering effects for all three athletes, the most serious of which were death threats against Smith, Carlos and their families  Following their suspension by the IOC, they faced economic hardship Smith stated in later years that "We were concerned about the lack of black assistant coaches  About how Muhammad Ali got stripped of his title  About the lack of access to good housing and our kids not being able to attend the top colleges "

Athletics and later career
During his career, Smith set seven individual world records and also was a member of several world-record relay teams at San Jose State, where he was coached by Lloyd (Bud) Winter  With personal records of 10 1 for 100 meters, 19 83 for 200 and 44 5 for the 400, Smith still ranks high on the world all-time lists 
Smith, who had been drafted by the National Football League's Los Angeles Rams in the ninth round of the 1967 NFL Draft, signed to play for the American Football League's Cincinnati Bengals and was part of the team's taxi squad for most of three seasons as a wide receiver  During the 1969 season, he played in two games, catching one pass for 41 yards A year after his Olympic win, Smith finished his BA in Social Science at San Jose State University and went on to earn a master's in Social Change from Goddard College, whose program enabled Smith to integrate his teaching and writing practices into his coursework After his track and football careers, he became a member of the United States National Track and Field Hall of Fame in 1978  In 1996, Smith was inducted into the California Black Sports Hall of Fame, and in 1999 he received that organization's Sportsman of the Millennium Award  In 2000 and 2001 the County of Los Angeles and the State of Texas presented Smith with commendation, recognition and proclamation awards He later became a track coach at Oberlin College in Ohio, where he also taught sociology and until 2005 was a faculty member teaching physical education at Santa Monica College in Santa Monica, California In August 2008, he gave 2008 Olympic triple gold winner Usain Bolt of Jamaica one of his shoes from the 1968 Olympics as a birthday gift In 2010, Smith put his gold medal and spikes up for auction  Bids started at $250,000, and the sale was scheduled to close November 4, 2010  In 2013 Goddard College honored Smith as an alumnus by awarding him the Presidential Award for Activism in 2013 

Books
Smith's autobiography (co-written with David Steele), Silent Gesture was published in 2007 by Temple University Press  It was named a 2008 Adult Nonfiction Honor Book by the Black Caucus of the American Library Association and nominated for a 2008 NAACP Image Award 
Smith's second book Victory  Stand! Raising My Fist for Justice was published in 2022 by Norton Young Readers  The graphic memoir was co-written with Derrick Barnes and illustrated by Dawud Anyabwile  The book received literary acclaim  It won the 2023 YALSA Award for Excellence in Nonfiction and was recognized as a 2023 Corretta Scott King Award Author and Illustrator Honor Book as well as a finalist for the 2022 National Book Award for Young People's Literature 

Personal life
Smith first married Jimi Denise Paschal from 1967 to 1973, with whom he had one child  He then married Denise M  "Akiba" Kyle in 1977, with whom he had four children  The two divorced in 2000, and Smith married Delois Jordan in the same year 

Recognition
Tommie Smith is featured in the 1999 HBO documentary Fists of Freedom: The Story of the '68 Summer Games  The documentary looks at events leading up to, during and after the 1968 Olympics  It features interviews with Smith, Carlos and sociologist Harry Edwards  There is archival footage of the Games and the fallout after the raised fist salutes by Carlos and Smith  Smith says in the programme:
We were not Antichrists   We were just human beings who saw a need to bring attention to the inequality in our country   I don't like the idea of people looking at it as negative   There was nothing but a raised fist in the air and a bowed head, acknowledging the American flag – not symbolizing a hatred for it 
For his lifelong commitment to athletics, education, and human rights, Smith received the Courage of Conscience Award from The Peace Abbey in Sherborn, Massachusetts  In 2004, a sports hall bearing his name was inaugurated in his presence at Saint-Ouen, France In 2005, a statue showing Smith and Carlos on the medal stand was constructed by political artist Rigo 23 and dedicated on the campus of San Jose State University  Norman's silver medal position was left vacant at his request, so visitors could pose for photos in solidarity with Smith and Carlos, as Norman had stood A mural of the photo taken with Smith on the podium at the 1968 Olympics with Carlos and Norman was painted on the brick wall of a residence in Newtown, New South Wales, Australia, titled "Three Proud People Mexico 68"  The house's owner, Silvio Offria, allowed an artist known only as "Donald" to paint the mural, and said that Norman came to Newtown to see the mural and have his photo taken with it before he died in 2006  The mural faces the train tracks linking Sydney city to the Western and Southern Suburbs  In 2012, the Sydney City Council heritage listed the mural to safeguard it, after it had faced possible demolition in 2010 to make way for a railway tunnel  Smith and Carlos were pallbearers at Norman's funeral in Melbourne in 2006 On July 16, 2008, Smith and Carlos accepted the Arthur Ashe Award for Courage for the salute at the 2008 ESPY Awards  In 2018, Smith received the Dresden Peace Prize The Tommie Smith Youth Track Meet is held annually in his honor  It has been both an AAU and USATF-sponsored event, held at the University of California, Berkeley at Edwards Stadium  
San Jose State University has secured funding to rebuild the  track and field complex  The centerpiece is Speed City Legacy Center, which pays tribute to SJSU alumni track stars and civil rights advocates 

See also
Timeline of the civil rights movement
Bay Area Sports Hall of Fame
Other American Football League players
Men's 200 metres world record progression

Further reading
Bates, Karen Grigsby (October 16, 2018)  "50 Years Later, Raised Fists During National Anthem Still Resonate"  Morning Edition  NPR 
Brown, DeNeen (October 16, 2018)  "'A cry for freedom': The Black Power salute that rocked the world 50 years ago"  Washington Post 
Barra, Allan  "Fists Raised, but Not in Anger" The New York Times, August 22, 2008
Thomas, Katie  "For Australian Athletes, a Voice From the Grave" The New York Times May 23, 2008
"In-flight film will urge Olympians to protest", The Daily Telegraph, May 24, 2008
"Norman loses his spot in history", Sporting Life, October 17, 2005
"Norman dies after heart attack", Fox Sports, October 3, 2006
"Peter Norman, man on podium for Black Power salute, dies", USA Today, October 3, 2006
Reed, Ron  "Norman to receive a final salute", The Herald Sun, October 6, 2006
Hoy, Greg  "Fellow athletes pay tribute to Peter Norman", Australian Broadcasting Corporation, October 10, 2006
Blackistone, Kevin B , The Dallas Morning News, August 23, 2008 (Archived original "'68 protest more than a memory" at the Wayback Machine (archived July 1, 2001))
"Peter Norman dies after heart attack", The Age, October 3, 2006
"Bitter price of Olympics' iconic image", Sydney Morning Herald, October 17, 2003
Wise, Mike  "Clenched Fists, Helping Hand", The Washington Post, October 5, 2006
"Norman Remembered as an Unflinching Champion", The Australian, October 9, 2006
"Carlos, Smith act as pallbearers at funeral of podium mate from 1968 Olympics" at the Wayback Machine (archived March 11, 2007), MSNBC, October 9, 2006 (Archived original)
Rees, Margaret "Australian athlete supported American civil rights struggle", World Socialist Web Site, October 23, 2006
Passage 2:
Black Power: The Politics of Liberation
Black Power: The Politics of Liberation is a 1967 book co-authored by Kwame Ture (then known as Stokely Carmichael) and political scientist Charles V  Hamilton  The work defines Black Power, presents insights into the roots of racism in the United States and suggests a means of reforming the traditional political process for the future   Published originally as Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America, the book has become a staple work produced during the Civil Rights Movement and Black Power movement One of the main focuses of the book is describing the struggles that black communities faced in trying to get involved in politics   Black people had faced severe and violent discrimination since the Civil War, as well as segregation since the late nineteenth century  Consequently, the community faced problems with political participation as the community faced material consequences of systemic racism when attempting to vote or engaging with the political world   Carmichael and Hamilton cite white supremacy, colonialism, and the systemic continuation of these dynamics as drivers of disenfranchisement and racism These issues led to the creation of certain groups and organizations   For instance, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) attempted to build organizational capacity within the Southern black community, offering a progressive alternative to the Democratic Party in Mississippi that would adopt the national party's platform (see Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party)   By creating regional campaigns and running black candidates, SNCC saw success within their own community   However, with the limited power that this and other organizations held, their efforts to engage in the political arena for the black community were often not fully realized  This led the authors to reconceptualize Black Power as a tool for confronting the totality of oppression, not exclusively that of political representation 
Carmichael and Hamilton continue to write about the ways that black communities' attempts to be active in politics have been thwarted by self-serving groups who offer shallow allyship   Criticizing labor movements, liberals, and the middle class for being complacent in systemic racism, Black Power challenges coalitions to genuinely serve the anti-racism and the needs of the black community  Carmichael and Hamilton state, "We do not believe it is possible to form meaningful coalitions unless both or all parties are not only willing but believe it absolutely necessary to challenge [white supremacy] and other prevailing norms and institutions" Carmichael and Hamilton write that Black Power meant more than simply changing the physical, material conditions of inequality faced by black Americans; it also meant changing perspectives of race relations in a historical context, both inside and outside the community  The authors believe Black Power not only rests in dismantling white supremacy, but also in establishing camaraderie within the black community  In this way, Black Power disavows the legitimacy of liberal, conformist politics, and instead seeks a degree of sovereignty for black community 
Ohio prison library included Black Power in its list of books in 1975 

See also
Where Do We Go From Here: Chaos or Community
Passage 3:
African-American bookstores
African-American bookstores, also known as black bookstores, are bookstores owned and operated by African Americans   These stores often, although not always, specialize in works by and about African Americans and their target customers are often African Americans   Although they are a variety of African-American business, African-American bookstores have often been closely tied to radical political movements including Marxism, Black Power, and pan-Africanism  The first documented African-American bookstore was established by the abolitionist David Ruggles in 1834  The first African-American bookstore to open in Harlem was Young's Book Exchange  One of the earliest African-American bookstores to achieve national prominence was Lewis Michaux's African National Memorial Bookstore, which operated in Harlem from the early 1930s to the middle of the 1970s   Michaux's store doubled as a meeting place for black activists, including most famously Malcolm X   The Black Power movement embraced black-owned bookstores in the 1960s and 70s as vehicles for promoting their ideology and creating radical political spaces in black communities across the United States   By the 1990s, African-American bookstores earned significant attention from more politically moderate and business oriented media outlets such as the magazine Black Enterprise   In the 2000s and 2010s, however, as independent bookstores of all kinds declined and bookstores chains and Amazon increasingly sold black-authored books, the number of African-American bookstores declined rapidly, dropping from more than 250 to just over 70 Prominent black-owned booksellers currently in business include Marcus Books in Oakland, the oldest black bookseller in the country, Everyone's Place in Baltimore, Hakim's Bookstore in Philadelphia, Eso Won Books in Los Angeles (noted as "a Leimert Park institution of black literature and culture"), and Sankofa in Washington, D C Prominent online black booksellers include AALBC com (founded in 1998), Mahogany Books and Hue-Man Bookstore, which formerly had brick-and-mortar storefronts in Denver, Colorado, and in Harlem 

See also
Bookselling in the US
Antiquarian book trade in the United States
Books in the United States
Lewis H  Micheaux
Young's Book Exchange
Martin Sostre
David Ruggles
Passage 4:
Black Power movement
The Black Power movement or Black Liberation movement was a branch or counterculture within the civil rights movement of the United States, reacting against its more moderate, mainstream, or incremental tendencies and motivated by a desire for safety and self-sufficiency that was not available inside redlined African American neighborhoods  Black Power activists founded black-owned bookstores, food cooperatives, farms, media, printing presses, schools, clinics and ambulance services  The international impact of the movement includes the Black Power Revolution in Trinidad and Tobago By the late 1960s, Black Power came to represent the demand for more immediate violent action to counter American white supremacy  Most of these ideas were influenced by Malcolm X's criticism of Martin Luther King Jr 's peaceful protest methods  The 1965 assassination of Malcolm X, coupled with the urban riots of 1964 and 1965, ignited the movement  New organizations that supported Black Power philosophies ranging from the adoption of socialism by certain sects of the movement to black nationalism, including the Black Panther Party (BPP), grew to prominence While black American thinkers such as Robert F  Williams and Malcolm X influenced the early Black Power movement, the Black Panther Party and its views are widely seen as the cornerstone  It was influenced by philosophies such as pan-Africanism, black nationalism and socialism, as well as contemporary events including the Cuban Revolution and the decolonization of Africa 

History
Origins
The first popular use of the term "Black Power" as a social and racial slogan was by Stokely Carmichael (later known as Kwame Ture) and Willie Ricks (later known as Mukasa Dada), both organizers and spokespeople for the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee  On June 16, 1966, in a speech in Greenwood, Mississippi, during the March Against Fear, Carmichael led the marchers in a chant for Black power that was televised nationally The organization Nation of Islam began as a Black nationalist movement in the 1930s, inspiring later groups  Malcolm X is largely credited with the group's dramatic increase in membership between the early 1950s and early 1960s (from 500 to 25,000 by one estimate; from 1,200 to 50,000 or 75,000 by another)  In March 1964, Malcolm X left the Nation due to disagreements with Elijah Muhammad; among other things, he cited his interest in working with civil rights leaders, saying that Muhammad had prevented him from doing so  Later, Malcolm X also said Muhammad had engaged in extramarital affairs with young Nation secretaries‍—‌a serious violation of the group's teachings  On February 21, 1965, Malcolm X was shot and killed while speaking at the Audubon Ballroom in Washington Heights, New York City  Three Nation members were convicted of assassinating him  Despite this, there has long been speculation and suspicion of government involvement  The forty police officers at the scene were instructed to "stand down" by their commanding officers while the shooting took place After the Watts riots in Los Angeles in 1965, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee decided to cut ties with the mainstream civil rights movement  They argued that blacks needed to build power of their own, rather than seek accommodations from the power structure in place  SNCC migrated from a philosophy of nonviolence to one of greater militancy after the mid-1960s  The organization established ties with radical groups such as the Students for a Democratic Society 
In late October 1966, Huey P  Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party  In formulating a new politics, they drew on their experiences working with a variety of Black Power organizations 

Escalation in the late 1960s
The Black Panther Party initially utilized open-carry gun laws to protect party members and local black communities from law enforcement  Party members also recorded incidents of police brutality by distantly following police cars around neighborhoods  Numbers grew slightly starting in February 1967, when the party provided an armed escort at the San Francisco airport for Betty Shabazz, Malcolm X's widow and keynote speaker at a conference held in his honor  By 1967, the SNCC began to fall apart due to policy disputes in its leadership, and many members left for the Black Panthers  Throughout 1967, the Panthers staged rallies and disrupted the California State Assembly with armed marchers  In 1956 the FBI developed COINTELPRO to investigate black nationalist groups and others  By 1969, the Black Panthers and their allies had become primary COINTELPRO targets, singled out in 233 of the 295 authorized "black nationalist" COINTELPRO actions  In 1968, the Republic of New Afrika was founded, a separatist group seeking a black country in the southern United States, only to dissolve by the early 1970s 
By 1968, many Black Panther leaders had been arrested, including founder Huey Newton for the murder of a police officer (Newton's prosecution was eventually dismissed), yet membership surged  Black Panthers later engaged the police in a firefight in a Los Angeles gas station  In the same year, Martin Luther King Jr  was assassinated, creating nationwide riots, the widest wave of social unrest since the American Civil War  In Cleveland, Ohio, the "Republic of New Libya" engaged the police in the Glenville shootout, which was followed by rioting  The year also marked the start of the White Panther Party, a group of whites dedicated to the cause of the Black Panthers  Founders Pun Plamondon and John Sinclair were arrested, but eventually freed, in connection to the bombing of a Central Intelligence Agency office in Ann Arbor, Michigan that September By 1969, the Black Panthers began purging members due to fear of law enforcement infiltration, engaged in multiple gunfights with police and one with a black nationalist organization  The Panthers continued their "Free Huey" campaign internationally  In the spirit of rising militancy, the League of Revolutionary Black Workers was formed in Detroit, which supported labor rights and Black liberation  \

Peak in the early 1970s
In 1970 the Honorary Prime Minister of the Black Panther Party, Stokely Carmichael, traveled to various countries to discuss methods to resist "American imperialism"  In Trinidad, the Black Power Movement had escalated into the Black Power Revolution in which many Afro-Trinidadians forced the government of Trinidad to give into reforms  Later many Panthers visited Algeria to discuss Pan-Africanism and anti-imperialism  In the same year former Black Panthers formed the Black Liberation Army to continue a violent revolution rather than the party's new reform movements  On October 22, 1970, the Black Liberation Army is believed to have planted a bomb in St  Brendan's Church in San Francisco while it was full of mourners attending the funeral of San Francisco police officer Harold Hamilton, who had been killed in the line of duty while responding to a bank robbery  The bomb was detonated, but no one in the church suffered serious injuries In 1971, several Panther officials fled the U S  due to police concerns  This was the only active year of the Black Revolutionary Assault Team, a group that bombed the New York South African consular office in protest of apartheid  On September 20 it placed bombs at the UN Missions of Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa) and the Republic of Malawi  In February 1971, ideological splits within the Black Panther Party between leaders Newton and Eldridge Cleaver led to two factions within the party; the conflict turned violent and four people were killed in a series of assassinations  On May 21, 1971, five Black Liberation Army members participated in the shootings of two New York City police officers, Joseph Piagentini and Waverly Jones  Those brought to trial for the shootings include Anthony Bottom (also known as Jalil Muntaqim), Albert Washington, Francisco Torres, Gabriel Torres, and Herman Bell During the jail sentence of White Panther John Sinclair a "Free John" concert took place, including John Lennon and Stevie Wonder  Sinclair was released two days later  On August 29, three BLA members murdered San Francisco police sergeant John Victor Young at his police station  Two days later, the San Francisco Chronicle received a letter signed by the BLA claiming responsibility for the attack  Late in the year Huey Newton visited China for meetings on Maoist theory and anti-imperialism  Black Power icon George Jackson attempted to escape from prison in August, killing seven hostages only to be killed himself  Jackson's death triggered the Attica Prison uprising which was later ended in a bloody siege  On November 3, Officer James R  Greene of the Atlanta Police Department was shot and killed in his patrol van at a gas station by Black Liberation Army members 1972 was the year Newton shut down many Black Panther chapters and held a party meeting in Oakland, California  On January 27, the Black Liberation Army assassinated police officers Gregory Foster and Rocco Laurie in New York City  After the killings, a note sent to authorities portrayed the murders as a retaliation for the prisoner deaths during 1971 Attica prison riot  To date no arrests have been made    On July 31, five armed BLA members hijacked Delta Air Lines Flight 841, eventually collecting a ransom of $1 million and diverting the plane, after passengers were released, to Algeria  The authorities there seized the ransom but allowed the group to flee  Four were eventually caught by French authorities in Paris, where they were convicted of various crimes, but one – George Wright – remained a fugitive until September 26, 2011, when he was captured in Portugal  After being accused of murdering a prostitute in 1974, Huey Newton fled to Cuba  Elaine Brown became party leader and embarked on an election campaign 

De-escalation in the late 1970s
In the late 1970s a rebel group named after the killed prisoner formed the George Jackson Brigade  From March 1975 to December 1977, the Brigade robbed at least seven banks and detonated about 20 pipe bombs – mainly targeting government buildings, electric power facilities, Safeway stores, and companies accused of racism  In 1977, Newton returned from exile in Cuba  Shortly afterward, Elaine Brown resigned from the party and fled to Los Angeles  The Party fell apart, leaving only a few members MOVE developed in Philadelphia in 1972 as the "Christian Movement for Life", a communal living group based on Black Liberation principles  When police raided their house in 1978, a firefight broke out; during the shootout, one officer was killed, seven other police officers, five firefighters, three MOVE members, and three bystanders were also injured In another high-profile incident of the Black Liberation Army, Assata Shakur, Zayd Shakur and Sundiata Acoli were said to have opened fire on state troopers in New Jersey after being pulled over for a broken taillight  Zayd Shakur and state trooper Werner Foerster were both killed during the exchange  Following her capture, Assata Shakur was tried in six different criminal trials  According to Shakur, she was beaten and tortured during her incarceration in a number of different federal and state prisons  The charges ranged from kidnapping to assault and battery to bank robbery  Assata Shakur was found guilty of the murder of both Foerster and her companion Zayd Shakur, but escaped prison in 1979 and eventually fled to Cuba and received political asylum  Acoli was convicted of killing Foerster and sentenced to life in prison 
In 1978 a group of Black Liberation Army and Weather Underground members formed the May 19th Communist Organization, or M19CO  It also included members of the Black Panthers and the Republic of New Africa  In 1979 three M19CO members walked into the visitor's center at the Clinton Correctional Facility for Women near Clinton, New Jersey  They took two guards hostage and freed Shakur  Several months later M19CO arranged for the escape of William Morales, a member of Puerto Rican separatist group Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional Puertorriqueña from Bellevue Hospital in New York City, where he was recovering after a bomb he was building exploded in his hands 

Decline in the 1980s
Over the 1980s the Black Power movement continued despite a decline in its popularity and organization memberships  The Black Liberation Army was active in the US until at least 1981 when a Brinks truck robbery, conducted with support from former Weather Underground members Kathy Boudin and David Gilbert, left a guard and two police officers dead  Boudin and Gilbert, along with several BLA members, were subsequently arrested  M19CO engaged in a bombing campaign in the 1980s  They targeted a series of government and commercial buildings, including the U S  Senate  On November 3, 1984, two members of the M19CO, Susan Rosenberg and Timothy Blunk, were arrested at a mini-warehouse they had rented in Cherry Hill, New Jersey  Police recovered more than 100 blasting caps, nearly 200 sticks of dynamite, more than 100 cartridges of gel explosive, and 24 bags of blasting agent from the warehouse  The M19CO alliance's last bombing was on February 23, 1985, at the Policemen's Benevolent Association in New York City 
MOVE had relocated to West Philadelphia after the earlier shootout  On May 13, 1985, the police, along with city manager Leo Brooks, arrived with arrest warrants and attempted to clear the MOVE building and arrest the indicted MOVE members  This led to an armed standoff with police, who lobbed tear gas canisters at the building  MOVE members shot at the police, who returned fire with automatic weapons  The police then bombed the house, killing several adults and children, and causing a large fire that destroyed the better part of a city block In 1989, well into the waning years of the movement, the New Black Panther Party formed  In the same year on August 22, Huey P  Newton was fatally shot outside by 24-year-old Black Guerilla Family member Tyrone Robinson 

Characteristics
Education
The fifth point of the Black Panther Party's Ten-Point Program called for "education for our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society  We want education that teaches us our true history and our role in the present day society " This sentiment was echoed in many of the other Black Power organizations; the inadequacy of black education had earlier been remarked on by W  E  B  Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, and Carter G  Woodson 
With this backdrop, Stokely Carmichael brought political education into his work with SNCC in the rural South  This included get-out-the-vote campaigns and political literacy  Bobby Seale and Huey Newton used education to address the lack of identity in the black community  Seale had worked with youth in an after-school program before starting the Panthers  Through this new education and identity building, they believed they could empower black Americans to claim their freedom 

Media
Just as Black Power activists focused on community control of schools and politics, the movement took a major interest in creating and controlling its own media institutions  Most famously, the Black Panther Party produced the Black Panther newspaper, which proved to be one of the BPP's most influential tools for disseminating its message and recruiting new members 
WAFR was launched in September 1971 as the first public, community-based black radio station  The Durham, North Carolina, station broadcast until 1976, but influenced later activist radio stations including WPFW in Washington, D C  and WRFG in Atlanta 

Australian Black Power
The American Black Power movement influenced Aboriginal Australian activists from the late 1960s onwards, especially in Sydney, Brisbane and Melbourne  The term became widely known after the Victorian Aborigines Advancement League (AAL), led by Bruce McGuinness and Bob Maza, invited Caribbean activist Roosevelt Brown to give a talk on Black Power in Melbourne in 1968, causing a media frenzy  The AAL was influenced by the ideas of Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael  The Australian "Black Power movement" had emerged in Redfern in Sydney, Fitzroy, Melbourne, and South Brisbane, following the "Freedom Ride" led by  Charles Perkins in 1965  There was a small group of people at the centre of the movement known as the Black Caucus Bobbi Sykes defined Australian Black Power as "The power generated by people who seek to identify their own problems and those of the community as a whole, and who strive to take action in all possible forms to solve those problems", while Paul Coe saw it as the need for Aboriginal people to "take control both of the economical, the political and cultural resources of the people and of the land…so that they themselves have got the power to determine their own future"  Activist and later academic Gary Foley later wrote that in Australia, Black Power "was essentially about the necessity for Black people to define the world in their own terms, and to seek self-determination and independence on their own terms, without white interference"  The Aboriginal Legal Service in Redfern grew out of this activism 

Legacy
After the 1970s the Black Power movement saw a decline, but not an end  In 1998, the Black Radical Congress was founded, with debatable effects  The Black Riders Liberation Party was created by Bloods and Crips gang members as an attempt to recreate the Black Panther Party in 1996  The group has spread, creating chapters in cities across the United States, and frequently staging paramilitary marches  During the 2008 presidential election New Black Panther Party members were accused of voter intimidation at a polling station in a predominantly black, Democratic voting district of Philadelphia  After the killing of Trayvon Martin black power paramilitaries formed, including the Huey P  Newton Gun Club, African American Defense League, and the New Black Liberation Militia, all staging armed marches and military training Some have compared the modern movement Black Lives Matter to the Black Power movement, noting its similarities  The Movement for Black Lives openly promotes Black Power 

See also
Black mecca
Black nationalism
Black Panther Party
Black supremacy
Black separatism
Chicano Movement
History of the socialist movement in the United States
New Left
Black Arts Movement
Protests of 1968
Red Power movement
Los Siete de la Raza
Passage 5:
Hakim Jamal
Hakim Abdullah Jamal (born Allen Donaldson; March 28, 1931 – May 1, 1973) was an American activist and writer  He was an associate of Michael X and wrote From the Dead Level, a memoir of his life and memories of Malcolm X  During his life, Jamal was romantically involved with several high-profile women, notably Jean Seberg, Diana Athill, and Gale Benson 

Early life
Donaldson was born in Roxbury, Boston, in 1931  His father was an alcoholic, and his mother abandoned him when he was 6  Donaldson started regularly drinking alcohol when he was aged 10 and became a heroin user at 14  In his early 20s he spent four years in prison Donaldson's violent temper led to his committal to a mental asylum, after two attempted murders  He later underwent a conversion to the teachings of the Nation of Islam and renamed himself Hakim Jamal  He became a spokesman for the movement and contributed articles to various newspapers promoting Black Power  After Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam, Jamal supported his decision and was outspoken in his criticism of Elijah Muhammad



ground_truth: Sanskrit

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which name adopted by African-American activist Allen Donaldson co-found Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s

The following are given passages.
Context 2: 

Founding US Organization
After Malcolm X's death, Jamal joined with Maulana Karenga and others to found "US", an organization to promote African-American cultural unity  He had already circulated a self-produced magazine entitled "US", a pun on the phrase "us and them" and the accepted abbreviation of "United States"  This promoted the idea of black cultural unity as a distinct national identity  Jamal and Karenga published a magazine Message to the Grassroot in 1966, in which Karenga was listed as chairman and Jamal as founder of the new group  Jamal argued that the ideas of Malcolm X should be the main ideological model for the group However, Jamal's views increasingly differed from Karenga's  Jamal continued to emphasise his cousin's radical politics, while Karenga wished to root black Americans in African culture  Jamal saw no point in projects such as teaching Swahili and promoting traditional African rituals  He left "US" to establish the Malcolm X Foundation, based in Compton, California 

Relationships
Though married to fellow-activist Dorothy Jamal, Jamal had several significant affairs  He had a brief relationship with actress Jean Seberg  His wife phoned Seberg's father to try to bring an end to the affair Jamal moved to London during the late 1960s where he met Gale Benson, daughter of the British MP Leonard Plugge 
The writer V  S  Naipaul described Benson as Jamal's "white-woman slave " Jamal and Benson traveled in America seeking funds for a project to create a Montessori school for black children  Following an unsuccessful attempt to establish a commune in Guyana with the young German radical Herbert Girardet, the couple later joined West Indian Black Power leader Michael X at his commune in Trinidad, where Jamal wrote articles in support of Michael's activities 

Gale Benson murder
Benson traveled once again to America to raise funds for the school, but was unsuccessful  Shortly after her return to Trinidad in 1972, she was murdered by Michael X and his associates  Jamal was not a suspect, but it was alleged that Michael X had ordered her death because she was causing "mental strain" to Jamal In 1971, Jamal wrote his autobiography, From the Dead Level: Malcolm X and Me  It was published in the UK by André Deutsch and at this time Jamal became involved in a relationship with his London editor, Diana Athill  She later wrote about their romance in her memoir Make Believe, recording his increasing mental instability and alleged that he made repeated assertions that he was God Jamal eventually returned to his wife and moved back to Boston, where he revived his role as director of the Malcolm X Foundation 

Death
On May 1, 1973, Jamal was killed when four men burst into his apartment in Boston and shot him repeatedly  Police attributed the crime to a factional dispute, linked to Jamal's attacks on Elijah Muhammad  It was blamed on a group known as De Mau Mau  Five members of the group were convicted of involvement in the murder 

In popular culture
Jamal is a character in the 2008 film The Bank Job, in which he is played by Colin Salmon 
In the Jean Seberg biopic Seberg from 2019, he is played by Anthony Mackie 

Notes
Further reading
Athill, Diana (2004) [1993]  Make Believe: A True Story  London: Granta  ISBN 978-1-86207-708-9 
Jamal, Hakim A  (1972)  From The Dead Level: Malcolm X and Me  New York: Random House  ISBN 978-0-394-46234-9 

External links
"Hakim Jamal (centre), Portobello Road", 1971 photograph by Charlie Phillips  V&A collection 
FBI Docs Hakim Jamal FBI file as well as inventory of other FBI files on Jamal held by the National Archives II
Passage 6:
Etheridge Knight
Etheridge Knight (April 19, 1931 – March 10, 1991) was an African-American poet who made his name in 1968 with his debut volume, Poems from Prison   The book recalls in verse his eight-year-long sentence after his arrest for robbery in 1960   By the time he left prison, Knight had prepared a second volume featuring his own writings and works of his fellow inmates  This second book, first published in Italy under the title Voce negre dal carcere, appeared in English in 1970 as Black Voices from Prison  These works established Knight as one of the major poets of the Black Arts Movement, which flourished from the early 1960s through the mid-1970s  With roots in the Civil Rights Movement, Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam, and the Black Power Movement, Etheridge Knight and other American artists within the movement sought to create politically engaged work that explored the African-American cultural and historical experience Knight is also considered an important poet in the mainstream American tradition  In his 2012 book Understanding Etheridge Knight, Michael S  Collins calls Knight "a mighty American poet    He and Wallace Stevens stand as 'two poles of American poetry,' according to his better-known fellow writer Robert Bly  Or, rather, Knight was, as he often said, a poet of the belly: a poet of the earth and of the body, a poet of the feelings from which cries and blood oaths and arias come, while Stevens was a poet, arguably, of the ache left in the intellect after it tears itself from God  'Ideas are not the source of poetry,' Knight told one interviewer  'For me it's passion, heart and soul    '"

Biography
Knight was born on April 19, 1931, as one of eight children to Belzora Cozart  Knight and Etheridge "Bushie" Knight in rural Corinth, Mississippi, but moved with his family to Paducah, Kentucky, where his father, a failed farmer, worked as a laborer on the Kentucky Dam  During this time, Knight frequently ran away from home, and so, was sent back to Corinth during the summer to stay with an uncle  Although he was an extremely bright student, Knight decided to drop out of school at the age of 16  His first job was as a shoe shiner in a small Kentucky town, where he first became more attuned to nuances of language as he absorbed the world and activity around him  In addition to his work, Knight spent much of his time at juke joints, pool halls, and underground poker games, which furthered his interest in language  It was during this time that Knight became exposed to "toasts," which are narrative-style oral poetry which relates a story  In 1947, Knight enlisted in the army and served as a medical technician in the Korean War until November 1950, during which time he sustained serious wound as well as psychological trauma, which led him to begin using morphine  By the time Knight was discharged from the army and returned to Indianapolis, Indiana, where his family had moved, he had become addicted to opiates  He spent much of the next several years dealing drugs and stealing to support his drug addiction In 1960, after a few previous run-ins with the police, Knight and two of his associates were arrested for armed robbery  Knight was initially so furious about his sentence that he was later unable to recall much of what happened during his first few months of his sentence  But after realizing that such anger was counterproductive, he turned his attention to reading as much as he could and dedicated himself to poetry During the following years, Knight became increasingly well known for his poetry writings  After working as a journalist for prison publications, he began submitting poetry to the Negro Digest in 1965   He also started establishing contacts with significant figures in the African-American literary community, including well-known poets like Gwendolyn Brooks, Dudley Randall, Sonia Sanchez and Haki Madhubuti, many of whom came to visit him in prison  The poems he had written during his time in prison were so effective that Dudley Randall, a poet and owner of Broadside Press, published Knight’s first volume of verse, Poems from Prison, and hailed Knight as one of the major poets of the Black Arts Movement  The book’s publication coincided with his release from prison 
Upon his release from prison in 1968, Knight married poet Sonia Sanchez  Over the next few years, he held the position of writer-in-residence at several universities, including two years, 1968 and 1969, spent at the University of Pittsburgh  While living in Pittsburgh with his wife and their family, Knight spent time as poetry editor for Motive magazine  Because of his ongoing drug addiction, his marriage to Sanchez did not last long, and they were divorced in 1970 while still in Pittsburgh  He continued writing his third book, Belly Song and Other Poems, which was published in 1973  His third work incorporates new life experiences and attitudes about love and race, and Knight was praised for the work’s sincerity  Belly Song was nominated for the National Book Award and the Pulitzer Prize  Knight’s time in Pennsylvania was very important to his career: his work during this period won him both a National Endowment for the Arts grant in 1972 and a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1974 
He married Mary McAnally in 1972, and she adopted two children  They settled in Minneapolis, Minnesota, until they separated in 1977  He then resided in Memphis, Tennessee, where he received Methadone treatments  Knight rose from a life of poverty, crime, and drug addiction to become exactly what he expressed in his notebook in 1965: a voice that was heard and helped his people 
Knight continued to write throughout his post-prison life  Belly Song and Other Poems (1973) dealt with themes of racism and love  Knight believed the poet was a "meddler" or intermediary between the poem and the reader  He elaborated on this concept in his 1980 work Born of a Woman  The Essential Etheridge Knight (1986), which is a compilation of his work 
In 1990, he earned a bachelor's degree in American poetry and criminal justice from Martin Center University in Indianapolis  Knight taught at the University of Pittsburgh, the University of Hartford, and Lincoln University, before he was forced to stop working due to illness  He also continued to be known as a charismatic poetry reader  Knight died in Indianapolis, Indiana, of lung cancer on March 10, 1991 

Style and themes
Knight’s poetry uses Black vernacular and includes a number of haiku among its forms, including this poem titled ″Vigo County″: ″Beyond the brown hill / Above the silent cedars, / Blackbirds flee the April rains ″  This message aligns with the Black Arts Movement in that the artists were no longer going to be imprisoned by silence; they would use their voices and art to escape 
Joyce Ann Joyce places Knight "in the context of an African philosophical/aesthetic tradition " His "tribute to the ancestors," she writes, "emerges as a ritualistic drama in which the values of the poet's ancestors are reborn, redefined, reaffirmed and reinterpreted, at once giving them added viability and sacralizing their new form " This ethnophilosophical perspective, she finds, "differs significantly from the Eurocentric concept of intertextuality that confines itself to reading texts only within the context of other texts ” Joyce calls him “a truly African oral performer," whose subjects "grew out of his and his people's lives" so that "viewed in the context of an African philosophical/aesthetic tradition, his poetry places him among those at the vanguard of any discussion of the history of African-American poetic letters " In his poem, ″Cell Song″ Knight articulates his desire to create good from his time in prison  He speaks to himself:
Night Music Slanted
Light strike the cave of sleep  I alone
tread the red circle
and twist the space with speech
Come now, etheridge, don't
be a savior; take your words and scrape
the sky, shake rain
on the desert, sprinkle
salt on the tail
of a girl,
can there anything
good come out of
prisonKnight places the reader within the cell; he capitalizes the first three words to show emphasis – this is not actual music, but the quiet and intermittent noises expected to be heard at night in prison  In the dark and light of the "red circle," he paces and ruminates over the words and ideas in his head  He attempts to project to that life beyond the prison walls, to use his talents for good, to use his words to make an impact  The reader can imagine Knight walking in small circles within his cell, as the words of the poem wind tighter and tighter  He concludes rather than questions that ″good″ can ″come out of prison ″
His exploration of themes of freedom and imprisonment, including his tributes to Martin Luther King Jr  and Malcolm X, are noted in a biographical study by Cassie Premo, who writes that his life and work dwell on "the theme of prisons imposed from without (slavery, racism, poverty, incarceration) and prisons from within (addiction, repetition of painful patterns) [which] are countered with the theme of freedom  His poems of suffering and survival, trial and tribute, loss and love testify to the fact that we are never completely imprisoned  Knight's poetry expresses our freedom of consciousness and attests to our capacity for connection to others ”In his prison-era poem, "The Warden Said to Me the Other Day," Knight "limns his feelings of emotional, imaginative, and perceptual confinement "The warden said to me the other day
(innocently, I think), "Say etheridge,
why come the black boys don't run off
like the white boys do?"
I lowered my jaw and scratched my head
And said (innocently, I think), "Well, suh,
I ain't for sure, but I reckon it's cause
We ain't got no wheres to run to "Written in a vernacular style reminiscent of a tale by Uncle Remus, Knight expresses the doubtfulness of black autonomy and white motives, for "Knight[sees] American as a prison where, no matter how benevolent a warden wishes to be, his gestures remain part of what locks his charges in " Knight's true prison, then, is the ways in which the Law, controlled by white America, imprisons black bodies and black voices, regardless of their presumed physical freedom 
Knight's poem, ″A WASP Woman Visits a Black Junkie in Prison″ shows how humans must only find a common interest to make a connection, in this case, both the black man and white woman have children  According to Premo, the "encounter leaves the man touched and softened by the woman, as are many of Knight's male speakers  In ″Belly Song,″ the speaker "sings of love: all the emotion, pain, memory, and passion of living ″  In ″The Stretching of the Belly," Knight contrasts the stretchmarks of his third wife, Charlene Blackburn with his own scars  His wife's representing ″growth and life″ while his are from ″war, violence, and slavery ″

Works
Poems from Prison  Detroit: Broadside Press, 1968 
2 Poems for Black Relocation Centers, 1968 
The Idea of Ancestry, 1968 
Black Voices from Prison (with others)  New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970 
A Poem for Brother Man, 1972 
For Black Poets Who Think of Suicide, 1972 
Belly Song and Other Poems  Detroit: Broadside Press, 1973 
Born of a Woman: New and Selected Poems  Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980 
The Essential Etheridge Knight  Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1986 
The Lost Etheridge  Athens: Kinchafoonee Creek Press, 2022 
Passage 7:
Rainbow Coalition (Fred Hampton)
The Rainbow Coalition was an antiracist, anticlass multicultural movement founded April 4, 1969 in Chicago, Illinois by Fred Hampton of the Black Panther Party, along with William "Preacherman" Fesperman of the Young Patriots Organization and José Cha Cha Jiménez, founder of the Young Lords  It was the first of several 20th century black-led organizations to use the "rainbow coalition" concept Some members of the Young Patriots included Jack (Junebug) Boykin, Bobby Joe Mcginnis and Hy Thurman who worked with Field Marshall Bobby Lee of the Black Panthers  Hampton first met Jimenez in Chicago's Lincoln Park neighborhood the day after the Young Lords were in the news, having occupied the police community workshop meeting of the 18th District Police Station  Hampton was arrested twice in February 1969 with Jimenez at the Wicker Park Welfare Office  Both were charged with Mob Action during peaceful pickets of the welfare office protesting mistreatment of the patrons 
The Rainbow Coalition soon included various radical socialist community groups like the Lincoln Park Poor People's Coalition, later, the coalition was joined nationwide by the Students for a Democratic Society ("SDS"), the Brown Berets, the American Indian Movement and the Red Guard Party  In April 1969, Hampton called several press conferences to announce that this "Rainbow Coalition" had formed  Some of the things the coalition engaged in joint action against were poverty, corruption, racism, police brutality, and substandard housing  The participating groups supported each other at protests, strikes, and demonstrations where they had a common cause The coalition later included many other local groups like Rising Up Angry, and Mothers and Others  The Coalition also brokered treaties to end crime and gang violence  Hampton, Jimenez and their colleagues believed that the Richard J  Daley Democratic Party machine in Chicago used gang wars to consolidate their own political positions by gaining funding for law enforcement and dramatizing crime rather than underlying social issues The coalition eventually collapsed under duress from constant harassment by local and federal law enforcement, including the murder of Hampton 

History
Black nationalism changed around 1964-65 with Dr  Martin Luther King, Jr , began to radicalize his movement as he came to understand the importance of the ballot box, or electoral politics for social change  Malcolm X suggested that a mass convention could potentially help them decide between what he called a Black party and a Black army  While this specific convention never came to fruition, Malcolm X focused his energy on creating an intelligence for a Black political power  He came to understand it would be more difficult than he initially thought Malcolm X spent the last year of his life strategizing how to increase voter participation and provide widespread political education  At the same time, Dr  King was getting more militant  He believed they should have addressed political power previously, that Black people needed to be in power to address Black issues  He thought organizations needed to stop fighting and unite because they have a responsibility to the movement  It was important to not just increase Black votes but also to put their voices in powerful places 

Formation
Chicago was very segregated, separated by whites, Puerto Ricans, and blacks  Following the release of West Side Story, Puerto Ricans started dying their clothes purple, and that became their “colors " It was very difficult to get a job in Chicago, some would donate blood because that was the only way they could bring in a profit  Students for a Democratic Society came in and formed a JOIN Jobs or Income Now, and introduced the civil rights movement, which started the progress for change  When the west and south side of Chicago combined it was the largest contiguous area of 90 or more percent black population in the world outside of Africa  Mayor Daley used virtually every instrument of government he could to keep Chicago segregated  He served as mayor from 1955 to 1976  At his peak, he was the “most powerful and most influential urban figure in America ” Martin Luther King Jr  believed that southwest Chicago was a closed society in terms of race  The “white flight” went to the suburbs to flee the minorities coming into the communities, and Mayor Daley wanted to bring them back into the city  “Urban renewal was a racist plan, and was supported by the federal government with funds ”  Some of the activists in the Puerto Rican community came across a Community Conservation Council meeting in their community, and inside there were models of the city with the Puerto Rican areas of the city being vacant, and the meeting was run by about 12 white men  So the activists said they had to hold these meetings with some representatives from different minorities if they wanted to continue to hold meetings in that venue  When the representatives refused, the Puerto Ricans picked up chairs and started throwing them around, and ended up shutting down the Department of Urban Renewal for about three months 
Police brutality really started to take off during this point  The police had a bench with the handcuffs on the side so they could cuff you, and beat you with whatever they wanted to hit you with as long as they didn’t leave any marks  Many minorities would get beat up before they ever even got into jail, and there was nothing they could do about it  Following Martin Luther King Jr ’s assassination, Daley showed his power through the force of his police during the Democratic Convention in 1968  Daley stated on broadcast, “Shoot to kill any arsonists, or anyone with a molotov cocktail in their hand in Chicago”  This caused the Young Lords to transform from a gang into a human rights movement  “The mission was self-determination for Puerto Rico  That meant that we were powerful as a people, and as a nation, to promote a sense of pride for being Puerto Rican ” The mission also included being patriotic to the community, not to the system  The demands of the people included, freedom, the power to determine individual destiny, true education, decent housing, fair trials with a jury of their peers, and an end to police brutality 
Fred Hampton was someone everyone in the community respected  The Black Panthers attended a community meeting with the JOIN organization in Uptown and asked where they could help in the community  At this point however, there were still many suspicions about the Panthers and their gun-carrying terrorist reputation  However, by showing they were dedicated to the community, the Panthers gained the trust of the JOIN organization, and the coalition started to take shape  In March, 1969, the community went to the 18th District police station and performed a non-violent takeover of a police workshop meeting  The next day, the Panthers met Fred Hampton  Shortly after, the first official Rainbow Coalition meeting was held  “The Rainbow Coalition was about uniting communities so we could make revolutionary change ” The Coalition also started a free health clinic, which ran from 1969 to 1975 (Pien)  The police department’s Gang Intelligence Unit formed a Panther squad, which would perform raids on the party, and often end up with Panther members and associates being incarcerated  Reverend Bruce Johnson was the pastor of Armitage Avenue United Methodist Church, which became the headquarters of the Young Lords  Following this partnership, the city of Chicago began to attack Reverend Johnson, and fined him $200 for every day the Young Lords were in the church  In Oakland, California, in July 1969, a three day conference was held called the Conference for a United Front Against Fascism  Shortly after this conference, Reverend Johnson and his wife were brutally murdered  Because of this, the Black Panther party started to defend themselves from the police raids, and there were shootings that followed The original rainbow coalition was the idea of Fred Hampton and other Black Panther Party leaders  They saw the Young Lords and Young Patriots as established groups in their designated communities  The people that lived in Lawndale, Lincoln Park, and Uptown were treated and governed as crippling to the city as a whole  It was also difficult for these people to find jobs in the post World War II era as they were looked at as an unwanted part of the population by employers  As these groups came together in the rainbow coalition it gave them more of a voice to fight with  Each of these groups wanted to help their people and work to get rid of the discrimination against them  Coming together helped these groups have more of an effect on local government and policies  It also gave their people the feeling of having a larger community that knew what each other were fighting 

Legacy
The phrase "rainbow coalition" was co-opted over the years by Reverend Jesse Jackson, who eventually appropriated the name in forming his own, more moderate coalition, Rainbow/PUSH  Some scholars, including Peniel Joseph, assert that the original rainbow coalition concept was a prerequisite for the multicultural coalition that Barack Obama built his political career upon Jeffrey Haas, a lawyer who represented the BPP after Hampton's assassination, praised some of Hampton's politics, stating that his work in unifying movements are things one can learn from him  However, Haas was critical towards the way Hampton ran the BPP hierarchical organization  Haas praised the horizontal structure of Black Lives Matter stating: "They may also have picked up on the vulnerability of a hierarchal movement where you have one leader, which makes the movement very vulnerable if that leader is imprisoned, killed, or otherwise compromised  I think the fact that Black Lives Matter says, 'We're leader-full, not leaderless,' perhaps makes them less vulnerable to this kind of government assault "

See also
Political history of Chicago
Passage 8:
Maulana Karenga
Maulana Ndabezitha Karenga (born Ronald McKinley Everett, July 14, 1941), previously known as Ron Karenga, is an American activist, author, convicted felon and professor of Africana studies, best known as the creator of the pan-African and African-American holiday of Kwanzaa 
Born in Parsonsburg, Maryland, to an African-American family, Karenga studied at Los Angeles City College and the University of California, Los Angeles  He was active in the Black Power movement of the 1960s, joining the Congress of Racial Equality and Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee  In 1965, Karenga and Hakim Jamal co-founded the black nationalist group US Organization, which became involved in violent clashes with the Black Panther Party by 1969  In 1971, he was convicted of felony assault, torture, and false imprisonment of women  He denied involvement and claimed the prosecution was political in nature  Karenga was imprisoned in California Men's Colony until he received parole in 1975 In 1966, Karenga notably created Kwanzaa, modeling the holiday after the African "first fruit" traditions  The rituals of the holiday promote African traditions, including the "seven principles of African heritage"  During the early years of Kwanzaa, Karenga said it was meant to be a black alternative to Christmas  Karenga, a secular humanist, challenged the sanity of Jesus and declared Christianity a "White religion" that black people should shun  However, Karenga later changed his opinion, stating that Kwanzaa was not meant to provide people with an alternative to "their own religion or religious holiday "Karenga has been awarded two doctorates, one in Political Science in 1976 and one in Social Ethics in 1994  He currently chairs the Africana Studies Department at California State University, Long Beach and has authored several books 

Early life
Karenga was born in Parsonsburg, Maryland, the 14th child and seventh son in the family  His father was a tenant farmer and Baptist minister who employed the family to work fields under an effective sharecropping arrangement  Karenga moved to Los Angeles in 1959, joining his older brother who was a teacher there, and attended Los Angeles City College  He became active with civil rights organizations Congress of Racial Equality and Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, took an interest in African studies, and was elected as LACC's first African-American student president After earning his associate degree, he matriculated from the University of California, Los Angeles and earned BA and MA degrees in political science  He studied Swahili, Arabic, and other African-related subjects  Among his influences at UCLA were Jamaican anthropologist and Negritudist Councill Taylor, who contested the Eurocentric view of alien cultures as primitive  During this period, he took the name Karenga (Swahili for "keeper of tradition") and the title Maulana (Swahili-Arabic for "master teacher") 

1960s activism
US Organization
The Watts riots broke out when Karenga was a year into his doctoral studies  The Black Congress ("BC") was formed as a community-rebuilding organization in the aftermath  Within the BC, a discussion group centered on black nationalist ideas, called the Circle of Seven, was formed, which included Hakim Jamal (a cousin of Malcolm X) and Karenga  The group published US Magazine (meaning "Us black people") and in 1966 formed an organization called US  The organization joined in several community revival programs and was featured in press reports  Karenga cited Malcolm X's Afro-American Unity program as an influence on US Organization's work:

Malcolm was the major African American thinker that influenced me in terms of nationalism and Pan-Africanism  As you know, towards the end, when Malcolm is expanding his concept of Islam, and of nationalism, he stresses Pan-Africanism in a particular way  And he argues that, and this is where we have the whole idea that cultural revolution and the need for revolution, he argues that we need a cultural revolution, he argues that we must return to Africa culturally and spiritually, even if we can't go physically  And so that's a tremendous impact on US 
Karenga soon diverged from Malcolm X's ideas on Black nationalism and took US in a direction more focused on promoting African culture  Jamal and other adherents to Malcolm X's ideas left the group As racial disturbances spread across the country, Karenga appeared at a series of Black power conferences, joining other groups in urging the establishment of a separate political structure for African Americans  US developed a youth component with paramilitary aspects called the Simba Wachanga, which advocated and practiced community self-defense and service to the masses In 1966, Karenga founded the newspaper Harambee, which started as a newsletter for US and eventually became the newspaper for the Los Angeles Black Congress, an umbrella organization for several groups During the late 1960s, US Organization became bitter rivals with the Black Panther Party over their differing views on Black nationalism  The Federal Bureau of Investigation intensified this antipathy as part of its COINTELPRO operations, sending forged letters to each group which purported to be from the other group, so that each would believe that the other was publicly humiliating them  The rivalry came to a climax during 1969, with a series of armed confrontations and retaliatory shootings that left four Panthers dead, and more injured on both sides  A memorandum of the Los Angeles field office of the FBI dated May 26, 1970, confirmed that the surge of conflict suited their objectives and more would be encouraged:

"It is intended that US, Inc  will be discreetly and appropriately advised of the time and locations of BPP activities in order that the two organizations might be brought together and thus grant nature the opportunity to take her due course "
According to Louis Tackwood, a former informant with the Los Angeles Police Department's Criminal Conspiracies Section and author of The Glass House Tapes, Ronald Karenga was knowingly provided financial, arms, and other support by LAPD, with Tackwood as liaison, for US operations against the Black Panthers  Karenga enjoyed a level of trust among figures in government, including LAPD Chief Thomas Reddin and California Governor Ronald Reagan 

Kwanzaa
Karenga created Kwanzaa in 1966 to be the first pan-African holiday  Karenga said his goal was to "give Blacks an alternative to the existing holiday and give Blacks an opportunity to celebrate themselves and their history, rather than simply imitate the practice of the dominant society "Kwanzaa is inspired by African "first fruit" traditions, and the name chosen is from Swahili, "matunda ya kwanza " The rituals of the holiday promote African traditions and Nguzo Saba, the "seven principles of African Heritage" that Karenga described as "a communitarian African philosophy":

Umoja (unity)—To strive for and maintain unity in the family, community, nation, and race 
Kujichagulia (self-determination)—To define ourselves, name ourselves, create for ourselves, and speak for ourselves 
Ujima (collective work and responsibility)—To build and maintain our community together and make our brother's and sister's problems our problems and to solve them together 
Ujamaa (cooperative economics)—To build and maintain our own stores, shops, and other businesses and to profit from them together 
Nia (purpose)—To make our collective vocation the building and development of our community in order to restore our people to their traditional greatness 
Kuumba (creativity)—To do always as much as we can, in the way we can, in order to leave our community more beautiful and beneficial than we inherited it 
Imani (faith)—To believe with all our heart in our people, our parents, our teachers, our leaders, and the righteousness and victory of our struggle 

Criminal conviction and imprisonment
In 1971, Karenga was sentenced to one to ten years in prison on counts of felony assault and false imprisonment  One of the victims gave testimony of how Karenga and other men tortured her and another woman  The woman described having been stripped naked and beaten with an electrical cord  Karenga's estranged wife, Brenda Lorraine Karenga, testified that she sat on the other woman's stomach while another man forced water into her mouth through a hose 
A May 14, 1971, article in the Los Angeles Times described the testimony of one of the women:

Deborah Jones, who once was given the Swahili title of an African queen, said she and Gail Davis were whipped with an electrical cord and beaten with a karate baton after being ordered to remove their clothes  She testified that a hot soldering iron was placed in Miss Davis' mouth and placed against Miss Davis' face and that one of her own big toes was tightened in a vise  Karenga, head of US, also put detergent and running hoses in their mouths, she said  They also were hit on the heads with toasters 
Jones and Brenda Karenga testified that Karenga believed the women were conspiring to poison him, which Davis has attributed to a combination of ongoing police pressure and his own drug abuse Karenga denied any involvement in the torture, and argued that the prosecution was political in nature  He was imprisoned at the California Men's Colony, where he studied and wrote on feminism, Pan-Africanism, and other subjects  The US Organization fell into disarray during his absence and was disbanded in 1974  After he petitioned several black state officials to support his parole on fair sentencing grounds, it was granted in 1975 Karenga has declined to discuss the convictions with reporters and does not mention them in biographical materials  During a 2007 appearance at Wabash College, he again denied the charges and described himself as a former political prisoner 

Later career
After his parole, Karenga re-established the US Organization under a new structure He was awarded his first Ph D  in 1976 from United States International University (now known as Alliant International University) for a 170-page dissertation titled "Afro-American Nationalism: Social Strategy and Struggle for Community"  In 1977, he formulated a set of principles called Kawaida, a Swahili term for normal  Karenga called on African-Americans to adopt his secular humanism and reject other practices as mythical He was also the director of the Kawaida Institute for Pan African Studies and the author of several books, including his Introduction to Black Studies, a comprehensive Black/African Studies textbook now in its fourth edition (2010), originally published in 1982  He is also known for having co-hosted, in 1984, a conference that gave rise to the Association for the Study of Classical African Civilizations  
In 1994, he was awarded a second Ph D  in social ethics from the University of Southern California for an 803-page dissertation titled "Maat, the moral ideal in ancient Egypt: A study in classical African ethics " In 1995, he sat on the organizing committee and authored the mission statement of the Million Man March Karenga delivered a eulogy at the 2001 funeral service of New Black Panther Party leader Khalid Abdul Muhammad, praising him for his organizing activities and commitment to black empowerment  In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Maulana Karenga on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans As of 2021, Karenga chairs the Africana Studies Department at California State University, Long Beach 

Films
Owen Alik Shahadah's documentary 500 Years Later (2005) and its sequel Motherland (2010)
M K  Asante's documentary The Black Candle (2012)

Published works
Introduction to Black Studies  2010, 4th edition, University of Sankore Press  ISBN 0943412307 (Editions: 1982,1993,2002,2010)
Kwanzaa: A Celebration of Family, Community and Culture  1998  ISBN 0943412218
Maat, The Moral Ideal in Ancient Egypt  ISBN 0415947537
Odu Ifa: The Ethical Teachings  ISBN 0943412226
Kawaida and Questions of Life and Struggle  ISBN 0943412293
Selections from the Husia  ISBN 0943412064
Book of Coming Forth By Day  ISBN 0943412145
Handbook of Black Studies, co-edited with Molefi Kete Asante  ISBN 0761928405
The Million Man March/Day of Absence: A Commemorative Anthology, co-edited with Haki Madhubuti  ISBN 0883781883
Maulana Karenga: An Intellectual Portrait, Polity  ISBN 0745648282



ground_truth: Hakim Abdullah Jamal

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: what is the group called that Dianne Morgan and Joe Wilkinson a part of in the BBC comedy "Two Episodes of Mash"

The following are given passages.
Context 3: Passage 1:
Live at the Electric
Live at the Electric is a British comedy series that aired on BBC Three from 31 May 2012 and 28 February 2014 and is hosted by Russell Kane who performed stand-up in between comedy sketches from a variety of performers such as Joe Wilkinson and Diane Morgan's double act Two Episodes of Mash  It also featured comedy duo Totally Tom serving as backstage crew for the show 

External links
Live at the Electric at BBC Online 
Live at the Electric at British Comedy Guide
Passage 2:
Start-rite
Start-rite is a brand of children's shoes  The shoemaker, purportedly Britain's oldest and one of the first manufacturers in Norfolk, was established in 1792 in Norwich, England, by James Smith  His grandson, James Southall, gave the firm its current name; it rose in prominence during the 20th century thanks in part to an iconic poster, reading Children's shoes have far to go, which was displayed on the London Underground for 20 years from 1947  Controversy exists around the origins of the image in this poster  It has been attributed to artists  Andy Wood, William Grimmond, Joe Wilkinson of Stanley Studios, Susan Pearce, Nancy Gardner and to the company's own advertising agent In 1955 Start-rite was granted a royal warrant by Queen Elizabeth II to supply footwear for the young Prince Charles, Princess Anne, Prince Andrew and Prince Edward   The company was granted a second royal warrant in 1989 by the Prince of Wales to supply children's footwear for Prince William and Prince Harry  This royal warrant was withdrawn in 2003 on production being moved from the UK  In 2016 Prince George was pictured wearing Start-rite shoes in an official portrait taken to commemorate the 90th birthday of the Queen In 2003 the company ceased production in the UK, outsourcing its operations to India and Portugal  The cost cutting move came amid a £600,000 annual loss, which the company reversed the following year to turn a £1 5 million profit  Sales further increased by 20% to 2007 The company focuses on correctly fitting shoes to children's feet, and was the first to introduce variable width fittings for children's shoes  It once maintained concession stores in the now-defunct children's clothing retailer Adams 
Passage 3:
Nora Lewin
Nora Lewin is a fictional character on the TV show Law & Order, played by two-time Academy Award winning actress Dianne Wiest from 2000 to 2002  She appeared in 51 episodes (48 episodes of Law & Order, one episode of Law & Order: Criminal Intent and two episodes of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit)  Her character was particularly notable for the fact that she was the first woman in the program's history to hold the position of New York County District Attorney (no woman has held the position in real life)  Pursuant to New York law, an interim District Attorney is appointed by the Governor 

Role within Law & Order
Prior to her appointment as interim DA, Lewin was a law professor, which often provoked her critics to dismiss her as a detached academic with no practical experience  Lewin's term as DA is defined by a liberally directed program of legal application to many notable criminal cases, which often brings her into political and legal dilemmas  While she is an idealist, however, she is not prepared to subvert the correct application of the law due to her personal beliefs  In a 2001 episode, she is confronted with the decision to pursue the death penalty in a conviction of an 18-year-old murderer  While she personally opposes the death penalty, she realizes that her office would be seen as soft on crime, and reluctantly succumbs to political pressure  The young man is found guilty and sent to death row Lewin works closely with Jack McCoy (Sam Waterston) and Abbie Carmichael (Angie Harmon)  Her political beliefs often put her into conflict with both of them, especially the latter, a staunch political conservative  After Carmichael leaves the DA's office, Lewin replaces her with Serena Southerlyn (Elisabeth Röhm), whose liberal idealism more closely resembles her own political philosophy She has a niece, indicating that she has at least one sibling 

Departure
In September 2002, after two years of her term as District Attorney, Lewin departs the office  The manner in which she departed the show is never specified on screen  However, in his tie-in book Law & Order: Crime Scenes, Dick Wolf wrote that his intention for the character was that Lewin found herself disenchanted with the position of D A , and opted not to run for election following her interim term  Fred Dalton Thompson subsequently joined the cast as Republican Arthur Branch  Wiest later stated, in the book Actors at Work, written by Rosemarie Tichler and Barry Jay Kaplan, that she was tired of the role and wished to move on to other projects 
In her first scene, Lewin is introduced to McCoy by Mayor Rudy Giuliani (playing himself in a cameo appearance), who praises Lewin's record and assures her that she will do a fine job as District Attorney 

Appearances on other TV series
Law & Order: Criminal Intent
Season One
Episode 1: "One"
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit
Season Three
Episode 10: "Ridicule"
Season Four
Episode 1: "Chameleon"
Passage 4:
Lucy Davis
Lucy Clare Davis (born 17 February 1973) is an English actress best known for playing Dawn Tinsley in the BBC comedy The Office (2001–2003)  
She is also known for her roles as Hilda Spellman in the Netflix series The Chilling Adventures of Sabrina (2018–2020), Dianne in the horror-comedy Shaun of the Dead (2004), and Etta Candy in Wonder Woman (2017)  She is also currently playing the role of Eva in Disney Channel's action comedy series The Villains of Valley View, which premiered on 3 June 2022 

Career
Davis appeared briefly in an episode of The Detectives, a show created for and starring her father (Jasper Carrott)  She played Maria Lucas in the BBC's 1995 production of Pride and Prejudice, and also had a role in the 1996 Christmas special of One Foot in the Grave  After her breakthrough role as Dawn Tinsley in The Office, Davis appeared in the films Sex Lives of the Potato Men and Shaun of the Dead in 2004, whilst continuing to play Hayley Jordan in The Archers on BBC Radio 4  She gave up this last role when her other acting responsibilities made it impossible to continue, and the part was recast in September 2005 
Davis appeared in the third-season episode "Elephants and Hens" of UK TV programme Black Books  In 2006, Davis appeared as the "Fashion TV" host on ABC's Ugly Betty, and later that year played writer Lucy Kenwright in NBC's Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip  In 2008, she appeared in several episodes of the US series Reaper  In 2010, Davis starred in ITV's six-episode comedy drama, Married Single Other, and also appeared in a guest role in The Mentalist alongside her then-husband Owain Yeoman  Davis also appears in the John Landis-produced thriller Some Guy Who Kills People  In 2012, Davis had a guest voice part in Family Guy for the episode "Be Careful What You Fish For"  Davis appeared in series two, episode eight of the BBC series Death in Paradise (2013)  She became a Patron for the performing arts group Theatretrain in 2012 Davis plays the role of Etta Candy in the 2017 film Wonder Woman  Her performance marked the first live action cinematic portrayal of that comic book character  Davis has said of the character: "She's a woman in a man's world and so being heard and seen aren't the easiest things, but it kind of doesn't deter her  Etta is unapologetically herself and I think that that's the thing that has drawn me to her the most    it took quite a while in my life to be unapologetically myself "Davis appeared in the Netflix series The Chilling Adventures of Sabrina as Hilda Spellman, which aired from 2018 to 2020  She is starring as Eva, known as the supervillain Surge, on the Disney Channel sitcom The Villains of Valley View which premiered on 3 June 2022 

Personal life
Davis is the daughter of Hazel Jackson and comedian Robert Davis, better known as Jasper Carrott  In December 1997, Davis underwent a kidney transplant after being diagnosed with kidney failure during a medical examination  Her mother donated the kidney  Around Christmas 2005 she was hospitalised once again because of kidney failure, but later recovered  Davis also has type 1 diabetes On 9 December 2006, Davis married Welsh actor Owain Yeoman at St Paul's Cathedral, London  The wedding was attended by fellow The Office cast members and writers  Davis was entitled to marry there as her father is an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) and St Paul's contains the chapel of the order  The couple separated in January 2011 and divorced in October 2011 In 2007, Davis posed nude in the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals's campaign against the Guards Division's continued use of traditional bearskin caps 

Filmography
Film
Television
Radio
Passage 5:
Diane Morgan
Diane Morgan (born 5 October 1975) is an English actress, comedian, television presenter, and writer  She is best known for playing Philomena Cunk on Charlie Brooker's Weekly Wipe and in other mockumentaries, as Liz in the BBC Two sitcom Motherland, and Kath in the Netflix dark comedy series After Life  She also wrote and starred in the BBC Two comedy series Mandy 

Early life
Morgan was born in Bolton, Greater Manchester on 5 October 1975, daughter of a physiotherapist and a stay-at-home mother; she has one brother  She grew up in nearby Farnworth and Kearsley, and attended George Tomlinson School in Kearsley  When she was 20, she studied at the East 15 Acting School in Loughton  She said in a 2020 interview, "There were a few actors on [my father]'s side of the family: Julie Goodyear, Frank Finlay and Jack Wild  What a dynasty  We're like the Redgraves  Julie's got a touch of the Mandys, actually  Maybe I could cast her as Mandy's mum "

Career
Morgan had a small part as Dawn in Peter Kay's Phoenix Nights before a spell working various jobs, including as a dental assistant, a telemarketer, a potato peeler at a chip shop, selling Avon, and boxing up worming tablets in a factory  She subsequently made her first attempt at stand-up comedy  She was placed second in the Hackney Empire New Act of the Year award in 2006, and as runner-up in the 2006 Funny Women Awards Morgan and Joe Wilkinson later formed a sketch comedy duo called Two Episodes of Mash  From 2008, they performed at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe for three consecutive years, and in 2010, they appeared on Robert Webb's satirical news show Robert's Web  In 2012, the act completed its second BBC radio series (co-starring David O'Doherty), and appeared in BBC Three's Live at the Electric  In the same year, she appeared in Him & Her, which featured Wilkinson, and in 2013, she played Nicola in the TV series Pat & Cabbage  In 2014, she made an appearance in the TV series Utopia, as Tess, and in 2015, she appeared in two episodes of Drunk History 

Philomena Cunk
Morgan is perhaps best known for her portrayal of Philomena Cunk, an extremely dim-witted and ill-informed interviewer and commentator on current affairs  The character first appeared in a regular segment on Charlie Brooker's Weekly Wipe (2013–2015)  Cunk has since appeared in other mockumentary contexts  In December 2016, she presented BBC Two's Cunk on Christmas  In April 2018, the five-part historical mockumentary Cunk on Britain began broadcasting on BBC Two  Also in 2018, Morgan wrote Cunk on Everything: The Encyclopedia Philomena, published by Two Roads on 1 November  In December 2019, Morgan appeared as Cunk for short episodes of Cunk and Other Humans, once again on BBC Two  She returned in a one-off episode of Charlie Brooker's Weekly Wipe titled "Antiviral Wipe", about the COVID-19 pandemic, in May 2020  Another series, Cunk on Earth, began broadcasting in September 2022  For her performance in the latter, Morgan was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Female Comedy Performance 

Other roles
Morgan played David Brent's public relations guru in the film David Brent: Life on the Road (2016)  She has appeared in several short films, including The Boot Sale, which was shortlisted in the Virgin Media Shorts film competition 2010 In 2016, Morgan played Mandy in Sky One's comedy Rovers, appearing in all six episodes of the first series  She also appeared in the pilot for the BBC2 comedy We the Jury as Olivia  She also plays receptionist Talia in Sky's comedy drama Mount Pleasant and Liz in the BBC2 sitcom Motherland 
Morgan plays Kath in the Netflix black-comedy series After Life, written by Ricky Gervais  She starred in the Gold sitcom The Cockfields, again alongside Wilkinson, and in comedy-drama Frayed in 2019  In 2019, she wrote, directed, and starred in the BBC2 comedy short Mandy, described as "a comedy by Diane Morgan about Mandy, a woman who really, really wants a sofa, and will stop at absolutely nothing to get it"  Carol Decker appeared as herself in the short  The character returned in August 2020 for the full series Mandy, with Shaun Ryder, Maxine Peake, and Natalie Cassidy in guest roles  A Christmas special, We Wish You a Mandy Christmas, loosely based on A Christmas Carol, was broadcast in December 2021 Also in 2020, Morgan played Gemma Nerrick in the British mockumentary Death to 2020, created by Charlie Brooker and Annabel Jones  She reprised the role in Death to 2021  She voiced the character 105E in the 2021 animated Cartoon Network series Elliott from Earth 
In April 2022, Morgan starred as Donna in the first episode of the seventh series of Inside No  9  In December 2022, Morgan reprised her role as Liz on Motherland for the Christmas special 

Personal life
Morgan lives in the Bloomsbury district of London with her boyfriend, BBC comedy producer Ben Caudell Interviewed by Stuart Jeffries for The Guardian' in 2016, she said, "I've always wanted to make people laugh  It's been my only ambition, ever since my dad introduced me to the genius of the great comedians: Tony Hancock, Woody Allen, people like that  While other kids were into New Kids on the Block, I was into Harold Lloyd and Stan Laurel  I'm still like that  I don't have any hobbies "

Filmography
Passage 6:
My Family (series 10)
The tenth series of the BBC family sitcom My Family originally aired between 9 July 2010, and 27 August 2010, with a Christmas special that went to air on 24 December 2010  The series was commissioned following consistent ratings from the previous series  The opening episode, "Wheelie Ben", re-introduces the six main characters, with the addition of regular appearances from Kenzo Harper, played by Tayler Marshall  However, the character of Roger Bailey only made an appearance in the series finale  All episodes from the tenth series are thirty minutes in length, with the exception of the Christmas Special  The series was once again produced by Rude Boy Productions, a company that produces comedies created by Fred Barron  Unlike previous series of the show, which were filmed on a yearly basis, both Series 10 and 11 were filmed back-to-back  For the first time in the show's history, two episodes of the series remained unaired for some time  At the time of release, the DVD of the series contained two episodes that had yet to be broadcast on television  On 17 June 2011, one of these two episodes were aired, and the remaining one aired on 22 July 2011  The series averaged 4 55 million per episode; however, they managed to get over 6 00 million viewers for the Christmas Special 

Episode Information
Notes
Passage 7:
David Earl (actor)
David Geoffrey Earl (born 20th March 1974) is a British actor and comedian, best known for his comedy character Brian Gittins  He has featured in several projects associated with Ricky Gervais, most notably as Kevin "Kev" Twine in the comedy-drama Derek, and in smaller roles in Extras, After Life and the film Cemetery Junction  Earl also works frequently with comic Joe Wilkinson  Together they co-wrote and starred in the sitcom Rovers, and the comedy series The Cockfields  They also host three podcasts called Gossipmongers, Chatabix and My New Football Club  He also co-wrote and starred in the feature film Brian and Charles where he plays an isolated inventor who builds a robot 

Early life
Earl was born in Crawley in 1974  Before undertaking any acting roles, Earl worked as a gardener and as a van driver, delivering building tools 

Comedy career
One of Earl's earliest online videos featured him playing a character called Graham, which he sent to a friend who showed it to Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant  They liked the video and Gervais asked Earl to play an obsessive fan, based on the character from the video, who talks to Andy Millman in a pub in an episode of Extras  Around this time Earl played Tony Queen in the film The Penalty King Earl went on to create a number of online videos in character as Brian Gittins and played this role in the film Cemetery Junction  In 2012 a sitcom pilot entitled Gittins was broadcast on Channel 4  In the pilot Gittins works as a taxi driver: previously the character had been a cafe owner and this discrepancy is highlighted in an episode of the podcast Flatshare Slamdown, in which Earl appears as Brian  He releases regular Brian Gittins and Friends podcasts Another of Earl's characters is Steve "Cumbo" Cumberland, who features in a number of online videos, including a Channel 4 Comedy Blaps series, co-written with Brett Goldstein In 2011, Earl was revealed to be the person behind the popular Twitter account of Dr Peter Thraft, a supposed sex therapist 

Personal life
Earl has three children and lives in Devon 

Filmography
Podcasts
The Brian Gittins Show
A live radio show hosted on Spreaker from 2012-2017, where Brian played the role of 'the worst radio presenter in the world'  Callers would Skype in from around the world, and these included David Edwards and Charles Petrescu 

Brian Gittins and Friends
Brian, David Edwards and Charles Petrescu have a chat with various comedians  It started in 2016, with guests including John Kearns, Lolly Adefope, and Scroobius Pip 

Gossipmongers
In 2019, David Earl, Joe Wilkinson and Poppy Hillstead began a podcast called Gossipmongers, a weekly podcast where listeners send in unsubstantiated rumours  At the end of each episode they choose their favourite piece of gossip from that episode  In 2020 Poppy was booted from the podcast by Joe and David 

Chatabix
In 2021, David Earl and Joe Wilkinson began a podcast called Chatabix, a daily weekday podcast recorded very early in the morning 

My New Football Club
In 2021, David Earl and Jon Beer began a podcast called My New Football Club  A weekly podcast about David becoming a new fan of Exeter City 
Passage 8:
7 Day Sunday
7 Day Sunday (7 Day Saturday in 2013) is a British comedy radio talk show hosted by Al Murray on BBC Radio 5 Live  Broadcast weekly on Sunday mornings, the show takes an irreverent look at the topical news stories of the past seven days  
Originally presented by Chris Addison: he was joined by regular guests Sarah Millican and Andy Zaltzman, and a fourth special guest each episode  It premièred in January 2010 to mixed reviews  It returned for a second series in September 2010  Al Murray served as host for the last five episodes of the second series, joined by regular guests Rebecca Front and Joe Wilkinson  The show returned for a third series in January 2012 with Murray hosting alongside Andy Zaltzman and Rebecca Front as the regular guests  A fourth series followed from September 2012 

History
7 Day Sunday was announced as a new show on 11 December 2009, to be hosted by Addison and broadcast for an hour in the 11 am to 12 noon slot  The guests for the opening episode were to be Zaltzman, Millican, and a special guest  It was to replace another comedy show The Christian O'Connell Solution, hosted by Christian O'Connell with Bob Mills  The new show was to begin on 10 January 2010, as part of the wider re-organisation of 5 Live's schedule which had already begun to be announced in October 2009, the largest since controller Adrian Van Klaveren joined the station in April 2008 The show is produced for 5 Live by Avalon Television  It was initially commissioned for a 20-week run  This first series duly ran from 10 January 2010 until 6 June 2010  After three months it resumed for a second series on 5 September 2010 until 3 April 2011  The third series began 8 January 2012 In press interviews during March 2010 while promoting his upcoming stand-up tour, Addison explained that doing a radio show was a childhood ambition, and that as a "current affairs junkie", hosting 7 Day Sunday was ideal, more relaxed than television and good fun, with the weekly deadline being a good motivation 

Format
When the show was announced, it was cast as a topical news series aiming to "pull apart the week's big news stories and see what makes them tick", with Addison describing it as "four relatively ill-informed idiots fail to take the news seriously for an hour" 

Hosts and regulars
The following people have hosted the show during its run:

As well as the host there are usually two other regulars plus a guest   For series 1 and 2 regulars were Andy Zaltzman and Sarah Millican   For series 3 Rebecca Front replaced Sarah Millican 

Broadcasts
Last updated January 2018The show aired on Sundays from 11 am to noon  It once aired at 9 pm on 31 January 2010  The series occasionally missed a week for sporting events (Formula 1 Grand Prix, London Marathon, etc ) 
Series One featured 20 episodes which were broadcast between 10 January 2010 and 6 June 2010   There were no episodes broadcast on 7 February 2010, 25 April 2010 Series Two consisted of 26 episodes, broadcast between 5 September 2010 and 3 April 2011  There were no episode broadcast on 19 September 2010, 3 October 2010, 26 December 2010, 2 January 2010 and 30 January 2010 Series Three had 15 episodes which were broadcast between 8 January 2012 and 6 May 2012  No episode was broadcast on 25 March 2012 Series Four also had 15 episodes, began on 9 September 2012, and ended on 16 December 
In 2013, the show returned for a new, slightly different series: it was moved to Saturdays, renamed 7 Day Saturday, had 11 episodes between 8 June and 24 August, kept Al Murray as host, and featured Andy Zaltzman and two guests each programme  There was also a Christmas special, 7 Days of Christmas, broadcast on 24 December 2013 
Series Five only had 5 episodes, broadcast between 11 May and 8 June 2014 
The last edition of 7 Day Sunday was broadcast on 9 August 2015  This edition was hosted by Jenny Eclair, with the final guests included Andy Zaltzman, Holly Walsh and Stephen Grant 
The show was made available on the BBC's iPlayer service and as a podcast, which features additional material 

Reception
After the first show, Jane Thynne of The Independent questioned the lack of variety, covering as it did mainly the heavy snowfall with little political content, which given Addison had made his name in a political satire, she found odd  She ultimately reserved judgement on the show, calling Addison witty but recommending he slow down the pace and stop his "nervous giggling" Chris Campling of The Times criticised the first episode as being a duplicate of the "dismal, desperate" The Christian O'Connell Solution it replaced, with a turgid format  Persevering, he described the second episode as just as dreary with no chemistry and "none of the News Quiz-esque scoring of laughter points, where clever people fall over each other in their desperation to be funnier than the last "After the third episode, Elisabeth Mahoney of The Guardian said the show was "really quite funny" but the listener needed to stay focussed on the content as the four way dialogue was quite involved as it covered a comprehensive sweep of topics  For listeners who might want to multi-task on a Sunday morning, she recommended Dave Gorman's show on Absolute Radio 
Passage 9:
John Jackson (writer)
John Jackson is an English television screenwriter 

Life and career
After leaving Cambridge University, John Jackson developed and script edited the ITV soap Night and Day  Altogether he wrote 35 episodes for the TV Series  In 2009 he wrote the episode The King Is Dead, Long Live the King…  for the BBC One series Robin Hood  From 2010 to 2012 he wrote two episodes of the serial drama Lip Service  From 2011 until 2013 he wrote three episodes for the supernatural drama Being Human  This brought him a Writers' Guild of Great Britain award for Best TV Drama Series  He also wrote two episodes for the Being Human spin off Becoming Human In 2014 Jackson wrote an episode for another BBC Three series, In the Flesh  He would become a regular writer on ITV's Grantchester, and in 2020, was lead writer on season 3 of Sky's Riviera 

Filmography
Awards and nominations
Awards
Writers' Guild of Great Britain Award:

2012: Best TV Drama Series (Being Human)
Passage 10:
Egypt (TV series)
Egypt is a BBC television docudrama serial portraying events in the history of Egyptology from the 18th through early 20th centuries  It originally aired on Sunday nights at 9 pm on BBC1 in 2005  The first two episodes explored the work of Howard Carter and his archaeological quest in Egypt in the early part of the twentieth century  The next two episodes focused on the eccentric explorer "The Great Belzoni" played here by Matthew Kelly  The final two episodes dramatise the discovery and deciphering of the Rosetta Stone by Jean-François Champollion (Elliot Cowan) 
The music was recorded by the Warsaw Radio Orchestra and is featured on the CD Timeless Histories by Chappell music, produced by Clare Isaacs 

Production
The series was a major new docudrama series produced by the BBC for the Autumn 2005 schedule 
"The whole idea behind the series was to be able to discover Ancient Egypt through the eyes of Howard Carter – famous for uncovering the tomb of Tutankhamun; The Great Belzoni – an amazing adventurer and explorer; and the scholar Jean-François Champollion, who was the first to decipher the Rosetta Stone and open up the meaning of hieroglyphics "
In order to create a sense of "seeing the treasures of Ancient Egypt for the first time", Dolling and Bradshaw felt it essential to film at the actual archaeological sites referenced in the series 

"We had fantastic help from the Government and a local production crew, they managed to fix it for us to film in areas that, as far as we know, have never been used by other television or film productions "
"Being the first UK TV company to attempt such a project in the most amazing historical sights was very exhilarating, and to be able to return them - with additional sets and some computer imagery - to how they were during the time of the Pharaohs was incredible "
Filming at such invaluable and popular sites created new challenges for the film makers 

"Keeping people out of shot was one — sometimes this was nearing impossible — but we tended to shoot early in the day so disruptions were kept to a minimum  The other was obviously making sure we didn't damage anything, which thankfully we managed!"
"It was difficult keeping such a unique project running so far from home, and it is a tribute to the cast and crew that we managed to succeed  The series really is great and looks fantastic, well worth all the hard work "
The co-production between BBC and The Learning Channel was initially budgeted at around £6 5m but problems filming on location in Egypt, including the weather and illness, meant the producers required another £2million  Post production costs involved in recreating Ancient Egypt meant that the final costs could have resulted in a £5million overspend but the BBC denied this 

"To suggest the overspend is anything in the [range of] £5m is utterly ridiculous — it is simply not true  This was a huge project shot on location in Egypt and, as with any project of such scale, we had contingency funds available to us — so the unavoidable overspend was accommodated for and fully authorised "
"I think it's useful to point out that the cost per hour of Egypt will still be lower than other comparable programmes such as Pompeii, Genghis Khan and Pyramid  In fact, due to the international co-financing, this is actually incredibly good value for money providing full period drama for the budget normally associated with a documentary "
Several multi-media productions were commissioned to tie-in with the series including interactive drama BBC Egypt Interactive, award-winning online-game Death in Sakkara: An Egyptian Adventure, and an interactive exhibition at BBC Birmingham A companion series Egyptian Journeys with Dan Cruickshank, in which architectural historian Cruickshank travels the country to explore some of the intriguing stories that have emerged from ancient Egypt, was broadcast concurrently on BBC Two 

Reception
Reviews
Sam Wollaston writing about episode one in The Guardian said that he "was expecting to hate this show," fearing it would be "narration interspersed with lame reconstruction," but he was pleased to discover it was, in fact, "a proper drama, with a very decent script and real actors " "And it's a great story, too," he states, although he did not enjoy the re-enactments of the life of Tutankhamun, which he described as "olive-skinned actors with non-speaking parts and an awful lot of eye-liner, wandering around in a semi-darkness lit by flickering candles," and claims were not necessary, "but maybe that will help to sell it to America " He concludes that he is "looking forward to part two "David Liddiment writing in The Guardian complimented the cleverly twinning of this docudrama with the more cerebral Egyptian Journeys with Dan Cruickshank on BBC Two but he points out that this was done during the final stages of the BBC's charter renewal review and insists that the corporation should keep up standards after this process is completed 

Ratings
Episode one (2005-10-30): 7 million viewers (29% audience share) 
Episode two (2005-11-06): 6 million viewers (24% audience share) 
Episode three (2005-11-13): 5 7 million viewers (23% audience share) 
Episode four (2005-11-20): 4 8 million viewers 
Episode five (2005-11-27): 4 5 million viewers (18% audience share) 

Episodes
Part one: Howard Carter
The story of the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun by Howard Carter and the popular belief in the Curse of the Pharaohs, a supposed result of Carter's disturbing Tutankhamen's resting place  The episodes include short dramatizations of the life of Tutankhamun 

Episode one: The Search for Tutankhamun
Tutankhamun vanished from history in 1324 BC following his hurried burial and the erasure of his name from all monuments  In the winter of 1898 Carter is at the temples of Deir el Bahri recording wall reliefs threatened by a freak storm when he is thrown from his horse and makes a discovery in the sand  Retired Boston lawyer Theodore M  Davis funds Carter's excavation of Queen Hatshepsut's tomb but it is found to be empty and Carter deprived of further funding is reduced to selling his paintings to tourists on the street 
In 1905 Lord Carnarvon arrives in Luxor to convalesce after a road accident and is shown an artifact bearing the cartouche of the mysterious Tutankhamun discovered by Davis on his new dig  Tutankhamun succeeded his heretical father as pharaoh at the age of 8 and was named in honour of Amun to symbolise his mission to restore the old gods and save the empire from turmoil  An inspired Carnarvon employs Carter but they are denied access to the Valley of the Kings for which only Davis has a permit  Amidst the flurry of construction that marked the beginning of Tutankhamun's reign the most important to the boy Pharaoh would have been that of his tomb  An ailing Davis announces his discovery of this, the final Pharaoh's tomb, prior to his retirement  Carter doubts the find and convinces Carnarvon to take up the concession  The methodical and meticulous excavation commences in 1914 but is quickly interrupted by World War I 
The Carnarvons return to Egypt at the end of the war and Carter recommences his excavation but with a continued lack of results leading to doubts that any undiscovered tombs are left in the valley the funding is finally cut in 1922  Tutankhamun's tomb was well concealed to ensure his undisturbed afterlife  Carter convinces Carnarvon to fund one last season during which the tomb is finally unearthed  When the tomb is opened in the presence of Carnarvon and his daughter it is revealed to be the only unplundered pharaoh's tomb in the valley 

Episode two: The Curse of Tutankhamun
In 1922 Carter goes to the Egyptian Antiquities Service in Cairo to announce his discovery but disagrees with Director Pierre Lacau over the clearance and cataloguing of the contents  The discovery revealed a dark time in the history of Egypt and the death of its boy king  Carter assembles an international team of experts to commence the work under the unwelcome scrutiny of Lacau's inspector and the western press  Carnarvon's cavalier attitude to the finds he considers his property starts to infuriate both Carter and Lacau 
As the finds are slowly catalogued and removed Carter becomes close to Carnarvon's daughter Evelyn but his strictness begins to alienate his team  Tutankhamun was married to his own sister but the union failed to produce an heir to secure the future of the kingdom  Stories of the curse begin to circulate as Carter breaks through into the burial chamber to reveal an intact tomb  As Lacau threatens to take over the excavation and several of the experts quit, Carnarvon questions Carter over his leadership and his relationship with Evelyn  When he came of age Tutankhamun took over control of the kingdom from his military advisor Ay only to die from unknown causes shortly thereafter  Carter rushes to Carnarvon's death-bed where the two make-up  Upon Tutankhamun's death Ay seized the throne and married the widowed queen  Carter, disappointed by Evelyn's engagement to another man, returns to continue his work  Tutankhamun's death came before the royal tomb could be completed so he was hastily buried in the tomb Ay had prepared for himself  Lacau takes over the running of the tomb in 1924 when Carter and his team stop work to protest continued Egyptian interference 
The following year Carter is called back by Lacau to reopen the tomb with funding from Lady Carnarvon  The team start to extract the nested coffins revealing one of them to be made of pure gold that confirms the presence of a Pharaoh  The team begin to notice evidence that the burial was done in a hurry as the body itself is finally uncovered  When Ay died without heir a new dynasty took to the throne that erased all references to the Boy King  In 1932 with his work complete Carter leaves the tomb for the last time and hands the key to Lacau 

Cast
Stuart Graham as Howard Carter
Julian Wadham as Lord Carnarvon
Caroline Langrishe as Lady Carnarvon
Alex Weaver as Evelyn Carnarvon
Valentine Pelka as Pierre Lacau
William Hope as Theodore M  Davis
Laurence Fox as Leonard

Part two: The Great Belzoni
The story of Italian engineer and circus strongman Giovanni Belzoni who became the most unlikely Egyptologist the world has ever seen, intercut with Flashbacks to the life of Ramses the Great, in whose footsteps Belzoni would continually stray 

Episode three: The Pharaoh and the Showman
A dissatisfied Belzoni leaves England with his wife, Sarah, and servant, James Curtin, to see the world  Finding themselves destitute in the streets of Cairo after work on an irrigation project falls through, they are rescued by the eccentric John Lewis Bukhardt who introduces them to British Consul Henry Salt  Belzoni is hired to recover the massive Head of Memnon, later revealed to a statue of the Pharaoh Ramesses the Great, as a gift for the British Museum  Arriving in Luxor in 1816 amidst a gold rush of black market antiquities dealers Belzoni finds himself unwelcome 
At the Ramesseum Belzoni examines the head and devises a plan for its removal  The local Caimakan, under advice from Belzoni's French rival Bernardino Drovetti, denies Belzoni's permit and initially refuses to supply labour until threats bring him around  Ramesses marriage to his true love Nefertari was fruitful and secured the family line and the country too was fertile thanks to the annual flooding of the Nile  The approaching flood season however threatens to strand the head in the heart of the flood plain bringing an abrupt halt to Belzoni's mission  When the local labourers finally arrive Belzoni immediately sets to work moving the head using the same techniques its builders had used 3,000 years previous  Belzoni sends the ailing Jim back to Cairo to request a bigger boat so that they can collect even more antiquities and with time running out is forced to take greater risks to get the head to the bank of the Nile 
With the head secured the Belzonis heads south along the Nile to Abu Simbal in uncharted Nubia to expand the collection of antiquities  Ramesses built two temples at Abu Simbal; one dedicated his beloved wife and the other to his military prowess in the first victorious campaign  Belzoni locates the entrance to the Great Temple but finds it blocked, and so forced to head back to Cairo he vows to return to excavate the site the following season 

Episode four: The Temple of the Sands
Belzoni, arriving back in Cairo, is informed by Salt that only the head is to be sent to the British Museum while the rest of the antiquities he has collected are to be kept at the consulate  Salt refuses to fund an excavation at Abu Simbal and Belzoni is sent south again with Salt's secretary William Beechey and a local dealer called Yanni  Belzoni, whilst becalmed at Minya  spots Yenni talking to his French rival Drovetti and hastily rides to Luxor determined to get there first  Arriving to late Belzoni discovers that the entire area licensed to Drovetti and he must dig elsewhere 
Belzoni, guided by the image of Ramesses, digs in an unlicensed area and discovers a perfectly preserved bust  An infuriated Drovetti has the local ruler issue an edict against Belzoni  With no other option Belzoni heads south to the Island of Philae to collect the antiquities he has stored there only to discover upon arrival that the French have ransacked them  Funds arrive from Salt to begin excavation at Abu Simbal and Belzoni heads to the site with two British Royal Navy officers  Work progresses slowly in the shifting desert until Belzoni devises a plan to build a palisade to hold back the sand  With the entrance uncovered the group cautiously enter to view the magnificent interior  Belzoni records every detail of the temple decorations, which celebrate the capture of Kadesh that made Ramesses a great warrior king  Back in Luxor Belzoni, reunited with Sarah and Jim, is threatened by Drevetti but undeterred he heads deep into the western hills where he enters the Valley of the Kings  Belzoni learns from Yanni and Beechey that Salt is selling off the antiquities he collects rather than donating them to the British Museum 
Persuaded to go on with his explorations Belzoni constructs a battering ram to break through the thick walls of the valley side and open up an undiscovered tomb  Defying booby-traps Belzoni pushes on into the lavish interior of the tomb where he enters the burial chamber of the Pharaoh Seti I  It was here upon the death of his father that Ramesses started his reign, which would bring peace and prosperity to Egypt  The discovery of Belzoni's Tomb secures the Egyptologist's reputation and makes him a celebrity in his adopted home of London where the British Museum would later honour him 

Cast
Matthew Kelly as Belzoni
Lynsey Baxter as Sarah Belzoni
Nevan Finnigan as James Curtin
Robert Portal as Henry Salt
Richard Dempsey as William Beechey
Thomas Lockyer as John Lewis Bukhardt
Joseph Long as Bernardino Drovetti

Part three: Champollion
Jean-François Champollion uses the Rosetta Stone to unlock the mysteries of the lost civilisation of Ancient Egypt which had been closed off to Europeans for centuries prior to the invasion of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798  The stone, discovered by the French in 1799, had been created as a work of propaganda by the Greek-speaking Pharaoh Ptolemy V to establish his place in Egyptian cosmology and flashbacks are included to explain this belief system 

Episode five: The Mystery of the Rosetta Stone
The young Champollion, encouraged to develop his gift for languages by his elder brother, becomes obsessed with deciphering hieroglyphs as a means to telling the age of the world and revenging France against the British who had confiscated the stone in 1801  When Alexander the Great had conquered Egypt, he had fuelled local resentment by bringing in a Greek speaking elite to rule  Their descendant King Tutankhamun had commissioned a series of stones written in Greek, common Egyptian and hieroglyphs for temples across the land to extol his virtues and underline his claim to the throne 
Champollion studies under Silvestre de Sacy in Paris but finds the professor who had himself failed decipher hieroglyphs dismissive of further attempts believing them to be symbolic rather than a true language  English scientist Thomas Young uses mathematics to decipher the inscription like a code whilst Champollion believing hieroglyphs to be representative of a spoken language attempts to relate them to the Coptic language of Egypt's ancient Christian communities  Young makes a number of breakthroughs including the spelling of Ptolemy in hieroglyphs while Champollion finds work as assistant professor at the University of Grenoble  France is thrown into political turmoil in 1815 following defeat at the Battle of Waterloo and the republican Champollion is arrested for sedition and exiled to Figeac until 1821  Eccentric Egyptologist Giovanni Belzoni discovers an obelisk inscribed with the name of Cleopatra in Greek and hieroglyphs at Philae and sends it back to Young in England 
Young makes a mistake in translating the obelisk setting back his work whilst Champollion using a copy of the obelisk creates a hieroglyphic alphabet that he uses along with Coptic to translate the name of Ramesses the Great from sketches of Abu Simbal  Champollion's discovery arouses the suspicions of the Catholic Church who fear hieroglyphs might disprove the historical accuracy of the Bible  Young wishes Champllion good luck in proving his theories but Sacy and the Church are determined to stop him 

Episode six: The Secrets of the Hieroglyphs
Champollion is determined to travel to Egypt to prove his theory but poor and jobless he is reduced to buying up whatever scraps of papyrus he can find and this obsession alienates his wife  The Dendera zodiac purchased by the French King Charles X threatens to challenge the biblical chronologies of church scholars, as it is believed by some to date to before the Great Flood of 2349 BC  Champollion is called in to confirm Sacy's dating of the antiquity to around 2000 BC; he disputes Sacy's dating but not Church authorities by dating it to some 2,000 years later than that during the Roman period 
Champollion is sent to Turin by the King to value a collection put up for sale by the French Consul to Egypt Bernardino Drovetti  Prior to his departure Champollion's wife announces that she is pregnant and she is not pleased by his new job  Champollion builds a strong reputation for himself in Italy even being invited for an audience with Pope Leo XII  Returning to Paris with a large collection of antiquities for the King he is put in charge of the Egyptian collection at the Louvre  The King finally agrees to fund Champollion's expedition to Egypt on the proviso that he does not publish any finds that contradict the teachings of the Church  Champollion, arriving in 1828, starts by studying the Great Pyramid at Giza discovering it to be a tomb built for the Pharaoh Khufu around 2560 BC  At Saqqara he finds the site largely stripped by dealers but in a forgotten tomb he discovers ancient hieroglyphs he translates to prove his theories  Eager to understand the Ancient Egyptians he pushes on to the ancient capital of Thebes where at the sprawling Temple of Karnak he reads the story of Ramesses the Great and the battle against the Hittites at Kadesh 
At Belzoni's Tomb in the Valley of the Kings the ailing Champollion reads the story of Pharaoh Seti I and learns of the burial rites of Pharaohs  He is thus able to comprehend the belief system of the Ancient Egyptians for the first time  Champollion dies back in France 18 months later but his legacy allows Egyptologist to comprehend the meaning behind monuments such as the Great Pyramid of Giza and to decipher papyri that lead to such discoveries as the Tomb of Tutankhamun by Howard Carter 

Cast
Elliot Cowan as Jean-François Champollion
Stuart Bunce as Jacques-Joseph Champollion

Media information
DVD release
Released on Region 2 DVD by BBC Video on 2006-02-06 Also released on Region 1 DVD (2 discs, but does not include the bonus 'Pyramid') by BBC Worldwide 2006-05-23

Companion book
The 2005 companion book to the series was written by author and archaeologist Joyce Tyldesley expands on the series to tell the full story of the discoveries and the colourful characters who made them 

Selected editions
Tyldesley, Joyce (6 October 2005)  Egypt, How A Lost Civilization Was Rediscovered  BBC Books (hardcover)  ISBN 978-0-563-52257-7 
Tyldesley, Joyce (1 June 2003)  Egypt, How A Lost Civilization Was Rediscovered  BBC Books (paperback)  ISBN 978-0-563-49381-5 
Tyldesley, Joyce (18 September 2005)  Egypt, How A Lost Civilization Was Rediscovered  UC Press (hardcover)  ISBN 978-0-520-25020-8 

See also
Building the Great Pyramid



ground_truth: the deadpan sketch group