prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which composer was wrote his music most recently, Michael Tippett or Luigi Cherubini?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Michael Tippett School
Heron Academy (formerly The Michael Tippett School) is a special needs secondary school for students with severe learning difficulties located in south London  It was previously named after the composer Michael Tippett   The building was designed by Marks Barfield Architect and completed in 2008  It can accommodate 80 students between the age of 11 and 19 It was built as part of the Building Schools for the Future programme and was the first school in London and the first special needs school in the country to be completed under the programme Previously a community school administered by Lambeth London Borough Council, In February 2023 The Michael Tippett School converted to academy status and was renamed Heron Academy  The school is now sponsored by the London South East Academies Trust 
Passage 2:
François-Benoît Hoffman
François-Benoît Hoffman (11 July 1760 – 25 April 1828) was a French playwright and critic, best known today for his operatic librettos, including those set to music by Étienne Méhul and Luigi Cherubini (most notably Cherubini's Médée, 1797) 

Career
Hoffman was born in Nancy, and studied law at the University of Strasbourg   Believing that his stammer hindered his legal career, he entered military service in Corsica  He served there for only a very short time, and, returning to Nancy, wrote some poems which brought him into notice at the little court of Lunéville over which the Marquise de Boufflers then presided  In 1784 he went to Paris where he wrote his first opera libretto, Phèdre, for the composer Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne  It was performed at Fontainebleau in October 1786  After quarrelling with Lemoyne, Hoffman offered his libretto Adrien, empereur de Rome to Cherubini, who turned it down in favour of another Hoffman drama, Médée  Adrien was accepted instead by Méhul, with whom Hoffman collaborated on several operas, including Euphrosine (1790), Stratonice (1792) and Ariodant (1799) 
Hoffman was a strong advocate of authors' rights regarding artistic control, copyright and freedom of speech  This stance often brought him into conflict with the authorities  A quarrel with the management of the Paris Opéra over Nephté led to them rejecting Médée in 1790  In 1792, the French Revolutionary government objected to Adrien on political grounds, and Hoffman ran considerable risk by refusing to make the changes proposed to him  It was seven years before Adrien finally received its premiere at the Opéra 
Hoffman's later operas were in a lighter style than his works of the 1790s  A notable example is Les rendez-vous bourgeois, with music by Isouard  In 1807 he was invited by Charles Guillaume Étienne to contribute to the Journal de l'Empire (afterwards the Journal des Débats)  Hoffman's wide reading qualified him to write on all sorts of subjects, and he turned, apparently with no difficulty, from reviewing books on medicine to violent attacks on the Jesuits  His severe criticism of Chateaubriand's Les Martyrs led the author to make some changes in a later edition  He had the reputation of being an absolutely conscientious and incorruptible critic and thus exercised wide influence Hoffman's poem Je te perds, fugitive espérance was set by Ludwig van Beethoven in 1806 in his song Als die Geliebte sich trennen wollten (WoO 132) in a translation by Stephan von Breuning 

Works
ThéâtrePhèdre, tragédie lyrique en 3 actes, music by Lemoyne, premiere 26 October 1786 au château de Fontainebleau ;
Nephté, tragédie lyrique en 3 actes, music by Lemoyne, premiere 15 December 1789 at the Opéra de Paris ;
Euphrosine, ou le Tyran corrigé, comédie en 5 actes mise en musique by Étienne Nicolas Méhul, premiere 4 October 1790 at the Comédie-Italienne (réduite à 4, puis à 3 actes) ;
Adrien, opéra en 3 actes, music by Étienne Nicolas Méhul, premiere January 1792, puis sous une forme révisée en 1802 ;
Stratonice, comédie héroïque en un acte et en vers, music by Étienne Nicolas Méhul, premiere 3 May 1792 at the Comédie-Italienne ;
Le jeune sage et le vieux fou, comédie en un acte mêlée de musique by Étienne Nicolas Méhul premiere 28 March 1793 at the Opéra-Comique ;
Adélaïde, drame en 3 actes et en vers premiere 1793 ;
Callias, drame en un acte et en vers premiere 1795 ;
Le Brigand, opéra-comique en 3 actes premiere 1795 ;
Azeline, comédie en 3 actes premiere 1797 ;
Médée, opéra en 3 actes, music by Luigi Cherubini, premiere 1797 at the Théâtre Feydeau ;
Ariodant, drame en 3 actes mêlé de musique by Étienne Nicolas Méhul, premiere 11 October 1799 at the Opéra-Comique ;
Bion, comédie en un acte mêlée de musique by Étienne Nicolas Méhul, premiere 27 December 1800 at the Opéra-Comique ;
Lisistrata, ou Les Athéniennes, Comédie en un acte et en prose, mêlée de vaudevilles imitée d'Aristophane, premiere 15 January 1802 at the Théâtre Feydeau ;
Le Trésor supposé ou le Danger d’écouter aux portes, comédie en un acte mêlée de musique by Étienne Nicolas Méhul, premiere 29 July 1802 à l'Opéra-Comique ;
Le Roman d’une heure, comédie en un acte premiere Gymnase 1803 ;
La Ruse inutile, opéra-comique en 2 actes premiere 1805 ;
Grimaldi, comédie en 3 actes, music by Rodolphe Kreutzer, premiere 1810 
La mort d'Abel, opera with music by Rodolphe Kreutzer, premiere 1810 (revised 1825)Romans, essaisMes souvenirs ou Recueil de pensées fugitives (1802) ;

Sources
L  Castel: Notice Biographique et Littéraire sur F -B  Hoffman, dans: Œuvres de F  B  Hoffman précédées d’une Notice sur sa vie  Théatre  Tome 2  S  V-LV 
P [aul?] Jacquinet: François Benoît Hoffman: sa vie, ses œuvres, Nancy 1878 
Stratonice: introduction to the edition of Hoffman and Méhul's opera by M  Elizabeth C  Bartlet (Pendragon Press, 1997)
T  G  Waidelich:    imitée d’Aristophane"  Die Lisistrata von Hoffman und Solié (1802) als Bindeglied zu den Verschwornen von Castelli und Schubert mit einem Ausblick auf die Rezeption des Sujets im Musiktheater (Teil 1)  In: Schubert:Perspektiven  9, 2010, p  216–228 

External links
François-Benoît Hoffman on Data bnf fr
Passage 3:
Luigi Cherubini
Luigi Cherubini ( KERR-uu-BEE-nee; Italian: [luˈiːdʒi keruˈbiːni]; 8 or 14 September 1760 – 15 March 1842) was an Italian Classical and Romantic composer  His most significant compositions are operas and sacred music  Beethoven regarded Cherubini as the greatest of his contemporaries  His operas were heavily praised and interpreted by Rossini 

Early years
Cherubini was born Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobio Salvatore Cherubini in Florence in 1760  There is uncertainty about his exact date of birth  Although 14 September is sometimes stated, evidence from baptismal records and Cherubini himself suggests the 8th is correct  Perhaps the strongest evidence is his first name, Maria, which is traditional for a child born on 8 September, the feast-day of the Nativity of the Virgin  His instruction in music began at the age of six with his father, Bartolomeo,  maestro al cembalo ("Master of the harpsichord", in other words, ensemble leader from the harpsichord)  Considered a child prodigy, Cherubini studied counterpoint and dramatic style at an early age  By the time he was thirteen, he had composed several religious works 

Adulthood and first operas
In 1780, he was awarded a scholarship by the Grand Duke of Tuscany to study music in Bologna and Milan  Cherubini's early opere serie used libretti by Apostolo Zeno, Metastasio (Pietro Trapassi), and others that adhered closely to standard dramatic conventions  His music was strongly influenced by Niccolò Jommelli, Tommaso Traetta, and Antonio Sacchini, who were the leading Italian composers of the day  The first of his two comic works, Lo sposo di tre e marito di nessuna, premiered at a Venetian theater in November 1783 Feeling constrained by Italian traditions and eager to experiment, Cherubini traveled to London in 1785 where he produced two opere serie and an opera buffa for the King's Theatre  In the same year, he made an excursion to Paris with his friend the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti, who presented him to Marie Antoinette and Parisian society  Cherubini received an important commission to write Démophoon to a French libretto by Jean-François Marmontel that would be his first tragédie en musique  Except for a brief return trip to London and to Turin for an opera seria commissioned by King Victor Amadeus III, Cherubini spent the rest of his life in France where he was initiated into Grand Orient de France "Saint-Jean de Palestine" Masonic Lodge in 1784 

French assimilation
Cherubini adopted the French version of his name, Marie-Louis-Charles-Zénobi-Salvador Cherubini; this appears in all extant documents that show his full name after 1790, though his Italian name is favored nowadays  Performances of Démophoon were favorably received at the Académie Royale de Musique in 1788  With Viotti's help, the Théâtre de Monsieur in the Tuileries appointed Cherubini as its director in 1789  Three years later, after a move to the rue Feydeau and the fall of the monarchy, the company became known as the Théâtre Feydeau  This position gave Cherubini the opportunity to read countless libretti and choose one that best suited his temperament 
Cherubini's music began to show more originality and daring  His first major success was Lodoïska (1791), which was admired for its realistic heroism  This was followed by Elisa (1794), set in the Swiss Alps, and Médée (1797), Cherubini's best-known work  Les deux journées (1800), in which Cherubini simplified his style, was a popular success  These and other operas were premièred at the Théâtre Feydeau or the Opéra-Comique  Feeling financially secure, he married Anne Cécile Tourette in 1794 and began a family of three children 
The fallout from the French Revolution affected Cherubini until the end of his life  Politics forced him to hide his connections with the former aristocracy and seek governmental appointments  Although Napoleon found him too complex, Cherubini wrote at least one patriotic work per year for more than a decade  He was appointed Napoleon's director of music in Vienna for part of 1805 and 1806, whereupon he conducted several of his works in that city 
In 1808 Cherubini was elected an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands 

From opera to church music
After Les deux journées, Parisian audiences began to favor younger composers such as Boieldieu  Cherubini's opera-ballet Anacréon was an outright failure and most stage works after it did not achieve success  Faniska, produced in 1806, was an exception, receiving an enthusiastic response, in particular by Haydn and Beethoven  Les Abencérages (1813), an heroic drama set in Spain during the last days of the Moorish kingdom of Granada, was Cherubini's attempt to compete with Spontini's La vestale; it received critical praise but few performances 
Disappointed with his lack of acclaim in the theater, Cherubini turned increasingly to church music, writing seven masses, two requiems, and many shorter pieces  During this period (under the restored monarchy) he was appointed Surintendant de la Musique du Roi, a position he would hold until the fall of Charles X (1830)  In 1815 London's Royal Philharmonic Society commissioned him to write a symphony, an overture, and a composition for chorus and orchestra, the performances of which he went especially to London to conduct, increasing his fame 
Cherubini's Requiem in C minor (1816), commemorating the anniversary of the execution of King Louis XVI of France, was a huge success  The work was greatly admired by Beethoven, Schumann and Brahms  In 1836, Cherubini wrote a Requiem in D minor to be performed at his own funeral  It is for male choir only, as the religious authorities had criticised his use of female voices in the earlier work 

Old age and legacy
In 1822, Cherubini became director of the Conservatoire and completed his textbook, Cours de contrepoint et de fugue, in 1835  His role at the Conservatoire brought him into conflict with the young Hector Berlioz, who portrayed the old composer in his memoirs as a crotchety pedant  Some critics, such as Basil Deane, maintain that Berlioz's depiction has distorted Cherubini's image with posterity  There are many allusions to Cherubini's personal irritability among his contemporaries; Adolphe Adam wrote, "some maintain his temper was very even, because he was always angry " Nevertheless, Cherubini had many friends, including Szymanowska, Rossini, Chopin and, above all, the artist Ingres  The two had mutual interests: Cherubini was a keen amateur painter and Ingres enjoyed practising the violin  In 1841, Ingres produced the most celebrated portrait of the old composer 
Although chamber music does not make up a large portion of his output, what he did write was important  Wilhelm Altmann, writing in his Handbuch für Streichquartettspieler (Handbook for String Quartet Players) about Cherubini's six string quartets, stated that they are first rate and regarded Nos  1 and 3 as masterworks  His String Quintet for two violins, viola and two cellos is also considered a first-rate work 
During his lifetime, Cherubini received France's highest and most prestigious honors  These included the Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur (1814) and Membre de l'Académie des Beaux-Arts (1815)  In 1841, he was made Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur, the first musician to receive that title Cherubini died in Paris in 1842 at age 81 and is buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery, just four metres from his friend Chopin  His tomb was designed by the architect Achille Leclère and includes a figure by the sculptor Augustin-Alexandre Dumont representing "Music" crowning a bust of the composer with a wreath 

Works
Orchestral music
Chamber music
Masses and sections of the Mass
Motets and other choral works
Operas
See List of operas by Luigi Cherubini

Teaching manuals
A treatise on counterpoint and fugue (1841)
Passage 4:
Michael Tippett
Sir Michael Kemp Tippett  (2 January 1905 – 8 January 1998) was an English composer who rose to prominence during and immediately after the Second World War  In his lifetime he was sometimes ranked with his contemporary Benjamin Britten as one of the leading British composers of the 20th century  Among his best-known works are the oratorio A Child of Our Time, the orchestral Fantasia Concertante on a Theme of Corelli, and the opera The Midsummer Marriage 
Tippett's talent developed slowly  He withdrew or destroyed his earliest compositions, and was 30 before any of his works were published  Until the mid-to-late 1950s his music was broadly lyrical in character, before changing to a more astringent and experimental style  New influences—including those of jazz and blues after his first visit to America in 1965—became increasingly evident in his compositions  While Tippett's stature with the public continued to grow, not all critics approved of these changes in style, some believing that the quality of his work suffered as a consequence  From around 1976 Tippett's late works began to reflect the works of his youth through a return to lyricism  Although he was much honoured in his lifetime, critical judgement on Tippett's legacy has been uneven, the greatest praise generally reserved for his earlier works  His centenary in 2005 was a muted affair; apart from the few best-known works, his music has not been performed frequently in the 21st century 
Having briefly embraced communism in the 1930s, Tippett avoided identifying with any political party  A pacifist after 1940, he was imprisoned in 1943 for refusing to carry out war-related duties required by his military exemption  His initial difficulties in accepting his homosexuality led him in 1939 to Jungian psychoanalysis; the Jungian dichotomy of "shadow" and "light" remained a recurring factor in his music  He was a strong advocate of music education, and was active for much of his life as a radio broadcaster and writer on music 

Life
Family background
The Tippett family originated in Cornwall  Michael Tippett's grandfather, George Tippett, left the county in 1854 to make his fortune in London through property speculation and other business schemes  A flamboyant character, he had a strong tenor voice that was a popular feature at Christian revivalist meetings  In later life his business enterprises faltered, leading to debts, prosecution for fraud, and a term of imprisonment  His son Henry, born in 1858, was Michael's father  A lawyer by training, he was successful in business and was independently wealthy by the time of his marriage in April 1903  Unusually for his background and upbringing, Henry Tippett was a progressive liberal and a religious sceptic Henry Tippett's bride was Isabel Kemp, from a large upper-middle-class family based in Kent  Among her mother's cousins was Charlotte Despard, a well-known campaigner for women's rights, suffragism, and Irish home rule  Despard was a powerful influence on the young Isabel, who was herself briefly imprisoned after participating in an illegal suffragette protest in Trafalgar Square  Though neither she nor Henry was musical, she had inherited an artistic talent from her mother, who had exhibited at the Royal Academy  After their marriage the couple settled outside London in Eastcote, where two sons were born—the second, Michael, on 2 January 1905 

Childhood and schooling
Shortly after Michael's birth, the family moved to Wetherden in Suffolk  Michael's education began in 1909 with a nursery governess and various private tutors who followed a curriculum that included piano lessons—his first formal contact with music  There was a piano in the house, on which he "took to improvising crazily      which I called 'composing', though I had only the vaguest notion of what that meant"  In September 1914 Michael became a boarder at Brookfield Preparatory School in Swanage, Dorset  He spent four years there, at one point earning notoriety by writing an essay that challenged the existence of God  In 1918 he won a scholarship to Fettes College, a boarding school in Edinburgh, where he studied the piano, sang in the choir, and began to learn to play the pipe organ  The school was not a happy place; sadistic bullying of the younger pupils was commonplace  When Michael revealed to his parents in March 1920 that he had formed a homosexual relationship with another boy, they removed him to Stamford School in Lincolnshire, where a decade previously Malcolm Sargent had been a pupil Around this time Henry Tippett decided to live in France, and the house in Wetherden was sold  The 15-year-old Michael and his brother Peter remained at school in England, travelling to France for their holidays  Michael found Stamford much more congenial than Fettes, and developed both academically and musically  He found an inspiring piano teacher in Frances Tinkler, who introduced him to the music of Bach, Beethoven, Schubert, and Chopin  Sargent had maintained his connection with the school, and was present when Tippett and another boy played Bach's C minor Concerto for Two Harpsichords on pianos with a local string orchestra  Tippett sang in the chorus when Sargent directed a local performance of Robert Planquette's operetta Les Cloches de Corneville  Despite his parents' wish that he follow an orthodox path by proceeding to Cambridge University, Tippett had firmly decided on a career as a composer, a prospect that alarmed them and was discouraged by his headmaster and by Sargent By mid-1922 Tippett had developed a rebellious streak  His overt atheism particularly troubled the school, and he was required to leave  He remained in Stamford in private lodgings, while continuing lessons with Tinkler and with the organist of St Mary's Church  He also began studying Charles Villiers Stanford's book Musical Composition which, he later wrote, "became the basis of all my compositional efforts for decades to come"  In 1923 Henry Tippett was persuaded that some form of musical career, perhaps as a concert pianist, was possible, and agreed to support his son in a course of study at the Royal College of Music (RCM)  After an interview with the college principal, Sir Hugh Allen, Tippett was accepted despite his lack of formal entry qualifications 

Royal College of Music
Tippett began at the RCM in the summer term of 1923, when he was 18 years old  At the time, his biographer Meirion Bowen records, "his aspirations were Olympian, though his knowledge rudimentary"  Life in London widened his musical awareness, especially the Proms at the Queen's Hall, opera at Covent Garden (where he saw Dame Nellie Melba's farewell performance in La bohème) and the Diaghilev Ballet  He heard Chaliapin sing, and attended concerts conducted by, among others, Stravinsky and Ravel—the last-named "a tiny man who stood bolt upright and conducted with what to me looked like a pencil"  Tippett overcame his initial ignorance of early music by attending Palestrina masses at Westminster Cathedral, following the music with the help of a borrowed score At the RCM, Tippett's first composition tutor was Charles Wood, who used the models of Bach, Mozart and Beethoven to instil a solid understanding of musical forms and syntax  When Wood died in 1926, Tippett chose to study with C H  Kitson, whose pedantic approach and lack of sympathy with Tippett's compositional aims strained the relationship between teacher and pupil  Tippett studied conducting with Sargent and Adrian Boult, finding the latter a particularly empathetic mentor—he let Tippett stand with him on the rostrum during rehearsals and follow the music from the conductor's score  By this means Tippett became familiar with the music of composers then new to him, such as Delius and Debussy, and learned much about the sounds of orchestral instruments In 1924 Tippett became the conductor of an amateur choir in the Surrey village of Oxted  Although he saw this initially as a means of advancing his knowledge of English madrigals, his association with the choir lasted many years  Under his direction it combined with a local theatrical group, the Oxted and Limpsfield Players, to give performances of Vaughan Williams's opera The Shepherds of the Delectable Mountains and of Tippett's own adaptation of an 18th-century ballad opera, The Village Opera  He passed his Bachelor of Music (BMus) exams, at his second attempt, in December 1928  Rather than continuing to study for a doctorate, Tippett decided to leave the academic environment  The RCM years had brought him intense and lasting friendships with members of both sexes, in particular with Francesca Allinson and David Ayerst 

Early career
False start
On leaving the RCM, Tippett settled in Oxted to continue his work with the choir and theatrical group and to compose  To support himself he taught French at Hazelwood, a small preparatory school in Limpsfield, which provided him with a salary of £80 a year and a cottage  Also teaching at the school was Christopher Fry, the future poet and playwright who later collaborated with Tippett on several of the composer's early works In February 1930 Tippett provided the incidental music for a performance by his theatrical group of James Elroy Flecker's Don Juan, and in October he directed them in his own adaptation of Stanford's opera The Travelling Companion  His compositional output was such that on 5 April 1930 he gave a concert in Oxted consisting entirely of his own works—a Concerto in D for flutes, oboe, horns and strings; settings for tenor of poems by Charlotte Mew; Psalm in C for chorus and orchestra, with a text by Christopher Fry; piano variations on the song "Jockey to the Fair"; and a string quartet  Professional soloists and orchestral players were engaged, and the concert was conducted by David Moule-Evans, a friend from the RCM  Despite encouraging comments from The Times and the Daily Telegraph, Tippett was deeply dissatisfied with the works, and decided that he needed further tuition  He withdrew the music, and in September 1930 re-enrolled at the RCM for a special course of study in counterpoint with R  O  Morris, an expert on 16th-century music  This second RCM period, during which he learned to write fugues in the style of Bach and received additional tuition in orchestration from Gordon Jacob, was central to Tippett's eventual discovery of what he termed his "individual voice" On 15 November 1931 Tippett conducted his Oxted choir in a performance of Handel's Messiah, using choral and orchestral forces close to Handel's original intentions  Such an approach was rare at that time, and the event attracted considerable interest 

Friendships, politics and music
In mid-1932 Tippett moved to a cottage in neighbouring Limpsfield, provided by friends as a haven in which he could concentrate on composition  His friendships with Ayerst and Allinson had opened up new cultural and political vistas  Through Ayerst he met W  H  Auden, who in due course introduced him to T  S  Eliot  Although no deep friendship developed with either poet, Tippett came to consider Eliot as his "spiritual father"  Ayerst also introduced him to a young artist, Wilfred Franks  By this time Tippett was coming to terms with his homosexuality, while not always at ease with it  Franks provided him with what he described as "the deepest, most shattering experience of falling in love"  This intense relationship ran alongside a political awakening  Tippett's natural sympathies had always been leftish, and became more consciously so from his inclusion in Allinson's circle of left-wing activists  As a result, he gave up his teaching position at Hazelwood to become the conductor of the South London Orchestra, a project financed by the London County Council and made up of unemployed musicians  Its first public concert was held on 5 March 1933 at Morley College, later to become Tippett's professional base 

In the summers of 1932 and 1934 Tippett took charge of musical activities at miners' work camps near Boosbeck in the north of England  Known as the Cleveland Work Camps, they were run by a munificent local landowner, Major Pennyman, to give unemployed miners a sense of purpose and independence  In 1932 Tippett arranged the staging of a shortened version of John Gay's The Beggar's Opera, with locals playing the main parts, and the following year he provided the music for a new folk opera, Robin Hood, with words by Ayerst, himself and Ruth Pennyman  Both works proved hugely popular with their audiences, and although most of the music has disappeared, some of Robin Hood was revived by Tippett for use in his Birthday Suite for Prince Charles of 1948  In October 1934 Tippett and the South London Orchestra performed at a centenary celebration of the Tolpuddle Martyrs, as part of a grand Pageant of Labour at the Crystal Palace Tippett was not formally a member of any political party or group until 1935, when he joined the British Communist Party at the urging of his cousin, Phyllis Kemp  This membership was brief; the influence of Trotsky's History of the Russian Revolution had led him to embrace Trotskyism, while the party maintained a strict Stalinist line  Tippett resigned after a few months when he saw no chance of converting his local party to his Trotskyist views  According to his obituarist J J  Plant, Tippett then joined the Bolshevik-Leninist Group within the Labour Party, where he continued to advocate Trotskyism until at least 1938  Although Tippett's radical instincts always remained strong, he was aware that excessive political activism would distract him from his overriding objective of becoming recognised as a composer  A significant step towards professional recognition came in December 1935, when his String Quartet No  1 was performed by the Brosa Quartet at the Mercury Theatre in Notting Hill, London  This work, which he dedicated to Franks, is the first in the recognised canon of Tippett's music  Throughout much of the 1930s Wilf Franks continued to be an important influence on Tippett both creatively and politically  Franks had a passion for the poetry of both William Blake and Wilfred Owen; Tippett claimed that Franks knew Owen's poetry 'almost word for word and draws it out for me, its meanings, its divine pity and so on   ' 

Towards maturity
Personal crisis
Before the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, Tippett released two further works: the Piano Sonata No  1, first performed by Phyllis Sellick at the Queen Mary Hall, London, on 11 November 1938, and the Concerto for Double String Orchestra, which was not performed until 1940  In a climate of increasing political and military tension, Tippett's compositional efforts were overwhelmed by an emotional crisis  When his relationship with Franks ended acrimoniously in August 1938 he was thrown into doubt and confusion about both his homosexuality and his worth as an artist  He was saved from despair when, at Ayerst's suggestion, he undertook a course of Jungian analysis with the psychotherapist John Layard  Through an extended course of therapy, Layard gave Tippett the means to analyse and interpret his dreams  Tippett's biographer Ian Kemp describes this experience as "the major turning point in [his] life", both emotionally and artistically  His particular discovery from dream analysis was "the Jungian 'shadow' and 'light' in the single, individual psyche     the need for the individual to accept his divided nature and profit from its conflicting demands"  This brought him to terms with his homosexuality, and he was able to pursue his creativity without being distracted by personal relationships  While still unsure of his sexuality, Tippett had considered marriage with Francesca Allinson, who had expressed the wish that they should have children together  After his psychotherapy he enjoyed several committed—and sometimes overlapping—same-sex relationships  Among the most enduring, and most tempestuous, was that with the artist Karl Hawker, whom he first met in 1941 

A Child of Our Time
While his therapy proceeded, Tippett was searching for a theme for a major work—an opera or an oratorio—that could reflect both the contemporary turmoil in the world and his own recent catharsis  Having briefly considered the theme of the Dublin Easter Rising of 1916, he based his work on a more immediate event: the murder in Paris of a German diplomat by a 17-year-old Jewish refugee, Herschel Grynszpan  This murder triggered Kristallnacht (Crystal Night), a coordinated attack on Jews and their property throughout Nazi Germany on 9–10 November 1938  Tippett hoped that Eliot would provide a libretto for the oratorio, and the poet showed interest  However, when Tippett presented him with a more detailed scenario, Eliot advised him to write his own text, suggesting that the poetic quality of the words might otherwise dominate the music  Tippett called the oratorio A Child of Our Time, taking the title from Ein Kind unserer Zeit, a contemporary protest novel by the Austro-Hungarian writer Ödön von Horváth  Within a three-part structure based on Handel's Messiah, Tippett took the novel step of using North American spirituals in place of the traditional chorales that punctuate oratorio texts  According to Kenneth Gloag's commentary, the spirituals provide "moments of focus and repose     giving shape to both the musical and literary dimensions of the work"  Tippett began composing the oratorio in September 1939, on the conclusion of his dream therapy and immediately after the outbreak of war 

Morley, war, imprisonment
With the South London Orchestra temporarily disbanded because of the war, Tippett returned to teaching at Hazelwood  In October 1940 he accepted the post of Director of Music at Morley College, just after its buildings were almost completely destroyed by a bomb  Tippett's challenge was to rebuild the musical life of the college, using temporary premises and whatever resources he could muster  He revived the Morley College Choir and orchestra, and arranged innovative concert programmes that typically mixed early music (Orlando Gibbons, Monteverdi, Dowland), with contemporary works by Stravinsky, Hindemith and Bartók 

He continued the college's established association with the music of Purcell; a performance in November 1941 of Purcell's Ode to St Cecilia, with improvised instruments and rearrangements of voice parts, attracted considerable attention  The music staff at Morley was augmented by the recruitment of refugee musicians from Europe, including Walter Bergmann, Mátyás Seiber, and Walter Goehr who took charge of the college orchestra A Child of Our Time was finished in 1941 and put aside with no immediate prospects of performance  Tippett's Fantasia on a Theme of Handel for piano and orchestra was performed at the Wigmore Hall in March 1942, with Sellick again the soloist, and the same venue saw the première of the composer's String Quartet No  2 a year later  The first recording of Tippett's music, the Piano Sonata No  1 played by Sellick, was issued in August 1941  The recording was well received by the critics, Wilfrid Mellers predicting a leading role for the composer in the future of English music  In 1942, Schott Music began to publish Tippett's works, establishing an association that continued until the end of the composer's life The question of Tippett's liability for war service remained unresolved until mid-1943  In November 1940 he had formalised his pacifism by joining the Peace Pledge Union and applying for registration as a conscientious objector  His case was heard by a tribunal in February 1942, when he was assigned to non-combatant duties  Tippett rejected such work as an unacceptable compromise with his principles and in June 1943, after several further hearings and statements on his behalf from distinguished musical figures, he was sentenced to three months' imprisonment in HM Prison Wormwood Scrubs  He served two months, and although thereafter he was technically liable to further charges for failing to comply with the terms set by his tribunal, the authorities left him alone 

Recognition and controversy
On his release, Tippett returned to his duties at Morley, where he boosted the college's Purcell tradition by persuading Alfred Deller, the countertenor, to sing several Purcell odes at a concert on 21 October 1944—the first modern use of a countertenor in Purcell's music  Tippett formed a fruitful musical friendship with Benjamin Britten and Peter Pears, for whom he wrote the cantata Boyhood's End for tenor and piano  Encouraged by Britten, Tippett made arrangements for the first performance of A Child of Our Time, at London's Adelphi Theatre on 19 March 1944  Goehr conducted the London Philharmonic Orchestra, and Morley's choral forces were augmented by the London Regional Civil Defence Choir  Pears sang the tenor solo part, and other soloists were borrowed from Sadler's Wells Opera  The work was well received by critics and the public, and eventually became one of the most frequently performed large-scale choral works of the post-Second World War period, in Britain and overseas  Tippett's immediate reward was a commission from the BBC for a motet, The Weeping Babe, which became his first broadcast work when it was aired on 24 December 1944  He also began to give regular radio talks on music In 1946 Tippett organised at Morley the first British performance of Monteverdi's Vespers, adding his own organ Preludio for the occasion  Tippett's compositions in the immediate postwar years included his First Symphony, performed under Sargent in November 1945, and the String Quartet No  3, premiered in October 1946 by the Zorian Quartet  His main creative energies were increasingly devoted to his first major opera, The Midsummer Marriage  During the six years from 1946 he composed almost no other music, apart from the Birthday Suite for Prince Charles (1948) 

The musical and philosophical ideas behind the opera had begun in Tippett's mind several years earlier  The story, which he wrote himself, charts the fortunes of two contrasting couples in a manner which has brought comparisons with Mozart's The Magic Flute  The strain of composition, combined with his continuing responsibilities at Morley and his BBC work, affected Tippett's health and slowed progress  Following the death in 1949 of Morley's principal, Eva Hubback, Tippett's personal commitment to the college waned  His now-regular BBC fees had made him less dependent on his Morley salary, and he resigned his college post in 1951  His farewell took the form of three concerts which he conducted at the new Royal Festival Hall, in which the programmes included A Child of Our Time, the British première of Carl Orff's Carmina Burana, and Thomas Tallis's rarely performed 40-part motet Spem in alium In 1951 Tippett moved from Limpsfield to a large, dilapidated house, Tidebrook Manor in Wadhurst, Sussex  As The Midsummer Marriage neared completion he wrote a song cycle for tenor and piano, The Heart's Assurance  This work, a long-delayed tribute to Francesca Allinson (who had committed suicide in 1945), was performed by Britten and Pears at the Wigmore Hall on 7 May 1951  The Midsummer Marriage was finished in 1952, after which Tippett arranged some of the music as a concert suite, the Ritual Dances, performed in Basel, Switzerland, in April 1953  The opera itself was staged at Covent Garden on 27 January 1955  The lavish production, with costumes and stage designs by Barbara Hepworth and choreography by John Cranko, perplexed the opera-going public and divided critical opinion  According to Bowen, most "were simply unprepared for a work that departed so far from the methods of Puccini and Verdi"  Tippett's libretto was variously described as "one of the worst in the 350-year history of opera" and "a complex network of verbal symbolism", and the music as "intoxicating beauty" with "passages of superbly conceived orchestral writing"  A year after the première, the critic A E F  Dickinson concluded that "in spite of notable gaps in continuity and distracting infelicities of language, [there is] strong evidence that the composer has found the right music for his ends" Much of the music Tippett composed following the opera's completion reflected its lyrical style  Among these works was the Fantasia Concertante on a Theme of Corelli (1953) for string orchestra, written to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the composer Arcangelo Corelli's birth  The Fantasia would eventually become one of Tippett's most popular works, though The Times's critic lamented the "excessive complexity of the contrapuntal writing     there was so much going on that the perplexed ear knew not where to turn or fasten itself"  Such comments helped to foster a view that Tippett was a "difficult" composer, or even that his music was amateurish and poorly prepared  These perceptions were strengthened by controversies around several of his works in the late 1950s  The Piano Concerto (1955) was declared unplayable by its scheduled soloist, Julius Katchen, who had to be replaced before the première by Louis Kentner  The Dennis Brain Wind Ensemble, for whom Tippett had written the Sonata for Four Horns (1955), complained that the work was in too high a key and required it to be transposed down  When the Second Symphony was premièred by the BBC Symphony Orchestra under Boult, in a live broadcast from the Royal Festival Hall on 5 February 1958, the work broke down after a few minutes and had to be restarted by the apologetic conductor: "Entirely my mistake, ladies and gentlemen"  The BBC's Controller of Music defended the orchestra in The Times, writing that it "is equal to all reasonable demands", a wording that implied the fault was the composer's 

International acclaim
King Priam and after
In 1960 Tippett moved to a house in the Wiltshire village of Corsham, where he lived with his long-term partner Karl Hawker  By then Tippett had begun work on his second major opera, King Priam  He chose for his theme the tragedy of Priam, mythological king of the Trojans, as recorded in Homer's Iliad, and again he prepared his own libretto  As with The Midsummer Marriage, Tippett's preoccupation with the opera meant that his compositional output was limited for several years to a few minor works, including a Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis written in 1961 for the 450th anniversary of the foundation of St John's College, Cambridge  King Priam was premièred in Coventry by the Covent Garden Opera on 29 May 1962 as part of a festival celebrating the consecration of the new Coventry Cathedral  The production was by Sam Wanamaker and the lighting by Sean Kenny  John Pritchard was the conductor  The music for the new work displayed a marked stylistic departure from what Tippett had written hitherto, heralding what a later commentator, Iain Stannard, refers to as a "great divide" between the works before and after King Priam  Although some commentators questioned the wisdom of so radical a departure from his established voice, the opera was a considerable success with critics and the public  Lewis later called it "one of the most powerful operatic experiences in the modern theatre"  This reception, combined with the fresh acclaim for The Midsummer Marriage following a well-received BBC broadcast in 1963, did much to rescue Tippett's reputation and establish him as a leading figure among British composers As earlier with The Midsummer Marriage, the compositions that followed King Priam retained the musical idiom of the opera, notably the Piano Sonata No  2 (1962) and the Concerto for Orchestra (1963), the latter written for the Edinburgh Festival and dedicated to Britten for his 50th birthday  Tippett's main work in the mid-1960s was the cantata The Vision of Saint Augustine, commissioned by the BBC, which Bowen marks as a peak of Tippett's compositional career: "Not since The Midsummer Marriage had he unleashed such a torrent of musical invention"  His status as a national figure was now being increasingly recognised  He had been appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1959; in 1961 he was made an honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Music (HonFRCM), and in 1964 he received from Cambridge University the first of many honorary doctorates  In 1966 he was awarded a knighthood 

Wider horizons
In 1965 Tippett made the first of several visits to the United States, to serve as composer in residence at the Aspen Music Festival in Colorado  Tippett's American experiences had a significant effect on the music he composed in the late 1960s and early 1970s, with jazz and blues elements particularly evident in his third opera, The Knot Garden (1966–69), and in the Symphony No  3 (1970–72)  At home in 1969, Tippett worked with the conductor Colin Davis to rescue the Bath International Music Festival from a financial crisis, and became the festival's artistic director for the following five seasons  In 1970, following the collapse of his relationship with Hawker, he left Corsham and moved to a secluded house on the Marlborough Downs  Among the works he wrote in this period were In Memoriam Magistri (1971), a chamber piece commissioned by Tempo magazine as a memorial to Stravinsky, who had died on 6 April 1971, and the Piano Sonata No  3 (1973) 

In February 1974 Tippett attended a "Michael Tippett Festival", arranged in his honour by Tufts University, near Boston, Massachusetts  He was also present at a performance of The Knot Garden at Northwestern University at Evanston, Illinois—the first Tippett opera to be performed in the US  Two years later he was again in the country, engaged on a lecture tour that included the Doty Lectures in Fine Art at the University of Texas  Between these American journeys, Tippett travelled to Lusaka for the first African performance of A Child of Our Time, at which the Zambian president, Kenneth Kaunda, was present In 1976 Tippett was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society  The following few years saw journeys to Java and Bali—where he was much attracted by the sounds of gamelan ensembles—and to Australia, where he conducted a performance of his Fourth Symphony in Adelaide  In 1979, with funds available from the sale of some of his original manuscripts to the British Library, Tippett inaugurated the Michael Tippett Musical Foundation, which provided financial support to young musicians and music education initiatives Tippett maintained his pacifist beliefs, while becoming generally less public in expressing them, and from 1959 served as president of the Peace Pledge Union  In 1977 he made a rare political statement when, opening a PPU exhibition at St Martin-in-the-Fields, he attacked President Carter's plans to develop a neutron bomb 

Later life
In his seventies, Tippett continued to compose and travel, although now handicapped by health problems  His eyesight was deteriorating as a result of macular dystrophy, and he relied increasingly on his musical amanuensis and near namesake Michael Tillett, and on Meirion Bowen, who became Tippett's assistant and closest companion in the remaining years of the composer's life  The main works of the late 1970s were a new opera, The Ice Break, the Symphony No  4, the String Quartet No  4 and the Triple Concerto for violin, viola and cello  The Ice Break was a reflection of Tippett's American experiences, with a contemporary storyline incorporating race riots and drug-taking  His libretto has been criticised for its awkward attempts at American street vernacular, and the opera has not found a place in the general repertory  Mellers finds that its fusion of "art music, rock ritual and performance art fail to gel"  The Triple Concerto includes a finale inspired by the gamelan music that Tippett absorbed during his visit to Java In 1979 Tippett was made a Companion of Honour (CH)  The main composition that occupied him in the early 1980s was his oratorio The Mask of Time, loosely based on Jacob Bronowski's 1973 TV series The Ascent of Man  In Tippett's words, this is an attempt to deal "with those fundamental matters that bear upon man, his relationship with Time, his place in the world as we know it and in the mysterious universe at large"  The oratorio was commissioned by the Boston Symphony Orchestra for its centenary, and was one of several of Tippett's late compositions that were premièred in America 

In 1983 Tippett became president of the London College of Music and was appointed a Member of the Order of Merit (OM)  By the time of his 80th birthday in 1985 he was blind in his right eye, and his output had slowed  Nevertheless, in his final active years he wrote his last opera, New Year  This futuristic fable involving flying saucers, time travel and urban violence was indifferently received on its première in Houston, Texas, on 17 October 1989  Donal Henahan in The New York Times wrote that "Unlike Wagner, [Tippett] does not provide music of enough quality to allow one to overlook textual absurdities and commonplaces " The opera was introduced to Britain in the Glyndebourne Festival of 1990 In spite of his deteriorating health, Tippett toured Australia in 1989–90, and also visited Senegal  His last major works, written between 1988 and 1993, were: Byzantium, for soprano and orchestra; the String Quartet No  5; and The Rose Lake, a "song without words for orchestra" inspired by a visit to Lake Retba in Senegal during his 1990 trip  He intended The Rose Lake to be his farewell, but in 1996 he broke his retirement to write "Caliban's Song" as a contribution to the Purcell tercentenary 

Death
In 1997 he moved from Wiltshire to London to be closer to his friends and caregivers; in November of that year he made his last overseas trip, to Stockholm for a festival of his music  After suffering a stroke he was taken home, where he died on 8 January 1998, six days after his 93rd birthday  He was cremated on 15 January, at Hanworth crematorium, after a secular service 

Music
General character
Bowen has described Tippett as "a composer of our time", one who engaged with the social, political and cultural issues of his day  Arnold Whittall sees the music as embodying Tippett's philosophy of "ultimately optimistic humanism"  Rather than ignoring the barbarism of the 20th century, says Kemp, Tippett chose through his works to seek "to preserve or remake those values that have been perverted, while at the same time never losing sight of the contemporary reality"  The key early work in this respect is A Child of Our Time, of which Clarke writes: "[t]he words of the oratorio's closing ensemble, 'I would know my shadow and my light, So shall I at last be whole', have become canonical in commentary on Tippett     this [Jungian] statement crystallizes an ethic, and aesthetic, central to his world-view, and one which underlies all his text-based works" Sceptical critics such as the musicologist Derrick Puffett have argued that Tippett's craft as a composer was insufficient for him to deal adequately with the task that he had set himself of "transmut[ing] his personal and private agonies into     something universal and impersonal"  Michael Kennedy has referred to Tippett's "open‐eyed, even naive outlook on the world", while accepting the technical sophistication of his music  Others have acknowledged his creative ingenuity and his willingness to adopt whatever means or techniques were necessary to fit his intentions Tippett's music is marked by the expansive nature of his melodic line—the Daily Telegraph's Ivan Hewett refers to his "astonishingly long-breathed melodies"  According to Jones, a further element of the "individual voice" that emerged in 1935 was Tippett's handling of rhythm and counterpoint, demonstrated in the First String Quartet—Tippett's first use of the additive rhythm and cross-rhythm polyphony which became part of his musical signature  This approach to metre and rhythm is derived in part from Bartók and Stravinsky but also from the English madrigalists  Sympathy with the past, observed by Colin Mason in an early appraisal of the composer's work, was at the root of the neoclassicism that is a feature of Tippett's music, at least until the Second Symphony (1957) In terms of tonality, Tippett shifted his ground in the course of his career  His earlier works, up to The Midsummer Marriage, are key-centred, but thereafter he moved through bitonality into what the composer Charles Fussell has summarised as "the freely-organized harmonic worlds" of the Third Symphony and The Ice Break  Although Tippett flirted with the "twelve-tone" technique—he introduced a twelve-tone theme into the "storm" prelude that begins The Knot Garden—Bowen records that he generally rejected serialism as incompatible with his musical aims 

Compositional process
Tippett described himself as the receiver of inspiration rather than its originator, the creative spark coming from a particular personal experience, which might take one of many forms but was most often associated with listening to music  The process of composing was lengthy and laborious, the actual writing down of the music being preceded by several stages of gestation; as Tippett put it, "the concepts come first, and then a lot of work and imaginative processes until eventually, when you're ready, finally ready, you look for the actual notes"  Tippett elaborated: "I compose by first developing an overall sense of the length of the work, then of how it will divide itself into sections or movements, then of the kind of texture or instruments or voices that will be performing it  I prefer not to consider the actual notes of the composition until this process     has gone as far as possible"  Sometimes the time required to see a project through from conception to completion was very lengthy—seven years, Tippett says, in the case of the Third Symphony  In the earlier, contemplative stages he might be simultaneously engaged on other works, but once these stages were complete he would dedicate himself entirely to the completion of the work in hand Tippett preferred to compose in full score; once the writing began, progress was often not fluent, as evidenced by Tippett's first pencil draft manuscripts which show multiple rubbings-out and reworkings  In this, the musicologist Thomas Schuttenhelm says, his methods resembled those of Beethoven, with the difference that "whereas Beethoven's struggle is considered a virtue of his work, and almost universally admired, Tippett's was the source and subject of a debate about his competency as a composer" 

Influences
The style that emerged from Tippett's long compositional apprenticeship was the product of many diverse influences  Beethoven and Handel were initial models (Handel above Bach, who in Tippett's view lacked drama), supplemented by 16th- and 17th-century masters of counterpoint and madrigal—Thomas Weelkes, Monteverdi and Dowland  Purcell became significant later, and Tippett came to lament his ignorance of Purcell during his RCM years: "It seems to me incomprehensible now that his work was not even recommended in composition lessons as a basic study for the setting of English" Tippett recognised the importance to his compositional development of several 19th- and 20th-century composers: Berlioz for his clear melodic lines, Debussy for his inventive sound, Bartók for his colourful dissonance, Hindemith for his skills at counterpoint, and Sibelius for his originality in musical forms  He revered Stravinsky, sharing the Russian composer's deep interest in older music  Tippett had heard early ragtime as a small child before the First World War; he noted in his later writings that, in the early years of the 20th century, ragtime and jazz "attracted many serious composers thinking to find     a means to refresh serious music by the primitive"  His interest in these forms led to his fascination with blues, articulated in several of his later works  Among his contemporary composers, Tippett admired Britten and shared his desire to end the perception of English music as provincial  He also had a high regard for Alan Bush, with whom he joined forces to produce the 1934 Pageant of Labour  "I can remember the excitement I felt when he outlined to me his plan for a major string quartet" Although influences of folk music from all parts of the British Isles are evident in Tippett's early works, he was wary of the English folksong revival of the early 20th century, believing that much of the music presented as "English" by Cecil Sharp and his followers originated elsewhere  Notwithstanding his doubts, Tippett took some inspiration from these sources  The composer David Matthews writes of passages in Tippett's music which "evoke the 'sweet especial rural scene' as vividly as Elgar or Vaughan Williams     perhaps redolent of the Suffolk landscape with its gently undulating horizons, wide skies and soft lights" 

Works
After the withdrawn works written in the 1920s and early 1930s, analysts generally divide Tippett's mature compositional career into three main phases, with fairly fluid boundaries and some internal subdivision in each main period  The first phase extends from the completion of the String Quartet No  1 in 1935 to the end of the 1950s, a period in which Tippett drew on the past for his main inspiration   The 1960s marked the beginning of a new phase in which Tippett's style became more experimental, reflecting both the social and cultural changes of that era and the broadening of his own experiences  The mid-1970s produced a further stylistic change, less marked and sudden than that of the early 1960s, after which what Clarke calls the "extremes" of the experimental phase were gradually replaced by a return to the lyricism characteristic of the first period, a trend that was particularly manifested in the final works 

Withdrawn compositions
Tippett's earliest compositions cover several genres  Kemp writes that the works indicate Tippett's deep commitment to the learning of his craft, his early ability to manipulate traditional forms, and a general willingness to experiment  Clarke observes that in these youthful efforts, characteristics which would mark his mature work were already discernible  Some of the early work is of high quality—the Symphony in B flat of 1933 was, in Kemp's view, comparable to William Walton's contemporaneous First Symphony  Tippett pondered for years whether to include this work in his formal canon before deciding that its debt to Sibelius was too great  Nevertheless, it foreshadows techniques that feature in the String Quartet No  1 and in the Corelli Fantasia Other accomplished early works include the two string quartets, composed between 1928 and 1930, in which Tippett sought to combine the styles of Beethoven and Haydn respectively with folk-song, as Beethoven had in his Rasoumovsky quartets of 1806  Tippett explains the withdrawal of these and the other early works: "I realised very clearly that they were not totally consonant with myself  I didn't think they had the stamp of artistic durability  So I took the whole lot along to R O  Morris who agreed that they didn't show enough technical mastery "

First period: 1935 to late 1950s
Kemp identifies the String Quartet No  1 (1935) as marking Tippett's discovery of his individual voice  According to the composer Alan Ridout, the work stamped its character on Tippett's first period, and together with the second and third quartets of 1942 and 1946 it typifies his style up to The Midsummer Marriage  In the two works that immediately followed the first quartet, Bowen finds the Piano Sonata No  1 (1938) full of the young composer's inventiveness, while Matthews writes of the Concerto for Double String Orchestra (1939): "[I]t is the rhythmic freedom of the music, its joyful liberation from orthodox notions of stress and phrase length, that contributes so much to its vitality"  Both of these works show influence of folk music, and the finale of the Piano Sonata is marked by innovative jazz syncopations  According to Schuttenhelm, the Double Concerto marks the proper beginning of Tippett's  maturity as an orchestral composer 

In A Child of Our Time Tippett was, in Kemp's view, wholly successful in integrating the language of the spirituals with his own musical style  Tippett had obtained recordings of American singing groups, especially the Hall Johnson Choir, which provided him with a  model for determining the relationships between solo voices and chorus in the spirituals  Thus, Kemp believes, the fourth spiritual "O by and by" sounds almost as if it had been composed by Tippett   The composer's instructions in the score specify that "the spirituals should not be thought of as congregational hymns, but as integral parts of the Oratorio; nor should they be sentimentalised but sung with a strong underlying beat and slightly 'swung'" In Tippett's Symphony No  1 (1945), his only large-scale work between A Child of Our Time and The Midsummer Marriage, his "gift for launching a confident flow of sharply characterized, contrapuntally combined ideas" is acknowledged by Whittall  The same critic found the symphony's quality uneven, and the orchestral writing weaker than in the Double Concerto  Whittall offers nearly unqualified praise for The Midsummer Marriage, a view largely echoed by Mellers, who saw the perceived "difficulty" of the music as "an aspect of its truth"  He considered the opera one of the best musical-theatrical works of its era Three major works of the 1950s round off Tippett's first period: the Corelli Fantasia (1953), in which Clarke sees, in the alla pastorale section, the composer's instrumental writing at its best; the mildly controversial Piano Concerto (1955) which Whittall regards as one of the composer's most intriguing works—an attempt to "make the piano sing"; and the Symphony No  2 (1957) which Tippett acknowledges as a turning-point in his music  Until this point, says Matthews, Tippett's style had remained broadly tonal  The Second Symphony was his first essay in polytonality, paving the way to the dissonance and chromaticism of subsequent works  Milner, too, recognises the pivotal position of this symphony in Tippett's development which, he says, both sums up the style of the late 1950s and presages the changes to come 

Second period: King Priam to 1976
In his analysis of King Priam, Bowen argues that the change in Tippett's musical style arose initially from the nature of the opera, a tragedy radically different in tone from the warm optimism of The Midsummer Marriage  Clarke sees the change as something more fundamental, the increases in dissonance and atonality in Priam being representative of a trend that continued and reached a climax of astringency a few years later in Tippett's third opera, The Knot Garden  Tippett's new modernistic language, writes Clarke, was rooted in his desire to represent a wider range of human experiences, characteristic of a changing world: "War, violence, sex, homoeroticism, and social and interpersonal alienation [would now feature] much more overtly in [his] dramatic works or works with text"  Critics acknowledged Priam as a considerable achievement, but received the new musical style cautiously  While Gloag thought the change was not an absolute departure from Tippett's earlier style, Milner viewed King Priam as a complete break with Tippett's previous work, pointing out the lack of counterpoint, the considerably increased dissonances, and the move towards atonality: "very little of the music is in a definite key" 

Many of the minor works that Tippett wrote in the wake of King Priam reflect the musical style of the opera, in some cases quoting directly from it  In the first purely instrumental post-Priam work, the Piano Sonata No  2 (1962), Milner thought the new style worked better in the theatre than in the concert or recital hall, although he found the music in the Concerto for Orchestra (1963) had matured into a form that fully justified the earlier experiments  The critic Tim Souster refers to Tippett's "new, hard, sparse instrumental style" evident in The Vision of Saint Augustine (1965), written for baritone soloist, chorus and orchestra, a work which Bowen considers one of the peaks of Tippett's career During the late 1960s Tippett worked on a series of compositions that reflected the influence of his American experiences after 1965: The Shires Suite (1970), The Knot Garden (1970) and the Symphony No  3 (1972)  In The Knot Garden Mellers discerns Tippett's "wonderfully acute" ear only intermittently, otherwise: "thirty years on, the piece still sounds and looks knotty indeed, exhausting alike to participants and audience"  The Third Symphony is overtly linked by Tippett to Beethoven's Ninth Symphony through a vocal finale of four blues songs, introduced by a direct quotation from Beethoven's finale  Tippett's intention, explained by the music critic Calum MacDonald, was to explore the contemporary relevance of the grand, universal sentiments in Schiller's Ode to Joy, as set by Beethoven  Tippett's conclusion is that while the need to rejoice remains, the twentieth century has put paid to the Romantic ideals of universality and certainty After completing his Piano Sonata No  3 (1973), "a formidable piece of abstract composition" according to Bowen, Tippett returned to the modern vernacular in his fourth opera The Ice Break (1976)  Describing the music in an introduction to the published libretto, Tippett identifies "two archetypal sounds: one relating to the frightening but exhilarating sound of the ice breaking on the great northern rivers in the spring; the other related to the exciting or terrifying sound of the slogan-shouting crowds, which can lift you on your shoulders in triumph, or stamp you to death"   Although the work was generally regarded as a critical and public failure, aspects of its music have been recognised as among Tippett's best  The critic John Warrack writes that, after the violence of the opening acts, the third act's music has a lyrical warmth comparable to that of The Midsummer Marriage"  William Mann in The Times was equally enthusiastic, finding the music compelling and worthy of many a rehearing 

Third period: 1977 to 1995
In the late 1970s Tippett produced three single-movement instrumental works: the Symphony No  4 (1977), the String Quartet No  4 (1978), and the Triple Concerto for violin, viola and cello (1979)  The symphony, written in the manner of the tone poem or symphonic fantasia exemplified by Sibelius, represents what Tippett describes as a birth-to-death cycle, beginning and ending with the sounds of breathing  This effect was initially provided by a wind machine, although other means have been tried, with mixed results—according to Bowen "the sounds emitted can turn out to be redolent of a space-fiction film or a bordello"   The Fourth String Quartet, Tippett explains, is an exercise in "finding a sound" that he first encountered in the incidental music to a television programme on Rembrandt  In the Triple Concerto, which is thematically related to the Fourth Quartet and quotes from it, the three solo instruments perform individually rather than as a formal grouping  The work acknowledges Tippett's past with quotations from The Midsummer Marriage 
 
Tippett described the longest and most ambitious of his late works, the oratorio The Mask of Time (1982), as "a pageant of sorts with an ultimately lofty message"  Mellers called the work "a mind-boggling cosmic history of the universe"   Paul Driver, who had been a critic of Tippett's new style, wrote that the Mask revealed "the authentic early Tippett", with a return to the lyricism of The Midsummer Marriage and multiple acknowledgements of his early compositions Tippett had intended The Ice Break to be his final opera, but in 1985 he began work on New Year  Bowen saw this work as a summary of ideas and images that had attracted Tippett throughout his working life  Donal Henahan was dismissive of the music: "    the score generally natters along in the numbing, not-quite-atonal but antimelodic style familiar from other Tippett works " In Byzantium (1990), Tippett set the five stanzas of W  B  Yeats's poem, with added orchestral interludes  By this time he was professing little interest in his own work beyond its creation; performance and reception had become irrelevant to him  In 1996 he told an interviewer: "I'm outside the music I've made, I have no interest in it"  After the String Quartet No  5 (1991), which connects thematically with earlier works, Tippett closed his main output with The Rose Lake (1993), described in Tippett's Daily Telegraph obituary as "of luminous beauty     a worthy ending to a remarkable career" 

Reputation and legacy
In a joint study of Tippett and Britten published in 1982, Whittall designated the pair as "the two best British composers of that     generation born between 1900 and the outbreak of the First World War, and among the best of all composers born in the first two decades of the twentieth century"  After Britten's death in 1976, Tippett became widely regarded as the doyen of British music, but critical opinion of his later works was not always positive  After the first performance of the Triple Concerto in 1980, Driver wrote that "not since The Knot Garden has [he] produced anything worthy of his early masterpieces" In 1982, in his comparative study of Britten and Tippett, Whittall asserted that "it would be difficult to claim that any of the works [Tippett] has begun in his seventies are the equal of earlier compositions"  Although both Driver and Whittall later modified their opinions, such comments represented a general view among critics that Tippett's creative powers had begun to decline after the triumph of King Priam  This perception was strongly expressed by Derek Puffett, who argued that the decline followed Tippett's abandonment of myth—seen as the key to the success of The Midsummer Marriage and King Priam—and stemmed from his increasingly futile efforts to universalise his private agonies and express them musically  Despite his admiration for the early works, Puffett consigned Tippett "to the ranks of those noble but tragic composers who have lived beyond their time"  The  critic Norman Lebrecht, writing in 2005, dismissed almost all Tippett's output, labelling him "a composer to forget"  With the forthcoming centenary celebrations in mind, Lebrecht wrote: "I cannot begin to assess the damage to British music that will ensue from the coming year's purblind promotion of a composer who failed so insistently to observe the rules of his craft" Against these criticisms Kemp maintained that while the style had become less immediately accessible, Tippett's later works showed no loss of creative power   The critic Peter Wright, writing in 1999, challenged the "decline" theory with the view that the later compositions are "harder to come to terms with     because of the more challenging nature of their musical language", a theme he developed in a detailed study of the Fifth String Quartet After Tippett's death the more popular pieces from his first period continued to be played, but there was little public enthusiasm for the later works  After the relatively muted 2005 centenary celebrations, performances and recordings tailed off  In October 2012 Hewett wrote in the Daily Telegraph of a "calamitous fall" in Tippett's reputation since his death  Geraint Lewis acknowledges that "no consensus yet exists in respect of the works composed from the 1960s onwards", while forecasting that Tippett will in due course be recognised as one of the most original and powerful musical voices of twentieth-century Britain" Many of Tippett's articles and broadcast talks were issued in collections between 1959 and 1995  In 1991 he published an episodic autobiography, Those Twentieth Century Blues, notable for its frank discussions of personal issues and relationships  Collectively, Tippett's writings define his aesthetic standpoint, which Clarke summarises thus: "Tippett holds that art's role in post-Enlightenment culture is to offer a corrective to society's spiritually injurious domination by mass technology  Art, he suggests, can articulate areas of human experience, unapproachable through scientific rationality, by presenting 'images' of the inner world of the psyche "Although Tippett did not found a compositional school, composers who have acknowledged his influence include David Matthews and William Mathias  More generally, his musical and educational influence continues through the Michael Tippett Foundation  He is also commemorated in the Michael Tippett Centre, a concert venue within the Newton Park campus of Bath Spa University  In Lambeth, home of Morley College, is Heron Academy (previously named The Michael Tippett School), an educational facility for young people aged 11–19 with complex learning disabilities  Within the school's campus is the Tippett Music Centre, which offers music education for children of all ages and levels of ability 

Writings
Three collections of Tippett's articles and broadcast talks have been published:

Moving into Aquarius (1959)  London, Routledge and Kegan Paul  OCLC 3351563
Music of the Angels: essays and sketchbooks of Michael Tippett (1980)  London, Eulenburg Books  ISBN 0-903873-60-5
Tippett on Music (1995)  Oxford, Clarendon Press  ISBN 0-19-816541-2
Context 2: Passage 1:
YIVO
YIVO (Yiddish: ייִוואָ, [jiˈvɔ]) is an organization that preserves, studies, and teaches the cultural history of Jewish life throughout Eastern Europe, Germany, and Russia as well as orthography, lexicography, and other studies related to Yiddish  (The word yidisher means both "Yiddish" and "Jewish ")  Established in 1925 in Wilno in the Second Polish Republic (now Vilnius, Lithuania) as the Yidisher Visnshaftlekher Institut (Yiddish: ייִדישער װיסנשאַפֿטלעכער אינסטיטוט, pronounced [ˈjidiʃɛr ˈvisn ʃaftlɛχɛr instiˈtut], Yiddish Scientific Institute, its English name became Institute for Jewish Research after its relocation to New York City, but it is still known mainly by its Yiddish acronym  YIVO is now a partner of the Center for Jewish History  Formerly, they had linguists whose main occupation was deciding on grammar rules and new words, and during this time they were seen in the secular world to serve as the recognized language regulator of the Yiddish language  However, YIVO no longer serves this purpose  Nevertheless, the YIVO system is still commonly taught in universities and known as klal shprakh (spelled in Yiddish:כּלל־שפּראַך, meaning 'standard language') and sometimes "YIVO Yiddish" (spelled in Yiddish:ייִוואָ־ייִדיש) 

Activities
YIVO preserves manuscripts, rare books, and diaries, and other Yiddish sources   The YIVO Library in New York contains over 385,000 volumes dating from as early as the 16th century  Approximately 40,000 volumes are in Yiddish, making the YIVO Library the largest collection of Yiddish-language works in the world  The YIVO archives hold over 23,000,000 documents, photographs, recordings, posters, films, and other artifacts  Together, they comprise the world's largest collection of materials related to the history and culture of Central and East European Jewry and the American Jewish immigrant experience   The archives and library collections include works in twelve major languages, including English, French,  German, Hebrew, Russian, Polish, and Judaeo-Spanish YIVO also functions as a publisher of Yiddish-language books and of periodicals including YIVO Bleter (founded 1931), Yedies Fun YIVO (founded 1929), and Yidishe Shprakh (founded 1941)  It is also responsible for English-language publications such as the YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Studies (founded 1946) 

History
YIVO was initially proposed by Yiddish linguist and writer Nochum Shtif (1879–1933)  He characterized his advocacy of Yiddish as "realistic" Zionism, contrasted to the "visionary" Hebraists and the "self-hating" assimilationists who adopted Russian or Polish  Other key founders included philologist Max Weinreich (1894–1969) and historian Elias Tcherikower (1881–1943) YIVO was founded at a Berlin conference in 1925, but headquartered in Vilna, a city with a large Jewish population in the Second Polish Republic  The early YIVO also had branches in Berlin, Warsaw and New York City  Over the next decade, smaller groups arose in many of the other countries with Ashkenazi populations 
In YIVO's first decades, Tcherikover headed the historical research section, which also included Simon Dubnow, Saul M  Ginsburg, Abraham Menes, and Jacob Shatzky  Leibush Lehrer (1887–1964) headed a section including psychologists and educators Abraham Golomb, H  S  Kasdan, and Abraham Aaron Roback  Jacob Lestschinsky (1876–1966) headed a section of economists and demographers Ben-Adir, Liebmann Hersch, and Moshe Shalit  Weinreich's language and literature section included Judah Leib Cahan, Alexander Harkavy, Judah A  Joffe, Zelig Kalmanovich, Shmuel Niger, Noach Pryłucki, and Zalman Reisen  YIVO also collected and preserved ethnographic materials under the direction of its Ethnographic Committee   In 1925, YIVO's honorary board of trustees or "Curatorium" consisted of Simon Dubnow, Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Moses Gaster, Edward Sapir and Chaim Zhitlowsky 
From 1934 to 1940, YIVO operated a graduate training program known as the Aspirantur  Named after Zemach Shabad, YIVO's chairman, the program held classes and guided students in conducting original research in the field of Jewish studies  Many of the students' projects were sociological in nature (reflecting the involvement of Max Weinreich) and gathered information on contemporary Jewish life in the Vilna region The Nazi advance into Eastern Europe caused YIVO to move its operations to New York City  A second important center, known as the Fundacion IWO, was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina  All four directors of YIVO's research sections were already in the Americas when the war broke out or were able to make their way there  The organization's new headquarters were established in New York City  A portion of the Vilna archives was ransacked by the Nazis and sent to Frankfurt to become the basis of an anti-Semitic department of the Nazis' planned university  In 1946, the U S  Army recovered these documents and sent them to YIVO in New York The YIVO Library was looted by the Germans and the ERR, but an organization that called itself "The Paper Brigade" were able to smuggle out many books and preserve them from destruction  These materials were then saved from the Soviets by a Lithuanian librarian, Antanas Ulpis  These materials are now held in the Lithuanian Central State Archives and Martynas Mažvydas National Library of Lithuania  In 2014, with the cooperation of the government of the Republic of Lithuania, Brent established the landmark Edward Blank YIVO Vilna Online Collections project at The YIVO Institute to preserve and digitize over 1 5 million documents and approximately 12,200 books representing 500 years of Jewish history in Eastern Europe and Russia In addition to New York City and Buenos Aires, the Chicago YIVO Society is a third center active today 

Publications
YIVO has undertaken many major scholarly publication projects, the most recent being The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, published in March 2008 in cooperation with Yale University Press  Under the leadership of editor-in-chief Gershon David Hundert, professor of history and of Jewish Studies at McGill University in Montreal, this unprecedented reference work systematically represents the history and culture of Eastern European Jews from their first settlement in the region to the present day  More than 1,800 alphabetical entries encompass a vast range of topics including religion, folklore, politics, art, music, theater, language and literature, places, organizations, intellectual movements, and important figures  The two-volume set also features more than 1,000 illustrations and 55 maps  With original contributions from an international team of 450 distinguished scholars, the encyclopedia covers the region between Germany and the Ural Mountains, from which more than 2 5 million Jews emigrated to the United States between 1870 and 1920 

See also
Academy of the Hebrew Language, for Hebrew
Autoridad Nasionala del Ladino, for Ladino
Dina Abramowicz (long-time YIVO librarian)
Yiddish Book Center
League for Yiddish
Passage 2:
Israel Bartal
Israel Bartal (Hebrew: ישראל ברטל), is Avraham Harman Professor of Jewish History, member of Israel Academy of Sciences (2016), and the former Dean of the Faculty of Humanities at Hebrew University (2006–2010)  Since 2006 he is the chair of the Historical Society of Israel  He served as director of the Center for Research on the History and Culture of Polish Jewry, and the academic chairman of the Project of Jewish Studies in Russian at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem  Professor Bartal was the co-director of the Center for Jewish Studies and Civilization at Moscow State University  Bartal received his PhD from Hebrew University in 1981  He focuses his research on the history of the Jews in Palestine, the Jews of Eastern Europe, the Haskalah Movement, Jewish Orthodoxy  and modern Jewish historiography Professor Bartal taught at Harvard University, McGill University, University of Pennsylvania Rutgers University and Johns Hopkins, as well as at Moscow State University (MGU), the Central European University in Budapest (CEU), and Paideia in Stockholm   He was for many years a faculty member of the Open University of Israel and has contributed to the development of its teaching programs  Since November 1, 2010 he is a visiting scholar at the Simon-Dubnow-Institut, at Leipzig University  Bartal is one of the founders of Cathedra, the leading scholarly journal on the history of the Land of Israel, and had served as its co-editor for over twenty years  Since 1998 he is the editor of vestnik, a scholarly journal of Jewish studies in Russian  From 1995 to 2003 he chaired the Israeli history high-school curriculum committee 
Bartal has published many books and numerous articles on the history and culture of East European Jewry, Palestine in the pre-Zionist era, and Jewish nationalism 
Among his recent publications:

Poles and Jews: a Failed Brotherhood (with Magdalena Opalski, Hanover, University Press of New England, 1992);
Exile in the Land (published in Hebrew, Jerusalem, ha-Sifriya ha-Tsiyonit, 1994);
From Corporation to Nation: The Jews of Eastern Europe, 1772-1881 (Tel Aviv, Misrad ha-Bitahon Publishing House, 2002);
A Century  of Israeli Culture (editor, Jerusalem, The Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2002);
Kehal Yisrael vol  3 (editor, Jerusalem, Merkaz Shazar, 2004);
The Jews of Eastern Europe  1772-1881 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005, 2006, published also in Russian and German);
The Varieties of Haskalah (editor, with Shmuel Feiner, Jerusalem, the Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2005);
Cossack and Bedouin: Land and People in Jewish Nationalism, (Tel Aviv, Am Oved Publishers, 2007)
Tangled Roots, The Emergence of Israeli Culture, Brown Judaic Studies, (Providence RI, 2020);He is co-editor (with Antony Polonsky) of Polin, vol  12 (1999), which focuses on the Jews in Galicia, 1772–1914 

Edited books (in Hebrew)
(1975) יעקב צור, דיוקנה של התפוצה, הוצאת כתר, ירושלים
(1977) עם יהושע קניאל וזאב צחור), העלייה השנייה, א-ג, הוצאת יד יצחק בן צבי, ירושלים תשנ"ח)
(1987) משה בדורו, על משה מונטיפיורי ופעליו, אסופת מאמרים, משגב ירושלים - המכון לחקר מורשת יהדות ספרד והמזרח, תשמ"ז
(1993) עם חוה טורניאנסקי ועזרא מנדלסון), כמנהג אשכנז ופולין: ספר יובל לחנא שמרוק, קובץ מחקרים בתרבות יהודית, מרכז זלמן שזר, תשנ"ג)
(1994) עם רחל אליאור וחנא שמרוק) צדיקים ואנשי מעשה מחקרים בחסידות פולין, מוסד ביאליק, תשנ"ד)
(1994) עם יונתן פרנקל), בין פולין לרוסיה, מחקרים בתולדות יהודי מזרח אירופה, ספר זיכרון לשמואל אטינגר, מרכז שזר, ירושלים תשנ"ה)
(1998) עם ישעיהו גפני), ארוס, אירוסין ואיסורים, מיניות ומשפחה בהיסטוריה, הוצאת מרכז שזר, תשנ"ח)
(1999) עם יוסי בן ארצי ואלחנן ריינר, נוף מולדתו: מחקרים בגאוגרפיה של ארץ ישראל ובתולדותיה מוגשים ליהושע בן אריה, הוצאת ספרים ע"ש י"ל מאגנס, תש"ס
(1999) הקריאה לנביא, מחקרי היסטוריה וספרות, מאת חנא שמרוק, ירושלים: מרכז זלמן שזר, תש"ס
(2001) עם ישראל גוטמן), קיום ושבר, יהודי פולין לדורותיהם, מרכז זלמן שזר, תשנ"ז 1997-תשס"א)
(2002) עם דוד אסף), מווילנה לירושלים: מחקרים בתולדותיהם ובתרבותם של יהודי מזרח אירופה מוגשים לפרופסור שמואל ורסס, הוצאת ספרים ע"ש י"ל מאגנס, תשס"ב)
(2002) העגלה המלאה: מאה ועשרים שנות תרבות בישראל, הוצאת ספרים על שם י"ל מאגנס, תשס"ב
(2005) עם שמואל פיינר), ההשכלה לגווניה: עיונים חדשים בתולדות ההשכלה ובספרותה, הוצאת ספרים ע"ש י"ל מאגנס, בית הספרים הלאומי והאוניברסיטאי, ירושלים תשס"ה)
(2007) עם שמואל פיינר), היסטוריוגרפיה במבחן: עיון מחודש במשנתו של יעקב כ"ץ, מרכז שזר, תשס"ח)
(2010) עם חיים גורן), ספר ירושלים בשלהי התקופה העות'מאנית (1917-1800), הוצאת יד יצחק בן צבי, תש"ע)
(2010) עם אברהם גרינבוים ודן חרוב), ספרא וסייפא: שמעון דובנוב - היסטוריון ואיש ציבור, מרכז זלמן שזר, תשע"א)
יומן מסע ואגרות ארץ ישראל בשנות השלושים למאה הי"ט, יד יצחק בן-צבי, תשל"ד
עם שמואל אטינגר ומיכאל גרץ), ישן מול חדש: פעולותיהם של ארגונים יהודיים עולמיים בארץ-ישראל, במאה הי"ט ובימי המנדט, מרכז שזר, תש"ן)
Passage 3:
Gershon Galil
Gershon Galil is Professor of Biblical Studies and Ancient History and former chair of the Department of Jewish History at  the University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel 
Gershon Galil earned his doctorate from the Hebrew University in Jerusalem  His work, The Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Judah, suggests a new chronology for the kings of ancient Israel and ancient Judah   His thesis was published by Brill Academic Publishers in 1996 and his chronology contrasts with those presented by the more traditional William F  Albright or Edwin R  Thiele 
Galil's studies of  ancient Near Eastern culture and history include Israel and Assyria (Hebrew; Zmora-Bitan, 2001);  The Lower Stratum Families in the Neo-Assyrian Period (BRILL, 2007) and more  He also co-edited two volumes of the Supplement to Vetus Testamentum:
Studies in Historical Geography and Biblical Historiography presented to Zecharia Kallai (with M  Weinfeld, Brill, 2000); and Homeland and Exile: Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Honour of Bustenay Oded (with M  Geller and A  Millard, Brill, 2009) 

See also
Khirbet Qeiyafa
Passage 4:
Hikmet Tanyu
Hikmet Tanyu (1918 – 1992) was a Turkish scientist and college professor specializing in philosophy and the history of religions, with a particular focus on Jewish religious history  In the 1970s, he pursued studies in Israel  Tanyu authored a book titled Jews and Turks throughout History, which examines the history of Jews and the relations between Jewish and Turkish societies over time  This book is widely regarded as the first comprehensive study of Jewish history in Turkey 
During the 1940s, Tanyu was a dedicated nationalist in the Republic of Turkey  He faced trial in the Racism-Turanism trials  Following six months of imprisonment, he was acquitted and released  Due to the torture he endured during his time in prison, he filed a lawsuit against the Turkish authorities at the Council of State 
Passage 5:
Center for Jewish History
The Center for Jewish History is a partnership of five Jewish history, scholarship, and art organizations in New York City: American Jewish Historical Society, American Sephardi Federation, Leo Baeck Institute New York, Yeshiva University Museum, and YIVO Institute for Jewish Research  Together, housed in one location, the partners have separate governing bodies and finances, but collocate resources  The partners' collections make up the biggest repository of Jewish history in the United States  The Center for Jewish History also serves as a centralized place of scholarly research, events, exhibitions, and performances  Located within the center are the Lillian Goldman Reading Room, Ackman & Ziff Family Genealogy Institute and a Collection Management & Conservation Wing  The Center for Jewish History is also an affiliate of the Smithsonian Institution 

History
In 2000, the center was opened after six years of construction and planning with a goal of creating synergy among the five member organizations, each offering a different approach to Jewish history, scholarship and art  This was one of the first attempts at uniting differing views on Jewish culture and resulted in the largest repository documenting the Jewish experience outside of Israel leading some to refer to it as the Jewish Library of Congress In the late 1980s, Bruce Slovin, who was the chairman of YIVO, originated the concept of a unified center where the partners could share resources  The idea was triggered when he realized that the then home of YIVO, a mansion located at 86th and Fifth Avenue, was not able to meet the needs of its collections or visitors, resulting in an environment that was hazardous to the collection (it was not temperature-controlled) as well as made archival study difficult  The location on Museum Mile was not seen as an advantageous adjacency  Slovin saw YIVO and the partner organizations as being more academic-focused The Leo Baeck Institute was previously located at 129 East 73rd Street, and the American Jewish Historical Society, which had previously been a New York City-based institution prior to the early 1960s, was then located near Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts  The Yeshiva University Museum was located in the Washington Heights neighborhood uptown When it opened its doors to the public in October 2000, the center struggled with financial problems  In 2007, there were preliminary talks about a partnership with NYU's Skirball Department for Hebrew and Judaic Studies to the benefit of both organizations  In the end, the center and Skirball decided not to move forward  In 2010, the Center for Jewish History was able to raise $30 million to retire its construction debt  The amount was raised and donated by the chairman and founder of the center, Bruce Slovin; co-chairmen William Ackman and Joseph Steinberg; the Fairholme Foundation; and 19 other donors  These efforts meant that the center was debt-free  In 2012, the center received a top rating of four stars from the Charity Navigator non-profit evaluation service In 2013, the Lillian Goldman Charitable Trust awarded the center a $1 5 million grant to establish a reference services division 

Facilities
The center is located in Manhattan's Union Square neighborhood, and is a four-building 125,000 square feet (11,600 m2) campus built around a courtyard that has a central entrance on 16th Street  The center is made up of four previously existing buildings and two new buildings  The buildings are the former location of the American Foundation for the Blind/Helen Keller Institute  The cost of the complex was $4 4 million 

Collections
The partners' collections include more than 100 million documents, 500,000 books, thousands of art objects, textiles, ritual objects, music, films, and photographs  most of which had been poorly housed in the member institutions and were at risk of damage or destruction  The center is heavily involved with the preservation of records that define moments in Jewish immigration to New York City  A $670,000 grant awarded in 2007 helped with the cataloging of these materials 

Partner collection highlights
Original handwritten copy of Emma Lazarus' 1883 "The New Colossus" poem that was later inscribed on the base of the Statue of Liberty
Sandy Koufax's Brooklyn Dodgers jersey
Letter from Thomas Jefferson to New York's oldest Jewish congregation
First Hebrew prayer books printed in AmericaThe collections range from the early modern era in Europe and pre-colonial times in the Americas to present-day materials from across the globe  The center provides access to a comprehensive collection of historic archival materials, including Franz Kafka, Theodor Herzl, Moses Mendelssohn, Sigmund Freud and Albert Einstein  In addition to historical documents like the 1478 record of the trial of Simon of Trent, the center also includes holdings of artwork by Max Lieberman as well as Jewish ephemera like philosopher Moses Mendelssohn's eyeglasses 

Digital initiatives
In 2011, the Center for Jewish History began a 2-year project called, "Illuminating Hidden Collections at the Center for Jewish History," with a $229,600 grant from the Council on Library and Information Resources
In 2013, the Center for Jewish History donated 600 images to the Google Art Project, which is part of the Google Cultural Institute, an initiative that puts cultural material online  The center was one of four New York City-based institutions to donate at that time, joining eight others  The images are very high resolution and include rich metadata 
Passage 6:
Jeffrey S  Gurock
Jeffrey S  Gurock is Libby M  Klaperman Professor of Jewish History at Yeshiva University in New York City 

Biography
Gurock earned a bachelor's degree from the City College of New York and a master's degree from Columbia University  He served as associate editor to American Jewish History from 1982 to 2002 

Published works
He has written over a dozen books in the field of American Jewish history  His work focuses on the American Orthodox community and the variations in Orthodox practice and ritual over the course of American Jewish history  His books include Orthodox Jews in America (Indiana University Press, 2009), a comprehensive social and cultural history of this group and its relations to other Jews and mainstream American society, and Jews in Gotham (New York University Press, 2012), which chronicles New York Jewry from 1920 to 2010 

Awards and distinctions
For its 135th annual gala in 2015, the City College of New York honored Gurock as one of its distinguished alumni

Books
A Modern Heretic and a Traditional Community: Mordecai M  Kaplan, Orthodoxy, and American Judaism   Coauthor with Jacob J  Schacter, Columbia University Press (1997)

Further reading
Ruttman, Larry (2013)  "Jeffrey Gurock: Professor of Jewish History at Yeshiva University, Orthodox Jew, and Sportsman"  American Jews and America's Game: Voices of a Growing Legacy in Baseball  Lincoln, Nebraska and London, England: University of Nebraska Press  pp  429–437  ISBN 978-0-8032-6475-5 

Notes
External links
Jeffrey S  Gurock
Passage 7:
David N  Myers
David N  Myers (born November 2, 1960) is a professor of history at the University of California, Los Angeles, where he holds the Sady and Ludwig Kahn Chair in Jewish History  Myers was the president and CEO of the Center for Jewish History from July 2017 to August 2018   He serves as the President of the New Israel Fund Board 

Early life
A native of Scranton, Pennsylvania, Myers received his A B  cum laude from Yale University in 1982  He commenced graduate studies in Jewish history at Tel Aviv University (1982–84), where he studied with Anita Shapira, Yaakov Shavit, Matitiyahu Mintz, and Moshe Mishkinsky, before moving on to study medieval Jewish thought with Isadore Twersky at Harvard University (1984–85)  He then moved to Columbia University, where he worked under the supervision of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, whose work and thought left a profound impression on him and remain a source of ongoing scholarly interest  Myers received his Ph D  with distinction in 1991 

Academic career
Myers joined the faculty of the UCLA History Department in 1991 as a lecturer and 1992 as an assistant professor  He published his first book, Re-Inventing the Jewish Past: European Jewish Intellectuals and the Zionist Return to History, in 1995  Myers served for ten years as the director of the UCLA Center for Jewish Studies and, from 2010–15, as the Robert N  Burr Department Chair of the UCLA History Department  He also has served since 2003 as the co-editor, along with Elliott Horowitz and Natalie Dohrmann, of the Jewish Quarterly Review    He is an elected fellow of the American Academy for Jewish Research  He received the inaugural Sady and Ludwig Kahn Chair in Jewish History at UCLA in 2015 
In 2022, he completed a book with Nomi M  Stolzenberg on the Satmar Hasidic community of Kiryas Joel, New York  This book, American Shtetl, was awarded the National Jewish Book Award for American Jewish Studies in 2022 
Myers' early work focused on the intersection of the history of Jewish historiography and the history of Zionism in his dissertation and first book on the founding generation of the Institute for Jewish Studies of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem  His next book, Resisting History, continued his interest in intellectual history and modes of historical thought, but shifted focus to German Jewish thinkers in the late Wilhelmine and Weimar eras  Myers' next book, Between Jew and Arab, engaged the enigmatic Jewish thinker Simon Rawidowicz—and an intriguing essay on Palestinian refugees that he wrote for inclusion in his monumental book Bavel vi-Yerushalayim, but ultimately decided not to include  Myers then wrote a short synthesis on Jewish history as part of the Oxford University Press VSI series  His next book, The Stakes of History, was a reflection on the historian and historiographical practice that was initially delivered as the Franz Rosenzweig Lectures at Yale in 2014  Already in the early 2000s, Myers began to develop a scholarly interest in the history and politics of Haredi communities, especially Kiryas Joel, New York  For almost two decades, he worked together with his wife on a book on Kiryas Joel that was published in 2022 as American Shtetl  At present, Myers is working on a research project devoted to mid-twentieth-century population displacements through the lens of political and affective history 

Center For Jewish History
In 2017, Myers was appointed CEO of Center for Jewish History 
Following Myers' appointment, some in the Jewish community objected to his activism in organizations supportive of Israeli-Palestinian peace and co-existence, while simultaneously hundreds of Jewish historians responded by expressing their support for Myers  Those who demanded his resignation included Israeli Knesset Member Bezalel Smotrich, as well as the Zionist Organization of America and others  The right-wing Middle East Forum opined "Myers may present a moderate façade, but his academic & political affiliations expose his radical core "
 According to the Forward, "the campaign against Myers appears to have shaken the CJH," though Myers has stated that the protests were only a nuisance early in his tenure and were not the reason for his decision to leave the Center  “After the first two unpleasant months, I had a great time here,” Myers said 
Despite the attacks by groups associated with the Israeli right, Jewish studies scholars in the United States largely rallied behind Myers  In an op-ed defending Myers, Brandeis professors Jonathan Sarna and Rabbi David Ellenson wrote, "The writings of David Myers indisputably fall well within the scholarly mainstream of Jewish life and they are unquestionably supportive of Israel’s basic right to exist "Myers stepped down from this position in August 2018, returning to UCLA full time  “This is the result of months of deliberation spent on planes going back and forth and really asking myself, Where do I want to be in life?” he said 

New Israel Fund
He became President of the New Israel Fund board in October 2018 after serving as a board member  He also has served as an instructor for the Wexner Heritage Foundation, and writes frequently on matters of contemporary Jewish concern 

Published books
Authored
Re-Inventing the Jewish Past: European Jewish Intellectuals and the Zionist Return to History  New York: Oxford University Press, 1995 ISBN 978-0195098426
Resisting History: Historicism and its Discontents in German-Jewish Thought  Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003 ISBN 978-0691146607
Between Jew and Arab: The Lost Voice of Simon Rawidowicz  Hanover and London: Brandeis University Press, 2008 ISBN 978-1584657361
Jewish History: A Very Short Introduction   New York: Oxford University Press, 2016 ISBN 9780199730988
The Stakes of History: On the Use and Abuse of Jewish History for Life   New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018   ISBN 9780300228939
American Shtetl: The Making of Kiryas Joel, a Hasidic Village in Upstate New York   Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2022   ISBN 9780691199771

Edited
David N  Myers and William V  Rowe, eds  From Ghetto to Emancipation: Historical and Contemporary Reconsiderations of the Jewish Community, introduction by D  N  Myers  Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press, 1997 ISBN 9780940866720
David N  Myers and David B  Ruderman, eds  The Jewish Past Revisited: Reflections on Modern Jewish Historians, introduction by D  N  Myers  New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998 ISBN 9780300191530
Elisheva Carlebach, John M  Efron, and David N  Myers, eds  Jewish History and Jewish Memory: Essays in Honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi  Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1998 ISBN 978-0874518719
Richard Hovannisian and David N  Myers, eds  Enlightenment and Diaspora: The Armenian and Jewish Cases  Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999 ISBN 978-0788506048
Michael Brenner and David N  Myers, eds  Jüdische Geschichtsschreibung heute: Themen, Positionen, Kontroversen  Munich: Beck Verlag, 2002 ISBN 978-3406488788
David N



ground_truth: Michael Kemp Tippett

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Arnold Richards was the former chair of what organization that is a member of the Center for Jewish History?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  Myers et al  eds  Acculturation and its Discontents: The Italian Jewish Experience between Integration and Exclusion  Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008 ISBN 9780802098511
David N  Myers and Alexander Kaye, eds  The Faith of Fallen Jews: Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi and the Writing of Jewish History  Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2013 ISBN 978-1611684872
Michael A  Meyer and David N  Myers, eds  Between Jewish Tradition and Modernity: Essays in Honor of David Ellenson   Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2014 ISBN 9780814338599
David N  Myers, eds  The Eternal Dissident: Rabbi Leonard I  Beerman and the Radical Imperative to Think and Act  Oakland, CA, 2018   ISBN 978-0520297456
David N  Myers and Benjamin C I  Ravid, eds  Simon Rawidowicz: Between Babylon and Jerusalem: Select Writings  Goettingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co KG, 2022   ISBN 9783525311257
Passage 8:
Moses Rischin
Moses Rischin (1925-2020) was an American historian, author, lecturer, editor, and emeritus professor of history at San Francisco State University  He coined the phrase new Mormon history in a 1969 article of the same name Rischin is considered an authority on American ethnic and immigration history and a pioneer in the field of American Jewish history  Historian Selma Berrol, however, has challenged the minimal treatment Rischin has given to the tensions between earlier German Jews and later Russian Jews in America 

Biography
Rischin was born and raised in Brooklyn, New York City  His undergraduate studies were at Brooklyn College  Harvard University awarded him a Ph D  in 1957 Ruschin became a professor at San Francisco State University in 1964  In addition to his professorship, he sat on the board for the Journal of American Ethnic History and on the council of the American Jewish History Society  During the Monica Lewinsky scandal, Rischin was a signatory of "Historians in Defense of the Constitution" wherein 400 historians criticized efforts to impeach President Bill Clinton He was the longtime director of the Western Jewish History Center, at the Judah L  Magnes Museum, from its founding in 1967; from 2005 until approximately 2010, an annual lecture was given there in his name A collection of historical essays was published in Rischin's honor in 1996 A character in the 1967 novel Meyer Meyer by Helen Hudson may have been partly modeled after him 

Books
The Promised City: New York's Jews, 1870-1914 (Harvard University Press) ISBN 978-0674715011
Jews of the American West, with John Livingston (Wayne State University Press) ISBN 0-8143-2171-2

Articles and essays
"The New Mormon History", The American West 6, March 1969, 49 
"The Jewish Experience in America: A View from the West"
Foreword to California Jews (2003) Brandeis University Press

Awards
1963: National Jewish Book Award in The Promised City: New York's Jews, 1870-1914

See also
"I'll take Manhattan: reflections on Jewish studies" by Deborah Dash Moore
Passage 9:
Carole B  Balin
Carole Beth Balin (born 1964) is a Reform rabbi and professor of Jewish history at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion in New York City  Her research interests include Eastern European and American Jewish history, the history of Reform Judaism, and gender studies  She received laudatory reviews for her 2003 book To Reveal Our Hearts: Jewish Women Writers in Tsarist Russia, and has co-edited two other books  She is a co-curator of "Bat Mitzvah Comes of Age", a traveling exhibition sponsored by the Smithsonian-affiliated National Museum of American Jewish History and the Moving Traditions Jewish non-profit 

Early life and education
Carole Beth Balin grew up in Andover, Massachusetts, the daughter of Theodore G  Balin, a defense engineer, and Marcia Balin, a telemarketing sales trainer  She became bat mitzvah in 1977; her mother celebrated her own bat mitzvah in 1979 She earned her bachelor's degree in history at Wellesley College in 1986  Her senior honors thesis was "Unraveling an American-Jewish Synthesis: Rosa Sonneschein's The American Jewess, 1895–1899"  In 1989 she earned a master's degree in Hebrew letters at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, followed by rabbinic ordination in 1991 at the same institute  In 1994 she earned a Master of Philosophy degree at Columbia University, and in 1998 completed her PhD in history at Columbia  Her doctoral advisors were Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi and Michael Stanislawski 

Academic career
Balin was a visiting instructor at the Institute for Advanced Jewish Studies in Moscow in 1995  She joined the faculty of her alma mater, the Hebrew Union College, in 1997 as assistant professor of Jewish history, advancing to associate professor in 2004 and full professor in 2006  She was also a faculty member of the Wexner Heritage Foundation from 1999 to 2003 

Works
Balin's 2003 book To Reveal Our Hearts: Jewish Women Writers in Tsarist Russia was noted for its "pioneering" research by several reviewers, as she rediscovered the existence of 67 Jewish women writers (44 Russian-language, 17 Hebrew-language, and six Yiddish-language) in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through archival material in Russia, Israel, and North America  The book explores in-depth the lives of five of these writers Balin has written numerous book chapters and articles, including several biographies for the Jewish Women's Archive  She wrote the pieces "Betty Friedan’s 'Spiritual Daughters,' the ERA, and the CCAR" and "From Periphery to Center: A History of the Women's Rabbinic Network", which appear in the book The Sacred Calling: Four Decades of Women in the Rabbinate, published in 2016  She also blogs for The Huffington Post 

Other activities
In 1991 Balin became the spiritual leader of the Jewish Congregation of Kinnelon, New Jersey, which conducts joint worship services at St  David's, an Episcopal church  Her duties for the 300-member Reform congregation included officiating at religious services, planning seminars on religion, preparing youth for their bar mitzvah or bat mitzvah, and visiting hospitalized and homebound Jewish patients In 2008 she was one of the interviewees on the PBS documentary The Jewish People: A Story of Survival Balin is the co-curator, with Josh Perelman and Lori Perlow, of the traveling exhibition "Bat Mitzvah Comes of Age", which opened in April 2012 at the Jewish Community Center of Manhattan  The exhibition, a collaboration between the Smithsonian-affiliated National Museum of American Jewish History and the Moving Traditions Jewish non-profit, traces the history of bat mitzvahs in the United States through the stories of 150 American women, depicted in images and oral histories  It has since visited eight other locales She is a member of the board of Moving Traditions 

Personal life
Balin married Michael Eric Gertzman, a Harvard law student, in August 1988  From 1992 to 1996 Gertzman served as Assistant United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York  He is currently a partner at Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison in New York City  They have three children 

Bibliography
Books
'To Tread on New Ground': Selected Hebrew Writings of Hava Shapiro  Wayne State University Press  2014  ISBN 978-0814338704  (co-edited with Wendy I  Zierler)
Sisterhood: A Centennial History of Women of Reform Judaism  Hebrew Union College Press  2013  ISBN 978-0878202546  (co-edited with Dana Herman and Jonathan D  Sarna)
To Reveal Our Hearts: Jewish Women Writers in Tsarist Russia  Hebrew Union College Press  2003  ISBN 978-0878204564 

Selected chapters
Balin, Carole B  (2012)  "Preface"   In Cosgrove, Elliot J ; Wolpe, David J  (eds )  Jewish Theology in Our Time: A New Generation Explores the Foundations and Future of Jewish Belief  Jewish Lights Publishing  ISBN 978-1580236300 
Balin, Carole B  (2011)  "Making Every Forkful Count: Reform Jews, Kashrut, and Mindful Eating, 1840–2010"   In Zamore, Mary L  (ed )  The Sacred Table: Creating a Jewish Food Ethic  CCAR Press  pp  50–59  ISBN 978-0881231861 
Balin, Carole B  (2008)  "Moving Through the Movements: American denominations and their Haggadot"   In Arnow, David (ed )  My People's Passover Haggadah: Traditional texts, modern commentaries  Vol  1  Jewish Lights Publishing  pp  79–84  ISBN 978-1580233545 
Balin, Carole B  (2008)  "'Good to the Last Drop': The proliferation of the Maxwell House Haggadah"   In Arnow, David (ed )  My People's Passover Haggadah: Traditional texts, modern commentaries  Vol  1  Jewish Lights Publishing  pp  85–90  ISBN 978-1580233545 

Selected articles
"Leaning In to the Presidency: Hillary, Sheryl and Me"  The Huffington Post  11 June 2014 
"The Uniongram and the Cookie"  Women of Reform Judaism  10 September 2013  Archived from the original on 1 May 2016  Retrieved 25 April 2016 
"Bat Mitzvah Comes of Age: 90 Years of Transforming Jewish Girls to Women"  The Huffington Post  12 March 2012 
Passage 10:
Arnold Richards
Arnold Richards (born August 1934) is a psychoanalyst and former editor of The American Psychoanalyst and Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association (JAPA)  Richards also is the Training and Supervising Analyst at the New York Psychoanalytic Institute  He is the founder and Editor-in-Chief of the International Psychoanalysis net magazine  Richards is a board member and former chair of YIVO 

Career
Richards became an editor for The American Psychoanalyst in 1989  He redesigned the format and content of the newsletter during his term as editor  From 1994 to 2003, Richards was an editor for the Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association (JAPA)  He is a faculty member of the American Institute of Psychoanalysis and the Metropolitan Institute of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy  Richards presented the 50th annual Leo Baeck Memorial lecture in 2006  In 2014, he participated in the Senior Sino-American Continual Training Project of Psychoanalysis 

Writing and research
He presented "A A  Brill: The Politics of Exclusion and the Politics of Pluralism" in November 1995  He presented "The Organizational Structure of the American Psychoanalytic Association: The Politics of Exclusion" at the 37th annual conference of the International Psychohistorical Association in June 2014 

Awards and recognition
Richards received the Mary S  Sigourney Award in 2000  He is a member of the American Psychoanalytic Association and received its Distinguished Contributor Award in 2004  In 2013, Richards received the Hans W  Loewald award 

Personal life
Richards' parents were Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe; his father was from Podolia and his mother was from Galicia  Richards grew up in Brooklyn, New York in a Yiddish and English speaking household Richards is married to Arlene Kramer Richards, a practicing psychoanalyst, and lives in an apartment in Manhattan and a condo in Palm Beach, Florida 

Bibliography
Psychoanalysis: The Science of Mental Conflict - Essays in Honor of Charles Brenner (1986) ISBN 9780881630541
Fantasy, Myth, and Reality: Essays in Honor of Jacob A  Arlow (1988) ISBN 9780823618873
The Spectrum of Psychoanalysis: Essays in Honor of Martin S  Bergmann (1994) ISBN 9780823645053
The Perverse Transference and Other Matters: Essays in Honor of R  Horacio Etchegoyen (1997) ISBN 9780765700711
Psychology of Women: Psychoanalytic Perspectives (2000) ISBN 9780823655885
The Jewish World of Sigmund Freud: Essays on Cultural Roots and the Problem of Religious Identity (2010) ISBN 9780786444243

Selected publications
2013 Letter to the Editor re Paper by James Anderson, Clio’s Psyche 19(4) 486-388  http://internationalpsychoanalysis net/2013/10/15/letter-to-the-editor-response-to-jim-anderson-by-arnold-richards/
2014 APM Paper in The Bulletin of the Association for Psychoanalytic Medicine   http://internationalpsychoanalysis net/2013/05/10/apm-paper-by-arnold-richards/
2013 Book Essay on The Second Century of Psychoanalysis: Evolving Perspectives on Therapeutic Action Arnold D  Richards Journal of the American Psychoanalytic  Association Volume 61(1): pp  157–165 
2013   Freud's Free Clinics: A Tale of Two Continents  The Psychoanalytic Review Vol  100, No  6, pp  819–838 
2014 A Dangerous Legacy: Judaism and the Psychoanalytic Movement by Hans Reijzer Reviewed Arnold D  Richards in (2014)  The Psychoanalytic Review Vol  101, No  6, pp  925–938 
2015 What is Jewish about Psychoanalysis? A review of Hans Reijzer’s A Dangerous Legacy: Judaism and the Psychoanalytic Movement  Clio’s Psyche  In Press
2014 Freud’s Jewish identity and Psychoanalysis as a Science  Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 62:987-1003 
2014) A Dangerous Legacy: Judaism and the Psychoanalytic Movement  By Hans Reijzer  London: Karnac Books, 2011, 236 pp  £9 99 (paperback)   Psychoanal  Rev , 101(6):931-938 
2015  Psychoanalysis in Crisis: The Danger of Ideology  Psychoanalytic Review 102(3):389-405 
2018  A Cultural Citizen of the World: Sigmund Freud's Knowledge and use of British and American Writings: By S  S  Prawer  Abingdon, UK / New York: Modern Humanities Research Association / Routledge, 2009  156 pp   Psychoanalytic Quarterly 87(2):383-387 
2018  Dreams and the Wish for Immortality  Canadian Journal Psychoanalysis 26(1):142-158 
2018  Some Thoughts on Self-Disclosure  Psychoanalytic Review 105(2):137-156 
2020 The Organizational Life of Psychoanalysis, by Kenneth Eisold  Routledge, New York, 2018, 262 pp   Psychodynamic Psychology, 48(2):201-211 
2020  The Organizational Structure of the American Psychoanalytic Association: The Politics of Exclusion  Psychoanalytic Review 107(3):211-227 



ground_truth: YIVO

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What are some other areas that share a common deer species with the forests of Mara and Mondrem?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: Passage 1:
Fallow deer
Dama is a genus of deer in the subfamily Cervinae, commonly referred to as fallow deer 

Name
The name fallow is derived from the deer's pale brown colour  The Latin word dāma or damma, used for roe deer, gazelles, and antelopes, lies at the root of the modern scientific name, as well as the German Damhirsch, French daim, Dutch damhert, and Italian daino  In Serbo-Croatian, the name for the fallow deer is jelen lopatar ("shovel deer"), due to the form of its antlers  The Modern Hebrew name of the fallow deer is yachmur (יחמור) 

Taxonomy and evolution
The genus includes two extant species:

Extant species
Some taxonomists classify the Persian fallow deer as a subspecies (D  d  mesopotamica), while others, such as the IUCN, treat it as a separate species (D  mesopotamica) 
Passage 2:
Moose
The moose (PL: moose; used in North America) or elk (PL: elk or elks; used in Eurasia) (Alces alces) is the only species in the genus Alces  It is the largest and heaviest extant species of deer  Most adult male moose have distinctive broad, palmate ("open-hand shaped") antlers; most other members of the deer family have antlers with a dendritic ("twig-like") configuration  Moose typically inhabit boreal forests and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests of the Northern Hemisphere in temperate to subarctic climates  Hunting and other human activities have caused a reduction in the size of the moose's range over time  It has been reintroduced to some of its former habitats  Currently, most moose occur in Canada, Alaska, New England (with Maine having the most of the lower 48 states), New York State, Fennoscandia, the Baltic states, Poland, Kazakhstan, and Russia 
Its diet consists of both terrestrial and aquatic vegetation  Predators of moose include wolves, bears, humans, wolverines (rarely), and orcas (while feeding underwater)  Unlike most other deer species, moose do not form herds and are solitary animals, aside from calves who remain with their mother until the cow begins estrus (typically at 18 months after birth of the calf), at which point the cow chases them away  Although generally slow-moving and sedentary, moose can become aggressive, and move quickly if angered or startled  Their mating season in the autumn features energetic fights between males competing for a female 

Etymology and naming
Alces alces is called a "moose" in North American English, but an "elk" in British English  The word "elk" in North American English refers to a completely different species of deer, Cervus canadensis, also called the wapiti  A mature male moose is called a bull, a mature female a cow, and an immature moose of either sex a calf 
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the etymology of the species is "of obscure history"  In Classical Antiquity, the animal was known as ἄλκη álkē in Greek and alces in Latin, words probably borrowed from a Germanic language or another language of northern Europe  By the 8th century, during the Early Middle Ages, the species was known as Old English: elch, elh, eolh, derived from the Proto-Germanic: *elho-, *elhon- and possibly connected with the Old Norse: elgr  Later, the species became known in Middle English as elk, elcke, or elke, appearing in the Latinized form alke, with the spelling alce borrowed directly from Latin: alces  Noting that elk "is not the normal phonetic representative" of the Old English elch, the Oxford English Dictionary derives elk from Middle High German: elch, itself from Old High German: elaho The word "elk" has cognates in other Indo-European languages, e g  elg in Danish/Norwegian; älg in Swedish; alnis in Latvian; eland in Dutch/Frisian; Elch in German; and łoś in Polish  In the continental European languages, these forms of the word "elk" always refer to Alces alces 
The youngest elk bones in Great Britain were found in Scotland and are roughly 3,900 years old  The elk was probably extinct on the island before 900 AD  The word "elk" remained in usage because of English-speakers' familiarity with the species in Continental Europe; however, without any living animals around to serve as a reference, the meaning became rather vague, and by the 17th century "elk" had a meaning similar to "large deer"  Dictionaries of the 18th century simply described "elk" as a deer that was "as large as a horse" Confusingly, the word "elk" is used in North America to refer to a different animal, Cervus canadensis, which is also called by the Algonquian indigenous name, "wapiti"  The British began colonizing America in the 17th century, and found two common species of deer for which they had no names  The wapiti appeared very similar to the red deer of Europe (which itself was then almost extinct in Southern Britain) although it was much larger and was not red; the two species are indeed closely related, though distinct behaviorally and genetically  The moose was a rather strange-looking deer to the colonists, and they often adopted local names for both  In the early days of American colonization, the wapiti was often called a gray moose and the moose was often called a black moose, but early accounts of the animals varied wildly, adding to the confusion The word "moose" had first entered English by 1606 and is borrowed from the Algonquian languages (compare the Narragansett moos and Eastern Abenaki mos; according to early sources, these were likely derived from moosu, meaning "he strips off"), and possibly involved forms from multiple languages mutually reinforcing one another  The Proto-Algonquian form was *mo·swa Early European explorers in North America, particularly in Virginia where there were no moose, called the wapiti "elk" because of its size and resemblance to familiar-looking deer like the red deer  The moose resembled the "German elk" (the moose of continental Europe), which was less familiar to the British colonists  For a long time neither species had an official name, but were called a variety of things  Eventually, in North America the wapiti became known as an elk while the moose retained its indigenous name  In 1736, Samuel Dale wrote to the Royal Society of Great Britain:

The common light-grey moose, called by the Indians, Wampoose, and the large or black-moose, which is the beast whose horns I herewith present  As to the grey moose, I take it to be no larger than what Mr  John Clayton, in his account of the Virginia Quadrupeds, calls the Elke     was in all respects like those of our red-deer or stags, only larger     The black moose is (by all that have hitherto writ of it) accounted a very large creature      The stag, buck, or male of this kind has a palmed horn, not like that of our common or fallow-deer, but the palm is much longer, and more like that of the German elke 

Description and anatomy
Antlers
Bull moose have antlers like other members of the deer family  The size and growth rate of antlers is determined by diet and age; symmetry reflects health  Size and symmetry in the number of antler points signals bull moose quality; cows may select mates based on antler size and symmetry  Bull moose use dominant displays of antlers to discourage competition and will spar or fight rivals The male's antlers grow as cylindrical beams projecting on each side of the head at right angles to the midline of the skull, and then fork  The lower prong of this fork may be either simple, or divided into two or three tines, with some flattening  Most moose have antlers that are broad and palmate (flat) with tines (points) along the outer edge  Within the ecologic range of the moose in Europe, those in northerly locales display the palmate pattern of antlers, while the antlers of European moose over the southerly portion of its range are typically of the cervina dendritic pattern and comparatively small, perhaps due to evolutionary pressures of hunting by humans, who prize the large palmate antlers  European moose with antlers intermediate between the palmate and the dendritic form are found in the middle of the north–south range  Moose with antlers have more acute hearing than those without antlers; a study of trophy antlers using a microphone found that the palmate antler acts as a parabolic reflector, amplifying sound at the moose's ear The antlers of mature Alaskan adult bull moose (5 to 12 years old) have a normal maximum spread greater than 200 centimeters (79 in)  By the age of 13, moose antlers decline in size and symmetry  The widest spread recorded was 210 centimeters (83 in) across  An Alaskan moose also holds the record for the heaviest weight at 36 kilograms (79 lb) Antler beam diameter, not the number of tines, indicates age  In North America, moose (A  a  americanus) antlers are usually larger than those of Eurasian moose and have two lobes on each side, like a butterfly  Eurasian moose antlers resemble a seashell, with a single lobe on each side  In the North Siberian moose (A  a  bedfordiae), the posterior division of the main fork divides into three tines, with no distinct flattening  In the common moose (A  a  alces) this branch usually expands into a broad palmation, with one large tine at the base and a number of smaller snags on the free border  There is, however, a Scandinavian breed of the common moose in which the antlers are simpler and recall those of the East Siberian animals  The palmation appears to be more marked in North American moose than in the typical Scandinavian moose 

After the mating season males drop their antlers to conserve energy for the winter  A new set of antlers will then regrow in the spring  Antlers take three to five months to fully develop, making them one of the fastest growing animal organs  Antler growth is "nourished by an extensive system of blood vessels in the skin covering, which contains numerous hair follicles that give it a 'velvet' texture " This requires intense grazing on a highly-nutritious diet  By September the velvet is removed by rubbing and thrashing which changes the colour of the antlers  Immature bulls may not shed their antlers for the winter, but retain them until the following spring  Birds, carnivores and rodents eat dropped antlers as they are full of protein and moose themselves will eat antler velvet for the nutrients If a bull moose is castrated, either by accidental or chemical means, he will shed his current set of antlers within two weeks and then immediately begin to grow a new set of misshapen and deformed antlers that he will wear the rest of his life without ever shedding again; similarly deformed antlers can result from a deficiency of testosterone caused by cryptorchidism or old age  These deformed antlers are composed of living bone which is still growing or able to grow, since testosterone is needed to stop antler growth; they may take one of two forms  "Cactus antlers" or velericorn antlers usually retain the approximate shape of a normal moose's antlers but have numerous pearl-shaped exostoses on their surface; being made of living bone, they are easily broken but can grow back  Perukes (US: ) are constantly growing, tumor-like antlers with a distinctive appearance similar to coral  Like roe deer, moose are more likely to develop perukes, rather than cactus antlers, than the more developed cervine deer, but unlike roe deer, moose do not suffer fatal decalcification of the skull as a result of peruke growth, but rather can support their continued growth until they become too large to be fully supplied with blood  The distinctive-looking perukes (often referred to as "devil's antlers") are the source of several myths and legends among many groups of Inuit as well as several other tribes of indigenous peoples of North America 
In extremely rare circumstances, a cow moose may grow antlers  This is usually attributed to a hormone imbalance 

Proboscis and olfaction
The moose proboscis is distinctive among the living cervids due to its large size; it also features nares that can be sealed shut when the moose is browsing aquatic vegetation  The moose proboscis likely evolved as an adaptation to aquatic browsing, with loss of the rhinarium, and development of a superior olfactory column separate from an inferior respiratory column  This separation contributes to the moose's keen sense of smell, which they employ to detect water sources, to find food under snow, and to detect mates or predators 

Hooves
As with all members of the order Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates), moose feet have two large keratinized hooves corresponding to the third and fourth toe, with two small posterolateral dewclaws (vestigial digits), corresponding to the second and fifth toe  The hoof of the fourth digit is broader than that of the third digit, while the inner hoof of the third digit is longer than that of the fourth digit  This foot configuration may favor striding on soft ground  The moose hoof splays under load, increasing surface area, which limits sinking of the moose foot into soft ground or snow, and which increases efficiency when swimming  The body weight per footprint surface area of the moose foot is intermediate between that of the pronghorn foot, (which have stiff feet lacking dewclaws—optimized for high-speed running) and the caribou foot (which are more rounded with large dewclaws, optimized for walking in deep snow)  The moose's body weight per surface area of footprint is about twice that of the caribou On firm ground, a bull moose leaves a visible impression of the dewclaws in its footprint, while a cow moose or calf does not leave a dewclaw impression  On soft ground or mud, bull, cow, and calf footprints may all show dewclaw impressions 

Skin and fur
Moose skin is typical of the deer family  Moose fur consists of four types of hair: eyelashes, vibrissae, guard hairs and wool hairs  Hair length and hair density varies according to season, age, and body region  The coat has two layers—a top layer of long guard hairs and a soft wooly undercoat  The guard hairs are hollow and filled with air for better insulation, which also helps them stay afloat when swimming 

Dewlap
Both male and female moose have a dewlap or bell, which is a fold of skin under the chin  Its exact function is unknown, but some morphologic analyses suggest a cooling (thermoregulatory) function  Other theories include a fitness signal in mating, as a visual and olfactory signal, or as a dominance signal by males, as are the antlers 

Tail
The tail is short (6 cm to 8 cm in length) and vestigial in appearance; unlike other ungulates the moose tail is too short to swish away insects 

Size
On average, an adult moose stands 1 4–2 1 m (4 ft 7 in – 6 ft 11 in) high at the shoulder, which is more than 30 centimetres (1 ft) higher than the next-largest deer on average, the wapiti  Males (or "bulls") normally weigh from 380 to 700 kg (838 to 1,543 lb) and females (or "cows") typically weigh 200 to 490 kg (441 to 1,080 lb), depending on racial or clinal as well as individual age or nutritional variations  The head-and-body length is 2 4–3 1 m (7 ft 10 in – 10 ft 2 in), with the vestigial tail adding only a further 5–12 cm (2–4+1⁄2 in)  The largest of all the races is the Alaskan subspecies (A  a  gigas), which can stand over 2 1 m (6 ft 11 in) at the shoulder, has a span across the antlers of 1 8 m (5 ft 11 in) and averages 634 5 kg (1,399 lb) in males and 478 kg (1,054 lb) in females  Typically, however, the antlers of a mature bull are between 1 2 and 1 5 m (3 ft 11 in and 4 ft 11 in)  The largest confirmed size for this species was a bull shot at the Yukon River in September 1897 that weighed 820 kg (1,808 lb) and measured 2 33 m (7 ft 8 in) high at the shoulder  There have been reported cases of even larger moose, including a bull killed in 2004 that weighed 1,043 kg (2,299 lb), and a bull that reportedly scaled 1,180 kg (2,601 lb), but none are authenticated and some may not be considered reliable   Among extant terrestrial animal species in North America, Europe, and Siberia, the moose is dwarfed only by two species of bison 

Ecology and biology
Diet
The moose is a browsing herbivore and is capable of consuming many types of plant or fruit  The average adult moose needs to consume 96 megajoules (23,000 kilocalories) per day to maintain its body weight  Much of a moose's energy is derived from terrestrial vegetation, mainly consisting of forbs and other non-grasses, and fresh shoots from trees such as willow and birch  As these terrestrial plants are rather low in sodium, as much as half of its diet usually consists of aquatic plants, including lilies and pondweed, which while lower in energy content, provide the moose with its sodium requirements  In winter, moose are often drawn to roadways, to lick salt that is used as a snow and ice melter  A typical moose, weighing 360 kg (794 lb), can eat up to 32 kg (71 lb) of food per day Moose lack upper front teeth, but have eight sharp incisors on the lower jaw  They also have a tough tongue, lips and gums, which aid in the eating of woody vegetation  Moose have six pairs of large, flat molars and, ahead of those, six pairs of premolars, to grind up their food  A moose's upper lip is very sensitive, to help distinguish between fresh shoots and harder twigs, and is prehensile, for grasping their food  In the summer, moose may use this prehensile lip for grabbing branches and pulling, stripping the entire branch of leaves in a single mouthful, or for pulling forbs, like dandelions, or aquatic plants up by the base, roots and all  A moose's diet often depends on its location, but they seem to prefer the new growths from deciduous trees with a high sugar content, such as white birch, trembling aspen and striped maple, among many others  To reach high branches, a moose may bend small saplings down, using its prehensile lip, mouth or body  For larger trees a moose may stand erect and walk upright on its hind legs, allowing it to reach branches up to 4 26 meters (14 ft 0 in) or higher above the ground Moose are excellent swimmers and are known to wade into water to eat aquatic plants  This trait serves a second purpose in cooling down the moose on summer days and ridding itself of black flies  Moose are thus attracted to marshes and river banks during warmer months as both provide suitable vegetation to eat and water to wet themselves in  Moose have been known to dive over 5 5 metres (18 ft) to reach plants on lake bottoms, and the complex snout may assist the moose in this type of feeding  Moose are the only deer that are capable of feeding underwater  As an adaptation for feeding on plants underwater, the nose is equipped with fatty pads and muscles that close the nostrils when exposed to water pressure, preventing water from entering the nose  Other species can pluck plants from the water too, but these need to raise their heads in order to swallow 

Moose are not grazing animals but browsers (concentrate selectors)  Like giraffes, moose carefully select foods with less fiber and more concentrations of nutrients  Thus, the moose's digestive system has evolved to accommodate this relatively low-fiber diet  Unlike most hooved, domesticated animals (ruminants), moose cannot digest hay, and feeding it to a moose can be fatal  The moose's varied and complex diet is typically expensive for humans to provide, and free-range moose require a lot of forested hectarage for sustainable survival, which is one of the main reasons moose have never been widely domesticated 

Natural predators
A full-grown moose has few enemies except Siberian tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) which regularly prey on adult moose, but a pack of gray wolves (Canis lupus) can still pose a threat, especially to females with calves  Brown bears (Ursus arctos) are also known to prey on moose of various sizes and are the only predator besides the wolf to attack moose both in Eurasia and North America  However, brown bears are more likely to take over a wolf kill or to take young moose than to hunt adult moose on their own  Black bears (Ursus americanus) and cougars (Puma concolor) can be significant predators of moose calves in May and June and can, in rare instances, prey on adults (mainly cows rather than the larger bulls)  Wolverines (Gulo gulo) are most likely to eat moose as carrion but have killed moose, including adults, when the large ungulates are weakened by harsh winter conditions  Orcas (Orcinus orca) are the moose's only confirmed marine predator as they have been known to prey on moose swimming between islands out of North America's Northwest Coast, however, there is at least one recorded instance of a moose preyed upon by a Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus) 
In some areas, moose are the primary source of food for wolves  Moose usually flee upon detecting wolves  Wolves usually follow moose at a distance of 100 to 400 meters (300 to 1,300 ft), occasionally at a distance of two to three kilometers (1 to 2 mi)  Attacks from wolves against young moose may last seconds, though sometimes they can be drawn out for days with adults  Sometimes, wolves will chase moose into shallow streams or onto frozen rivers, where their mobility is greatly impeded  Moose will sometimes stand their ground and defend themselves by charging at the wolves or lashing out at them with their powerful hooves  Wolves typically kill moose by tearing at their haunches and perineum, causing massive blood loss  Occasionally, a wolf may immobilize a moose by biting its sensitive nose, the pain of which can paralyze a moose  Wolf packs primarily target calves and elderly animals, but can and will take healthy, adult moose  Moose between the ages of two and eight are seldom killed by wolves  Though moose are usually hunted by packs, there are cases in which single wolves have successfully killed healthy, fully-grown moose Research into moose predation suggests that their response to perceived threats is learned rather than instinctual  In practical terms this means moose are more vulnerable in areas where wolf or bear populations were decimated in the past but are now rebounding  These same studies suggest, however, that moose learn quickly and adapt, fleeing an area if they hear or smell wolves, bears, or scavenger birds such as ravens Moose are also subject to various diseases and forms of parasitism  In northern Europe, the moose botfly is a parasite whose range seems to be spreading 

Parasites
Moose typically carry a heavy burden of parasites, both externally and internally  Parasitosis is an important cause of moose morbidity and mortality and also contributes to vulnerability to predators 

Ectoparasites
Ectoparasites of moose include the moose nose bot fly, and winter ticks 

Endoparasites
Endoparasites of moose include dog tapeworm, meningeal worm, lungworm, and roundworm 

Social structure and reproduction
Moose are mostly diurnal  They are generally solitary with the strongest bonds between mother and calf  Although moose rarely gather in groups, there may be several in close proximity during the mating season 
Rutting and mating occurs in September and October  During the rut, mature bulls will cease feeding completely for a period of approximately two weeks; this fasting behavior has been attributed to neurophysiological changes related to redeployment of olfaction for detection of moose urine and moose cows  The males are polygynous and will seek several females to breed with  During this time both sexes will call to each other  Males produce heavy grunting sounds that can be heard from up to 500 metres (1,600 ft) away, while females produce wail-like sounds  Males will fight for access to females  Initially, the males assess which of them is dominant and one bull may retreat, however, the interaction can escalate to a fight using their antlers 
Female moose have an eight-month gestation period, usually bearing one calf, or twins if food is plentiful, in May or June  Twinning can run as high as 30% to 40% with good nutrition Newborn moose have fur with a reddish hue in contrast to the brown appearance of an adult  The young will stay with the mother until just before the next young are born  The life span of an average moose is about 15–25 years  Moose populations are stable at 25 calves for every 100 cows at 1 year of age  With availability of adequate nutrition, mild weather, and low predation, moose have a huge potential for population expansion 

Aggression
Moose are not typically aggressive towards humans, but will be aggressive when provoked or frightened  Moose attack more people than bears and wolves combined, but usually with only minor consequences  In the Americas, moose injure more people than any other wild mammal; worldwide, only hippopotamuses injure more  When harassed or startled by people or in the presence of a dog, moose may charge  Also, as with bears or any wild animal, moose accustomed to being fed by people may act aggressively when denied food  During the fall mating season, bulls may be aggressive toward humans  Cows are protective of young calves and will attack humans who come close, especially if they come between mother and calf  Moose are not territorial, and do not view humans as food, and usually will not pursue humans who run away 
Moose are unpredictable  They are most likely to attack if annoyed or harassed, or if approached too closely  A moose that has been harassed may vent its anger on anyone in the vicinity, and they often do not make distinctions between their tormentors and innocent passers-by  Moose are very limber animals with highly flexible joints and sharp, pointed hooves, and are capable of kicking with both front and back legs  Unlike other large, hooved mammals, such as horses, moose can kick in all directions including sideways  Thus, there is no safe side from which to approach  Moose often give warning signs prior to attacking, displaying aggression by means of body language  Maintained eye contact is usually the first sign of aggression, while laid-back ears or a lowered head is a sign of agitation  When the hairs on the back of the moose's neck and shoulders (hackles) stand up, a charge is usually imminent  The Anchorage Visitor Centers warn tourists that "   a moose with its hackles raised is a thing to fear "Moose cows are more likely to emit protest moans when courted by small males  This attracts the attention of large males, promotes male-male competition and violence, reduces harassment of cows by small males, and increases mating opportunities with large males  This in turn means that the cow moose has at least a small degree of control over which bulls she mates with Moose often show aggression to other animals as well; especially predators  Bears are common predators of moose calves and, rarely, adults  Alaskan moose have been reported to successfully fend off attacks from both black and brown bears  Moose have been known to stomp attacking wolves, which makes them less preferred as prey to the wolves  Moose are fully capable of killing bears and wolves  In one rare event, a female moose killed two adult male wolves  A moose of either sex that is confronted by danger may let out a loud roar, more resembling that of a predator than a prey animal  European moose are often more aggressive than North American moose, such as the moose in Sweden, which often become very agitated at the sight of a predator  However, like all ungulates known to attack predators, the more aggressive individuals are always darker in color, with the darkest coloring usually in areas facing the opponent, thus serving as a natural warning to other animals 

Habitat, range, and distribution
Habitat
Moose require habitat with adequate edible plants (e g , pond grasses, young trees and shrubs), cover from predators, and protection from extremely hot or cold weather  Moose travel among different habitats with the seasons to address these requirements  Moose are cold-adapted mammals with thickened skin, dense, heat-retaining coat, and a low surface:volume ratio, which provides excellent cold tolerance but poor heat tolerance  Moose survive hot weather by accessing shade or cooling wind, or by immersion in cool water  In hot weather, moose are often found wading or swimming in lakes or ponds  When heat-stressed, moose may fail to adequately forage in summer and may not gain adequate body fat to survive the winter  Also, moose cows may not calve without adequate summer weight gain  Moose require access to both young forest for browsing and mature forest for shelter and cover  Forest disturbed by fire and logging promotes the growth of fodder for moose  Moose also require access to mineral licks, safe places for calving and aquatic feeding sites Moose avoid areas with little or no snow as this increases the risk of predation by wolves and avoid areas with deep snow, as this impairs mobility  Thus, moose select habitat on the basis of trade-offs between risk of predation, food availability, and snow depth  With reintroduction of bison into boreal forest, there was some concern that bison would compete with moose for winter habitat, and thereby worsen the population decline of moose  However, this does not appear to be a problem  Moose prefer sub-alpine shrublands in early winter, while bison prefer wet sedge valley meadowlands in early winter  In late winter, moose prefer river valleys with deciduous forest cover or alpine terrain above the tree line, while bison preferred wet sedge meadowlands or sunny southern grassy slopes 

North America
After expanding for most of the 20th century, the moose population of North America has been in steep decline since the 1990s  Populations expanded greatly with improved habitat and protection, but now the moose population is declining rapidly  This decline has been attributed to opening of roads and landscapes into the northern range of moose, allowing deer to become populous in areas where they were not previously common  This encroachment by deer on moose habitat brought moose into contact with previously unfamiliar pathogens, including brainworm and liver fluke, and these parasites are believed to have contributed to the population decline of moose In North America, the moose range includes almost all of Canada (excluding the arctic and Vancouver Island), most of Alaska, northern New England and upstate New York, the upper Rocky Mountains, northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, Michigan's Upper Peninsula, and Isle Royale in Lake Superior  This massive range, containing diverse habitats, contains four of the six North American subspecies  In the West, moose populations extend across Canada (British Columbia and Alberta)  Isolated groups have been verified as far south as the mountains of Utah and Colorado and as far west as the Lake Wenatchee area of the Washington Cascades  In the northwestern US, the range includes Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and smaller areas of Washington, and Oregon  Moose have extended their range southwards in the western Rocky Mountains, with initial sightings in Yellowstone National Park in 1868, and then to the northern slope of the Uinta Mountains in Utah in the first half of the twentieth century  This is the southernmost naturally established moose population in the United States  In 1978, a few breeding pairs were reintroduced in western Colorado, and the state's moose population is now more than 2,400 In northeastern North America, the Eastern moose's history is very well documented: moose meat was often a staple in the diet of  indigenous peoples for centuries   The common name "moose" was brought into English from the word used by those who lived in present day coastal Rhode Island  The indigenous 
people often used moose hides for leather and its meat as an ingredient in pemmican, a type of dried jerky used as a source of sustenance in winter or on long journeys The historical range of the subspecies extended from well into Quebec, the Maritimes, and Eastern Ontario south to include all of New England finally ending in the very northeastern tip of Pennsylvania in the west, cutting off somewhere near the mouth of the Hudson River in the south  The moose has been extinct in much of the eastern U S  for as long as 150 years, due to colonial era overhunting and destruction of its habitat: Dutch, French, and British colonial sources all attest to its presence in the mid 17th century from Maine south to areas within 160 kilometers (100 mi) of present-day Manhattan  However, by the 1870s, only a handful of moose existed in this entire region in very remote pockets of forest; less than 20% of suitable habitat remained Since the 1980s, however, moose populations have rebounded, thanks to regrowth of plentiful food sources, abandonment of farmland, better land management, clean-up of pollution, and natural dispersal from the Canadian Maritimes and Quebec  South of the Canada–US border, Maine has most of the population with a 2012 headcount of about 76,000 moose  Dispersals from Maine over the years have resulted in healthy, growing populations each in Vermont and New Hampshire, notably near bodies of water and as high up as 910 m (3,000 ft) above sea level in the mountains  In Massachusetts, moose had gone extinct by 1870, but re-colonized the state in the 1960s, with the population expanding from Vermont and New Hampshire; by 2010, the population was estimated at 850–950  Moose reestablished populations in eastern New York and Connecticut and appeared headed south towards the Catskill Mountains, a former habitat In the Midwest U S , moose are primarily limited to the upper Great Lakes region, but strays, primarily immature males, have been found as far south as eastern Iowa  For unknown reasons, the moose population is declining rapidly in the Midwest Moose were successfully introduced on Newfoundland in 1878 and 1904, where they are now the dominant ungulate, and somewhat less successfully on Anticosti Island in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence 

Decline in population
Since the 1990s, moose populations have declined dramatically in much of temperate North America, although they remain stable in Arctic and subarctic regions  The exact causes of specific die-offs are not determined, but most documented mortality events were due to wolf predation, bacterial infection due to injuries sustained from predators, and parasites from white-tailed deer to which moose have not developed a natural defense, such as liver flukes, brain worms and winter tick infestations  Predation of moose calves by brown bear is also significant  Landscape change from salvage logging of forest damage caused by the mountain pine beetle has resulted in greater foraging in logged areas by female moose, and this is the lead hypothesis as to why the moose population is declining in eastern North American forests, as this likely leads to increased predation  An alternate hypotheses among biologists for generalized, nonhunting declines in moose populations at the southern extent of their range is increasing heat stress brought on by the rapid seasonal temperature upswings as a result of human-induced climate change  Biologists studying moose populations typically use warm-season, heat-stress thresholds of between 14 and 24 °C (57 and 75 °F)  However, the minor average temperature increase of 0 83–1 11 °C (1 5–2 °F), over the last 100 years, has resulted in milder winters that induce favorable conditions for ticks, parasites and other invasive species to flourish within the southern range of moose habitat in North America  The moose population in New Hampshire fell from 7,500 in the early 2000s to a 2014 estimate of 4,000 and in Vermont the numbers were down to 2,200 from a high of 5,000 animals in 2005  Much of the decline has been attributed to the winter tick, which, between 2017 and 2019, accounted for 74% of all winter mortality and 91% of winter calf deaths in Vermont  Moose with heavy tick infections will rub their fur down to the skin raw trying to get the ticks off, making them look white when their outer coat rubs off  Locals call them ghost moose  Loss of the insulating winter coat through attempts to rid the moose of winter tick increases the risk of hypothermia in winter 

Europe and Asia
In Europe, moose are currently found in large numbers throughout Norway, Sweden, Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, with more modest numbers in the southern Czech Republic, Belarus, and northern Ukraine  They are also widespread through Russia on up through the borders with Finland south towards the border with Estonia, Belarus and Ukraine and stretching far away eastwards to the Yenisei River in Siberia  The European moose was native to most temperate areas with suitable habitat on the continent and even Scotland from the end of the last Ice Age, as Europe had a mix of temperate boreal and deciduous forest  Up through Classical times, the species was certainly thriving in both Gaul and Magna Germania, as it appears in military and hunting accounts of the age  However, as the Roman era faded into medieval times, the beast slowly disappeared: soon after the reign of Charlemagne, the moose disappeared from France, where its range extended from Normandy in the north to the Pyrenees in the south  Farther east, it survived in Alsace and the Netherlands until the 9th century as the marshlands in the latter were drained and the forests were cleared away for feudal lands in the former  It was gone from Switzerland by the year 1000, from the western Czech Republic by 1300, from Mecklenburg in Germany by c  1600, and from Hungary and the Caucasus since the 18th and 19th century, respectively 
By the early 20th century, the last strongholds of the European moose appeared to be in Fennoscandian areas and patchy tracts of Russia, with a few migrants found in what is now Estonia and Lithuania  The USSR and Poland managed to restore portions of the range within its borders (such as the 1951 reintroduction into Kampinos National Park and the later 1958 reintroduction in Belarus), but political complications limited the ability to reintroduce it to other portions of its range  Attempts in 1930 and again in 1967 in marshland north of Berlin were unsuccessful  At present in Poland, populations are recorded in the Biebrza river valley, Kampinos, and in Białowieża Forest  It has migrated into other parts of Eastern Europe and has been spotted in eastern and southern Germany  Unsuccessful thus far in recolonizing these areas via natural dispersal from source populations in Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Czech Republic, and Slovakia, it appears to be having more success migrating south into the Caucasus  It is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention In 2008, two moose were reintroduced into the Scottish Highlands in Alladale Wilderness Reserve  The moose disappeared as a breeding species from Denmark about 4,500 years ago (in the last century, a very small number have lived for periods in Zealand without establishing a population after swimming across the Øresund from Sweden), but in 2016-17 ten were introduced to Lille Vildmose from Sweden  In 2020, this population had increased to about 25 animals The East Asian moose populations confine themselves mostly to the territory of Russia, with much smaller populations in Mongolia and Northeastern China  Moose populations are relatively stable in Siberia and increasing on the Kamchatka Peninsula  In Mongolia and China, where poaching took a great toll on moose, forcing them to near extinction, they are protected, but enforcement of the policy is weak and demand for traditional medicines derived from deer parts is high  In 1978, the Regional Hunting Department transported 45 young moose to the center of Kamchatka  These moose were brought from Chukotka, home to the largest moose on the planet  Kamchatka now regularly is responsible for the largest trophy moose shot around the world each season  As it is a fertile environment for moose, with a milder climate, less snow, and an abundance of food, moose quickly bred and settled along the valley of the Kamchatka River and many surrounding regions  The population in the past 20 years has risen to over 2,900 animals 
The size of the moose varies  Following Bergmann's rule, population in the south (A  a  cameloides) usually grow smaller, while moose in the north and northeast (A  a  buturlini) can match the imposing sizes of the Alaskan moose (A  a  gigas) and are prized by trophy hunters 

New Zealand
In 1900, an attempt to introduce moose into the Hokitika area failed; then in 1910 ten moose (four bulls and six cows) were introduced into Fiordland  This area is considered a less than suitable habitat, and subsequent low numbers of sightings and kills have led to some presumption of this population's failure  The last proven sighting of a moose in New Zealand was in 1952  However, a moose antler was found in 1972, and DNA tests showed that hair collected in 2002 was from a moose  There has been extensive searching, and while automated cameras failed to capture photographs, evidence was seen of bedding spots, browsing, and antler marks 

Evolutionary history
Moose are members of the subfamily Capreolinae  Members of the moose lineage extend back into the Pliocene-Early Pleistocene  Some scientists, group the moose and all its extinct relatives into one genus, Alces, while others, such as Augusto Azzaroli, restrict Alces to the living species, placing the fossil species into the genera Cervalces (stag moose) and Libralces The earliest known species in the moose lineage is Libralces gallicus, which lived in the Pliocene-Early Pleistocene  Libralces gallicus came from the warm savannas of Pliocene Europe, with the best-preserved skeletons being found in southern France  L  gallicus was 1 25 times larger than the Alaskan moose in linear dimensions, making it nearly twice as massive  L  gallicus had many striking differences from its modern descendants  It had a longer, narrower snout and a less-developed nasal cavity, more resembling that of a modern deer, lacking any sign of the modern moose-snout  Its face resembled that of the modern wapiti  However, the rest of its skull structure, skeletal structure and teeth bore strong resemblance to those features that are unmistakable in modern moose, indicating a similar diet  Its antlers consisted of a horizontal bar 2 5 m (8 ft 2 in) long, with no tines, ending in small palmations  Its skull and neck structure suggest an animal that fought using high-speed impacts, much like the Dall sheep, rather than locking and twisting antlers the way modern moose combat  Their long legs and bone structure suggest an animal that was adapted to running at high speeds over rough terrain Libralces gallicus was followed by Cervalces carnutorum during the first half of the Early Pleistocene  Cervalces carnutorum was soon followed by a much larger species called Cervalces latifrons (broad-fronted stag-moose), which first appeared during the late Early Pleistocene  Many fossils of Cervalces latifrons have been found across Eurasia  Like its descendants, it inhabited mostly northern latitudes, and was probably well-adapted to the cold  C  latifrons was the largest deer known to have ever existed, standing more than 2 1 m (6 ft 11 in) tall at the shoulders  This is bigger than even the Irish elk, which was 1 8 m (5 ft 11 in) tall at the shoulders  Its antlers were smaller than the Irish elk's, but comparable in size to those of L  gallicus  However, the antlers had a shorter horizontal bar and larger palmations, more resembling those of a modern moose  Probably sometime in the Middle Pleistocene, Cervalces latifrons migrated into North America, giving rise to the stag moose (Cervalces scotti)  The modern moose is thought to have evolved from Cervalces latifrons at around the end of the Middle Pleistocene to the beginning of the Late Pleistocene, probably somewhere in East Asia, with the earliest fossils of the species in Europe dating to the early Late Pleistocene  The modern moose only arrived in North America around 15,000 years ago, at the end of the Late Pleistocene 

Populations
North America:

In Canada: There are an estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 moose, with 150,000 in Newfoundland in 2007 descended from just four that were introduced in the 1900s 
In United States: There are estimated to be around 300,000:
Alaska: The state's Department of Fish and Game estimated 200,000 in 2011 
Northeast: A wildlife ecologist estimated 50,000 in New York and New England in 2007, with expansion expected 
Rocky Mountain states: Wyoming is said to have the largest share in its six-state region, and its Fish and Game Commission estimated 7,692 in 2009 
Upper Midwest: Michigan 2000 on Isle Royale (2019) and an estimated 433 (in its Upper Peninsula) in 2011, Wisconsin, 20–40 (close to its border with Michigan) in 2003, Minnesota 5600 in its northeast in 2010, and under 100 in its northwest in 2009; North Dakota closed, due to low moose population, one of its moose-hunting geographic units in 2011, and issued 162 single-kill licenses to hunters, each restricted to one of the remaining nine units Europe and Asia:

Finland: In 2009, there was a summer population of 115,000 
Norway: In 2009, there were a winter population of around 120,000  In 2015 31,131 moose were shot  In 1999, a record number of 39,422 moose were shot 
Latvia: in 2015, there were 21,000 
Estonia: 13,260
Lithuania: around 14,000 in 2016
Poland: 28,000
Czech Republic: maximum of 50
Russia: In 2007, there were approximately 600,000 
Sweden: Summer population is estimated to be 300,000–400,000  Around 100,000 are shot each fall  About 10,000 are killed in traffic accidents yearly 

Subspecies
Relationship with humans
History
European rock drawings and cave paintings reveal that moose have been hunted since the Stone Age  Excavations in Alby, Sweden, adjacent to the Stora Alvaret have yielded moose antlers in wooden hut remains from 6000 BCE, indicating some of the earliest moose hunting in northern Europe  In northern Scandinavia one can still find remains of trapping pits used for hunting moose  These pits, which can be up to 4 m × 7 m (13 ft 1 in × 23 ft 0 in) in area and 2 m (6 ft 7 in) deep, would have been camouflaged with branches and leaves  They would have had steep sides lined with planks, making it impossible for the moose to escape once it fell in  The pits are normally found in large groups, crossing the moose's regular paths and stretching over several km  Remains of wooden fences designed to guide the animals toward the pits have been found in bogs and peat  In Norway, an early example of these trapping devices has been dated to around 3700 BC  Trapping elk in pits is an extremely effective hunting method  As early as the 16th century the Norwegian government tried to restrict their use; nevertheless, the method was in use until the 19th century 
The earliest recorded description of the moose is in Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico, where it is described thus:

There are also [animals], which are called alces (moose)  The shape of these, and the varied color of their skins, is much like roes, but in size they surpass them a little and are destitute of horns, and have legs without joints and ligatures; nor do they lie down for the purpose of rest, nor, if they have been thrown down by any accident, can they raise or lift themselves up  Trees serve as beds to them; they lean themselves against them, and thus reclining only slightly, they take their rest; when the huntsmen have discovered from the footsteps of these animals whither they are accustomed to betake themselves, they either undermine all the trees at the roots, or cut into them so far that the upper part of the trees may appear to be left standing  When they have leant upon them, according to their habit, they knock down by their weight the unsupported trees, and fall down themselves along with them 
In book 8, chapter 16 of Pliny the Elder's Natural History from 77 CE, the elk and an animal called achlis, which is presumably the same animal, are described thus:

     there is, also, the moose, which strongly resembles our steers, except that it is distinguished by the length of the ears and of the neck  There is also the achlis, which is produced in the land of Scandinavia; it has never been seen in this city, although we have had descriptions of it from many persons; it is not unlike the moose, but has no joints in the hind leg  Hence, it never lies down, but reclines against a tree while it sleeps; it can only be taken by previously cutting into the tree, and thus laying a trap for it, as otherwise, it would escape through its swiftness  Its upper lip is so extremely large, for which reason it is obliged to go backwards when grazing; otherwise, by moving onwards, the lip would get doubled up 

As food
Moose are hunted as a game species in many of the countries where they are found  Moose meat tastes, wrote Henry David Thoreau in "The Maine Woods", "like tender beef, with perhaps more flavour; sometimes like veal"  While the flesh has protein levels similar to those of other comparable red meats (e g  beef, deer and wapiti), it has a low fat content, and the fat that is present consists of a higher proportion of polyunsaturated fats than saturated fats Dr  Valerius Geist, who emigrated to Canada from the Soviet Union, wrote in his 1999 book Moose: Behaviour, Ecology, Conservation:

In Sweden, no fall menu is without a mouthwatering moose dish  The Swedes fence their highways to reduce moose fatalities and design moose-proof cars  Sweden is less than half as large as the Canadian province of British Columbia, but the annual take of moose in Sweden—upward of 150,000—is twice that of the total moose harvest in North America 
Boosting moose populations in Alaska for hunting purposes is one of the reasons given for allowing aerial or airborne methods to remove wolves in designated areas, e g , Craig Medred: "A kill of 124 wolves would thus translate to [the survival of] 1488 moose or 2976 caribou or some combination thereof"  Some scientists believe that this artificial inflation of game populations is actually detrimental to both caribou and moose populations as well as the ecosystem as a whole  This is because studies have shown that when these game populations are artificially boosted, it leads to both habitat destruction and a crash in these populations 

Consumption of offal
Cadmium levels are high in Finnish moose liver and kidneys, with the result that consumption of these organs from moose more than one year old is prohibited in Finland  As a result of a study reported in 1988, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources recommended against the consumption of moose and deer kidneys and livers  Levels of cadmium were found to be considerably higher than in Scandinavia  The New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources advises hunters not to consume cervid offal Cadmium intake has been found to be elevated amongst all consumers of moose meat, though the meat was found to contribute only slightly to the daily cadmium intake  However the consumption of moose liver or kidneys significantly increased cadmium intake, with the study revealing that heavy consumers of moose organs have a relatively narrow safety margin below the levels which would probably cause adverse health effects 

Vehicle collisions
The center of mass of a moose is above the hood of most passenger cars  In a collision, the impact crushes the front roof beams and individuals in the front seats  Collisions of this type are frequently fatal; seat belts and airbags offer little protection  In collisions with higher vehicles (such as trucks), most of the deformation is to the front of the vehicle and the passenger compartment is largely spared  Moose collisions have prompted the development of a vehicle test referred to as the "moose test" (Swedish: Älgtest, German: Elchtest)  A Massachusetts study found that moose–vehicular collisions had a very high human fatality rate and that such collisions caused the death of 3% of the Massachusetts moose population annually Moose warning signs are used on roads in regions where there is a danger of collision with the animal  The triangular warning signs common in Sweden, Norway, and Finland have become coveted souvenirs among tourists traveling in these countries, causing road authorities so much expense that the moose signs have been replaced with imageless generic warning signs in some regions In Ontario, Canada, an estimated 265 moose die each year as a result of collision with trains  Moose–train collisions were more frequent in winters with above-average snowfall  In January 2008, the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten estimated that some 13,000 moose had died in collisions with Norwegian trains since 2000  The state agency in charge of railroad infrastructure (Jernbaneverket) plans to spend 80 million Norwegian kroner to reduce collision rate in the future by fencing the railways, clearing vegetation from near the tracks, and providing alternative snow-free feeding places for the animals elsewhere In the Canadian province of New Brunswick, collisions between automobiles and moose are frequent enough that all new highways have fences to prevent moose from accessing the road, as has long been done in Finland, Norway, and Sweden  A demonstration project, Highway 7 between Fredericton and Saint John, which has one of the highest frequencies of moose collisions in the province, did not have these fences until 2008, although it was and continues to be extremely well signed  Newfoundland and Labrador recommended that motorists use caution between dusk and dawn because that is when moose are most active and most difficult to see, increasing the risk of collisions  Local moose sightings are often reported on radio stations so that motorists can take care while driving in particular areas  An electronic "moose detection system" was installed on two sections of the Trans-Canada Highway in Newfoundland in 2011, but the system proved unreliable and was removed in 2015 In Sweden, a road will not be fenced unless it experiences at least one moose accident per km per year In eastern Germany, where the scarce population is slowly increasing, there were two road accidents involving moose since 2000 

Domestication
Domestication of moose was investigated in the Soviet Union before World War II  Early experiments were inconclusive, but with the creation of a moose farm at Pechora-Ilych Nature Reserve in 1949, a small-scale moose domestication program was started, involving attempts at selective breeding of animals on the basis of their behavioural characteristics  Since 1963, the program has continued at Kostroma Moose Farm, which had a herd of 33 tame moose as of 2003  Although at this stage the farm is not expected to be a profit-making enterprise, it obtains some income from the sale of moose milk and from visiting tourist groups  Its main value, however, is seen in the opportunities it offers for the research in the physiology and behavior of the moose, as well as in the insights it provides into the general principles of animal domestication 
In Sweden, there was a debate in the late 18th century about the national value of using the moose as a domestic animal  Among other things, the moose was proposed to be used in postal distribution, and there was a suggestion to develop a moose-mounted cavalry  Such proposals remained unimplemented, mainly because the extensive hunting for moose that was deregulated in the 1790s nearly drove it to extinction  While there have been documented cases of individual moose being used for riding and/or pulling carts and sleds, Björklöf concludes no wide-scale usage has occurred outside fairy tales 

Heraldry
As one of the Canadian national symbols, the moose occurs on several Canadian coats of arms, including Newfoundland and Labrador, and Ontario  Moose is also a common coat of arms in Europe as well; for example, in Finland, it appears on the coats of arms of Hirvensalmi and Mäntsälä municipalities  The Seal of Michigan features a moose 

See also
Älgen Stolta, a rare example of a domesticated moose
Passage 3:
White-bellied musk deer
The white-bellied musk deer or Himalayan musk deer (Moschus leucogaster) is a musk deer species occurring in the Himalayas of Nepal, Bhutan, India, Pakistan and China  It is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List because of overexploitation resulting in a probable serious population decline It was previously considered a subspecies of the Alpine musk deer, but was separated on the basis of different skull proportions 

Characteristics
White-bellied musk deer are very well adapted for high altitudes; they demonstrate such adaptations as well-developed dew claws, broad toes that provide increased stability on steep slopes, and a dense coat of coarse hairs with air-filled cells to insulate against the extreme temperature   While they lack antlers, a trait notable among all musk deer, they do possess a pair of enlarged and easily broken canines that grow continuously  The maximum length of these tusks is about 10 cm (4 in)  These deer have a stocky body type; their hind legs are also significantly longer and more muscular than their shorter, thinner forelimbs  In place of running or leaping, this species tends to "bound " Finally, fawns of this species have white spots to help with camouflage, but as they mature these spots disappear 
The white-bellied musk deer has a waxy substance called musk that the male secretes from a gland in the abdomen  The deer use this to mark territories and attract females, but the musk is also used in the manufacture of perfumes and medicines 

Distribution and habitat
Himalayan musk deer occurs in parts of northern Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and in northern India such as in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh  It inhabits high alpine environments above altitudes of 2,500 m (8,200 ft) 

Ecology and behaviour
During the day, white-bellied musk deer hide in dense cover and are shy and secretive  At night, they emerge to feed in more open habitats, and preferably select leaves of trees and shrubs with high protein and low fibre contents  During the winter, they subsist on poorer quality lichens, and even climb small trees to feed upon leaves that would otherwise be out of reach They are fairly sedentary occupying a small home range of up to 22 hectares  Males are fiercely territorial, only allowing females to enter their range  Territories are marked by carefully placed defecation sites and strong-smelling secretions, which are placed onto the surrounding plants 
Males fight each other over females during the mating season, and use their long canines to fight and defend their territories  The females hide from all the commotion  For the males to attract the females and bring them out from hiding, they use their strong smelling musk A female has one or two young at a time  The young musk deer live off their mother's milk until they are about six months old and able to eat regular foods available in the wild  At 16 to 24 months old, they become sexually mature Himalayan musk deer can live for up to 10 to 14 years Their predators include leopard, snow leopard, Eurasian lynx, red fox, gray wolf  Juveniles were also killed by yellow-throated marten and large raptors 

Threats
As the musk the deer produces is in demand for the manufacture of perfumes and medicines, it is highly valuable  Since the species is endangered and hard to find, its value on the wildlife trade market is increased still further  The hunting and trade of the white-bellied musk deer is the main threat to the species  Deer musk may sell for as much as $45,000/kg, making it one of the most valuable animal-derived products in the world  Hunters catch and kill the deer using snares  Only males produce the musk, so this creates a problem because females and young are caught in the traps and killed 

Conservation
The white-bellied musk deer is protected by law in Bhutan, Nepal, and India  In China, hunting may be permitted in some areas, although a license is required  It is listed as an endangered species in Pakistan and is also found in a number of protected areas throughout; however, the uneven enforcement of legislation across its range has meant little impact on preventing the rampant trade in the species  Improving the enforcement of antipoaching laws is a key priority for the conservation of this species 

Efforts being made
Captive farming for musk has been developed in China, and so far has shown that it is possible to extract musk from a deer without having to kill it  However, the captive deer succumb to disease and fighting and produce poorer quality musk  The killing of wild deer is thought to be the most cost-effective method of extracting musk  Open farming is a possible new way to extract the musk, whereby free-ranging or wild musk deer are caught and the musk then extracted, allowing the species to be conserved and survive 

See also
Kedarnath Wild Life Sanctuary
Askot Musk Deer Sanctuary
Passage 4:
Sri Lankan sambar deer
The Sri Lankan sambar or Indian sambar (Rusa unicolor unicolor), also known as ගෝනා (gōṇā) in Sinhala, is a subspecies of the sambar that lives in India and Sri Lanka  British explorers and planters referred to it, erroneously, as an elk, leading to place names such as Elk Plain 

Description
This subspecies is the largest sambar subspecies and representative of the Rusa genus, with the largest antlers both in size and in body proportions  Large males weight up to 270–280 kg 

Distribution and habitat
Sambar live in both lowland dry forests and mountain forests  Large herds of sambar roam the Horton Plains National Park, where it is the most common large mammal 
Passage 5:
Forests of Mara and Mondrem
The Forests of Mara and Mondrem were adjacent medieval forests in Cheshire, England, which in the 11th century extended to over 60 square miles (160 km2), stretching from the Mersey in the north almost to Nantwich in the south, and from the Gowy in the west to the Weaver in the east  Mara and Mondrem were a hunting forest of the Norman Earls of Chester, established soon after 1071 by the first earl, Hugh d'Avranches  They might earlier have been an Anglo-Saxon hunting forest  Game included wild boar, and red, fallow and roe deer 
After the earldom lapsed in 1237, the forest rights passed to the Crown, with the monarch's heir being given the title of Earl of Chester  Edward I and James I both hunted in the forests  Clearance for agricultural use began to be permitted after 1215, and by the mid-14th century, large areas of the Forest of Mondrem had been cleared  Deer hunting still continued within the remaining forest in the 17th century, and the forest was not formally disafforested, or removed from forest law, until 1812  The modern Delamere Forest is the remnant of the medieval forests, but little ancient woodland survives 

Extent
In the 11th century, the Forests of Mara and Mondrem stretched from the Mersey in the north to a few miles north of Nantwich in the south, and from the Gowy in the west to the Weaver in the east  The total extent was over 60 square miles (160 km2)  An undated document quoted by Ormerod lists 62 townships and villages within the two forests (although several of these places were exempt from forest law); as the document mentions Vale Royal Abbey, this must refer to some time between the abbey's foundation in 1277 and its dissolution in 1536 The precise boundary between the two adjacent forests is uncertain, but the Forest of Mara probably extended from the Mersey to the south of the area now known as Delamere Forest, while the Forest of Mondrem occupied the area between Delamere and Nantwich  The boundary might have coincided with a road known as "Peytevinisti" or "Peytefynsty", which also defined the limit of the grazing rights of Vale Royal Abbey; this is believed to have run from Weaverham in the north through Cuddington to Tarporley in the south 

History
Earls' hunting forest
The Forests of Mara and Mondrem together formed one of the three hunting forests of the Earls of Chester, the others being the Forests of Macclesfield and Wirral  It was created by Hugh d'Avranches, a keen huntsman, soon after he became Earl of Chester in 1071, although the area might have been an Anglo-Saxon hunting forest before the Norman Conquest  "Forest", in this context, means an area outside the common law and subject to forest law; it does not imply that the area was entirely wooded, and the land remained largely in private ownership  The forest boundary was marked with "irremovable marks, meres and boundaries", and the entire area also appears to have been enclosed  Game was hunted with dogs and included wild boar, and red, fallow and roe deer The original woodland was mixed, predominantly oak, but also including elm, lime, yew, chestnut, fir, larch, beech, ash, silver birch, hazel, willow and alder  The forest area also encompassed heath and wetland, as well as pasture, arable land and even small settlements  Agriculture was, however, allowed within the forest boundaries only under severe restrictions; assarting, or enclosing and clearing new land for agriculture, was completely prohibited until 1215–16 During the early Norman period, the penalties for killing game were blinding, mutilation or execution  These savage punishments were gradually replaced by huge fines, and in 1215, the Magna Carta reduced the maximum penalty for breaking forest law nationally to fines or imprisonment  Ranulf de Blondeville, the 6th Earl, issued a charter in 1215–16 which granted a more humane legal code for the Cheshire hunting forests This charter also, for the first time, conceded to the barons and their knights and freeholders the "right to assart their lands within the arable area of the forest and to grow crops on land formerly cultivated and free from wood without payment " Within the Forests of Mara and Mondrem, custom did not, however, follow the charter, a fine of 5 shillings per acre in Mondrem or 6 shillings 8 pence per acre in Mara being paid at the time of enclosure  Later, a licence was also required to assart forest land, which required the payment of a further fee and was very unpopular  Enclosure and assarting in Mara and Mondrem during this period is poorly documented, but is known to have occurred at Frodsham, Weaverham and Darnhall 

After the Earls
After the lapse of the Chester earldom in 1237, the forest rights passed to the Crown and the monarch's heir was given the title of Earl of Chester  Although Edward I hunted in the forest, the sport became less important, and the forests were used for timber production and as a source of revenue from taxes, fees and fines  In 1300, Edward I confirmed Ranulf de Blondeville's charter of 1215–16, but in the mid-14th century, Edward of Woodstock, the Black Prince, introduced various restrictive measures, which led to a large number of complaints recorded in the Black Prince's Register of 1351  Agricultural exploitation of the eastern edge of the forest was hampered by outbreaks of Black Death at Over, Little Budworth and Vale Royal Abbey in 1349, 1361 and 1369  The Old Pale and Eddisbury Hill were enclosed in the 14th century, to retain deer 

The northerly Forest of Mara remained wooded in the 14th century, and still retained a population of wild boar, lynx and wolves  By that date, however, large areas of the southerly Forest of Mondrem had been cleared  The remaining Mondrem woodland in the mid-14th century appears to have been concentrated in the north around Castle Northwich, Hartford and Winnington, and to a lesser extent in the south east around Aston juxta Mondrum, Calveley, Cholmondeston, Church Minshull, Poole and Wettenhall  Extensive assarting by Vale Royal Abbey made a major contribution to the loss of Mondrem woodland before the abbey's dissolution  The proximity to the medieval salt wiches of Nantwich and Middlewich, with their wood-fuelled salt pans, might also have been a factor 
Deer continued to be hunted in the 17th century; a large area at New Pale was enclosed at this time for the retention of deer  James I, on a royal visit to Cheshire in August 1617, hunted in the forest, describing it as "this delectable place"  From the early 18th century, however, the focus of hunting moved away from deer; Tarporley Hunt Club was founded in 1762, and the local gentry hunted hares and later foxes 

Disafforestation
The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw much of the surviving forest enclosed  A total of 7,755 acres (3,138 ha) in the south of the Forest of Mara, by then known as Delamere Forest, remained nominally a hunting forest until the early 19th century  In 1812, an Enclosure Act was passed disafforesting the remaining forest (that is, returning its legal status to ordinary land) and transferring ownership of the remnant half to the Crown and half to surrounding major landowners  Very little ancient woodland now survives, mainly concentrated on the banks of the Weaver and within steep cloughs running into that river, although there are also pockets of old, semi-natural woodland elsewhere, such as Cocked Hat Covert, near Little Budworth, and Dorfold Park, near Acton 

Administration
Each of the Cheshire hunting forests was administered by a master-forester on behalf of the Earl  For the Forests of Mara and Mondrem, this hereditary position was given by Ranulf le Meschin, the 3rd Earl, to Ranulf or Ralph de Kingsley in 1123, and it passed by marriage to the Launcelyn family and later to the Done family of Utkinton and Tarporley  Sixteen Dones held the position over nearly four centuries  In 1662, the master-forestership passed to the Crewe family and then to the Ardernes, who held it until the disafforestation in 1812  The position was symbolised by a black horn, which was given to the Kingsleys in the 12th century; now known as the "Delamere Horn", it is in the collection of the Grosvenor Museum  The master-foresters answered to the Chester justiciar, who was responsible for the administration of forest law across all three Cheshire forests The privileges claimed by the Mara and Mondrem master-forester were set out in detail by Richard Done in the 14th century  They included the right shoulder of all deer killed in hunting; windfallen and felled timber within the demesne wood; swarms of bees, sparrowhawks, merlins and hobbies found throughout the forest; and the right of pannage, or feeding pigs in the forest  He also claimed halfpence per head of cattle and goats found straying within the forest between Michaelmas and Martinmas, the payments made for the agistment of hogs between Martinmas and Christmas, as well as the pick of the property forfeited by poachers  The master-forester had a lodge, known as the "Chamber of the Forest", in which he occasionally stayed; it was built in Peckforton in 1351 and later moved to Eddisbury Hill A large staff supported the Mara and Mondrem master-forester, which is known in the mid-14th century to have included eight underforesters and two garçons who administered particular districts of the forest, assuming much of the role of the county sergeants within the forest bounds  Additionally, agisters collected monies charged for grazing, verderers attended the forest courts, and inspectors termed "regarders", huntsmen and kennelmen were also employed 

See also
History of Cheshire



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