prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What was the nationality and profession of the person responsible for the concept of a dimensionless number in physics and engineering?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Power factor
In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC power system is defined as the ratio of the real power absorbed by the load to the apparent power flowing in the circuit   Real power is the average of the instantaneous product of voltage and current and represents the capacity of the electricity for performing work  Apparent power is the product of RMS current and voltage  Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power may be greater than the real power, so more current flows in the circuit than would be required to transfer real power alone  A power factor magnitude of less than one indicates the voltage and current are not in phase, reducing the average product of the two  A negative power factor occurs when the device (which is normally the load) generates real power, which then flows back towards the source 
In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred  The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system and require larger wires and other equipment  Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power factor 
Power-factor correction increases the power factor of a load, improving efficiency for the distribution system to which it is attached  Linear loads with a low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network of capacitors or inductors  Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system  In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor  The devices for correction of the power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or built into power-consuming equipment 

General case
The general expression for power factor is given by

  
    
      
        
          
            power factor
          
        
        =
        P
        
          /
        
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{power factor}}=P/P_{a}}
  

  
    
      
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
        =
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle P_{a}=I_{rms}V_{rms}}
  where 
  
    
      
        P
      
    
    {\displaystyle P}
   is the real power measured by an ideal wattmeter, 
  
    
      
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{rms}}
   is the rms current measured by an ideal ammeter, and 
  
    
      
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle V_{rms}}
   is the rms voltage measured by an ideal voltmeter   Apparent power, 
  
    
      
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle P_{a}}
  , is the product of the rms current and the rms voltage 
If the load is sourcing power back toward the generator, then 
  
    
      
        P
      
    
    {\displaystyle P}
   and 
  
    
      
        
          
            power factor
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{power factor}}}
   will be negative 

Periodic waveforms
If the waveforms are periodic with the same period which is much shorter than the averaging time of the physical meters, then the power factor can be computed by the following

  
    
      
        
          
            power factor
          
        
        =
        P
        
          /
        
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{power factor}}=P/P_{a}}
  

  
    
      
        
          P
          
            a
          
        
        =
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle P_{a}=I_{rms}V_{rms}}
  

  
    
      
        P
        =
        
          
            1
            T
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            
              t
              ′
            
          
          
            
              t
              ′
            
            +
            T
          
        
        i
        (
        t
        )
        v
        (
        t
        )
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle P={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{t'}^{t'+T}i(t)v(t)dt}
  

  
    
      
        
          I
          
            r
            m
            s
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          
            1
            T
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            
              t
              ′
            
          
          
            
              t
              ′
            
            +
            T
          
        
        
          
            i
            (
            t
            )
          
          
            2
          
        
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{rms}^{2}={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{t'}^{t'+T}{i(t)}^{2}dt}
  

  
    
      
        
          V
          
            r
            m
            s
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          
            1
            T
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            
              t
              ′
            
          
          
            
              t
              ′
            
            +
            T
          
        
        
          
            v
            (
            t
            )
          
          
            2
          
        
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle V_{rms}^{2}={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{t'}^{t'+T}{v(t)}^{2}dt}
  where 
  
    
      
        i
        (
        t
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle i(t)}
   is the instantaneous current, 
  
    
      
        v
        (
        t
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle v(t)}
   is the instantaneous voltage, 
  
    
      
        
          t
          ′
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle t'}
   is an arbitrary starting time, and 
  
    
      
        T
      
    
    {\displaystyle T}
   is the period of the waveforms 

Nonperiodic waveforms
If the waveforms are not periodic and the physical meters have the same averaging time, then the equations for the periodic case can be used with the exception that 
  
    
      
        T
      
    
    {\displaystyle T}
   is the averaging time of the meters instead of the waveform period 

Linear time-invariant circuits
Linear time-invariant circuits (referred to simply as linear circuits for the rest of this article), for example, circuits consisting of combinations of resistors, inductors and capacitors have a sinusoidal response to the sinusoidal line voltage  A linear load does not change the shape of the input waveform but may change the relative timing (phase) between voltage and current, due to its inductance or capacitance 
In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in step (or in phase), changing polarity at the same instant in each cycle  All the power entering the load is consumed (or dissipated) 
Where reactive loads are present, such as with capacitors or inductors, energy storage in the loads results in a phase difference between the current and voltage waveforms  During each cycle of the AC voltage, extra energy, in addition to any energy consumed in the load, is temporarily stored in the load in electric or magnetic fields then returned to the power grid a fraction of the period later 
Electrical circuits containing predominantly resistive loads (incandescent lamps, heating elements) have a power factor of almost 1, but circuits containing inductive or capacitive loads (electric motors, solenoid valves, transformers, fluorescent lamp ballasts, and others) can have a power factor well below 1 
In the electric power grid, reactive loads cause a continuous ebb and flow of nonproductive power   A circuit with a low power factor will use a greater amount of current to transfer a given quantity of real power than a circuit with a high power factor thus causing increased losses due to resistive heating in power lines, and requiring the use of higher-rated conductors and transformers 

Definition and calculation
AC power has two components:

Real power or active power (
  
    
      
        P
      
    
    {\displaystyle P}
  ) (sometimes called average power), expressed in watts (W)
Reactive power (
  
    
      
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q}
  ), usually expressed in reactive volt-amperes (var)Together, they form the complex power (
  
    
      
        S
      
    
    {\displaystyle S}
  ) expressed as volt-amperes (VA)  The magnitude of the complex power is the apparent power (
  
    
      
        
          |
        
        S
        
          |
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle |S|}
  ), also expressed in volt-amperes (VA) 
The VA and var are non-SI units mathematically identical to the watt, but are used in engineering practice instead of the watt to state what quantity is being expressed  The SI explicitly disallows using units for this purpose or as the only source of information about a physical quantity as used The power factor is defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power  As power is transferred along a transmission line, it does not consist purely of real power that can do work once transferred to the load, but rather consists of a combination of real and reactive power, called apparent power  The power factor describes the amount of real power transmitted along a transmission line relative to the total apparent power flowing in the line The power factor can also be computed as the cosine of the angle θ by which the current waveform lags or leads the voltage waveform, 

Power triangle
One can relate the various components of AC power by using the power triangle in vector space  Real power extends horizontally in the real axis and reactive power extends in the direction of the imaginary axis  Complex power (and its magnitude, apparent power) represents a combination of both real and reactive power, and therefore can be calculated by using the vector sum of these two components  We can conclude that the mathematical relationship between these components is:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                S
              
              
                
                =
                P
                +
                j
                Q
              
            
            
              
                
                  |
                
                S
                
                  |
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      P
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                    +
                    
                      Q
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
                
                  pf
                
              
              
                
                =
                cos
                ⁡
                
                  θ
                
                =
                
                  
                    P
                    
                      
                        |
                      
                      S
                      
                        |
                      
                    
                  
                
                =
                cos
                ⁡
                
                  
                    (
                    
                      arctan
                      ⁡
                      
                        
                          (
                          
                            
                              Q
                              P
                            
                          
                          )
                        
                      
                    
                    )
                  
                
              
            
            
              
                Q
              
              
                
                =
                P
                
                tan
                ⁡
                (
                arccos
                ⁡
                (
                
                  pf
                
                )
                )
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}S&=P+jQ\\|S|&={\sqrt {P^{2}+Q^{2}}}\\{\text{pf}}&=\cos {\theta }={\frac {P}{|S|}}=\cos {\left(\arctan {\left({\frac {Q}{P}}\right)}\right)}\\Q&=P\,\tan(\arccos({\text{pf}}))\end{aligned}}}
  As the angle θ increases with fixed total apparent power, current and voltage are further out of phase with each other  Real power decreases, and reactive power increases 

Lagging, leading and unity power factors
Power factor is described as leading if the current waveform is advanced in phase with respect to voltage, or lagging when the current waveform is behind the voltage waveform  A lagging power factor signifies that the load is inductive, as the load will consume reactive power  The reactive component 
  
    
      
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q}
   is positive as reactive power travels through the circuit and is consumed by the inductive load  A leading power factor signifies that the load is capacitive, as the load supplies reactive power, and therefore the reactive component 
  
    
      
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q}
   is negative as reactive power is being supplied to the circuit 

If θ is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power factor is equal to the cosine of the angle, 
  
    
      
        cos
        ⁡
        θ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \cos \theta }
  :

  
    
      
        
          |
        
        P
        
          |
        
        =
        
          |
        
        S
        
          |
        
        cos
        ⁡
        θ
      
    
    {\displaystyle |P|=|S|\cos \theta }
  Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless number between -1 and 1  When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle  When the power factor is 1, referred to as unity power factor, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load  Power factors are usually stated as leading or lagging to show the sign of the phase angle  Capacitive loads are leading (current leads voltage), and inductive loads are lagging (current lags voltage) 
If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply, current and voltage will change polarity in step, the power factor will be 1, and the electrical energy flows in a single direction across the network in each cycle  Inductive loads such as induction motors (any type of wound coil) consume reactive power with the current waveform lagging the voltage  Capacitive loads such as capacitor banks or buried cables generate reactive power with the current phase leading the voltage  Both types of loads will absorb energy during part of the AC cycle, which is stored in the device's magnetic or electric field, only to return this energy back to the source during the rest of the cycle 
For example, to get 1 kW of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 1 = 1 kVA)  At low values of power factor, more apparent power needs to be transferred to get the same real power  To get 1 kW of real power at 0 2 power factor, 5 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 0 2 = 5 kVA)  This apparent power must be produced and transmitted to the load and is subject to losses in the production and transmission processes 
Electrical loads consuming alternating current power consume both real power and reactive power  The vector sum of real and reactive power is the complex power, and its magnitude is the apparent power  The presence of reactive power causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the electric load has a power factor of less than 1 
A negative power factor (0 to −1) can result from returning active power to the source, such as in the case of a building fitted with solar panels when surplus power is fed back into the supply 

Power factor correction of linear loads
A high power factor is generally desirable in a power delivery system to reduce losses and improve voltage regulation at the load  Compensating elements near an electrical load will reduce the apparent power demand on the supply system  Power factor correction may be applied by an electric power transmission utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the network  Individual electrical customers who are charged by their utility for low power factor may install correction equipment to increase their power factor so as to reduce costs 
Power factor correction brings the power factor of an AC power circuit closer to 1 by supplying or absorbing reactive power, adding capacitors or inductors that act to cancel the inductive or capacitive effects of the load, respectively  In the case of offsetting the inductive effect of motor loads, capacitors can be locally connected  These capacitors help to generate reactive power to meet the demand of the inductive loads  This will keep that reactive power from having to flow all the way from the utility generator to the load  In the electricity industry, inductors are said to consume reactive power and capacitors are said to supply it, even though reactive power is just energy moving back and forth on each AC cycle 
The reactive elements in power factor correction devices can create voltage fluctuations and harmonic noise when switched on or off  They will supply or sink reactive power regardless of whether there is a corresponding load operating nearby, increasing the system's no-load losses  In the worst case, reactive elements can interact with the system and with each other to create resonant conditions, resulting in system instability and severe overvoltage fluctuations  As such, reactive elements cannot simply be applied without engineering analysis 

An automatic power factor correction unit consists of a number of capacitors that are switched by means of contactors  These contactors are controlled by a regulator that measures power factor in an electrical network  Depending on the load and power factor of the network, the power factor controller will switch the necessary blocks of capacitors in steps to make sure the power factor stays above a selected value 
In place of a set of switched capacitors, an unloaded synchronous motor can supply reactive power  The reactive power drawn by the synchronous motor is a function of its field excitation  It is referred to as a synchronous condenser  It is started and connected to the electrical network  It operates at a leading power factor and puts vars onto the network as required to support a system's voltage or to maintain the system power factor at a specified level 
The synchronous condenser's installation and operation are identical to those of large electric motors  Its principal advantage is the ease with which the amount of correction can be adjusted; it behaves like a variable capacitor  Unlike with capacitors, the amount of reactive power supplied is proportional to voltage, not the square of voltage; this improves voltage stability on large networks   Synchronous condensers are often used in connection with high-voltage direct-current transmission projects or in large industrial plants such as steel mills 
For power factor correction of high-voltage power systems or large, fluctuating industrial loads, power electronic devices such as the static VAR compensator or STATCOM are increasingly used  These systems are able to compensate sudden changes of power factor much more rapidly than contactor-switched capacitor banks and, being solid-state, require less maintenance than synchronous condensers 

Non-linear loads
Examples of non-linear loads on a power system are rectifiers (such as used in a power supply), and arc discharge devices such as fluorescent lamps, electric welding machines, or arc furnaces  Because current in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the current contains frequency components that are multiples of the power system frequency  Distortion power factor is a measure of how much the harmonic distortion of a load current decreases the average power transferred to the load 

Non-sinusoidal components
In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power factor arises only from the difference in phase between the current and voltage  This is displacement power factor Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some other form  Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental frequency) AC current  This is of importance in practical power systems that contain non-linear loads such as rectifiers, some forms of electric lighting, electric arc furnaces, welding equipment, switched-mode power supplies, variable speed drives and other devices  Filters consisting of linear capacitors and inductors can prevent harmonic currents from entering the supplying system 
To measure the real power or reactive power, a wattmeter designed to work properly with non-sinusoidal currents must be used 

Distortion power factor
The distortion power factor is the distortion component associated with the harmonic voltages and currents present in the system 

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                
                  
                    distortion power factor
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      I
                      
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      I
                      
                        r
                        m
                        s
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      I
                      
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        I
                        
                          1
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      
                        I
                        
                          2
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      
                        I
                        
                          3
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      
                        I
                        
                          4
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                      +
                      ⋯
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    1
                    
                      1
                      +
                      
                        
                          
                            
                              I
                              
                                2
                              
                              
                                2
                              
                            
                            +
                            
                              I
                              
                                3
                              
                              
                                2
                              
                            
                            +
                            
                              I
                              
                                4
                              
                              
                                2
                              
                            
                            +
                            ⋯
                          
                          
                            I
                            
                              1
                            
                            
                              2
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    1
                    
                      1
                      +
                      T
                      H
                      
                        D
                        
                          i
                        
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\mbox{distortion power factor}}&={\frac {I_{1}}{I_{rms}}}\\&={\frac {I_{1}}{\sqrt {I_{1}^{2}+I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }}}\\&={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+{\frac {I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }{I_{1}^{2}}}}}}\\&={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+THD_{i}^{2}}}}\\\end{aligned}}}
  
  
    
      
        
          
            
              THD
            
          
          
            i
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{THD}}_{i}}
   is the total harmonic distortion of the load current  

  
    
      
        T
        H
        
          D
          
            i
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                
                  ∑
                  
                    h
                    =
                    2
                  
                  
                    ∞
                  
                
                
                  I
                  
                    h
                  
                  
                    2
                  
                
              
            
            
              I
              
                1
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                I
                
                  2
                
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              
                I
                
                  3
                
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              
                I
                
                  4
                
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              ⋯
            
            
              I
              
                1
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle THD_{i}={\frac {\sqrt {\displaystyle \sum _{h=2}^{\infty }I_{h}^{2}}}{I_{1}}}={\frac {\sqrt {I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }}{I_{1}}}}
  
  
    
      
        
          I
          
            1
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{1}}
   is the fundamental component of the current and 
  
    
      
        
          I
          
            
              rms
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{\mbox{rms}}}
   is the total current – both are root mean square-values (distortion power factor can also be used to describe individual order harmonics, using the corresponding current in place of total current)  This definition with respect to total harmonic distortion assumes that the voltage stays undistorted (sinusoidal, without harmonics)  This simplification is often a good approximation for stiff voltage sources (not being affected by changes in load downstream in the distribution network)  Total harmonic distortion of typical generators from current distortion in the network is on the order of 1–2%, which can have larger scale implications but can be ignored in common practice The result when multiplied with the displacement power factor (DPF) is the overall, true power factor or just power factor (PF):

  
    
      
        
          
            PF
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              cos
              ⁡
              
                φ
              
            
            
              1
              +
              T
              H
              
                D
                
                  i
                
                
                  2
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mbox{PF}}={\frac {\cos {\varphi }}{\sqrt {1+THD_{i}^{2}}}}}

Distortion in three-phase networks
In practice, the local effects of distortion current on devices in a three-phase distribution network rely on the magnitude of certain order harmonics rather than the total harmonic distortion 
For example, the triplen, or zero-sequence, harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc ) have the property of being in-phase when compared line-to-line  In a delta-wye transformer, these harmonics can result in circulating currents in the delta windings and result in greater resistive heating  In a wye-configuration of a transformer, triplen harmonics will not create these currents, but they will result in a non-zero current in the neutral wire  This could overload the neutral wire in some cases
and create error in kilowatt-hour metering systems and billing revenue   The presence of current harmonics in a transformer also result in larger eddy currents in the magnetic core of the transformer  Eddy current losses generally increase as the square of the frequency, lowering the transformer's efficiency, dissipating additional heat, and reducing its service life Negative-sequence harmonics (5th, 11th, 17th, etc ) combine 120 degrees out of phase, similarly to the fundamental harmonic but in a reversed sequence   In generators and motors, these currents produce magnetic fields which oppose the rotation of the shaft and sometimes result in damaging mechanical vibrations 

Switched-mode power supplies
A particularly important class of non-linear loads is the millions of personal computers that typically incorporate switched-mode power supplies (SMPS) with rated output power ranging from a few watts to more than 1 kW  Historically, these very-low-cost power supplies incorporated a simple full-wave rectifier that conducted only when the mains instantaneous voltage exceeded the voltage on the input capacitors   This leads to very high ratios of peak-to-average input current, which also lead to a low distortion power factor and potentially serious phase and neutral loading concerns 
A typical switched-mode power supply first converts the AC mains to a DC bus by means of a bridge rectifier  The output voltage is then derived from this DC bus  The problem with this is that the rectifier is a non-linear device, so the input current is highly non-linear  That means that the input current has energy at harmonics of the frequency of the voltage  This presents a problem for power companies, because they cannot compensate for the harmonic current by adding simple capacitors or inductors, as they could for the reactive power drawn by a linear load  Many jurisdictions are beginning to require power factor correction for all power supplies above a certain power level 
Regulatory agencies such as the EU have set harmonic limits as a method of improving power factor  Declining component cost has hastened implementation of two different methods  To comply with current EU standard EN61000-3-2, all switched-mode power supplies with output power more than 75 W must at least include passive power factor correction  80 Plus power supply certification requires a power factor of 0 9 or more 

Power factor correction (PFC) in non-linear loads
Passive PFC
The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter that passes current only at line frequency (50 or 60 Hz)  The filter consists of capacitors or inductors and makes a non-linear device look more like a linear load  An example of passive PFC is a valley-fill circuit 
A disadvantage of passive PFC is that it requires larger inductors or capacitors than an equivalent power active PFC circuit  Also, in practice, passive PFC is often less effective at improving the power factor 

Active PFC
Active PFC is the use of power electronics to change the waveform of current drawn by a load to improve the power factor   Some types of the active PFC are buck, boost, buck-boost and synchronous condenser   Active power factor correction can be single-stage or multi-stage 
In the case of a switched-mode power supply, a boost converter is inserted between the bridge rectifier and the main input capacitors  The boost converter attempts to maintain a constant voltage at its output while drawing a current that is always in phase with and at the same frequency as the line voltage  Another switched-mode converter inside the power supply produces the desired output voltage from the DC bus  This approach requires additional semiconductor switches and control electronics but permits cheaper and smaller passive components  It is frequently used in practice 
For a three-phase SMPS, the Vienna rectifier configuration may be used to substantially improve the power factor 
SMPSs with passive PFC can achieve power factor of about 0 7–0 75, SMPSs with active PFC, up to 0 99 power factor, while a SMPS without any power factor correction have a power factor of only about 0 55–0 65 Due to their very wide input voltage range, many power supplies with active PFC can automatically adjust to operate on AC power from about 100 V (Japan) to 240 V (Europe)  That feature is particularly welcome in power supplies for laptops 

Dynamic PFC
Dynamic power factor correction (DPFC), sometimes referred to as real-time power factor correction, is used for electrical stabilization in cases of rapid load changes (e g  at large manufacturing sites)  DPFC is useful when standard power factor correction would cause over or under correction   DPFC uses semiconductor switches, typically thyristors, to quickly connect and disconnect capacitors or inductors to improve power factor 

Importance in distribution systems
Power factors below 1 0 require a utility to generate more than the minimum volt-amperes necessary to supply the real power (watts)  This increases generation and transmission costs  For example, if the load power factor were as low as 0 7, the apparent power would be 1 4 times the real power used by the load  Line current in the circuit would also be 1 4 times the current required at 1 0 power factor, so the losses in the circuit would be doubled (since they are proportional to the square of the current)  Alternatively, all components of the system such as generators, conductors, transformers, and switchgear would be increased in size (and cost) to carry the extra current  When the power factor is close to unity, for the same kVA rating of the transformer more load current can be supplied Utilities typically charge additional costs to commercial customers who have a power factor below some limit, which is typically 0 9 to 0 95   Engineers are often interested in the power factor of a load as one of the factors that affect the efficiency of power transmission 
With the rising cost of energy and concerns over the efficient delivery of power, active PFC has become more common in consumer electronics  Current Energy Star guidelines for computers call for a power factor of ≥ 0 9 at 100% of rated output in the PC's power supply  According to a white paper authored by Intel and the U S  Environmental Protection Agency, PCs with internal power supplies will require the use of active power factor correction to meet the ENERGY STAR 5 0 Program Requirements for Computers In Europe, EN 61000-3-2 requires power factor correction be incorporated into consumer products 
Small customers, such as households, are not usually charged for reactive power and so power factor metering equipment for such customers will not be installed 

Measurement techniques
The power factor in a single-phase circuit (or balanced three-phase circuit) can be measured with the wattmeter-ammeter-voltmeter method, where the power in watts is divided by the product of measured voltage and current  The power factor of a balanced polyphase circuit is the same as that of any phase  The power factor of an unbalanced polyphase circuit is not uniquely defined 
A direct reading power factor meter can be made with a moving coil meter of the electrodynamic type, carrying two perpendicular coils on the moving part of the instrument  The field of the instrument is energized by the circuit current flow  The two moving coils, A and B, are connected in parallel with the circuit load   One coil, A, will be connected through a resistor and the second coil, B, through an inductor, so that the current in coil B is delayed with respect to current in A  At unity power factor, the current in A is in phase with the circuit current, and coil A provides maximum torque, driving the instrument pointer toward the 1 0 mark on the scale  At zero power factor, the current in coil B is in phase with circuit current, and coil B provides torque to drive the pointer towards 0  At intermediate values of power factor, the torques provided by the two coils add and the pointer takes up intermediate positions Another electromechanical instrument is the polarized-vane type  In this instrument a stationary field coil produces a rotating magnetic field, just like a polyphase motor  The field coils are connected either directly to polyphase voltage sources or to a phase-shifting reactor if a single-phase application   A second stationary field coil, perpendicular to the voltage coils, carries a current proportional to current in one phase of the circuit  The moving system of the instrument consists of two vanes that are magnetized by the current coil  In operation, the moving vanes take up a physical angle equivalent to the electrical angle between the voltage source and the current source  This type of instrument can be made to register for currents in both directions, giving a four-quadrant display of power factor or phase angle 
Digital instruments exist that directly measure the time lag between voltage and current waveforms  Low-cost instruments of this type measure the peak of the waveforms  More sophisticated versions measure the peak of the fundamental harmonic only, thus giving a more accurate reading for phase angle on distorted waveforms  Calculating power factor from voltage and current phases is only accurate if both waveforms are sinusoidal Power Quality Analyzers, often referred to as Power Analyzers, make a digital recording of the voltage and current waveform (typically either one phase or three phase) and accurately calculate true power (watts), apparent power (VA) power factor, AC voltage, AC current, DC voltage, DC current, frequency, IEC61000-3-2/3-12 Harmonic measurement, IEC61000-3-3/3-11 flicker measurement, individual phase voltages in delta applications where there is no neutral line, total harmonic distortion, phase and amplitude of individual voltage or current harmonics, etc 

Mnemonics
English-language power engineering students are advised to remember:
ELI the ICE man or ELI on ICE – the voltage E, leads the current I, in an inductor L  The current I leads the voltage E in a capacitor C 
Another common mnemonic is CIVIL – in a capacitor (C) the current (I) leads voltage (V), voltage (V) leads current (I) in an inductor (L) 
Passage 2:
Womersley number
The Womersley number (
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
   or 
  
    
      
        
          Wo
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\text{Wo}}}
  ) is a dimensionless number in biofluid mechanics and biofluid dynamics  It is a dimensionless expression of the pulsatile flow frequency in relation to viscous effects  It is named after John R  Womersley (1907–1958) for his work with blood flow in arteries  The Womersley number is important in keeping dynamic similarity when scaling an experiment  An example of this is scaling up the vascular system for experimental study  The Womersley number is also important in determining the thickness of the boundary layer to see if entrance effects can be ignored 
The square root of this number is also referred to as Stokes number, 
  
    
      
        
          Stk
        
        =
        
          
            Wo
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\text{Stk}}={\sqrt {\text{Wo}}}}
  , due to the pioneering work done by Sir George Stokes on the Stokes second problem 

Derivation
The Womersley number, usually denoted 
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
  , is defined by the relation

where 
  
    
      
        L
      
    
    {\displaystyle L}
   is an appropriate length scale (for example the radius of a pipe), 
  
    
      
        ω
      
    
    {\displaystyle \omega }
   is the angular frequency of the oscillations, and 
  
    
      
        ν
      
    
    {\displaystyle \nu }
  , 
  
    
      
        ρ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \rho }
  , 
  
    
      
        μ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mu }
   are the kinematic viscosity, density, and dynamic viscosity of the fluid, respectively  The Womersley number is normally written in the powerless form

In the cardiovascular system, the pulsation frequency, density, and dynamic viscosity are constant, however the Characteristic length, which in the case of blood flow is the vessel diameter, changes by three orders of magnitudes (OoM) between the aorta and fine capillaries  The Womersley number thus changes due to the variations in vessel size across the vasculature system  The Womersley number of human blood flow can be estimated as follows:

  
    
      
        α
        =
        L
        
          
            (
            
              
                
                  ω
                  ρ
                
                μ
              
            
            )
          
          
            
              1
              2
            
          
        
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha =L\left({\frac {\omega \rho }{\mu }}\right)^{\frac {1}{2}}\, }
  
Below is a list of estimated Womersley numbers in different human blood vessels:

It can also be written in terms of the dimensionless Reynolds number (Re) and Strouhal number (St):

The Womersley number arises in the solution of the linearized Navier–Stokes equations for oscillatory flow (presumed to be laminar and incompressible) in a tube   It expresses the ratio of the transient or oscillatory inertia force to the shear force  When 
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
   is small (1 or less), it means the frequency of pulsations is sufficiently low that a parabolic velocity profile has time to develop during each cycle, and the flow will be very nearly in phase with the pressure gradient, and will be given to a good approximation by Poiseuille's law, using the instantaneous pressure gradient   When 
  
    
      
        α
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha }
   is large (10 or more), it means the frequency of pulsations is sufficiently large that the velocity profile is relatively flat or plug-like, and the mean flow lags the pressure gradient by about 90 degrees  Along with the Reynolds number, the Womersley number governs dynamic similarity The boundary layer thickness 
  
    
      
        δ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta }
   that is associated with the transient acceleration is inversely related to the Womersley number  This can be seen by recognizing the Womersley number as the square root of the Stokes number 
where 
  
    
      
        L
      
    
    {\displaystyle L}
   is a characteristic length 

Biofluid mechanics
In a flow distribution network that progresses from a large tube to many small tubes (e g  a blood vessel network), the frequency, density, and dynamic viscosity are (usually) the same throughout the network, but the tube radii change  Therefore, the Womersley number is large in large vessels and small in small vessels  As the vessel diameter decreases with each division the Womersley number soon becomes quite small  The Womersley numbers tend to 1 at the level of the terminal arteries  In the arterioles, capillaries, and venules the Womersley numbers are less than one  In these regions the inertia force becomes less important and the flow is determined by the balance of viscous stresses and the pressure gradient  This is called microcirculation Some typical values for the Womersley number in the cardiovascular system for a canine at a heart rate of 2 Hz are:
Ascending aorta – 13 2
Descending aorta – 11 5
Abdominal aorta – 8
Femoral artery – 3 5
Carotid artery – 4 4
Arterioles – 0 04
Capillaries – 0 005
Venules – 0 035
Inferior vena cava – 8 8
Main pulmonary artery – 15It has been argued that universal biological scaling laws (power-law relationships that describe variation of quantities such as metabolic rate, lifespan, length, etc , with body mass) are a consequence of the need for energy minimization, the fractal nature of vascular networks, and the crossover from high to low Womersley number flow as one progresses from large to small vessels 
Passage 3:
Weissenberg number
The Weissenberg number (Wi) is a dimensionless number used in the study of viscoelastic flows  It is named after Karl Weissenberg  The dimensionless number compares the elastic forces to the viscous forces  It can be variously defined, but it is usually given by the relation of stress relaxation time of the fluid and a specific process time  For instance, in simple steady shear, the Weissenberg number, often abbreviated as Wi or We, is defined as the shear rate 
  
    
      
        
          
            
              γ
              ˙
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\dot {\gamma }}}
   times the relaxation time 
  
    
      
        λ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \lambda }
    Using the Maxwell model and the Oldroyd-B model, the elastic forces can be written as the first Normal force (N1) 

  
    
      
        
          Wi
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                elastic forces
              
              
                viscous forces
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                τ
                
                  x
                  x
                
              
              −
              
                τ
                
                  y
                  y
                
              
            
            
              τ
              
                x
                y
              
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              2
              λ
              μ
              
                
                  
                    
                      γ
                      ˙
                    
                  
                
                
                  2
                
              
            
            
              μ
              
                
                  
                    γ
                    ˙
                  
                
              
            
          
        
        =
        2
        
          
            
              γ
              ˙
            
          
        
        λ
         
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\text{Wi}}={\dfrac {\mbox{elastic forces}}{\mbox{viscous forces}}}={\frac {\tau _{xx}-\tau _{yy}}{\tau _{xy}}}={\frac {2\lambda \mu {\dot {\gamma }}^{2}}{\mu {\dot {\gamma }}}}=2{\dot {\gamma }}\lambda  \,}
  Since this number is obtained from scaling the evolution of the stress, it contains choices for the shear or elongation rate, and the length-scale  Therefore the exact definition of all non dimensional numbers should be given as well as the number itself 
While Wi is similar to the Deborah number and is often confused with it in technical literature, they have different physical interpretations  The Weissenberg number indicates the degree of anisotropy or orientation generated by the deformation, and is appropriate to describe flows with a constant stretch history, such as simple shear  In contrast, the Deborah number should be used to describe flows with a non-constant stretch history, and physically represents the rate at which elastic energy is stored or released 
Passage 4:
Ericksen number
In the study of liquid crystals, the Ericksen number (Er) is a dimensionless number used to describe the deformation of the director field under flow  It is defined as the ratio of the viscous to elastic forces  In the limit of low Ericksen number the elastic forces will exceed the viscous forces and so the director field will not be strongly affected by the flow field  The Ericksen number is named after American mathematics professor Jerald Ericksen of the University of Minnesota   The number is defined:

  
    
      
        
          
            E
            r
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              μ
              v
              L
            
            K
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mathit {Er}}={\frac {\mu vL}{K}}}
  where

  
    
      
        μ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mu }
   is the fluid's dynamic viscosity,

  
    
      
        v
      
    
    {\displaystyle v}
   is a characteristic scale for the fluid's velocity,

  
    
      
        L
      
    
    {\displaystyle L}
   is a characteristic scale length for the fluid flow,

  
    
      
        K
      
    
    {\displaystyle K}
   is an elasticity force, for example the elasticity modulus times an area 
Passage 5:
Qualified Person for Pharmacovigilance
In the European Union, the Qualified Person Responsible For Pharmacovigilance (QPPV) is an individual, usually an employee of a pharmaceutical company, who is personally responsible for the safety of the human pharmaceutical products marketed by that company in the EU  This function was established in 2004 by article 23 of regulation (EC) No 726/2004  The article establishes that the holder of a marketing authorization for a drug for human use must have a QPPV  When a company submits an application for permission to bring a medicinal product onto the market, the company submits a description of its system for monitoring the safety of the product in actual use (a pharmacovigilance system) and proof that the services of a QPPV are in place "The holder of an authorisation for a medicinal product for human use granted in accordance with the provisions of this Regulation shall have permanently and continuously at his disposal an appropriately qualified person responsible for pharmacovigilance "

Responsibilities
Per Article 23, the QPPV is responsible for:

Establishing and maintaining a pharmacovigilance system
Preparing pharmacovigilance reports as defined by regulations
Answering requests from Health Authorities
Providing Health Authorities with any other information relevant to product safetyThe Good Pharmacovigilance Practices (GVP) provide further guidance regarding these responsibilities of the QPPV (Module I, Section I C 1 3: Role of the qualified person responsible for pharmacovigilance in the EU  Per GVP, the QPPV is responsible for the establishment and maintenance of the marketing authorisation holder's pharmacovigilance system and therefore shall have sufficient authority to influence the performance of the quality system and the pharmacovigilance activities and to promote, maintain and improve compliance with the legal requirements  The QPPV is specifically responsible for:

Establishing and maintaining/managing the pharmaceutical company's pharmacovigilance system
Having an overview of the safety profiles and any emerging safety concerns for the company's drugs
Acting as a single contact point for the Health Authorities on a 24-hour basis

Criteria for QPPV role
The QPPV must reside in the EU, and should be permanently and continuously at the disposal of the MAH  Each company (i e  Applicant/Marketing Authorisation Holder or group of Marketing Authorisation Holders using a common pharmacovigilance system) should appoint one QPPV responsible for overall pharmacovigilance for all medicinal products for which the company holds marketing authorisations within the EU 
Detailed information on the role and responsibilities of the QPPV, and guidance for a Marketing Authorisation Holder on how to adequately support the QPPV are specified in Guideline on good pharmacovigilance practices (GVP; Module I – Pharmacovigilance systems and their quality systems) "   At a minimum the QPPV should be appropriately qualified, with documented experience in all aspects of pharmacovigilance in order to fulfil the responsibilities and tasks of the post  If the QPPV is not medically qualified, access to a medically qualified person should be available 
In addition, there are national regulations in some EU member states that also require a nominated individual in that country who has specific legal obligations as a QPPV at a national level 

See also
Pharmacovigilance
European Medicines Agency
Passage 6:
Joseph Fourier
Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier (; French: [fuʁje]; 21 March 1768 – 16 May 1830) was a French mathematician and physicist born in Auxerre and best known for initiating the investigation of Fourier series, which eventually developed into Fourier analysis and harmonic analysis, and their applications to problems of heat transfer and vibrations  The Fourier transform and Fourier's law of conduction are also named in his honour  Fourier is also generally credited with the discovery of the greenhouse effect 

Biography
Fourier was born in Auxerre (now in the Yonne département of France), the son of a tailor  He was orphaned at the age of nine  Fourier was recommended to the Bishop of Auxerre and, through this introduction, he was educated by the Benedictine Order of the Convent of St  Mark  The commissions in the scientific corps of the army were reserved for those of good birth, and being thus ineligible, he accepted a military lectureship on mathematics  He took a prominent part in his own district in promoting the French Revolution, serving on the local Revolutionary Committee  He was imprisoned briefly during the Terror but, in 1795, was appointed to the École Normale and subsequently succeeded Joseph-Louis Lagrange at the École Polytechnique 
Fourier accompanied Napoleon Bonaparte on his Egyptian expedition in 1798, as scientific adviser, and was appointed secretary of the Institut d'Égypte  Cut off from France by the British fleet, he organized the workshops on which the French army had to rely for their munitions of war  He also contributed several mathematical papers to the Egyptian Institute (also called the Cairo Institute) which Napoleon founded at Cairo, with a view of weakening British influence in the East  After the British victories and the capitulation of the French under General Menou in 1801, Fourier returned to France 

In 1801, Napoleon appointed Fourier Prefect (Governor) of the Department of Isère in Grenoble, where he oversaw road construction and other projects  However, Fourier had previously returned home from the Napoleon expedition to Egypt to resume his academic post as professor at École Polytechnique when Napoleon decided otherwise in his remark

    the Prefect of the Department of Isère having recently died, I would like to express my confidence in citizen Fourier by appointing him to this place 
Hence being faithful to Napoleon, he took the office of Prefect  It was while at Grenoble that he began to experiment on the propagation of heat  He presented his paper On the Propagation of Heat in Solid Bodies to the Paris Institute on 21 December 1807  He also contributed to the monumental Description de l'Égypte In 1822, Fourier succeeded Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre as Permanent Secretary of the French Academy of Sciences  In 1830, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 
Fourier never married In 1830, his diminished health began to take its toll:

Fourier had already experienced, in Egypt and Grenoble, some attacks of aneurysm of the heart  At Paris, it was impossible to be mistaken with respect to the primary cause of the frequent suffocations which he experienced  A fall, however, which he sustained on the 4th of May 1830, while descending a flight of stairs, aggravated the malady to an extent beyond what could have been ever feared 
Shortly after this event, he died in his bed on 16 May 1830 
Fourier was buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, a tomb decorated with an Egyptian motif to reflect his position as secretary of the Cairo Institute, and his collation of Description de l'Égypte  His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower 
A bronze statue was erected in Auxerre in 1849, but it was melted down for armaments during World War II  Joseph Fourier University in Grenoble was named after him 

The Analytic Theory of Heat
In 1822, Fourier published his work on heat flow in Théorie analytique de la chaleur (The Analytical Theory of Heat),  in which he based his reasoning on Newton's law of cooling, namely, that the flow of heat between two adjacent molecules is proportional to the extremely small difference of their temperatures  This book was translated, with editorial 'corrections', into English 56 years later by Freeman (1878)  The book was also edited, with many editorial corrections, by Darboux and republished in French in 1888 There were three important contributions in this work, one purely mathematical, two essentially physical  In mathematics, Fourier claimed that any function of a variable, whether continuous or discontinuous, can be expanded in a series of sines of multiples of the variable  Though this result is not correct without additional conditions, Fourier's observation that some discontinuous functions are the sum of infinite series was a breakthrough  The question of determining when a Fourier series converges has been fundamental for centuries  Joseph-Louis Lagrange had given particular cases of this (false) theorem, and had implied that the method was general, but he had not pursued the subject  Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet  was the first to give a satisfactory demonstration of it with some restrictive conditions  This work provides the foundation for what is today known as the Fourier transform 
One important physical contribution in the book was the concept of dimensional homogeneity in equations; i e  an equation can be formally correct only if the dimensions match on either side of the equality; Fourier made important contributions to dimensional analysis  The other physical contribution was Fourier's proposal of his partial differential equation for conductive diffusion of heat  This equation is now taught to every student of mathematical physics 

Real roots of polynomials
Fourier left an unfinished work on determining and locating real roots of polynomials, which was edited by Claude-Louis Navier and published in 1831  This work contains much original matter—in particular, Fourier's theorem on polynomial real roots, published in 1820  Fourier's theorem on real roots of polynomials states that a polynomial with real coefficients has a real root between any two consecutive zeros of its derivative  François Budan, in 1807 and 1811, had published independently his theorem (also known by the name of Fourier), which is very close to Fourier's theorem (each theorem is a corollary of the other)  Fourier's proof is the one that was usually given, during 19th century, in textbooks on the theory of equations  A complete solution of the problem was given in 1829 by Jacques Charles François Sturm 

Discovery of the greenhouse effect
In the 1820s, Fourier calculated that an object the size of the Earth, and at its distance from the Sun, should be considerably colder than the planet actually is if warmed by only  the effects of incoming solar radiation  He examined various possible sources of the additional observed heat in articles published in 1824 and 1827  However, in the end, because of the large 33-degree difference between his calculations and observations, Fourier mistakenly believed that there is a significant contribution of radiation from interstellar space  Still, Fourier's consideration of the possibility that the Earth's atmosphere might act as an insulator of some kind is widely recognized as the first proposal of what is now known as the greenhouse effect, although Fourier never called it that In his articles, Fourier referred to an experiment by de Saussure, who lined a vase with blackened cork  Into the cork, he inserted several panes of transparent glass, separated by intervals of air  Midday sunlight was allowed to enter at the top of the vase through the glass panes  The temperature became more elevated in the more interior compartments of this device  Fourier concluded that gases in the atmosphere could form a stable barrier like the glass panes  This conclusion may have contributed to the later use of the metaphor of the "greenhouse effect" to refer to the processes that determine atmospheric temperatures  Fourier noted that the actual mechanisms that determine the temperatures of the atmosphere included convection, which was not present in de Saussure's experimental device 

Works
See also
Fourier analysis
Fourier–Deligne transform
Heat equation
Least-squares spectral analysis
List of things named after Joseph Fourier
Passage 7:
Morton number
In fluid dynamics, the Morton number (Mo) is a dimensionless number used together with the Eötvös number or Bond number to characterize the shape of bubbles or drops moving in a surrounding fluid or continuous phase, c 
It is named after Rose Morton, who described it with W  L  Haberman in 1953 

Definition
The Morton number is defined as

  
    
      
        
          M
          o
        
        =
        
          
            
              g
              
                μ
                
                  c
                
                
                  4
                
              
              
              Δ
              ρ
            
            
              
                ρ
                
                  c
                
                
                  2
                
              
              
                σ
                
                  3
                
              
            
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Mo} ={\frac {g\mu _{c}^{4}\,\Delta \rho }{\rho _{c}^{2}\sigma ^{3}}},}
  where g is the acceleration of gravity, 
  
    
      
        
          μ
          
            c
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mu _{c}}
   is the viscosity of the surrounding fluid, 
  
    
      
        
          ρ
          
            c
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \rho _{c}}
   the density of the surrounding fluid, 
  
    
      
        Δ
        ρ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Delta \rho }
   the difference in density of the phases, and 
  
    
      
        σ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \sigma }
   is the surface tension coefficient   For the case of a bubble with a negligible inner density the Morton number can be simplified to 

  
    
      
        
          M
          o
        
        =
        
          
            
              g
              
                μ
                
                  c
                
                
                  4
                
              
            
            
              
                ρ
                
                  c
                
              
              
                σ
                
                  3
                
              
            
          
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Mo} ={\frac {g\mu _{c}^{4}}{\rho _{c}\sigma ^{3}}} }

Relation to other parameters
The Morton number can also be expressed by using a combination of the Weber number, Froude number and Reynolds number,

  
    
      
        
          M
          o
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                W
                e
              
              
                3
              
            
            
              
                
                  F
                  r
                
                
                  2
                
              
              
              
                
                  R
                  e
                
                
                  4
                
              
            
          
        
         
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Mo} ={\frac {\mathrm {We} ^{3}}{\mathrm {Fr} ^{2}\,\mathrm {Re} ^{4}}} }
  The Froude number in the above expression is defined as

  
    
      
        
          F
          
            r
            
              2
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              V
              
                2
              
            
            
              g
              d
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathrm {Fr^{2}} ={\frac {V^{2}}{gd}}}
  where V is a reference velocity and d is the equivalent diameter of the drop or bubble 
Passage 8:
Kapitza number
The Kapitza number (Ka) is a dimensionless number named after the prominent Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitsa (Peter Kapitza)  He provided the first extensive study of the ways in which a thin film of liquid flows down inclined surfaces  Expressed as the ratio of surface tension forces to inertial forces, the Kapitza number acts as an indicator of the hydrodynamic wave regime in falling liquid films  Liquid film behavior represents a subset of the more general class of free boundary problems  and is important in a wide range of engineering and technological applications such as evaporators, heat exchangers, absorbers, microreactors, small-scale electronics/microprocessor cooling schemes, air conditioning and gas turbine blade cooling 
After World War II Kapitza was removed from all his positions, including director of his Institute for Physical Problems, for refusing to work on nuclear weapons  He was at his country house and devised experiments to work on there, including his experiments on falling films of liquid Unlike most dimensionless numbers used in the study of fluid mechanics, the Kapitza number represents a material property, as it is formed by combining powers of the surface tension, density, gravitational acceleration and kinematic viscosity 

  
    
      
        K
        a
        =
        
          
            σ
            
              ρ
              (
              g
              sin
              ⁡
              β
              
                )
                
                  1
                  
                    /
                  
                  3
                
              
              
                ν
                
                  4
                  
                    /
                  
                  3
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle Ka={\frac {\sigma }{\rho (g\sin \beta )^{1/3}\nu ^{4/3}}}}
  where σ is the surface tension (SI units: N/m), g is gravitational acceleration (m/s2), ρ is density (kg/m3), β is inclination angle (rad), and ν is kinematic viscosity (m2/s) 

Notes
Passage 9:
Fourier number
In the study of heat conduction, the Fourier number,  is the ratio of time, t, to a characteristic time scale for heat diffusion, td  This dimensionless group is named in honor of J B J  Fourier, who formulated the modern understanding of heat conduction  The time scale for diffusion characterizes the time needed for heat to diffuse over a distance, L  For a medium with thermal diffusivity, α, this time scale is td = L2/α, so that the Fourier number is t/td = αt/L2  The Fourier number is often denoted as Fo or FoL The Fourier number can also be used in the study of mass diffusion, if the thermal diffusivity is replaced by a mass diffusivity 
The Fourier number is used in analysis of time dependent transport phenomena, generally in conjunction with the Biot number if convection is present  The Fourier number arises naturally in nondimensionalization of the heat equation 

Definition
The general definition of the Fourier number, Fo, is:
For heat diffusion with a characteristic length scale L in a medium of thermal diffusivity, α,  the diffusion time scale is td =L2/α, so that

where:

α is the thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
t is the time (s)
L is the characteristic length through which conduction occurs (m)

Interpretation of the Fourier number
Consider transient heat conduction in  a slab of thickness L that is initially at a uniform temperature, T0  One side of the slab is heated to higher temperature, Th at time t = 0   The other side is adiabatic  The time needed for the other side of the object to show significant temperature change is the diffusion time, td   
When Fo ≪ 1, not enough time has passed for the other side to change temperature  In this case, significant temperature change only occurs close to the heated side, and most of the slab remains at T0 
When Fo ≅ 1, significant temperature change occurs all the way through the thickness L  None of the slab remains at temperature T0 
When Fo ≫ 1, enough time has passed for the slab to approach steady state  The entire slab approaches temperature Th 

Derivation and usage
The Fourier number can be derived by nondimenionalizing the time-dependent diffusion equation   As an example, consider a rod of length L that is being heated from an initial temperature, T0, by the imposition at time t = 0 of a higher temperature at x = L, TL (with x along the axis of the rod)  The heat equation in one spatial dimension, x, can be applied 

where T is the temperature for 0 < x < L and t > 0  The differential equation can be scaled into a dimensionless form  A dimensionless temperature may be defined as Θ = (T - TL)/(T0 - TL), and the equation may be divided through by α/L2:

The resulting dimensionless time variable is the Fourier number, FoL = αt/L2  The characteristic time scale for diffusion, td =L2/α, comes directly from this scaling of the heat equation  
The Fourier number is frequently used as the nondimensional time in studying transient heat conduction in solids    A second parameter, the Biot number arises in nondimensionalization when convective boundary conditions are applied to the heat equation  Together, the Fourier number and the Biot number determine the temperature response of a solid subjected to convective heating or cooling 

Application to mass transfer
An analogous Fourier number can be derived by nondimensionalization of Fick's second law of diffusion  The result is a mass transfer Fourier number, Fom defined as:
where:

Fom is the mass transfer Fourier number
D is the mass diffusivity (m2/s)
t is the time (s)
L is the length scale of interest (m)The mass transfer Fourier number can be applied to the study of certain time-dependent mass diffusion problems 

See also
Biot number
Convection
Heat conduction
Heat equation
Molecular diffusion
Context 2: Passage 1:
Marginal Tietê
Marginal Tietê (officially SP-015) is a section of this highway that runs through the city of São Paulo, Brazil  The name of this section comes from the fact that each way of the expressway runs near a different waterfront of the Tietê River  It is a very important road of São Paulo, connecting the East, North and West portions of the city, and linking the Lapa neighbourhood and the Penha neighbourhood  It provides access to the Castelo Branco highway, the Bandeirantes highway, the Anhangüera highway, the Presidente Dutra highway, the Fernão Dias highway, the Ayrton Senna highway and the São Paulo International Airport  The Campo de Marte Airport, the Estádio Parque São Jorge and the Estádio do Canindé are located near the freeway 
It is the site where IRL São Paulo Indy 300 race takes place 
Passage 2:
Sault Ste  Marie, Michigan
Sault Ste  Marie ( SOO-saynt-mə-REE) is a city in the Upper Peninsula of the U S  state of Michigan  It is the county seat of Chippewa County and is the only city within the county  With a population of 13,337 at the 2020 census, it is the second-most populated city in the Upper Peninsula, behind Marquette  It is the primary city of the Sault Ste  Marie, MI Micropolitan Statistical Area, which encompasses all of Chippewa County and had a population of 36,785 at the 2020 census  Sault Ste  Marie was settled by Europeans in 1668, making it the oldest city in Michigan Sault Ste  Marie is located along the St  Marys River, which flows from Lake Superior to Lake Huron and forms part of the United States–Canada border  Across the river is the larger Sault Ste  Marie, Ontario, Canada; the two cities are connected by the Sault Ste  Marie International Bridge  Between the two cities are the Soo Locks, a set of locks allowing ship travel between Lake Superior and the Lower Great Lakes         
Sault Ste  Marie is home to Lake Superior State University 

History
For centuries, Oc̣eṭi Ṡakowiƞ (Dakota, Lakota, Nakoda), or Sioux, people lived in the area  Around the 1300s, the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe) began to move in from the East Coast, gradually pushing the Oc̣eṭi Ṡakowiƞ westward  They called the area Baawitigong ("at the cascading rapids"), after the rapids of St  Marys River  French colonists renamed the region Saulteaux ("rapids" in French)  The Oc̣eṭi Ṡakowiƞ came to call the Anishinaabe "Ḣaḣaṭuƞwaƞ", or "Dwellers of the Falls "
In 1668, French missionaries Claude Dablon and Jacques Marquette founded a Jesuit mission at this site  Sault Ste  Marie developed as one of oldest European city in the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains, and the oldest permanent European settlement in Michigan  On June 4, 1671, Simon-François Daumont de Saint-Lusson, a colonial agent, was dispatched from Quebec to the distant tribes, proposing a congress of Indian nations at the Falls of St  Mary between Lake Huron and Lake Superior  Trader Nicolas Perrot helped attract the principal chiefs, and representatives of 14 Indigenous nations were invited for the elaborate ceremony  The French officials proclaimed France's appropriation of the immense territory surrounding Lake Superior in the name of King Louis XIV In the 18th century, the settlement became an important center of the fur trade, when it was a post for the British-owned North West Company, based in Montreal  The fur trader John Johnston, a Scots-Irish immigrant from Belfast, was considered the first European settler in 1790  He married a high-ranking Ojibwe woman named Ozhaguscodaywayquay, the daughter of a prominent chief, Waubojeeg  She also became known as Susan Johnston  Their marriage was one of many alliances in the northern areas between high-ranking European traders and Ojibwe  The family was prominent among Native Americans, First Nations, and Europeans from both Canada and the United States  They had eight children who learned fluent Ojibwe, English and French  The Johnstons entertained a variety of trappers, explorers, traders, and government officials, especially during the years before the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States For more than 140 years, the settlement was a single community under French colonial, and later, British colonial rule  After the War of 1812, a US–UK Joint Boundary Commission finally fixed the border in 1817 between the Michigan Territory of the US and the British Province of Upper Canada to follow the river in this area  Whereas traders had formerly moved freely through the whole area, the United States forbade Canadian traders from operating in the United States, which reduced their trade and disrupted the area's economy  The American and Canadian communities of Sault Ste  Marie were each incorporated as independent municipalities toward the end of the 19th century As a result of the fur trade, the settlement attracted Ojibwe and Ottawa, Métis, and ethnic Europeans of various nationalities  It was a two-tiered society, with fur traders (who had capital) and their families and upper-class Ojibwe in the upper echelon  In the aftermath of the War of 1812, however, the community's society changed markedly The U S  built Fort Brady near the settlement, introducing new troops and settlers, mostly Anglo-American  The UK and the US settled on a new northern boundary in 1817, dividing the US and Canada along St  Mary's River  The US prohibited British fur traders from operating in the United States  After completion of the Erie Canal in New York State in 1825 (expanded in 1832), the number of settlers migrating to Ohio and Michigan increased dramatically from New York and New England, bringing with them the Yankee culture of the Northern Tier  Their numbers overwhelmed the cosmopolitan culture of the earlier settlers  They practiced more discrimination against Native Americans and Métis 
The falls proved a choke point for shipping between the Great Lakes  Early ships traveling to and from Lake Superior were portaged around the rapids in a lengthy process (much like moving a house) that could take weeks  Later, only the cargoes were unloaded, hauled around the rapids, and then loaded onto other ships waiting below the rapids  The first American lock, the State Lock, was built in 1855; it was instrumental in improving shipping  The lock has been expanded and improved over the years 
In 1900, Northwestern Leather Company opened a tannery in Sault Ste  Marie  The tannery was founded to process leather for the upper parts of shoes, which was finer than that for soles  After the factory closed in 1958, the property was sold to Filborn Limestone, a subsidiary of Algoma Steel Corporation In March 1938 during the Great Depression, Sophia Nolte Pullar bequeathed $70,000 for construction of the Pullar Community Building, which opened in 1939  This building held an indoor ice rink composed of artificial ice, then a revolutionary concept  The ice rink is still owned by the city 

Meaning of the name
The city name was derived from the French term for the nearby rapids, which were called Les Saults de Sainte Marie  Sainte Marie (Saint Mary) was the name of the river and Saults referred to the rapids 
(The archaic spelling Sault is a relic of the Middle French Period  Latin salta successively became Old French salte (c  800 – c  1340), Middle French sault, and Modern French saut, as in the verb sauter, to jump )
Whereas the modern saut means simply "(a) jump", sault in the 17th century was also applied to cataracts, waterfalls and rapids  This resulted in such place names as Grand Falls/Grand-Sault, and Sault-au-Récollet on the Island of Montreal in Canada; and Sault-Saint-Remy and Sault-Brénaz in France  In contemporary French, the word for "rapids" is rapides 
Sault Sainte-Marie in French means "the Rapids of Saint Mary" (for a more detailed discussion, refer to the Sault Ste  Marie, Ontario page)  The Saint Mary's River runs from Lake Superior to Lake Huron, between what are now the twin border cities on either side 
No hyphens are used in the English spelling, which is otherwise identical to the French, but the pronunciations differ  Anglophones say  and Francophones say [so sɛ̃t maʁi]  In French, the name can be written Sault-Sainte-Marie  On both sides of the border, the towns and the general vicinity are called The Sault (usually pronounced ), or The Soo 

Transportation
The city is home to the northern terminus of Interstate 75 (I-75), which connects with the Mackinac Bridge at St  Ignace approximately 50 miles (80 km) to the south, and continues south to near Miami  M-129 also has its northern terminus in the city  M-129 was at one time a part of the Dixie Highway system, which was intended to connect the northern industrial states with the southern agricultural states  Until 1984 the city was the eastern terminus of the western segment of US 2  County Highway H-63 (or Mackinac Trail) also has its northern terminus in the city and extends south to St  Ignace and follows a route very similar to I-75  The city is joined to its Canadian counterpart by the International Bridge, which connects I-75 in Sault Ste  Marie, Michigan, and Huron Street in Sault Ste  Marie, Ontario  
Commercial airline service is provided to the city by the Chippewa County International Airport in Kinross, about 20 miles (32 km) south of the city  Smaller general aviation aircraft also use the Sault Ste  Marie Municipal Airport about one 1 mile (1 6 km) southwest of downtown 
Sault Ste  Marie was the namesake of the Minneapolis, St  Paul and Sault Ste  Marie Railway, now the Soo Line Railroad, the U S  arm of the Canadian Pacific Railway  This railroad had a bridge parallel to the International Bridge crossing the St  Marys River  The Soo Line has since, through a series of acquisitions and mergers of portions of the system, been split between Canadian Pacific and Canadian National Railway (CN)  Canadian National operates the rail lines and the bridge in the Sault Ste  Marie area that were part of the Soo Line 
The Sugar Island Ferry provides automobile and passenger access between Sault Ste  Marie and Sugar Island, formerly a center of maple sugaring  The short route that the ferry travels crosses the shipping channel  Despite the high volume of freighter traffic through the locks, freighters typically do not dock in the Sault  However, the city hosts tugs, a tourist passenger ferry service, and a Coast Guard station along the shoreline on the lower (east) side of the Soo Locks  The United States Postal Service operates a "Marine Post Office", situated within the locks, to service ships as they pass through 
Shipping traffic in the Great Lakes system bypasses the rapids in the St  Marys River via the American Soo Locks  Locally, it is often claimed to be the world's busiest canal in terms of tonnage passing through it  The largest ships are 1,000 feet (300 m) long by 105 feet (32 m) wide  These are domestic carriers (called lakers)  Smaller recreational and tour boats use the Canadian Sault Ste  Marie Canal  The lakers, being too large to transit the Welland Canal that bypasses Niagara Falls, are therefore land-locked  Foreign ships (termed salties) are smaller and can exit the Great Lakes to the St  Lawrence River and the Atlantic Ocean 

Geography and climate
The city is located at 46°49'N 84°35'W 
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 20 16 square miles (52 21 km2), of which 14 77 square miles (38 25 km2) is land and 5 39 square miles (13 96 km2) is water  The city's downtown is on an island, formed by the Sault Ste  Marie Power Canal to the south and the St  Mary's River and Soo Locks to the north 

Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, Sault Ste  Marie has a humid continental climate (Dfb) with cold, snowy winters and warm summers  Sault Ste  Marie is one of the snowiest places in Michigan, receiving an average of 120 inches (3 0 m) of snow per winter season, with a record year when 209 inches (5 3 m) fell  62 inches (1 6 m) of snow fell in one five-day snowstorm, including 28 inches (71 cm) in 24 hours, in December 1995   During this time, the city proper experienced a far greater level of snowfall than the farmlands past the canal and riverfront due to lake-effect snow   This caused the 1437th MRBC National Guard local armory to be mobilized for disaster relief in order to remove hundreds of tons of snow which effectively blockaded people within their own homes  Precipitation measured as equivalent rainfall, Sault Ste  Marie receives an annual average of 33 inches (840 mm)  Its immediate region is the cloudiest in Michigan's Upper Peninsula, having over 200 cloudy days a year Temperatures in Sault Ste  Marie have varied between a record low of −36 °F (−38 °C) and a record high of 98 °F (37 °C)  Monthly average temperatures range from 13 °F (−11 °C) in January to 64 °F (18 °C) in July  On average, only two out of every five years reaches 90 °F (32 °C), while there are 85 5 days annually where the high remains at or below freezing and 26 5 nights with a low of 0 °F (−18 °C) or colder 
Average monthly precipitation is lowest in February, and highest in September and October  This autumn maximum in precipitation, unusual for humid continental climates, owes to this area's Great Lakes location  From May through July (usually the year's wettest months in most of the upper Midwestern United States, away from large bodies of water), the lake waters surrounding Sault Ste  Marie are cooler than nearby land areas  This tends to stabilize the atmosphere, suppressing precipitation (especially showers and thunderstorms) somewhat, in May, June and July  In autumn, the lakes are releasing their stored heat from the summer, making them warmer than the surrounding land, and increasingly frequent and strong polar and Arctic air outbreaks pick up warmth and moisture during their over-water passage, resulting in clouds and instability showers  In Sault Ste  Marie, this phenomenon peaks in September and October, making these the wettest months of the year  Also noteworthy is that in Sault Ste  Marie, the year's third wettest month, on average, is November, and not any summer month 

			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		

Notes

Demographics
2020 census
As of the census of 2020, the population was 13,337  The population density was 903 8 inhabitants per square mile (349 0/km2)  There were 6,234 housing units at an average density of 422 4 per square mile (163 1/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 68 9% White, 17 8% Native American, 1 0% Black or African American, 0 9% Asian, 0 8% from other races, and 10 7% from two or more races  Ethnically, the population was 2 4% Hispanic or Latino of any race 

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 14,144 people, 5,995 households, and 3,265 families residing in the city  The population density was 957 6 inhabitants per square mile (369 7/km2)  There were 6,534 housing units at an average density of 442 4 per square mile (170 8/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 74 8% White, 0 7% African American, 17 7% Native American, 0 9% Asian, 0 1% Pacific Islander, 0 3% from other races, and 5 5% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1 5% of the population 
There were 5,995 households, of which 28 1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35 0% were married couples living together, 14 5% had a female householder with no husband present, 5 0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 45 5% were non-families  35 7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 22 and the average family size was 2 88 
The median age in the city was 33 8 years  21 3% of residents were under the age of 18; 17 1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23 8% were from 25 to 44; 23 8% were from 45 to 64; and 13 9% were 65 years of age or older  The gender makeup of the city was 48 5% male and 51 5% female 

2000 census
Note: After going through the Census 2000 Count Question Resolution Program, the population of the city in 2000 was revised to 14,324 because of the misallocation of some of a neighboring municipality's population to the city of Sault Ste  Marie As of the census of 2000, there were 16,542 people, 5,742 households, and 3,301 families living in the city  The population density was 1,116 3 inhabitants per square mile (431 0/km2)  There were 6,237 housing units at an average density of 420 9 per square mile (162 5/km2)  The racial makeup of the city was 73 99% White, 6 51% African American, 13 72% Native American, 0 65% Asian, 0 05% Pacific Islander, 0 47% from other races, and 4 61% from two or more races  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1 86% of the population 
There were 5,742 households, out of which 28 8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39 9% were married couples living together, 13 2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42 5% were non-families  33 8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 28 and the average family size was 2 92 
In the city, the population was spread out, with 19 4% under the age of 18, 18 1% from 18 to 24, 31 9% from 25 to 44, 18 2% from 45 to 64, and 12 5% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 33 years  For every 100 females, there were 122 0 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 128 3 males 
The median income for a household in the city was $29,652, and for a family was $40,333  Males had a median income of $29,656 versus $21,889 for females  The per capita income for the city was $14,460  About 12 7% of families and 17 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19 6% of those under age 18 and 12 5% of those age 65 or over 

Economy
Tourism is a major industry in the area  The Soo Locks and nearby Kewadin Casino, Hotel and Convention Center—which is owned by the Sault Tribe of Chippewa Indians—are the major draws, as well as the forests, inland lakes, and Lake Superior shoreline  Sault Ste  Marie is also a gateway to Lake Superior's scenic north shore through its twin city Sault Ste  Marie, Ontario  The two cities are connected by the Sault Ste  Marie International Bridge, a steel truss arch bridge with suspended deck passing over the St  Marys River 

Education
University
Sault Ste  Marie is home to Lake Superior State University (LSSU), founded in 1946 as an extension campus of Michigan College of Mining and Technology (now Michigan Technological University); the campus was originally Fort Brady  LSSU is home to the LSSU Lakers (D1 Hockey (CCHA), D2 all other sports (GLIAC)  LSSU has around 1500 students, making it Michigan's smallest public university 

Primary and secondary education
The area school district is Sault Ste  Marie Area Schools The Sault's primary public high school is Sault Area High School (SAHS)  "Sault High" is one of the few high schools in the state with attached career center  The school's mascot is the Blue Devil  "Sault High" houses a variety of successful varsity sports teams, such as hockey, wrestling, baseball, and basketball  Altogether, the school provides 24 competitive sports teams for both boys and girls at all levels  
 The school district also operates Malcolm High School as an alternative high school 
Sault Ste  Marie has two middle schools, one in the Sault Ste  Marie School System known as Sault Area Middle School  Before the 6th grade annex was added in the late 1980s, the school was referred to as Sault Area Junior High School  The Second Middle School is a part of Joseph K  Lumsden Bahweting School, a Native American-affiliated Public School Academy 
There are two elementary schools in Sault Ste  Marie, Lincoln Elementary and Washington Elementary  There is also a Public School Academy, Joseph K  Lumsden Bahweting School, and the St  Mary's Catholic School  Jefferson Elementary, McKinley Elementary, Bruce Township Elementary, and Soo Township Elementary (converted into an Alternative High School) have closed because of declining enrollment in the school system 
St  Mary's Catholic School serves students in grades K–8  It is affiliated with the Roman Catholic Diocese of Marquette There is a Bureau of Indian Education-affiliated tribal school, Joseph K  Lumsden Bahweting Anishnabe School  It was established in 1994 and received its current name in 1998 

Media
TV
All stations listed here are rebroadcasters of television stations based in Traverse City and Cadillac 

Channel 8: WGTQ, ABC (rebroadcasts WGTU); NBC on digital subchannel 8 2 (rebroadcasts WPBN-TV), Charge! on digital subchannel 8 3
Channel 10: WWUP, CBS (rebroadcasts WWTV); Fox on digital subchannel 10 2 (rebroadcasts WFQX-TV), MeTV on digital subchannel 10 3, Laff on digital subchannel 10 4, QVC on digital subchannel 10 5, and HSN on digital subchannel 10 6
Channel 28: W28DY-D, 3ABN (all programming via satellite)NBC and ABC are also served by WTOM channel 4 from Cheboygan, which repeats WPBN-TV and WGTU  The market can also receive select over the air channels from Sault Ste  Marie, Ontario, including Global Toronto on channel 12 1 at CIII-DT-12, and CTV Northern Ontario on analog channel 2 at CHBX  Channel 8 3 was previously the science fiction network Comet until being replaced by Charge!, which is also operated by the Sinclair Broadcast Group 
The area has no local PBS, The CW, or MyNetworkTV service over-the-air  The Spectrum cable system offers all three in their regional packages through Marquette's PBS affiliate WNMU-TV, Cadillac's CW affiliate WFQX-CW, and joint MyNetworkTV/Cozi TV affiliate WXII-LD out of Cedar  The next closest PBS station after WNMU is Cadillac satellite station WCMV 
None of these stations are seen on cable in Sault Ste  Marie, Ontario, as Shaw Cable chooses to largely air Detroit affiliates for over the air channels, while WUHF in Rochester, New York, WPIX in New York City, New York, and WSBK-TV in Boston, Massachusetts provide the closest Fox, CW, and MNTV affiliates carried by Shaw in the market 

Radio
1230 AM – WSOO (adult contemporary/news/sports)
1400 AM – WKNW (talk/sports)
91 5 FM – WJOH (Contemporary Christian) "Smile FM" (rebroadcasts WLGH from Lansing)
98 3 FM – WCMZ (NPR/jazz) (rebroadcasts WCMU-FM from Mount Pleasant)
99 5 FM – WYSS (contemporary hit radio)
101 3 FM – WSUE (active rock)
102 3 FM – WTHN (religious) (rebroadcasts WPHN-FM from Gaylord)
103 3 FM – W277AG (religious) (rebroadcasts WHWL-FM from Marquette)
The 46th Parallel Radio (college radio) (internet station broadcast from Lake Superior State University; previously on WLSO 90 1 FM)Other stations serving the Sault Ste  Marie, Michigan, market:

93 9 FM – WNBY (oldies) – Newberry, Michigan
95 1 FM – WUPN (classic hits) – Paradise, Michigan
97 9 FM – WIHC (Christian radio) – Newberry, Michigan
105 5 FM – WMKD (country music) – Pickford, Michigan

Print
The city's main daily paper is The Sault News, formerly the Sault Evening News 

Athletics
Spectator sports in Sault Ste  Marie include Lake Superior State University Athletics and the Soo Eagles of the Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League (NOJHL)  The Lakers participate in NCAA Division I Ice Hockey and Division II Women's and Men's Basketball, Women's and Men's Golf, Women's Volleyball, Women's and Men's Track and Field, Women's and Men's Tennis and Women's and Men's Cross Country   
Nicknamed the Lakers, LSSU's hockey program is celebrating its 50th season of intercollegiate competition  The team plays its home contests at Taffy Abel Arena (4,000 seats) on LSSU's campus and is one of the most decorated in NCAA hockey history  The squad claimed two NAIA titles in the 1970s before a run of three NCAA division one championships (1988, 1992, 1994) and one finalist appearance (1993) in the late 1980s and early 90s  They compete in the Western Collegiate Hockey Association (WCHA) 
The rest of the athletic teams play in the Great Lakes Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (GLIAC)  The basketball programs at LSSU have seen their share of success  The Men's program won overall GLIAC regular season titles in 2014–15, 2013–14, 1995-1996 (Tournament Champion) and also claimed the north division crown in 2008–09  LSSU's women's program won GLIAC gold from 2001 to 2002 through 2004–05  They also captured GLIAC tournament titles in 2002-03 and 2003–04  Both Men's and Women's squads play their home games in the Bud Cooper Gymnasium within the Norris Center 
Sault Ste  Marie is the home of the International 500 Snowmobile Race (commonly called the I-500), which takes place annually and draws participants and spectators from all over the U S  and Canada  The race, which was inspired by the Indianapolis 500, originated in 1969 and has been growing ever since 

Notable people
Taffy Abel, former Olympic and NHL player
Cliff Barton, former NHL player
Bob Bemer, computer scientist
Jeff Blashill, assistant coach with the NHL's Tampa Bay Lightning and former head coach of the NHL's Detroit Red Wings; born in Detroit but grew up in Sault Ste  Marie, where his father was a professor at Lake Superior State University
Rosalynn Bliss, Mayor of Grand Rapids
Denton G  Burdick, Oregon state legislator
Vic Desjardins, former NHL player
John Johnston (1762–1828), married to Ozhaguscodaywayquay (also known as Susan), daughter of Waubojeeg, an Ojibwe chief; together they built a prosperous fur trading business; among upper class in Euro-American and Ojibwe communities of region during late-18th and early-19th centuries
Lloyd H  Kincaid, former Wisconsin State Senator
Bruce Martyn, radio and TV play-by-play announcer of the Detroit Red Wings from 1964 to 1995; graduated from Lake Superior State University and began his radio career at WSOO
Bun LaPrairie, former NHL player
William McPherson, author and Washington Post writer, was born in Sault Ste  Marie
Tip O'Neill, former NFL player
Terry O'Quinn, best known for playing John Locke from the ABC show Lost, was born in Sault Ste  Marie
Chase S  Osborn, Michigan's only Governor from the Upper Peninsula
Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, ethnographer and U S  Indian agent who named many counties and places in Michigan in his official capacity; husband of Jane Johnston Schoolcraft
Jane Johnston Schoolcraft, daughter of John and Susan Johnston, recognized as the first Native American literary writer and poet, and inducted into Michigan Women's Hall of Fame in 2008
Joseph H  Steere, Chief Justice of the Michigan Supreme Court
Reed Timmer, American meteorologist and extreme storm chaser
Kim A  Wilcox, Chancellor of UC Riverside

Notable landmarks
Pullar Stadium was constructed starting in 1937 and opened in 1939  It is used as an ice arena where the Soo Eagles play 
The Ramada Plaza Hotel Ojiway opened on December 31, 1927  The first owners were Beatrice and Leon Daglman  The building is 95 years old  The 27th Governor of Michigan Chase S  Osborn donated the site and $50,000  It was his dream to build a nice elegant hotel  Overall, it cost $250,000 to build it  On the day of its opening it had 91 rooms, 33 of which included bath tubs, 13 with showers, 34 with toilet and washbowls, and 11 just had a washbowl  This hotel was made for all the tourist who came to the town  Governor Chase S  Osborn and his family lived on the sixth floor for a while and so did Beatrice and Leon Daglman  The hotel contains 100 guestrooms, dining room, checkroom, barbershop and beauty parlor  Its decorated as an Art Deco architectural design, décor, detailed amenities and exceptional service gained national interest and attracted many famous guests including Jack Dempsey, Joe Louis and more recently President George H W  Bush in 1992
The Soo Theatre has been a part of Sault Ste  Marie for over 80 years and has provided entertainment of live plays, movies, and musicals  The Theatre opened in March 1930 and for 40 years was used for films and live performances  In May 1974 the theater was divided into red and blue cinemas, where a cement wall divided the once open auditorium  The building was then closed in 1998 and was put up for sale
Context 3: Passage 1:
James Hill (British Army officer)
Brigadier Stanley James Ledger Hill,  (14 March 1911 – 16 March 2006) was a British Army officer, who served as commander of the 3rd Parachute Brigade, part of the 6th Airborne Division, during the Second World War 
Born in Bath, Somerset, in 1911, Hill was educated at Marlborough College and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst before joining the British Army in 1931 and being commissioned into the Royal Fusiliers  He commanded a platoon for a short period, and was then attached to the command post of Field Marshal Lord Gort during the Battle of France in May 1940, where he oversaw the evacuation of Brussels as well as the beach at De Panne during the evacuation of Dunkirk  After a brief period of time in the Irish Free State, he volunteered for parachute training and joined the 1st Parachute Battalion, and was its commanding officer when its parent formation, the 1st Parachute Brigade, was deployed to North Africa 
Hill commanded the battalion during its first airborne operation in North Africa, dropping near the towns of Souk el-Arba and Béja, in Tunisia  It secured Beja and then sent out patrols to harass German troops, ambushing a convoy and inflicting numerous German casualties, and defended a bridge at Medjez el Bab, although it was eventually forced to retreat  Hill was wounded during an attack by the battalion on Gue Hill, in which he attempted to capture three Italian tanks using his revolver; the crews of two were successfully subdued without incident, but the third opened fire and hit Hill in the chest several times  He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) and the French Legion of Honour for his service in North Africa and then evacuated back to England  There he took command of the 3rd Parachute Brigade in the newly formed 6th Airborne Division, and jumped with the brigade during Operation Tonga, the British airborne landings in Normandy on the night of 5/6 June 1944  After nearly being killed on D-Day, by an aircraft strafing his position, Hill commanded the brigade throughout the rest of the time it was in Normandy, once leading a counter-attack during a German assault, later being awarded the first Bar to his DSO 
After advancing to the Seine, the 6th Airborne Division was withdrawn to England in September 1944, but briefly served in the Ardennes in December during the Battle of the Bulge  Hill then commanded 3rd Parachute Brigade during Operation Varsity, the Allied airborne assault over the River Rhine, where he was nearly killed by a glider containing his own personal Jeep  He then commandeered a motorcycle and rode alongside the brigade as the 6th Airborne Division advanced from the Rhine to the River Elbe, at the end of which he was awarded a second Bar to his DSO as well as the American Silver Star  After the war, he was briefly military governor of Copenhagen, for which he was awarded the King Haakon VII Liberty Cross, and also raised and commanded the 4th Parachute Brigade (Territorial Army)  Retiring from the British Army in 1949, he became involved in a number of charities and businesses  James Hill died on 16 March 2006, aged 95 

Early life
Hill was born on 14 March 1911, in Bath, Somerset, the son of Major General Walter Hill  He was educated at Marlborough College, where he was the head of the college's Officer Training Corps, and then attended the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst; there he won the Sword of Honour and became captain of athletics  He joined the British Army in 1931, being commissioned as a 2nd lieutenant into the Royal Fusiliers (City of London regiment), the regiment which his father commanded  He ran the regimental athletic and boxing associations during his service with the regiment, and in 1936 transferred to the Supplementary Reserve in order to marry his first wife, Denys Gunter-Jones  For the next three years he worked as part of his family's ferry company 

Second World War
When the Second World War began in September 1939, Hill was recalled to his regiment and given command of the 2nd Battalion, Royal Fusiliers' advance party when the battalion left for France during the same month  The battalion was assigned to the 12th Infantry Brigade, part of the 4th Infantry Division  He then commanded a platoon for several months, when the battalion was stationed along the Maginot Line, before being promoted to the rank of Captain in January 1940 and joining the staff at Allied Headquarters  The Battle of France began in May 1940, by which time Hill was attached to the command post of Field Marshal Lord Gort; during this period he was involved in planning the evacuation of the civilian population of Brussels, and also carried Gort's dispatches to Calais ordering the withdrawal of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF)  At the end of the campaign, he took command of the evacuation of the beach at La Panne, and was on the last destroyer to leave Dunkirk  For these actions, he was awarded the Military Cross  On his return to Britain, he was promoted to Major and travelled to Dublin in the Irish Free State, where he planned for the evacuation of British citizens from the city should German forces land there  When this task was completed, he volunteered for the fledgling Parachute Regiment, part of the British Army's growing airborne forces, and undertook parachute training; when the 1st Parachute Battalion was formed on 15 August 1941, he was appointed as its second-in-command The battalion was part of 1st Parachute Brigade, which by mid-1942 had been expanded into 1st Airborne Division under the command of Major-General F A M  Browning  In July 1942 the 1st Parachute Battalion was selected to participate in the Dieppe Raid, and got as far as being loaded onto transport aircraft before poor weather cancelled the operation; when the raid was planned for a second time the parachute battalion was removed because their deployment was too dependent on there being good weather on the day of the raid  In mid September, as 1st Airborne Division was coming close to reaching full strength, Browning was informed that Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of North Africa, would take place in November  After being informed that an American airborne unit, the 509th Parachute Infantry Battalion, was to be used during the invasion, Browning successfully advocated for the 1st Parachute Brigade to also be included  He argued that a larger airborne force should be utilised during the invasion, as the large distances and comparatively light opposition would provide a number of opportunities for airborne operations  The War Office and Commander in Chief, Home Forces were won over by the argument, and agreed to detach the brigade from 1st Airborne Division and place it under the command of General Dwight D  Eisenhower, who would command all Allied troops participating in the invasion  After it had been brought to full operational strength, partly by cross posting personnel from the newly formed 2nd Parachute Brigade, and had been provided with sufficient equipment and resources, the brigade departed for North Africa at the beginning of November 1942 

North Africa
As an insufficient number of transport aircraft were allocated to the brigade, it was only possible to transport the 3rd Parachute Battalion by air  The rest of the brigade arrived at Algiers on 12 November, with some of its stores arriving slightly later  By the evening, reconnaissance parties had travelled to the airfield at Maison Blanche, with the remainder of the brigade following on the morning of 13 November; it was quartered in Maison Blanche, Maison Carree and Rouiba  After several ambitious airborne operations were planned but then cancelled by British First Army, on 14 November it directed that a single parachute battalion would be dropped the next day near Souk el-Arba and Béja; the battalion was to contact French forces at Beja to ascertain whether they would remain neutral, or support the Allies; secure and guard the cross roads and airfield at Soul el Arba; and patrol eastwards to harass German forces  1st Parachute Battalion was selected for the task, to which Hill objected  The battalion had been forced to unload the vessel carrying its supplies and equipment itself, and had also to arrange its own transportation to Maison Blanche as no drivers were provided at Algiers; when it had arrived at Maison Blanche, it had been subjected to several Luftwaffe air raids that targeted the airfield  Hill argued that as a result his men were exhausted, and he did not believe all of the battalion's equipment could be sorted out within twenty four hours; as such he asked for the operation to be postponed for a short period, but this was denied 
Hill faced further problems as he planned for the operation  The American pilots of the Dakota transport aircraft that would transport the battalion were inexperienced and had never conducted a parachute drop before, and there was no time for any training or exercises  There were also no photos of the airfield or the surrounding areas, and only a single, small scale map available for navigation  To ensure that the aircraft found the drop zone and delivered the battalion accurately, Hill sat in the cockpit of the leading Dakota and assisted the pilot  The Dakotas were escorted by four American P-38 Lightning fighters, which engaged and drove off two roving German fighters, but as the Dakotas approached the Tunisian border they encountered thick clouds and were forced to turn back, landing at Maison Blanche at 11:00  It was decided that the battalion would conduct the operation the next day, which allowed the paratroopers to rest for a night  1st Parachute Battalion took off on the morning of 16 November, and enjoyed excellent weather that allowed the transport aircraft to drop the battalion accurately around the airfield at Souk el Arba  Most of the paratroopers landed successfully, but one man was killed when his rigging line twisted around his neck mid drop, throttling him; one officer broke his leg on landing, and four men were wounded when a Sten gun was accidentally fired  The battalion's second in command, Major Alastair Pearson, remained at the airfield with a small detachment that collected the airborne equipment and supervised the burial of the casualty Meanwhile, Hill led the rest of the battalion, approximately 525 strong, in some commandeered trucks towards the town of Béja, an important road and railway centre approximately forty miles from the airfield  The battalion arrived at approximately 18:00 and was welcomed by the local French garrison, 3,000 strong, which Hill persuaded to cooperate with the paratroopers; in order to give the garrison and any German observers the impression that he possessed a larger force than he actually did, Hill arranged for the battalion to march through the town several times, wearing different headgear and holding different equipment each time  A short time after the battalion entered Béja, German aircraft arrived and bombed the town, although they caused little damage and no casualties  The next day, 'S' Company was sent with a detachment of engineers to the village of Sidi N'Sir, about twenty miles away; they were to contact the local French forces, believed to be pro British, and harass German forces  The detachment found the village and made contact with the French, who allowed them to pass through towards the town of Mateur; by nightfall the force had not reached the town, and decided to encamp for the night  At dawn a German convoy of armoured cars passed the detachment, and it was decided to set an ambush for the convoy if it returned, with anti-tank mines being laid on the road and a mortar and Bren guns being set up in concealed positions  When the convoy returned at approximately 10:00 the leading vehicle struck a mine and exploded, blocking the road, and the other vehicles were disabled with mortar fire, Gammon bombs and the remaining anti tank mines  A number of Germans were killed and the rest taken prisoner, with two paratroopers being slightly wounded  The detachment returned to Béja with prisoners and several slightly damaged armoured cars  After the success of the ambush, Hill sent a second patrol to harass local German forces, but it was withdrawn after it encountered a larger German force that inflicted several British casualties; Béja was also bombed by Stuka divebombers, inflicting civilian casualties and destroying a number of houses 
On 19 November, Hill visited the commanding officer of the French forces guarding a vital bridge at Medjez el Bab, and warned him that any attempt by German forces to cross the bridge would be opposed by the battalion  Hill attached 'R' Company to the French forces to ensure the bridge was not captured  German forces soon arrived at the bridge, and their commanding officer demanded that they be allowed to take control of the bridge and cross it to attack the British positions  The French rejected the German demands, and in conjunction with 'R' Company repelled subsequent German attacks that lasted several hours  The battalion was reinforced by the U S  175th Field Artillery Battalion and elements of the Derbyshire Yeomanry, but, despite fierce resistance, the German forces proved to be too strong, and by 04:30 on 20 November the Allied forces had yielded the bridge and the surrounding area to the Germans  Two days later, Hill received information that a strong Italian force, which included a number of tanks, was stationed at Gue Hill  Hill decided to attack the force and attempt to disable the tanks, and the following night moved the battalion, less a small guard detachment that remained at Béja, to Sidi N'Sir where it linked up with a force of French Senegalese infantry  Hill decided that the battalion's section of 3 inch mortars would cover 'R' and 'S' Companies as they advanced up Gue Hill and attacked the Italian force, while a small force of sappers would mine the road at the rear of the hill to ensure the Italian tanks could not retreat The battalion arrived at the hill without incident and began to prepare for the attack; however, just prior to the beginning of the attack there were several loud explosions from the rear of the hill  The anti tank grenades carried by the sappers had accidentally detonated, killing all but two of them  The battalion lost the element of surprise, and Hill immediately ordered the two companies to advance up the hill  The force reached the top and engaged a mixed force of German and Italian soldiers, who were assisted by three light tanks  Hill drew his revolver, and with his adjutant and a small group of paratroopers advanced on the tanks, firing shots through their observation ports in an attempt to persuade the crews to surrender  This tactic worked on two tanks, but upon reaching the third tank Hill and his men were fired upon by the tank's crew; Hill was shot three times in the chest and his adjutant wounded, although the tank crew were swiftly dispatched with small arms fire  Hill survived because of prompt medical treatment, and was replaced as commander of the battalion by Major Pearson, who supervised the routing of the rest of the German and Italian soldiers 

Normandy
After his injuries were treated, Hill was evacuated to a hospital in North Africa to recover; although forbidden to do so, he often exercised by climbing out of the window of his hospital ward at night  For his actions in North Africa, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO), which "paid tribute to the brilliant handling of his force and his complete disregard of personal danger," as well as the French Légion d'honneur  By February 1943 he had recovered from his injuries, and was flown back to England where he met up with Brigadier Gerald W  Lathbury, commander of the newly raised 3rd Parachute Brigade  The War Office had authorised the raising of the brigade on 5 November 1942, comprising the 7th, 8th and 9th Parachute Battalions, all converted infantry battalions  The 9th Parachute Battalion was in need of a commanding officer and Lathbury offered the job to Hill, who accepted  His first action was to send the entire unit on a forced march, at the end of which he announced that the battalion would "work a six and a half day week" with Sunday afternoons off, until it was well-trained and fit  The 3rd Parachute Brigade was initially attached to the 1st Airborne Division, but in April 1943 Lathbury was given command of 1st Parachute Brigade, which departed with 1st Airborne Division at the end of April for the Mediterranean theatre and Operation Husky, the invasion of Sicily  The 3rd Parachute Brigade was detached from the division in March and remained in England, and on 23 April it was transferred into the newly formed 6th Airborne Division with Hill as the brigade's new commander  On 11 August, 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion was attached to the 3rd Parachute Brigade; although meant to be assigned to the newly formed 5th Parachute Brigade, also attached to the 6th Airborne Division, it instead replaced the 7th Parachute Battalion, which was transferred to the new parachute brigade 
The 6th Airborne Division, under the command of Major-General Richard Nelson Gale, was fully mobilised by late December 1943, with orders to prepare for airborne operations to be conducted during mid-1944  The division's first airborne operation would also be the first time it saw combat, conducting Operation Tonga, the British airborne landings in Normandy on the night of 5/6 June, D-Day  It was tasked with guarding the left flank of the British amphibious landings by securing the area east of the city of Caen, capturing a number of bridges that spanned several rivers and canals, and then preventing any Axis forces from advancing on the British beaches  The 3rd Parachute Brigade was given several tasks to accomplish  The 9th Parachute Battalion, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Terence Otway, was to assault and destroy the Merville Gun Battery, as well as capturing high ground and setting up roadblocks  The 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion was to destroy two bridges, and the 8th Parachute Battalion had the task of destroying three bridges  When the operation began, the brigade suffered from a combination of poor navigation by the pilots of their C-47 Dakota transport aircraft, heavy cloud cover and incorrectly marked drop zones, which led to all of its units being scattered over a wide area; Hill himself was dropped with several sticks from the 1st Canadian and 9th Parachute Battalions near the River Dives  He landed in a submerged river rank approximately half a mile from Cabourg, and was forced to wade through four feet of water and a number of flooded irrigation ditches before reaching dry land; the same flooded areas claimed the lives of a number of paratroopers from his brigade 
Collecting up a number of his men, he headed for the town of Sallenelles, where he hoped to find out how the 9th Parachute Battalion had fared assaulting the Merville Battery  En route, however, he and his party were strafed by low-flying German aircraft, forcing the paratroopers to dive for cover; when the aircraft had departed Hill stood up again, finding that he had been wounded in the buttocks and the officer next to him had been killed  Most of the other men had either been killed or wounded during the attack, leaving only himself and the commander of his headquarters defence platoon; once first aid had been administered to the wounded, Hill continued on and finally managed reach Ranville, where the headquarters of the General Officer Commanding (GOC), Major-General Gale, had been set up  After being informed by Gale that his brigade had successfully completed its objectives, Hill had his wound tended to, and then travelled to his own headquarters; there he found Lieutenant Colonel Pearson in temporary command, who informed him that many the brigade's staff had been killed during the drop  By 00:00 on the night of 6/7 June, the entire division was fully deployed on the eastern flank of the invasion beaches  The 3rd Parachute Brigade was holding a 4-mile (6 4 km) front, with the 9th Parachute Battalion at Le Plein, 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion at Les Mesneil and the 8th Parachute Battalion in the southern part of the Bois de Bavent For the rest of its time in Normandy the division acted in an infantry role  From 7 June until 16 August, it first consolidated and then expanded its bridgehead  The 3rd Parachute Brigade was responsible for a section of front around the Chateau Saint Come and a nearby manor, with the latter being used as the brigade's primary defensive position  The brigade was positioned next to the 1st Special Service Brigade, and from 7 June onwards German pressure rapidly increased against both brigade's positions, with a number of attacks being repelled between then and 10 June  On 10 June the decision was taken to expand the bridgehead to the east of the River Orne, with the 6th Airborne Division tasked with achieving this; however, it was deemed not to be strong enough, and the 5th Battalion, Black Watch was placed under the 3rd Parachute Brigade's command; the battalion launched an attack on the town of Breville on 11 June, but was met with extremely heavy resistance and was repulsed after suffering a number of casualties  The next day 3rd Parachute Brigade's entire front was subjected to fierce artillery bombardment and assaults by German tanks and infantry, with the Germans particularly focusing on the positions held by 9th Parachute Battalion  Both the 9th Parachute Battalion and the remnants of the 5th Black Watch defended the Chateau Saint Come but were gradually forced to retreat  Lieutenant Colonel Otway informed brigade headquarters, some 400 metres (1,300 ft) away, that his battalion would be unable to hold its ground for much longer; upon hearing this message, Brigadier Hill gathered together forty paratroopers from the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion and led a counter-attack that forced the German troops to withdraw German attempts to breach the 9th Parachute Battalion's positions did not end until 12 June, and Hill stated that the period 7–12 June were "five of the toughest days fighting I saw in five years of war " It was during this period that Hill was awarded the first Bar to his Distinguished Service Order, after supervising an assault by 12th Parachute Battalion on the town of Breville; the town dominated a long ridge near the Allied bridgehead, from which the German 346th Infantry Division launched repeated attacks  From then on until mid-August the division remained in static positions, holding the left flank of the Allied bridgehead and conducting vigorous patrolling  Finally, on 7 August the division was ordered to prepare to move over to the offensive, and on the night of 16/17 August it began to advance against stiff German opposition, its ultimate objective being the mouth of the River Seine (see 6th Airborne Division advance to the River Seine)  Hill's 3rd Parachute Brigade led the division's advance, being held up until nightfall at the village of Goustranville, but then securing several bridges and allowing the 5th Parachute Brigade to pass through its positions and continue the division's advance  The brigade remained around the Dives canal for several days, and then on 21 August it advanced towards Pont L'Eveque, but was stalled by German infantry and armour near Annebault until 8th Parachute Battalion secured the village  Fighting continued to be fierce, but by 24 August the entire division had advanced across the River Touques  After another three days of reorganising and patrolling, the division's time in Normandy came to an end; in nine days it had advanced 45 miles, captured 400 square miles (1,000 km2) of occupied territory and taken prisoner over 1,000 German soldiers  Its casualties for the period were 4,457, of which 821 would be killed, 2,709 wounded and 927 missing  It was finally withdrawn from the frontline in the last days of August, and embarked for England at the beginning of September 

Ardennes
On 16 December 1944, the Germans launched a huge offensive in the Ardennes forest, with the German objective to split British and American forces apart and capture the port of Antwerp, an important logistical base for the Allies  The initial assaults were extremely successful, creating a salient some fifty miles wide and forty-five miles deep, and by 23 December German units were advancing towards Dinant  American resistance was fierce, however, and blunted German advances in several areas, particularly the U S  101st Airborne Division around the town of Bastogne  By Christmas Day the offensive had been halted and contained, and an Allied counter-offensive began  Although the majority of the troops committed belonged to the American First and Third Armies, British XXX Corps also participated, with the British 6th Airborne Division as one of its leading divisions  The division had been in England since the beginning of September, and had been due to go on Christmas leave only days before the counter-offensive began; however, it was quickly transported to the Ardennes, arriving on the night of 24 December  By 26 December the 6th Airborne Division, now commanded by Major-General Eric Bols, had positioned itself between the towns of Dinant and Namur, and on 29 December it advanced against the German salient, with the 3rd Parachute Brigade, under James Hill, occupying an area around Rochefort When the German offensive had begun, Hill had been in hospital, undergoing reconstructive plastic surgery; this meant that he was unable to join the 3rd Parachute Brigade for two days  When he had recovered, however, he and his batman were flown to the Ardennes and he was able to rejoin the brigade  The 5th Parachute Brigade launched several attacks against German positions in the village of Bure, which resulted in heavy British casualties, and both brigades conducted a large number of offensive patrols  The 3rd Parachute Brigade did not see any action, as those German units occupying positions opposite to it withdrew without fighting  By the end of January, however, the division was transferred back to the Netherlands and set up new positions along the Maas river, where it conducted more patrolling against elements of the German 7th Parachute Division, which held positions on the other side of the Maas  These operations came to an end in late February, when the 6th Airborne Division was withdrawn back to England to prepare for a major airborne operation in March 

Rhine
On 24 March 1945 Operation Varsity began, an airborne operation to aid in the establishment of a bridgehead on the east bank of the River Rhine which involved the British 6th Airborne Division and the U S  17th Airborne Division, under Major General William Miley  Varsity was the airborne component of Operation Plunder, in which the British Second Army, under Lieutenant-General Miles C  Dempsey, and the U S  Ninth Army, under Lieutenant General William Simpson, crossed the Rhine at Rees, Wesel, and an area south of the Lippe Canal  Both divisions would be dropped near the town of Hamminkeln, and were tasked with a number of objectives: they were to seize the Diersfordter Wald, a forest that overlooked the Rhine, including a road linking several towns together; several bridges over a smaller waterway, the River Issel, were to be seized to facilitate the advance; and the town of Hamminkeln was to be captured  The 6th Airborne Division was specifically tasked with securing the northern portion of the airborne bridgehead, including Hamminkeln, a section of high ground to the east of Bergen, and several bridges over the River Issel  Hill's 3rd Parachute Brigade was to drop at the north-eastern corner of the Diersfordterwald forest and clear the western portion of the forest  It would then seize a hill known as the Schneppenberg, secure a road junction near Bergen and eventually link up with the 5th Parachute Brigade 
The 3rd Parachute Brigade dropped nine minutes later than planned, but otherwise landed accurately on drop zone 'A'  Hill landed near to the Diersfordterwald forest, which was occupied by German soldiers "who are switched-on people," killing a number of paratroopers whose parachutes became tangled up in the trees  His brigade headquarters was positioned by a copse which was supposed to have been immediately cleared, but when he arrived it was still occupied by German troops; Hill immediately ordered a company commander of the 8th Parachute Battalion to clear the copse  The officer did so, but was killed in the process  Hill then moved his headquarters to the copse, but was then nearly killed by an approaching glider which barely managed to pull up in time, landing in the trees above him; upon investigation, Hill discovered that it contained his batman and personal Jeep, which took some time to lower down safely



ground_truth: French mathematician and physicist

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: H-63 is a highway that runs near the county seat of what Michigan county?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  In March 2003 the Soo Theatre Project Inc  purchased it for $85,000  After that the theater began restoration so plays and other types of entertainment could be put on once again 
Holy Name of Mary Pro-Cathedral (Sault Ste  Marie, Michigan) was begun by Jesuits in 1668  There are only two other parishes, one in St  Augustine, Florida and the other in Santa Fe, New Mexico, that are older in the United States [3] On January 9, 1857 Pope Pius IX established the Diocese of Sault Ste  Marie[4] and St  Mary's was named the cathedral church for the new diocese  The present church, the fifth for the parish, was built in 1881  It was designed by Canadian architect Joseph Connolly in the Gothic Revival style  The church was extensively remodeled in three phases from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s  In 1968 the parish built the Tower of History as a shrine to the Catholic missionaries who served the community [5] It was designed to be a part of a larger complex that was to include a community center and a new church  Parish priorities changed and the structure was sold to Sault Historic Sites in 1980, who continues to operate it  Proceeds from the Tower of History still benefit the church 
The Soo Locks are a set of parallel locks which enable ships to travel between Lake Superior and the lower Great Lakes  They are on the St  Marys River between Lake Superior and Lake Huron, between the Upper Peninsula of the U S  state of Michigan and the Canadian province of Ontario  They bypass the rapids of the river, where the water falls 21 feet (7 m)  The locks pass an average of 10,000 ships per year,[4] despite being closed during the winter from January through March, when ice shuts down shipping on the Great Lakes  The winter closure period is used to inspect and maintain the locks  The locks share a name (usually shortened and anglicized as Soo) with the two cities named Sault Ste  Marie, in Ontario and in Michigan, on either side of the St  Marys River  The Sault Ste  Marie International Bridge between the United States and Canada permits vehicular traffic to pass over the locks  A railroad bridge crosses the St  Marys River just upstream of the highway bridge 
Taffy Abel Arena is the home of Lake Superior State University's Division 1 hockey team  The 4,000-seat arena is part of the Norris Center athletic complex on LSSU's campus  It was renovated in 1995 and is named after Clarence "Taffy" Abel  Abel was the first American born player to become an NHL regular and was born in the Soo 
Lake Superior State University sits on the former site of U S  Army's Fort Brady  The university has converted most of the buildings to serve housing and administrative needs for its students, faculty, guests and employees  The 115-acre campus includes several buildings which are listed in the National Register of Historic Places  The university has an enrollment of around 2500 students 

Sister cities
Sault Ste  Marie, Ontario, Canada (also twin city)

See also
Media in Sault Ste  Marie, Ontario
Passage 3:
Saskatchewan Highway 316
Highway 316 is a highway in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan  It runs from Highway 16 near Clavet to Highway 5  Highway 316 is about 17 km (11 mi ) long   This area is an industrial commercial area along Highway #316 which extends from Clavet north to the PCS Patience Lake Mine which is just 10 miles from the city of Saskatoon   Highway 316 is a primary weight highway, and also runs near the Canadian National Railway line which goes from Saskatoon through Clavet  In 1941, the Canadian Pacific Railway ran from Saskatoon through Cheviot and on south eastward Highway 316 passes near the community of Cheviot and intersects Highway 394 

Communities along the route
Clavet is a village which can be found at  52°00′00″N 106°23′00″W or legal land description of Section 9 Township 35 Range 3 -West of the 3rd Meridian
Cheviot, Saskatchewan, a small unincorporated area was the childhood home of  Neil McArthur inducted into the Saskatchewan Agricultural Hall of Fame   This area is located at  52°02′00″N 106°22′00″W or legal land description of Section 28 - Township  35- Range 3 -West of the 3rd Meridian
Muskeg Lake First Nation Indian Reserve 102A

Rural municipalities along the route
Blucher No  343 is home to several industrial/commercial enterprises  Potash mining, anhydrous ammonia-bulk fertilizer distribution centres, canola crushing plant, as well as a large inland grain terminal 

Major attractions
Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan (PCS) Patience Lake Mine
Cheviot Lake is located at 52°02′00″N 106°20′00″W or legal land description of Township  35 - Range 3 -West of the 3rd Meridian which is just east of Cheviot The following lakes are all north of Highway 316:

Porter Lake   52°17′00″N 106°17′00″W or legal land description of Township 37- Ranges 2,3 - W of the 3rd Meridian
Patience Lake Is located at   52°07′00″N 106°20′00″W or legal land description of Township 36 - Range 3 -West of the 3rd Meridian
Burke Lake is located at 52°10′00″N 106°18′00″W or legal land description of Township 37- Range 3 -West of the 3rd Meridian
Passage 4:
H-63 (Michigan county highway)
H-63 is a county-designated highway (CDH) in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan  The highway parallels the Interstate 75 (I-75) corridor between St  Ignace and Sault Ste  Marie  The road is called Mackinac Trail after the Upper Peninsula branch of an Indian trail used before European settlers reached the area  Originally, the roadway was built as a section of US Highway 2 (US 2) before being added to the CDH system in the 1970s 
H-63 serves as a two-lane alternative to the I-75 freeway across the eastern end of the Upper Peninsula  Between the northern side of St  Ignace, the roadway has connections to two state highways before running concurrently with M-48 near Rudyard  H-63 ends on the south side of Sault Ste  Marie 

Route description
H-63 starts a winding trail at Business Loop I-75 (BL I-75) north of St  Ignace in rural Mackinac County  From there, the highway heads northward towards the Kewadin Casino  The road then passes within viewing distance of I-75 past the Horseshoe Bay Wilderness  As it continues, H-63 has a connection to the southern terminus of M-123 with access to I-75 via a connecting road to M-123  After crossing to the west side of I-75, H-63 has access to I-75 via a connecting road to the western terminus of M-134  The CDH runs to the north and into Chippewa County  As it does so, H-63 turns away from I-75 as the latter curves northeastward  South of Rudyard and into center of the community, H-63 runs concurrently with M-48 for about three miles (4 8 km) From Rudyard northward,  H-63 turns northeasterly toward, and runs parallel to, I-75  At Kinross, there is an interchange between I-75 and M-80; H-63 has a brief concurrency with M-80 so that the latter can connect to all of the ramps in the interchange  The trail then crosses to the eastern side of I-75  Near Dafter, the CDH intersects M-28  Along this section, H-63 is roughly a half mile (0 8 km) away from the I-75 freeway at any given point as it continues northward to the Sault Ste  Marie area  H-63 terminates at its intersection with  Business Spur I-75 (BS I-75) on the south side of the city 

History
The first transportation route in the area was the Mackinac Trail, used by Native Americans before the Europeans arrived in the area; the trail in the area was the Upper Peninsula branch of a longer route that also connected the modern-day Saginaw with Mackinaw City and the Straits of Mackinac  Until 1933, no roadway was built along the path of the Indian trail  After that year, US 2 was rerouted between St  Ignace and Sault Ste  Marie using the modern routing of H-63  This placed the Mackinac Trail on the state trunkline highway system for the first time  In 1962 and 1963, the state transferred the highway to county control when US 2 was rerouted to follow the completed I-75 freeway  With the transfer to local control, Mackinac Trail became a county road  Later, it was given the  H-63 designation after October 5, 1970, as part of the County-Designated Highway System  The designation on the 1971 state map follows the routing used today 

Major intersections
See also
Michigan Highways portal
Passage 5:
County Road 492 (Marquette County, Michigan)
County Road 492 (CR 492, Co  Rd  492) is a primary county road in Marquette County, Michigan  The road serves as an alternate route between Negaunee and Marquette  Several historic sites line the roadway as it runs south and parallel to the main highway, U S  Highway 41 (US 41) and M-28, through the Marquette Iron Range in Michigan's Upper Peninsula  The path of the road runs near tracks of the Lake Superior and Ishpeming Railroad (LS&I)  The locally created Iron Ore Heritage Trail will follow CR 492 through Eagle Mills and Morgan Meadows upon completion  The western terminus of the county road is on US 41/M-28 in Negaunee and the eastern end is in Marquette next to Lake Superior 
CR 492 was previously known as the Marquette–Negaunee Road before it was made a part of the State Trunkline Highway System  It was originally designated as a part of M-15 as early as 1917  The superintendent of the Marquette County Road Commission, Kenneth Ingalls Sawyer, painted the first rural highway centerline on the roadway on Dead Man's Curve  The highway was later a part of M-28 before being transferred back to county control  The highway assumed its current form by 2001  The eastern section along Brookton Road in Marquette Township was redesignated as a county secondary highway when a new connection to US 41/M-28 was opened, and the designation was extended along Wright Street on the west and north sides of Marquette 

Route description
In the city of Negaunee, CR 492 is a part of Maas Street, which runs east–west through town starting at Teal Lake  CR 492 begins at the intersection of Maas Street and US 41/M-28 in Negaunee next to Miners Park  From there, CR 492 passes some businesses near the highway before running through a residential area  East of Woodland Drive, the street runs downhill into a more rural section of town  In this area, the roadway runs through forested terrain parallel to tracks of the LS&I  The road then loops to the north away from the tracks, crossing the Carp River next to the Forge Road intersection  Through this area, the Iron Ore Heritage Trail, a multi-use trail system, was built to follow CR 492, and opened in 2013  Forge Road runs north to the Michigan Iron Industry Museum on the site of the Carp River Forge, the original iron ore forge in the region  Maas Street runs along the south side of the city cemetery  The cemetery main gate is located near the city limits, where Maas Street ends and CR 492 continues into Negaunee Township 

CR 492 intersects M-35 near Eagle Mills Location  M-35 approaches the county road from the north before it turns east to run concurrently with CR 492  The two roadway designations cross a rail track before M-35 separates and turns south; traffic along the state highway must yield the right-of-way to traffic on the county road in the process  Eagle Mills is the location of the main LS&I rail yard and the former Pioneer Pellet Plant, the first such iron ore pelletizing plant in the country  CR 492 curves away from this industrial area to the northeast  The roadway crosses Morgan Creek and enters the Morgan Heights area on the border of Negaunee Township and Marquette Township  This is the site of the first tuberculosis sanatorium in the Upper Peninsula built in 1911; the facility is said to have been haunted before the main buildings were torn down around 2002  The road continues east through forested lands in Marquette Township, rounding Dead Man's Curve and running downhill into the Morgan Meadows area  CR 492 passes a convent of the Sisters of St  Paul de Chartres before entering a residential area  The road curves north past these subdivisions, meeting the western end of CR 500 (Grove Street)  Further north, CR 492 intersects Brookton Road before the western segment terminates at US 41/M-28 in the middle of Marquette Township's commercial corridor 

The county road designation resumes to the west at a roundabout on US 41/M-28 about 1,300 feet (400 m) from the previous intersection  From this location, CR 492 runs northward between several businesses  North of this commercial development, the roadway curves to the northeast to round the northern side of the North Star Academy and merge onto Wright Street  The roadway leaves the commercial corridor and returns to woodland before the intersection with Forestville Road and Commerce Drive  Wright Street curves to the northeast and then the east crossing into the westernmost section of the City of Marquette  As Wright Street continues eastward, it runs through a residential section along part of the city line before completely crossing into Marquette  The roadway passes the Holy Cross Cemetery and the north side of the campus of Northern Michigan University (NMU)  The northern main entrance to campus is located at the intersection with CR 550 (Sugar Loaf Avenue) and Tracy Avenue  Wright Street passes through residential neighborhoods east of CR 550 before meeting Presque Isle Avenue  East of that intersection, CR 492 crosses onto the northern edge of NMU's campus immediately north of the Superior Dome  Wright Street ends as it curves around to the south into a junction with Lakeshore Boulevard at the shore of Lake Superior 

History
The first roadway along the route of the modern CR 492 was a plank road built by the Cleveland and Sharon Iron Companies in the 1850s  The roadway was originally named the Marquette–Negaunee Road, due to its endpoints  The road was included as a section of "Division 8" in the State Trunkline Highway System when that was created on May 13, 1913  In 1917, the first highway centerline in the nation was painted along a section of the road known as "Dead Man's Curve"  The centerline was painted by Kenneth Ingalls Sawyer, long-time superintendent of the county road commission  Traffic along the road was heavy for the era, and along the curves, drivers would follow the innermost side instead of keeping to their own lane  Sawyer added arrows to indicate travel direction and found that motorists used the appropriate travel lanes 

At this time, the road carried an unsigned designation of "Trunk Line 15" (T L  15) as designated by the Michigan State Highway Department (MSHD)  This designation was changed to M-15 by the time the state highway system was signed by MSHD in 1919  With the creation of the United States Highway System on November 11, 1926, M-15 in Michigan was redesignated as a part of the larger US 41  Between Negaunee and Marquette, US 41 was routed north of the Marquette–Negaunee Road, following a section of M-35 out of downtown Negaunee  At the same time, M-28 was extended eastward through the Upper Peninsula of Michigan  Between Negaunee and Marquette, M-28 followed the old routing of M-15  By 1936, M-28 was shifted to follow US 41 between Negaunee and Marquette, transferring the old Marquette–Negaunee Road to county control After this transfer, the roadway carried the CR 492 designation  In 1964, several abandoned underground mine shafts collapsed underneath M-35 in Negaunee, and M-35 was rerouted out of the city along its current roadway through Negaunee Township, connecting with CR 492  The eastern end of CR 492 was moved by 2001  Before this realignment, CR 492 followed Brookton Road, parallel to US 41/M-28 before turning to the previous terminus just west of the border between Marquette Township and the City of Marquette  After the change, CR 492 turned north to intersect the highway opposite of Wright Street  The CR 492 designation was extended along Wright Street at the same time  In 2006, the city of Marquette extended Wright Street to end at Lakeshore Boulevard In 2010, the county road commission built an extension to Commerce Drive across US 41/M-28  This extension was designed to connect the southern and northern segments of CR 492 severed by traffic flow changes along US 41/M-28  Traffic wishing to cross between the two segments needs to follow US 41/M-28 to a median turn around in a maneuver similar to a Michigan left  After the project was completed, motorists gained a second option to cross between the two segments of CR 492 following Brookton Road to the Commerce Drive extension and around the Westwood Mall to Wright Street  This newer connector is designed for 35-mile-per-hour (56 km/h) traffic  The stop light at the US 41/M-28 intersection was installed in early November to complete the project  In August 2010, the speed limits along Wright Street were increased  After the results of a speed study, the limits were increased from 25 and 35 mph (40 and 56 km/h) to 35, 40 and 45 mph (56, 64 and 72 km/h) In 2019, two intersections controlled by stoplights along US 41/M-28 in Marquette Township were rebuilt as roundabouts  The easternmost of the two is located at the southwestern end of the northeastern segment of CR 492 

Major intersections
The entire road is in Marquette County 

See also
Michigan Highways portal
Passage 6:
Manistee County, Michigan
Manistee County ( man-iss-TEE) is a county located in the U S  state of Michigan  As of the 2020 Census, the population was 25,032  The county seat is Manistee  The county is named for the Manistee River  Manistee County is part of Northern Michigan and has a shoreline on Lake Michigan 

History
Manistee County was set off in 1840 from Michilimackinac County as an unorganized county  In 1851, it was attached to Grand Traverse County for legal purposes  Manistee County was organized in its own right on February 13, 1855 

Etymology
The name "Manistee" is from an Ojibwe word first applied to the principal river of the county  The derivation is not certain, but it may be from ministigweyaa, "river with islands at its mouth" 

Historical markers
There are thirteen recognized Michigan historical markers in the county:
Harriet Quimby Childhood Home
John J  Makinen Bottle House
First Congregational Church, Manistee
Great Fire of 1871
Holy Trinity Episcopal Church
Holy Trinity Episcopal Church Rectory
Kaleva, Michigan
Manistee City Library
Manistee Fire Hall
Our Saviour's Lutheran Church
Ramsdell Theatre
Trinity Lutheran Church [Arcadia]
William Douglas House

Geography
According to the U S  Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 1,281 square miles (3,320 km2), of which 542 square miles (1,400 km2) is land and 738 square miles (1,910 km2) (58%) is water  Manistee County is considered to be part of Northern Michigan 

Adjacent counties
By land

Benzie County - north
Grand Traverse County - northeast
Wexford County - east
Lake County - southeast
Mason County - southBy water

Manitowoc County, Wisconsin - southwest
Kewaunee County, Wisconsin - west

Protected areas
Manistee National Forest (part)
Nordhouse Dunes Wilderness
Orchard Beach State Park

Transportation
Airport
Manistee County-Blacker Airport is approximately 3 miles (4 8 km) northeast of Manistee  It offers direct flights to Chicago O'Hare International Airport 

Major highways
US 31 runs through Manistee and Bear Lake, paralleling Lake Michigan further inland than M-22 
 M-22 begins five miles (8 0 km) north of Manistee and goes through Onekama and Arcadia, paralleling the Lake Michigan shoreline and offering a scenic route 
 M-55 begins two miles (3 2 km) north of Manistee and runs across the Lower Peninsula to Tawas City via Cadillac, Lake City, Houghton Lake, and West Branch 
 M-115 is a diagonal highway, running southeast–northwest across the northeast corner of the county  It enters Benzie County to the north and Wexford County to the east Previously, an additional highway, M-110, was designated to run from US 31 at Parkdale to Orchard Beach State Park  However, the highway was returned to local control in 2003 

Bicycle routes
USBR 35 comes from Mason County and goes through Manistee, Onekama, and Arcadia to proceed north to Benzie County with M-22

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 24,527 people, 9,860 households, and 6,714 families residing in the county  The population density was 45 people per square mile (17 people/km2)  There were 14,272 housing units at an average density of 26 per square mile (10/km2)  The racial makeup of the county was 94 16% White, 1 63% Black or African American, 1 30% Native American, 0 32% Asian, 0 03% Pacific Islander, 1 01% from other races, and 1 55% from two or more races  2 61% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race  23 5% were of German, 16 9% Polish, 8 8% English, 8 8% American and 7 1% Irish ancestry  96 2% spoke English and 2 3% Spanish as their first language 
There were 9,860 households, out of which 27 40% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55 10% were married couples living together, 9 10% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31 90% were non-families  27 30% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13 20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 37 and the average family size was 2 86 
In the county, the population was spread out, with 22 60% under the age of 18, 6 70% from 18 to 24, 26 30% from 25 to 44, 26 30% from 45 to 64, and 18 10% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 42 years  For every 100 females there were 103 40 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102 00 males 
The median income for a household in the county was $34,208, and the median income for a family was $41,664  Males had a median income of $33,211 versus $20,851 for females  The per capita income for the county was $17,204  About 6 90% of families and 10 30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13 50% of those under age 18 and 7 90% of those age 65 or over 

Government
The county government operates the jail, maintains rural roads, operates the major local courts, keeps files of deeds and mortgages, maintains vital records, administers public health regulations, and participates with the state in the provision of welfare and other social services  The county board of commissioners controls the budget but has only limited authority to make laws or ordinances  In Michigan, most local government functions — police and fire, building and zoning, tax assessment, street maintenance, etc  — are the responsibility of individual cities and townships 
Manistee County was one of two counties in the United States in which James M  Cox and Charles Evans Hughes both won — the other being Polk County, North Carolina 

Elected officials
Prosecuting Attorney: Jason Haag
Sheriff: Brian Gutowski
County Clerk: Jill Nowak
County Treasurer: Rachel Nelson
Register of Deeds: Penny Pepera
Drain Commissioner: Ken Hilliard
County Surveyor: Patrick Bentley(information as of February 2012)

Fire departments and emergency medical services
County ambulance service
As of early 2021 North Flight EMS has since transferred the primary ambulance service to Mobile Medical Response 

Fire departments
Arcadia Township Fire Department
Bear Lake Township Fire Department
City of Manistee Fire Department
Cleon Township Fire Department
Dickson Township Fire Department
East Lake Township Fire Department
Filer Township Fire Department
Manistee Township Fire Department [1]
Maple Grove Township Fire Department
Norman Township Fire Department
Onekama Township Fire Department
Stronach Township Fire Department

Communities
City
Manistee (county seat)

Villages
Bear Lake
Copemish
Eastlake
Kaleva
Onekama

Census-designated places
Other unincorporated communities
Townships
Education
School districts include:
Bear Lake School District
Benzie County Central School
Kaleva Norman Dickson School District
Manistee Area Schools
Mason County Eastern District
Mesick Consolidated Schools
Onekama Consolidated Schools

See also
List of Michigan State Historic Sites in Manistee County, Michigan
National Register of Historic Places listings in Manistee County, Michigan
Passage 7:
Saginaw County, Michigan
Saginaw County, officially the County of Saginaw, is a county located in the U S  state of Michigan  As of the 2020 Census, the population was 190,124  The county seat is Saginaw  The county was created by September 10, 1822, and was fully organized on February 9, 1835  The etymology of the county's name is uncertain  It may be derived from Sace-nong or Sak-e-nong (English: Sauk land), as the Sauk (French: Sac) tribe is believed by some to have once lived there  A more likely possibility is that it comes from Ojibwe words meaning "place of the outlet" –sag (English: an opening) and ong (English: place of)  See List of Michigan county name etymologies 
Saginaw County comprises the Saginaw, MI Metropolitan Statistical Area and is included in the Saginaw-Midland-Bay City Combined Statistical Area, the 5th largest metropolitan area in Michigan 

Etymology
The name Saginaw is widely believed to mean "where the Sauk were" in Ojibwe, from Sace-nong or Sak-e-nong (Sauk Town), due to the belief that the Sauk once lived there  But it is more likely that the name means "place of the outlet", from the Ojibwe sag (opening) and ong (place of) When Natives told Samuel de Champlain that the Sauk nation was on the western shore of Lake Michigan, Champlain mistakenly placed them on the western shore of Lake Huron  This mistake was copied on subsequent maps, and future references identified this as the place of the Sauks  Champlain himself never visited what is now Michigan 

History
The area was inhabited from about 1000 B C  to 1000 A D  by the Native American Hopewell culture, followed by the Anishnabeg  Some historians believe that the Sauk at one time lived in the area and were driven out by Ojibwe (Chippewa), before the area was first visited by Europeans 
The Saginaw region includes an extensive network of many rivers and streams which converge into the Saginaw River and provided a means for easy travel for the Native American population among numerous settlements and hunting areas, as well as access to Lake Huron  Saginaw was also a frequent meeting location for councils of the Ojibwe, Pottawatomi, and Ottawa—the Three Fires of the Anishnabeg What is today Saginaw County was inhabited by the Ojibwe at the time of the arrival of Euro-Americans  The Ojibwe were still the dominant force in the area in the 1820s, and in 1827 they were attacked by a two groups of Winnebago people coming from Wisconsin  The Ojibwe prevailed in this fight with the aid of local Euro-American settlers In 1853 the Ojibwe and Ottawa both established large hunting camps along the Saginaw River, although Euro-American settlers were beginning to establish saw mills and farms in the area by that point 

Geography
According to the U S  Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 816 square miles (2,110 km2), of which 800 square miles (2,100 km2) is land and 16 square miles (41 km2) (1 9%) is water   It is part of the Flint/Tri-Cities region of Mid-Michigan  The median elevation in Saginaw County, Michigan is 620 feet (190 m) above sea level 

Primary rivers
Saginaw River
Shiawassee River
Cass River
Flint River
Bad River
Tittabawassee River

Wildlife refuge
Shiawassee National Wildlife Refuge

Adjacent counties
Bay County  (northeast)
Midland County  (northwest)
Tuscola County  (east)
Gratiot County  (west)
Genesee County  (southeast)
Shiawassee County  (south)
Clinton County  (southwest)

Demographics
The 2010 United States Census indicates Saginaw County had a 2010 population of 200,169  This is a decrease of -9,870 people from the 2000 United States Census  Overall, the county had a -4 7% growth rate during this ten-year period  In 2010 there were 79,011 households and 52,287 families in the county  The population density was 250 2 per square mile (96 6 per square kilometer)  There were 86,844 housing units at an average density of 108 5 per square mile (41 9 per square kilometer)  The racial and ethnic makeup of the county was 70 5% White, 18 6% Black or African American, 0 3% Native American, 1 0% Asian, 7 8% Hispanic or Latino, 0 1% from other races, and 1 6% from two or more races 
There were 79,011 households, out of which 30 5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45 4% were husband and wife families, 16 0% had a female householder with no husband present, 33 8% were non-families, and 28 2% were made up of individuals  The average household size was 2 44 and the average family size was 2 99 
In the county, 23 4% of the population was under the age of 18, 10 6% from 18 to 24, 22 9% from 25 to 44, 27 8% from 45 to 64, and 15 3% was 65 years of age or older  The median age was 40 years  For every 100 females there were 93 6 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90 4 males 
The 2010 American Community Survey 1-year estimate indicates the median income for a household in the county was $41,938 and the median income for a family was $52,243  Males had a median income of $27,691 versus $16,488 for females  The per capita income for the county was $21,025  About 12 4% of families and 16 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24 1% of those under the age 18 and 10 1% of those age 65 or over 

Religion
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Saginaw is the controlling regional body for the Catholic Church 

Government and politics
The county government operates the jail, maintains rural roads, operates the
major local courts, keeps files of deeds and mortgages, maintains vital records, administers
public health regulations, and participates with the state in the provision of welfare and
other social services  The county board of commissioners controls the
budget but has only limited authority to make laws or ordinances  In Michigan, most local
government functions — police and fire, building and zoning, tax assessment, street
maintenance, etc  — are the responsibility of individual cities and townships 
Starting in 1988, Saginaw County became a reliable Democratic stronghold at the Presidential level  However, in recent elections it has become increasingly competitive, with Donald Trump narrowly winning the county in 2016 while narrowly losing it in 2020 by about 300 votes 

Elected officials
Prosecuting Attorney: John McColgan Jr 
Sheriff: William Federspiel
County Clerk: Vanessa Guerra
County Treasurer: Timothy M  Novak
Register of Deeds: Katheryn A  Kelly
Public Works Commissioner: Brian WendlingAll countywide officers are elected for four-year terms  The next scheduled election for these offices is November of 2024 
(information as of April 2021)

Parks and Recreation Commission
Saginaw County Parks and Recreation Commission is a county-wide government organization founded by William H  Haithco Sr  in 1969  Haithco then served as chairman from 1972 to 1999  The organization operates six parks throughout the county - Imerman Memorial Park, Veterans Memorial Park, Ringwood Forest, Price Nature Center, William H  Haithco Recreation Area, and The Saginaw Valley Rail Trail  These parks comprise over 550 acres, including 18 miles of hiking trails, two boat launches, four fishing access sites, a swimming beach, picnic shelters, and recreation programs 

Economy
The largest employers in Saginaw County are:

Transportation
Saginaw County was the destination of a Sauk footpath that became one of the first roads in what is now Michigan, the Saginaw Trail  The trail, first authorized in 1819, was completed to Saginaw in 1841  Since then, Saginaw's access to the outside world has expanded with the development of maritime, rail, air, and freeway links to the major cities of Michigan and neighboring states and nations 

Airports
Scheduled airline service is available from MBS International Airport near Freeland, Michigan and  Bishop International Airport in Flint, Michigan   Harry Browne Airport in Buena Vista Charter Township also serves the region 

Highways
I-75, a major north–south freeway running from Sault Ste  Marie, Michigan to Miami-Dade County, Florida
 I-675, a business route freeway from Interstate 75 passing through downtown Saginaw
 US 23
 M-13 runs from I-69 through downtown Saginaw and north to Standish 
 M-15
 M-46 is a cross peninsular road, running across the mitten and the thumb—from Port Sanilac on the Lake Huron shore; through Saginaw near Saginaw Bay; and then on to Muskegon on the Lake Michigan shore   This east-west surface route nearly bisects the Lower Peninsula of Michigan latitudinally 
 M-47 passes through the western suburbs and provides a direct connection to MBS International Airport in Freeland before ending at US 10 in nearby Bay County 
 M-52 runs from the Ohio border through Adrian and Owosso before ending at M-46, in the western suburbs of Saginaw  M-52 also provides an alternate connection to Lansing, Michigan's state capitol 
 M-54
 M-57
 M-58 runs from M-47 to I-675 
 M-81 runs east from M-13 to Caro and Cass City and ends at M-53 in Sanilac County 
 M-83
 M-84 runs from M-25 in downtown Bay City to M-58 in Saginaw 

Maritime
The Saginaw River is maintained by the Corps of Engineers, and from time to time, dredged to maintain a shipping channel down the river to Bay City, and from there, to the Great Lakes 

Education
Primary and secondary education
Public schools
Most of Saginaw County is served by the Saginaw Intermediate School District (SISD), which coordinates the efforts of local boards of education, but has no operating authority over schools  Local school boards in Michigan retain great autonomy over day-to-day operations  A number of charter schools also operate in the county 
School districts in the county (including any with any territory, no matter how slight, even if the schools and/or administration are in other counties) include:

Former school districts include:
Buena Vista School District

Higher education
Saginaw Valley State University (SVSU) is a four-year state university located in eastern Kochville Township 
Delta College is a two-year community college that serves Saginaw County, but is located in neighboring Bay County, a few miles to the north of the SVSU campus 

Notable natives
George C  Hinkley (1892-1936), Wisconsin State Assemblyman and businessman, was born in Saginaw County 
Theodore Roethke (1908–1963) Pulitzer prize and National Book Award-winning poet was born and buried here 

Historical markers
There are twenty eight recognized historical markers in the county:  They are:

Bliss Park
Burt Opera House / Wellington R  Burt
Coal Mine No  8
The Cushway House / Benjamin Cushway and Adelaide Cushway
First Congregational Church [Saginaw]
Fowler Schoolhouse (Fremont Township)
Frankenmuth / Saint Lorenz Evangelical Lutheran Church
Frankenmuth Bavarian Inn
Freeland United Methodist Church
George Nason House
Hess School
Hoyt Library
Leamington Stewart House
Michigan's German Settlers
Morseville Bridge
Presbyterian Church of South Saginaw
Saginaw Club
Saginaw Oil Industry
Saginaw Post Office
Saginaw Valley Coal
Saginaw Valley Lumbering Era
St  Mary's Hospital
Saint Michael Catholic Parish
St  Paul's Episcopal Mission
Shroeder House
Theodore Roethke / Childhood Home

Communities
Cities
Frankenmuth
Saginaw (county seat)
Zilwaukee

Villages
Birch Run
Chesaning
Merrill
Oakley
Reese (partially)
St  Charles

Charter townships
Bridgeport Charter Township
Buena Vista Charter Township
Saginaw Charter Township

Civil townships
Census-designated places
Bridgeport
Buena Vista
Burt
Freeland
Hemlock
Robin Glen-Indiantown
Shields

Other unincorporated communities
See also
List of Michigan State Historic Sites in Saginaw County, Michigan
National Register of Historic Places listings in Saginaw County, Michigan
Saginaw Trail
Context 3:  The brigade suffered a number of casualties as it engaged the German forces in the Diersfordter Wald, but by 11:00 hours the drop zone was all but completely clear of enemy forces and all battalions of the brigade had formed up  The key town of Schnappenberg was captured by the 9th Parachute Battalion in conjunction with the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion, the latter unit having lost its commanding officer to German small-arms fire only moments after he had landed  Despite taking casualties the brigade cleared the area of German forces, and by 13:45 Hill could report that the brigade had secured all of its objectives 
With Varsity a success, the 6th Airborne Division was ordered by Major General Matthew Ridgway, commander of U S  XVIII Airborne Corps, to advance eastwards  It was supported by the 6th Guards Tank Brigade, and many of the airborne troops used unconventional transport during the advance, including captured German staff cars, prams and even horses  Hill requisitioned a motorcycle for his batman and travelled alongside the 3rd Parachute Brigade as it advanced; at one point his batman stopped the motorcycle and relieved a captured German colonel of his binoculars before driving off again  Hill disapproved of battlefield looting and admonished his batman, although eventually relented by stating "If you can get me a pair [as well], you can keep them!" At midnight, 27/28 March the division came under the control of British VIII Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Evelyn Barker, and became part of the general Allied advance through Germany towards the Baltic Sea, with the 3rd Parachute Brigade as the division's leading unit  German resistance continued to be heavy, but the division managed to advance at a rapid pace despite this, with the brigade at one point advancing fifteen miles in twenty-four hours, with eighteen of those being spent in combat  By early April the 6th Airborne reached the River Weser, with the brigade approaching it near the town of Minden, accompanied by armoured support; as it did so, the brigade found itself moving parallel to several German tanks, with Hill sitting on the rear of one of the British tanks  Both sides opened fire, but did little damage, the two German tanks managing to outpace the brigade The brigade continued its fast pace of advance, with Hill continuing to ride pillion on his motorcycle, and by 23 April it had reached the River Elbe, having advanced 103 miles in fourteen days; the division had captured more than 19,000 prisoners during this period  After crossing the Elbe, the division once again came under the command of U S  XVIII Airborne Corps, with General Ridgway informing Major General Bols that it was vital the division reach the port of Wismar before the approaching Russian Army did, to ensure that Denmark was not occupied by the Soviet Union  Although the 5th Parachute Brigade was ordered to lead the division's advance, Hill was determined to reach Wismar first; after an extremely rapid advance he succeeded, with troops from the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion being the first to enter Wismar, beating an advancing Russian tank column by only a few miles  A few days later, on 7 May 1945, Germany surrendered and the war in Europe came to an end  Hill was awarded a second Bar to his DSO for his command of the 3rd Parachute Brigade during its advance from the Rhine to the Elbe, as well as the American Silver Star 

Post-war career
In May 1945 Hill served as military governor of Copenhagen, for which he was awarded the King Haakon VII Liberty Cross, and then assumed command of the 1st Parachute Brigade and oversaw its demobilisation  He retired from the British Army in July 1945, although he continued to serve as an officer in the Territorial Army, raising the 4th Parachute Brigade (Territorial Army) in 1947 and serving as its commanding officer until 1949  After standing down as commander of the brigade, Hill served on the board of a number of companies, including Lloyds Bank, the Associated Coal and Wharf Companies, and Powell Duffryn of Canada  Hill was an avid birdwatcher, with a particular claim to fame for being only the second person to discover a cuckoo's egg in the nest of a whinchat  He also helped to set up the Parachute Regiment Association and the Airborne Forces Security fund, acting as a trustee of the latter organisation for thirty years and chairman for five years  Hill married for a second time, wedding Joan Patricia Haywood in 1986  On 6 June 2004 he attended the 60th Anniversary of the Normandy landings, and a bronze statue of him was unveiled at Le Mesnil crossroads by Charles, Prince of Wales, Colonel-in-Chief of The Parachute Regiment  He died on 16 March 2006, two days after his 95th birthday  He is survived by his second wife and a daughter from the first marriage, Gillian Bridget Sanda 
Passage 2:
John Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort
Field Marshal John Standish Surtees Prendergast Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort,  (10 July 1886 – 31 March 1946) was a senior British Army officer  As a young officer during the First World War, he was decorated with the Victoria Cross for his actions during the Battle of the Canal du Nord  During the 1930s he served as Chief of the Imperial General Staff (the professional head of the British Army)  He is best known for commanding the British Expeditionary Force that was sent to France in the first year of the Second World War, only to be evacuated from Dunkirk the following year  Gort later served as Governor of Gibraltar and Malta, and High Commissioner for Palestine and Transjordan 

Early life and family
Vereker was born in London  His mother was Eleanor, Viscountess Gort née Surtees (1857–1933; later Eleanor Benson), who was a daughter of the writer Robert Smith Surtees  Vereker's father was John Gage Prendergast Vereker, 5th Viscount Gort (1849–1902) J  S  S  P  Vereker grew up in County Durham and the Isle of Wight  He was educated at Malvern Link Preparatory School, Harrow School, 
and entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst in January 1904  As Viscount Gort, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Grenadier Guards on 16 August 1905, and promoted to lieutenant on 1 April 1907 In November 1908, Gort visited his uncle, Jeffrey Edward Prendergast Vereker, a retired British army major, who was living in Canada, at Kenora, Ontario  During a moose hunting trip, Gort slipped off a large boulder, causing his rifle to discharge; the bullet injured a local guide, William Prettie, who later died of his wound in Winnipeg  Gort returned immediately to England  While studying at Trinity College, Cambridge he was initiated into Isaac Newton University Lodge Gort commanded the detachment of Grenadier Guards that bore the coffin at the funeral of King Edward VII in May 1910  He was made a Member of the Royal Victorian Order for his services in that role On 22 February 1911, Gort married Corinna Katherine Vereker, his second cousin; the couple had two sons and a daughter, before divorcing (1925)  Their elder son, Charles Standish Vereker, was born on 23 February 1912, and served as a lieutenant with the Grenadier Guards, before committing suicide (26 February 1941)  A second son, Jocelyn Cecil Vereker, was born on 27 July 1913, but died before his second birthday  Gort's daughter, Jacqueline Corinne Yvonne Vereker, who was born on 20 October 1914, married (June 1940) The Honourable William Sidney, later the 1st Viscount De L'Isle 

First World War
On 5 August 1914, Gort was promoted to captain  He went to France with the British Expeditionary Force and fought on the Western Front, taking part in the retreat from Mons in August 1914  He became a staff officer with the First Army in December 1914 and then became Brigade Major of the 4th (Guards) Brigade in April 1915  He was awarded the Military Cross in June 1915  Promoted to the brevet rank of major in June 1916, he became a staff officer at the Headquarters of the British Expeditionary Force and fought at the Battle of the Somme throughout the autumn of 1916  He was given the acting rank of lieutenant-colonel in April 1917 on appointment as Commanding Officer of 4th Battalion Grenadier Guards and, having been awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) in June 1917, he led his battalion at the Battle of Passchendaele, earning a Bar to his DSO in September 1917  The bar's citation reads:
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty  Although hit in two places in the shoulder by the bursting of a shell early in the day and in great pain, he refused to leave his battalion, and personally superintended the consolidation subsequent to a successful attack  He remained with them until 5 p m  on the following day, when he was ordered to come out and have his wounds dressed  His conduct set a very fine example of self-sacrifice, and was of great value in maintaining the high morale and offensive spirit of his battalion 
On 27 November 1918, sixteen days after the war came to an end, Gort was awarded the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces, for his actions on 27 September 1918 at the Battle of the Canal du Nord, near Flesquieres, France Victoria Cross citation

Captain (Brevet Major, Acting Lieutenant-Colonel), 1st Battalion The Grenadier Guards
Citation: For most conspicuous bravery, skilful leading and devotion to duty during the attack of the Guards Division on 27th September 1918, across the Canal du Nord, near Flesquieres, when in command of the 1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards, the leading battalion of the 3rd Guards Brigade 
Under heavy artillery and machine-gun fire he led his battalion with great skill and determination to the "forming-up" ground, where very severe fire from artillery and machine guns was again encountered 
Although wounded, he quickly grasped the situation, directed a platoon to proceed down a sunken road to make a flanking attack, and, under terrific fire, went across open ground to obtain the assistance of a Tank, which he personally led and directed to the best possible advantage  While thus fearlessly exposing himself, he was again severely wounded by a shell  Notwithstanding considerable loss of blood, after lying on a stretcher for a while, he insisted on getting up and personally directing the further attack  By his magnificent example of devotion to duty and utter disregard of personal safety all ranks were inspired to exert themselves to the utmost, and the attack resulted in the capture of over 200 prisoners, two batteries of field guns and numerous machine guns  Lt -Col  Viscount Gort then proceeded to organise the defence of the captured position until he collapsed; even then he refused to leave the field until he had seen the "success signal" go up on the final objective 

The successful advance of the battalion was mainly due to the valour, devotion and leadership of this very gallant officer 
Subsequent to this he became known as "Tiger" Gort  He won a second Bar to his DSO in January 1919, with the citation reading:

For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty in command of his battalion  He led his men up by night to relieve a battalion which had attacked and failed to reach its objective  Regardless of danger he personally reconnoitred the line ahead of his troops, and got them on to the objective before dawn  During the three following days he again made forward reconnaissances, and leading his battalion gradually on, advanced the line 800 yards and gained a canal bank  It is impossible to speak too highly of this officer's initiative 
He was also mentioned in despatches eight times during the war 

Inter-war years
Gort was promoted to the substantive rank of major on 21 October 1919  After attending a short course at the Staff College, Camberley, in 1919 he joined Headquarters London District and, having been promoted to brevet lieutenant-colonel on 1 January 1921, he returned to the College as an instructor  He left the Staff College in May 1923 Gort was promoted to colonel in April 1926 (with seniority backdated to 1 January 1925)  In 1926 he became a staff officer at London District before becoming a chief instructor at the Senior Officers' School at Sheerness  In January 1927, he went to Shanghai, returning in August to give a first-hand account of the Chinese situation to the King and the Prince of Wales  He returned home to be a staff officer at Headquarters 4th Infantry Division at Colchester in July 1927 In June 1928, Gort was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire  He went on to command the Guards Brigade for two years from 1930 before overseeing training in India with the temporary rank of brigadier  In 1932, he took up flying, buying the de Havilland Moth aircraft Henrietta and being elected chairman of the Household Brigade Flying Club  On 25 November 1935, he was promoted, at the relatively young age (in peacetime, where promotion was painfully slow) of 49, to major-general  He returned to the Staff College in 1936 as its Commandant In May 1937, Gort was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath  In September 1937, he became Military Secretary to the War Minister, Leslie Hore-Belisha, with the temporary rank of lieutenant-general  On 6 December 1937, as part of a purge by Hore-Belisha of senior officers, Gort was appointed to the Army Council, made a general and replaced Field Marshal Sir Cyril Deverell as Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS)  On 1 January 1938, he was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath  His appointment was generally well received in the army, although there was some resentment in his having passed over a number of much older and more senior officers, among them John Dill, Archibald Wavell and Alan Brooke, who would later become an outspoken critic of Gort  He was not especially highly regarded for his intelligence and so Major General Ronald Adam was appointed to be Gort's Deputy Chief of the Imperial General Staff As CIGS, Gort advocated the primacy of building a land army and defending France and the Low Countries over Imperial defence after France had said she would not be able on her own to defend herself against a German attack On 2 December 1938 Gort submitted a report on the readiness of the British Army  He observed that Nazi Germany, as a result of the acquisition of Czechoslovakia, was in a stronger position than the previous year and that as a result of the government's decision in 1937 to create a "general purpose" army, Britain lacked the necessary forces for the defence of France On 21 December Gort recommended to the Chiefs of Staff that Britain would need to help France defend the Netherlands and Belgium and that for that purpose the British Army needed complete equipment for four Regular army infantry divisions and two mobile armoured divisions, with the Territorial army armed with training equipment and then war equipment for four divisions  The First Sea Lord, Admiral Sir Roger Backhouse, replied that Britain's continental commitment might not be a limited liability  Gort replied: "Lord Kitchener had clearly pointed out that no great country can wage a 'little' war"  He also attacked as a fallacy the theory of strategic mobility by the use of seapower because in modern war land transport was faster and cheaper than transport by sea  The experience of David Lloyd George's 1917 Alexandretta project "proved that [maritime side-shows] invariably led to vast commitments out of all proportion to the value of the object attained"  If a purely defensive position was taken the Maginot Line would be broken, and the British Army (with anti-aircraft defence) was only getting £277 million out of a total £2,000 million spent on defence 

Second World War
On the outbreak of the Second World War, Gort was appointed by Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain as the Commander-in-Chief of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France, arriving there on 19 September 1939 During this time Gort played a part in a political manoeuvre, the Pillbox affair, that led to the dismissal of War Minister Leslie Hore-Belisha  Unimpressed by his qualities for command, Hore-Belisha described Gort as: "utterly brainless and unable to grasp the simplest problem"  Gort dismissed his subordinates' critiques of the Allies' Plan D, including his former friend Alan Brooke's correct prediction that it would allow the Wehrmacht to outflank the Allied forces, as defeatist Following the period of the "Phoney War", the Wehrmacht's attack and breakthrough in the Ardennes in May 1940 succeeded in splitting the Allied Armies, and surrounding the French First Army and BEF, Gort took the unilateral decision to abandon his orders received from the British Government for a southward attack to be made to support the French Army, instead on 25 May 1940 ordering a retreat by the BEF northwards to the French coast  On reaching the coast Gort oversaw the en masse retirement of the BEF back to the British Isles, involving the Battle of Dunkirk and the Dunkirk evacuation, while France was defeated and surrendered to Nazi Germany four weeks later With regard to his conduct as C -in-C  in France in 1940, Gort is credited by some historians as reacting efficiently to the crisis and saving the BEF, while others hold a more critical view of his leadership, seeing his decision to abandon France during Germany's attack into the west as defeatist Gort went on to serve in various positions for the remainder of the war, but the chaotic rout of the BEF under his command from France had convinced Winston Churchill, the newly installed British Prime Minister, that he was undesirable as a field commander, and he was side-lined to non-combatant posts  On the day of his return to England from France on 1 June 1940 he was appointed an ADC General to George VI  On 25 June he went by flying boat, with Duff Cooper, to Rabat, Morocco, to rally anti-Nazi French cabinet ministers, but was instead held on his flying boat  He quickly returned to Britain 
Gort was given the post of Inspector of Training and the Home Guard, and with nothing constructive to do visited Iceland, Orkney and Shetland   He went on to serve as Governor of Gibraltar (1941–42)  In 1943 he succeeded Lord Galway as Colonel Commandant of the Honourable Artillery Company, a position he held until his death 
As Governor of Malta (1942–44), Gort's courage and leadership during the siege was recognised by the Maltese giving him the Sword of Honour  He pushed ahead with extending the airfield into land reclaimed from the sea, against the advice of the British government, but was later thanked by the War Cabinet for his foresight when the airfield proved vital to the British Mediterranean campaign  The King gave Gort his field marshal's baton on 20 June 1943 at Malta   On 29 September, Gort, together with Generals Dwight D  Eisenhower and Harold Alexander, witnessed Marshal Pietro Badoglio signing the Italian surrender in Valletta harbour Gort was present when his son-in-law, Major William Sidney, received the Victoria Cross from General Sir Harold Alexander, Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of the Allied Armies in Italy, on 3 March 1944 in Italy 
Gort ended the war as High Commissioner for Palestine and Transjordan  He served in this office for only one year  In 1945 he nominated William James Fitzgerald, Chief Justice of Palestine, to enquire into the Jewish-Arab conflict in Jerusalem  Chief Justice Fitzgerald issued his report in which he proposed to divide the city into separate Jewish and Arab Quarters  Despite growing tensions in Palestine, Gort strove to cultivate good personal relations with both Jews and Arabs, and was greatly admired and respected by the Jewish and Arab communities 
During his time in Palestine, Gort's health deteriorated, and he was suffering from great pain and discomfort in his abdomen  He was in fact suffering from liver cancer, but the doctors he consulted in London were unable to properly diagnose his condition  Gort ruled Palestine at the time that the Jewish insurgency was beginning  Despite his efforts, he was unable to stem the growing confrontation between the Yishuv (Jewish community) and British authorities  On 5 November 1945, he stepped down as High Commissioner and returned to Britain  Commenting on his departure, The Palestine Post wrote that "No High Commissioner in the twenty-five years of British rule in Palestine enjoyed greater popular trust and none repaid it with greater personal kindness "

Death
After leaving Palestine and returning to England, Gort was admitted to Guy's Hospital in London, where exploratory surgery revealed that he was dying from inoperable liver cancer  In February 1946 he was created a Viscount in the Peerage of the United Kingdom under the same title as his existing Viscountcy in the Peerage of Ireland  On 31 March 1946, he died in Guy's Hospital at the age of 59 years  As he did not have a surviving son, the Irish Viscountcy of Gort passed to his brother, Standish Vereker, and the British creation became extinct  His body was entombed in the Sidney family vault at St  John the Baptist Church, Penshurst, in the county of Kent 

Film portrayal
Gort was portrayed by Cyril Raymond in the film Dunkirk (1958) 
Passage 3:
Richard O'Connor
General Sir Richard Nugent O'Connor,  (21 August 1889 – 17 June 1981) was a senior British Army officer who fought in both the First and Second World Wars, and commanded the Western Desert Force in the early years of the Second World War  He was the field commander for Operation Compass, in which his forces destroyed a much larger Italian army – a victory which nearly drove the Axis from Africa, and in turn, led Adolf Hitler to send the Afrika Korps under Erwin Rommel to try to reverse the situation  O'Connor was captured by a German reconnaissance patrol during the night of 7 April 1941 and spent over two years in an Italian prisoner of war camp  He eventually escaped after the fall of Mussolini in the autumn of 1943  In 1944 he commanded VIII Corps in the Battle of Normandy and later during Operation Market Garden  In 1945 he was General Officer in Command of the Eastern Command in India and then, in the closing days of British rule in the subcontinent, he headed Northern Command  His final job in the army was Adjutant-General to the Forces in London, in charge of the British Army's administration, personnel and organisation



ground_truth: Chippewa County

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Brigadier Stanley James Ledger Hill was attached to the command post of which senior British Army officer born on July 10, 1886?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: 
In honour of his war service, O'Connor was recognised with the highest level of knighthood in two different orders of chivalry  He was also awarded the Distinguished Service Order (twice), the Military Cross, the French Croix de Guerre and the Legion of Honour, and served as aide-de-camp to King George VI  He was also mentioned in despatches nine times for actions in the First World War, once in Palestine in 1939 and three times in the Second World War 

Early life
Richard Nugent O'Connor was born in Srinagar, Kashmir, India, on 21 August 1889  His father, Maurice O'Connor, was a major in the Royal Irish Fusiliers, and his mother, Lilian Morris, was the daughter of a former governor of India's central provinces  He attended Tonbridge Castle School in 1899 and The Towers School in Crowthorne in 1902  In 1903, aged 13, and after his father's death in an accident, he moved to Wellington College  "His career there was not distinguished in any way", however, although he enjoyed his time there Following this, he went to the Royal Military College at Sandhurst in January 1908  Despite his success in later life, his time there, as at Wellington (only a few miles away from Sandhurst), was not remarkable, and he did not mention his time there even in his later life   A year ahead of him at the college was a man who would play a significant role in O'Connor's future military career and life  This was Bernard Montgomery, about two years older than O'Connor, although it is unknown if the two men knew of each other at this very early stage of their military careers Passing out 38th in the order of merit, in September of the following year O'Connor, anxious to join a Scottish regiment, was commissioned, as a second lieutenant and posted to the 2nd Battalion of his new regiment, Cameronians (Scottish Rifles), the regiment of his choice, recruiting from Glasgow and Lanarkshire, and with which he was to maintain close ties with for the rest of his life  The battalion was initially stationed in Aldershot when O'Connor joined them in October 1909 before being rotated, in January 1910, to Colchester  It was here where he received signals and rifle training, after attending courses for both, resulting in his being appointed a regimental signals officer for the former, and becoming a distinguished marksman after attending the Small Arms School at Hythe, Kent  In September 1911 the battalion sailed for Malta where it was to remain for the next three years as part of a Malta brigade, with O'Connor, now a lieutenant (having been promoted to that rank in May), continuing in his role as regimental signals officer   By now it was becoming obvious that a war in Europe was on the horizon  As a result, for O'Connor, who at some point was appointed the Malta brigade's signal officer, the years of 1913 and 1914 were spent in training the men under his command for the duties that they would one day have to perform in battle 

First World War
During the First World War, O'Connor initially served as signals officer of the 22nd Brigade in the 7th Division and captain in command of the 7th Division's Signals Company  From October 1916, as a captain and later as a brevet major, he served as brigade major of 91st Brigade, 7th Division  He was awarded the Military Cross (MC) in February 1915  In March of that year he saw action at Arras and Bullecourt  O'Connor was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) and appointed brevet lieutenant-colonel while he was in command of the 2nd Infantry Battalion of the Honourable Artillery Company, part of the 7th Division, in June 1917  The citation for his DSO reads:

For conspicuous gallantry and resource  In consequence of a change in the situation a revision of plans became necessary, but, owing to darkness and heavy shelling, confusion arose  By his courage and promptness he quickly restored order, and organised a successful attack 
In November of that year, the division was ordered to support the Italians against the Austro-Hungarian forces at the River Piave which then formed part of the Italian Front  In late October 1918 the 2nd Battalion captured the island of Grave di Papadopoli on the Piave River for which O'Connor received the Italian Silver Medal of Military Valor and a Bar to his DSO At the end of the war, O'Connor reverted to his rank of captain and served as regimental adjutant from April to December 1919 

Between the wars
O'Connor attended the Staff College, Camberley in 1920  O'Connor's other service in the years between the world wars included an appointment from 1921 to 1924 as brigade major of the Experimental Brigade (or 5 Brigade) under the command of J  F  C  Fuller, which was formed to test methods and procedures for using tanks and aircraft in co-ordination with infantry and artillery 
He returned to his old unit, the Cameronians (Scottish Rifles), as adjutant from February 1924 to 1925  From 1925 to 1927 he served as a company commander at Sandhurst  He returned to the Staff College, Camberley as an instructor from October 1927 to January 1930  In 1930 O'Connor again served with the 1st Battalion, Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) in Egypt and from 1931 to 1932 in Lucknow, India  From April 1932 to January 1935 he was a general staff officer, grade 2 at the War Office  He attended the Imperial Defence College in London in 1935  In April 1936 O'Connor was promoted to full colonel and appointed temporary brigadier to assume command of the Peshawar Brigade in north west India  In September 1938 O'Connor was promoted to major-general and appointed General Officer Commanding 7th Infantry Division in Palestine, along with the additional responsibility as Military Governor of Jerusalem  For his services in Palestine O'Connor was mentioned in despatches In August 1939, shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War, the 7th Division was transferred to the fortress at Mersa Matruh, Egypt, where O'Connor was concerned with defending the area against a potential attack from the massed forces of the Italian Tenth Army over the border in Libya  The 7th Division later converted to become the 6th Division in November 1939  He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in July 1940 

Second World War
Italian Offensive and Operation Compass
Italy declared war on Britain and France on 10 June 1940 and, soon after, O'Connor was appointed commander of the Western Desert Force  He was tasked by Lieutenant-General Henry Maitland Wilson, commander of the British troops in Egypt, to push the Italian force out of Egypt, to protect the Suez Canal and British interests from attack On 13 September, Graziani struck: his leading divisions advanced sixty miles into Egypt where they reached the town of Sidi Barrani and, short of supplies, began to dig in  O'Connor then began to prepare for a counterattack  He had the 7th Armoured Division and the Indian 4th Infantry Division along with two brigades  British and Commonwealth troops in Egypt totalled around 36,000 men  The Italians had nearly five times as many troops along with hundreds more tanks and artillery pieces and the support of a much larger air force  Meanwhile, small raiding columns were sent out from the 7th Armoured and newly formed Long Range Desert Group to probe, harass, and disrupt the Italians (this marked the start of what became the Special Air Service)  The Royal Navy and Royal Air Force supported by bombarding enemy strongpoints, airfields and rear areas 
 During November, O'Connor was appointed an acting lieutenant-general in recognition of the increased size of his command The counteroffensive, Operation Compass, began on 8 December 1940  O'Connor's relatively small force of 31,000 men, 275 tanks and 120 artillery pieces, ably supported by an RAF wing and the Royal Navy, broke through a gap in the Italian defences at Sidi Barrani near the coast  The Desert Force cut a swath through the Italian rear areas, stitching its way between the desert and the coast, capturing strongpoint after strongpoint by cutting off and isolating them  The Italian guns proved to be no match for the heavy British Matilda tanks and their shells bounced off the armour  By mid-December the Italians had been pushed completely out of Egypt, leaving behind 38,000 prisoners and large stores of equipment The Desert Force paused to rest briefly before continuing the assault into Italian Libya against the remainder of Graziani's disorganised army  At that point, the Commander-in-Chief Middle East General Sir Archibald Wavell ordered the 4th Indian Division withdrawn to spearhead the invasion of Italian East Africa  This veteran division was to be replaced by the inexperienced 6th Australian Division, which, although tough, was untrained for desert warfare  Despite this setback, the offensive continued with minimal delay  By the end of 6 December the Australians besieged and took Bardia along with 40,000 more prisoners and 400 guns 
In early January 1941, the Western Desert Force was redesignated XIII Corps  On 9 January, the offensive resumed  By 12 January the strategic fortress port of Tobruk was surrounded  On 22 January it fell and another 27,000 Italian POWs were taken along with valuable supplies, food, and weapons  As Tobruk fell it was decided to have XIII Corps answerable directly to Wavell at HQ Middle East Command, removing HQ British troops Egypt from the chain of command  On 26 January the remaining Italian divisions in eastern Libya began to retreat to the northwest along the coast  O'Connor promptly moved to pursue and cut them off, sending his armour southwest through the desert in a wide flanking movement, while the infantry gave chase along the coast to the north  The lightly armoured advance units of 4th Armoured Brigade arrived at Beda Fomm before the fleeing Italians on 5 February, blocking the main coast road and their route of escape  Two days later, after a costly and failed attempt to break through the blockade, and with the main British infantry force fast bearing down on them from Benghazi to the north, the demoralised, exhausted Italians unconditionally capitulated  O'Connor and Eric Dorman-Smith cabled back to Wavell, "Fox killed in the open   "In two months, the XIII Corps/Western Desert Force had advanced over 800 miles (1,300 km), destroyed an entire Italian army of ten divisions, taken over 130,000 prisoners, 400 tanks and 1,292 guns at the cost of 500 killed and 1,373 wounded  In recognition of this, O'Connor was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath 

Reversal and capture
In a strategic sense, however, the victory of Operation Compass was not yet complete; the Italians still controlled most of Libya and possessed forces which would have to be dealt with  The Axis foothold in North Africa would remain a potential threat to Egypt and the Suez Canal so long as this situation continued  O'Connor was aware of this and urged Wavell to allow him to push on to Tripoli with all due haste to finish off the Italians  Wavell concurred as did Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson, now the military governor of Cyrenaica, and XIII Corps resumed its advance  However, O'Connor's new offensive would prove short-lived: when the corps reached El Agheila, just to the southwest of Beda Fomm, Churchill ordered the advance to halt there  The Axis had invaded Greece and Wavell was ordered to send all available forces there as soon as possible to oppose this  Wavell took the 6th Australian Division, along with part of 7th Armoured Division and most of the supplies and air support for this ultimately doomed operation  XIII Corps HQ was wound down and in February 1941 O'Connor was appointed General Officer Commanding-in-Chief the British Troops in Egypt Matters were soon to become much worse for the British  By March 1941, Hitler had dispatched General Erwin Rommel along with the Afrika Korps to bolster the Italians in Libya  Wavell and O'Connor now faced a formidable foe under a commander whose cunning, resourcefulness, and daring would earn him the nickname "the Desert Fox"  Rommel wasted little time in launching his own offensive on 31 March  The inexperienced 2nd Armoured Division was soundly defeated and on 2 April Wavell came forward to review matters with Lieutenant-General Sir Philip Neame, by now the commander of British and Commonwealth troops in Cyrenaica (Wilson having left to command the Allied expeditionary force in Greece)  O'Connor was called forward and arrived from Cairo the next day, but declined to assume Neame's command because of his lack of familiarity with the prevailing conditions  However, he agreed to stay to advise On 6 April O'Connor and Neame, while travelling to their headquarters which had been withdrawn from Maraua to Timimi, were captured by a German patrol near Martuba 

Captivity and escape
O'Connor spent the next two and a half years as a prisoner of war, mainly at the Castello di Vincigliata near Florence, Italy  Here he and Neame were in the company of such figures as Major-General Sir Adrian Carton de Wiart and Air Vice Marshal Owen Tudor Boyd  Although the conditions of their imprisonment were not unpleasant, the officers soon formed an escape club and began planning a break-out  Their first attempt, a simple attempt to climb over the castle walls, resulted in a month's solitary confinement  The second attempt, by an escape tunnel built between October 1942 and March 1943, had some success, with two New Zealander brigadiers, James Hargest and Reginald Miles, reaching Switzerland  O'Connor and Carton de Wiart, travelling on foot, were at large for a week but were captured near Bologna in the Po Valley  Once again, a month's solitary confinement was the result It was only after the Italian surrender in September 1943 that the final, successful, attempt was made  With help from the Italian resistance movement, Boyd, O'Connor and Neame escaped while being transferred from Vincigliati  After a failed rendezvous with a submarine, they arrived by boat at Termoli, then went on to Bari where they were welcomed as guests by General Sir Harold Alexander, commanding the Allied Armies in Italy (AAI), then fighting on the Italian Front, along with the American General Dwight D  Eisenhower, on 21 December 1943  Upon his return to Britain, O'Connor was presented with the knighthood he had been awarded in 1941 and promoted to lieutenant-general  Montgomery suggested that O'Connor be his successor as British Eighth Army commander, but that post was instead given to Oliver Leese and O'Connor was given a corps to command 

VIII Corps and Normandy
On 21 January 1944 O'Connor became commander of VIII Corps, which consisted of the Guards Armoured Division, 11th Armoured Division, 15th (Scottish) Infantry Division, along with 6th Guards Tank Brigade, 8th Army Group Royal Artillery and 2nd Household Cavalry Regiment  The corps formed part of the British Second Army, commanded by Lieutenant-General Miles Dempsey, which itself was part of the Anglo-Canadian 21st Army Group, commanded by General Sir Bernard Montgomery, a friend who had also been a fellow instructor at the Staff College, Camberley in the 1920s, in addition to having served together in Palestine some years before  O'Connor's new command was to take part in Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of German-occupied France, although it was not scheduled for the initial landings as it was to form part of the second wave to go ashore On 11 June 1944, five days after the initial landings in Normandy, O'Connor and the leading elements of VIII Corps arrived in Normandy in the sector around Caen, which would be the scene of much hard fighting during the next few weeks  O'Connor's first mission (with the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division under command, replacing the Guards Armoured Division) was to mount Operation Epsom, a break out from the bridgehead established by the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division, cross the Odon and Orne rivers, then secure the high-ground positions northeast of Bretteville-sur-Laize and cut Caen off from the south  The break-out and river crossings were accomplished promptly  The army group commander, Montgomery, congratulated O'Connor and his VIII Corps on their success  But cutting off Caen would prove much harder  VIII Corps was pushed back over the Orne  O'Connor tried to re-establish a bridgehead during Operation Jupiter with the 43rd (Wessex) Division, but met with little success  Although the operation had failed to achieve its tactical objectives, Montgomery was pleased with the strategic benefits in the commitment and fixing of the German armoured reserves to the Caen sector After being withdrawn into reserve on 12 July, the next major action for VIII Corps would be Operation Goodwood, for which the corps was stripped of its infantry divisions but had a third armoured division (7th Armoured Division) attached  The attack began on 18 July with a massive aerial bombardment by the 9th USAAF, and ended on 20 July with a three-pronged drive to capture Bras and Hubert-Folie on the right, Fontenay on the left, and Bourguébus Ridge in the centre  However, the attack ground to a halt in pouring rain, turning the battlefield into a quagmire, with the major objectives still not taken, notably the Bourguebus Ridge which was the key to any break-out 
Restored to its pre-invasion formation but with British 3rd Infantry Division attached, the corps was switched to the southwest of Caen to take part in Operation Bluecoat  15th (Scottish) Division attacked towards Vire to the east and west of Bois du Homme in order to facilitate the American advance in Operation Cobra (O'Connor, 5/3/25 July 29 1944)  A swift drive was followed by fierce fighting to the south during the first two days of the advance, with both sides taking heavy losses As the allies prepared to pursue the Germans from France, O'Connor learned that VIII Corps would not take part in this phase of the campaign  VIII Corps was placed in reserve, and its transport used to supply XXX Corps and XII Corps  His command was reduced in mid-August, with the transfer of the Guards Armoured Divisions and 11th Armoured Division to XXX Corps and 15th (Scottish) Division to XII Corps  While in reserve, O'Connor maintained an active correspondence with Montgomery, Hobart and others, making suggestions for improvements of armoured vehicles and addressing various other problems such as combat fatigue  Some of his recommendations were followed up; such as for mounting "rams" on armoured vehicles in order to cope with the difficult hedgerow country (O'Connor, 5/3/41- 5/3/44 Aug 24, 26 1944) 

Operation Market Garden and India
O'Connor remained in command of VIII Corps, for the time being, and was given the task of supporting Lieutenant-General Brian Horrocks' XXX Corps in Operation Market Garden, the plan by Montgomery to establish a bridgehead across the Rhine in the Netherlands  Following their entry into Weert at the end of September, VIII Corps prepared for and took part in Operation Aintree, the advance towards Venray and Venlo beginning on 12 October However, on 27 November O'Connor was removed from his post and was ordered to take over from Lieutenant-General Sir Mosley Mayne as GOC-in-C, Eastern Command, India  Smart's account says that Montgomery prompted the move for, "not being ruthless enough with his American subordinates", although Mead states that the initiative was taken by Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), but Montgomery made no attempt to retain O'Connor  He was succeeded as GOC VIII Corps by Major-General Evelyn Barker, a much younger man and formerly the GOC of the 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division who had been one of O'Connor's students at the Staff College at Camberley in the late 1920s  This marked the end of a long and distinguished combat career, although the new job was an important one, controlling the lines of communication of the Fourteenth Army  O'Connor was mentioned in despatches for the thirteenth and final time of his career on 22 March 1945 Having been promoted to full general in April 1945, O'Connor was appointed GOC-in-C North Western Army in India in October that year (the formation was renamed Northern Command in November of that year)  By now the war was over 

Post-war
From 1946 to 1947 he was Adjutant-General to the Forces and aide-de-camp general to the King  His career as adjutant general was to be short-lived, however  After a disagreement over a cancelled demobilisation for troops stationed in the Far East, O'Connor offered his resignation in September 1947, which was accepted  Montgomery, by then the CIGS in succession to Brooke, maintained that he had been sacked, rather than resigned, for being, "not up to the job " Not long after this he was installed as a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath 

Retirement and final years
O'Connor retired in 1948 at the age of fifty-eight  However, he maintained his links with the army and took on other responsibilities  He was Commandant of the Army Cadet Force in Scotland from 1948 to 1959; Colonel of the Cameronians, 1951 to 1954; Lord lieutenant of Ross and Cromarty from 1955 to 1964 and served as Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1964  His first wife, Jean, died in 1959, and in 1963 he married Dorothy Russell In July 1971, he was created Knight of the Order of the Thistle  O’Connor was interviewed concerning North African operations in episode 8, "The Desert: North Africa (1940–1943)”, of the acclaimed British documentary television series, The World at War  O'Connor died in London on 17 June 1981, just two months shy of his 92nd birthday  There was a small funeral, attended only by his family  There were also two memorial services, one held in London on 15 July, with O'Connor's great friend and admirer, Field Marshal Lord Harding, as he was now known, giving the address, where he stated the following:

Dick O'Connor was my ideal of a commander in battle; always approachable and ready to listen, yet firm and decisive and always fair in his judgement of people and events; modest to a degree, shunning the limelight and embarassed by praise; calmly resolute and courageously determined 
The second memorial service was held in Edinburgh on 11 August, where Lieutenant General Sir George Collingwood, who had been O'Connor's aide-de-camp in the late 1930s, made the address  Making references to O'Connor's campaign in the desert some forty years earlier, he then mentioned his numerous attempts to escape from captivity, along with his happy private life and his two "wonderful partners in the home", before ending his address with:

So there is in a sense a picture of three different people  The dedicated soldier and brilliant fighting Commander, a prisoner of war exerting all his energies and taking great risks to escape and return to serve his Country, and the quiet, unassuming little country gentleman with the kindly smile and charming manners, who was a wonderful host and a wonderful guest, but of course it was one and the same person and the chief facets of his character were, I think, great courage and determination, an impelling sense of duty, loyalty, extreme personal modesty, kindness and generosity and a delightful sense of humour  I think the jokes he liked best were those against himself 

Notes



ground_truth: Lord Gort