prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which California band, whose debut album Adrenaline appeared in 1995, has been referred to as "the Radiohead of metal"?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Adrenaline (album)
Adrenaline is the debut studio album by American alternative metal band Deftones, released on October 3, 1995, by Maverick Records  The majority of the album was produced by Terry Date, while a hidden track titled "Fist" was produced by Ross Robinson 

Background and recording
Stephen Carpenter, Abe Cunningham and Chino Moreno were high school friends  All three went to Sacramento's C  K  McClatchy High School together, and participated in the city's skateboarding scene  Carpenter was a fan of heavy metal; Moreno was interested in hardcore punk bands such as Bad Brains as well as post-punk and new wave bands such as Depeche Mode and the Cure  When Moreno learned that Carpenter was a guitarist, he set up a jam session with Cunningham, who played drums  The trio began playing regularly in Carpenter's garage around 1988  They recruited bassist Dominic Garcia some time after, and the band became a four-piece  When Cunningham left Deftones to join Phallucy, another band from Sacramento, Garcia switched instruments and became the band's drummer  Chi Cheng filled the void as bassist, and the band recorded a four-track demo soon afterwards Regarding the recording, drummer Abe Cunningham said, "At the time we did the first record – which I really like and think is good – you can tell the band was really young  We'd been playing most of those songs for quite a while, and we were just so happy to be making a record that we didn't really think a whole lot about making the songs better"  Frontman Chino Moreno felt that Adrenaline was recorded "really fast", and he performed all his vocals live with the band in the room using a hand-held Shure SM58 microphone 

Composition
Musically, Adrenaline has been described as alternative metal, post-hardcore, nu metal, and rap rock 

Promotion
"7 Words" was released as the first promotional single from the album on December 17, 1995  It was followed by "Bored", issued as the second promotional single on April 4, 1996  Music videos were released for "7 Words" and "Bored"  The song "Engine No  9" was also featured in the film Law Abiding Citizen Deftones performed heavily throughout North America to support the album, going on tours with Handsome, Korn, White Zombie and Super 8 (whose vocalist helped discover Deftones)  They also opened for Kiss on their Alive/Worldwide Tour 

Reception
Adrenaline was praised for its new, innovative sound, with critics initially comparing it to a diverse range of acts such as Helmet, Nine Inch Nails, the Cure, Korn, Nirvana, and the Smashing Pumpkins  In his 1995 review, Kerrang!'s Paul Brannigan felt the album's sound "falls between Quicksand and Tool", and said Deftones "explode from atmospheric croons into buck-mad rages"  He wrote, "Excellent production from Terry Date allows the crisp guitar on 'Lifter' and '7 Words' to shine", and that "Bored" and "Nosebleed" are "just as blunt and angry, slabs of guitar crashing down on swirling, hypnotic rhythms " Brannigan rated it 4 out of 5 stars, saying it was "Impressive " In 1995, Jon Wiederhorn of Pulse stated that "Adrenaline pitches between gloom-saturated melodies and explosive riffs, lashing out like a sleep-deprived paranoiac awakened by noisy neighbors  The rhythms are crisp and crafty and the vocals resonate both fury and sensitivity in a way that's similar to, but far more blatantly metallic than Nirvana"  Critic Katherine Turman wrote in January 1996, "If this is what heavy metal is evolving into, it's a damn good thing" Giving the album 3 out of 4 stars in her 1996 review, Los Angeles Times critic Sandy Masuo praised the album's nuance and blend of musical extremes and various influences: "On the outside, Sacramento's Deftones are all pummeling rhythms and high anxiety, but delving further into the music turns up some surprising nuances: traces of post-punk pop, tinges of rap, a pinch of industrial grit  Chino Moreno rants, sobs, croons and even works some Middle Eastern overtones into his vocals, while Stephen Carpenter's guitar shifts from coarse outbursts to crisp Helmet-ine precision  A bracing blend of extremes"  In his 1996 review, Tomas Pascual of Livewire magazine similarly noted the album's subtle yet diverse musical influences and the juxtaposition of loud and heavy with soft and melodic: "There are many bands these days that lay claim to a diverse section of influences  But no one band is as subtly boisterous about their eclectic mix as are Deftones  [   ] Deftones' course is piloted by vocalist and frontman Chino Moreno, who expresses his smooth, melodic lyrics emotionally one minute before giving way to abrasive, maddened screams the next  Backed by the serene and apocalyptic guitar of Stephen Carpenter, this Yin-Yang formula keeps Deftones' debut Adrenaline progressively contagious" 

Retrospective reviews
In a retrospective AllMusic review of the album, Daniel Gioffre wrote, "Unlike many of their contemporaries, Deftones are very controlled even in the midst of chaos", adding, "Throw Abe Cunningham's surprisingly sophisticated drumming into the mix, and you have a band that possesses a far greater degree of nuance than most others that work in the genre"  While he noted that "there is a bit of sameness in Chino Moreno's whispered vocal melodies, which drags the record down a bit", Gioffre ultimately states that "[o]n later albums, the band's progressive tendencies become more developed, but the more straight-ahead material on Adrenaline does not disappoint  A promising debut " In the book The Rough Guide to Heavy Metal, author Essi Berelian wrote that the album "still stands as one of the best examples of nu-metal"  Writing for MetalSucks in June 2009, Carlos Ramirez noted that the wide range of musical influences in both Adrenaline and Around the Fur helped to establish the band in the underground music scene prior to their larger commercial breakthrough with third album White Pony: "[Deftones'] first two albums, Adrenaline (1995) and Around the Fur (1997), were both chock full of bombastic guitars, new wave-kissed vocal lines, and post-hardcore informed arrangements, and their wide-scoped sound helped the Sacramento, CA band find audiences in various facets of the underground music scene"  In critic Tim Karan's 20th anniversary assessment for Diffuser, he wrote: "For those who were swept up in the burgeoning nu-metal movement, 'Adrenaline' was a landmark, life-changing release  But Deftones never really were a true nu-metal band -- this album is more like hardcore-influenced post-hardcore than 'Nookie' -- and it only scratched at the surface of the experimental metal Deftones would soon step into" 

Commercial performance
While the album was initially unsuccessful, extensive touring and word-of-mouth promotion built the band a dedicated fanbase and helped Adrenaline to sell over 220,000 copies  When asked what he attributed the album's success to, bassist Chi Cheng responded, "One word: perseverance  We've been together for almost eight years, on the road for two and we do it with honesty and integrity – and the kids can tell"  The album was certified gold by the RIAA on July 7, 1999, in recognition of 500,000 units sold  It was eventually certified platinum on September 23, 2008, in recognition of 1,000,000 units sold 

Track listing
Note

"Fist" is currently misspelled "First" on several digital editions, as well as Japanese copies 

Personnel
Credits taken from the CD liner notes 
Deftones

Chino Moreno – lead vocals
Stephen Carpenter – guitar
Chi Cheng – bass, backing vocals
Abe Cunningham – drumsTechnical

Deftones - producer (all songs except "Fist")
Terry Date - producer (all songs except "Fist"), engineer, mixing
Ross Robinson - producer ("Fist")
Ulrich Wild - engineer
Tom Smurdy - 2nd assistant
Ted Jensen - mastering

Charts
Certifications
Passage 2:
Given to the Rising
Given to the Rising is the ninth studio album by American band Neurosis, released on June 5, 2007  The album is available in a standard jewel case, a limited-edition digipak, and a limited-edition double LP, all with the same track list  Decibel Magazine listed Given to the Rising as the 76th-best metal album of the decade  A DVD documentary is also available from Neurot Records  The artwork for the album, designed by Josh Graham, is a mixture of photos from Heroes Square in Budapest and drawings inspired by the place  Coincidentally, singer/guitarist Steve Von Till and Josh Graham had separately thought of the idea of using Heroes Square as the artwork for the album 

Musical style
The album has been described by music critics as a more aggressive, heavier album than their recent previous output, showcasing a "more direct and hard-hitting approach", resulting in "their heaviest record since 99's 'Times Of Grace'" 

Critical reception
The album received critical acclaim upon release  In D  Shawn Bosler's review of the album for Pitchfork, he described it as "their best album in a decade " AllMusic's Thom Jurek praised it as "one hell of an album, better than anyone had any right to expect, and one of the high moments in a career filled with them  Neurosis have no need of caricatures or "more evil than thou" posturing  They are in a league of their own, and from the sounds of Given to the Rising, will remain there for some time "

Track listing
Personnel
NeurosisScott Kelly – vocals, guitar
Dave Edwardson – bass, backing vocals
Jason Roeder – drums, percussions
Steve Von Till – guitar, vocals
Noah Landis – keyboards, synthesizers, effects, backing vocalsTechnical personnelSteve Albini – production, mastering
John Graham – artwork

Chart performance
Passage 3:
Just Keep Runnin'
Just Keep Runnin' is a punk rock album by the Poway, California band Agent 51  It was first released in 2000 on the band's own Suburban Hooligans Records label, then was re-released in 2001 by Adeline Records with additional tracks  It was the band's second album and expanded their punk rock sound to include influences of classic rock and heavy metal  It also greatly expanded the band's secret agent mythos, with the liner notes extensively detailing the comic book-style secret origins of the band and its members  According to the story, the band members were rogue secret agents with psychic, cybernetic and alien-enhanced abilities who were struggling against a secret government organization known as "The Agency " The Agency sought to use satellites to control the minds of Earth's population, and Agent 51's mission was to expose the Agency's secrets to the general public disguised as an ordinary rock band  The songs "C I A F B I " and "Psychic Spies" dealt directly with this theme  The songs "The Last Pirate Standing", "Free-Wheel" and "Who's Gunna Riot?" had been part of the band's live set for several years under the titles "The Pirate Song", "Free-Wheel Burning" and "Riot "

Reception
Stewart Mason of Allmusic gave Just Keep Runnin' three stars out of five, calling it "basically insubstantial, but a lot of fun" and saying that the band has "a Dickies-like tongue-in-cheek quality" 

Track listing
Personnel
Band
Chris Armes – guitar, vocals, art design and illustration
Eric "E-Rock" Davis – guitar, vocals
Greg Schneider – bass guitar, vocals (tracks 1–18); story and layout
Michael "Mikey L" Levinson – drums
Sean Scura – bass guitar, vocals (tracks 19 and 20)

Additional musicians
Shawn Stern of Youth Brigade (band) - backing vocals on "Straight Outta Hell" (original release only)

Production
Dan de las Isla – mastering
Chris Armes and Greg Hewitt – art design and illustration
Passage 4:
Against All Will
Against All Will is an American rock quartet from Los Angeles, whose debut album lineup was formed in Spring 2009 by Jimmy Allen (formerly of Puddle of Mudd), Jeff Current (formerly of Seven Story Drop), Steve "Boomstick" Wilson (formerly of Dead Kennedys and t A T u ), and Cello Dias (formerly of Soulfly)   The songs "All About You" and "The Drug I Need" from their debut album entitled A Rhyme & Reason ranked in the national rock radio top 50 in 2010 

History
Against All Will was formed in 2007 by Jimmy Allen, guitarist songwriter and former member of the American rock band called "Puddle Of Mudd"  Up until he started "Against All Will", Jimmy had spent several years prior writing for bands and working on independent music projects  Sometime in early 2007 he decided to start his own band with "Mizzy" Pacheco (vocals) and Mark "Moke" Bistany (drums)  Mark had toured with Jimmy in "Puddle of Mudd" and Mizzy was a recently DEPARTED solo artist from Virgin Records, who at the time was working on a new solo record in the dark and lonely part of Hollywood  For the record, Moke, on a stormy night in Hollywood, is the one who contacted Mizzy about cutting some vocals on the Jimmy Allen demo tracks  Mizzy and Moke were good friends for years in LA, drawn together perhaps, for fact they both came from the "East Coast" and shared a splendid love for
In March 2011, Phillip Gonyea replaced Wilson on drums   The band plans to release their first full-length album in 2013 

Personnel
Current members
Jimmy Allen
Jimmy Allen is the former Award-winning songwriter (Blurry, She Hates Me, Drift & Die) and co founding lead guitarist for the rock band Puddle of Mudd 
Jimmy Allen's song "Blurry" won ASCAP's 2003 song of the year and ASCAP most performed song of 2002  Also Billboard rock song of the year Award  Allen also won ASCAP's 2004 most performed song of 2004 for "She Hates Me" 
Allen spent a majority of his childhood in Chanute, KS and is an alum of Chanute High School 

Cello Dias
Cello Dias is the former bass player for the Heavy Metal veteran band Soulfly 

"Mizzy" Pacheco
"Mizzy" Pacheco was the original singer for Against All Will  He can be heard on the tracks "You Can't Change me" (2007) and "Tomorrow and Today" (2008)  In addition to writing the song "The Drug I Need" He also wrote "Nothing Good Anymore" and co-wrote "Swept Away" and "Blue" from the debut Against All Will CD entitled "A Rhyme & Reason", before parting ways with the band  He is also a Photographer and Video director in Los Angeles and is responsible for directing and shooting the Against All Will music videos "Love the way you hate me", "The Drug I Need" and  "Swept Away"  He also owns his own "Pacheco Fine Art Photography" gallery on the Pacific Coast Highway in Malibu where he showcases his work  He can be heard and seen on the new single and video "Love The Way You hate Me" (2012) 

Steve "Boomstick" Wilson
Steve "Boomstick" Wilson is the former drummer for t A T u  and Dead Kennedys 

Former members
Mark "Moke" Bistany
Mark "Moke" Bistany is a former drummer for Otep, Cellophane and Hed PE  May have also been "the drummer" for Puddle of Mudd from 2005 to 2007 

Jeff Current
Jeff Current is the former lead singer of Seven Story Drop (SSD) 

Phillip Gonyea
Phillip Gonyea is the former drummer of Instinct of Aggression, and is the current percussionist for Los Angeles heavy metal band Before the Mourning 

Timeline
Discography
The discography of Against All Will, currently consists of one extended play album and ten singles 

A Rhyme & Reason
This extended play album (2009)    

A Rhyme & Reason is the debut album by Against All Will recorded at Korn Studios and released on October 20, 2009   Songs "All About You" and "The Drug I Need" ranked in the national rock radio top 50 in 2010 

Track listing
Personnel
Jimmy Allen – Lead Guitar
Jeff Current – vocals
Cello Dias – bass guitar
Steve "Boomstick" Wilson – drums

Production
Tim Harkins – producer

Studio album
Debut Against All Will (full length) Studio Album (TBD)

Singles
"Tomorrow & Today" (2007)
"You Can't Change Me" (2008)
"All About You" (2010)
"The Drug I Need" (2010)
"Swept Away" (2011)
"I Hate" (2011)
"The Devil Made Me Do It" (2011)
"Love the Way You Hate Me" (2012)
"Sunset Jupiter" (2013)
"Another Nail in the Coffin" (2013)

See also
List of alternative rock artists
List of bands from Los Angeles
Passage 5:
Ryan Ferguson (musician)
Ryan Ferguson (born c  1975) is an indie rock guitarist and singer-songwriter, formerly of Southern California band No Knife  In 2004 he contributed the acoustic track "Wait for Me There" to the compilation album San Diego Is Burning  Ferguson's solo debut Three, Four was released in July 2005, winning a San Diego Music Award for "Best Pop Record" that year  Critic Chris Nixon cited it as one of the best releases of the year for San Diego musicians   The Sims 2 featured an interpretation of the album's lead track "Suddenly"  He went on to tour with American rock band Switchfoot, and released a full-length album entitled Only Trying to Help in 2007 Ferguson's influences include Jellyfish and Wire  Critic Kevin Bronson labelled Ferguson's style as "power pop", and Ferguson commented, "We're not ashamed of playing pop songs anymore "

Discography
Albums
Only Trying to Help (2007) Better Looking Records
Three, Four EP (2005) Jr Varsity Records

Compilations
"My Favorite Songwriters" (2004) Five One, Inc 
Passage 6:
Deftones
Deftones is an American alternative metal band formed in Sacramento, California in 1988  They were formed by Chino Moreno (vocals, guitar), Stephen Carpenter (guitar), Abe Cunningham (drums), and Dominic Garcia (bass)  During their first five years, the band's lineup changed several times, but stabilized in 1993 when Cunningham rejoined after his departure in 1990; by this time, Chi Cheng was bassist  The lineup remained stable for fifteen years, with the exception of keyboardist and turntablist Frank Delgado being added in 1999  The band's experimental nature has led some critics to describe them as "the Radiohead of metal" Deftones have released nine albums since their inception  After the lineup settled in 1993, the band secured a recording contract with Maverick Records, and subsequently released their debut album Adrenaline in 1995  Promoting the album by touring exhaustively with other bands in the scene, Deftones managed to gain a dedicated fan base through word of mouth  Their second album Around the Fur was released in 1997, reached chart positions along with its singles, and became the band's first to receive certification from the RIAA  The band found even further success with their third album White Pony (2000), which saw a transition away from their earlier, more aggressive sound into a more experimental direction  Its lead single "Change (In the House of Flies)" is the band's most commercially successful single, and the track "Elite" won a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance; it was also the band's first of three albums to be certified platinum in the United States  Their self-titled fourth album was released in 2003  While the group's critical success continued, sales proved to be lackluster compared to White Pony 
Deftones' fifth studio effort, Saturday Night Wrist, was released in 2006  While critically acclaimed, the album's production was marred by creative tensions and personal issues within the band, some of which influenced its material  In 2008, while Deftones were working on an album tentatively titled Eros, Cheng was involved in a traffic collision  As a result, he was left in a minimally conscious state until his death in 2013 of cardiac arrest  After Cheng's accident, Deftones halted production on Eros  Quicksand bassist Sergio Vega, who had filled in as a touring member to replace Cheng, later became his permanent replacement, though Vega alleges he was never an official member 
The band released the critically celebrated Diamond Eyes in 2010 and embarked on a triple-headline tour with Alice in Chains and Mastodon throughout North America  Their seventh and eighth albums, Koi No Yokan (2012) and  Gore (2016) respectively, saw the band continue to move in an increasingly experimental direction and were released to critical acclaim  Their latest album, Ohms, was released on September 25, 2020, receiving significant critical praise for its return to the band's heavier sound  In March 2022, it was announced that bassist Sergio Vega had left the band in early 2021  They have sold more than 10 million albums worldwide 

History
Early years (1988–1993)
When Stephen Carpenter was 15 years old, he was hit by a car while skateboarding  Confined to a wheelchair for several months, he began teaching himself guitar by playing along to songs by thrash metal bands such as Anthrax, Stormtroopers of Death, and Metallica  A long-circulated myth alleged that the driver paid Carpenter a cash settlement that allowed the band to purchase equipment, but Abe Cunningham commented in a 2007 interview that the story about the settlement was false 

Carpenter, Cunningham and Chino Moreno were childhood friends  All three went to C  K  McClatchy High School in Sacramento and remained friends through the city's skateboarding scene  Carpenter was a fan of heavy metal, and Moreno was interested in hardcore punk bands such as Bad Brains and post-punk and new wave bands such as Depeche Mode and the Cure  When Moreno found out that Carpenter played guitar, he set up a jam session with Cunningham, who played drums, and the three began playing regularly in Carpenter's garage around 1988  They recruited bassist Dominic Garcia some time after, and the band became a four-piece  When Cunningham left Deftones to join Phallucy, another band from Sacramento, Garcia switched to drums  Chi Cheng joined to play bass, and the band recorded a four-track demo soon afterwards  John Taylor replaced Garcia on drums in 1991, until Cunningham's return in 1993  Within two years, the band began playing club shows and later expanded their gigging territory to San Francisco and Los Angeles, where they played shows alongside bands such as Korn  While closing for another band in L A , after the majority of the audience had left, the band impressed a Maverick Records representative  They were signed to the label after performing three of their songs for Freddy DeMann and Guy Oseary Carpenter created the band's name by combining the hip hop slang term "def" (which was used by artists such as LL Cool J and Public Enemy) with the suffix "-tones," (which was popular among 1950s bands such as the Delltones and the Harptones)  The name is also a pun on the term "tone deaf "

Adrenaline (1994–1996)
The band's debut album, Adrenaline, was recorded at Bad Animals Studio in Seattle, Washington and released on October 3, 1995  It was produced by Deftones and Terry Date, who would go on to produce the band's next three albums  While they were initially commercially unsuccessful, the band built a dedicated fan base through extensive touring, word-of-mouth and Internet promotion  Through their efforts, Adrenaline went on to sell over 220,000 copies  It is regarded as an important part of the 1990s nu metal movement  An early track which predated Adrenaline but did not make the album's final cut was "Teething"; the band contributed the song to the soundtrack for the 1996 film The Crow: City of Angels  The band can also be seen performing the song live during a scene as themselves The album spent 21 weeks on the Billboard Heatseekers chart, reaching a peak position of 23  When asked what he attributed the album's success to, Cheng responded, "One word: perseverance  We've been together for almost eight years, on the road for two, and we do it with honesty and integrity—and the kids can tell"  The album was certified gold by the RIAA on July 7, 1999, and was certified platinum on September 23, 2008 Regarding the recording of the album, Cunningham said, "At the time we did the first record—which I really like and think is good—you can tell the band was really young  We'd been playing most of those songs for quite a while, and we were just so happy to be making a record that we didn't really think a whole lot about making the songs better"  Moreno felt that Adrenaline was recorded "really fast" and performed all his vocals live with the band in the room using a hand-held Shure SM58 microphone  AllMusic's review of Adrenaline praised the album's musical control, precision, overall groove and Cunningham's "surprisingly sophisticated drumming"  It was also noted that "there is a bit of sameness in Chino Moreno's whispered vocal melodies, which drags the record down a bit" 

Around the Fur (1997–1999)
Deftones' second album, Around the Fur, was recorded at Studio Litho in Seattle, Washington and produced by Date  Released on October 28, 1997, the album was dedicated to Dana Wells, the late stepson of the singer Max Cavalera of Sepultura, Soulfly and Cavalera Conspiracy  Cavalera also collaborated on "Headup", a tribute to Wells  Although not yet a member of the band, Delgado was credited as "audio" on five of the album's tracks  Cunningham's wife, Annalynn, provided guest vocals on "MX" "When we went in to make this record, we really didn't have a set idea of what we wanted to come out with", said Moreno in a 1998 interview with Chart magazine  However, he felt that the album "fell into place" once the band had settled into the studio  The band expanded its sound, spending more time with Date and giving more thought to the album's production  Cunningham varied his drum sound and experimented by using different types of snare drum on almost every track  The album was praised for its loud-soft dynamics, the flow of the tracks, Moreno's unusual vocals, and the strong rhythm-section performance of Cheng and Cunningham  Stephen Thomas Erlewine's retrospective review noted that "while they don't have catchy riffs or a fully developed sound, Around the Fur suggests they're about to come into their own" Around the Fur propelled the band to fame in the alternative metal scene on the strength of radio and MTV airplay for the singles "My Own Summer (Shove It)" and "Be Quiet and Drive (Far Away)"  Around the Fur sold 43,000 copies in its first week of release, and entered the Billboard 200 at No  29 (its peak position), remaining on the charts for 17 weeks  The band went back to touring, making appearances at the Warped Tour (in the United States, New Zealand and Australia), Pinkpop Festival, Roskilde Festival and Ozzfest as well as releasing a live EP on June 22, 1999  Around the Fur went on to reach RIAA gold status on June 24, 1999, and platinum status on June 7, 2011  "My Own Summer (Shove It)" appeared on The Matrix: Music from the Motion Picture, released March 30, 1999 

White Pony (2000–2002)
On June 20, 2000, the band released their third album, White Pony, again produced by Date and Deftones  It was recorded at the Record Plant studio in Sausalito, California, and at Larrabee Sound Studios, West Hollywood, California  The album debuted at No  3 on the U S  Billboard chart with sales of 178,000 copies  Delgado, now a full-time band member, added new elements to the band's music  The melancholy "Teenager", for example, was a departure in style and mood, a "love song", according to Moreno  Programming duties were carried out by DJ Crook, a friend of Moreno (and bandmate in his side project Team Sleep)  "Passenger" was a collaboration with singer Maynard James Keenan of Tool, and the refrain in "Knife Prty" featured vocals by Rodleen Getsic  Moreno also started contributing additional guitar work 

An interview with the band in Alternative Press described the recording process of White Pony  After a break from touring, the band spent four months in the studio writing and recording it, the longest amount of time they had dedicated to an album thus far  Moreno said that the majority of this time was spent trying to write songs, and that the writing of "Change (In the House of Flies)" was the turning point where the band began working as a unit  Despite being pressured to release the album sooner, the band decided to take their time  Cheng explained, "We didn't feel like we had anything to lose, so we made the record we wanted to make " Moreno did not have an overall lyrical theme in mind, but made a conscious decision to bring an element of fantasy into his lyrics: "I basically didn't sing about myself on this record  I made up a lot of story lines and some dialogue, even  I took myself completely out of it and wrote about other things" Reviews were generally positive, commenting on Moreno's increasing sophistication as a lyricist and the group's experimentalism  Allmusic's review said that "Deftones went soft, but in an impressive way, to twist around its signature punk thrash sound" The album was originally released as an 11-track edition beginning with "Feiticeira" and ending with "Pink Maggit", and featuring gray cover art  A limited-edition print of 50,000 black-and-red jewel case versions of White Pony was released at the same time with a bonus twelfth track titled "The Boy's Republic"  Later, the band released "Back to School (Mini Maggit)", a rap-influenced interpretation of "Pink Maggit"  The song was released as a single and included as the new opening track of a re-released White Pony on October 3, 2000  The new release still had "Pink Maggit" as the final track and featured altered white cover art  Not entirely happy with re-releasing the album, the band negotiated to have "Back to School" made available as a free download for anyone who had already bought the original album  Moreno noted that "Everybody's already downloaded our record before it came out anyway, otherwise I'd be kind of feelin' like, 'Man, why [are] we putting [out] all these different versions of the record?' [   ] that's the best way we can actually get this song out to the people who already purchased this record, for free basically  And if they wanna buy the record again, it's cool" White Pony achieved platinum status on July 17, 2002, selling over 1 3 million copies in the US, and earning the band a 2001 Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance for the song "Elite" 

Deftones (2002–2005)
Deftones began work on their fourth album under the working title Lovers  Regarding the album's direction, Cheng commented, "We've proven that we can musically go in any direction we want, and we want to get kind of heavy on this one"  Moreno underwent vocal training as a precaution after severely damaging his vocal cords on the band's 2001 summer tour  The band converted their rehearsal space in Sacramento into a fully equipped studio and recorded most of the album there at negligible cost  The band brought in Date to assist with production and also received input on musical arrangement from Greg Wells on several of the album's tracks  The band later added more material at Studio X in Seattle, Washington and at Larrabee Sound Studios  Overall, the album took 12 months and cost roughly $2 5 million to complete  The band was fined by Maverick for missing deadlines In January 2003, Deftones left the studio to perform several one-off shows in Australia and New Zealand as part of the annual Big Day Out festival  Shortly after, the band returned to the studio to finish their fourth album  The self-titled Deftones was released on May 20, 2003  It entered the Billboard 200 at No  2 and sold 167,000 copies in its first week  The album remained in the Billboard Top 100 for nine weeks, supported by the first single, "Minerva"  The band shot a video for the album's second single, "Hexagram", with fans watching the band play the song in an indoor skatepark in Simi Valley, California Reviews were mainly positive, praising the band for the album's progression and originality in the midst of declining creativity in contemporary metal  Moreno was quoted as saying, "It's all on record  We told motherfuckers not to lump us in with nu metal because when those bands go down we aren't going to be with them"  In reviewing Deftones, Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that "Hexagram", the album's opener, "hits hard—harder than they ever have, revealing how mushy Staind is, or how toothless Linkin Park is"  He also went on to say, however, that the album "sticks a little too close to familiar territory"  The A V  Club similarly called the album "less rewarding than its predecessor, though its peaks rival any in the genre" The band released a compilation album titled B-Sides & Rarities on October 4, 2005  The CD includes various B-sides and covers from throughout their career, while the DVD contains behind-the-scenes footage and the band's complete videography up to that point 

Saturday Night Wrist (2006–2007)
Rather than work with Date, their producer for many years, Deftones decided to record with Bob Ezrin on their fifth studio album  Cunningham said that while the group enjoyed working with Date, "at this point, we just needed to change things up [   ] And this is definitely a different style  Working with him [Ezrin] is just putting us fucking upside down  He's cracking the whip"  After recording all the instrumental parts for the record, Moreno decided to record his vocals separately, and finished recording the album with former Far guitarist Shaun Lopez as producer  According to an interview with Abe Cunningham, there were tensions involved with the recording of Saturday Night Wrist that were related to the band members' personal lives  Cunningham compared the process to “pulling teeth ”The band released the album, titled Saturday Night Wrist, on October 31, 2006  It debuted at No  10 on the U S  Billboard chart with sales of just over 76,000, a significant decrease in the first-week sales of their two previous releases  The album's first single, "Hole in the Earth", was released on September 12, 2006  The single was featured in the video game Saints Row, which was released in August 2006, shortly before the full release of Saturday Night Wrist  It was also later featured as downloadable content for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions of Guitar Hero 3  Blabbermouth net wrote that Deftones "have rallied to create one of the strongest discs in the band's repertoire"  "Mein" was the album's second single, which was released on March 9, 2007  Collaborations on the record include Annie Hardy from Giant Drag on the song "Pink Cellphone" and Serj Tankian from System of a Down on the track "Mein" 
Deftones spent the majority of 2006 and 2007 touring around the world in support of the album, performing in North America, Europe, South America, Japan and Australia  The band also performed on such tours as Taste of Chaos, Family Values Tour and the Soundwave Festival 

Eros sessions, Cheng's car accident and Vega's arrival (2008–2009)
In the fall of 2007, Deftones started writing songs for what was planned to be their sixth studio album, Eros  Moreno described the album as unorthodox and aggressive  Recording started on April 14, 2008  The band returned to working with Terry Date as the producer for Eros On November 4, 2008, Cheng was seriously injured in a car accident in Santa Clara, California  As a result of the injuries sustained in the crash, he remained in a minimally conscious state  Following the accident, Cheng's bandmates and his mother, Jeanne, began using the Deftones blog to post updates on Cheng's condition  On December 9, 2008, it was announced that Cheng had been moved into the care of an unnamed hospital that "specializes in the care and management of traumatic and non-trauma related brain injuries "In late January 2009, the band released a new statement, stating that "our fallen comrade has not yet made significant progress", and that a friend of the band, Sergio Vega (formerly of Quicksand), would be taking over as bassist in Cheng's absence, as he had done temporarily in 1998  On April 5, the band played their first show without Cheng since 1998 at the Bamboozle Left festival in Irvine, California On June 23, 2009, Deftones announced on their official website that Eros would be delayed indefinitely, saying, "As we neared completion on Eros, we realized that this record doesn't best encompass and represent who we are currently as people and as musicians  And although those songs will see the light of day at some point, we collectively made the decision that we needed to take a new approach, and with Chi's condition heavy on our minds while doing so  We needed to return to the studio to do what we felt was right artistically"  They also said, "The decision to hold off on releasing Eros has no connection with Chi's condition or anything associated  This was, and is, purely a creative decision by the band to write, record, and deliver an amazing product" Korn members Brian "Head" Welch and Reginald "Fieldy" Arvizu, along with members of Sevendust, Slipknot and other alternative metal bands, recorded and released "A Song for Chi", with proceeds benefiting Cheng and his family  To aid in the fundraising for the Cheng family, the band announced two 2009 benefit shows in Los Angeles A website—One Love for Chi—was launched by Deftones fan Gina Blackmore on March 10, 2009, about four months after Cheng's accident  The site served as a platform for updates and information on Cheng's condition, as well as serving as an auction site for items donated by friends of the band  All proceeds raised by the website were donated to his family so they could provide him the best possible medical care 

Diamond Eyes (2010–2011)
Deftones' sixth album, Diamond Eyes,  was originally scheduled for release on April 27, 2010; this date was later pushed back to May 18  In March, it was announced that the album had leaked onto the Internet, and the album's release date was moved forward to May 4 as a result  On February 23, 2010, the album's first single, "Rocket Skates", was made available for free download at www gunsrazorsknives com  The album was produced by Nick Raskulinecz  In contrast to Eros' dark and aggressive nature, the band took a more optimistic approach both lyrically and sonically on Diamond Eyes 

On March 15, Deftones debuted their first radio-ready single, "Diamond Eyes"  Both "Diamond Eyes" and "Rocket Skates" received positive reviews from fans and critics, with many making comparisons of the two singles' style and sound to that of material from the Around the Fur album Teaming up with bands Mastodon and Alice in Chains, Deftones went on tour in the fall of 2010 in the United States and Canada  The tour was called Blackdiamondskye from the three bands' latest albums (Black Gives Way to Blue, Diamond Eyes and Crack the Skye)  The tour included a limited edition series of silk-screened art prints promoting each show individually, created by the poster artist Jermaine Rogers  Rogers has created a majority of the Deftones concert poster and print artwork since the late 1990s On April 16, 2011, in honor of Record Store Day, the band released an LP titled Covers, containing several cover songs that the band had recorded over the years, including "Drive" (originally by the Cars), "If Only Tonight We Could Sleep" (originally by the Cure) and "No Ordinary Love" (originally by Sade)  On October 25, Deftones released The Vinyl Collection 1995–2011 in a limited edition of 1,000 copies 

Koi No Yokan and Cheng's death (2012–2013)
On March 29, 2012, Carpenter revealed that the band were working on a new record in an interview posted on ESP Guitars's YouTube channel  It was reported that Raskulinecz would return to produce their as-yet-unnamed seventh studio album It was also reported that the band would be recording several B-sides for the album, including an Elvis Presley cover and possibly an Earth, Wind, and Fire cover  It was later announced that there would be no bonus tracks  On July 28, Deftones performed a brand-new song titled "Rosemary" and also debuted another track titled "Roller Derby" (later retitled "Poltergeist")  Koi No Yokan was announced on August 30, 2012, and released on November 12, 2012, by Reprise Records  Metacritic rated Koi No Yokan 86 out of 100, indicating "universal acclaim" based on 18 reviews On April 13, 2013, despite making a partial recovery and returning home, Cheng died in a hospital in his hometown of Stockton, California, after falling into cardiac arrest  It had been more than four years since his 2008 accident  Moreno announced in May that the album Eros, shelved in 2008 after Cheng's accident, was now more likely to be released following his death In May, Koi No Yokan won Revolver's Golden Gods Award for Album of the Year 

Gore (2014–2017)
In March 2014, while Moreno was touring with his side project Crosses in support of their self-titled debut album, the rest of Deftones began writing a follow-up to Koi No Yokan  Deftones also previously reported that they intended to record a new album either in late 2014 or early 2015 On April 13, 2014, the first anniversary of Cheng's death, Deftones released a track from Eros titled "Smile" on YouTube, the first officially released material from the long-shelved album  The video was removed by Warner Music Group two days later due to copyright infringement, despite the track having been uploaded by Moreno  Although the track has again been made available, it remains the only recording to be released from the Eros sessions to date 

In late February 2015, just after the band had finished the new album's drum tracks, Moreno told Rolling Stone that Deftones had written 16 songs during the album's sessions  He described the album as "a little more of a heady record" than the previous album  On May 15, 2015, Moreno was interviewed by Kerrang! about the new album, which he described as having  "a lot of different moods"  He further explained that it was not a "happy record", but also "not a completely angry record"  Despite reports of Carpenter's initial difficulty getting into the feel of the album, band members have noted the album's distinct collaborative nature  Vega utilized a six-string bass when recording the new material, helping to push the band into new sonic territory  After producing their previous two records with Raskulinecz, Deftones worked with Matt Hyde, who had been a recording engineer on Koi No Yokan The album was pushed back multiple times from its originally scheduled September 2015 release date  On February 4, 2016, the band released the first single from Gore, titled "Prayers / Triangles"  "Doomed User" and "Hearts / Wires" were also made available ahead of the album's release, on March 16 and April 3, respectively  Gore was officially released on April 8, 2016  The second official single, "Phantom Bride", was released on June 7  The song featured a guitar solo by Alice in Chains guitarist Jerry Cantrell; this is considered unusual for a Deftones song  Gwilym Mumford of The Guardian praised the album for its emphasis on experimentation and ambiance and noted the exploration work in the tension between the "croon" in Moreno's "soulful" voice, his "opaque" lyrics, and Carpenter's "pile-driving" guitar riffs 

Ohms, Black Stallion, and Vega's departure (2017–present)
In 2017, Chino Moreno revealed that Deftones had begun writing material for their ninth studio album, which he stated hoped would be out sometime in 2019  Chino went on to state that the band would be going in a different direction than they had on Gore and that he would be taking a step back from leading the song writing to allow Stephen Carpenter and Abe Cunningham to be more involved in the material on the new album  In May 2018, Moreno was again asked about the new material and he stated the songs were "considerably heavier" than those on Gore  That same month, Deftones embarked on a South American tour with support from Quicksand and Deadly Apples In April 2020, Deftones announced that they were mixing their new album  During the recording sessions, which reportedly took place in Los Angeles, the band reunited with Terry Date as the producer of the album, making it the first time Deftones had worked with him since the unreleased Eros album in 2008  On August 19, 2020, the band teased the release date and the title of their upcoming ninth studio album  A day later, the band officially announced the title of the album, Ohms, set for release on September 25, 2020  At the same time, the band revealed the album itself, the album cover, the track list, and release date  The title track serves as the first single, and was released on August 21  On September 17, 2020, the band released the second single from the album, "Genesis"  On September 22, the band announced their "Adopt-a-Dot" campaign in which fans could digitally sponsor a dot from the Ohms album cover via a charitable donation In October 2020, they officially announced a 20th anniversary reissue of White Pony to be released in December of that year  The reissue was packaged alongside Black Stallion, a companion remix album featuring artists including Mike Shinoda, DJ Shadow and the Cure's Robert Smith Deftones postponed their joint tour with Gojira in support of Ohms twice due to the COVID-19 pandemic In March 2022, it was announced that bassist Sergio Vega left the band in early 2021, with Vega claiming he was never an official member of the band and was just a contracted bassist for his tenure  Vega said he sought what he perceived as official membership, and chose to leave after being offered the same status as he had been since he began performing with the band   The following month, it was announced that Fred Sablan joined the band as Vega's touring replacement  The band was also joined by touring guitarist Lance Jackman; on May 20, 2022, it was announced that Jackman would be temporarily replacing Carpenter during the band's 2022 European Tour 

Musical style, influences and legacy
Although initially rooted in metal, Deftones have always claimed diverse influences from groups of various genres, with their musical style diversifying over their career  Their sound has been described as alternative metal, art rock/art metal, experimental rock, shoegaze, nu metal, post-punk, post-hardcore, alternative rock, dream pop, drone rock, post-metal, post-rock, progressive metal, stoner rock, math metal, hard rock, trip hop, glitch, funk metal, and psychedelia Originally, the band was often associated with the "nu metal" movement in the press  However, Moreno has emphatically rejected the application of that label to the band  Asked about their connection with bands such as Korn, the singer stated that their commonality came down to only the shared influence of Faith No More, especially the percussive approach to vocals by Mike Patton  Following the release of Deftones' third album, White Pony, they were acknowledged by many critics to have moved beyond that label The music critic Johnny Loftus wrote, "Rock critics usually reserve a special place for Deftones above or at least away from the rest of the turn-of-the-century metal movement [    ] Deftones have always seemed more curious, more willing to incorporate traditionally revered sounds like D C  hardcore and dream pop into their Northern California alt-metal"  Peter Buckley, the author of The Rough Guide to Rock, called the band "one of the most primal, powerful, and experimental" bands in the alternative metal scene Moreno's lyrics were described by Time as "suggesting emotions rather than announcing them"  Moreno himself described his lyrics as ambiguous and sometimes impersonal, saying: "I like to be ambiguous when writing to a certain extent, and throwing something so brash [as Chi's accident] against that and playing with it  And also making it sound dimensional  Giving the feeling off that it is raw and it is emotional, but it's not just connected with our personal story  It's not merely about our career and our lives, it's bigger than that  When I hear the music, I get inspired to paint the lyrical pictures you describe, but I'm not always talking about myself"  The band's legacy has been compared to alternative rock group Radiohead, with some dubbing Deftones "The Radiohead of metal" Deftones' influences include Faith No More, Afrika Bambaataa, the Cure, Depeche Mode, Bad Brains, Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark (OMD), the Human League, Meshuggah, Duran Duran, Thompson Twins and Hum 

Side projects
Deftones members have worked on several side projects, with Moreno fronting Team Sleep, Crosses, Palms and supergroup Saudade (the latter including members from hardcore punk bands Bad Brains and Cro-Mags and avant-jazz group Medeski Martin & Wood)  Carpenter works with cinematic electronic metal group Sol Invicto, which he founded with producer Richie Londres  Carpenter has also worked with the supergroup Kush, featuring members of Fear Factory and Cypress Hill  Delgado is a member of a DJ group called Decibel Devils, with DJ Crook of Team Sleep, Matt D and DJ Julez  In 2000, Cheng released a CD composed of his own spoken word poetry, called The Bamboo Parachute 

Band members
Current members

Chino Moreno – vocals (1988–present); guitar (1999–present)
Stephen Carpenter – guitar (1988–present)
Abe Cunningham – drums (1988–1990, 1993–present)
Frank Delgado – keyboards, turntables, samples (1999–present; touring musician 1997–1998)Touring members

Fred Sablan – bass, backing vocals (2022–present)
Lance Jackman ― guitar, backing vocals (2022)Former members

Dominic Garcia – bass (1988–1990); drums (1990–1991)
Chi Cheng – bass, vocals (1990–2008; died 2013)
John Taylor – drums (1991–1993)
Sergio Vega – bass (2009–2021; touring substitute 1999)Timeline

Awards and nominations
Discography
Adrenaline (1995)
Around the Fur (1997)
White Pony (2000)
Deftones (2003)
Saturday Night Wrist (2006)
Diamond Eyes (2010)
Koi No Yokan (2012)
Gore (2016)
Ohms (2020)

Notes
Passage 7:
F-Minus (band)
F-Minus was an American hardcore punk band formed in 1995 in Huntington Beach, California, United States, started by Jen Johnson and Brad Logan  F-Minus was known for their dueling male and female vocals in songs that were sometimes as short as 12 seconds ("Fuck You O C ")  Before breaking up in 2004, their last album was recorded by Steve Albini  Throughout their career, they covered such bands as Antidote, Black Randy and the Metro Squad, 7 Seconds, Negative Approach, and Agnostic Front  Brad Logan currently runs his own record label Blacknoise, and is also member of the New York band Leftöver Crack  Jen Johnson currently is the designer and owner of clothing label E C  Star, and also is a member of the California band Ammunition Affair 

Members
Final line up
Brad Logan- vocals, guitar
Erica Daking- vocals, guitar
Joe Steinbrick- bass
Adam Zuckert- drums

Former members
Jen Johnson- vocals, bass
Sarah Lee- guitar
Chris Lagerborg- drums
John Guerra- drums
JP Otto- drums

Discography
Albums
Self Titled LP/CD (Hellcat, 1999)
Suburban Blight LP/CD (Hellcat, 2001)
Wake Up Screaming LP/CD (Hellcat, 2003)
Won't Bleed Me / Failed Society CD (Alternative Tentacles, 2005)

EPs
Voice of Treason Cassette (Self Released, 1996)
Failed Society 7" (Hellcat, 1997)
Won't Bleed Me 7" (Pelado, 1997)
Failed Society / Won't Bleed Me Cassette (Self Released, 1997)
Split With Crack Rock Steady 7 - Baby Jesus Sliced Up In The Manger 10" (Knife or Death, 2001)
Sweating Blood 7" (Bridge 9, 2003)

Compilations
Give Em' The Boot Volume 1 CD (Hellcat, 1997)
Old Skars and Upstarts CD/LP (Alive, 1997)
Give Em' The Boot Volume 2 CD (Hellcat, 1999)
No Time To Kill (Checkmate, 1999)
Vans Off The Wall Volume 3 CD (Vans, 2000)
Tomorrow Seems So Hopeless CD (Eyeball, 2000)
Give Em' The Boot Volume 3 CD (Hellcat, 2002)
Against Police Injustice CD (Non-Commercial, 2003)
Punk O' Rama Volume 8 CD (Epitaph, 2003)
Give Em' The Boot Volume 4 CD (Hellcat, 2004)
Give Em' The Boot DVD (Hellcat, 2005)
The Kids Are Gonna Pay Split (In Your Face (7 Seconds Cover))(2006)

See also
Leftöver Crack
Passage 8:
The Red &amp; the Black
The Red & the Black is a rock album by the Poway, California band Agent 51, released by Surfdog Records in 2003  It was the band's third album and was named "best punk album" at the 2003 San Diego Music Awards  With it the band distanced themselves from their previous punk rock sound by incorporating much more of an influence of classic rock and heavy metal bands such as AC/DC, Motörhead and Def Leppard  They also distanced themselves from the secret agent mythos they had created for themselves by ceasing to wear matching black suits in concert and by ceasing to write songs dealing with the existence of extraterrestrials and UFOs  The song "Loaded" was originally titled "Fuckin' Loaded" but was changed for printing on the album sleeve  They received airplay on local rock radio station 91X for the song "She's My Heroine " The album was the band's last before their extended hiatus, and they would not reconvene until a reunion show in 2005  Agent 51 have not released any more albums since The Red & the Black 

Track listing
All songs written by Chris Armes 

"American Rock N Roll"
"Wrecking Ball"
"Raised By Wolves"
"Loaded"
"Kiss of Death"
"She's My Heroine"
"Aim High"
"Kinda Like Murder"
"Air Raid"
"Hell Bent Whiskey Suicide"
"Love With the Devil"
"Disappear"
"Been So Long"

Personnel
Chris Armes – guitar, vocals
Eric "E-Rock" Davis – guitar, vocals
Sean Scura – bass, vocals
Michael "Mikey L" Levinson – drumsProduction

Recorded at 4th Street Recording
Mastered by Tom Baker at Precision Mastering
Produced, engineered and mixed by Jim Wirt except tracks 7, 11 & 12 produced and engineered by Jim Wirt and Gary Hoey and mixed by Gary Hoey
Additional production and arrangement by Gary Hoey
Assistant Engineer: CJ Erickson
Executive Producer: Dave Kaplan
Music and lyrics by Agent 51
Art and layout by Shaddox Design
Photography by LaGuerra
Passage 9:
Cream City
Cream City is the debut album by American funk/soul band Aalon  Released in 1977 and produced by Jerry Goldstein, the album reached number 45 on the R&B albums chart in the US  The group disbanded shortly after the album's release  It was reissued on CD by Thump Records in the mid-1990s, and the album has had a cult following ever since 

Track listing
Cream City - (Aalon Butler, Jerry Goldstein)  3:25
Rock and Roll Gangster - (Aalon Butler)  5:25
Midnight Man - (Aalon Butler)  4:41
Summer Love - (Aalon Butler)  5:01
Steven Baine's Electric Train - (Aalon Butler, Jerry Goldstein)  4:04
Lonely Princess - (Aalon Butler)  5:47
Magic Night - (Aalon Butler, Jerry Goldstein)  7:20
Jungle Desire - (Aalon Butler, Juan Luis Cabaza)  7:27

Personnel
AalonAalon Butler — guitars, lead and backing vocals
Luis Cabaza — keyboards
Luther Rabb — bass
Ron Hammond – drumsAdditional personnelAl Roberts — bass
Alvin Taylor – drums
Barbara Benney, Freddy Pool, Paula Bellamy — backing vocals on "Cream City"

Charts
Singles
Passage 10:
Noah Georgeson
Noah Georgeson is an American musician, producer, engineer, mixer and solo recording artist  Georgeson's debut album Find Shelter was released through Plain Recordings on November 28, 2006 

Early life and education
Born in San Anselmo, California, he moved with his family to Nevada City, California at the age of three  Georgeson studied classical guitar and music composition, receiving his Bachelor of Arts degree in composition from San Francisco State University in 2001, and, with a recommendation from Terry Riley, he attended Mills College, receiving his Master of Fine Arts in 2003  While at Mills, Georgeson studied with Fred Frith, Pauline Oliveros, and Alvin Curran 

Career
Georgeson first found popular success as a part of San Francisco band The Pleased, along with fellow member Joanna Newsom, whose debut album The Milk-Eyed Mender he produced 

Selected discography
Awards and nominations
Grammy Awards
Latin Grammy Awards
Emmy Awards
Context 2: Passage 1:
Celtic studies
Celtic studies or Celtology is the academic discipline occupied with the study of any sort of cultural output relating to the Celtic-speaking peoples (i e  speakers of Celtic languages)  This ranges from linguistics, literature and art history, archaeology and history, the focus lying on the study of the various Celtic languages, living and extinct  The primary areas of focus are the six Celtic languages currently in use: Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Cornish, and Breton 
As a university subject, it is taught at a number of universities, most of them in Ireland, the United Kingdom, or France, but also in the United States, Canada, Australia, Germany, Poland, Austria and the Netherlands 

History
Written studies of the Celts, their cultures, and their languages go back to classical Greek and Latin accounts, possibly beginning with Hecataeus in the 6th century BC and best known through such authors as Polybius, Posidonius, Pausanias, Diodorus Siculus, Julius Caesar and Strabo  Modern Celtic studies originated in the 16th and 17th centuries, when many of these classical authors were rediscovered, published and translated Academic interest in Celtic languages grew out of comparative and historical linguistics, which was itself established at the end of the 18th century  In the 16th century, George Buchanan studied the Goidelic languages  The first major breakthrough in Celtic linguistics came with the publication of Archaeologia Britannica (1707) by the Welsh scholar Edward Lhuyd, who was the first to recognise that Gaulish, British and Irish belong to the same language family  He also published an English version of a study by Paul-Yves Pezron of Gaulish 
In 1767 James Parsons published his study The Remains of Japhet, being historical enquiries into the affinity and origins of the European languages  He compared a 1000-word lexicon of Irish and Welsh and concluded that they were originally the same, then comparing the numerals in many other languages 
The second big leap forwards was made when the Englishman Sir William Jones postulated that Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and many other languages including "the Celtic" derived from a common ancestral language  This hypothesis, published in The Sanscrit Language (1786), would later be hailed as the discovery of the Indo-European language family, from which grew the field of Indo-European studies  The Celtic languages were definitively linked to the Indo-European family over the course of the 19th century 
Although Jones' trail-blazing hypothesis inspired numerous linguistic studies, of which Celtic languages were a part, it was not until Johann Kaspar Zeuss's monumental Grammatica Celtica (volume 1, 1851; volume 2, 1853) that any truly significant progress was made  Written in Latin, the work draws on the earliest Old Irish, Middle Welsh and other Celtic primary sources to construct a comparative grammar, which was the first to lay out a firm basis for Celtic linguistics  Among other achievements, Zeuss was able to crack the Old Irish verb 

Celtic studies in the German-speaking world and the Netherlands
German Celtic studies (Keltologie) is seen by many as having been established by Johann Kaspar Zeuss (1806–1856) (see above)  In 1847, he was appointed professor of linguistics at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich  Until the middle of the 19th century, Celtic studies progressed largely as a subfield of linguistics  Franz Bopp (1791–1867) carried out further studies in comparative linguistics to link the Celtic languages to the Proto-Indo-European language  He is credited with having finally proven Celtic to be a branch of the Indo-European language family  From 1821 to 1864, he served as a professor of oriental literature and general linguistics in Berlin In 1896, Kuno Meyer and Ludwig Christian Stern founded the Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie (ZCP), the first academic journal solely devoted to aspects of Celtic languages and literature, and still in existence today  In the second half of the century, significant contributions were made by the Orientalist Ernst Windisch (1844–1918)  He held a chair in Sanskrit at the University of Leipzig; but he is best remembered for his numerous publications in the field of Celtic studies  In 1901, the Orientalist and Celtologist Heinrich Zimmer (1851–1910) was made professor of Celtic languages at Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin, the first position of its kind in Germany  He was followed in 1911 by Kuno Meyer (1858–1919), who, in addition to numerous publications in the field, was active in the Irish independence movement Perhaps the most important German-speaking Celticist is the Swiss scholar Rudolf Thurneysen (1857–1940)  A student of Windisch and Zimmer, Thurneysen was appointed to the chair of comparative linguistics at the University of Freiburg in 1887; he succeeded to the equivalent chair at the University of Bonn in 1913  His notability arises from his work on Old Irish  For his masterwork, Handbuch des Altirischen ("Handbook of Old Irish", 1909), translated into English as A Grammar of Old Irish, he located and analysed a multitude of Old Irish manuscripts  His work is considered as the basis for all succeeding studies of Old Irish In 1920, Julius Pokorny (1887–1970) was appointed to the chair of Celtic languages at Friedrich Wilhelm University, Berlin  Despite his support for German nationalism and Catholic faith, he was forced out of his position by the Nazis on account of his Jewish ancestry  He subsequently emigrated to Switzerland but returned to Germany in 1955 to teach at Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich  In Berlin, he was succeeded in 1937 by Ludwig Mühlhausen, a devout Nazi After World War II, German Celtic studies took place predominantly in West Germany and Austria  Studies in the field continued at Freiburg, Bonn, Marburg, Hamburg as well as Innsbruck; however an independent professorship in Celtic studies has not been instituted anywhere  In this period, Hans Hartmann, Heinrich Wagner and Wolfgang Meid made notable contributions to the scientific understanding of the boundaries of the Celtic language area and the location of the homeland of the Celtic peoples  The Berlin chair in Celtic languages has not been occupied since 1966 Today, Celtic studies is only taught at a handful of German universities, including those of Bonn, Trier, and Mannheim, the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, and the Philipps University of Marburg  It is also taught at the University of Vienna  Only Marburg, Vienna and Bonn maintain formal programs of study, but even then usually as a subsection of comparative or general linguistics  Only Marburg offers an M A  course specifically in Celtic Studies  No Celtic studies research has taken place in the former centres of Freiburg, Hamburg or Berlin since the 1990s  The last remaining chair in Celtic studies, that at Humboldt University of Berlin, was abolished in 1997 The only Chair of Celtic studies in Continental Europe is at Utrecht University (in the Netherlands)  It was established in 1923, when Celtic studies were added to the Chair of Germanic studies on the special request of its new professor A  G  van Hamel 

Celtic studies in Ireland
Celtic studies are taught in universities in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland  These studies cover language, history, archaeology and art  In addition, the Irish language is taught to a greater or lesser extent in schools across the island of Ireland 
The beginning of Celtic Studies as a university subject in Ireland might be dated to Eugene O'Curry's appointment as professor of Irish history and archaeology at the Catholic University of Ireland in 1854  Celtic Studies, either as full Celtic Studies programmes or as Irish language programmes, are now offered in the National University of Ireland, Galway, University College Cork, University College Dublin (the successor institution to the Catholic University), National University of Ireland, Maynooth, Trinity College Dublin, University of Limerick, Mary Immaculate College, Limerick, Dublin City University, Queen's University Belfast and Ulster University  The Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies (DIAS), School of Celtic Studies, is a research institution but does not award degrees  DIAS and the Royal Irish Academy are leading publishers of Celtic Studies research, including the journals Celtica and Ériu 

Celtic studies in the United Kingdom and the Isle of Man
Celtic studies are taught in universities in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland  These studies cover language, history, archaeology and art  In addition, Celtic languages are taught to a greater or lesser extent in schools in Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Cornwall and the Isle of Man 
The formal study of Celtic Studies at British universities in the late nineteenth century gave rise to the establishment of chairs for Sir John Rhys, first Jesus Professor of Celtic at the University of Oxford, in 1874 and for Donald MacKinnon, first Chair of Celtic at the University of Edinburgh, in 1882  Institutions in the United Kingdom that have Celtic Studies departments and courses are: the Universities of Aberdeen, Aberystwyth, Bangor, Cambridge, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Exeter (which houses the Institute of Cornish Studies), Glasgow, Oxford, Swansea, Trinity St David's, Queen's University Belfast, Ulster University, the University of the Highlands and Islands and the University of Wales, Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies  The top five rated degree-awarding programmes/departments as of 2017 are; (1) Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic at University of Cambridge (2) Welsh and Celtic Studies at Bangor University (3) Welsh and Celtic Studies at Cardiff University (4) Celtic and Gaelic at University of Glasgow (5) Irish and Celtic Studies at Queen's University, Belfast 
A major funder of UK Celtic Studies doctoral studies is the AHRC-funded Centre for Doctoral Training in the Celtic Languages, which admitted PhD students in the period 2014–2019  The CDT in Celtic Languages is administered through Celtic and Gaelic at the University of Glasgow and its director is Prof  Katherine Forsyth 

Celtic studies in North America
In North America, Celtic scholars and students are represented professionally by the Celtic Studies Association of North America 

In Canada
Several universities in Canada offer some Celtic studies courses, while only two universities offers a full B A  as well as graduate courses  St  Michael's College at the University of Toronto and St  Francis Xavier University offers the only B A  of its kind in Canada with a dual focus on Celtic literature and history, while the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies at the University of Toronto offers courses at a graduate level through their Centre for Medieval Studies, along with St  Francis Xavier University 
Other Canadian universities which offer courses in Celtic, Scottish or Irish studies include Cape Breton University, Saint Mary's University, Halifax, Simon Fraser University, the University of Guelph and the University of Ottawa 

In the United States of America
In the United States, Harvard University is notable for its Doctorate program in Celtic studies  Celtic studies are also offered at the universities of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, California–Berkeley, California–Los Angeles, Bard College, and many others, including programs in which a student may minor, like at the College of Charleston  Some aspects of Celtic studies can be accessed through Irish Studies programmes, such as at the University of Notre Dame 

Celtic studies in France
In 1804, the Académie Celtique was founded with the goal of unearthing the Gallic past of the French people  France also produced the first academic journal devoted to Celtic studies, Revue Celtique  Revue Celtique was first published in 1870 in Paris and continued until the death of its last editor, Joseph Loth, in 1934  After that point it was continued under the name Études Celtiques 
The University of Western Brittany (Brest) offers a two-year, an international European-Union certified master's degree course entitled "Celtic languages and Cultures in Contact"  It is part of the Centre for Breton and Celtic Research (CRBC)  Closely linked to this MA programme, the University of Western Brittany organizes an intensive two-week Summer School in Breton Language and Cultural Heritage Studies every year in June  This Summer School is also sponsored by the CRBC and welcomes scholars from around the world with an interest in the Celtic (and minority) languages and cultures to study Breton, the least known of the living Celtic languages 

Celtic studies elsewhere
Celtic studies are also taught at other universities elsewhere in Europe, including the Charles University in Prague (Czech Republic), University of Poznań (Poland), The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin (Poland), Moscow State University (Russia), Uppsala University (Sweden)Irish studies are taught at the University of Burgos (Spain) and the University of A Coruña (Galicia)  Galicia also has its own Institute for Celtic Studies 
Celtic Studies are taught at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels at the University of Sydney (Australia), which also hosts the triennial Australian Conference of Celtic Studies 

International Congress of Celtic Studies
The International Congress of Celtic Studies is the foremost academic conference in the field of Celtic Studies and is held every four years  It was first held in Dublin in 1959  The XV International Congress of Celtic Studies was held at the University of Glasgow in 2015  In 2019, the XVI ICCS was held at Bangor University and the XVII ICCS will be held at Utrecht University in 2023 

Areas of Celtic studies
Archaeology
Linguistics and philology (historical linguistics)
Ethnology
Folklore
History
Literature
Onomastics (Toponymy)
Religious studies (see Celtic Christianity)
Political science

Notable Celticists
Notable academic journals
Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie (ZCP), est  1896, Halle 
Revue Celtique (RC), est  1870, Paris; continued after 1934 by Études celtiques 
Ériu est  1904, Dublin 
The Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies (BBCS), est  1921, Cardiff; merged with Studia Celtica in 1993 
Études Celtiques (EC), est  1936, Paris 
Celtica  Journal of the School of Celtic Studies, est  1949, Dublin 
Studia Celtica, est  1966, Cardiff 
Éigse  A Journal of Irish Studies, est  1939, Dublin 
Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies (CMCS), est  1993, Aberystwyth; formerly Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies 
Peritia  Journal of the Medieval Academy of Ireland, Cork 

The Derek Allen Prize
The Derek Allen Prize, awarded annually by the British Academy since 1977, rotates between Celtic Studies, Numismatics and Musicology  Recent winners in the field of Celtic Studies include: Prof  Máire Herbert (2018), Prof  Pierre-Yves Lambert (2015) and Prof  Fergus Kelly (2012)  Prof  Herbert is the first female Celticist to be awarded this prize 

See also
Irish American Cultural Institute

Citations
General references
Busse, Peter E  "Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie"  In Celtic Culture  A Historical Encyclopedia, ed  J T  Koch  5 vols: vol  5  Santa Barbara et al , 2006  p  1823 

Further reading
Brown, Terence (ed )  Celticism  Studia imagologica 8  Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1996 
Fischer, Joachim and John Dillon (eds )  The correspondence of Myles Dillon, 1922–1925: Irish-German relations and Celtic studies  Dublin: Four Courts, 1999 
Huther, Andreas  "'In Politik verschieden, in Freundschaft wie immer': The German Celtic scholar Kuno Meyer and the First World War"  In The First World War as a clash of cultures, ed  Fred Bridgham  Columbia (SC): Camden House, 2006  pp  231–44  ISBN 1-57113-340-2 
Koch, John T  "Celtic Studies"  In A century of British medieval studies, ed  Alan Deyermond  British Academy centenary monographs  Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007  pp  235–61  ISBN 978-0-19-726395-2  RHS record
Mac Mathúna, Séamus (2006)  "The History of Celtic Scholarship in Russia and the Soviet Union"  Studia Celto-Slavica  1: 3–41  doi:10 54586/ASMH5209 
Meek, Donald E  (2001)  "'Beachdan Ura à Inbhir Nis/ New opinions from Inverness': Alexander MacBain (1855–1907) and the foundation of Celtic studies in Scotland"  Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland  131: 23–39  ISSN 0081-1564 
Ó Lúing, Seán  Celtic studies in Europe and other essays  Dublin: Geography Publications, 2000 
Schneiders, Marc and Kees Veelenturf  Celtic studies in the Netherlands: a bibliography  Dublin: DIAS, 1992 
Sims-Williams, Patrick (1998)  "Celtomania and Celtoscepticism"  Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies  36: 1–35 
Wiley, Dan  "Celtic studies, early history of the field"  In Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopaedia, ed  J  T  Koch  Santa Barbara et al , 2006 

External links

Finding the Celtic project (FtC)
International Congress of Celtic Studies
Association of Celtic Students in Ireland and Britain
Celtic Studies in the Soviet Union
Passage 2:
Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie
The Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie is an academic journal of Celtic studies, which was established in 1897 by the German scholars Kuno Meyer and Ludwig Christian Stern  It was the first journal devoted exclusively to Celtic languages and literature and is the oldest significant journal of Celtic studies still in existence today  The emphasis is on (early) Irish language and literature and Continental Celtic languages, but other aspects of Celtic philology and literature (including modern literature) also receive attention Apart from Stern and Meyer, previous editors include Julius Pokorny, Ludwig Mühlhausen, Rudolf Thurneysen, Rudolf Hertz, Heinrich Wagner, Hans Hartmann, and Karl Horst Schmidt  The current editors-in-chief are Jürgen Uhlich, Torsten Meißner and Bernhard Maier 
In addition to the regular volumes, the journal also has a subsidiary series, Buchreihe der Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie The journal features in a poem by Flann O'Brien which satirises scholars who "rose in their nightshift / To write for the Zeitschrift" 
Passage 3:
Pan Celtic Festival
The Pan Celtic Festival (Irish: Féile Pan Cheilteach; branded simply using the Irish name Pan Cheilteach) is a Celtic-language music festival held annually in the week following Easter, in Ireland, since its inauguration in 1971  The first Pan Celtic Festival took place in Killarney, County Kerry, Ireland  Its aim is to promote the modern Celtic languages and cultures and artists from six Celtic nations: Brittany, Cornwall, Ireland (Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland compete as a single entity), Isle of Man, Scotland and Wales 
Each participating nation holds its own national selection event to choose its representatives at the Festival  The most successful nation is Wales with fourteen wins, with Ireland in second having won eleven times  Bénjad, who represented Cornwall in 2012 and 2013, became the first artist in the festival's history to have won twice  The Isle of Man is the least successful nation, having only won once in 2014 

Origins and history
Formed in Killarney, County Kerry, Ireland, the Pan Celtic Festival was organised as a music festival to be held every Spring, to promote the modern cultures and Celtic languages through the medium of music  It was originally entitled Gŵyl Gerdd Bach (Welsh for "Small Music Festival"), by Con O'Connaill, but later changed to its current name  In May 1971, the first festival took place in Killarney; and featured performers from Wales (Phyllis and Meredydd Evans), Ireland (Scoil na Toirbhirte), and Brittany (Les Tregerez Group and Alan Stivell) Meredydd Evans engaged in discussions with the event organiser, Ó Connaill, following the 1971 Festival, and invited him to the National Eisteddfod of Wales  At the Eisteddfod, Ó Connaill met members from other Celtic nations, and formed a committee for the Pan Celtic Festival  Participants from the six Celtic nations of Brittany (Breizh), Cornwall (Kernow), Wales (Cymru), Scotland (Alba), Ireland (Éire) and the Isle of Man (Mannin) took part in the second Pan Celtic Festival, again held in Killarney in 1972  It was during this festival that the core structure of the event was finalised following a meeting with committee members  These principles of the event are to promote the languages, musical talents and cultures within the six territories recognised as Celtic nations 

Participation
Eligibility to compete at the Pan Celtic Festival is for Celtic nations, which are territories in Northern and Western Europe where Celtic languages or cultural traits have survived, and are members of the Celtic League  The term "nation" is used in its original sense to mean a community of people who share a common identity and culture and are identified with a traditional territory  It is not synonymous with "sovereign state" 

National selections
Brittany: Gouelioù Etrekeltiek An Oriant
The Gouelioù Etrekeltiek An Orient (English: Inter-Celtic Festival of Lorient, or French: Festival Interceltique de Lorient) is an annual Celtic festival, located in the city of Lorient, Brittany, France  The event also acts as a national selection process to determine the Breton representative for the annual Pan Celtic Festival  It was founded in 1971 by Polig Montjarret  This annual festival takes place every August and is dedicated to the cultural traditions of the Celtic nations (pays celtes in Brittany), highlighting celtic music and dance and also including other arts such as painting, photography, theatre, sculpture, traditional artisan as well as sport and gastronomy 

Cornwall: Kan Rag Kernow
Kan Rag Kernow (English: A Song for Cornwall) is a Cornish annual song contest to find a representative for Cornwall at the Pan Celtic Festival, held annually in Ireland  The Cornish group, The Changing Room, won the 2015 Kan Rag Kernow on 30 January 2015  The group went on to represent Cornwall at the 2015 Pan Celtic Festival, finishing in first place with the song "Hal an Tow" (Flora Day) 

Ireland: Comórtas Amhrán Náisiúnta
The Comórtas Amhrán Náisiúnta (English: National Song Contest) is the Irish selection process to determine the representatives for Ireland at the annual Pan Celtic Festival  In 2015, the selection show was held at the Seven Oaks Hotel, in Carlow, on 7 March 

Isle of Man: Arrane son Mannin
The Arrane son Mannin (English: Song for the Isle of Man) is the Manx competition through which a song is selected for the Pan Celtic Festival  In 2015, Shenn Scoill, a quartet whose name means "Old School", were chosen to represent the island 

Scotland: Am Mòd Nàiseanta Rìoghail
Am Mòd Nàiseanta Rìoghail (English: The Royal National Mòd) is the Scottish Gaelic selection process, organised by An Comunn Gàidhealach, to find the Scottish representative for the Pan Celtic Festival, held annually in Ireland  The Scottish band, Na h-Òganaich, were the first representatives for Scotland at the 1971 Pan Celtic Festival  They represented Scotland again in 1972, with the song "Mi le m’Uillin", finishing in first place 

Wales: Cân i Gymru
Cân i Gymru (English: A Song for Wales, Welsh pronunciation: [ˈkaːn i ˈɡəmrɨ]) is a Welsh television show broadcast on S4C annually  It was first introduced in 1969 when BBC Cymru wanted to enter the Eurovision Song Contest  It has taken place every year since, except in 1973  Cân i Gymru is different from most talent shows; whereas the majority invite the public to participate, Cân i Gymru welcomes only professional artists  The winner of the contest represents Wales at the annual Pan Celtic Festival held in Ireland and is also awarded a cash prize Wales made their debut participation in the Eurovision Choir of the Year 2017, which marked the second time in any of the Eurovision Family of Events that the country was not represented as part of the unified state of the United Kingdom, after 1994, when Wales participated lastly in the Jeux Sans Frontières  Wales used the talent show Côr Cymru, to select their representatives 

Festival hosts
The festivals, since 1971, have been held in various towns and cities in Ireland  Below is a list of the host cities and their respective years of hosting  The 2001 festival was cancelled due to the foot-and-mouth outbreak  As is shown below, County Kerry have hosted the festival twenty-nine times since 1971, with the most recent the 2011 Festival, in the town of Dingle, who first hosted the event in 2010  County Clare have only hosted once in 1997 

List of winners
By festival
The table below lists all of the annual Pan Celtic Festival winners since its inaugural event in 1971 

By Celtic nation
The table below lists all of the Pan Celtic Festival winners by Celtic Nations, since its inaugural event in 1971  Wales is the most successful nation to date, with fifteen wins; with Ireland coming in second with eleven wins  The Isle of Man achieved their one and only win to date in 2014 
Passage 4:
Insular Celtic languages
Insular Celtic languages are the group of Celtic languages spoken in Brittany, Great Britain, Ireland, and the Isle of Man   All surviving Celtic languages are in the Insular group, including Breton, which is spoken on continental Europe in Brittany, France  The  Continental Celtic languages, although once quite widely spoken in mainland Europe and in Anatolia, are extinct 
Six Insular Celtic languages are extant (in all cases written and spoken) in two distinct groups:

Brittonic (or Brythonic) languages: Breton, Cornish, and Welsh
Goidelic languages: Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic

Insular Celtic hypothesis
The "Insular Celtic hypothesis" is a theory that they evolved together in those places, having a later common ancestor than any of the Continental Celtic languages such as Celtiberian, Gaulish, Galatian, and Lepontic, among others, all of which are long extinct 
The proponents of the hypothesis (such as Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; and Schrijver 1995) point to shared innovations among these – chiefly:

inflected prepositions
shared use of certain verbal particles
VSO word order
differentiation of absolute and conjunct verb endings as found extensively in Old Irish and less so in Middle Welsh (see Morphology of the Proto-Celtic language) The proponents assert that a strong partition between the Brittonic languages with Gaulish (P-Celtic) on one side and the Goidelic languages with Celtiberian (Q-Celtic) on the other, may be superficial, owing to a language contact phenomenon   They add the identical sound shift (/kʷ/ to /p/) could have occurred independently in the predecessors of Gaulish and Brittonic, or have spread through language contact between those two groups  Further, the Italic languages had a similar divergence between Latino-Faliscan, which kept /kʷ/, and Osco-Umbrian, which changed it to /p/  Some historians, such as George Buchanan in the 16th century, had suggested the Brythonic or P-Celtic language was a descendant of the Picts' language   Indeed the tribe of the Pritani has Qritani (and, orthographically orthodox in modern form but counterintuitively written Cruthin) (Q-Celtic) cognate forms The family tree of the Insular Celtic languages is thus as follows:

This table lists cognates showing the development of Proto-Celtic */kʷ/ to /p/ in Gaulish and the Brittonic languages but to /k/ in the Goidelic languages 

^  In Welsh orthography ⟨u⟩ denotes [i] or [ɪ]A significant difference between Goidelic and Brittonic languages is the transformation of *an, *am to a denasalised vowel with lengthening, é, before an originally voiceless stop or fricative, cf  Old Irish éc "death", écath "fish hook", dét "tooth", cét "hundred" vs  Welsh angau, angad, dant, and cant  Otherwise:

the nasal is retained before a vowel, i̯, w, m, and a liquid:
Old Irish: ben "woman" (< *benā)
Old Irish: gainethar "he/she is born" (< *gan-i̯e-tor)
Old Irish: ainb "ignorant" (< *anwiss)
the nasal passes to en before another n:
Old Irish: benn "peak" (< *banno) (vs  Welsh bann)
Middle Irish: ro-geinn "finds a place" (< *ganne) (vs  Welsh gannaf)
the nasal passes to in, im before a voiced stop
Old Irish: imb "butter" (vs  Breton aman(en)n, Cornish amanyn)
Old Irish: ingen "nail" (vs  Old Welsh eguin)
Old Irish: tengae "tongue" (vs  Welsh tafod)
ing "strait" (vs  Middle Welsh eh-ang "wide")

Insular Celtic as a language area
In order to show that shared innovations are from a common descent it is necessary that they do not arise because of language contact after initial separation  A language area can result from widespread bilingualism, perhaps because of exogamy, and absence of sharp sociolinguistic division 
Ranko Matasović has provided a list of changes which affected both branches of Insular Celtic but for which there is no evidence that they should be dated to a putative Proto-Insular Celtic period  These are:

Phonological Changes
The lenition of voiceless stops
Raising/i-affection
Lowering/a-affection
Apocope
Syncope
Morphological Changes
Creation of conjugated prepositions
Loss of case inflection of personal pronouns (historical case-inflected forms)
Creation of the equative degree
Creation of the imperfect
Creation of the conditional mood
Morphosyntactic and Syntactic
Rigidisation of VSO order
Creation of preposed definite articles
Creation of particles expressing sentence affirmation and negation
Creation of periphrastic construction
Creation of object markers
Use of ordinal numbers in the sense of "one of" 

Absolute and dependent verb
The Insular Celtic verb shows a peculiar feature unknown in any other attested Indo-European language: verbs have different conjugational forms depending on whether they appear in absolute initial position in the sentence (Insular Celtic having verb–subject–object or VSO word order) or whether they are preceded by a preverbal particle  The situation is most robustly attested in Old Irish, but it has remained to some extent in Scottish Gaelic and traces of it are present in Middle Welsh as well 
Forms that appear in sentence-initial position are called absolute, those that appear after a particle are called conjunct (see Dependent and independent verb forms for details)  The paradigm of the present active indicative of the Old Irish verb beirid "carry" is as follows; the conjunct forms are illustrated with the particle ní "not" 

In Scottish Gaelic this distinction is still found in certain verb-forms across almost all verbs (except for a very few)  This is a VSO language  The example given in the first column below is the independent  or absolute  form, which must be used when the verb is in clause-initial position (or preceded in the clause by certain preverbal particles)  Then following it is the dependent  or conjunct  form which is required when the verb is preceded in the clause by certain other preverbal particles, in particular interrogative or negative preverbal particles
Context 3: Passage 1:
2014 6 Hours of Silverstone
The 2014 6 Hours of Silverstone was an endurance sports car racing event held at the Silverstone Circuit near Silverstone, England on 17–20 April 2014   The event served as the opening round of the 2014 World Endurance Championship, and overall race winners were awarded the annual Tourist Trophy by the Royal Automobile Club   Toyota became the first Japanese manufacturer to win Silverstone's endurance race, with Anthony Davidson, Sébastien Buemi, and Nicolas Lapierre leading the team's second TS040 Hybrid to a 1–2 finish   The race, which had run under mixed weather conditions, was stopped in the final half-hour of competition due to heavy rains and not restarted Porsche, making their return to the prototype categories with the debuting 919 Hybrid, completed the overall race podium with third place  Accidents ended the race of both Audi R18 e-tron quattro cars after the World Champions had started strongly   Rebellion Racing's Nicolas Prost, Nick Heidfeld, and Mathias Beche were the only team to reach the finish in the LMP1-L category, while G-Drive Racing's Morgan-Nissan won the LMP2 class   Lock-out 1–2 victories were also earned by Porsche in LMGTE Pro and British marque Aston Martin in LMGTE Am 

Qualifying results
Pole position winners in each class are marked in bold 

Race
Race result
Class winners in bold 

See also
2014 4 Hours of Silverstone
Passage 2:
2013 6 Hours of São Paulo
The 2013 6 Hours of São Paulo was an endurance auto race held at the Autódromo José Carlos Pace, São Paulo, Brazil on 30 August – 1 September 2013   The race was the fourth round of the 2013 FIA World Endurance Championship and the second consecutive running of the 6 Hours of São Paulo   Audi continued their streak of four overall victories following an accident for the sole Toyota in LMP1, with André Lotterer, Marcel Fässler, and Benoît Tréluyer leading the Joest Racing duo to the checkered flag   G-Drive Racing earned their first victory in the LMP2 category ahead of OAK Racing, while AF Corse Ferrari led home Aston Martin Racing in the LMGTE Pro class by a gap of less than two seconds   Aston Martin however prevailed in LMGTE Am, ahead of the 8 Star Ferrari 

Qualifying result
Pole position winners in each class are marked in bold 
^1  The No  61 AF Corse Ferrari was deemed to be below the minimum ride height in post-qualifying scrutineering   The car was penalized to the back of the starting grid 
^2  The No  57 Krohn Ferrari and No  76 IMSA Porsche both had drivers who failed to meet the minimum lap time requirements   Both cars were penalized to the back of the starting grid 
^3  Although the No  25 Delta-ADR Oreca-Nissan failed to set a qualifying time, the car was allowed to start from the back of the LMP2 field on the grid for safety reasons 

Race result
Class winners in bold   Cars failing to complete 70% of winner's distance marked as Not Classified (NC) 
Passage 3:
6 Hours of Silverstone
The 4 Hours of Silverstone (formerly the 1000 km of Silverstone and 6 Hours of Silverstone) is an endurance sports car race held at Silverstone Circuit near the Northamptonshire villages of Silverstone and Whittlebury   First run in 1976 as part of the World Sportscar Championship, the race was a part of the FIA World Endurance Championship between 2013 and 2019, but the 2020 race was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the race didn’t return for 2021  The RAC Tourist Trophy has been awarded to the winners of the event 

History
In 1975, a round of the World Championship of Makes was not held in Britain for one of the first times since 1966  The 1000 km Brands Hatch which had been run almost consecutively during that period went under hiatus while track upgrades were carried out  Following upgrades of its own in 1975, plans were made for sportscars to return to Britain by using Silverstone instead of Brands Hatch  The event was a six-hour endurance, part of the Group 5 World Championship 
The first running consisted of a small field as some season competitors chose not to compete  British drivers John Fitzpatrick and Tom Walkinshaw managed to upset the factory teams by scoring the inaugural victory in a BMW  The following year, competition grew as the factory Porsche team, under the guise of Martini Racing, earned their first of two consecutive victories for drivers Jochen Mass and Jacky Ickx  The Porsche factory team was not able to continue their streak into 1979 when their lead car crashed, leaving the privateer Gelo Racing Porsche to a dominant win 
1980 saw the first victory by a sports-prototype  Alain de Cadenet managed to win the home event as a driver, team owner, as well as a constructor when he and Desiré Wilson won by 18 seconds in a car of his own design  A Group 5 car took its final victory in 1981 with the all-German Velga Racing Team before the class was phased out 
1982 was the first year of the Group C category in the World Championship, although the race that year was actually won by an older Group 6 Lancia  The first Group C victory came in 1983 as Porsche returned to their factory dominance of the event, going on to win the 1984 and 1985 events as well  Jacky Ickx and Jochen Mass still hold record of most wins, having won the race four times in 1977, 1978, 1984 and 1985  In 1986 British success returned as the Jaguar factory team was able to upset Porsche for the first time since the company had returned to racing  Jaguar then began to dominate in a fashion similar to Porsche, as they too won the next two years   American Eddie Cheever co-drove in each of the three victories 
No race was held in 1989 as Donington temporarily replaced Silverstone on the schedule, but sportscars returned in 1990 for a shorter 480 km event  Jaguar returned to their winning ways straight away before going on to earn a fifth straight victory in a 430 km event in 1991  Only after Jaguar officially retired from the World Championship was another manufacturer able to once again earn victory at Silverstone, this time being Peugeot  A lack of entrants however lead to the cancellation of the World Championship, temporarily ending endurance racing at the circuit  The race did make a one-year comeback in 2000 as part of the American Le Mans Series  The race served as a precursor to the European Le Mans Series that followed in 2001 
In 2004, the new Le Mans Endurance Series was created to resurrect several 1000 km endurance races in a modern era  Among these was Silverstone, running at its original distance   Once again, British success started off the return of the event as Allan McNish and the British Audi team won the event  Audi and McNish won again the following year, this time under the control of the French Oreca team, although the race was heavily hampered by rain   Silverstone took a brief hiatus in 2006 as Donington replaced the event once again, only to return once again in 2007  Peugeot earned their second victory, this time with a diesel-powered Le Mans prototype  The 2010 edition was the inaugural race of the Le Mans Intercontinental Cup, as well as the first time the race used the new 5 901 km (3 667 mi) "Arena" configuration  The race continued in 2012 as a part of the FIA World Endurance Championship 

Winners
† - Race went under a 6-hour time limit  Only 776 km of the 1000 km scheduled were covered 

External links
Le Mans Series - 2007 1000 km of Silverstone
Passage 4:
Renato Molinari
Renato Molinari (born 27 February 1946 in Nesso) is an Italian powerboat racer, and the inaugural winner of the John Player Special F1 Powerboat World Championship in 1981, and won titles again in 1983 and 1984  In addition to this success, Molinari is an 18-time World Champion (in different categories); 11-time European Champion (in different categories), 4-time winner of the Rouen 24 hours, 4-time winner of the Paris 6 hours; twice winner of the Parker Enduro and 3-time winner of the Berlin 6 hours 

Career
Molinari began his boating career in 1964, and won the Formula 1 championship in 1981, 1983 and 1984 
Passage 5:
2013 6 Hours of Bahrain
The 2013 6 Hours of Bahrain was an endurance auto race held at the Bahrain International Circuit in Sakhir, Bahrain on 30 November 2013  The race was the eighth and final showdown of the 2013 FIA World Endurance Championship season  The race was won by Sébastien Buemi, Stéphane Sarrazin and Anthony Davidson driving the No 8 Toyota TS030 Hybrid of Toyota Racing 

Qualifying
Qualifying result
Pole position winners in each class are marked in bold 

Race
Race result
Class winners in bold  Cars failing to complete 70% of winner's distance marked as Not Classified (NC) 
Passage 6:
Allan McNish
Allan McNish (born 29 December 1969) is a British former racing driver, commentator, and journalist from Scotland  He is a three-time winner of the 24 Hours of Le Mans, most recently in 2013, as well as a three-time winner of the American Le Mans Series, which he last won in 2007  He won the FIA World Endurance Championship (FIA WEC) in 2013  He has also been a co-commentator and pundit for BBC Formula One coverage on TV, radio and online and was team principal of the Audi Sport ABT Schaeffler Formula E team 

Early life
McNish was born in Dumfries, Scotland and played football while at school  He was a fan of Nottingham Forest and also supported his local club Queen of the South  It was not until McNish began in karting that he found something at which he excelled 

Early career
McNish began his career in karting like fellow Dumfries and Galloway driver David Coulthard  McNish credited the start given to both of them and Dario Franchitti as being largely down to David Leslie senior and junior McNish and Coulthard both were recognised with a McLaren/Autosport BRDC Young Driver of the Year award having moved up to car racing  In 1988 he won the Formula Vauxhall Lotus championship and in 1989 finished runner up to David Brabham in a close fought British Formula 3 Championship  During the late 1980s McNish shared a house with teammate Mika Häkkinen Tipped as a future Formula One driver, he tested with both McLaren and Benetton, whilst also competing in F3000, then the recognised second tier of European motorsport, in 1990–1992  Whilst racing his first season in F3000, McNish suffered a crash at a race in Donington Park where a bystander was fatally injured  He went on to finish fourth overall in the championship that season  Concentrating on Formula One opportunities meant he appeared in F3000 only once during 1994, at Pau 
When a Formula One drive failed to materialise, he returned to F3000 in 1995 with Paul Stewart Racing (run by the son of Sir Jackie Stewart who went on to form Stewart Grand Prix)  While he was arguably the fastest driver of the year, a series of mishaps saw him well beaten by Super Nova drivers Vincenzo Sospiri and Ricardo Rosset in the title race  McNish's career appeared to stall in early 1996 after a deal to race in Formula Nippon fell through and Mark Blundell was preferred for a drive with the PacWest CART team  He also tested for Benetton during the year 

Sports cars
Despite devoting his career to the pursuit of a Formula One chance, McNish has become one of the world's most highly rated sportscar drivers  His sportscar career began in 1996 with Porsche, at a time when their 911 GT1 model revolutionised sportscar racing  With the factory team he took this car to victory in the 1998 24 Hours of Le Mans, partnered by Laurent Aïello and Stephane Ortelli  He subsequently appeared for Toyota and Audi in the race, and after losing a likely victory in the dying stages of the 2007 event, scored a second triumph in 2008 with Tom Kristensen and Rinaldo Capello driving an Audi R10  He has also raced with great success for Audi in the American Le Mans Series, winning the title with Dindo Capello in 2006 and 2007, and taking four overall victories at the 12 Hours of Sebring (2004, 2006, 2009 and 2012)  At the 2011 Le Mans McNish destroyed the car in a spectacular crash early in the race and ended the race for Audi No  3  And again at the 2012 Le Mans, McNish made a driving error and lost a first place by crashing the Audi No  2 car a few hours before the finish  He also codrove the No  8 Starworks Motorsport Riley-Ford to a second-place finish at the 2012 24 Hours of Daytona 
In the 2000 American Le Mans Series season McNish set a track record for the full circuit configuration at Sears Point International Raceway 

Formula One
McNish finally found an opening into Formula One in 2001, when the newly formed Toyota F1 team required a development driver  Given his link with Toyota through sportscars he was an obvious choice for this role, and after impressing in testing he was hired to race for the season  He did not score any points during the season's 17 races, and he and teammate Mika Salo were replaced with a new line-up of Olivier Panis and Cristiano da Matta for 2003  Salo had scored points for the team on their debut in Melbourne and McNish had very nearly done the same in the Malaysian Grand Prix, only for a pit lane mistake by the team to cost him the result  Both drivers were told of their replacement before Da Matta was announced, and ITV's Martin Brundle commented that "replacing Salo and McNish with Panis and A N  Other" was not, in his view, a step forward McNish had a dramatic accident at the 130R corner while practising for Toyota's home race the Japanese Grand Prix at Suzuka, but escaped serious injury  This led to the corner being reprofiled the following year 

After Formula One
In 2003 he was a test driver for Renault F1, also doing a little TV work for ITV, but the next year he returned to his successful sports car racing career, winning the 12 Hours of Sebring, combining this in 2005 with a venture into the highly competitive DTM (German Touring Car Championship), where he competed against the likes of former Formula One drivers Mika Häkkinen and Jean Alesi  He also won sportscar driver of the year awards from  Autosport and Le Mans magazines and the (Jackie) Stewart Medal Award for services to Scottish motor sport  He was made the president of the Scottish Motor Racing Club at their annual prize giving and dinner in 2007, succeeding Stewart 

In 2006, he continued racing with the Audi factory team and was part of the driving line-up which won the 12 Hours of Sebring in the new Audi R10 TDI diesel, setting pole position and breaking the lap record  In 2008, McNish won the 24 Hours of Le Mans for Audi alongside Tom Kristensen and Rinaldo Capello  It was his first win at la Sarthe since 1998  McNish won the 2013 24 Hours of Le Mans as well with Tom Kristensen and Loïc Duval   In 2011 McNish suffered a catastrophic crash at the Le Mans race, one which left his car virtually disintegrated   However McNish walked away from the vehicle unharmed thanks largely due to the safety improvements that had been made in recent years In 2013, McNish became a world champion as he won the 2013 FIA World Endurance Championship alongside Kristensen and Duval 
Since Formula One has introduced the drivers' representative on the stewards panel at all Grands Prix, McNish has featured as the drivers' representative twice in the 2011 season, in Monaco and most recently in Hungary and on both occasions he has penalised the McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton for various transgressions  He has also appeared in a Scania video test driving their new R 730 V8 
On 17 December 2013, McNish announced his retirement from Audi Sport and from racing full-time  He has not ruled out racing individual events in the future  After retiring he took on a role with Audi Sport, including liaising between the team's drivers and engineers, between the team and motorsport organisers, and driver development  He is also manager of racing driver Harry Tincknell  He also works for BBC Sport as a commentator and pundit for their Formula One coverage  McNish became team principal for Audi's Formula E team, starting for the 2017–18 season, following Audi's official take over of the Abt Sportsline run entry 
McNish is two-time winner of the Segrave Trophy (2009/2014), was awarded the BRDC Gold Star in 2014, and won the BARC Gold Medal in 2015 

Other formulae
As well as those above, McNish has also raced in the following racing series:

Karting
Formula Ford
Vauxhall Lotus
British Formula 3
North American GT
FIA GT

Personal life
He lives in Monaco with his wife Kelly and their two children  Prior to his marriage, McNish's stag party in Dumfries was attended by Dario and Marino Franchitti and included watching a Queen of the South football match 
He speaks English and French 

Racing record
Complete International Formula 3000 results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap )

Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results
Complete American Le Mans Series results
Complete 12 Hours of Sebring results
Complete Formula One results
(key)

† Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance 

Complete DTM results
(key)

Complete Le Mans Series results
Complete FIA World Endurance Championship results
Passage 7:
2013 6 Hours of Shanghai
The 2013 6 Hours of Shanghai was an endurance auto race held at the Shanghai International Circuit in Shanghai, China on 9 November 2013   The race was the seventh round of the 2013 FIA World Endurance Championship season 
The race was won by André Lotterer, Benoît Tréluyer and Marcel Fässler of Audi Sport Team Joest  Allan McNish, Tom Kristensen and Loïc Duval won the World Drivers' Championship at the event after finishing in third place 

Qualifying
Qualifying result
Pole position winners in each class are marked in bold 

Race
Race result
Class winners in bold  Cars failing to complete 70% of winner's distance marked as Not Classified (NC) 
Passage 8:
2013 6 Hours of Fuji
The 2013 6 Hours of Fuji was intended to have been an automobile endurance race held at the Fuji Speedway, Oyama, Japan on 20 October 2013   The race was the sixth round of the 2013 FIA World Endurance Championship season   Heavy rains forced race officials to start the race under safety car conditions, completing eight laps before the race was temporarily stopped due to no improvement in track conditions   Following a two-hour delay the race was restarted once more under the safety car, lapping another eight circuits before officials stopped the race again and eventually called an end to the event   The No  7 Toyota was declared the race winner, gaining the lead following a pit stop under caution from the Audi which started on pole position, while the majority of the field finished in the same position they started the race  Only half points were awarded towards the various championships being held under the WEC umbrella 
As a result of the race, which did not take the green flag, the FIA imposed a rule change effective 2014 where points are only scored if two laps are run under green flag conditions to prevent a repeat of what happened in Fuji 

Qualifying
Qualifying result
Pole position winners in each class are marked in bold 

Race
Race result
Class winners in bold   Cars failing to complete 70% of winner's distance marked as Not Classified (NC) 
Passage 9:
Trela nera
The Euripus Strait (Greek: Εύριπος [ˈevripos]) is a narrow channel of water separating the Greek island of Euboea in the Aegean Sea from Boeotia in mainland Greece  The strait's principal port is Chalcis on Euboea, located at the strait's narrowest point 
The strait is subject to strong tidal currents which reverse direction approximately four times a day  Tidal flows are very weak in the Eastern Mediterranean, but the strait is a remarkable exception   Water flow peaks at about 12 kilometres per hour (7 5 mph; 6 5 kn), either northwards or southwards, and lesser vessels are often incapable of sailing against it   When nearing flow reversal, sailing is even more precarious because of vortex formation 
The Swiss scholar François-Alphonse Forel contributed to an understanding of the enigmatic phenomenon by his study of limnology and the discovery of seiche, where layers of water of differing temperature oscillate in thickness in a confined body of water  But the problem was solved completely only by D  Eginitis, director of the Athens Observatory, who published his conclusions in 1929 

Etymology
From Ancient Greek εὔριπος (eúrīpos, "any strait or narrow sea, where the flux and reflux is violent"); from εὖ (eû, "well") + ῥιπή (rhipḗ, “swing or force with which anything is thrown”), from ῥίπτω (rhíptō, "to throw") 

Bridges
There are two road bridges across the strait, both at Chalcis  One is the Euripus Bridge or Chalcis Bridge, a two-pylon, cable-suspended bridge built south of town in 1992, and commonly called the "New" or "High" bridge, with a span of about 215 m (705 ft)  The strait is 160 m (525 ft) wide at this point   The bridge is accessible via a fork on the main road at Aulis 
The "Old" or "Low" or "Sliding" Bridge lies across midtown, and can slide away to allow shipping traffic  It is located at the narrowest point of the strait, where it is only 38 m (125 ft) wide   It accommodates two lanes of vehicular traffic   It was originally built as a retractable bridge in 1858, replaced by a rotating one in 1896   The existing, originally wooden bridge was built in 1962 and was extensively refurbished in 1998 

History
The Euripus was closed by a dike of coarse sediment until about 6000 years ago, when it was opened by an (unrecorded) earthquake  Herodotus mentions the strait during his description of the Battle of Artemisium (480 BC), with the account implying that it was navigable by large fleets of triremes  Diodorus Siculus reports that in 411 BC the Euboeans closed the strait by mostly rebuilding the dike, with the goal of making themselves part of Boeotia, therefore not an island subject to Athenian hegemony  Diodorus states that gaps had to be left in the dike to allow the Euripus tides to flow through; the narrowness of the remaining passage made the current much more intense  Only a single passage was left navigable, just wide enough for a single ship  There is no mention of the closure of the strait in either Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War or Xenophon's Hellenica  Strabo wrote that at an unspecified later date the strait was crossed by a bridge two plethra long (approximately 50 m (160 ft), which is probably an exaggeration)  Some vestiges of the artificial dike probably remained, so the gap spanned by the bridge could have been narrower than the channel that existed before 411 BC  Ancient historians do not record the depth of the channel; even the passage under Strabo's bridge may have been scoured by the tides to a depth sufficient for ancient shipping Procopius reports that during the reign of Emperor Justinian I (527 to 565 AD) there were two channels in the Euripus, the large original channel and a new narrower cleft to the east of it, so narrow that it could be crossed with a single plank of wood  This later stream was later widened to make the present shipping channel  At the time when Procopius wrote, the name of the fortress on the Euripus was probably "Euripus," which had become "Egripos" by 1204, and was adopted and slightly altered to "Nigriponte" by the Latins who occupied the place in 1205   (The name has nothing to do with any sort of "Black Bridge," except as a Veronese or Venetian joke, or folk-etymological corruption or re-interpretation in reference to the old bridge across the channel )

In 1395, Nicola di Martoni came to Negropont during the return from his pilgrimage to Egypt and Palestine   He is clear that the main shipping channel in the Venetian period was on the side of the Boeotian mainland, and mentions the mills on the narrower channel, which he says were sometimes broken in the speed and turbulence of the flow there 
We have further information about the shipping channel and its single wooden bridge from various documents in the archives of the Venetian Empire  In 1408, the formation of a reef under the bridge severely affected shipping (http://www archiviodistatovenezia it/divenire/collezioni htm  Senato, Deliberazioni, Misti  48,43v) and in 1439 there was concern over the tendency of the current to erode the surroundings of the pilings that supported the bridge  (http://www archiviodistatovenezia it/divenire/collezioni htm  Senato, Deliberazioni, Misti  60,140r–42r) Evliya Çelebi, in his Travel Journal (SN VIII250a27, ff ), tells us that the narrow channel was first opened out enough for a galley to pass through at some time in the late 16th century, and was still just barely wide enough at the time of his visit in 1668 for a galley to squeeze through, even though the old shipping channel had been abandoned 
By the end of the 18th century it was well on its way to being the width of the modern channel 

See also
List of Greek place names

Notes
Passage 10:
2013 6 Hours of Silverstone
The 2013 6 Hours of Silverstone was an auto racing event held at the Silverstone Circuit, near Silverstone, England on 12–14 April 2013   The event was the opening round of the 2013 FIA World Endurance Championship season, and served as the annual award for the Royal Automobile Club's Tourist Trophy   Briton Allan McNish, Dane Tom Kristensen, and Frenchman Loïc Duval won the race for Audi, just over three seconds ahead of their teammates   The British Delta-ADR team were victorious in the LMP2 category, while Aston Martin Racing secured both the LMGTE Pro and LMGTE Am classes 
The event weekend was shared with the European Le Mans Series, which ran the 3 Hours of Silverstone, and the FIA European Formula 3 Championship 

Qualifying
The 6 Hours of Silverstone was the first instance in which the WEC utilized a new qualifying procedure in which two drivers were required to set laps during the qualifying session   The grid would then be determined by averaging the total of the two best laps set by each of the drivers   Following the Silverstone qualifying session, several drivers felt the new format was too risky as all teams only had enough time to set four laps during the wet session   The FIA later announced that qualifying would be extended by ten minutes for the next round at Spa to allow teams more leeway 

Qualifying result
Pole position winners in each class are marked in bold 

Race
Race result
Class winners in bold   Cars failing to complete 70% of winner's distance marked as Not Classified (NC) 



ground_truth: Deftones

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: In which six Western European territories have Celtic languages or cultural traits survived?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  In these examples, in the first column we have a verb in clause-initial position  In the second column a negative particle immediately precedes the verb, which makes the verb use the verb form or verb forms of the dependent  conjugation 

Note that the verb forms in the above examples happen to be the same with any subject personal pronouns, not just with the particular persons chosen in the example  Also, the combination of tense–aspect–mood properties inherent in these verb forms is non-past but otherwise indefinite with respect to time, being compatible with a variety of non-past times, and context indicates the time  The sense can be completely tenseless, for example when asserting that something is always true or always happens  This verb form has erroneously been termed ‘future’ in many pedagogical grammars  A correct, neutral term ‘INDEF1’ has been used in linguistics texts 
In Middle Welsh, the distinction is seen most clearly in proverbs following the formula "X happens, Y does not happen" (Evans 1964: 119):

Pereid y rycheu, ny phara a'e goreu "The furrows last, he who made them lasts not"
Trenghit golut, ny threingk molut "Wealth perishes, fame perishes not"
Tyuit maban, ny thyf y gadachan "An infant grows, his swaddling-clothes grow not"
Chwaryit mab noeth, ny chware mab newynawc "A naked boy plays, a hungry boy plays not"The older analysis of the distinction, as reported by Thurneysen (1946, 360 ff ), held that the absolute endings derive from Proto-Indo-European "primary endings" (used in present and future tenses) while the conjunct endings derive from the "secondary endings" (used in past tenses)  Thus Old Irish absolute beirid "s/he carries" was thought to be from *bʰereti (compare Sanskrit bharati "s/he carries"), while conjunct beir was thought to be from *bʰeret (compare Sanskrit a-bharat "s/he was carrying") 
Today, however, most Celticists agree that Cowgill (1975), following an idea present already in Pedersen (1913, 340 ff ), found the correct solution to the origin of the absolute/conjunct distinction: an enclitic particle, reconstructed as *es after consonants and *s after vowels, came in second position in the sentence  If the first word in the sentence was another particle, *(e)s came after that and thus before the verb, but if the verb was the first word in the sentence, *(e)s was cliticized to it  Under this theory, then, Old Irish absolute beirid comes from Proto-Celtic *bereti-s, while conjunct ní beir comes from *nī-s bereti 
The identity of the *(e)s particle remains uncertain  Cowgill suggests it might be a semantically degraded form of *esti "is", while Schrijver (1994) has argued it is derived from the particle *eti "and then", which is attested in Gaulish  Schrijver's argument is supported and expanded by Schumacher (2004), who points towards further evidence, viz , typological parallels in non-Celtic languages, and especially a large number of verb forms in all Brythonic languages that contain a particle -d (from an older *-t) 
Continental Celtic languages cannot be shown to have any absolute/conjunct distinction  However, they seem to show only SVO and SOV word orders, as in other Indo-European languages  The absolute/conjunct distinction may thus be an artifact of the VSO word order that arose in Insular Celtic 

Possible pre-Celtic substratum
Insular Celtic, unlike  Continental Celtic, shares some structural characteristics with various Afro-Asiatic languages which are rare in other Indo-European languages  These similarities include verb–subject–object word order, singular verbs with plural post-verbal subjects, a genitive construction similar to construct state, prepositions with fused inflected pronouns ("conjugated prepositions" or "prepositional pronouns"), and oblique relatives with pronoun copies  Such resemblances were noted as early as 1621 with regard to Welsh and the Hebrew language The hypothesis that the Insular Celtic languages had features from an Afro-Asiatic substratum (Iberian and Berber languages) was first proposed by John Morris-Jones in 1899  The theory has been supported by several linguists since: Henry Jenner (1904); Julius Pokorny (1927); Heinrich Wagner (1959); Orin Gensler (1993); Theo Vennemann (1995); and Ariel Shisha-Halevy (2003) Others have suggested that rather than the Afro-Asiatic influencing Insular Celtic directly, both groups of languages were influenced by a now lost substrate  This was suggested by Jongeling (2000)  Ranko Matasović (2012) likewise argued that the "Insular Celtic languages were subject to strong influences from an unknown, presumably non-Indo-European substratum" and found the syntactic parallelisms between Insular Celtic and Afro-Asiatic languages to be "probably not accidental"  He argued that their similarities arose from "a large linguistic macro-area, encompassing parts of NW Africa, as well as large parts of Western Europe, before the arrival of the speakers of Indo-European, including Celtic" The Afro-Asiatic substrate theory, according to Raymond Hickey, "has never found much favour with scholars of the Celtic languages"  The theory was criticised by Kim McCone in 2006, Graham Isaac in 2007, and Steve Hewitt in 2009  Isaac argues that the 20 points identified by Gensler are trivial, dependencies, or vacuous  Thus, he considers the theory to be not just unproven but also wrong  Instead, the similarities between Insular Celtic and Afro-Asiatic could have evolved independently 

Notes
Passage 5:
Celtic nations
The Celtic nations are a cultural area and collection of geographical regions in Northwestern Europe where the Celtic languages and cultural traits have survived  The term nation is used in its original sense to mean a people who share a common identity and culture and are identified with a traditional territory 
The six regions widely considered Celtic nations are Brittany (Breizh), Cornwall (Kernow), Ireland (Éire), the Isle of Man (Mannin, or Ellan Vannin), Scotland (Alba), and Wales (Cymru)  In each of the six nations a Celtic language is spoken to some extent: Brittonic or Brythonic languages are spoken in Brittany (Breton), Cornwall (Cornish), and Wales (Welsh), whilst Goidelic or Gaelic languages are spoken in Scotland (Scottish Gaelic), Ireland (Irish), and the Isle of Man (Manx) Before the expansions of Ancient Rome and the Germanic and Slavic-speaking tribes, a significant part of Europe was dominated by Celtic-speaking cultures, leaving behind a legacy of Celtic cultural traits  Territories in north-western Iberia—particularly northern Portugal, Galicia, Asturias, León, and Cantabria (together historically referred to as Gallaecia and Astures), covering north-central Portugal and northern Spain—are considered Celtic nations due to their culture and history  Unlike the others, however, no Celtic language is attested there, unlike Celtiberia, and has been spoken in modern times 

Core nations
Each of the six nations has its own Celtic language  In Brittany, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales these have been spoken continuously through time, while Cornwall and the Isle of Man have languages that were spoken into modern times but later died as spoken community languages  In the latter two regions, however, language revitalisation movements have led to the adoption of these languages by adults and produced a number of native speakers Ireland, Wales, Brittany and Scotland contain areas where a Celtic language is used on a daily basis; in Ireland these areas are called the Gaeltacht; in Wales Y Fro Gymraeg, Breizh-Izel (Lower Brittany) in western Brittany and Breizh-Uhel (Upper Brittany) in eastern Brittany  Generally these communities are in the west of their countries and in more isolated upland or island areas  Welsh, however, is much more widespread, with much of the north and west speaking it as a first language, or equally alongside English  Public signage is in dual languages throughout Wales and it is now a requirement to possess at least basic Welsh in order to be employed by the Welsh Government  The term Gàidhealtachd historically distinguished the Gaelic-speaking areas of Scotland (the Highlands and islands) from the Lowland Scots (i e  Anglo-Saxon-speaking) areas  More recently, this term has also been adopted as the Gaelic name of the Highland council area, which includes non-Gaelic speaking areas  Hence, more specific terms such as sgìre Ghàidhlig ("Gaelic-speaking area") are now used In Wales, the Welsh language is a core curriculum (compulsory) subject, which all pupils study  Additionally, 20% of schoolchildren in Wales attend Welsh medium schools, where they are taught entirely in the Welsh language  In the Republic of Ireland, all school children study Irish as one of the three core subjects until the end of secondary school, and 7 4% of primary school education is through Irish medium education, which is part of the Gaelscoil movement  In the Isle of Man, there is one Manx-medium primary school, and all schoolchildren have the opportunity to learn Manx 

Other territories
Parts of the northern Iberian Peninsula, namely Galicia, Cantabria, Asturias and Northern Portugal, also lay claim to this heritage  Musicians from Galicia and Asturias have participated in Celtic music festivals, such as the Ortigueira's Festival of Celtic World in the village of Ortigueira or the Breton Festival Interceltique de Lorient, which in 2013 celebrated the Year of Asturias, and in 2019 celebrated the Year of Galicia  Northern Portugal, part of ancient Gallaecia (Galicia, Minho, Douro and Trás-os-Montes), also has traditions quite similar to Galicia  However, no Celtic language has been spoken in northern Iberia since probably the Early Middle Ages Irish was once widely spoken on the island of Newfoundland, but had largely disappeared there by the early 20th century  Vestiges remain in some words found in Newfoundland English, such as scrob for "scratch", and sleveen for "rascal" There are virtually no known fluent speakers of Irish Gaelic in Newfoundland or Labrador today  Knowledge seems to be largely restricted to memorized passages, such as traditional tales and songs Canadian Gaelic dialects of Scottish Gaelic are still spoken by Gaels in other parts of Atlantic Canada, primarily on Cape Breton Island and adjacent areas of Nova Scotia  In 2011, there were 1,275 Gaelic speakers in Nova Scotia, and 300 residents of the province considered a Gaelic language to be their "mother tongue" Patagonian Welsh is spoken principally in Y Wladfa in the Chubut Province of Patagonia, with sporadic speakers elsewhere in Argentina  Estimates of the number of Welsh speakers range from 1,500 to 5,000 

Celtic languages
The Celtic languages form a branch of the greater Indo-European language family  SIL Ethnologue lists six living Celtic languages, of which four have retained a substantial number of native speakers  These are the Goidelic languages (i e  Irish and Scottish Gaelic, which are both descended from Middle Irish) and the Brittonic languages (i e  Welsh and Breton, which are both descended from Common Brittonic) Taken together, there were roughly one million native speakers of Celtic languages as of the 2000s  In 2010, there were more than 1 4 million speakers of Celtic languages 

Celtic identity
Formal cooperation between the Celtic nations is active in many contexts, including politics, languages, culture, music and sports:
The Celtic League is an inter-Celtic political organisation, which campaigns for the political, language, cultural and social rights, affecting one or more of the Celtic nations Established in 1917, the Celtic Congress is a non-political organisation that seeks to promote Celtic culture and languages and to maintain intellectual contact and close cooperation between Celtic peoples Festivals celebrating the culture of the Celtic nations include the Festival Interceltique de Lorient (Brittany), the Pan Celtic Festival (Ireland), CeltFest Cuba (Havana, Cuba), the National Celtic Festival (Portarlington, Australia), the Celtic Media Festival (showcasing film and television from the Celtic nations), and the Eisteddfod (Wales) Inter-Celtic music festivals include Celtic Connections (Glasgow), and the Hebridean Celtic Festival (Stornoway)  Due to immigration, a dialect of Scottish Gaelic (Canadian Gaelic) is spoken by some on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, while a Welsh-speaking minority exists in the Chubut Province of Argentina  Hence, for certain purposes—such as the Festival Interceltique de Lorient—Gallaecia, Asturias, and Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia are considered three of the nine Celtic nations Competitions are held between the Celtic nations in sports such as rugby union (Pro14—formerly known as the Celtic League), athletics (Celtic Cup) and association football (the Nations Cup—also known as the Celtic Cup) The Republic of Ireland enjoyed a period of rapid economic growth between 1995 and 2007, leading to the use of the phrase Celtic Tiger to describe the country  Aspirations for Scotland to achieve a similar economic performance to that of Ireland led the Scotland First Minister Alex Salmond to set out his vision of a Celtic Lion economy for Scotland, in 2007 

Genetic studies
A Y-DNA study by an Oxford University research team in 2006 claimed that the majority of Britons, including many of the English, are descended from a group of tribes which arrived from Iberia around 5000 BC, before the spread of Celtic culture into western Europe  However, three major later genetic studies have largely invalidated these claims, instead showing that haplogroup R1b in western Europe, most common in traditionally Celtic-speaking areas of Atlantic Europe like Ireland and Brittany, would have largely expanded in massive migrations from the Indo-European homeland, the Yamnaya culture in the Pontic–Caspian steppe, during the Bronze Age along with carriers of Indo-European languages like proto-Celtic  Unlike previous studies, large sections of autosomal DNA were analyzed in addition to paternal Y-DNA markers  They detected an autosomal component present in modern Europeans which was not present in Neolithic or Mesolithic Europeans, and which would have been introduced into Europe with paternal lineages R1b and R1a, as well as the Indo-European languages  This genetic component, labelled as "Yamnaya" in the studies, then mixed to varying degrees with earlier Mesolithic hunter-gatherer or Neolithic farmer populations already existing in western Europe  Furthermore, a 2016 study also found that Bronze Age remains from Rathlin Island in Ireland dating to over 4,000 years ago were most genetically similar to modern Irish, Scottish and Welsh, and that the core of the genome of insular Celtic populations was established by this time In 2015 a genetic study of the United Kingdom showed that there is no unified 'Celtic' genetic identity compared to 'non-Celtic' areas  The 'Celtic' areas of the United Kingdom (Scotland, Northern Ireland, Wales and Cornwall) show the most genetic differences among each other  The data shows that Scottish and Cornish populations share greater genetic similarity with the English than they do with other 'Celtic' populations, with the Cornish in particular being genetically much closer to other English groups than they are to the Welsh or the Scots 

Terminology
The term Celtic nations derives from the linguistics studies of the 16th century scholar George Buchanan and the polymath Edward Lhuyd  As Assistant Keeper and then Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (1691–1709), Lhuyd travelled extensively in Great Britain, Ireland and Brittany in the late 17th and early 18th centuries  Noting the similarity between the languages of Brittany, Cornwall and Wales, which he called "P-Celtic" or Brythonic, the languages of Ireland, the Isle of Man and Scotland, which he called "Q-Celtic" or Goidelic, and between the two groups, Lhuyd published Archaeologia Britannica: an Account of the Languages, Histories and Customs of Great Britain, from Travels through Wales, Cornwall, Bas-Bretagne, Ireland and Scotland in 1707  His Archaeologia Britannica concluded that all six languages derived from the same root  Lhuyd theorised that the root language descended from the languages spoken by the Iron Age tribes of Gaul, whom Greek and Roman writers called Celtic  Having defined the languages of those areas as Celtic, the people living in them and speaking those languages became known as Celtic too  There is some dispute as to whether Lhuyd's theory is correct  Nevertheless, the term Celtic to describe the languages and peoples of Brittany, Cornwall and Wales, Ireland, the Isle of Man and Scotland was accepted from the 18th century and is widely used today These areas of Europe are sometimes referred to as the "Celt belt" or "Celtic fringe" because of their location generally on the western edges of the continent, and of the states they inhabit (e g  Brittany is in the northwest of France, Cornwall is in the south west of Great Britain, Wales in western Great Britain and the Gaelic-speaking parts of Ireland and Scotland are in the west of those countries)  Additionally, this region is known as the "Celtic Crescent" because of the near crescent shaped position of the nations in Europe 

Endonyms and Celtic exonyms
The Celtic names for each nation in each language illustrate some of the similarity between the languages  Despite differences in orthography, there are many sound and lexical correspondences between the endonyms and exonyms used to refer to the Celtic nations 

Territories of the ancient Celts
Iberian Peninsula
Modern-day Galicians, Asturians, Cantabrians and northern Portuguese claim a Celtic heritage or identity  Despite the extinction of Iberian Celtic languages in Roman times, Celtic heritage is attested in toponymics and language substratum, ancient texts, folklore and music 

England
Movements of population between different parts of Great Britain over the last two centuries, with industrial development and changes in living patterns such as the growth of second home ownership, have greatly modified the demographics of these areas, including the Isles of Scilly off the coast of Cornwall, although Cornwall in particular retains Celtic cultural features, and a Cornish self-government movement is well established 

Formerly Gaulish regions
Most French people identify with the ancient Gauls and are well aware that they were a people that spoke Celtic languages and lived Celtic ways of life Walloons occasionally characterise themselves as "Celts", mainly in opposition to the "Teutonic" Flemish and "Latin" French identities 
Others think they are Belgian, that is to say Germano-Celtic people different from the Gaulish-Celtic French 

Italian Peninsula
The Canegrate culture (13th century BC) may represent the first migratory wave of the proto-Celtic population from the northwest part of the Alps that, through the Alpine passes, had already penetrated and settled in the western Po valley between Lake Maggiore and Lake Como (Scamozzina culture)  It has also been proposed that a more ancient proto-Celtic presence can be traced back to the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age (16th–15th century BC), when North Westwern Italy appears closely linked regarding the production of bronze artifacts, including ornaments, to the western groups of the Tumulus culture (Central Europe, 1600–1200 BC)  La Tène cultural material appeared over a large area of mainland Italy, the southernmost example being the Celtic helmet from Canosa di Puglia Italy is home to the Lepontic, the oldest attested Celtic language (from the 6th century BC)  Anciently spoken in Switzerland and in Northern-Central Italy, from the Alps to Umbria  According to the Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises, more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout present-day France—with the notable exception of Aquitaine—and in Italy The French- and Arpitan-speaking Aosta Valley region in Italy also presents a claim of Celtic heritage 
The Northern League autonomist party often exalts what it claims are the Celtic roots of all Northern Italy or Padania 

Central and Eastern European regions
Celtic tribes inhabited land in what is now southern Germany and Austria 
Many scholars have associated the earliest Celtic peoples with the Hallstatt culture  The Boii, the Scordisci, and the Vindelici are some of the tribes that inhabited Central Europe, including what is now Slovakia, Serbia, Croatia, Poland and the Czech Republic as well as Germany and Austria  The Boii gave their name to Bohemia  The Boii founded a city on the site of modern Prague, and some of its ruins are now a tourist attraction  There are claims among modern Czechs that the Czech people are as much descendants of the Boii as they are from the later Slavic invaders (as well as the historical Germanic peoples of Czech lands)  This claim may not only be political: according to a 2000 study by Semino, 35 6% of Czech males have y-chromosome haplogroup R1b, which is common among Celts but rare among Slavs 
Celts also founded Singidunum near present-day Belgrade, though the Celtic presence in modern-day Serbian regions is limited to the far north (mainly including the historically at least partially Hungarian Vojvodina) 
The modern-day capital of Turkey, Ankara, was once the center of the Celtic culture in Central Anatolia, giving the name to the region—Galatia 
The La Tène culture—named for a region in modern Switzerland—succeeded the Halstatt era in much of central Europe 

Celtic diaspora
In the years between 1815, when vast industrial changes began to disrupt the old life-styles in Europe, and Canadian Confederation in 1867, when immigration of that era passed its peak, more than 150,000 immigrants from Ireland flooded into Saint John  Those who came in the earlier period were largely tradesmen, and many stayed in Saint John, becoming the backbone of its builders  But when the Great Famine raged between 1845 and 1852, huge waves of Famine refugees flooded these shores  It is estimated that between 1845 and 1847, some 30,000 arrived, more people than were living in the city at the time  In 1847, dubbed "Black 47," one of the worst years of the Famine, some 16,000 immigrants, most of them from Ireland, arrived at Partridge Island, the immigration and quarantine station at the mouth of Saint John Harbour  However, thousands of Irish were living in New Brunswick prior to these events, mainly in Saint John 

After the partitioning of the British colony of Nova Scotia in 1784 New Brunswick was originally named New Ireland with the capital to be in Saint John In New Zealand, the southern regions of Otago and Southland were settled by the Free Church of Scotland  Many of the place names in these two regions (such as the main cities of Dunedin and Invercargill and the major river, the Clutha) have Scottish Gaelic names, and Celtic culture is still prominent in this area 

See also
Passage 6:
Journal of Celtic Linguistics
The Journal of Celtic Linguistics is a peer-reviewed annual academic journal established in 1992 with the goal of encouraging and publishing original linguistic research in the Celtic languages  The journal is published by the University of Wales Press, but has specialist editors in all six Celtic languages  The current editor-in-chief, since volume 16, is Simon Rodway (Aberystwyth University), who replaced Graham Isaac (National University of Ireland, Galway) 

External links
Official website
Passage 7:
Alexei Kondratiev
Alexei Kondratiev (February 15, 1949–May 28, 2010) was an American author, linguist, and teacher of Celtic languages, folklore and culture  He taught the Irish language and Celtic history at the Irish Arts Center in Manhattan, New York from 1985 until his death on May 28, 2010  Nine editions of his book, The Apple Branch, were published in English and Spanish from 1998 to 2004  At various times, he taught all six of the living Celtic languages A long-time member of the Mythopoeic Society, Kondratiev was the Scholar Guest of Honor at the organization's Mythcon 33 convention in 2002, papers coordinator for Mythcon 39 in 2008, and maintained a book review column in its publication, Mythlore  In 2010, the society named a new award after Kondratiev, the Alexei Kondratiev Memorial Student Paper Award, to be presented for the first time at its Mythcon 41 convention in Dallas, July 9–12, 2010 He contributed significant portions of the text used on the website of the Celtic League's American Branch and book reviews for the organization's magazine, Keltoi On the File 770 science fiction fandom blog, Ken Gale reported that Kondratiev "spoke over 60 languages and was fluent in 13 to 20 of them"  In the Northeast Tolkien Society's tribute to Kondratiev, co-chairs Anthony S  Burdge and Jessica J  Burke reminisced about how he offered advice on the pronunciation of key Algonquian terms for a paper at Mythcon 37 in 2006, and his passion for the Polynesian culture and language at the Hawaii Mythcon Kondratiev encouraged students to think of language as a tool to connect with and understand the culture of its people  The collection of languages he acquired included the Native American languages of Cherokee, Lenape, Lakota, and Navajo 

Early years
Born on February 14, 1949 in New York, son of a Russian father and French mother, Kondratiev became fluent in the languages spoken by his parents: Russian, French and English  English was the later of these three languages; he did not speak it until he started school in New York  He was the eldest of six children, with four sisters and one brother Kondratiev grew up in both New York City and Bourgogne, France, as he traveled back and forth between the home of his parents in New York City and his grandparents' home in the Saone Valley  His interest in the Celtic culture began as a child, exploring the ancient Celtic ruins near his grandparents' home in eastern France  He began learning the Irish language from library books In the 1960s, Kondratiev studied the Celtic languages and culture while traveling through Brittany, Wales, Ireland and Scotland  He lived for a while among native speakers of the Irish language on Inishmaan, the middle island of the Aran Islands group, where he acquired fluency in Irish Gaelic   During that period, the Aran Islands were still home to elderly Gaeilge monoglots 

Education
A graduate of New York's Columbia University (anthropology and linguistics), Kondratiev also studied Celtic philology at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes in Paris  His studies at both schools included archaeology  During the 1970s, he took music courses at the Mannes College in New York 

Neopagan community
A frequent participant and occasional speaker at science fiction conventions, Kondratiev met Judy Harrow at a science fiction convention in the early 1980s  During an interview at the Etheracon convention in Poughkpeepsie in January 1993, Kondratiev commented about how Harrow practiced a "heretic" form of Gardnerian Wicca  He attributed his gradual attraction to Neopaganism in the 1980s to his contact with science fiction fans who had become Neopagans  When he met Harrow, Kondratiev still considered himself a Christian, and continued to identify himself as such throughout the 1980s while attending Neopagan religious ceremonies 

"Children of Memory"
Although he did not join Harrow's Proteus Coven, Kondratiev was initiated into the "Proteus tradition" by  Night Rainbow  After his initiation, he joined Mnemosynides Coven  This group was founded by Len Rosenberg (known in the Neopagan community as "Black Lotus") with Erich Heinemann ("Ophion") in 1988  Mnemosynides, which means "Children of Memory," was named after the titaness of Greek mythology, Mnemosyne  Mnemosynides Coven belonged to the Protean-Gardnerian tradition of Wicca, which originated with Judy Harrow's Proteus Coven  Kondratiev remained a member of Mnemosynides, and a Christian, until his death in 2010 At the time of his death, Kondratiev had been high priest of Mnemosynides for more than 20 years  In her "Memoriam" to the group's former high priest, published by Circle Sanctuary, Mnemosynides high priestess Lisa Bodo explained how he taught her the importance of "the bridge between Celtic Paganism and early Celtic Christianity " He did not consider his Neopagan and Christian beliefs to be in conflict and never renounced his Christianity 

Guest speaker and teacher
His knowledge of Celtic mythology and language made Kondratiev a frequent guest speaker at conventions, conferences and retreats, especially events with an emphasis on magic, Neopaganism or Wicca  He taught classes  and served as program director for the Esotericon convention (which focused on science fiction, fantasy, magick and Neopaganism) in New Jersey from 1985 until 1991, when the convention discontinued  Then he served as a guest speaker for Etheracon, a similar convention which was started in Poughkeepsie, New York in 1992  In more recent years, Kondratiev has been a guest at the Sacred Space and Ecumenicon conferences in Maryland, and the CWPN Harvest Gathering in Connecticut  As a featured guest at the Chesapeake Pagan Summer Gathering (Maryland) in 2008, he recited 108 names of the Hindu goddess, Kali, at a puja led by Len Rosenberg 

Bird watcher
His friends remember Kondratiev as an avid bird watcher  Queens was one of his favorite locations for studying birds, as well as a center for cultural diversity  He commented that over 100 different species of birds could be observed in a single day while walking through the park in Queens  Birds and animals are one of the interests Alexei Kondratiev had for all of his life 

Bibliography
Books
Devoted to You: Honoring Deity In Wiccan Practice  Co-authored with Judy Harrow, Geoffrey W  Miller, and Marueen Reddington-Wilde  Kensington Publishing Corp  (2003)  ISBN 0-8065-2392-1 
Celtic Rituals: A Guide to Ancient Celtic Spirituality  Scotland: New Celtic Pub  (1999)  ISBN 1-902012-18-6 
The Apple Branch: A Path to Celtic Ritual  Cork, Ireland: The Collins Press (1998)   American edition: Citadel Press (2003)  ISBN 0-8065-2502-9 
Learning the Celtic languages: a resource guide for the student of Irish, Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, Breton, Manx, or Cornish  Co-authored with Liam O Caiside  New York: Celtic League American Branch (1991) 

Comic books
Dangerous Times, Featuring Beleagean Days and Vidorix the Druid, Evolution Comics (1989)  A series of six comic books, with Vidorix the Druid by Alexei Kondratiev and Beleagean Days by Margie Spears  Artwork for Vidorix the Druid was by Jim Fletcher, Don Hudson, Jordan Raskin and Sandu Florea  The series of six comic books published under the trade name, Evolution Comics, by Ken Gale and Mercy Van Vlack in 1989, is unrelated to a comic book publisher with the same trade name founded by Nicholas Ahlhelm in 2007  Cover art for volume 1 of the series was by Michael Kaluta 

Significant articles and papers
"Samhain: Season of Death and Renewal"  An Tríbhís Mhór: The  IMBAS Journal of Celtic Reconstructionism, volume 2, issue 1/2, Samhain 1997, Iombolg 1998 
"Basic Celtic Deity Types"  IMBAS website  Retrieved 2010-06-01 
"Thou Shalt Not Suffer a Witch to Live: an Enquiry into Biblical Mistranslation " Enchante, Number 18 (1994)  pp  11–15 

Contributions to periodicals
Alexei Kondratiev also contributed articles about folklore, mythology and Celtic culture to the following publications 
Mythlore  Semi-annual journal of the Mythopoeic Society 
Mythprint  Monthly bulletin of the Mythopoeic Society 
Keltoi  Magazine published by the Celtic League American Branch 
CARN  Quarterly magazine of the International Celtic League 
Keltria: A Journal of Druidism and Keltic Magick  Quarterly publication by the Henge of Keltria, an organization of modern Druids 
Six Nations, One Soul  Quarterly newsletter of the Celtic League American Branch 
Butterbur's Woodshed  Mythopoeic Society's discussion group 

Radio show guest
Nuff Said!, a radio show devoted to comic books and related subjects, produced by Ken Gale for WBAI radio  Alexei Kondratiev was a guest on five of the show's broadcasts from 1993 to 2002, speaking on the subjects of comic books, Celtic culture, mythology, history, and works of J  R  R  Tolkien  Notes in the show's archives for February 5, 2002, when Kondratiev talked about Tolkien, claimed that he could also speak Elvish, but did not identify which of the Elvish languages fabricated from Tolkien's stories 
Moorish Orthodox Radio Crusade, a radio show about radical environmentalism, produced by Bill Weinberg for WBAI radio  Kondradiev was an occasional guest of the show, talking about the works of J  R  R  Tolkien 
"Eco-Logic," a radio show on environmental issues, produced for WBAI-FM by Ken Gale   Alexei was on the Dec  29, 2009 episode speaking on "Natural Cycles "
Passage 8:
Continental Celtic languages
The Continental Celtic languages are the now-extinct group of the Celtic languages that were spoken on the continent of Europe and in central Anatolia, as distinguished from the Insular Celtic languages of the British Isles and Brittany  Continental Celtic is a geographic, rather than linguistic, grouping of the ancient Celtic languages 
These languages were spoken by the people known to Roman and Greek writers as the Keltoi, Celtae, Galli, and Galatae  They were spoken in an area arcing from the northern half of Iberia in the west to north of Belgium, and east to the Carpathian basin and the Balkans as Noric, and in inner Anatolia (modern day Turkey) as Galatian 
Even though Breton has been spoken in Continental Europe since at least the 6th century AD, it is not considered one of the Continental Celtic languages, as it is a Brittonic language, like Cornish and Welsh  A Gaulish substratum in Breton has been suggested, but that is debated 

Attested languages
It is likely that Celts spoke dozens of different languages and dialects across Europe in pre-Roman times, but only a small number are attested:

Lepontic (6th to 4th century BC) was spoken on the southern side of the Alps  It is evidenced in a number of inscriptions as well as place names 
Gaulish (3rd century BC to 5th (?) century AD) was the main language spoken in greater Gaul  This is often considered to be divided into two dialects, Cisalpine (spoken in what is now Italy) and Transalpine (spoken in what is now France)  It is evidenced in a number of inscriptions as well as place names and tribal names in writings of classical authors  It may have been a substratum to Breton (see below) 
Galatian, which was spoken in the region of Ankara of what is now central Turkey  Classical writers say that the language is similar to that of Gaul  There is also evidence of invasion and settlement of the Ankara area by Celts from Europe 
Noric, which is the name given sometimes to the Celtic spoken in Central and Eastern Europe  It was spoken in Austria and Slovenia; only two fragmentary texts are preserved 
Celtiberian or Northeastern Hispano-Celtic (3rd to 1st century BC) is the name given to the language in northeast Iberia, between the headwaters of the Douro, Tagus, Júcar and Turía rivers and the Ebro river  It is attested in some 200 inscriptions as well as place names  It is distinct from Iberian 
Gallaecian also called Gallaic or Northwestern Hispano-Celtic, attested in a set (corpus) of Latin inscriptions containing isolated words and sentences that are unmistakably Celtic  It was spoken in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula comprising today's Spanish regions of Galicia, western Asturias and western Castile and León, and the Norte Region in northern Portugal 

Use of term
The modern term Continental Celtic is used in contrast to Insular Celtic  While many researchers agree that Insular Celtic is a distinct branch of Celtic (Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; Schrijver 1995) that has undergone common linguistic innovations, there is no evidence that the Continental Celtic languages can be similarly grouped  Instead, the group called Continental Celtic is paraphyletic, and the term refers simply to non-Insular Celtic languages  Since little material has been preserved in any of the Continental Celtic languages, historical linguistic analysis based on the comparative method is difficult to perform  However, other researchers see the Brittonic languages and Gaulish as forming part of a subgroup of the Celtic languages that is known as P-Celtic  Continental languages are P-Celtic except for Celtiberian, which is Q-Celtic  They have had a definite influence on all of the Romance languages 

See also
Italo-Celtic



ground_truth: Brittany, Cornwall, Ireland, Isle of Man, Scotland and Wales.

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is a winner of the 2013 6 Hours of Silverstone a co-commentator for?

The following are given passages.
Context 4:   Destinations included Italy, Spain, Switzerland, and Austria by motor coach from London’s Victoria station, and by flights from Southend and Lympne airports   Although the company's main programme focused on motor coach tours, it soon increased the choice of air package holidays too   In 1968, the success of the company's air package holidays allowed Cosmos to form the airline Monarch Airlines Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Cosmos Tours increased its UK departure airports to include Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow, Edinburgh and East Midlands, serving new destinations including Portugal, Yugoslavia, Greece, Malta and Tunisia, and longhaul destinations such as Florida, Thailand and Mexico 
In 1986 Cosmos Tours became the first mainstream operator in the UK to launch a Christmas Lapland programme 

Expansion (1987–2009)
In 1987, the company changed its name from Cosmos Tours to Cosmos Holidays 
In September 1991, the Globus Travel Group acquired 80% of Avro Plc, a flight-only company set up by Paul Dendle  This acquisition enhanced the company’s charter seat-only presence in the market  In 1994, the Globus Group acquired the remaining 20% 
In 1994, Cosmos launched a direct-sell brand, Archers Direct (later Archers Holidays, shut down in November 2018), featuring a worldwide touring programme 
In 2002, Cosmos launched an accommodation-only brand, somewhere2stay, which supplied hotel, apartment and villa accommodation to the UK travel trade  Four years after launching somewhere2stay, sales made up £20-£40 million of an estimated £300-£350 million turnover in the accommodation-only sector  During 2006, the decision was made to run somewhere2stay separately from Cosmos Holidays In 2007, Cosmos announced they would introduce package holidays using Monarch’s full range of scheduled flights, in line with the expansion plans announced by the airline during the same year In 2009, executive chairman, Iain Rawlinson announced plans to reinvent the company as a scheduled carrier, after the company made financial losses  It was predicted at the time that the parent company of Cosmos Holidays would make a loss of around £45 million  During the same year, media coverage suggested there were problems with their approach  The Mantegazza family from Switzerland, which had owned Group Voyagers since its foundation, invested money into the group to cover the losses 

Consolidation (2014-present)
In 2014, the Mantegazza family announced plans to sell Monarch Holdings Ltd  Subsidiaries included Monarch Airlines, Monarch Aircraft Engineering, First Aviation, Cosmos Holidays, somewhere2stay and Avro  On 31 October 2014, the holiday group was sold to venture capitalists, Greybull Capital  Cosmos Tours & Cruises was retained by the Mantegazza Family In 2016, Cosmos introduced a private tour programme based on existing tour itineraries in Asia, Africa and India with a private guide/driver included 
From 1 April 2017, the tour operator regained all rights to the brand Cosmos, having reached a formal agreement with Monarch which terminated the licence covering the use of the name 

Destinations
Cosmos provides tours, cruises and rail journeys in over 40 countries, flying from up to 27 UK airports 
The tour operator with its origins in touring in Italy, offers holidays across Europe and the Mediterranean   Other destinations include North America & Canada, Central & South America, Asia and the Far East, Africa, the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, Australia and New Zealand 
In recent years, river and ocean cruises have been added to the product range of tours 

Awards
Cosmos has been shortlisted for travel industry and consumer awards including the TTG Travel Awards, the Globe Travel Awards, British Travel Awards as well as World of Cruising’s Wave Awards, and Cruise International’s Cruise Awards 
Passage 6:
List of basses in non-classical music
The bass singing voice has a vocal range that lies around the second E below middle C to the E above middle C (i e , E2–E4)  As with the contralto singing voice being the rarest female voice type, the bass voice is the rarest for males, and has the lowest vocal range of all voice types  However, the bass voice is determined not only by its vocal range, but also by its timbre, which tends to be darker than that of a baritone voice 
The term bass was developed in relation to classical and operatic voices, where the classification is based not merely on the singer's vocal range but also on the tessitura and timbre of the voice  For classical and operatic singers, their voice type determines the roles they will sing and is a primary method of categorization  In non-classical music, singers are primarily defined by their genre and their gender and not by their vocal range  When the terms soprano, mezzo-soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, and bass are used as descriptors of non-classical voices, they are applied more loosely than they would be to those of classical singers and generally refer only to the singer's perceived vocal range 
The following is a list of singers in country, popular music, jazz, and musical theatre who have been described as basses 

List of names
Gallery
See also
Voice classification in non-classical music
List of baritones in non-classical music
List of tenors in non-classical music
List of contraltos in non-classical music
List of mezzo-sopranos in non-classical music
List of sopranos in non-classical music
Voice type

Notes
Passage 7:
Alto
The musical term alto, meaning "high" in Italian (Latin: altus), historically refers to the contrapuntal part higher than the tenor and its associated vocal range  In 4-part voice leading alto is the second-highest part, sung in choruses by either low women's or high men's voices  In vocal classification these are usually called contralto and male alto or countertenor 
Such confusion of "high" and "low" persists in instrumental terminology  Alto flute and alto trombone are respectively lower and higher than the standard instruments of the family (the standard instrument of the trombone family being the tenor trombone), though both play in ranges within the alto clef  Alto recorder, however, is an octave higher, and is defined by its relationship to tenor and soprano recorders; alto clarinet is a fifth lower than B-flat clarinet, already an 'alto' instrument  There is even a contra-alto clarinet, (an octave lower than the alto clarinet), with a range B♭0 – D4 

Etymology
In choral music for mixed voices, "alto" describes the lowest part commonly sung by women  The explanation for the anomaly of this name is to be found not in the use of adult falsettists in choirs of men and boys but further back in innovations in composition during the mid-15th century  Before this time it was usual to write a melodic cantus or superius against a tenor (from Latin tenere, to hold) or 'held' part, to which might be added a contratenor, which was in counterpoint with (in other words, against = contra) the tenor  The composers of Ockeghem's generation wrote two contratenor parts and designated them as contratenor altus and contratenor bassus; they were respectively higher and lower than the tenor part  From these derive both the modern terms "alto" (and contralto) and "bass" 

Solo voices
The contralto voice is a matter of vocal timbre and tessitura as well as range, and a classically trained solo contralto would usually have a range greater than that of a normal choral alto part in both the upper and lower ranges  However, the vocal tessitura of a classically trained contralto would still make these singers more comfortable singing in the lower part of the voice  A choral non-solo contralto may also have a low range down to D3 (thus perhaps finding it easier to sing the choral tenor part), but some would have difficulty singing above E5  In a choral context mezzo-sopranos and contraltos might sing the alto part, together with countertenors, thus having three vocal timbres (and two means of vocal production) singing the same notes The use of the term "alto" to describe solo voices is mostly seen in contemporary music genres (pop, rock, etc ) to describe singers whose range is lower than that of a mezzo-soprano but higher than that of a true contralto, and is very rarely seen in classical music outside of soloists in choral works  In classical music, most women with an alto range would be grouped within mezzo-sopranos, but many terms in common usage in various languages and in different cultures exist to describe solo classical singers with this range  Examples include contralto, countertenor, haute-contre, and tenor altino, among others 

In choral music
In SATB four-part mixed chorus, the alto is the second-highest vocal range, above the tenor and bass and below the soprano  The alto range in choral music is approximately from F3 (the F below middle C) to F5 (the second F above middle C)  In common usage, alto is used to describe the voice type that typically sings this part, though this is not strictly correct  Alto, like the other three standard modern choral voice classifications (soprano, tenor and bass) was originally intended to describe a part within a homophonic or polyphonic texture, rather than an individual voice type; neither are the terms alto and contralto interchangeable or synonymous, though they are often treated as such 
Although some women who sing alto in a choir are contraltos, many would be more accurately called mezzo-sopranos (a voice of somewhat higher range and different timbre)  Men singing in this range are countertenors, although this term is a source of considerable controversy, some authorities preferring the usage of the term "male alto" for those countertenors who use a predominantly falsetto voice production (boys singing in their natural range may be termed "boy altos") 

See also
Voice classification in non-classical music
Passage 8:
List of contraltos in non-classical music
The contralto singing voice has a vocal range that lies between the F below "middle C" (F3) to two Fs above middle C (F5) and is the lowest type of female voice   In the lower and upper extremes, some contralto voices can sing from two Bs below middle C (B2) to two B♭s above middle C (B♭5) The term contralto was developed in relation to classical and operatic voices, where the classification is based not merely on the singer's vocal range but also on the tessitura and timbre of the voice  For classical and operatic singers, their voice type determines the roles they will sing and is a primary method of categorization  In classical music, a "pure" contralto is considered the rarest type of female voice  In non-classical music, singers are primarily defined by their genre and their gender, not their vocal range  When the terms soprano, mezzo-soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, and bass are used as descriptors of non-classical voices, they are applied more loosely than they would be to those of classical singers and generally refer only to the singer's perceived vocal range  Contemporarily, the informal term alto is sometimes used interchangeably with contralto The following is a list of singers in country, popular music, jazz, and musical theatre who have been described as contraltos 

List of names
See also
List of mezzo-sopranos in non-classical music
List of sopranos in non-classical music
List of basses in non-classical music
List of baritones in non-classical music
List of tenors in non-classical music
List of operatic contraltos
Voice classification in non-classical music
Voice type

Notes
Passage 9:
Georgia Brown (Brazilian singer)
Rossana Monti, better known by the stage name Georgia Brown, is a Brazilian singer noted for her extensive vocal range 

Career
At the age of fifteen, Brown toured as backup vocalist for Brazilian singer Jorge Ben, during his "W Brasil Tour" in 1995  Following the conclusion of the tour, she entered in contests "Skol Rock" and "Fest Valda"  In 1997, Brown relocated to California in the United States of America to begin recording her first album  In 2001, Brown released her debut album "Black Nature"  The album spawned the singles: "Commit A Crime" and "Hold On"  Following the release of her debut album, she headlined her first tour "Black Nature Tour"  In 2002, "Black Nature" was certified gold in Brazil with sales in excess of 120,000 copies 
In 2003, she released a single "Forgiven"  The song was remixed by DJ Patife and featured on his album "Na Estrada", released in 2005  In 2004, she released her second album Heart Beats, which became certified platinum in Brazil  She headlined first international tour "Heart Beats World Tour" in 2004  In the same year, Brown broke American singer Mariah Carey's vocal records on Guinness World Records and received a certificate for two records: "World's Greatest Vocal Range by a Female B2-F8" and "World's Highest Note "F8" In 2006, Brown began recording her third album  In 2008, she released her third studio album The Renascence of Soul  In 2010, Brown released house music single titled "Love 4 Real"  In 2012, she released an extended play entitled Me & Myself 
In July 2018, Brown released a single "#HighVibration (Sweet Sensation)" 

Discography
AlbumsBlack Nature (2001)
Heart Beats (2004)
The Renascence of Soul (2008)
Me & Myself – EP (2012)Singles"Commit A Crime" (2001)
"Hold On" (2001)
"Forgiven" (2003)
"Lost Love" (2004)
"Art A Shield for Me" (2008)
"Save My Soul" (2008)
"Loneliness" (2009)
"Love 4 Real" (2010)
"#HighVibration (Sweet Sensation)" (2018)
Passage 10:
Range (music)
In music, the range, or chromatic range, of a musical instrument is the distance from the lowest to the highest pitch it can play  For a singing voice, the equivalent is vocal range  The range of a musical part is the distance between its lowest and highest note 

Compass
Among British English speakers, and perhaps others, compass means the same thing as chromatic range—the interval between the lowest and highest note attainable by a voice or musical instrument 

Other ranges
The terms  sounding range, written range,  designated range, duration range and dynamic range have specific meanings 
The sounding range refers to the pitches produced by an instrument, while the written range refers to the compass (span) of notes written in the sheet music, where the part is sometimes transposed for convenience  A piccolo, for example, typically has a sounding range one octave higher than its written range  The designated range is the set of notes the player should or can achieve while playing  All instruments have a designated range, and all pitched instruments have a playing range  Timbre, dynamics, and duration ranges are interrelated and one may achieve registral range at the expense of timbre  The designated range is thus the range in which a player is expected to have comfortable control of all aspects 
The duration range is the difference between the shortest and longest rhythm used  Dynamic range is the difference between the quietest and loudest volume of an instrument, part or piece of music 

Range limits
Although woodwind instruments and string instruments have no theoretical upper limit to their range (subject to practical limits), they generally cannot go below their designated range   Brass instruments, on the other hand, can play beyond their designated ranges  Notes lower than the brass instrument's designated range are called pedal tones  The playing range of a brass instrument depends on both the technical limitations of the instrument and the skill of the player 
Classical arrangements seldom make woodwind or brass instruments play beyond their designed range  String musicians play the bottom of their ranges very frequently, but the top of a string instrument's range is rather fuzzy, and it is unusual for a string player to exceed the designated range  It is quite rare for wind musicians to play the extremes of their instruments  The most common exception is that in many 20th century works, pedal tones are called for in bass trombones 
This chart uses standard numberings for octaves where middle C corresponds to C4  In the MIDI language middle C is referred to as MIDI note number 60 
The lowest note that a pipe organ can sound (with a true pipe) is C−1 (or CCCC), which is 8 Hz, below the range of human hearing and not visible on this chart  However, if acoustic combination (a note and its fifth) counts, the lowest note is C−2 (or CCCCC), which is 4 Hz 
In terms of recording and reproduction, many speakers have a low limit of around 40–60 Hz 

Typical ranges
*This chart only displays down to C0, though some pipe organs, such as the Boardwalk Hall Auditorium Organ, extend down to C−1 (one octave below C0)  Also, the fundamental frequency of the subcontrabass tuba is B♭−1 

See also
Tessitura
Extension (music)
Sub-bass
Hearing range



ground_truth: BBC Formula One