prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Are Tantrix and Personal Preference both types of games?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Fishing rod tapers
Fishing rod tapers describe how much a fishing rod bends or flexes under pressure   Different tapers are used for different fishing scenarios as well as for personal preference 

Action
The action of a taper is described by the flex of the tip of a rod when pressure is applied perpendicular to the rod   Only a section of the rod starting at the tip of the rod should bend while the remainder of the rod should stay rigid 
Variations can be described in three main categories, fast, medium, or slow with variations in between each   A rod with a fast taper will only flex the top 20 percent  Medium fast and medium tapers will flex approximately 30 to 60 percent of the rod respectively  If the rod has a slow taper, almost the entire rod or blank will bend or flex under pressure 

Usage
Rod taper is important for several reasons  The feel for the lure being used and the fish being caught dictate the appropriate taper use 
A fast action tip will be used when fishing jig type lures   The angler can feel and therefore control what the lure is doing quite easily   Since only the very tip of the rod bends, when a fish strikes the angler has ample rod shaft and backbone to set the hook correctly 
In contrast to fast tapers, the slow flex rods offer the angler advantages when fighting large fish with light fishing line   This additional flex allows the rod to absorb the force of the fish as opposed to the line   This is often the angler who likes to fish split shot rigs or Lindy rigs for walleye 


== Notes ==
Passage 2:
Personal Preference
Personal Preference is a 1987 board game created by Donal Carlston that involves guessing the order in which a player prefers foods, activities, people, and other items compared to one another  The game was published by Broderbund in the United States, Playtoy Industries in Canada, and Parker Brothers International in Britain 
An updated version by the original creator was launched on Kickstarter on May 1, 2023  The new version contains updated cultural references and new categories 

Original 1987 Version
The game contains cards in four categories: Food & Drink, Activities, People, and Potpourri (miscellaneous)  Each card has a photo or drawing on each side and text indicating what that side represents (e g , chocolate éclairs, climbing a mountain, Harrison Ford, spy novels)  Each round, one player draws four cards from one category, or one from each category, depending on the player's position on the board  Each card is placed in a colored quadrant of the board  The player then ranks these four items according to his or her preference using color-coded cards that are placed in an envelope  Next, other players (or teams) use numbered tiles to guess that player's order, and move forward one space for each correct guess when the order is revealed  If players choose to double a guess by placing a tile towards the center of the board, they move forward two spaces if correct and back one space if incorrect  Players take turns drawing and ranking cards until someone reaches the end of the board 

Reviews
Games #89
Best Games of 1988 in Games #94
Passage 3:
Pie floater
The pie floater is an Australian dish particularly common in Adelaide  It consists of a meat pie in a thick pea soup, typically with the addition of tomato sauce  Believed to have been first created in the 1890s, the pie floater gained popularity as a meal sold by South Australian pie carts  In 2003, it was recognised as a South Australian Heritage Icon 

Development
Pea soup with meat has long been part of English culinary history, with mentions in the 19th century, including the "pea and pie supper" (in Yorkshire), "pea soup with eel", and suet dumplings or saveloys   (Dumplings in soup were known as "floaters" )  It may have developed from those dishes, which are useful for feeding groups of people on a budget, such as at a sports match or at harvest time  
A pie floater commonly consists of a traditional Australian-style meat pie, usually sitting, but sometimes submerged (traditionally upside down) in a bowl of thick pea soup made from blue boiler peas  It is often self-garnished with tomato sauce, and the consumer may also add a combination of mint sauce, salt, pepper, or malt vinegar according to personal preference 
Early records in South Australia state that the pie floater was reputedly born in Port Pirie conceived by one Ern "Shorty" Bradley in 1890s, but it remains unknown if he did and how it came about 

Pie carts
Pie floaters were typically purchased in the street from pie-carts as a late evening meal  Pie-carts are typically a form of caravan/trailer/cart, originally horse-drawn, with an elongated "window" along one or both sides where customers could sit or (more usually) stand to eat their purchases  The pie-cart was typically moved into position at lunchtime and in the evening  As traffic became busier and on-street car-parking in demand, the carts evolved to have one window on the "footpath side", and were moved into position after afternoon peak-hour traffic had ebbed  They did business until late evening or early morning, after which they were returned to their daytime storage locations South Australia has had pie carts in the Adelaide metropolitan area since the 1870s  In the evenings, the Norwood pie-cart was located on The Parade adjacent to the Norwood Town Hall  It was also the only place where members of the public could buy draft Hall's "Stonie" ginger beer directly from the keg  In the Adelaide city centre in the 1880s, there were 13 pie-carts operating in King William Street and North Terrace  By 1915 there were nine pie-carts in operation  By 1958 this had reduced to two: Balfour's pie-cart on North Terrace outside the Adelaide railway station, and Cowley's in Victoria Square outside the Adelaide General Post Office  In 2007, the Glenelg tram line was extended from Victoria Square along King William Street and North Terrace past Adelaide railway station, and the Balfour's pie-cart was forced to close In 2003, the South Australian National Trust traced the history of the pie floater back over 130 years  The pie floater was recognised as a South Australian Heritage Icon by the National Trust of South Australia, although it is now available at very few locations; among them are the Café de Vilis, Enjoy Bakery on Norwood Parade, The Kings Head Pub on King William Street  and the Upper Sturt General Store 

See also
List of legume dishes
Passage 4:
Personal Taste
Personal Taste (Korean: 개인의 취향; Hanja: 個人의 趣向; RR: Kaeinui Chwihyang; MR: Kaein-ŭi Ch‘wihyang; lit  "Kae-in's Taste" or "Kae-in's Preference"; also known as Personal Preference) is a 2010 South Korean television series, starring  Son Ye-jin and Lee Min-ho  It is adapted from Lee Se-in's 2007 novel of the same name about a furniture designer, Park Kae-in, who lives together with architect Jeon Jin-ho under the mistaken assumption that he's gay  It aired on MBC from March 31 to May 20, 2010, on Wednesdays and Thursdays at 21:55 (KST) time slot for 16 episodes 

Synopsis
Furniture designer Park Kae-in (Son Ye-jin) is kind, impulsive, clumsy, and is a complete slob in her personal habits  She lives in Sanggojae (meaning "a place for mutual love"), a modernized hanok (traditional Korean house) designed by her father, a famous and reclusive architecture professor (Kang Shin-il)  As an independent furniture designer, she struggles to produce successful products and is constantly trying to impress her father with her works  Her long-time boyfriend, Han Chang-ryul (Kim Ji-seok), breaks up with her, the reason being Kae-in is an easygoing woman and a pushover  Despite being upset, Kae-in attends the wedding of her friend and roommate, Kim In-hee (Wang Ji-hye), only to discover that she is marrying Chang-ryul; and that the two had been seeing each other behind her back for a while  After she finally comes face-to-face with them, the wedding ceremony turns chaotic and is cancelled  Kae-in is heartbroken and determined to never take a chance on love again 
Meanwhile, to keep his small firm afloat, architect Jeon Jin-ho (Lee Min-ho) is desperately trying to win a project bid for the Dam Art Center against Future Construction, the company owned and operated by Chang-ryul's father (Ahn Suk-hwan)  Chang-ryul's father was originally an employee under Jin-ho's father, who stole the latter's company  In order to win the project of Dam Arts Center, Jin-ho has to find a way to dig up more information about the tentative theme of project: Sanggojae, which has never been opened to the public 
Jin-ho decides to rent a part of Sanggojae to get access into the house while Kae-in rents the place to him believing that he is homosexual due to misunderstandings from their previous encounters  After knowing the reason behind his approval, Jin-ho decides to leave Sanggojae to avoid being misunderstood further but is stopped by his assistant, Noh Sang-jun, who convinces him otherwise by reminding him that their chance at revival of their sinking firm lies on their success in Dam Arts Center Project 
After starting to live together, Jin-ho tells Kae-in that she's miserable only because of herself and the lack of concreteness in her personality  He then encourages and helps her transform from an inveterate slob into a better version of herself, who is confident and strong-willed  Amidst the transformation and hidden truths, Kae-in and Jin-ho start developing feelings for each other which they constantly deny 
The DAC director, Choi Do-bin (Ryu Seung-ryong), impressed by Jin-ho's presentation, offers his support to him in the upcoming project  He also finds Kae-in's ideas creative and hires her to design a recreation centre for children  Do-bin, who is homosexual, later finds himself attracted to Jin-ho, which leaves Jin-ho in a tight spot 
What will happen when the man who's pretending to be gay and the woman who thinks he's gay develop feelings for each other?

Cast
Main
Son Ye-jin as Park Kae-inA clumsy, slobbish girl  She is an aspiring furniture designer, and daughter of the famous architect Park Chul-han  After being dumped by her ex-boyfriend, she decides to not open up to love once again easily Lee Min-ho as Jeon Jin-hoAn architect who is earnestly trying to keep his small firm afloat in a fair manner  He moves into Sanggojae to study it for his next project  Neat and organized, he is unable to stand Kae-in's living habits, and tries to change her into a better version of herself after she agrees to it Kim Ji-seok as Han Chang-ryulJeon Jin-ho's rival, and Kae-in's ex-boyfriend  Although he initially left Kae-in for her friend In-hee, he later grows feelings for Kae-in Wang Ji-hye as Kim In-heeA greedy woman who has multiple boyfriends and treats them as dispensable  Despite being Kae-in's best friend and having lived together for ten years, she betrays her and dates Chang-ryul  Later, In-hee falls for Jin-ho and tries to steal him from Kae-in Ryu Seung-ryong as Choi Do-binDirector of the DAAM project  He is homosexual and develops feelings for Jin-ho thinking he, too, is gay 

Supporting
Jo Eun-ji as Lee Young-sun, Kae-in's best friend
Jung Sung-hwa as Noh Sang-jun, Jin-ho's assistant
Lim Seul-ong as Kim Tae-hoon, Jin-ho's employee  He has a crush on Hye-mi 
Choi Eun-seo as Na Hye-mi, Jin-ho's childhood friend  She had a crush on Jin-ho since they were young 
Park Hae-mi as Jeon Jang-mi, Jin-ho's mother
Ahn Suk-hwan as Han Yoon-sub, Chang-ryul's father  He worked at Jin-ho's father's company in the past, but later betrayed him 
Jang Won-young as Secretary Kim
Kang Shin-il as Park Chul-han, Kae-in's father  A famous architect who designed Sanggojae for his wife and daughter 

Special appearances
Bong Tae-gyu as Lee Won-ho (ep  1-2)
Jung Chan as Groom (ep  1)
Song Seon-mi as Bride (ep  1)
Julien Kang as Joe (ep  7)
Yoon Eun-hye as Yoon Eun-soo (ep  8)
Kim Nam-gil as man sitting in the café (ep  11)

Architecture
One of the production's main sponsors was Design and Arts Arcadia of Myungseung, and the storyline contains many references to DAAM as the project that all the architectural firms are competing to design for The hanok used in the drama series (called Sanggojae in the script) is actually Rakgojae, a traditional guest house in Bukchon Hanok Village, Gye-dong, Jongno District  Meaning "a place to enjoy tradition", Rakgojae was renovated by master carpenter Chung Young-jin  It offers a glimpse of the lifestyle of Joseon-era scholars by incorporating fine art, music, dance and poetry through colorful cultural programs such as a tea ceremony, ink-and-wash painting lessons, Korean musical instrument lessons and kimchi-making classes One of the locations frequented by the main characters is Kring art gallery, in Gangnam District, southern Seoul  The creative cultural space showcases a variety of arts ranging from architecture and fashion to installations and digital art  The unique facade of the building is itself a large-scale urban sculpture  Circles are a theme throughout the building, but the front wall is reminiscent of stereo speakers, hinting at the name of the building  "Kring" means "circle" in Dutch 

Original soundtrack
Ratings
In the table below, the blue numbers} represent the lowest ratings and the red numbers represent the highest ratings 

Awards and nominations
International broadcast
The series was a mid-level hit in South Korea  Overseas rights were sold to the Philippines, Japan, China, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Indonesian, and Thailand 
Passage 5:
Song Ji-hyo's Beauty View
Song Ji-hyo's Beauty View (Korean: 송지효의 뷰티뷰), is a South Korean television program on JTBC2 hosted by Song Ji-hyo, Gong Myung and beauty editor Kim Mi Gu  The show provides a perfect beauty guide to match the personal preference  It was used to air on every Thursday at 9 20pm KST on JTBC2 

Format
Ordinary people are invited as the makeup models on the show  The professional makeup artist uses her brushes and works wonders to show viewers about the fascinating beauty world 

List of Episodes
Passage 6:
Crab trap
Crab traps are used to bait, lure, and catch crabs for commercial or recreational use  Crabbing or crab fishing is the recreational hobby and commercial occupation of fishing for crabs  Different types of traps are used depending on the type of crab being fished for, geographic location, and personal preference 

History in the United States
Crab has been a viable food source since Native Americans lived and fished on the Delmarva Peninsula  The Chesapeake Bay, which is known for their Chesapeake Bay blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) derives its name from "Chesepiook", a Susquehannock tribe word that means "Great Water"  These Susquehannock natives led European settlers to some of the best places to catch crabs  Even early treaties between European settlers and Native Americans included provisions for the rights of "Hunting, Crabbing, Fowling, and Fishing " Since then, generations of watermen made their living harvesting crabs and other resources along the Chesapeake Bay developing the most efficient method to catch crabs resulting in modern crab traps Since early European settlers in America, crabbing was an important food source to watermen of the Chesapeake and continues to be the source of income for many families  The Alaskan king crab fishing industry took off in the mid-1800s, and was one of the reasons Alaskans pushed so hard for statehood in 1959  Alaskans wanted to gain control of the area's natural resources, such as king crabs Benjamin F  Lewis invented the crab pot in the 1920s, patented it in 1928, and perfected it ten years later  The crab pot changed the way crabs are harvested on the Chesapeake Bay  The crab pot is the most common method used to catch and harvest crabs worldwide Commercial crabbing is a very tough and dangerous job, so it is very important that commercial crab traps catch as many crabs as possible to be able to turn a profit  Commercial crabbing is heavily regulated by local state laws to ensure that the crabs are not over fished and that they are given enough time to breed and repopulate Unlike normal traps, commercial crab traps are large in size; some can easily be over 60" in diameter, allowing the trap to hold a larger amount of crabs than recreational crab traps  Commercial crab traps also contain a small stainless steel plate like a dog tag, which identifies who the trap belongs to in case it is missed or swept by the current from its original location After World War II, Japanese crab vessels were competition for Alaskan king crab fishermen in the Bering Sea  Japanese crab vessels would crowd around cod boats, where king crabs devoured the fish waste  Ed Shields, a king crab fisherman was aboard a schooner at this time and recalls the Japanese encroaching on the Bristol Bay fishing area  Ed Shields says that his father sent a telegram to Seattle, ordering one dozen high-powered rifles for each vessel and one case of ammunition each Ed Shields states, "The coast guard didn’t care for this at all, the State Department didn’t care for it, but the news media did  It made good news  There’s no television at this time, but they did get in the national magazines like Time and Life  The adverse publicity to Japanese manufactured goods was so severe at that time from this campaign, the Japanese decided to pull out of Bristol Bay area and he sent a telegram saying, 'Bristol Bay is all clear now, Japanese gone home '"The Derelict Crab Trap Removal Program was created by the Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Commission in 2004  This was created to remove derelict crab traps from state-owned lakes and river-beds and to reduce the potential impact from these traps  There are also similar programs in other states  They are similar to the program in Louisiana where the traps are removed during a 30-day period  There are programs all over the Gulf Coast, including areas like Texas and Florida  These programs have also been successful with the help of volunteers working together, and over 30,000 derelict traps have been removed in Texas alone 

Types
Maryland
The Maryland crab pot is an enclosed framework of wire with four openings  These openings are constructed so that when the crabs enter to eat the bait, they cannot escape, and instead become immediately trapped  Once the crab becomes trapped and cannot leave the same way they entered, they float upward and go through the openings of the inner wire portion, which permanently traps the crab The Maryland crab pot is a cube, generally two cubic feet and when baited and weighted, might weigh fifteen pounds or more  Sometimes it is left on the bottom for twelve to twenty-four hours or more  The end of the nylon rope is attached to a marked floating buoy so the location can be found and the pot retrieved  The Maryland crab pot is baited from the bottom with several oily fish  This is done by turning the pot on its side, stuffing the bait into the wire container, and closing the opening by securing the flap under the rubber tubing  The pot is then dropped into the water and when the crab fisher returns, pulls the pot up and into their boat 

West Coast
West Coast crab pots, which are primarily used for catching Dungeness crabs, vary slightly from the Maryland style crab pot  When the crabs enter either of the two funnel-type openings in search of bait, they are unable to exit through these funnel openings and become entrapped in the pot 

Ring crab traps
Ring crab traps are very popular along the Oregon and Washington Coast  They are primarily used in river mouths and protected bays, but it is possible to use crab rings off the open shoreline  A crab ring is a simple piece of equipment that contains two wire rings that form the top and bottom of a collapsible basket  The lower ring is smaller than the upper ring and connected with a strong netting that forms the sides  Heavy chicken wire, cotton webbing or other suitable materials are used for the bottom After the bait is tied securely to the bottom of the basket, the lower basket sinks to the bay bottom where the sides collapse and the top and bottom rings lie together, leaving only a flat platform of tempting bait that the crab can easily reach  After the ring has been left on the bottom, the crabber raises the ring rapidly by pulling up with a rope, which prevents the crabs from escaping while the basket is pulled to the boat  While ring traps may allow crabs to escape more easily, their advantage is that they remain on the bottom for much shorter periods, typically a maximum of 20 minutes or so, versus the 30-45 minutes required for a crab pot to work effectively 

Pyramids
Pyramid crab traps are flat when lying on the bottom of the seafloor, but when raised to the surface, they form the shape of a pyramid  This trap is similar to the ring crab trap because there are no walls or cage that prevents the crabs from escaping before pulling it to the surface  The benefits of the pyramid crab trap over the ring crab trap is that the pyramid crab trap is slightly sturdier and can be used in waters with stronger currents 

Boxes
Box crab traps are made from a strong non-collapsible wire  The main advantages of this crab trap are that once the crab enters searching for the bait it cannot escape, guaranteeing a catch when the crab enters  Along with this comes the added bonus of not having to regularly check the trap  A downside of this trap is storing and transporting it since it does not collapse 

Trot lines
Trot line crab fishing was used exclusively by commercial crabbers from 1870 to 1929, but this method has since been almost entirely replaced by the use of crab pots and crab traps  A trotline is a baited, hook-less, long line that is usually anchored on the bottom and attached to anchored buoys  This trotline is baited and after some time, the fisherman pulls the trotline up with crabs hopefully biting on the bait 

Environmental effects
A crab trap which becomes lost or abandoned (usually by accidental detachment of the float) becomes an ongoing environmental hazard  Crabs will continue to enter this ghost trap to eat the bait, become trapped, and starve to death, attracting more crabs and other bottom-dwelling sea life; a single trap may kill dozens of crabs in this manner  For this reason, crab traps in many jurisdictions are required to have a "rot-out panel", a wooden panel the size of the largest entrance into the trap  This panel will disintegrate with a few weeks' exposure to seawater, opening the trap and allowing any crabs inside to escape  Other pots use biodegradable twine, that disintegrates within less than a week Whales become entangled in crabbing gear  They get entangled in the vertical lines between crab traps on the ocean floor and the surface buoys  For example, as of 2014 there was an increasing number of entanglements off the coasts of the United States  Management measures have been implemented by NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service 

See also
Fish trap
Lobster trapEnvironment:

The Derelict Crab Trap Program
Passage 7:
Jianbing
Jianbing (simplified Chinese: 煎饼; traditional Chinese: 煎餅; pinyin: jiānbǐng; lit  'pan-fried bing') is a traditional Chinese street food similar to crêpes  It is a type of bing generally eaten for breakfast and hailed as "one of China's most popular street breakfasts"  The main ingredients of jianbing are a batter of wheat and grain flour, eggs and sauces, cooked quickly by spreading the batter on a large frying pan or a specialized flat hotplate  It can be topped with different fillings and sauces such as baocui (薄脆, thin and crispy fried cracker), ham, chopped or diced mustard pickles, scallions and coriander, chili sauce or hoisin sauce depending on personal preference  It is often folded several times before serving 
Jianbing has seen international popularization in recent years and can be found in Western cities such as London, Dubai, New York City, Portland, Oregon, Seattle, Chicago, San Francisco, Toronto, Hamilton and Sydney, sometimes with modifications to cater to local tastes 

History
Jianbing originated in northern China, where wheat- and broomcorn-based flatbreads, pancakes and pies (collectively called bing) are common as staple foods  Its history can be traced back 2,000 years to Shandong province during the Three Kingdoms period (AD 220–280)  According to legend, Chancellor Zhuge Liang encountered the problem of feeding his soldiers after they lost their woks  He ordered the cooks to mix water with wheat flour to make batter, then spread it on shields, or flat copper griddles over a flame  The dish raised the soldiers’ morale and helped them win the battle  After that, jianbing was passed down through generations in Shandong province and gradually spread to different parts of China 
The raw materials used in ancient pancakes should be millet, and millet cereal pancakes are one of the common foods of the ancient northerners  In ancient times, pancakes were made using griddles (Chinese: 鏊; pinyin: ào)  Archaeological finds have been discovered in ancient times, except for the prehistoric pottery figurines dating back more than 5,000 years, as well as the iron shovel and bronze gongs belonging to Liao, Song, Jin, Western Xia and Yuan dynasty  Yangshao people have created pottery figurines and the like  The cooking utensils, which were later unearthed in various eras, also found a number of murals of pancakes from different eras, revealing the true existence of pancakes in history 

Reasons for popularity
One of the most popular street breakfasts in China, jianbing can be easily found in many cities  The characteristics of jianbing account for its popularity in China and the West 
First, jianbing is never "pre-cooked"  In order to preserve its crispness, customers have to wait for their turn, which often results in a queue, although the preparation time is short  Part of the attraction is that customers can watch the raw ingredients come together to form the dish Jianbing can satisfy different people's tastes as it can be made with many different ingredients and mixed with different sauces, jams and flavors in different proportions  According to the vendors outside East China Normal University, though some customers like spicy flavors and some do not like cilantro, they can create their own jianbing The low cost of jianbing is also one of the reasons for its popularity, as the basic ingredients are themselves inexpensive Besides, jianbing is a type of bing that has rich nutrient values  It contains abundant nutrients as it can be made of soybeans, mung beans, black beans, lettuce, peanuts and eggs 
Jianbing can be made from various grains such as wheat, beans, sorghum, corn, etc  They contain various nutrients of the grain itself  They are convenient to eat, and are the basic food for the body to replenish energy  They are then engulfed with various vegetables, eggs, meat and other ingredients 

Regional variations
The traditional jianbing originated in Shandong and flourished in Tianjin  Jianbing is basically made of flour and eggs with different fillings and sauces  As there are many variations depending on tastes and preferences in different regions, many cities have their own versions of jianbing  Shandong-style jianbing and Tianjin-style jianbing are the two most common versions of jianbing in China 

Shandong-style jianbing
Jianbing from Shandong province tastes crispy and harder as its batter is formed from the flour mixture that mainly contains coarse grains such as corn, sorghum and millet  In the old days, people had Shandong-style jianbing mainly by rolling it with scallions or serving it with meat soup  Nowadays, the variety of fillings are richer and differ according to one's preference, for example, sweet potatoes, lettuce and pork are also used as fillings 

Jianbing guozi
Jianbing from Tianjin is a transformation of the jianbing originated in Shandong  It is also called jianbing guozi and guozi refers to its youtiao stuffing  Tianjin-style jianbing tastes softer as its crepe is made of mung bean flour, which contains less gluten  Also, Tianjin-style jianbing is topped with youtiao (fried dough stick), while the Shandong-style one sold by street vendors is usually topped with baocui (薄脆, crispy fried crackers) 

Internationalized jianbing
Jianbing is also served in the U K , U S  and Australia by Western vendors and young Chinese entrepreneurs  In the U S , it has become one of the newest food trends and gains high popularity among Americans and East Asian customers, particularly Chinese overseas students  Western vendors were inspired to start jianbing business back home after first trying it in China Apart from the traditional Chinese jianbing, some vendors in the U S  offer various versions of it to cater to American customers’ taste, such as vegetarian jianbing and gluten-free jianbing  Culture-crossing fillings like barbecue pulled pork, bacon, cheese, hot dogs, and Spam are additionally provided to let customers create their own customized jianbing Besides, fillings of jianbing are diverse with new innovations  Tai Chi Jianbing from San Francisco carries fish floss jianbing, which is made with dried tuna  A food truck in New York called “The Flying Pig jianbing” provides different filling options such as dried pork floss, pork belly and bamboo shoots  In another shop called Mr  Bing, the crepe batter is made of millet flour, buckwheat flour and purple rice  Many characterized jianbing are also shown  For example, the cha chaan bing with peanut butter and condensed milk, and the Peking duck bing with the duck sauce, cucumber chunks and duck slices are introduced 
In the UK, street food stall Mei Mei's Street Cart brought jianbing into the London and UK street food scene back in 2012 - taking their jianbing to London, Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield and Brighton and winning two awards  They sell the traditional jianbing alongside their 'London' jianbing with fillings such as fried chicken and char siu pork, to build on the traditional jianbing and make it a more substantial dish 

See also
Crêpe, a French pancake cooked and served in similar fashion 
Dosa_(food), an popular South Indian rice crepe cooked and served in a similar fashion 
Senbei (煎餅), a Japanese rice cracker whose name is cognate to jianbing and is written with the same Chinese characters in Kanji, but is actually a different food 
Passage 8:
Tantrix
Tantrix is a hexagonal tile-based abstract game invented by Mike McManaway from New Zealand   Each of the 56 different tiles in the set contains three lines, going from one edge of the tile to another   No two lines on a tile have the same colour   There are four colours in the set: red, yellow, blue, and green   No two tiles are identical, and each is individually numbered from 1 through 56 

Gameplay
In the multiplayer version of the game, each player chooses a colour, so there are between two and four players   Each draws one tile from the bag, and the person who draws the highest number goes first 

Each player then takes five more tiles from the bag, and places all six tiles face up in front of them  The first person plays one tile, usually with their colour on it  Play then rotates clockwise  After playing a tile, each player takes a replacement tile from the bag, so that they always have six in front of them  Tiles played must match the colour of the edges adjoining it 
When three tiles surround an empty space so that it is effectively half covered this is called a forced space  If the person whose turn it is has a tile that fills that space they must play it  The player repeats this process until there are no more forced spaces that they can fill, at which stage they make a free move, where they can play any tile as long as they don't breach the three restriction rules given below   Once they have had a free move, they must then fill any more forced spaces that they can  Thus one player's turn can consist of several moves  
The three restriction rules are:

Once there are no tiles left in the bag, the three restriction rules do not apply 
The aim of the game is to get the longest line or loop in your colour   Each tile in a line counts as one point, and in a loop is two points   Only the highest-scoring line or loop counts 

Online play
Although quiet and underpopulated compared to the standards of Yahoo! Games and the like, playing Tantrix online has gained a dedicated following with players from all over the world competing against each other or against computer robots  Players are rated out of 1000 points according to their wins and losses and taking into account of their opponents rank  The aim of top players is to get to 1000 points (which only three players have managed so far)  The goal of a regular player is to reach the score of 950 which is difficult to reach  Once this score has been attained the player can gain Tournament Rankings (ELO) and eventually earn the title "Master"  Masters can then play "master games" which have a different scoring system  Only a few players achieve master status, with a limit of 120 total imposed 
Serious players of Tantrix take part in a number of structured tournaments each year  Although the winners only play for bragging rights, and in the major tournaments a small trophy to keep for a year, these events are taken seriously, and are the ultimate challenge for tantricists 
The WORLD TANTRIX CHAMPIONSHIP begins every August, and takes nearly four months to complete  Only 47 competitors took place in the second WTC in 1998, but that number had grown to 200 by 2006  The tournament starts in a qualifying round, where the lower-ranked players compete for selection into the main draw (128-player knockout tournament) 
There are three other "world-wide" tournaments held online each year:

The World Team Tantrix Championship (WTTC)  involving teams of five from one country or region, first in held in 2002
The World Junior Tantrix Championship (WJTC)  a world championship for players under 16, first held in 2002
The World Doubles Tantrix Championship (WDTC)  first played in 2005There are also three continental tournaments each year:

The European Championship (Euro)  the major dedicated continental tournament, first run in 1999
The Pan-American Tantrix Championship (Pan-Am)  first held in 1999
The Afro-Asian Championship (AsAf) the African Championship was first held in 1999 once, then re-established in 2004, incorporating Asian competitors at the same timeAnd many national online tournaments:

The New Zealand Tantrix Championship  first held in 2000
The Australian Tantrix Championship   first held in 2001
The Hungarian Tantrix Championship  first held in 2002
The Hungarian Masters Tournament  first held in 2002
The Swedish Tantrix Championship   first held in 2003
The French Tantrix Championship   first held in 2007
The Dutch Tantrix Championship  first held in 2008
The German Tantrix Championship  first held in 2008
The Spanish Tantrix Championship  first held in 2008
The Polish Tantrix Championship  first held in 2008
The Norwegian Tantrix Championship  first held in 2009
The Czech Tantrix Championship first held in 2010

Face-to-face play
In addition to these online tournaments, offline tournaments (referred to as 'Table Opens') are growing in popularity  The first Table tournament was the 2002 British Open and was mostly a local affair with 13 of the 14 entrants from Britain  As the player base widened, players started traveling more  Table Opens in Europe soon became the most popular because of the larger playing population   By 2009 there was enough demand to hold a World Tantrix Open 
World Opens

2014 World Tantrix Table Open (Bischoffen, Germany)[1]
2013 World Tantrix Table Open (Trosa, Sweden)[2]
2011 World Tantrix Table Open (Almere, Netherlands)[3]
2010 World Tantrix Table Open (Budapest, Hungary)[4]
2009 World Tantrix Table Open (Edinburgh, United Kingdom)[5]National Opens

The British Table Open, first held in 2002
The New Zealand Table Open, first held in 2004
The Swedish Table Open, first held in 2004
The German Table Open, first held in 2005
The French Table Open, first held in 2005
The Spanish Table Open, first held in 2005
The Hungarian Table Open, first held in 2005
The Dutch Table Open, first held in 2006
The Polish Table Open, first held in 2007
The Australian Table Open, first held in 2007
The Israeli Table Open, first held in 2007

History
The first version of Tantrix was created by Mike McManaway in 1988 and was called Mind Game[6]  It used 56 cardboard pieces with only two coloured lines, red and black [7] Owning a games shop, McManaway sold the game directly and following customer feedback continued to change the rules and design  In 1991, the tiles were changed to plastic and two more colours were added, allowing for four-player games 

The tiles were (and still are) hand-painted, featuring different colours to those now used, even pink  The early form of the game featured eight "triple intersections", but these were found to slow the game play as they only fitted into three different forced spaces (compared to six for all other tiles)  So in 1993, the triple intersections were removed from the game Along with the multiplayer version of the game, McManaway created smaller solitaire puzzles using 10 or 12 tiles that required the player to put the tiles together to create loops of certain colours 
McManaway has also created many solitaire puzzles, including 3-D versions, match only versions (requiring players to colour match tiles within a confined space) and loop and line versions (requiring players to use all the nominated tiles to complete a loop or line in a specific colour)  However many of the editions are no longer available 
The main versions sold in most countries are:

Tantrix Discovery: A solo version, consisting of 10 tiles, where players attempt puzzles that take between 30 seconds and 45 minutes 
Tantrix Solitaire: A set of 14 tiles designed to play Tantrix Solitaire combined with expanded Tantrix Discovery puzzles 
Tantrix Match: Tantrix meets sudoku  A number of pre-placed clues controls the difficulty of each puzzle 
Tantrix Game Pack: A bag with all 56 Tantrix tiles, with which players can play all editions of Tantrix Tantrix got its first big contract in 1994 when Air France bought the game to give to children on its flights   In 2003 Tantrix was named Toy of the Year in Hungary and won the British National Association of Toy and Leisure Libraries gold award in the games category 

Tileset
See also
Black Path Game
List of world championships in mind sports
Palago, a hexagonal tile game co-invented by Mike McManaway
Serpentiles
Trax, a connection game played with similar tiles but different gameplay

Notes
External links
Official Tantrix website, including the history of Tantrix and Tournaments and online play 
Tantrix an online Tantrix puzzle
Tantrix   at BoardGameGeek
Tantrix puzzles and their solutions
Passage 9:
Sexual racism
Concepts of race and sexuality have interacted in various ways in different historical contexts  While partially based on physical similarities within groups, race is understood by scientists to be a social construct rather than a biological reality  Human sexuality involves biological, erotic, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual feelings and behaviors The ways in which people perceive the relationship between these two concepts implicitly informs attitudes toward interracial sexual relationships and sexual preferences for particular races expressed by individuals  Racial bias may involve a sexual dimension, which often takes the form of racial fetishism 

Attitudes towards interracial relationships
In the United States before the Civil Rights Era
After the abolition of slavery in 1865, white Americans showed an increasing fear of racial mixing  The remnants of the racial divide became stronger post-slavery as the concept of whiteness developed  There was a widely held belief that uncontrollable lust threatens the purity of the nation   This increased white anxiety about interracial sex, and has been described through Montesquieu's climatic theory in his book The Spirit of the Laws, which explains how people from different climates have different temperaments, "The inhabitants of warm countries are, like old men, timorous; the people in cold countries are, like young men, brave " At the time, black women held the "Jezebel" stereotype, which claimed black women often initiated sex outside of marriage and were generally sexually promiscuous  This idea stemmed from the first encounters between European men and African women  As the men were not used to the extremely hot climate, they misinterpreted the women's lack of clothing for vulgarity  Similarly, black men were stereotyped as having a specific lust for white women  This stereotype triggered tensions, implying that white men were having sex with black women because black women were more lustful than white women were, and in turn, black men would lust after white women in the same way that white men would lust after black women 
There are a few potential reasons as to why such strong ideas on interracial sex developed  The Reconstruction Era which followed the Civil War started to disassemble traditional aspects of Southern society  Now, the Southerners who were used to being dominant were no longer legally allowed to run their farms by practicing slavery  Many whites struggled with this reformation and they attempted to get around it by searching for legal loopholes which would have allowed them to continue their practice of exploiting black laborers  Additionally, the white Democrats were not pleased with the outcome of this reformation and white men felt inadequate as a result  This radical reconstruction of the South was deeply unpopular and it slowly unraveled, leading to the introduction of Jim Crow laws  There was an increase in the sense of white dominance and sexual racism among the Southern people 
Generally, tensions heightened after the end of the civil war in 1865, and as a result, the sexual anxiety which existed in the white population intensified  The Ku Klux Klan was formed in 1867, an event which triggered violence and terrorism which targeted the black population  There was an increase in the number of acts of lynch-mob violence in which many black men were falsely accused of committing rape  These acts of violence were not just senseless, they were attempts to preserve 'whiteness' and prevent the blurring of racial distinctions; some racist whites wanted to maintain a system of racial separation and prevent the occurrence of interracial sexual activity  For example, mixed race couples that chose to live together were sought out and lynched by the KKK  The famous case of Emmett Till, who was lynched by two men when he was fourteen years old, , shows the extent of the acts of violence which were committed against black people who flirted with white people  Till was lynched because the two men who lynched him believed that he had whistled at a white woman, but in actuality, he had whistled for his own reasons  When Jim Crow laws were eventually overturned, it took years for the court to resolve the numerous acts of discrimination 

Challenges to attitudes
Sexual racism is presumed to exist in all sexual communities across the globe  The prevalence of interracial couples may demonstrate how attitudes have changed in the last 50 years  A case that received heightened publicity is that of Mildred and Richard Loving  The couple lived in Virginia yet had to marry outside the state due to the anti-miscegenation laws present in nearly half of the US states in 1958  Once married, the pair returned to Virginia, and were both arrested in their home for the infringement of the Racial Integrity Act, and each sentenced to a year in prison, a sentence which was ultimately overturned by the United States Supreme Court 

Around a similar time, the controversy involving Seretse and Ruth Khama broke out  Seretse was the chief of an eminent Botswanan tribe, and Ruth a British student  The pair married in 1948 but experienced frequent hardships from the onset of the relationship, including Seretse's removal from his tribal responsibilities as chief in Bechuanaland  For nearly 10 years, Seretse and Ruth lived as exiles in Britain, as the government refused to allow Seretse to return to Bechuanaland  Once the couple were allowed to return to Bechuanaland in 1956, they became prominent campaigners for social equality, contributing to Seretse's election as president of the independent Botswana in 1966  Later, they continued campaigning for the legalization of interracial marriage around the globe More recent examples portray the increasingly accepting attitudes of the majority to interracial relationships and marriage  In 1999, Jeb Bush was elected as Governor of Florida, accompanied by his wife, Columba, a Mexican woman he met in León who did not speak English when they met  They were one of the first interracial couples to stand in power side by side  Other prominent interracial couples in American politics are Senate minority leader Mitch McConnell and former Secretary of Transportation Elaine Chao, as well as New York City mayor Bill de Blasio and his wife Chirlane McCray  The political success of these couples is seen by some to demonstrate that attitudes toward interracial marriage (at least in the United States) are much more positive and optimistic than in previous decades  Across much of the world, it is ever increasingly the situation that interracial couples can live, marry and have children without prosecution that was previously rife, due to major changes in law along with reductions in discriminatory attitudes 

Sexual preferences
While discrimination among partners based on perceived racial identity has been asserted by some to be a form of racism, it is generally considered a matter of personal preference  A study by Callander, Newman, and Holts quoted author Laurence Watts from the Huffington Post, who argued that sexual attraction and racism are not the same:
Just because someone isn't sexually attracted to someone of Asian origin does not mean they wouldn't want to work, live next to, or socialize with him or her, or that they believe they are somehow naturally superior to them  This suggests that people find it possible to view larger systemic racial preference as problematic, while viewing racial preferences in romantic or sexual personal relationships as not problematic  Researchers noted that racial preferences in one's own dating life were generally tolerated and that calling them "racist" is not a commonly accepted view 

Heterosexual community
Online dating
In the last 15 years, online dating has overtaken previously preferred methods of meeting with potential partners, surpassing both the occupational setting and area of residence as chosen locations  This spike is consistent with an increase in access to the internet in homes across the globe, in addition to the number of dating sites available to individuals differing in age, gender, race, sexual orientation and ethnic background  Partner race is the most highly selected preference chosen by users when creating their online profiles, ahead of both educational and religious characteristics  Research has indicated a progressive acceptance of interracial relationships by white individuals  The majority of white Americans are not against interracial relationships and marriage, though these beliefs do not imply that the person in question will pursue an interracial marriage themselves  Currently, fewer than 5% of white Americans wed outside their own race; indeed, less than 46% of white Americans are willing to date an individual of any other race  Overall, African Americans appear to be the most open to interracial relationships, yet are the least preferred partner by other racial groups  However, regardless of stated preferences, racial discrimination still occurs in online dating Each group significantly prefers to date intra-racially  Beyond this, in the online dating world, preferences appear to follow a racial hierarchy  White Americans are the least open to interracial dating, and select preferences in the order of Hispanic Americans, Asian Americans and then African American individuals last at 60 5%, 58 5% and 49 4% respectively  African American preferences follow a similar pattern, with the most preferred partner belonging to the Hispanic group (61%), followed by white individuals (59 6%) and then Asian Americans (43 5%)  Both Hispanic and Asian Americans prefer to date a white individual (80 3% and 87 3%, respectively), and both are least willing to date African Americans (56 5% and 69 5%)  In all significant cases, Hispanic Americans are preferred to Asian Americans, and Asian Americans are significantly preferred over African Americans  Hispanic Americans are less likely to be excluded in online dating partner preferences by whites seeking a partner, as Latinos are often viewed as an ethnic group that is increasingly assimilating more into white American culture Another aspect of racial preferences is that women of any race are significantly less likely to date inter-racially than a male of any race  Specifically, Asian men and black men and women face more obstacles to acceptance online  White women are the most likely to only date their own race, with Asian and black men being the most rejected groups by them  The rejection of Asian men was asserted by one author to be due to a hypothetical effeminate portrayal in media  The preference for men of other races remains present even when considering high-earning Asian men with an advanced educational background  Increased education does however influence choices in the other direction, such that a higher level of schooling is associated with more optimistic feelings towards interracial relationships  White men are most likely to exclude black women, as opposed to women of another race  High levels of previous exposure to a variety of racial groups is correlated with decreased racial preferences  Racial preferences in dating are also influenced by the area of residence  Those residing in the south-eastern regions in American states are less likely to have been in an interracial relationship and are less likely to interracially date in the future  People who engaged in regular religious customs at age 12 are also less likely to interracially date  Moreover, those from a Jewish background are significantly more likely to enter an interracial relationship than those from a Protestant background A 2015 study of interracial online dating within multiple European countries, analyzing the dating preferences of Europeans, as well as Arabs, Africans, Asians and Hispanics in Diaspora, found that in aggregate all races ranked Europeans as most preferred, followed by Hispanics and Asians as intermediately preferable, then by Arabs and finally Africans as the least preferred  Country-specific results were more variable, with countries with more non-Europeans showing more openness for Europeans to engage in interracial dating, while exceptions resulted in those with tensions between racial groups (such as in cases where tensions existed between Europeans and Arabs due to Arab Anti-Western sentiment and Western Anti-Arab populism) showed a marked decrease in preference for interracial dating between the two  The researchers noted that Arabs tended to have higher same-race preferences in regions with higher Arabic populations, possibly due to more traditional cultural norms on marriage  The researchers did note a portion of the study was influenced by selection bias, as the data gathered may have disproportionately drawn from people already inclined to engage in interracial dating Currently, there are websites specifically targeted to different demographic preferences, such that singles can sign up online and focus on one particular partner quality, such as race, religious beliefs or ethnicity  In addition to this, there are online dating services that target race-specific partner choices, and a selection of pages dedicated to interracial dating that allow users to select partners based on age, gender and particularly race  Online dating services experience controversy in this context as debate is cast over whether statements such as "no Asians" or "not attracted to Asians" in user profiles are racist or merely signify individual preferences Non-white ethnic minorities, mostly Indians and Asians, who feel they lack dating prospects as a result of their race, sometimes refer to themselves as ricecels, currycels, or more broadly ethnicels, a term related to the incel, who is generally considered to be white  Racial preferences can sometimes considered as a subset of lookism 

LGBT community
Hoang Tan Nguyen, an Assistant Professor of English and Film Studies at Bryn Mawr College, wrote that Asian men are often feminized and desexualized by both mainstream and LGBT media   The gay Asian-Canadian author Richard Fung has opined that he believes that while black and Arab men are portrayed as hypersexualized, gay Asian men are portrayed as being desexualized  Again according to Fung, gay Asian men supposedly tend to ignore or display displeasure with races such as Arabs, Blacks, and other Asians but seemingly give sexual acceptance and approval to gay white men  However, gay white men supposedly are more likely than other racial groups to state "No Asians" when seeking partners Asian American women also report similar discrimination in lesbian, gay, bisexual (LGB) communities  According to a study by Sung, Szymanski, and Henrichs-Beck (2015), Asian American participants who identified as lesbian or bisexual often reported invisibility, stereotyping, and fetishism in LGB circles and the larger U S  culture Multiple studies in European gay communities have shown, that while many immigrants from the Mediterranean, such as Amazighs, Turks, Greeks, Arabs, Albanians and Romanians tend to be discriminatory towards and avoidant of homosexuals, with many being openly homophobic, they are actively sought after and fetishized as hypermasculine  "Südländer" or "Mediterraneans", as they are called in German subculture, are often explicitly requested, with frequent statements of "Nur Südländer", "Only Mediterraneans" being not too uncommon, though the demand is rarely met Racial preferences are also prevalent in gay online dating  Phua and Kaufman (2003) noted that men seeking men online were more likely than men seeking women to look at racial traits In a qualitative study conducted by Paul, Ayala, and Choi (2010) with Asian and Pacific Islanders (API), Latino, and African American men seeking men, participants interviewed endorsed racial preference as a common criterion in online dating partner selection 

Racial bias
A 2015 study on sexual racism among gay and bisexual men found a strong correlation between test subjects' racist attitudes and their stated racial preferences Philosopher Amia Srinivasan argued for racialized origins of Western beauty standards in her 2018 essay "Does anyone have the right to sex?", and stated that racial bias can shape sexual desire 

Racial fetishism
Racial fetishism is sexually fetishizing a person or culture belonging to a specific race or ethnic group 

Theories
Homi K  Bhabha explains racial fetishism as a version of racist stereotyping, which is woven into colonial discourse and based on multiple/contradictory and splitting beliefs, similar to the disavowal which Sigmund Freud discusses  Bhabha defines colonial discourse as that which activates the simultaneous "recognition and disavowal of racial/cultural/historical differences" and whose goal is to define the colonized as 'other', but also as fixed and knowable stereotypes  Racial fetishism involves contradictory belief systems where the 'other' is both demonized and idolized The effects of racial fetishism as a form of sexual racism are discussed in research conducted by Plummer  Plummer used qualitative interviews within given focus groups, and found that specific social locations came up as areas in which sexual racism commonly manifests  These mentioned social locations included pornographic media, gay clubs and bars, casual sex encounters as well as romantic relationships  This high prevalence was recorded within Plummer's research to be consequently related to the recorded lower self-esteem, internalized sexual racism, and increased psychological distress in participants of color Fetishism can take multiple forms and has branched off to incorporate different races  The theories of naturalist Darwin can offer some observations in regards to why some people might find other races more attractive than their own  Attraction can be viewed as a mechanism for choosing a healthy mate  People's minds have evolved to recognize aspects of other peoples' biology that makes them an appropriate or good mate  This area of theory is called optimal outbreeding hypothesis 

Examples
White women
Rey Chow argues that the fetishism of white women in Chinese media does not have to do with sex  Chow describes it as a type of commodity fetishism  White women, according to Chow, are seen as a representation of what China does not have: an image of a woman as something more than the heterosexual opposite to man Perry Johansson argues that following the globalization of China, the perception of Westerners changed drastically  With the Opening of China to the outside world, representations of Westerners shifted from enemies of China to individuals of great power, money, and pleasure  In a study of Chinese advertisements from 1990 to 1995, marketed solely to the Chinese people, Johansson concluded that, in China, the racial fetish of Western women does have to do with sex  Chinese advertisements depict Western women as symbols of strength and sexuality  The body language of Chinese models in ads expresses shyness and subordination with canting of heads and bodies, lying down and covering of faces, while the body language of Western women demonstrates power and uninhibited unashamedness  Western women more often hold their heads high, stare straight into the camera, and do not cover their mouths while laughing   The study suggested Western women represent a shift in the power dynamics between women and men and are even presented with qualities otherwise considered to be "masculine" in Chinese culture 

Asian women
An Asian fetish focusing on East Asian, Southeast Asian and to some extent South Asian women has been documented in Australasia, North America, and Scandinavia According to a 2008 article from the Washington and Lee Journal of Civil Rights and Social Justice by Sunny Woan, the "Asian fetish" syndrome is born out of the male desire for dominance and the stereotype of Asian women as individuals open to domination  For example, following the 1970s and a peak in the American feminist movement, many white men turned to mail-order bride companies in search of a loyal, understanding, and subservient partner  They saw women of their own race as too career-oriented and strong-willed  Asian women were the antithesis to their perception of white women  While white women resisted powerlessness and subjugation to the white man, Asian women were seen as open to the subjugation, even depicted as enjoying it The song "Yellow Fever" by The Bloodhound Gang includes lyrics such as, "She's an oriental rug cause I lay her where I please", and "Then I blindfold her with dental floss and get down on her knees " Both of these instances exemplify the stereotype of Asians as submissive  Margaret Cho has labeled Gwen Stefani's Harajuku Girls as a "minstrel show" because they represent fetishized East Asian stereotypes  The girls follow Stefani around on tour and are contractually obligated not to speak English in public  The performer had "renamed" them corresponding to her album title and clothing brand, L A M B : Love, Angel, Music, and Baby Furthermore, there have been many cases of Asian fetishism leading to criminal activity  In one case in 2000, two men, David Dailey and Edmund Ball, and a woman, Lana Vickery, abducted and blindfolded two Japanese women in Washington, one who was eighteen and the other who was nineteen  Vickery said Ball specifically targeted these Japanese students because he thought that they were submissive and were less likely to report sexual abuse  In another case, in 2005, Michael Lohman, a doctoral student at Princeton University, was charged by the state of New Jersey for reckless endangerment, theft, harassment as well as tampering with a food product  Michael had cut locks of hair off at least nine Asian women  He also poured his semen and urine into the drinks of Asian Princeton students more than fifty times  In his apartment, Michael also had mittens filled with hairs of Asian women 

Arab and Middle Eastern women
According to multiple articles, the West's fetishization of fully covered Arab women has led to the stereotype that Arab women and women from the Muslim world are oppressed and therefore submissive  When French armies invaded Algeria, they had anticipated Algerian women to be sexually available and hookah smokers  To their surprise, Algerian women actually appeared to have been more modestly dressed and covered from their head to toes  Many French photographers paid Algerian women to remove part of their religious attire and pose for photos to make French postcards  In his book Desiring Arabs, Joseph Massad talks about how the West's interpretation of Arab culture has painted the stereotype of Arab women being exotic and desirable  Massad's book was largely influenced by Edward Said's book Orientalism 

Mixed race women/Latin woman
In her book Sex Tourism in Bahia Ambiguous Entanglements, Erica Lorraine Williams published the first full-length ethnography of sex tourism in Brazil, including interviews with tourists who come solely to participate in sexual tourism, which may be considered a form of racialized fetishism  One of the tourists interviewed described his experience, "I've had a thing for Latin, brown-skinned women since my early twenties  I'm from [a place] where there are a lot of blonde, white girls  Whatever you have, you like the opposite – they're exotic, intriguing "

Black women
The fetishization of black women expanded during the Colonial Era, as some white male slave owners raped and sexually abused their black, female slaves  They justified their actions by labeling the women as hyper-sexual property  These labels solidified into what is commonly referred to as the "Jezebel" stereotype  The opposite of this "Jezebel" identity or persona is the "Mammy" figure who loses all of her sexual agency and autonomy, and becomes an asexual figure   L  H  Stallings notes that the creation and identities for the Jezebel or Mammy figures are "dependent upon patriarchy and heterosexuality " An example of racial fetishism within the colonial era is that of Sarah Baartman  Baartman's body was utilized as a means to develop an anatomically accurate representation of a black woman's body juxtaposed to that of a  white European woman's body during the age of biological racism  The scientist studying her anatomy went as far as making a mold of Baartman's genitalia postmortem because she refused him access to examine her vaginal region while she was alive  The data collected on Baartman is the origin of the black female body stereotype, i e  large buttocks and labia Charmaine Nelson suggests that every nude painting feeds into the voyeuristic male gaze, but the way black women are painted has even more undertones  "The black female body defies the white male subject's desire for a single subject of 'pure' origin in two ways: firstly, through a sexual 'otherness' as woman, and secondly through a racial and color 'otherness' as black  It is the combined power of these two markers of social location which has enabled western artists to represent black women at the margins of societal boundaries of propriety " Nelson asserts that any black woman is considered a fetish in these paintings and that she is only viewed in a sexual lens One of the more recent popular discourses around the fetishization of black women surrounds the release of Nicki Minaj's popular song, "Anaconda" in 2014  The entire song and music video revolves around the largeness of black women's bottoms  While some praise Minaj's work for its embrace of female sexuality, some criticized that this song continues to reduce black women to be the focus of the male gaze  The 2020 song "WAP" ("Wet-Ass Pussy") by Cardi B and Megan Thee Stallion received a similar mixed reception, with some outlets praising its embrace of black female sexuality and others claiming it was degrading or objectifying women of color 

Black men
"Big black cock", usually shortened to "BBC", is a sexual slang and genre of ethnic pornography, that focuses on Black men with large penises  The stereotype of larger penis size in black men has been subjected to scientific scrutiny, with inconclusive results  The theme is found in both straight and gay pornography 

In BDSM
There is also a practice in BDSM which involves fetishizing race called "raceplay"  Susanne Schotanus defined raceplay as "a sexual practice where the either imagined or real racial background of one or more of the participants is used to create this power-imbalance in a BDSM-scene, through the use of slurs, narratives and objects laden with racial history " Feminist author Audre Lorde cautions that this kind of BDSM "operates in tandem with social, cultural, economic, and political patterns of domination and submission" creating the perpetuation of negative stereotypes for black women in particular However, race play can also be used within BDSM as a curative practice for black individuals to take back their autonomy from a history of subjugation  One BDSM Dominatrix explains that raceplay provides her with an "emotional sense of reparations"  "Violence for black female performers in BDSM becomes not just a vehicle of intense pleasure but also a mode of accessing and critiquing power "

See also
Afrophobia
Anti-miscegenation laws
Discrimination based on skin color
Discrimination in the United States
Ethnic pornography
Gendered racism
Interracial marriage
Race and crime
Racism against African Americans
Racism in the United States
Sexual capital#Race
Sexual objectification
Stereotypes of African Americans
Stereotypes of groups within the United States
Context 2: Passage 1:
Vincent Kling (translator)
Vincent Kling is an American scholar and translator of German literature  He studied at La Salle College, the University of Pennsylvania and Temple University  His PhD thesis was based on the works of Hugo von Hofmannsthal  He also spent some time at Georg-August-Universität in Göttingen, Germany, and later taught at the University of Vienna under a Fulbright scholarship 
Kling's scholarly interests are wide-ranging, and he has published on subjects as diverse as Johann Breitwieser, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Anthony Hecht, Aglaja Veteranyi and W G  Sebald  As a prominent scholar of Austrian literature, he has written on the works of Austrian writers such as Heimito von Doderer, Heimrad Bäcker, Lilian Faschinger, Andreas Pittler, Ödön von Horváth, Gert Jonke and Gerhard Fritsch 
Kling won the Schlegel-Tieck Prize for his translation of Aglaja Veteranyi's novel Why the Child Is Cooking in the Polenta  He has also translated Gert Jonke's The System of Vienna: From Heaven Street to Earth Mound Square  He is currently translating Heimito von Doderer for the NYRB Classics series 
Passage 2:
Sally-Ann Spencer
Sally-Ann Spencer is a British translator, specialising in German literature  She studied languages at Cambridge University before going to work in the publishing industry  In 2005, she moved to New Zealand, at the same time choosing literary translation as her full-time profession  She completed a PhD on German literature at the Victoria University of Wellington As a translator, Spencer has won the Schlegel-Tieck Prize for her translation of Frank Schätzing's sci-fi novel The Swarm  She now lives in Wellington 

Selected translations
Juli Zeh: The Method (Corpus Delicti)  Harvill Secker, 2012
Peter Schössow: My First Car was Red (Mein erstes Auto war rot)  Gecko Press, 2011
Markus Heitz: The War of the Dwarves (Der Krieg der Zwerge)  Orbit, 2010
Markus Heitz: The Dwarves (Die Zwerge)  Orbit, 2009
Sebastian Fitzek: Therapy (Die Therapie)  Pan Books, 2008
Frank Schätzing: The Swarm (Der Schwarm)  Hodder and Stoughton, 2006
Passage 3:
Hugo von Hofmannsthal
Hugo Laurenz August Hofmann von Hofmannsthal (German: [ˈhuːɡo fɔn ˈhoːfmanstaːl]; 1 February 1874 – 15 July 1929) was an Austrian novelist, librettist, poet, dramatist, narrator, and essayist 

Early life
Hofmannsthal was born in Landstraße, Vienna, the son of an upper-class Christian Austrian mother, Anna Maria Josefa Fohleutner (1852–1904), and a Christian Austrian–Italian bank manager, Hugo August Peter Hofmann, Edler von Hofmannsthal (1841–1915) His grandfather was Augustin Emil Hofmann von Hofmannsthal and his great-grandfather was Isaak Löw Hofmann, Edler von Hofmannsthal, from whom his family inherited the noble title "Edler von Hofmannsthal", was a Jewish tobacco farmer ennobled by the Austrian emperor He was schooled in Vienna at Akademisches Gymnasium, where he studied the works of Ovid, later a major influence on his work  He began to write poems and plays from an early age  Some of his early works were written under pseudonyms, such as Loris Melikow and Theophil Morren, because he was not allowed to publish as a student  He met the German poet Stefan George at the age of seventeen and had several poems published in George's journal, Blätter für die Kunst  He studied law and later philology at the University of Vienna but decided to devote himself to writing upon graduating in 1901  Along with Peter Altenberg and Arthur Schnitzler, he was a member of the avant garde group Young Vienna (Jung–Wien) 

Career
In 1900 Hofmannsthal met the composer Richard Strauss for the first time  He later wrote libretti for several of his operas, including Elektra (1909), Der Rosenkavalier (1911), the plot of which he developed together with Harry Graf Kessler, Ariadne auf Naxos (1912, rev  1916), Die Frau ohne Schatten (1919), Die ägyptische Helena (1928), and Arabella (1929, but first performed in 1933) Between 1891 and 1899 Hofmannsthal wrote a number of short verse plays, influenced by the static dramas of the Belgian writer Maurice Maeterlinck, the dramatic monologues of the English Romantic poet Robert Browning, and the proverbes dramatiques of the French poet Alfred de Musset In 1911 he adapted the 15th century English morality play Everyman as Jedermann, and Einar Nilson wrote the music for it  The play later became a staple at the Salzburg Festival During World War I Hofmannsthal held a government post  He wrote speeches and articles supporting the war effort, and emphasizing the cultural tradition of Austria-Hungary  The end of the war spelled the end of the Habsburg monarchy in Austria; this was a blow from which the patriotic and conservative-minded Hofmannsthal never fully recovered Nevertheless, the years after the war were very productive ones for Hofmannsthal; he continued with his earlier literary projects, almost without a break  He wrote several new libretti for Richard Strauss operas  In 1920, Hofmannsthal, along with Max Reinhardt, founded the Salzburg Festival  His later plays revealed a growing interest in religious, particularly Roman Catholic, themes  Among his writings was a screenplay for a film version of Der Rosenkavalier (1925) directed by Robert Wiene 

Thought
On 18 October 1902 Hofmannsthal published a fictive letter in the Berlin Daily, Der Tag (The Day) titled simply "Ein Brief" ("A Letter")  It was purportedly written in 1603 by Philip, Lord Chandos, to Francis Bacon  In this letter Chandos says that he has stopped writing because he has "lost completely the ability to think or to speak of anything coherently"; he has given up on the possibility of language to describe the world  This letter reflects the growing distrust of and dissatisfaction with language that so characterizes the Modern era, and Chandos's dissolving personality is not only individual but societal Growing up the son of a wealthy merchant who was well connected with the major artists of the time, Hofmannsthal was raised in what Carl Schorske refers to as "the temple of art"  This perfect setting for aesthetic isolation allowed Hofmannsthal the unique perspective of the privileged artist, but also allowed him to see that art had become a flattened documenting of humanity, which took our instincts and desires and framed them for viewing without acquiring any of the living, passionate elements  Because of this realization, Hofmannsthal’s idea of the role of the artist began to take shape as someone who created works that would inspire or inflame the instinct, rather than merely preserving it in a creative form  He also began to think that the artist should not be someone isolated and left to his art, but rather a man of the world, immersed in both politics and art Hofmannsthal saw in English culture the ideal setting for the artist  This was because the English simultaneously admired Admiral Nelson and John Milton, both war heroes and poets, while still maintaining a solid national identity  "In [Hofmannsthal’s] view, the division between artist (writer) and man of action (politician, explorer, soldier) does not exist in England  Britain provides her subjects with a common base of energy which functions as equilibrium, a force lacking in fragmented Germany" (Weiss)  This singular and yet pragmatic identity must have appealed to Hofmannsthal to a certain degree due to the large scale fragmentation of Austria at the time, which was witnessing the birth of radical nationalism and anti-Semitism, a nation in which the progressive artist and the progressive politician were growing more different and hostile to each other by the day 

Influence
The Austrian author Stefan Zweig wrote in his memoirs The World of Yesterday (1942) on Hofmannsthal's early accomplishments and their influence on Zweig's generation:

The appearance of the young Hofmannsthal is and remains notable as one of the greatest miracles of accomplishment early in life; in world literature, except for Keats and Rimbaud, I know no other youthful example of a similar impeccability in the mastering of language, no such breadth of spiritual buoyancy, nothing more permeated with poetic substance even in the most casual lines, than in this magnificent genius, who already in his sixteenth and seventeenth year had inscribed himself in the eternal annals of the German language with unextinguishable verses and prose which today has still not been surpassed  His sudden beginning and simultaneous completion was a phenomenon that hardly occurs more than once in a generation 

Personal life
In 1901 he married Gertrud "Gerty" Schlesinger, the daughter of a Viennese Jewish banker  Gerty converted to Christianity before their marriage, and they settled in Rodaun (now part of Liesing), not far from Vienna, and had three children:

Christiane von Hofmannsthal (1902–1987), who married German indologist Heinrich Zimmer in early 1929  Zimmer taught at University of Greifswald, Heidelberg University, and Balliol College, Oxford  After they moved to New Rochelle, he became a visiting lecturer at Columbia University 
Franz von Hofmannsthal (1903–1929), who committed suicide on 13 July 1929 
Raimund von Hofmannsthal (1906–1974), who married Ava Alice Muriel Astor, daughter of John Jacob Astor IV and Ava Lowle Willing in 1933  After divorcing Ava in 1939, Raimund later married Lady Elizabeth Paget, daughter of the 6th Marquess of Anglesey Two days after his elder son Franz committed suicide, Hugo himself died of a stroke while dressing for his funeral at Rodaun  He was buried wearing the habit of a Franciscan tertiary, as he had requested  His widow, who acquired Schloss Prielau in 1932, died in London in 1959 

Selected works
Plays
Libretti
Narrations and fictitious conversations
Novel (fragment)
Essays, speeches, prose
Poetry
Passage 4:
George Guțu
George Guțu (born March 16, 1944) is a Romanian philologist, teacher in the Department of German Language and Literature of the Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures, University of Bucharest  He is also director of the Paul Celan Center for Research and Excellence and the Master programme "Intercultural Literary and Linguistic Communication Strategies" (Strategii comunicaționale interculturale – literare și lingvistice), initiated by the Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures together with other departments of the Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures  His academic activity is based on the history of German literature (Age of Enlightenment, Sturm und Drang, Classicism, Romanticism); German and Austrian contemporary literature; German literature from Romania, cultural inter-referentiality in Central and Southeast Europe, particularly in Bukovina, poetics, literary theory, translation, the history of German studies and guidance for PhD students  His research domains are the history of German literature; comparative literature; German literature from Romania; cultural inter-referentiality; imagology; the history and aesthetics of reception; theory and practice of translation 

Studies
George Guțu studied at Mihail Kogălniceanu High School in Galați, where he learned Russian and German as foreign languages  In 1963, he took the baccalaureate exam, followed by the entrance exam at the Faculty of Romanian Language and Literature, University of Bucharest  Starting in 1963, he studied two semesters at the University of Bucharest, but in 1964 he applied for a scholarship of the Ministry of Education of Romania in socialist countries  He attended two semesters in order to prepare for the baccalaureate exam for higher education in German at the Herder Institute in Leipzig  From 1965 to 1969 he studied German Studies and Cultural Sciences at the University of Leipzig  He wrote his first intermediate paper entitled "Zur Lyrik von Ingeborg Bachmann"("Ingeborg Bachmann's Poetry") and a graduation thesis "Das Problem der 'Biographie' bei Max Frisch  (Unter gelegentlicher Bezugnahme auf Ingeborg Bachmanns Erzählungen)" ["The Problem of 'Biography' of Max Frisch (with occasional references to Ingeborg Bachmann's work)"]  In 1969, Guțu obtained his diploma in German Studies with "excellent" results, together with Sergio Bertocchi from Italy, he was ranked the best student of the class  In recognition of this, both were offered the opportunity to continue PhD studies at the University of Leipzig  He decided in 1973 to attend extramural PhD studies at the University of Leipzig with professor Walter Dietze and later with professor Walfried Hartinger  On October 14, 1977, he presented his PhD dissertation "Die rumänische Koordinate der Lyrik Paul Celans" ("The Romanian Coordinate of Paul Celan's poetry") 

Professional career
In 1978, he began his career on the faculty of the University of Bucharest  He was awarded a Romanian degree as a Doctor of Philology became a lecturer in the Department of German Language and Literature at the University of Bucharest  In 1990, he became an assistant professor of German Language and Literature  Later, he was elected as a member of the Goethe Society in Weimar and received a scholarship from that institution  In January 2004, he was re-elected as head of the Department of German Language and Literature, University of Bucharest  From October 1, 2004, to July 31, 2005, he served as professor and titular of the Department "Elias Canetti" for Southeast European Intercultural Studies of Viadrina European University in Frankfurt (Oder), Germany  He was an academic teacher at the Institute of German Studies and Institute of Romance Studies of the Sapienza University of Rome from October to December 2006  In 2007 he initiated and founded the Paul Celan Centre for Research and Excellence  of the Department of German Language and Literature, University of Bucharest  Over the years 2010 and 2011, he debuted as the initiator and director of the Master programme "Intercultural Literary and Linguistic Communication Strategies", promoted by the Department of German Language and Literature in collaboration with the Departments of Romance, Classical, Slavic and Canadian Studies of the Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures  In 2012 he was invited for a special seminar, "Interculturalism beyond the Borders of Bukovina", at the Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Viadrina European University  Guțu is a scholar of the Ministry of Education in Romania, the Goethe Institute, DAAD in Bonn, of Österreich-Kooperation, Vienna, the Austrian Society for Literature, the Erasmus, Socrates and Leonardo da Vinci programmes 

Memberships
Member of the Writers Union of Romania;
Founding member of the Institute for Germans' Culture and History in Southeast Europe University "Ludwig Maximilian" in Munich;
President of the Society of Romanian Germanists (S R G );
President of "Goethe" Society from Romania;
Since 2007: Member of the scientific board of the magazine "Annals of the University of Bucharest – Foreign Languages and Literatures Series" ISSN 1220-0263;
Since 2008: Member of the scientific board of the periodical "Futark  Revista de Investigacion y Cultura" from Seville (Spain) ISSN 1886-9300; Scientific reviewer of the magazine "Annals of the "Spiru Haret" University – Philology Series";
Since 2009: Member of the board of scientific reviewers (peer review) of the publication "Germanistische Beiträge" in Sibiu ISSN 1454-5144;
Since 2010: Member of the scientific board of the publication "Kronstädter germanistischen Beiträge zur Forschung " in Brasov;
2009–2010: Member of the International Scientific Council for organizing and conducting the Biennial and Festival of Translation Europa Spazio di Traduzione, organized by the Naples Eastern University, with the participation of the Centre for Research and Excellence "Paul Celan", University of Bucharest; Organizer and moderator of the Round Table "Vita e vitalità delle 'lingue minori'";
Since 2011: Member of the Board "Institut zur Erforschung und Förderung regionaler und transnationaler Kulturprozesse" (INST, Vienna); Honorary Member of the Society "Simion C  Mândrescu" in Romania;

Prizes and awards
October 2006: Diploma of Honor "Virtue et Sapientia " of the University of Bucharest "for excellent performance om researching during the year 2005";
July 2011: Awarded with the Order of Cultural Merit – Knight of the Romanian Presidency;
March 2012: Awarded with the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art 

Selection from Released Books
George Guțu has written numerous scientific publications such as books, studies, reviews or reports  

1986 "Abriß der Geschichte der rumäniendeutschen Literatur  Teil I: Von den Anfängen bis 1918 – Spezialvorlesung" Printing House of the University of Bucharest;
1990 "Die Lyrik Paul Celans und der geistige Raum Rumäniens";
1992 The initiative of establishing a specialized magazine of the S G R , "Zeitschrift der Germanisten Rumäniens";
1994 Translation "Dans în lanțuri", Hans Bergel;
1994 "Die Lyrik Paul Celans und die rumänische Dichtung der Zwischenkriegszeit";
1995 Translation "Lupul de stepă", Hermann Hesse, printing 1995 / 2005 / 2006;
1996 Translation "Siddhartha  O poemă indiană", Hermann Hesse, printing 1996 / 2005 / 2006;
1997 Book series "GGR-Beiträge zur Germanistik", the first volume "Beiträge zur Geschichte der Germanistik in Rumänien";
1997 "Germanistik an Hochschulen in Rumänien  Verzeichnis der Hochschullehrerinnen und Hochschullehrer";
1998 Translation "Când vin vulturii", Hans Bergel;
1998 Translation "Liniștea de după lovitura de secure", Matthias Buth;
2001 "Geschichte der deutschen Literatur  Textanthologie  Bd  I:  Ältere deutsche Literatur";
2002–2010 "transcarpathica germanistisches jahrbuch rumänien";
2002 Translation "Vis cu ochii deschiși  Poeme ", Rose Ausländer;
2002 Translation "Ecouri răzlețe", Hans Dama;
2005 Translation "Episcop în România într-o epocă a conflictelor naționale și religioase", Raymund Netzhammer;
2005 Translation  "Antichitățile creștine din Dobrogea", Raymund Netzhammer;
2009 "Geschichte der deutschen Literatur  Textanthologie  Bd  II: Humanismus  Reformation  Barock (1400–1700)";
2009 Translation "Scrisori către Wolfgang Kraus 1971–1990", Emil Cioran;
2010 Translation "Din România  Incursiuni prin această țară și istoria ei", Raymund Netzhammer 

Released Books in Cooperation
2002 "Stundenwechsel  Neue Perspektiven zu Alfred Margul-Sperber, Rose Ausländer, Paul Celan, Immanuel Weissglas (GGR-Beiträge zur Germanistik)", in cooperation with Martin Hainz, Andrei Corbea-Hoisie;
2003 "Kindheit: Fragment einer Autobiographie (Bukowiner Literaturlandschaft)", in cooperation with Doris Rosenkranz;
2005 "Interkulturelle Grenzgänge  Akten der Wissenschaftlichen Tagung des Bukarester Instituts für Germanistik zum 100  Geburtstag", in cooperation with Doina Sandu;
2007 "Fremde Arme – arme Fremde  "Zigeuner" in Literaturen Mittel- und Osteuropas", in cooperation with Herbert Uerlings, Iulia-Karin Patrut;
2008 "Minderheitenliteraturen – Grentzerfahrung und Reterritorialisierung  Festschrift für Stefan Sienerth", in cooperation with Ioana Crăciun-Fischer, Iulia-Karin Patrut;
2009 ""   dass ich in der Welt zu Hause bin " Hans Bergels Werk in sekundärliterarischem Querschnitt", in cooperation with Mariana Lăzărescu, Raluca Rădulescu;
2009 "Sprachheimat: Zum Werk von Dieter Schlesak in Zeiten von Diktatur und Exil", in cooperation with Jürgen Egyptien;
2011 "Die Buche: Eine Anthologie deutschsprachiger Judendichtung aus der Bukowina", in cooperation with Alfred Margul-Sperber, Peter Motzan, Stefan Sienerth;
2012 "Ost-West-Identitäten und -Perspektiven : Deutschsprachige Literatur in und aus Rumänien im interkulturellen Dialog (Veröffentlichungen des Instituts     der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München)", in cooperation with Ioana Crăciun-Fischer, Sissel Laegreid, Peter Motzan;
2015 "Kindheit – Hörbuch, 6 Audio-CDs: Fragment einer Autobiographie (Bukowiner Literaturlandschaft", in cooperation with Moses Rosenkranz;
2015 "Briefe an Alfred Margul-Sperber: (1930–1963) mit autobiographischen sowie literaturkritischen Dokumenten (Bukowiner Literaturlandschaft)", in cooperation with Moses Rosenkranz, Jürgen Kostka;
2016 "Jugend – Hörbuch, MP3-CD: Fragment einer Autobiographie (Bukowiner Literaturlandschaft)", in cooperation with Moses Rosenkranz, Matthias Huff, Jürgen Kostka, Nikolaus Paryla 

Other Cultural Activities
1990:The initiative of establishing the "Society of Romanian Germanists" ("S G R ; Gesellschaft der Germanisten Rumäniens") as a continuation of the tradition from the interwar period;
1997:The initiative of establishing and creation of S G R  web page (among the first in Europe in the field) and its constantly update;
1998: The initiative of establishing the "Goethe" Society in România ("Goethe-Gesellschaft in Rumänien"), election as its president;
1999: The initiative of organizing the International Symposium dedicated to the celebration of 250 years since the birth of Johann Wolfgang Goethe by the "Goethe" Society in Romania, in cooperation with the Romanian Academy, S G R , Ministry of Culture of Romania and "Goethe]]" Society in Weimar;
2002: The initiative of organizing the International Symposium "Rose Ausländer" at Bucharest;
December 2006: Co-organizer of the jubilee celebrations dedicated to the 15th anniversary of establishing Libraries "Austria" from Romania and Bulgaria in Vienna, in collaboration with the Romanian Embassy in Vienna and the Austrian Ministry of Foreign Affairs;
2008–2010: Co-initiator and coordinator from the Centre for Research and Excellence "Paul Celan" of the international project European Partnership of Intercultural Communications "Leonardo da Vinci", approved and funded by the European Union, with the participation of universities in Bucharest, Munich, Debrecen and Veliko Tarnovo 

Political career
1969 (autumn) – 1970 (summer): Reviewer at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on his own initiative;
1994: The organization of the III International Congress of Romanian Germanists (May 16–19, 1994, Neptun) after a break of 62 years of tradition started in the interwar period of these congresses;
1997: The organization of the IV International Congress of Romanian Germanists (May 2–5, 1997, Sinaia);
2000: The organization of the V International Congress of Romanian Germanists (May 22–25, 2000, Iași);
2003: The organization of the VI International Congress of Romanian Germanists (May 26–29, 2003, Sibiu);
2006: The organization of the VII International Congress of Romanian Germanists (May 22–25, 2006, Timișoara);
2009: The organization of the VIII International Congress of Romanian Germanists (May 25–28, 2009, Cluj-Napoca);
2012: The organization of the VIII International Congress of Romanian Germanists (Juni 4-7, 2012, Bucharest)


== Notes ==
Passage 5:
Austrian literature
Austrian literature (German: Österreichische Literatur) is mostly written in German, and is closely connected with German literature 

Origin and background
From the 19th century onward, Austria was the home of novelists and short-story writers, including Adalbert Stifter, Arthur Schnitzler, Franz Werfel, Stefan Zweig, Franz Kafka, Thomas Bernhard, Joseph Roth, and Robert Musil, and of poets Georg Trakl, Rose Ausländer, Franz Grillparzer, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Paul Celan  Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists include Elfriede Jelinek and Peter Handke, and well-known essayists such as Robert Menasse and Karl-Markus Gauß  Despite Austria's contributions to architecture and revered musical traditions, no Austrian literature made it to the classical canon until the 19th century  In the early 18th century, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, whilst visiting Vienna, was stunned to meet no writers at all Several reasons can be given  First, the arts were the preserve of the imperial court, who saw culture as a political tool, as propaganda  Fine baroque palaces, imperial portraits, and commissions of music could all work very well to this aim, but literature was deemed less suitable and thus not encouraged  Second, the late emergence of German literature; while much was published in German, hardly had the caliber to become "classic" until the late 18th century, when Goethe and Schiller began writing  In Austria, the imperial state also censored all books mercilessly; The Sorrows of Young Werther, Goethe's novel depicting a young man's ecstatic love and suicide, spawned a string of copycat suicides across Germany, and many states banned the work, but Austrian authorities also banned Goethe's entire opus  It came mostly from Empress Maria Theresa's 'Chastity Commission', intended to uphold public morals, but it had the effect not only of creating a facade of decency but a stunted intellectual front  Perhaps the primary reason for Austria's late literary fruition was its cultural mindset  According to the cultural historian Carl Emil Schorske, 'profoundly Catholic, it was a deeply sensuous, plastic culture'  The outlook of a leisured aristocracy, it was copied by the lower classes  This mentality was not necessarily bad; the emphasis on beauty and fantasy was integral to establishing the imperial capital of Vienna, and it made Vienna the greatest center of music in Europe  But it was not the best ground for the literary experiment  Nevertheless, the liberalization of Austria in the late 19th century created a more dynamic climate for writing, which soon produced a flowering 

The search for a definition
The main problem of defining a dynamic development may be that any definition will fall short of the various currents which lead to a certain type of literature  Through the centuries, there have been different approaches, but most of them have been criticized to be biased - cultural, ideological, or political  Austrian literature developed out of a symbiosis of different regional traditions and languages 
In the Middle Ages, there was a homogeneous zone along the Danube River, spanning from Bavaria down to the eastern territories  Travelers and bards moved along this route, bringing with them new influences  At the same time Alps had their forbidding little valleys, which were virtually untouched - they developed their own regional culture 
This is important because it remains characteristic through the centuries  On the other hand, there were writers strictly in the tradition of a region (like towns, countries etc ) language or culture, on the other hand there was a continuous influence on each other's writing and thinking 
The multi-ethnic Habsburg monarchy, Austrian Empire and eventually Austro-Hungarian Empire should therefore not be reduced to the German parts of the empire  There were large ethnic or religious minorities in nearly all regional capitals, like Prague, Budapest or Vienna—microcosmi with their own traditions and characteristics 
Franz Kafka may be a good example: while in some of his writings he declared himself to be "German" this was meant more in relation to the ethnic minority living in Prague than as a declaration for another part of the empire  So perhaps he was a "German-speaking-secular-Jewish-Prague-born-Austro-Hungarian-Austro-Czech writer" - a term which best shows the difficulties that are to be faced 
Besides the national differences between the provinces, there were also different regions which influenced the writing style  There were Alps with their distinctive traditions, the deep woods, the coastal regions around Trieste (now Italy and Slovenia) and the Croatian islands, which served as the Austro-Hungarian equivalent to the French Côte d'Azur, a center for writers, painters and other artists at value - and that often-meant religious texts - were written down  In addition, most texts were also translated into Latin before they were put down (e g  Germanic tribal laws) 
Different sources however suggest that there also existed aristocratic historical records (like Heldenlieder), lyric folklore (dance, love songs, spells)  Only by accident individual texts were preserved in monasteries  Examples for this are the "Merseburger Zaubersprüche", two Germanic spells being the only written proofs for pagan religion in the German-speaking lands  The "Hildebrandslied" is important as a voucher of Germanic hero literature 
The first German texts were written to translate Latin religious books around 750 in the early Middle Ages  The Benedictine communities in Melk and Salzburg were carrying on notable literary and religious activities  Ava (1060–1127), who was the first known German female writer, wrote in this religiously inspired tradition and lived in the territories which were then and now within the borders of Austria 

High and Late Middle Ages (1170–1500)
With the Crusades around 1160, knights became more important and prosperous  The oral minnesang was a new form, dealing with their love  The topics of the ballads were also more worldly with themes ranging from love and war to political criticism  There was a lot of travelling along the Danube River, with travelling bards (Minnesänger) bringing news and new songs  The towns were getting rich and independent  The first representatives of this movement and first known male writers in German were Der von Kürenberg and Dietmar von Aist (12th century)  At the end of the 12th century, one of the most important literary works of the times, Nibelungenlied, emerged  It was created by an unknown minnesang poet most probably in the territories of Austria  As the tradition of minnesang grew, the older poets started teaching younger ones  For example, probably the most known German bard Walther von der Vogelweide (13th century) learnt his craft from Reinmar von Hagenau at the court in Vienna  Among other known minnesang poets are Neidhart, Jans der Enikel, Ulrich von Liechtenstein, and Oswald von Wolkenstein 
In the 12th century, satire was also developing  Seifried Helbling was an example of a writer who wrote texts of this type 
Later on the minnesang, which was cultivated by knights, became a craft practiced by burghers – meistersingers  Its center was more to the west, in Nuremberg  Michael Beheim was a meistersinger poet strongly connected with the court in Vienna  Yet another form that developed at that time was drama  Especially, presentations of Passion were regularly played  Das Wiener Passionsspiel is worth mentioning here 
An Austrian representative of Holy Grail literature is Heinrich von dem Tuerlîn (also written Türlin)  He wrote the poem Diu Crône, which has about 30,000 lines  The edition of the original text in Middle High German has completed recently by the Viennese Germanists Fritz Peter Knapp, Manuela Niesner (Part I, Altdeutsche Textbibliothek, Tübingen 2000), Alfred Ebenbauer and Florian Kragl (Part II, Altdeutsche Textbibliothek, Tübingen 2005), who are preparing a translation to Modern German 

Renaissance
Around 1600, humanism, with its rediscovery of ancient cultures and ideals, spread from Italy throughout Europe  Emperor Maximilian I was a big supporter of this movement  He managed to gather around his court in Vienna humanists such as Conrad Celtes – the founder of Collegium Poetarum or in the later time poet laureat Vadian (Joachim von Watt) who wrote in Latin  Eleonore of Austria translated to German a widely read French adventure novel Pontus et la belle Sidonie  Big figures of the Catholic Church of that time Nicholas of Cusa and Petrus Canisius were connected with the Austrian court and a few of their works were written in German 

Baroque
The Thirty Years War had multiple effects on European literary trends; some writers based their work on the sufferings of the time, or withdrew into writings of a religious nature  Others responded with escapism, providing beautiful and peaceful worlds readers could flee to  The humorous stories (Schelmenromane) brought relief to the suffering people  This trend is apparent with Abraham a Sancta Clara's religious and comical works, and Catharina Regina von Greiffenberg's religious poetry 
As a reaction to the Protestant movements of the Reformation, which rocked the Catholic-led Habsburg territories, many Catholic schools emerged on the territories of Austria  These colleges led by the Jesuit order developed plays and operas that were Italian in style and impressed most by their luxurious equipment  Sermons were an important genre of baroque literature, rooted as it was in the Counter-Reformation  The aforementioned Benedictine monk Abraham a Sancta Clara was a notable preacher of the times  A Jesuit, Georg Scherer, is another example of a monk whose sermons were published and had a wider audience 
Another literary form were improvised plays called "Hanswurstspiele"  This direction was represented by Josef Anton Stranitzky, Gottfried Prehauser, Joachim Perinet and Josef Felix von Kurz-Bernardon 
Examples of baroque epic are the chivalric fiction and "Schelmenromane" of Johann Beer, which represent a realistic description of the reality at that time 

Enlightenment
With the start of Enlightenment around 1720, philosophy and the need of literature to educate the reader (Lehrdichtung, Bildungsroman) were two new and strong motivations for literature 
Aristotle and his school of thinking was revived  These ideas developed on the territories of Austria during the rule of Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II  Around 1790 the ideas of Enlightenment were firmly rooted and the ancient classic cultures (Greek and Roman) were the inspiration for poets, artists, architects and writers  Harmony and Beauty were some of the ideals of that time 
Austrian literature was also under the strong influence of Freemasonry and strongly connected with the criticism towards clergy  All of these circumstances caused the literature to become more educative and instructional  Satire started to be one of the most frequently used literary genres 
The literary life of Enlightenment concentrated around an almanac Wienerischer Musen-Almanach  It was started in 1777 (from 1786 under a changed title Wiener Musen-Almanach) by Joseph Franz von Ratschky and Gottlieb von Leon  Aloys Blumauer was also its editor since 1781 (he even edited a few editions alone)  
A notable poet in the Austrian literature of this period has Johann Baptist von Alxinger who wrote chivalric epics Doolin von Maynz (1787) and Bliomberis (1791) which were inspired by the tradition of Freemasonry  Alxinger also wrote poetry based on anticlerical ideas  
The writings of a might-have-been monk Johann Pezzl also had a profile of this kind  He wrote journalistic and epic texts  
Classical vision of poetry promoted by Joseph Schreyvogel strongly influenced later authors (for instance Franz Grillparzer)  Schreyvogel improved considerably the quality of the Austrian theatre  He was a dramatic adviser at the Wiener Burgtheater from 1814 to 1832 
Another important dramatist was Johann Nepomuk von Kalchberg, but historical themes of his dramas give his work the flavour of Romanticism 

First half of 19th century
Around 1790 these ideas were firmly rooted and the ancient classic cultures (Greek and Roman) were the inspiration for poets, artists, architects and writers  Harmony and Beauty were some of the ideals of that time  There was a lot of philosophical and aesthetic writing which accumulated in the Romantic era around 1820 (mostly writers from the nobility)  With the Napoleonic Wars going on, a lot of people wanted literature which took them away in a fantasy world  A lot of religious writing was also providing people with new hope  Klemens Maria Hofbauer, Eduard von Bauernfeld and Franz Grillparzer are but three of the writers influenced by these events  The German writer Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel also lived and worked in Vienna around 1809 
Between the years 1815, the end of the Napoleonic Wars, and 1848, the year of the European revolutions the Biedermeier contrasted with the Romantic era which preceded it partly  Biedermeier can be identified with two trends in early 19th-century history 
The first trend is growing urbanization and industrialization leading to a new urban middle class  The early Lieder of Schubert, which were performable at the piano without substantial musical training, serve as examples  Further, Biedermeier writers were mainly middle-class, as opposed to the German Romantics, who were mainly drawn from the nobility  The second trend is the growing political oppression following the end of the Napoleonic Wars prompting people to concentrate on the domestic and the non-political 

Biedermeier
Biedermeier refers to work in the fields of literature, music, the visual arts and interior design in the period between the years 1815 (Vienna Congress), the end of the Napoleonic Wars, and 1848, the year of the European revolutions and contrasts with the Romantic era which preceded it 
Biedermeier can be identified with two trends in early 19th-century German history 
The first trend is growing urbanization and industrialization leading to a new urban middle class  The early Lieder of Schubert, which were performable at the piano without substantial musical training, serve as examples  Further, Biedermeier writers were mainly middle-class, as opposed to the Romantics, who were mainly drawn from the nobility 
The second trend is the growing political oppression following the end of the Napoleonic Wars prompting people to concentrate on the domestic and (at least in public) the non-political  The strict publication rules and the censorship had the consequence, that the main topics written about were unpolitical, e g  Historical Fiction or Books about the quiet life in the countryside  This does not mean that there was not a lot of political discussion going on, but it happened at home and in the presence of close friends  This explosive situation finally led to the revolutions in Europe in the year 1848 
Poets of that time in Austria were Nikolaus Lenau (1802–1850) and Franz Grillparzer  The latter is often mentioned as a representative of Austrian Classicism in literature 
Playwrights at that time were Franz Grillparzer (1791–1872), Friedrich Halm (1806–1871) - also an accomplished writer of "Novellen" (novellas and short stories) -, Johann Nepomuk Nestroy (1801–1862) and Ferdinand Raimund (1790–1836)  Grillparzer wrote tragedies in the tradition of the "Weimarer Klassik", Nestroy and Raimund were representatives for the "Wiener Volksstück" mainly played at the Viennese theater "Volkstheater Wien" 
Charles Sealsfield - a pseudonym of Karl Postl - lived a long time in the US and wrote novels set in the Wild West  On the other hand, he managed to write about Austria and to criticize the Austrian absolutism during Biedermeier without being recognized by Austrian authorities 
The end of Biedermeier is marked by the writings of Adalbert Stifter (1805–1868)  His first work Nachsommer was published in 1857 but was still believed to be one of the finest works of biedermeier  Stifter not only influenced Peter Rosegger but also German writers like Ganghofer, Heyse, Freytag, Wildenbruch and later authors (the time of "Bürgerlichen Realismus") like Storm, Fontane and through them Thomas Mann and Hesse 

Realism
Austrian writers of Realism are primarily the writer of short novels Ferdinand von Saar, Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach and the aforementioned Adalbert Stifter  Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach is known for her psychological novels and novellas as well as for her social engagement  Ferdinand Kürnberger was a novelist much like Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, who became famous with Venus in Furs - the erotic behavior he described, would later be called masochism according to his name 
Another writer to mention is Bertha von Suttner  She wrote social novels whose literary quality usually is not appreciated highly by literary critiques and Germanists, but Suttner received the Nobel Prize for Peace for her novel Die Waffen nieder (Lay down your arms) in 1905 
While in Germany Realism paved the way for Naturalism, a similar literary movement has never developed in Austria  Instead, the successors were Jugendstil and Expressionism 

20th century
First half of the 20th century
The Jugendstil movement was primarily a cultural movement of architecture and decorative arts  However, Viennese Jugendstil was marked by the presence of artists of every genre, including compositors and writers  Viennese writers, such as Arthur Schnitzler and Stefan Zweig, are often included in this movement  Arthur Schnitzler was a very typical writer of that time  He wrote his major works between 1890 and the end of World War I, namely novels, short stories and theater plays 
A very important center of Austrian literature during the ca  20 years before the end of World War I was Prague  It was the center of many German-speaking, mostly Jewish, authors who contributed significantly to Austrian and partly even to world literature  Their influence endured until the 1930s  Authors to mention are Oskar Baum, Max Brod, Franz Kafka, the journalist Egon Erwin Kisch, Gustav Meyrink, Robert Musil, Rainer Maria Rilke, Franz Werfel, and Oskar Wiener 
Expressionism was presented primarily by the poet Georg Trakl and the dramatist and narrator Hugo von Hofmannsthal, both originating from Salzburg 
The end of World War I reduced Austria to a very small and mainly German-speaking country  Some Austrian (and German writing) authors relocated to new emerging countries, such as Kafka and Werfel to Czechoslovakia  Others, such as Robert Musil, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Elias Canetti, migrated to Vienna  The political rupture and the fact that this small German-speaking Austria had lost most of its territory, industry, and agriculture, led to the fatal conviction of many Austrians that only a union with Germany would be able to save the country from a total downfall, a conviction which paved the way to its later annexation by Hitler in 1938  The texts of some writers give an insight to this conviction  Robert Musil and Hugo von Hofmannsthal expressed their "German centric" point of view, while others, such as Stefan Zweig, Franz Werfel and Alexander Lernet-Holenia, strictly spoke up for Austria and Austrian tradition and culture 
The time between the two world wars gave way to rich literature in Austria  Robert Musil wrote the well-known novel The Man without Qualities, Stefan Zweig published a multitude of essays, stories and novels, Karl Kraus edited the magazine Die Fackel (The Torch), for which he wrote almost all articles by himself, Franz Werfel wrote some of his best novels, e g  The Forty Days of Musa Dagh which narrates the Armenian tragedy of 1915, and after Franz Kafka's death, his life-time friend Max Brod began to publish Kafka's unfinished novels  Later Nobel Prize winner Elias Canetti studied and lived in Vienna and wrote his only novel Auto-da-Fe, before the Anschluss he fled to England  In analogy to Musil's Kakania (from the anagram for the k  u  k , i e  imperial and royal monarchy till 1918), Fritz von Herzmanovsky-Orlando created Tarockania for the weird figures of his humorous novels and stories 

Austrofascism and Nazi dictatorship
Catholic and conservative Austrofascism came into power after the Austrian Civil War and revitalized censorship  A more important influence on Austrian literature resulted however from Nazi empowerment in Germany in 1933  It has to be understood that not only the majority of German speaking readers live in Germany, but almost all large and important publishers for literature in German are situated in Germany as well  In 1933 it came to a breakup at the P E N  conference in Dubrovnik  The members discussed an official protest against the prosecution of writers and the burning of books by the Nazis  In consequence the German delegation left the conference and referred to the organization's principle not to interfere with politics  Some members of the Austrian delegation solidarized with the Germans, while others supported the resolution  This breakup continued afterwards in Vienna and led to a separation of liberal and "German nationalistic" authors; the latter left the Austrian PEN Club and later worshipped Hitler and his annexation of Austria  Nazi Germany observed the events carefully, boycotted immediately the liberal authors, who couldn't go on publishing in Germany and lost most of their readers and income  After the annexation, these authors were prosecuted as well as their German counterparts since years, and many of them, especially the Jewish, were murdered or forced to emigration 
Stefan Zweig flew to Brazil, Franz Werfel escaped to the US together with the German writer Heinrich Mann, Elias Canetti to England  Others, like Jura Soyfer, were killed by the Nazis  In 2007, the Theodor Kramer Society published an anthology of Austrian poetry written in exile, under the title In welcher Sprache träumen Sie? (Which Language Do You Dream In?)  The editors present 278 authors whose names in many cases have been wiped out  The better known among them are Ilse Aichinger, Franz Theodor Csokor, Albert Drach, Albert Paris Gütersloh, Hermann Hakel, Theodor Kramer, Josef Luitpold Stern, Felix Pollak, Paula von Preradović, Joseph Roth, Hilde Spiel, Wilhelm Szabo, Hans Weigel, Stefan Zweig 
During the Nazi dictatorship, which had factually wiped out the Austrian state, the Austrian PEN Club was in exile in London and continued its work in Austria from 1946 on  Until 1973, PEN was the only Austrian writers' organization of importance 

After World War II: Group of Vienna
The literature after World War II combined many different movements  While some authors were in search for reorientation, such as Ilse Aichinger, Ingeborg Bachmann, Heimito von Doderer, Alexander Lernet-Holenia, Gerhard Fritsch and Hans Lebert, others came back from concentration camps, such as Jean Améry, from former (in times of monarchy) Austrian territories, such as Rose Ausländer and Paul Celan, or from exile, such as Hans Weigel and Friedrich Torberg, while others again did not come back from exile, such as Hermann Broch or Franz Werfel  On the other hand, some former "Nazi" writers kept their positions, such as Max Mell, Franz Nabl and Karl Heinrich Waggerl  The latter and other, catholic, writers began to form a very conservative block within the Austrian literature  Through the Austrian PEN Club, they even seemed to control statal subsidies for literature as well as literary awards till the 1970s 
Some authors had good relations to the Group 47 based in Germany or were members  Among them Ilse Aichinger who published the novel Die größere Hoffnung (Greater Hope) and the narrator and poet Ingeborg Bachmann  Both were awarded the Group 47 Prize for Literature  Other Austrian members of the Group 47 were Paul Celan and Erich Fried  While Celan, after some time in Vienna, went to live in Paris, Fried moved to Berlin  In 1954, the Wiener Gruppe (Group of Vienna) was formed by H  C  Artmann and others  Friedrich Achleitner, Konrad Bayer, Gerhard Rühm and Oswald Wiener belonged to the group, as well as Ernst Jandl and Friederike Mayröcker 
Hans Lebert wrote the novel Wolfshaut (Wolf's Skin), in which he described a fictional village named Schweigen (Silence), an allegory for the silence of many Austrians after the Nazi dictatorship, who pretended to know nothing about what had happened in their country 
Several volumes of Diaries contain the war memories of Heimito von Doderer  However, this author was best known for his novels, which he designed meticulously, such as The Strudlhofstiege, The Demons, The Waterfalls of Slunj, and The Merowingians  Doderer influenced many other authors with his novelistic art, e g , Robert Schindel 

1970–2000
In 1973, a new writers' association was founded in Graz (Styria), mostly as a protest against the conservatism of P E N  and their controlling position, e g  concerning literature prizes  The new association was called Grazer Autorenversammlung (GAV)  Among its founders and first members include Barbara Frischmuth, Peter Handke, Ernst Jandl, Alfred Kolleritsch, Friederike Mayröcker, and Michael Scharang  Eventually, the GAV became the largest writers' association in Austria with more than 500 members 
The end of the 1960s and eventually the 1970s were characterized by experimental theater plays  Peter Handke tried out new ways of theater communication with his play Offending the Audience in 1966 Ernst Jandl and Friederike Mayröcker wrote a new sort of experimental poetry, Konkrete Poesie, working with the sounds of speech than with semantics 
One of the most important writers after World War II was Thomas Bernhard (1931–1989)  He wrote nine novels, several books of stories and short prose, some autobiographical works, and numerous plays  His works triggered public controversies as Bernhard constantly attacked a typical Austrian manner of ignoring the Nazi past  One of the dramas is called Heldenplatz, an open allusion to Vienna's central imperial place, from which Adolf Hitler had held his first speech after the country's annexation by Nazi German troops in front of hundreds of thousands of cheering Austrians 
Marianne Fritz (1948–2007) was known as a novelist  Her third novel, Dessen Sprache du nicht verstehst (Whose speech you don't understand), was published in 1985  On more than three thousand pages, Fritz describes a linguistic and fictional universe that deals with the decline of the Austrian empire  She used an artificial language that broke many linguistic norms, to achieve a more rhythmic speech  Marianne Fritz intensified this individual esthetics with her fourth and fifth novel 
During the 1980s, especially after the political scandal around former UN secretary and eventually Austrian federal president Kurt Waldheim, a new and more distinctive Jewish literature formed  Robert Schindel published the novel Gebirtig, which deals with a contemporary Jewish society within Austria and the difficult memories of the Shoah  Robert Menasse is known for his novels and especially for his essays on Austria  Another author who works with Jewish topics is Doron Rabinovici 

Christoph Ransmayr mixes historical facts with fiction  The acclaimed novel Morbus Kithara creates a scenario, in which Austria did not get aid from the Marshall Plan after World War II and was condemned to become an exclusively agrarian country  On this background, the author writes about the time after the war, about ex-soldiers, ex-Nazis and concentration camp survivors, and thus depicts the complexity of post-war Austria 
Josef Haslinger wrote the novel Opernball, in which he described a fictitious attack at the Vienna Opera Ball, in which all attendants, incl  the entire Austrian government, is killed by combat gas  This attack brings a new fascist party to power, which a handful of idealistic journalists try to tell the world  Haslinger is also the author of an essay about the Waldheim affair  Also Milo Dor, a born Serb who wrote all of his books in German and became a very important figure in Austria's literary scene, chose the danger of ultra-right wing parties as topic for one of his narrative texts, Wien, Juli 1999  Other books describe the destiny of immigrants after the world war 
Essays have also a tradition in Austrian literature  While the roots may be found with Franz Grillparzer, Hermann Bahr and especially Karl Kraus, one of the most important essayists after World War II is Jean Améry whose oeuvre primarily consists of essays, articles and critiques  The historian and scholar Friedrich Heer is the author of about fifty thousand pages, most of them essays on Austrian and European topics, on history and philosophy as well as on religion and literature  A younger representative of Austrian essayism is Karl-Markus Gauß who writes for several newspapers and magazines in Austria, Switzerland and Germany  His books speak about Central and Eastern European peoples, cultures, and literatures  He is also the editor in chief of the magazine Literatur und Kritik 
Authors in Slovene, originating in Carinthia, are Florjan Lipuš, Cvetka Lipuš and Janko Messner  Usually they write either exclusively in Slovene, or in Slovene and German  Another famous Carinthian writer, Peter Handke, has translated several works from Slovene to German 

Nobel Prizes for Literature
In 1981, Elias Canetti (1905–1994) received the Nobel Prize in Literature  Born in Bulgaria, he spent much of his early adult life in Vienna, and wrote all his books in German  In 1938, following Austria's Anschluss with Germany, Canetti moved to London, becoming a British subject  During his later years, he also lived in Zurich, Switzerland  Among his most acclaimed works are the novel, Auto-da-Fe, and his work of nonfiction, Crowds and Power  His three volumes of well-acclaimed memoirs are also seen to give a personal insight into Austrian society during the decades preceding World War II 
In 2004, Elfriede Jelinek (*1946) received the Nobel Prize in Literature for her "musical flow of voices and counter-voices in novels and plays that, with extraordinary linguistic zeal, reveal the absurdity of society's clichés and their subjugating power"  Her works comprise novels such as The Piano Teacher, Lust and Die Kinder der Toten (Children of the Dead), as well as theater plays such as Clara S , Burgtheater and Bambiland  In the 1960s she began to write poetry and stories 

21st century
While some of the well-known authors, such as Franzobel, Peter Handke, Peter Henisch, Elfriede Jelinek, Gerhard Roth, and Robert Schneider, still publish regularly, there are rich literary movements, mostly driven by a younger generation  In some cases, literary magazines play an important role in gathering writers and fostering their works 

Literary magazines and publishers
Literatur und Kritik and Erostepost are published in Salzburg, Manuskripte, Sterz, Schreibkraft and Lichtungen in Graz, Wespennest and Kolik in Vienna, Cognac & Biskotten in Innsbruck, DUM in Lower Austria  They count among the most traditional and important literary magazines in contemporary Austria  In addition, the literary magazine Buchkultur has been around since 1989 
Notable publishing houses include Residenz, Droschl, Haymon, Zsolnay, and Deuticke  Residenz played an important role during the 1970s and 1980s, when numerous important Austrian writers were published there  Especially smaller publishers, such as Arovell, Drava, FZA-Verlag, Mitter, Otto Müller, Pichler, Ritter, Skarabaeus, Sonderzahl, Wieser, etc  bring emerging and younger authors to the public  On the other hand, many Austrian writers publish their books in Germany, which offers much larger and powerful publishing houses  Of course, the economic regrouping of publishing houses and their mergers have also an influence on Austrian publishers  Thus, Zsolny and Deuticke already belong to the German publishing group Hanser 

Literature awards and subsidies
In addition to subsidies and awards financed and organized by the Austrian and federal governments, several smaller literary prizes award Austrian and other German writing authors  Alfred-Gesswein-Literaturpreis, Erostepost-Literaturpreis, Franz-Kafka-Preis, Feldkircher Lyrikpreis, Wiener Werkstattpreis, Anton-Wildgans-Preis, and Manuskripte-Preis belong to this aspect of Austrian literature 
The scholar Klaus Zeyringer states that public subsidies represent the backbone of today's literary production and especially publishing in Austria, and this would be one reason why the frame conditions obviously differ from those in Germany  Public subsidies add to the funding of publishing houses, literary magazines, public events, book publications, and to writer's income  Zeyringer points out that on one hand this custom also enables the publication of non-mainstream and complicated literary works but on the other hand reduces the awareness of the necessity of adequate marketing activities of many cultural organizations, including publishers 

Contemporary authors
Book publications, magazines, public readings and literary prizes chronicle a multitude of writers, including novelists, playwrights, prosaists, essayists and poets  These include Marie Anders, Reinhold Aumaier, Zdenka Becker, Adelheid Dahimène, Dimitré Dinev, Martin Dragosits, Klaus Ebner, Günter Eichberger, Olga Flor, Karin Geyer, Thomas Glavinic, Constantin Göttfert, Marianne Gruber, Egyd Gstättner, Wolf Haas, Klaus Händl, Ludwig Laher, Gabriel Loidolt, Wolfgang Kauer, Daniel Kehlmann, Michael Köhlmeier, Melamar, Hanno Millesi, Gabriele Petricek, Judith Nika Pfeifer, Wolfgang Pollanz, Doron Rabinovici, Julya Rabinowich, Kathrin Röggla, Gudrun Seidenauer, Linda Stift, Erwin Uhrmann, Vladimir Vertlib, Philipp Weiss, Christine Werner, Peter Paul Wiplinger  Usually these authors publish not only in Austria, but also in Germany and Switzerland 

Cultural melting pot
In its history, the country and Austrian literature have been a cultural melting pot that put together different ethnicities, ideas, and cultures  Today, this element has shrunk enormously but is still not wiped out  Examples of this are novelist Zdenka Becker who emigrated from Slovakia, Dimitré Dinev from Bulgaria, and Vladimir Vertlib who was born in Russia  Very often their topics have to do with immigration and interculturality 
There is some literature written by members of the autochthonous minorities in Austria  To mention the daughter of Florjan Lipuš, the poet Cvetka Lipuš, who has lived in the US for several years  Her poetry has been published in Slovene and in German 
Some authors have chosen to live in countries other than Austria, while still writing literature in German  Their experiences living in another country have some impact on their writing  For example, Marlene Streeruwitz and Ann Cotten live in Berlin, Raoul Schrott lived several years in Ireland and also Christoph Ransmayr has moved there 

See also
List of Austrian writers
List of Austrian women writers

Notes
Sources (books)
Heer, Friedrich: Der Kampf um die österreichische Identität  Böhlau Verlag, Wien 1981/1996/2001, ISBN 3-205-99333-0
Herz-Kestranek, Miguel, Konstantin Kaiser and Daniela Strigl (Ed ): In welcher Sprache träumen Sie? Österreichische Exillyrik  Verlag der Theodor Kramer Gesellschaft, Wien 2007, ISBN 978-3-901602-25-2
Zeman, Herbert and Fritz P  Knapp (Ed ): Geschichte der Literatur in Österreich  7 volumes, Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Vienna 1994ff , Vol  1: ISBN 978-3-201-01611-7, Vol  2: ISBN 978-3-201-01721-3 and ISBN 978-3-201-01812-8, Vol  7: ISBN 978-3-201-01687-2
Zeyringer, Klaus: Österreichische Literatur seit 1945  Haymon Verlag, Innsbruck 2001, ISBN 978-3-85218-379-4
Žmegač, Viktor (Ed ): Kleine Geschichte der deutschen Literatur  Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart  Marix, Wiesbaden 2004  ISBN 3-937715-24-X

External links
Austrian Studies Association, ASA
eLibrary Austria Project (eLib Austria text in German)
WikiReader Austrian Literature (German)
IG Autoren (interest group of all Austrian writers and professional associations of writers)
Österreichischer Schriftstellerverband (writers' association)
P E N -Club (writers' association)
Grazer Autorenversammlung (writers' association)
Österreichische Gesellschaft für Literatur (Austrian Society for Literature)
Passage 6:
Inta Ezergailis
Inta Miške Ezergailis (11 September 1932 in Riga, Latvia – 1 January 2005, in Ithaca, New York), was a Latvian American professor emerita of German literature at Cornell University from 1969 to 1999, specializing in Thomas Mann and contemporary women writers  In 1965, she began graduate study at Cornell University and after earning the doctorate in 1969, she was appointed to the Cornell faculty as an assistant professor of German literature 
In addition to books, she published numerous articles, in English and Latvian, in scholarly and intellectual periodicals 
During the last decade of her life, she turned from academic prose to poetry  Posthumously, her poems have been published by Ulysses House in four volumes: Inta's poems I, II, and III, Alzheimer's Poems, the Vanishing of a Mother  The last volume is devoted to her mother, who died of dementia 
She was married to Andrew Ezergailis 

Books
Male and Female: An Approach to Thomas Mann's Dialectic (1975)
Woman Writers - The Divided Self (1982)  (Study of Christa Wolf, Ingeborg Bachmann, Doris Lessing, Erica Jong, Karin Struck, Francine du Plessix Gray and others )
Thomas Mann, Critical Essays on Thomas Mann (1988)
Nostalgia and Beyond: Eleven Latvian Women Writers (1998) 
Passage 7:
İhsan Oktay Anar
İhsan Oktay Anar (born 1960 in Yozgat, Turkey), is a Turkish writer, illustrator, literature translator and an academic 
He studied philosophy in Ege University on undergraduate (1984), graduate (1989) and doctoral levels  Anar now teaches at the same university, lecturing in antique philosophy and Greek  In 2009, he won the Erdal Öz Literature Award "for his valuable novels and original style" Anar published his first novel, The Atlas of Misty Continents (Puslu Kıtalar Atlası) in 1995  The book was translated to a number of languages, including French, German and Hungarian, and a comic book version by caricaturist İlban Ertem was released in Spring of 2015  His novels are fantasy pieces supported by historical facts and rumors especially related to the Ottoman Empire and a narration resembling fairy tales  He is known for well developed, various and original characters and providing a philosophical basis for his fantasy plots  Supernatural elements and references to folk literature and culture are commonly seen in his works  He uses a mixture of Ottoman and folk terminology within his Turkish writings, giving references to myths and historical scriptures  A trivial fact is that each of his books have a character named "Uzun İhsan" (meaning "Ihsan the Tall"), which is in fact a reference to himself  Anar is a tall and imposing figure, with a height over six feet four 

Works
Novels
Tiamat (Tiamat) (2022)
The Nasty Hero (Galiz Kahraman) (2014)
Seventh Day (Yedinci Gün) (2012)
Taciturns (Suskunlar) (2007)
Amat (Amat) (2005)
Tales of Afrasiab (Efrasiyab`ın Hikayeleri)  (1998) - later adapted for stage
The Book of Devices (Kitab-ül Hiyel) (1996)
The Atlas of Misty Continents (Puslu Kıtalar Atlası) (1995)Illustrations for Kitab-ül Hiyel
has published articles in the former newspaper Yeni Binyıl
has published a story in the book 1002 Gece MasallarıAcademic articles published in Turkish
Anar, İ O , Er Efsanesinin Muhtemel Kökenleri, Seminar, 1993, P 30-44 
Anar, İ O , Sokrates Sorunu, Seminar  1990  pp  1–9 
Passage 8:
Michael Werner (publisher)
Michael Werner (born 1965 in Frankenthal, Germany) is a publisher of Pennsylvania German publications and writer of Pennsylvania German articles, prose and poetry  He is the founder and publisher of the only existing Pennsylvania German newspaper, Hiwwe wie Driwwe 

Life
Werner was raised in the Palatinate (Germany)  Members of his family had emigrated from this area to the U S  in the 19th century  He studied at the University of Mannheim and holds a Master's degree in General Linguistics, Germans Studies and Sociology  His Ph D  Thesis is dealing with Pennsylvania German literature  Werner is working as publishing director of a B2B publishing house in Mainz (Germany)  He lives in Ober-Olm 

Activities
In 1993, he became a student of C  Richard Beam (1925-2018), director of the Center for Pennsylvania German Studies at Millersville University (PA)  In the same year, Werner started a private "Archive for Pennsylvania German Literature" in the Palatinate, Germany  In 1996, the newspaper Hiwwe wie Driwwe was founded by him in Ebertsheim, Palatinate (Germany)  Actually, it is being published bi-annually  Since 1998, he has been a member of the jury of the oldest Palatine Dialect Writers Contest in Bockenheim an der Weinstraße, Palatinate (Germany)  In 2003, Michael Werner was one of the co-founders of the German-Pennsylvanian Association and the first president of the association (until 2010)  Since 2008, Werner invites speakers of Pennsylvania German to give presentations about the language and culture in Germany  In 2013, "Hiwwe wie Driwwe" started a cooperation with the Pennsylvania German Cultural Heritage Center at Kutztown University (PA)  The editorial office was moved to Pennsylvania in 2015  In 2017, Werner donated his private archive of Pennsylvania German literature and folk life to the Mennonite Research Center at Weierhof (Palatinate, Germany), where it will be presented to the public as "Deutsch-Pennsylvanisches Archiv" (German-Pennsylvanian Archive)  In 2020, he was one of the founders of Groundhog Lodge No  19 in Bockenheim (Palatinate, Germany)  In 2021, Werner published a German trip advisor to the Pennsylvania Dutch Country 

Trivia
His journalistic work over a period of three decades inspired two German cinema documentaries: "Hiwwe wie Driwwe 1" (2019) and "Hiwwe wie Driwwe 2" (coming up 2024) 

Works
Werner, Michael (Ed ): Hiwwe wie Driwwe  The Pennsylvania German Review (Newspaper)  Ebertsheim/Ober-Olm/Kutztown 1997- 
Werner, Michael: "Ebbes aus em alte Land"  Newspaper Column  In: The Pennsylvania German Review (Kutztown, PA), 2001-2003 
Werner, Michael: "Ebbes in die Mudderschprooch"  Newspaper Column  In: The Diary (Gordonville, PA), 2003-2005 
Werner, Michael: "S Katz Deitsch Schtick"  Internet Blog  In: hiwwe-wie-driwwe de  Ober-Olm 2002- 
Werner, Michael et al  (Ed ): Mit Pennsylvanisch-Deitsch darich's Yaahr  A Pennsylvania German Reader for Grandparents and Grandchildren  Neckarsteinach 2006 
Werner, Michael (Transl ): Es globbt beim Sammy in der Nacht (Children's Book)  Neckarsteinach 2012 
Werner, Michael: "Der Uncle Saem findt uns gedrei" - A Multimedia Performance (Texts, Music, Pictures & Videos), presented by the "New Paltz Band"  Ober-Olm/Frankenthal/Schifferstadt 2013- 
Werner, Michael (Transl ): Kumm, mer gehne Baere yaage (engl  Original: We're Going on a Bear Hunt, by Michael Rosen)  Neckarsteinach/Morgantown (PA) 2014 
Werner, Michael: Pennsylvanisch-Deitsch im Yahr 2015  A Hiwwe wie Driwwe Documentary  Published on youtube com (30 minutes) 
Werner, Michael (Ed ): DEITSCH  News und Geschichten aus dem Pennsylvania Dutch Country  A Hiwwe wie Driwwe Publication (E-Paper)  Ober-Olm 2015-2017 
Werner, Michael / Louden, Mark / Sauer, Walter (Eds ): Die Erschte Dausend Wadde in Pennsilfaanisch Deitsch  Neckarsteinach 2018 
Werner, Michael: En neier Sound im neie Land - 32 New Songs in Pennsylvania Dutch  Ober-Olm 2019 
Werner, Michael: Hiwwe wie Driwwe - Der Pennsylvania ReiseVERführer  Neustadt an der Weinstraße 2021 
Werner, Michael / Donmoyer, Patrick (Eds ): 25 Yaahre Hiwwe wie Driwwe - Celebrating a Quarter Century of Transatlantic Friendship  Morgantown (PA) 2022 

Films
Hiwwe wie Driwwe - Pfälzisch in Amerika (2018)  Calimedia/Cinewa (Landau)  - Expert advice and participation 
Die Rezeptsucherin: Pennsylvania (2018)  SWR (Mainz)  - Expert advice 
Hiwwe wie Driwwe - The Roots of the Pennsylvania Dutch (2019)  Calimedia/Cinewa (Landau) 
Driwwe im neie Land - Pfälzisch in Amerika (2020)  SWR (Mainz) 
Rumspringa (2022)  Constantin Film (Munich)  - Expert advice and language training of the actors (Pennsylvania Dutch) 

Publishing
Awards and acknowledgements
1998: Member of the jury of the Palatine Dialect Writers Contest in Bockenheim (Palatinate, Germany)
2007: "10th J  William Frey Lecturer", Franklin & Marshall College (Lancaster, PA)
2012: "Medienpreis Pfalz", Bezirksverband Pfalz (short list) - for "Hiwwe wie Driwwe"
2015: "Emichsburg-Preis", Förderkreis Mundart Bockenheim e V  - together with Frank Kessler and Dr  Walter Sauer in place of the "German-Pennsylvanian Association" (Deutsch-Pennsylvanischer Arbeitskreis e V )
2020: "Hermann Sinsheimer Plakette", City of Freinsheim (Palatinate, Germany) - for his services to the Palatine and Pennsylvania German literature
Context 3: Passage 1:
Michael Tippett School
Heron Academy (formerly The Michael Tippett School) is a special needs secondary school for students with severe learning difficulties located in south London  It was previously named after the composer Michael Tippett   The building was designed by Marks Barfield Architect and completed in 2008  It can accommodate 80 students between the age of 11 and 19 It was built as part of the Building Schools for the Future programme and was the first school in London and the first special needs school in the country to be completed under the programme Previously a community school administered by Lambeth London Borough Council, In February 2023 The Michael Tippett School converted to academy status and was renamed Heron Academy  The school is now sponsored by the London South East Academies Trust 
Passage 2:
François-Benoît Hoffman
François-Benoît Hoffman (11 July 1760 – 25 April 1828) was a French playwright and critic, best known today for his operatic librettos, including those set to music by Étienne Méhul and Luigi Cherubini (most notably Cherubini's Médée, 1797) 

Career
Hoffman was born in Nancy, and studied law at the University of Strasbourg   Believing that his stammer hindered his legal career, he entered military service in Corsica  He served there for only a very short time, and, returning to Nancy, wrote some poems which brought him into notice at the little court of Lunéville over which the Marquise de Boufflers then presided  In 1784 he went to Paris where he wrote his first opera libretto, Phèdre, for the composer Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne  It was performed at Fontainebleau in October 1786  After quarrelling with Lemoyne, Hoffman offered his libretto Adrien, empereur de Rome to Cherubini, who turned it down in favour of another Hoffman drama, Médée  Adrien was accepted instead by Méhul, with whom Hoffman collaborated on several operas, including Euphrosine (1790), Stratonice (1792) and Ariodant (1799) 
Hoffman was a strong advocate of authors' rights regarding artistic control, copyright and freedom of speech  This stance often brought him into conflict with the authorities  A quarrel with the management of the Paris Opéra over Nephté led to them rejecting Médée in 1790  In 1792, the French Revolutionary government objected to Adrien on political grounds, and Hoffman ran considerable risk by refusing to make the changes proposed to him  It was seven years before Adrien finally received its premiere at the Opéra 
Hoffman's later operas were in a lighter style than his works of the 1790s  A notable example is Les rendez-vous bourgeois, with music by Isouard  In 1807 he was invited by Charles Guillaume Étienne to contribute to the Journal de l'Empire (afterwards the Journal des Débats)  Hoffman's wide reading qualified him to write on all sorts of subjects, and he turned, apparently with no difficulty, from reviewing books on medicine to violent attacks on the Jesuits  His severe criticism of Chateaubriand's Les Martyrs led the author to make some changes in a later edition  He had the reputation of being an absolutely conscientious and incorruptible critic and thus exercised wide influence Hoffman's poem Je te perds, fugitive espérance was set by Ludwig van Beethoven in 1806 in his song Als die Geliebte sich trennen wollten (WoO 132) in a translation by Stephan von Breuning 

Works
ThéâtrePhèdre, tragédie lyrique en 3 actes, music by Lemoyne, premiere 26 October 1786 au château de Fontainebleau ;
Nephté, tragédie lyrique en 3 actes, music by Lemoyne, premiere 15 December 1789 at the Opéra de Paris ;
Euphrosine, ou le Tyran corrigé, comédie en 5 actes mise en musique by Étienne Nicolas Méhul, premiere 4 October 1790 at the Comédie-Italienne (réduite à 4, puis à 3 actes) ;
Adrien, opéra en 3 actes, music by Étienne Nicolas Méhul, premiere January 1792, puis sous une forme révisée en 1802 ;
Stratonice, comédie héroïque en un acte et en vers, music by Étienne Nicolas Méhul, premiere 3 May 1792 at the Comédie-Italienne ;
Le jeune sage et le vieux fou, comédie en un acte mêlée de musique by Étienne Nicolas Méhul premiere 28 March 1793 at the Opéra-Comique ;
Adélaïde, drame en 3 actes et en vers premiere 1793 ;
Callias, drame en un acte et en vers premiere 1795 ;
Le Brigand, opéra-comique en 3 actes premiere 1795 ;
Azeline, comédie en 3 actes premiere 1797 ;
Médée, opéra en 3 actes, music by Luigi Cherubini, premiere 1797 at the Théâtre Feydeau ;
Ariodant, drame en 3 actes mêlé de musique by Étienne Nicolas Méhul, premiere 11 October 1799 at the Opéra-Comique ;
Bion, comédie en un acte mêlée de musique by Étienne Nicolas Méhul, premiere 27 December 1800 at the Opéra-Comique ;
Lisistrata, ou Les Athéniennes, Comédie en un acte et en prose, mêlée de vaudevilles imitée d'Aristophane, premiere 15 January 1802 at the Théâtre Feydeau ;
Le Trésor supposé ou le Danger d’écouter aux portes, comédie en un acte mêlée de musique by Étienne Nicolas Méhul, premiere 29 July 1802 à l'Opéra-Comique ;
Le Roman d’une heure, comédie en un acte premiere Gymnase 1803 ;
La Ruse inutile, opéra-comique en 2 actes premiere 1805 ;
Grimaldi, comédie en 3 actes, music by Rodolphe Kreutzer, premiere 1810 
La mort d'Abel, opera with music by Rodolphe Kreutzer, premiere 1810 (revised 1825)Romans, essaisMes souvenirs ou Recueil de pensées fugitives (1802) ;

Sources
L  Castel: Notice Biographique et Littéraire sur F -B  Hoffman, dans: Œuvres de F  B  Hoffman précédées d’une Notice sur sa vie  Théatre  Tome 2  S  V-LV 
P [aul?] Jacquinet: François Benoît Hoffman: sa vie, ses œuvres, Nancy 1878 
Stratonice: introduction to the edition of Hoffman and Méhul's opera by M  Elizabeth C  Bartlet (Pendragon Press, 1997)
T  G  Waidelich:    imitée d’Aristophane"  Die Lisistrata von Hoffman und Solié (1802) als Bindeglied zu den Verschwornen von Castelli und Schubert mit einem Ausblick auf die Rezeption des Sujets im Musiktheater (Teil 1)  In: Schubert:Perspektiven  9, 2010, p  216–228 

External links
François-Benoît Hoffman on Data bnf fr
Passage 3:
Luigi Cherubini
Luigi Cherubini ( KERR-uu-BEE-nee; Italian: [luˈiːdʒi keruˈbiːni]; 8 or 14 September 1760 – 15 March 1842) was an Italian Classical and Romantic composer  His most significant compositions are operas and sacred music  Beethoven regarded Cherubini as the greatest of his contemporaries  His operas were heavily praised and interpreted by Rossini 

Early years
Cherubini was born Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobio Salvatore Cherubini in Florence in 1760  There is uncertainty about his exact date of birth  Although 14 September is sometimes stated, evidence from baptismal records and Cherubini himself suggests the 8th is correct  Perhaps the strongest evidence is his first name, Maria, which is traditional for a child born on 8 September, the feast-day of the Nativity of the Virgin  His instruction in music began at the age of six with his father, Bartolomeo,  maestro al cembalo ("Master of the harpsichord", in other words, ensemble leader from the harpsichord)  Considered a child prodigy, Cherubini studied counterpoint and dramatic style at an early age  By the time he was thirteen, he had composed several religious works 

Adulthood and first operas
In 1780, he was awarded a scholarship by the Grand Duke of Tuscany to study music in Bologna and Milan  Cherubini's early opere serie used libretti by Apostolo Zeno, Metastasio (Pietro Trapassi), and others that adhered closely to standard dramatic conventions  His music was strongly influenced by Niccolò Jommelli, Tommaso Traetta, and Antonio Sacchini, who were the leading Italian composers of the day  The first of his two comic works, Lo sposo di tre e marito di nessuna, premiered at a Venetian theater in November 1783 Feeling constrained by Italian traditions and eager to experiment, Cherubini traveled to London in 1785 where he produced two opere serie and an opera buffa for the King's Theatre  In the same year, he made an excursion to Paris with his friend the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti, who presented him to Marie Antoinette and Parisian society  Cherubini received an important commission to write Démophoon to a French libretto by Jean-François Marmontel that would be his first tragédie en musique  Except for a brief return trip to London and to Turin for an opera seria commissioned by King Victor Amadeus III, Cherubini spent the rest of his life in France where he was initiated into Grand Orient de France "Saint-Jean de Palestine" Masonic Lodge in 1784 

French assimilation
Cherubini adopted the French version of his name, Marie-Louis-Charles-Zénobi-Salvador Cherubini; this appears in all extant documents that show his full name after 1790, though his Italian name is favored nowadays  Performances of Démophoon were favorably received at the Académie Royale de Musique in 1788  With Viotti's help, the Théâtre de Monsieur in the Tuileries appointed Cherubini as its director in 1789  Three years later, after a move to the rue Feydeau and the fall of the monarchy, the company became known as the Théâtre Feydeau  This position gave Cherubini the opportunity to read countless libretti and choose one that best suited his temperament 
Cherubini's music began to show more originality and daring  His first major success was Lodoïska (1791), which was admired for its realistic heroism  This was followed by Elisa (1794), set in the Swiss Alps, and Médée (1797), Cherubini's best-known work  Les deux journées (1800), in which Cherubini simplified his style, was a popular success  These and other operas were premièred at the Théâtre Feydeau or the Opéra-Comique  Feeling financially secure, he married Anne Cécile Tourette in 1794 and began a family of three children 
The fallout from the French Revolution affected Cherubini until the end of his life  Politics forced him to hide his connections with the former aristocracy and seek governmental appointments  Although Napoleon found him too complex, Cherubini wrote at least one patriotic work per year for more than a decade  He was appointed Napoleon's director of music in Vienna for part of 1805 and 1806, whereupon he conducted several of his works in that city 
In 1808 Cherubini was elected an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands 

From opera to church music
After Les deux journées, Parisian audiences began to favor younger composers such as Boieldieu  Cherubini's opera-ballet Anacréon was an outright failure and most stage works after it did not achieve success  Faniska, produced in 1806, was an exception, receiving an enthusiastic response, in particular by Haydn and Beethoven  Les Abencérages (1813), an heroic drama set in Spain during the last days of the Moorish kingdom of Granada, was Cherubini's attempt to compete with Spontini's La vestale; it received critical praise but few performances 
Disappointed with his lack of acclaim in the theater, Cherubini turned increasingly to church music, writing seven masses, two requiems, and many shorter pieces  During this period (under the restored monarchy) he was appointed Surintendant de la Musique du Roi, a position he would hold until the fall of Charles X (1830)  In 1815 London's Royal Philharmonic Society commissioned him to write a symphony, an overture, and a composition for chorus and orchestra, the performances of which he went especially to London to conduct, increasing his fame 
Cherubini's Requiem in C minor (1816), commemorating the anniversary of the execution of King Louis XVI of France, was a huge success  The work was greatly admired by Beethoven, Schumann and Brahms  In 1836, Cherubini wrote a Requiem in D minor to be performed at his own funeral  It is for male choir only, as the religious authorities had criticised his use of female voices in the earlier work 

Old age and legacy
In 1822, Cherubini became director of the Conservatoire and completed his textbook, Cours de contrepoint et de fugue, in 1835  His role at the Conservatoire brought him into conflict with the young Hector Berlioz, who portrayed the old composer in his memoirs as a crotchety pedant  Some critics, such as Basil Deane, maintain that Berlioz's depiction has distorted Cherubini's image with posterity  There are many allusions to Cherubini's personal irritability among his contemporaries; Adolphe Adam wrote, "some maintain his temper was very even, because he was always angry " Nevertheless, Cherubini had many friends, including Szymanowska, Rossini, Chopin and, above all, the artist Ingres  The two had mutual interests: Cherubini was a keen amateur painter and Ingres enjoyed practising the violin  In 1841, Ingres produced the most celebrated portrait of the old composer 
Although chamber music does not make up a large portion of his output, what he did write was important  Wilhelm Altmann, writing in his Handbuch für Streichquartettspieler (Handbook for String Quartet Players) about Cherubini's six string quartets, stated that they are first rate and regarded Nos  1 and 3 as masterworks  His String Quintet for two violins, viola and two cellos is also considered a first-rate work 
During his lifetime, Cherubini received France's highest and most prestigious honors  These included the Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur (1814) and Membre de l'Académie des Beaux-Arts (1815)  In 1841, he was made Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur, the first musician to receive that title Cherubini died in Paris in 1842 at age 81 and is buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery, just four metres from his friend Chopin  His tomb was designed by the architect Achille Leclère and includes a figure by the sculptor Augustin-Alexandre Dumont representing "Music" crowning a bust of the composer with a wreath 

Works
Orchestral music
Chamber music
Masses and sections of the Mass
Motets and other choral works
Operas
See List of operas by Luigi Cherubini

Teaching manuals
A treatise on counterpoint and fugue (1841)
Passage 4:
Michael Tippett
Sir Michael Kemp Tippett  (2 January 1905 – 8 January 1998) was an English composer who rose to prominence during and immediately after the Second World War  In his lifetime he was sometimes ranked with his contemporary Benjamin Britten as one of the leading British composers of the 20th century  Among his best-known works are the oratorio A Child of Our Time, the orchestral Fantasia Concertante on a Theme of Corelli, and the opera The Midsummer Marriage 
Tippett's talent developed slowly  He withdrew or destroyed his earliest compositions, and was 30 before any of his works were published  Until the mid-to-late 1950s his music was broadly lyrical in character, before changing to a more astringent and experimental style  New influences—including those of jazz and blues after his first visit to America in 1965—became increasingly evident in his compositions  While Tippett's stature with the public continued to grow, not all critics approved of these changes in style, some believing that the quality of his work suffered as a consequence  From around 1976 Tippett's late works began to reflect the works of his youth through a return to lyricism  Although he was much honoured in his lifetime, critical judgement on Tippett's legacy has been uneven, the greatest praise generally reserved for his earlier works  His centenary in 2005 was a muted affair; apart from the few best-known works, his music has not been performed frequently in the 21st century 
Having briefly embraced communism in the 1930s, Tippett avoided identifying with any political party  A pacifist after 1940, he was imprisoned in 1943 for refusing to carry out war-related duties required by his military exemption  His initial difficulties in accepting his homosexuality led him in 1939 to Jungian psychoanalysis; the Jungian dichotomy of "shadow" and "light" remained a recurring factor in his music  He was a strong advocate of music education, and was active for much of his life as a radio broadcaster and writer on music 

Life
Family background
The Tippett family originated in Cornwall  Michael Tippett's grandfather, George Tippett, left the county in 1854 to make his fortune in London through property speculation and other business schemes  A flamboyant character, he had a strong tenor voice that was a popular feature at Christian revivalist meetings  In later life his business enterprises faltered, leading to debts, prosecution for fraud, and a term of imprisonment  His son Henry, born in 1858, was Michael's father  A lawyer by training, he was successful in business and was independently wealthy by the time of his marriage in April 1903  Unusually for his background and upbringing, Henry Tippett was a progressive liberal and a religious sceptic Henry Tippett's bride was Isabel Kemp, from a large upper-middle-class family based in Kent  Among her mother's cousins was Charlotte Despard, a well-known campaigner for women's rights, suffragism, and Irish home rule  Despard was a powerful influence on the young Isabel, who was herself briefly imprisoned after participating in an illegal suffragette protest in Trafalgar Square  Though neither she nor Henry was musical, she had inherited an artistic talent from her mother, who had exhibited at the Royal Academy  After their marriage the couple settled outside London in Eastcote, where two sons were born—the second, Michael, on 2 January 1905 

Childhood and schooling
Shortly after Michael's birth, the family moved to Wetherden in Suffolk  Michael's education began in 1909 with a nursery governess and various private tutors who followed a curriculum that included piano lessons—his first formal contact with music  There was a piano in the house, on which he "took to improvising crazily      which I called 'composing', though I had only the vaguest notion of what that meant"  In September 1914 Michael became a boarder at Brookfield Preparatory School in Swanage, Dorset  He spent four years there, at one point earning notoriety by writing an essay that challenged the existence of God  In 1918 he won a scholarship to Fettes College, a boarding school in Edinburgh, where he studied the piano, sang in the choir, and began to learn to play the pipe organ  The school was not a happy place; sadistic bullying of the younger pupils was commonplace  When Michael revealed to his parents in March 1920 that he had formed a homosexual relationship with another boy, they removed him to Stamford School in Lincolnshire, where a decade previously Malcolm Sargent had been a pupil Around this time Henry Tippett decided to live in France, and the house in Wetherden was sold  The 15-year-old Michael and his brother Peter remained at school in England, travelling to France for their holidays  Michael found Stamford much more congenial than Fettes, and developed both academically and musically  He found an inspiring piano teacher in Frances Tinkler, who introduced him to the music of Bach, Beethoven, Schubert, and Chopin  Sargent had maintained his connection with the school, and was present when Tippett and another boy played Bach's C minor Concerto for Two Harpsichords on pianos with a local string orchestra  Tippett sang in the chorus when Sargent directed a local performance of Robert Planquette's operetta Les Cloches de Corneville  Despite his parents' wish that he follow an orthodox path by proceeding to Cambridge University, Tippett had firmly decided on a career as a composer, a prospect that alarmed them and was discouraged by his headmaster and by Sargent By mid-1922 Tippett had developed a rebellious streak  His overt atheism particularly troubled the school, and he was required to leave  He remained in Stamford in private lodgings, while continuing lessons with Tinkler and with the organist of St Mary's Church  He also began studying Charles Villiers Stanford's book Musical Composition which, he later wrote, "became the basis of all my compositional efforts for decades to come"  In 1923 Henry Tippett was persuaded that some form of musical career, perhaps as a concert pianist, was possible, and agreed to support his son in a course of study at the Royal College of Music (RCM)  After an interview with the college principal, Sir Hugh Allen, Tippett was accepted despite his lack of formal entry qualifications 

Royal College of Music
Tippett began at the RCM in the summer term of 1923, when he was 18 years old  At the time, his biographer Meirion Bowen records, "his aspirations were Olympian, though his knowledge rudimentary"  Life in London widened his musical awareness, especially the Proms at the Queen's Hall, opera at Covent Garden (where he saw Dame Nellie Melba's farewell performance in La bohème) and the Diaghilev Ballet  He heard Chaliapin sing, and attended concerts conducted by, among others, Stravinsky and Ravel—the last-named "a tiny man who stood bolt upright and conducted with what to me looked like a pencil"  Tippett overcame his initial ignorance of early music by attending Palestrina masses at Westminster Cathedral, following the music with the help of a borrowed score At the RCM, Tippett's first composition tutor was Charles Wood, who used the models of Bach, Mozart and Beethoven to instil a solid understanding of musical forms and syntax  When Wood died in 1926, Tippett chose to study with C H  Kitson, whose pedantic approach and lack of sympathy with Tippett's compositional aims strained the relationship between teacher and pupil  Tippett studied conducting with Sargent and Adrian Boult, finding the latter a particularly empathetic mentor—he let Tippett stand with him on the rostrum during rehearsals and follow the music from the conductor's score  By this means Tippett became familiar with the music of composers then new to him, such as Delius and Debussy, and learned much about the sounds of orchestral instruments In 1924 Tippett became the conductor of an amateur choir in the Surrey village of Oxted  Although he saw this initially as a means of advancing his knowledge of English madrigals, his association with the choir lasted many years  Under his direction it combined with a local theatrical group, the Oxted and Limpsfield Players, to give performances of Vaughan Williams's opera The Shepherds of the Delectable Mountains and of Tippett's own adaptation of an 18th-century ballad opera, The Village Opera  He passed his Bachelor of Music (BMus) exams, at his second attempt, in December 1928  Rather than continuing to study for a doctorate, Tippett decided to leave the academic environment  The RCM years had brought him intense and lasting friendships with members of both sexes, in particular with Francesca Allinson and David Ayerst 

Early career
False start
On leaving the RCM, Tippett settled in Oxted to continue his work with the choir and theatrical group and to compose  To support himself he taught French at Hazelwood, a small preparatory school in Limpsfield, which provided him with a salary of £80 a year and a cottage  Also teaching at the school was Christopher Fry, the future poet and playwright who later collaborated with Tippett on several of the composer's early works In February 1930 Tippett provided the incidental music for a performance by his theatrical group of James Elroy Flecker's Don Juan, and in October he directed them in his own adaptation of Stanford's opera The Travelling Companion  His compositional output was such that on 5 April 1930 he gave a concert in Oxted consisting entirely of his own works—a Concerto in D for flutes, oboe, horns and strings; settings for tenor of poems by Charlotte Mew; Psalm in C for chorus and orchestra, with a text by Christopher Fry; piano variations on the song "Jockey to the Fair"; and a string quartet  Professional soloists and orchestral players were engaged, and the concert was conducted by David Moule-Evans, a friend from the RCM  Despite encouraging comments from The Times and the Daily Telegraph, Tippett was deeply dissatisfied with the works, and decided that he needed further tuition  He withdrew the music, and in September 1930 re-enrolled at the RCM for a special course of study in counterpoint with R  O  Morris, an expert on 16th-century music  This second RCM period, during which he learned to write fugues in the style of Bach and received additional tuition in orchestration from Gordon Jacob, was central to Tippett's eventual discovery of what he termed his "individual voice" On 15 November 1931 Tippett conducted his Oxted choir in a performance of Handel's Messiah, using choral and orchestral forces close to Handel's original intentions  Such an approach was rare at that time, and the event attracted considerable interest 

Friendships, politics and music
In mid-1932 Tippett moved to a cottage in neighbouring Limpsfield, provided by friends as a haven in which he could concentrate on composition  His friendships with Ayerst and Allinson had opened up new cultural and political vistas  Through Ayerst he met W  H  Auden, who in due course introduced him to T  S  Eliot  Although no deep friendship developed with either poet, Tippett came to consider Eliot as his "spiritual father"  Ayerst also introduced him to a young artist, Wilfred Franks  By this time Tippett was coming to terms with his homosexuality, while not always at ease with it  Franks provided him with what he described as "the deepest, most shattering experience of falling in love"  This intense relationship ran alongside a political awakening  Tippett's natural sympathies had always been leftish, and became more consciously so from his inclusion in Allinson's circle of left-wing activists  As a result, he gave up his teaching position at Hazelwood to become the conductor of the South London Orchestra, a project financed by the London County Council and made up of unemployed musicians  Its first public concert was held on 5 March 1933 at Morley College, later to become Tippett's professional base 

In the summers of 1932 and 1934 Tippett took charge of musical activities at miners' work camps near Boosbeck in the north of England  Known as the Cleveland Work Camps, they were run by a munificent local landowner, Major Pennyman, to give unemployed miners a sense of purpose and independence  In 1932 Tippett arranged the staging of a shortened version of John Gay's The Beggar's Opera, with locals playing the main parts, and the following year he provided the music for a new folk opera, Robin Hood, with words by Ayerst, himself and Ruth Pennyman  Both works proved hugely popular with their audiences, and although most of the music has disappeared, some of Robin Hood was revived by Tippett for use in his Birthday Suite for Prince Charles of 1948  In October 1934 Tippett and the South London Orchestra performed at a centenary celebration of the Tolpuddle Martyrs, as part of a grand Pageant of Labour at the Crystal Palace Tippett was not formally a member of any political party or group until 1935, when he joined the British Communist Party at the urging of his cousin, Phyllis Kemp  This membership was brief; the influence of Trotsky's History of the Russian Revolution had led him to embrace Trotskyism, while the party maintained a strict Stalinist line  Tippett resigned after a few months when he saw no chance of converting his local party to his Trotskyist views  According to his obituarist J J  Plant, Tippett then joined the Bolshevik-Leninist Group within the Labour Party, where he continued to advocate Trotskyism until at least 1938  Although Tippett's radical instincts always remained strong, he was aware that excessive political activism would distract him from his overriding objective of becoming recognised as a composer  A significant step towards professional recognition came in December 1935, when his String Quartet No  1 was performed by the Brosa Quartet at the Mercury Theatre in Notting Hill, London  This work, which he dedicated to Franks, is the first in the recognised canon of Tippett's music  Throughout much of the 1930s Wilf Franks continued to be an important influence on Tippett both creatively and politically  Franks had a passion for the poetry of both William Blake and Wilfred Owen; Tippett claimed that Franks knew Owen's poetry 'almost word for word and draws it out for me, its meanings, its divine pity and so on   ' 

Towards maturity
Personal crisis
Before the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, Tippett released two further works: the Piano Sonata No  1, first performed by Phyllis Sellick at the Queen Mary Hall, London, on 11 November 1938, and the Concerto for Double String Orchestra, which was not performed until 1940  In a climate of increasing political and military tension, Tippett's compositional efforts were overwhelmed by an emotional crisis  When his relationship with Franks ended acrimoniously in August 1938 he was thrown into doubt and confusion about both his homosexuality and his worth as an artist  He was saved from despair when, at Ayerst's suggestion, he undertook a course of Jungian analysis with the psychotherapist John Layard  Through an extended course of therapy, Layard gave Tippett the means to analyse and interpret his dreams  Tippett's biographer Ian Kemp describes this experience as "the major turning point in [his] life", both emotionally and artistically  His particular discovery from dream analysis was "the Jungian 'shadow' and 'light' in the single, individual psyche     the need for the individual to accept his divided nature and profit from its conflicting demands"  This brought him to terms with his homosexuality, and he was able to pursue his creativity without being distracted by personal relationships  While still unsure of his sexuality, Tippett had considered marriage with Francesca Allinson, who had expressed the wish that they should have children together  After his psychotherapy he enjoyed several committed—and sometimes overlapping—same-sex relationships  Among the most enduring, and most tempestuous, was that with the artist Karl Hawker, whom he first met in 1941 

A Child of Our Time
While his therapy proceeded, Tippett was searching for a theme for a major work—an opera or an oratorio—that could reflect both the contemporary turmoil in the world and his own recent catharsis  Having briefly considered the theme of the Dublin Easter Rising of 1916, he based his work on a more immediate event: the murder in Paris of a German diplomat by a 17-year-old Jewish refugee, Herschel Grynszpan  This murder triggered Kristallnacht (Crystal Night), a coordinated attack on Jews and their property throughout Nazi Germany on 9–10 November 1938  Tippett hoped that Eliot would provide a libretto for the oratorio, and the poet showed interest  However, when Tippett presented him with a more detailed scenario, Eliot advised him to write his own text, suggesting that the poetic quality of the words might otherwise dominate the music  Tippett called the oratorio A Child of Our Time, taking the title from Ein Kind unserer Zeit, a contemporary protest novel by the Austro-Hungarian writer Ödön von Horváth  Within a three-part structure based on Handel's Messiah, Tippett took the novel step of using North American spirituals in place of the traditional chorales that punctuate oratorio texts  According to Kenneth Gloag's commentary, the spirituals provide "moments of focus and repose     giving shape to both the musical and literary dimensions of the work"  Tippett began composing the oratorio in September 1939, on the conclusion of his dream therapy and immediately after the outbreak of war 

Morley, war, imprisonment
With the South London Orchestra temporarily disbanded because of the war, Tippett returned to teaching at Hazelwood  In October 1940 he accepted the post of Director of Music at Morley College, just after its buildings were almost completely destroyed by a bomb  Tippett's challenge was to rebuild the musical life of the college, using temporary premises and whatever resources he could muster  He revived the Morley College Choir and orchestra, and arranged innovative concert programmes that typically mixed early music (Orlando Gibbons, Monteverdi, Dowland), with contemporary works by Stravinsky, Hindemith and Bartók 

He continued the college's established association with the music of Purcell; a performance in November 1941 of Purcell's Ode to St Cecilia, with improvised instruments and rearrangements of voice parts, attracted considerable attention  The music staff at Morley was augmented by the recruitment of refugee musicians from Europe, including Walter Bergmann, Mátyás Seiber, and Walter Goehr who took charge of the college orchestra A Child of Our Time was finished in 1941 and put aside with no immediate prospects of performance  Tippett's Fantasia on a Theme of Handel for piano and orchestra was performed at the Wigmore Hall in March 1942, with Sellick again the soloist, and the same venue saw the première of the composer's String Quartet No  2 a year later  The first recording of Tippett's music, the Piano Sonata No  1 played by Sellick, was issued in August 1941  The recording was well received by the critics, Wilfrid Mellers predicting a leading role for the composer in the future of English music  In 1942, Schott Music began to publish Tippett's works, establishing an association that continued until the end of the composer's life The question of Tippett's liability for war service remained unresolved until mid-1943  In November 1940 he had formalised his pacifism by joining the Peace Pledge Union and applying for registration as a conscientious objector  His case was heard by a tribunal in February 1942, when he was assigned to non-combatant duties  Tippett rejected such work as an unacceptable compromise with his principles and in June 1943, after several further hearings and statements on his behalf from distinguished musical figures, he was sentenced to three months' imprisonment in HM Prison Wormwood Scrubs  He served two months, and although thereafter he was technically liable to further charges for failing to comply with the terms set by his tribunal, the authorities left him alone 

Recognition and controversy
On his release, Tippett returned to his duties at Morley, where he boosted the college's Purcell tradition by persuading Alfred Deller, the countertenor, to sing several Purcell odes at a concert on 21 October 1944—the first modern use of a countertenor in Purcell's music  Tippett formed a fruitful musical friendship with Benjamin Britten and Peter Pears, for whom he wrote the cantata Boyhood's End for tenor and piano  Encouraged by Britten, Tippett made arrangements for the first performance of A Child of Our Time, at London's Adelphi Theatre on 19 March 1944  Goehr conducted the London Philharmonic Orchestra, and Morley's choral forces were augmented by the London Regional Civil Defence Choir  Pears sang the tenor solo part, and other soloists were borrowed from Sadler's Wells Opera  The work was well received by critics and the public, and eventually became one of the most frequently performed large-scale choral works of the post-Second World War period, in Britain and overseas  Tippett's immediate reward was a commission from the BBC for a motet, The Weeping Babe, which became his first broadcast work when it was aired on 24 December 1944  He also began to give regular radio talks on music In 1946 Tippett organised at Morley the first British performance of Monteverdi's Vespers, adding his own organ Preludio for the occasion  Tippett's compositions in the immediate postwar years included his First Symphony, performed under Sargent in November 1945, and the String Quartet No  3, premiered in October 1946 by the Zorian Quartet  His main creative energies were increasingly devoted to his first major opera, The Midsummer Marriage  During the six years from 1946 he composed almost no other music, apart from the Birthday Suite for Prince Charles (1948) 

The musical and philosophical ideas behind the opera had begun in Tippett's mind several years earlier  The story, which he wrote himself, charts the fortunes of two contrasting couples in a manner which has brought comparisons with Mozart's The Magic Flute  The strain of composition, combined with his continuing responsibilities at Morley and his BBC work, affected Tippett's health and slowed progress  Following the death in 1949 of Morley's principal, Eva Hubback, Tippett's personal commitment to the college waned  His now-regular BBC fees had made him less dependent on his Morley salary, and he resigned his college post in 1951  His farewell took the form of three concerts which he conducted at the new Royal Festival Hall, in which the programmes included A Child of Our Time, the British première of Carl Orff's Carmina Burana, and Thomas Tallis's rarely performed 40-part motet Spem in alium In 1951 Tippett moved from Limpsfield to a large, dilapidated house, Tidebrook Manor in Wadhurst, Sussex  As The Midsummer Marriage neared completion he wrote a song cycle for tenor and piano, The Heart's Assurance  This work, a long-delayed tribute to Francesca Allinson (who had committed suicide in 1945), was performed by Britten and Pears at the Wigmore Hall on 7 May 1951  The Midsummer Marriage was finished in 1952, after which Tippett arranged some of the music as a concert suite, the Ritual Dances, performed in Basel, Switzerland, in April 1953  The opera itself was staged at Covent Garden on 27 January 1955  The lavish production, with costumes and stage designs by Barbara Hepworth and choreography by John Cranko, perplexed the opera-going public and divided critical opinion  According to Bowen, most "were simply unprepared for a work that departed so far from the methods of Puccini and Verdi"  Tippett's libretto was variously described as "one of the worst in the 350-year history of opera" and "a complex network of verbal symbolism", and the music as "intoxicating beauty" with "passages of superbly conceived orchestral writing"  A year after the première, the critic A E F  Dickinson concluded that "in spite of notable gaps in continuity and distracting infelicities of language, [there is] strong evidence that the composer has found the right music for his ends" Much of the music Tippett composed following the opera's completion reflected its lyrical style  Among these works was the Fantasia Concertante on a Theme of Corelli (1953) for string orchestra, written to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the composer Arcangelo Corelli's birth  The Fantasia would eventually become one of Tippett's most popular works, though The Times's critic lamented the "excessive complexity of the contrapuntal writing     there was so much going on that the perplexed ear knew not where to turn or fasten itself"  Such comments helped to foster a view that Tippett was a "difficult" composer, or even that his music was amateurish and poorly prepared  These perceptions were strengthened by controversies around several of his works in the late 1950s  The Piano Concerto (1955) was declared unplayable by its scheduled soloist, Julius Katchen, who had to be replaced before the première by Louis Kentner  The Dennis Brain Wind Ensemble, for whom Tippett had written the Sonata for Four Horns (1955), complained that the work was in too high a key and required it to be transposed down  When the Second Symphony was premièred by the BBC Symphony Orchestra under Boult, in a live broadcast from the Royal Festival Hall on 5 February 1958, the work broke down after a few minutes and had to be restarted by the apologetic conductor: "Entirely my mistake, ladies and gentlemen"  The BBC's Controller of Music defended the orchestra in The Times, writing that it "is equal to all reasonable demands", a wording that implied the fault was the composer's 

International acclaim
King Priam and after
In 1960 Tippett moved to a house in the Wiltshire village of Corsham, where he lived with his long-term partner Karl Hawker  By then Tippett had begun work on his second major opera, King Priam  He chose for his theme the tragedy of Priam, mythological king of the Trojans, as recorded in Homer's Iliad, and again he prepared his own libretto  As with The Midsummer Marriage, Tippett's preoccupation with the opera meant that his compositional output was limited for several years to a few minor works, including a Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis written in 1961 for the 450th anniversary of the foundation of St John's College, Cambridge  King Priam was premièred in Coventry by the Covent Garden Opera on 29 May 1962 as part of a festival celebrating the consecration of the new Coventry Cathedral  The production was by Sam Wanamaker and the lighting by Sean Kenny  John Pritchard was the conductor  The music for the new work displayed a marked stylistic departure from what Tippett had written hitherto, heralding what a later commentator, Iain Stannard, refers to as a "great divide" between the works before and after King Priam  Although some commentators questioned the wisdom of so radical a departure from his established voice, the opera was a considerable success with critics and the public  Lewis later called it "one of the most powerful operatic experiences in the modern theatre"  This reception, combined with the fresh acclaim for The Midsummer Marriage following a well-received BBC broadcast in 1963, did much to rescue Tippett's reputation and establish him as a leading figure among British composers As earlier with The Midsummer Marriage, the compositions that followed King Priam retained the musical idiom of the opera, notably the Piano Sonata No  2 (1962) and the Concerto for Orchestra (1963), the latter written for the Edinburgh Festival and dedicated to Britten for his 50th birthday  Tippett's main work in the mid-1960s was the cantata The Vision of Saint Augustine, commissioned by the BBC, which Bowen marks as a peak of Tippett's compositional career: "Not since The Midsummer Marriage had he unleashed such a torrent of musical invention"  His status as a national figure was now being increasingly recognised  He had been appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1959; in 1961 he was made an honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Music (HonFRCM), and in 1964 he received from Cambridge University the first of many honorary doctorates  In 1966 he was awarded a knighthood 

Wider horizons
In 1965 Tippett made the first of several visits to the United States, to serve as composer in residence at the Aspen Music Festival in Colorado  Tippett's American experiences had a significant effect on the music he composed in the late 1960s and early 1970s, with jazz and blues elements particularly evident in his third opera, The Knot Garden (1966–69), and in the Symphony No  3 (1970–72)  At home in 1969, Tippett worked with the conductor Colin Davis to rescue the Bath International Music Festival from a financial crisis, and became the festival's artistic director for the following five seasons  In 1970, following the collapse of his relationship with Hawker, he left Corsham and moved to a secluded house on the Marlborough Downs  Among the works he wrote in this period were In Memoriam Magistri (1971), a chamber piece commissioned by Tempo magazine as a memorial to Stravinsky, who had died on 6 April 1971, and the Piano Sonata No  3 (1973) 

In February 1974 Tippett attended a "Michael Tippett Festival", arranged in his honour by Tufts University, near Boston, Massachusetts  He was also present at a performance of The Knot Garden at Northwestern University at Evanston, Illinois—the first Tippett opera to be performed in the US  Two years later he was again in the country, engaged on a lecture tour that included the Doty Lectures in Fine Art at the University of Texas  Between these American journeys, Tippett travelled to Lusaka for the first African performance of A Child of Our Time, at which the Zambian president, Kenneth Kaunda, was present In 1976 Tippett was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society  The following few years saw journeys to Java and Bali—where he was much attracted by the sounds of gamelan ensembles—and to Australia, where he conducted a performance of his Fourth Symphony in Adelaide  In 1979, with funds available from the sale of some of his original manuscripts to the British Library, Tippett inaugurated the Michael Tippett Musical Foundation, which provided financial support to young musicians and music education initiatives Tippett maintained his pacifist beliefs, while becoming generally less public in expressing them, and from 1959 served as president of the Peace Pledge Union  In 1977 he made a rare political statement when, opening a PPU exhibition at St Martin-in-the-Fields, he attacked President Carter's plans to develop a neutron bomb 

Later life
In his seventies, Tippett continued to compose and travel, although now handicapped by health problems  His eyesight was deteriorating as a result of macular dystrophy, and he relied increasingly on his musical amanuensis and near namesake Michael Tillett, and on Meirion Bowen, who became Tippett's assistant and closest companion in the remaining years of the composer's life  The main works of the late 1970s were a new opera, The Ice Break, the Symphony No  4, the String Quartet No  4 and the Triple Concerto for violin, viola and cello  The Ice Break was a reflection of Tippett's American experiences, with a contemporary storyline incorporating race riots and drug-taking  His libretto has been criticised for its awkward attempts at American street vernacular, and the opera has not found a place in the general repertory  Mellers finds that its fusion of "art music, rock ritual and performance art fail to gel"  The Triple Concerto includes a finale inspired by the gamelan music that Tippett absorbed during his visit to Java In 1979 Tippett was made a Companion of Honour (CH)  The main composition that occupied him in the early 1980s was his oratorio The Mask of Time, loosely based on Jacob Bronowski's 1973 TV series The Ascent of Man  In Tippett's words, this is an attempt to deal "with those fundamental matters that bear upon man, his relationship with Time, his place in the world as we know it and in the mysterious universe at large"  The oratorio was commissioned by the Boston Symphony Orchestra for its centenary, and was one of several of Tippett's late compositions that were premièred in America 

In 1983 Tippett became president of the London College of Music and was appointed a Member of the Order of Merit (OM)  By the time of his 80th birthday in 1985 he was blind in his right eye, and his output had slowed  Nevertheless, in his final active years he wrote his last opera, New Year  This futuristic fable involving flying saucers, time travel and urban violence was indifferently received on its première in Houston, Texas, on 17 October 1989  Donal Henahan in The New York Times wrote that "Unlike Wagner, [Tippett] does not provide music of enough quality to allow one to overlook textual absurdities and commonplaces " The opera was introduced to Britain in the Glyndebourne Festival of 1990 In spite of his deteriorating health, Tippett toured Australia in 1989–90, and also visited Senegal  His last major works, written between 1988 and 1993, were: Byzantium, for soprano and orchestra; the String Quartet No  5; and The Rose Lake, a "song without words for orchestra" inspired by a visit to Lake Retba in Senegal during his 1990 trip  He intended The Rose Lake to be his farewell, but in 1996 he broke his retirement to write "Caliban's Song" as a contribution to the Purcell tercentenary 

Death
In 1997 he moved from Wiltshire to London to be closer to his friends and caregivers; in November of that year he made his last overseas trip, to Stockholm for a festival of his music  After suffering a stroke he was taken home, where he died on 8 January 1998, six days after his 93rd birthday  He was cremated on 15 January, at Hanworth crematorium, after a secular service 

Music
General character
Bowen has described Tippett as "a composer of our time", one who engaged with the social, political and cultural issues of his day  Arnold Whittall sees the music as embodying Tippett's philosophy of "ultimately optimistic humanism"  Rather than ignoring the barbarism of the 20th century, says Kemp, Tippett chose through his works to seek "to preserve or remake those values that have been perverted, while at the same time never losing sight of the contemporary reality"  The key early work in this respect is A Child of Our Time, of which Clarke writes: "[t]he words of the oratorio's closing ensemble, 'I would know my shadow and my light, So shall I at last be whole', have become canonical in commentary on Tippett     this [Jungian] statement crystallizes an ethic, and aesthetic, central to his world-view, and one which underlies all his text-based works" Sceptical critics such as the musicologist Derrick Puffett have argued that Tippett's craft as a composer was insufficient for him to deal adequately with the task that he had set himself of "transmut[ing] his personal and private agonies into     something universal and impersonal"  Michael Kennedy has referred to Tippett's "open‐eyed, even naive outlook on the world", while accepting the technical sophistication of his music  Others have acknowledged his creative ingenuity and his willingness to adopt whatever means or techniques were necessary to fit his intentions Tippett's music is marked by the expansive nature of his melodic line—the Daily Telegraph's Ivan Hewett refers to his "astonishingly long-breathed melodies"  According to Jones, a further element of the "individual voice" that emerged in 1935 was Tippett's handling of rhythm and counterpoint, demonstrated in the First String Quartet—Tippett's first use of the additive rhythm and cross-rhythm polyphony which became part of his musical signature  This approach to metre and rhythm is derived in part from Bartók and Stravinsky but also from the English madrigalists  Sympathy with the past, observed by Colin Mason in an early appraisal of the composer's work, was at the root of the neoclassicism that is a feature of Tippett's music, at least until the Second Symphony (1957) In terms of tonality, Tippett shifted his ground in the course of his career  His earlier works, up to The Midsummer Marriage, are key-centred, but thereafter he moved through bitonality into what the composer Charles Fussell has summarised as "the freely-organized harmonic worlds" of the Third Symphony and The Ice Break  Although Tippett flirted with the "twelve-tone" technique—he introduced a twelve-tone theme into the "storm" prelude that begins The Knot Garden—Bowen records that he generally rejected serialism as incompatible with his musical aims 

Compositional process
Tippett described himself as the receiver of inspiration rather than its originator, the creative spark coming from a particular personal experience, which might take one of many forms but was most often associated with listening to music  The process of composing was lengthy and laborious, the actual writing down of the music being preceded by several stages of gestation; as Tippett put it, "the concepts come first, and then a lot of work and imaginative processes until eventually, when you're ready, finally ready, you look for the actual notes"  Tippett elaborated: "I compose by first developing an overall sense of the length of the work, then of how it will divide itself into sections or movements, then of the kind of texture or instruments or voices that will be performing it  I prefer not to consider the actual notes of the composition until this process     has gone as far as possible"  Sometimes the time required to see a project through from conception to completion was very lengthy—seven years, Tippett says, in the case of the Third Symphony  In the earlier, contemplative stages he might be simultaneously engaged on other works, but once these stages were complete he would dedicate himself entirely to the completion of the work in hand Tippett preferred to compose in full score; once the writing began, progress was often not fluent, as evidenced by Tippett's first pencil draft manuscripts which show multiple rubbings-out and reworkings  In this, the musicologist Thomas Schuttenhelm says, his methods resembled those of Beethoven, with the difference that "whereas Beethoven's struggle is considered a virtue of his work, and almost universally admired, Tippett's was the source and subject of a debate about his competency as a composer" 

Influences
The style that emerged from Tippett's long compositional apprenticeship was the product of many diverse influences  Beethoven and Handel were initial models (Handel above Bach, who in Tippett's view lacked drama), supplemented by 16th- and 17th-century masters of counterpoint and madrigal—Thomas Weelkes, Monteverdi and Dowland  Purcell became significant later, and Tippett came to lament his ignorance of Purcell during his RCM years: "It seems to me incomprehensible now that his work was not even recommended in composition lessons as a basic study for the setting of English" Tippett recognised the importance to his compositional development of several 19th- and 20th-century composers: Berlioz for his clear melodic lines, Debussy for his inventive sound, Bartók for his colourful dissonance, Hindemith for his skills at counterpoint, and Sibelius for his originality in musical forms  He revered Stravinsky, sharing the Russian composer's deep interest in older music  Tippett had heard early ragtime as a small child before the First World War; he noted in his later writings that, in the early years of the 20th century, ragtime and jazz "attracted many serious composers thinking to find     a means to refresh serious music by the primitive"  His interest in these forms led to his fascination with blues, articulated in several of his later works  Among his contemporary composers, Tippett admired Britten and shared his desire to end the perception of English music as provincial  He also had a high regard for Alan Bush, with whom he joined forces to produce the 1934 Pageant of Labour  "I can remember the excitement I felt when he outlined to me his plan for a major string quartet" Although influences of folk music from all parts of the British Isles are evident in Tippett's early works, he was wary of the English folksong revival of the early 20th century, believing that much of the music presented as "English" by Cecil Sharp and his followers originated elsewhere  Notwithstanding his doubts, Tippett took some inspiration from these sources  The composer David Matthews writes of passages in Tippett's music which "evoke the 'sweet especial rural scene' as vividly as Elgar or Vaughan Williams     perhaps redolent of the Suffolk landscape with its gently undulating horizons, wide skies and soft lights" 

Works
After the withdrawn works written in the 1920s and early 1930s, analysts generally divide Tippett's mature compositional career into three main phases, with fairly fluid boundaries and some internal subdivision in each main period  The first phase extends from the completion of the String Quartet No  1 in 1935 to the end of the 1950s, a period in which Tippett drew on the past for his main inspiration   The 1960s marked the beginning of a new phase in which Tippett's style became more experimental, reflecting both the social and cultural changes of that era and the broadening of his own experiences  The mid-1970s produced a further stylistic change, less marked and sudden than that of the early 1960s, after which what Clarke calls the "extremes" of the experimental phase were gradually replaced by a return to the lyricism characteristic of the first period, a trend that was particularly manifested in the final works 

Withdrawn compositions
Tippett's earliest compositions cover several genres  Kemp writes that the works indicate Tippett's deep commitment to the learning of his craft, his early ability to manipulate traditional forms, and a general willingness to experiment  Clarke observes that in these youthful efforts, characteristics which would mark his mature work were already discernible  Some of the early work is of high quality—the Symphony in B flat of 1933 was, in Kemp's view, comparable to William Walton's contemporaneous First Symphony  Tippett pondered for years whether to include this work in his formal canon before deciding that its debt to Sibelius was too great  Nevertheless, it foreshadows techniques that feature in the String Quartet No  1 and in the Corelli Fantasia Other accomplished early works include the two string quartets, composed between 1928 and 1930, in which Tippett sought to combine the styles of Beethoven and Haydn respectively with folk-song, as Beethoven had in his Rasoumovsky quartets of 1806  Tippett explains the withdrawal of these and the other early works: "I realised very clearly that they were not totally consonant with myself  I didn't think they had the stamp of artistic durability  So I took the whole lot along to R O  Morris who agreed that they didn't show enough technical mastery "

First period: 1935 to late 1950s
Kemp identifies the String Quartet No  1 (1935) as marking Tippett's discovery of his individual voice  According to the composer Alan Ridout, the work stamped its character on Tippett's first period, and together with the second and third quartets of 1942 and 1946 it typifies his style up to The Midsummer Marriage  In the two works that immediately followed the first quartet, Bowen finds the Piano Sonata No  1 (1938) full of the young composer's inventiveness, while Matthews writes of the Concerto for Double String Orchestra (1939): "[I]t is the rhythmic freedom of the music, its joyful liberation from orthodox notions of stress and phrase length, that contributes so much to its vitality"  Both of these works show influence of folk music, and the finale of the Piano Sonata is marked by innovative jazz syncopations  According to Schuttenhelm, the Double Concerto marks the proper beginning of Tippett's  maturity as an orchestral composer 

In A Child of Our Time Tippett was, in Kemp's view, wholly successful in integrating the language of the spirituals with his own musical style  Tippett had obtained recordings of American singing groups, especially the Hall Johnson Choir, which provided him with a  model for determining the relationships between solo voices and chorus in the spirituals  Thus, Kemp believes, the fourth spiritual "O by and by" sounds almost as if it had been composed by Tippett   The composer's instructions in the score specify that "the spirituals should not be thought of as congregational hymns, but as integral parts of the Oratorio; nor should they be sentimentalised but sung with a strong underlying beat and slightly 'swung'" In Tippett's Symphony No  1 (1945), his only large-scale work between A Child of Our Time and The Midsummer Marriage, his "gift for launching a confident flow of sharply characterized, contrapuntally combined ideas" is acknowledged by Whittall  The same critic found the symphony's quality uneven, and the orchestral writing weaker than in the Double Concerto  Whittall offers nearly unqualified praise for The Midsummer Marriage, a view largely echoed by Mellers, who saw the perceived "difficulty" of the music as "an aspect of its truth"  He considered the opera one of the best musical-theatrical works of its era Three major works of the 1950s round off Tippett's first period: the Corelli Fantasia (1953), in which Clarke sees, in the alla pastorale section, the composer's instrumental writing at its best; the mildly controversial Piano Concerto (1955) which Whittall regards as one of the composer's most intriguing works—an attempt to "make the piano sing"; and the Symphony No  2 (1957) which Tippett acknowledges as a turning-point in his music  Until this point, says Matthews, Tippett's style had remained broadly tonal  The Second Symphony was his first essay in polytonality, paving the way to the dissonance and chromaticism of subsequent works  Milner, too, recognises the pivotal position of this symphony in Tippett's development which, he says, both sums up the style of the late 1950s and presages the changes to come 

Second period: King Priam to 1976
In his analysis of King Priam, Bowen argues that the change in Tippett's musical style arose initially from the nature of the opera, a tragedy radically different in tone from the warm optimism of The Midsummer Marriage  Clarke sees the change as something more fundamental, the increases in dissonance and atonality in Priam being representative of a trend that continued and reached a climax of astringency a few years later in Tippett's third opera, The Knot Garden  Tippett's new modernistic language, writes Clarke, was rooted in his desire to represent a wider range of human experiences, characteristic of a changing world: "War, violence, sex, homoeroticism, and social and interpersonal alienation [would now feature] much more overtly in [his] dramatic works or works with text"  Critics acknowledged Priam as a considerable achievement, but received the new musical style cautiously  While Gloag thought the change was not an absolute departure from Tippett's earlier style, Milner viewed King Priam as a complete break with Tippett's previous work, pointing out the lack of counterpoint, the considerably increased dissonances, and the move towards atonality: "very little of the music is in a definite key" 

Many of the minor works that Tippett wrote in the wake of King Priam reflect the musical style of the opera, in some cases quoting directly from it  In the first purely instrumental post-Priam work, the Piano Sonata No  2 (1962), Milner thought the new style worked better in the theatre than in the concert or recital hall, although he found the music in the Concerto for Orchestra (1963) had matured into a form that fully justified the earlier experiments  The critic Tim Souster refers to Tippett's "new, hard, sparse instrumental style" evident in The Vision of Saint Augustine (1965), written for baritone soloist, chorus and orchestra, a work which Bowen considers one of the peaks of Tippett's career During the late 1960s Tippett worked on a series of compositions that reflected the influence of his American experiences after 1965: The Shires Suite (1970), The Knot Garden (1970) and the Symphony No  3 (1972)  In The Knot Garden Mellers discerns Tippett's "wonderfully acute" ear only intermittently, otherwise: "thirty years on, the piece still sounds and looks knotty indeed, exhausting alike to participants and audience"  The Third Symphony is overtly linked by Tippett to Beethoven's Ninth Symphony through a vocal finale of four blues songs, introduced by a direct quotation from Beethoven's finale  Tippett's intention, explained by the music critic Calum MacDonald, was to explore the contemporary relevance of the grand, universal sentiments in Schiller's Ode to Joy, as set by Beethoven  Tippett's conclusion is that while the need to rejoice remains, the twentieth century has put paid to the Romantic ideals of universality and certainty After completing his Piano Sonata No  3 (1973), "a formidable piece of abstract composition" according to Bowen, Tippett returned to the modern vernacular in his fourth opera The Ice Break (1976)  Describing the music in an introduction to the published libretto, Tippett identifies "two archetypal sounds: one relating to the frightening but exhilarating sound of the ice breaking on the great northern rivers in the spring; the other related to the exciting or terrifying sound of the slogan-shouting crowds, which can lift you on your shoulders in triumph, or stamp you to death"   Although the work was generally regarded as a critical and public failure, aspects of its music have been recognised as among Tippett's best  The critic John Warrack writes that, after the violence of the opening acts, the third act's music has a lyrical warmth comparable to that of The Midsummer Marriage"  William Mann in The Times was equally enthusiastic, finding the music compelling and worthy of many a rehearing 

Third period: 1977 to 1995
In the late 1970s Tippett produced three single-movement instrumental works: the Symphony No  4 (1977), the String Quartet No  4 (1978), and the Triple Concerto for violin, viola and cello (1979)  The symphony, written in the manner of the tone poem or symphonic fantasia exemplified by Sibelius, represents what Tippett describes as a birth-to-death cycle, beginning and ending with the sounds of breathing  This effect was initially provided by a wind machine, although other means have been tried, with mixed results—according to Bowen "the sounds emitted can turn out to be redolent of a space-fiction film or a bordello"   The Fourth String Quartet, Tippett explains, is an exercise in "finding a sound" that he first encountered in the incidental music to a television programme on Rembrandt  In the Triple Concerto, which is thematically related to the Fourth Quartet and quotes from it, the three solo instruments perform individually rather than as a formal grouping  The work acknowledges Tippett's past with quotations from The Midsummer Marriage 
 
Tippett described the longest and most ambitious of his late works, the oratorio The Mask of Time (1982), as "a pageant of sorts with an ultimately lofty message"  Mellers called the work "a mind-boggling cosmic history of the universe"   Paul Driver, who had been a critic of Tippett's new style, wrote that the Mask revealed "the authentic early Tippett", with a return to the lyricism of The Midsummer Marriage and multiple acknowledgements of his early compositions Tippett had intended The Ice Break to be his final opera, but in 1985 he began work on New Year  Bowen saw this work as a summary of ideas and images that had attracted Tippett throughout his working life  Donal Henahan was dismissive of the music: "    the score generally natters along in the numbing, not-quite-atonal but antimelodic style familiar from other Tippett works " In Byzantium (1990), Tippett set the five stanzas of W  B  Yeats's poem, with added orchestral interludes  By this time he was professing little interest in his own work beyond its creation; performance and reception had become irrelevant to him  In 1996 he told an interviewer: "I'm outside the music I've made, I have no interest in it"  After the String Quartet No  5 (1991), which connects thematically with earlier works, Tippett closed his main output with The Rose Lake (1993), described in Tippett's Daily Telegraph obituary as "of luminous beauty     a worthy ending to a remarkable career" 

Reputation and legacy
In a joint study of Tippett and Britten published in 1982, Whittall designated the pair as "the two best British composers of that     generation born between 1900 and the outbreak of the First World War, and among the best of all composers born in the first two decades of the twentieth century"  After Britten's death in 1976, Tippett became widely regarded as the doyen of British music, but critical opinion of his later works was not always positive  After the first performance of the Triple Concerto in 1980, Driver wrote that "not since The Knot Garden has [he] produced anything worthy of his early masterpieces" In 1982, in his comparative study of Britten and Tippett, Whittall asserted that "it would be difficult to claim that any of the works [Tippett] has begun in his seventies are the equal of earlier compositions"  Although both Driver and Whittall later modified their opinions, such comments represented a general view among critics that Tippett's creative powers had begun to decline after the triumph of King Priam  This perception was strongly expressed by Derek Puffett, who argued that the decline followed Tippett's abandonment of myth—seen as the key to the success of The Midsummer Marriage and King Priam—and stemmed from his increasingly futile efforts to universalise his private agonies and express them musically  Despite his admiration for the early works, Puffett consigned Tippett "to the ranks of those noble but tragic composers who have lived beyond their time"  The  critic Norman Lebrecht, writing in 2005, dismissed almost all Tippett's output, labelling him "a composer to forget"  With the forthcoming centenary celebrations in mind, Lebrecht wrote: "I cannot begin to assess the damage to British music that will ensue from the coming year's purblind promotion of a composer who failed so insistently to observe the rules of his craft" Against these criticisms Kemp maintained that while the style had become less immediately accessible, Tippett's later works showed no loss of creative power   The critic Peter Wright, writing in 1999, challenged the "decline" theory with the view that the later compositions are "harder to come to terms with     because of the more challenging nature of their musical language", a theme he developed in a detailed study of the Fifth String Quartet After Tippett's death the more popular pieces from his first period continued to be played, but there was little public enthusiasm for the later works  After the relatively muted 2005 centenary celebrations, performances and recordings tailed off  In October 2012 Hewett wrote in the Daily Telegraph of a "calamitous fall" in Tippett's reputation since his death  Geraint Lewis acknowledges that "no consensus yet exists in respect of the works composed from the 1960s onwards", while forecasting that Tippett will in due course be recognised as one of the most original and powerful musical voices of twentieth-century Britain" Many of Tippett's articles and broadcast talks were issued in collections between 1959 and 1995  In 1991 he published an episodic autobiography, Those Twentieth Century Blues, notable for its frank discussions of personal issues and relationships  Collectively, Tippett's writings define his aesthetic standpoint, which Clarke summarises thus: "Tippett holds that art's role in post-Enlightenment culture is to offer a corrective to society's spiritually injurious domination by mass technology  Art, he suggests, can articulate areas of human experience, unapproachable through scientific rationality, by presenting 'images' of the inner world of the psyche "Although Tippett did not found a compositional school, composers who have acknowledged his influence include David Matthews and William Mathias  More generally, his musical and educational influence continues through the Michael Tippett Foundation  He is also commemorated in the Michael Tippett Centre, a concert venue within the Newton Park campus of Bath Spa University  In Lambeth, home of Morley College, is Heron Academy (previously named The Michael Tippett School), an educational facility for young people aged 11–19 with complex learning disabilities  Within the school's campus is the Tippett Music Centre, which offers music education for children of all ages and levels of ability 

Writings
Three collections of Tippett's articles and broadcast talks have been published:

Moving into Aquarius (1959)  London, Routledge and Kegan Paul  OCLC 3351563
Music of the Angels: essays and sketchbooks of Michael Tippett (1980)  London, Eulenburg Books  ISBN 0-903873-60-5
Tippett on Music (1995)  Oxford, Clarendon Press  ISBN 0-19-816541-2



ground_truth: yes

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: An American who is a German literature translator and did a thesis on an Austrian prodigy born in 1874 taught at which university?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: Passage 1:
Live at the Electric
Live at the Electric is a British comedy series that aired on BBC Three from 31 May 2012 and 28 February 2014 and is hosted by Russell Kane who performed stand-up in between comedy sketches from a variety of performers such as Joe Wilkinson and Diane Morgan's double act Two Episodes of Mash  It also featured comedy duo Totally Tom serving as backstage crew for the show 

External links
Live at the Electric at BBC Online 
Live at the Electric at British Comedy Guide
Passage 2:
Start-rite
Start-rite is a brand of children's shoes  The shoemaker, purportedly Britain's oldest and one of the first manufacturers in Norfolk, was established in 1792 in Norwich, England, by James Smith  His grandson, James Southall, gave the firm its current name; it rose in prominence during the 20th century thanks in part to an iconic poster, reading Children's shoes have far to go, which was displayed on the London Underground for 20 years from 1947  Controversy exists around the origins of the image in this poster  It has been attributed to artists  Andy Wood, William Grimmond, Joe Wilkinson of Stanley Studios, Susan Pearce, Nancy Gardner and to the company's own advertising agent In 1955 Start-rite was granted a royal warrant by Queen Elizabeth II to supply footwear for the young Prince Charles, Princess Anne, Prince Andrew and Prince Edward   The company was granted a second royal warrant in 1989 by the Prince of Wales to supply children's footwear for Prince William and Prince Harry  This royal warrant was withdrawn in 2003 on production being moved from the UK  In 2016 Prince George was pictured wearing Start-rite shoes in an official portrait taken to commemorate the 90th birthday of the Queen In 2003 the company ceased production in the UK, outsourcing its operations to India and Portugal  The cost cutting move came amid a £600,000 annual loss, which the company reversed the following year to turn a £1 5 million profit  Sales further increased by 20% to 2007 The company focuses on correctly fitting shoes to children's feet, and was the first to introduce variable width fittings for children's shoes  It once maintained concession stores in the now-defunct children's clothing retailer Adams 
Passage 3:
Nora Lewin
Nora Lewin is a fictional character on the TV show Law & Order, played by two-time Academy Award winning actress Dianne Wiest from 2000 to 2002  She appeared in 51 episodes (48 episodes of Law & Order, one episode of Law & Order: Criminal Intent and two episodes of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit)  Her character was particularly notable for the fact that she was the first woman in the program's history to hold the position of New York County District Attorney (no woman has held the position in real life)  Pursuant to New York law, an interim District Attorney is appointed by the Governor 

Role within Law & Order
Prior to her appointment as interim DA, Lewin was a law professor, which often provoked her critics to dismiss her as a detached academic with no practical experience  Lewin's term as DA is defined by a liberally directed program of legal application to many notable criminal cases, which often brings her into political and legal dilemmas  While she is an idealist, however, she is not prepared to subvert the correct application of the law due to her personal beliefs  In a 2001 episode, she is confronted with the decision to pursue the death penalty in a conviction of an 18-year-old murderer  While she personally opposes the death penalty, she realizes that her office would be seen as soft on crime, and reluctantly succumbs to political pressure  The young man is found guilty and sent to death row Lewin works closely with Jack McCoy (Sam Waterston) and Abbie Carmichael (Angie Harmon)  Her political beliefs often put her into conflict with both of them, especially the latter, a staunch political conservative  After Carmichael leaves the DA's office, Lewin replaces her with Serena Southerlyn (Elisabeth Röhm), whose liberal idealism more closely resembles her own political philosophy She has a niece, indicating that she has at least one sibling 

Departure
In September 2002, after two years of her term as District Attorney, Lewin departs the office  The manner in which she departed the show is never specified on screen  However, in his tie-in book Law & Order: Crime Scenes, Dick Wolf wrote that his intention for the character was that Lewin found herself disenchanted with the position of D A , and opted not to run for election following her interim term  Fred Dalton Thompson subsequently joined the cast as Republican Arthur Branch  Wiest later stated, in the book Actors at Work, written by Rosemarie Tichler and Barry Jay Kaplan, that she was tired of the role and wished to move on to other projects 
In her first scene, Lewin is introduced to McCoy by Mayor Rudy Giuliani (playing himself in a cameo appearance), who praises Lewin's record and assures her that she will do a fine job as District Attorney 

Appearances on other TV series
Law & Order: Criminal Intent
Season One
Episode 1: "One"
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit
Season Three
Episode 10: "Ridicule"
Season Four
Episode 1: "Chameleon"
Passage 4:
Lucy Davis
Lucy Clare Davis (born 17 February 1973) is an English actress best known for playing Dawn Tinsley in the BBC comedy The Office (2001–2003)  
She is also known for her roles as Hilda Spellman in the Netflix series The Chilling Adventures of Sabrina (2018–2020), Dianne in the horror-comedy Shaun of the Dead (2004), and Etta Candy in Wonder Woman (2017)  She is also currently playing the role of Eva in Disney Channel's action comedy series The Villains of Valley View, which premiered on 3 June 2022 

Career
Davis appeared briefly in an episode of The Detectives, a show created for and starring her father (Jasper Carrott)  She played Maria Lucas in the BBC's 1995 production of Pride and Prejudice, and also had a role in the 1996 Christmas special of One Foot in the Grave  After her breakthrough role as Dawn Tinsley in The Office, Davis appeared in the films Sex Lives of the Potato Men and Shaun of the Dead in 2004, whilst continuing to play Hayley Jordan in The Archers on BBC Radio 4  She gave up this last role when her other acting responsibilities made it impossible to continue, and the part was recast in September 2005 
Davis appeared in the third-season episode "Elephants and Hens" of UK TV programme Black Books  In 2006, Davis appeared as the "Fashion TV" host on ABC's Ugly Betty, and later that year played writer Lucy Kenwright in NBC's Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip  In 2008, she appeared in several episodes of the US series Reaper  In 2010, Davis starred in ITV's six-episode comedy drama, Married Single Other, and also appeared in a guest role in The Mentalist alongside her then-husband Owain Yeoman  Davis also appears in the John Landis-produced thriller Some Guy Who Kills People  In 2012, Davis had a guest voice part in Family Guy for the episode "Be Careful What You Fish For"  Davis appeared in series two, episode eight of the BBC series Death in Paradise (2013)  She became a Patron for the performing arts group Theatretrain in 2012 Davis plays the role of Etta Candy in the 2017 film Wonder Woman  Her performance marked the first live action cinematic portrayal of that comic book character  Davis has said of the character: "She's a woman in a man's world and so being heard and seen aren't the easiest things, but it kind of doesn't deter her  Etta is unapologetically herself and I think that that's the thing that has drawn me to her the most    it took quite a while in my life to be unapologetically myself "Davis appeared in the Netflix series The Chilling Adventures of Sabrina as Hilda Spellman, which aired from 2018 to 2020  She is starring as Eva, known as the supervillain Surge, on the Disney Channel sitcom The Villains of Valley View which premiered on 3 June 2022 

Personal life
Davis is the daughter of Hazel Jackson and comedian Robert Davis, better known as Jasper Carrott  In December 1997, Davis underwent a kidney transplant after being diagnosed with kidney failure during a medical examination  Her mother donated the kidney  Around Christmas 2005 she was hospitalised once again because of kidney failure, but later recovered  Davis also has type 1 diabetes On 9 December 2006, Davis married Welsh actor Owain Yeoman at St Paul's Cathedral, London  The wedding was attended by fellow The Office cast members and writers  Davis was entitled to marry there as her father is an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) and St Paul's contains the chapel of the order  The couple separated in January 2011 and divorced in October 2011 In 2007, Davis posed nude in the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals's campaign against the Guards Division's continued use of traditional bearskin caps 

Filmography
Film
Television
Radio
Passage 5:
Diane Morgan
Diane Morgan (born 5 October 1975) is an English actress, comedian, television presenter, and writer  She is best known for playing Philomena Cunk on Charlie Brooker's Weekly Wipe and in other mockumentaries, as Liz in the BBC Two sitcom Motherland, and Kath in the Netflix dark comedy series After Life  She also wrote and starred in the BBC Two comedy series Mandy 

Early life
Morgan was born in Bolton, Greater Manchester on 5 October 1975, daughter of a physiotherapist and a stay-at-home mother; she has one brother  She grew up in nearby Farnworth and Kearsley, and attended George Tomlinson School in Kearsley  When she was 20, she studied at the East 15 Acting School in Loughton  She said in a 2020 interview, "There were a few actors on [my father]'s side of the family: Julie Goodyear, Frank Finlay and Jack Wild  What a dynasty  We're like the Redgraves  Julie's got a touch of the Mandys, actually  Maybe I could cast her as Mandy's mum "

Career
Morgan had a small part as Dawn in Peter Kay's Phoenix Nights before a spell working various jobs, including as a dental assistant, a telemarketer, a potato peeler at a chip shop, selling Avon, and boxing up worming tablets in a factory  She subsequently made her first attempt at stand-up comedy  She was placed second in the Hackney Empire New Act of the Year award in 2006, and as runner-up in the 2006 Funny Women Awards Morgan and Joe Wilkinson later formed a sketch comedy duo called Two Episodes of Mash  From 2008, they performed at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe for three consecutive years, and in 2010, they appeared on Robert Webb's satirical news show Robert's Web  In 2012, the act completed its second BBC radio series (co-starring David O'Doherty), and appeared in BBC Three's Live at the Electric  In the same year, she appeared in Him & Her, which featured Wilkinson, and in 2013, she played Nicola in the TV series Pat & Cabbage  In 2014, she made an appearance in the TV series Utopia, as Tess, and in 2015, she appeared in two episodes of Drunk History 

Philomena Cunk
Morgan is perhaps best known for her portrayal of Philomena Cunk, an extremely dim-witted and ill-informed interviewer and commentator on current affairs  The character first appeared in a regular segment on Charlie Brooker's Weekly Wipe (2013–2015)  Cunk has since appeared in other mockumentary contexts  In December 2016, she presented BBC Two's Cunk on Christmas  In April 2018, the five-part historical mockumentary Cunk on Britain began broadcasting on BBC Two  Also in 2018, Morgan wrote Cunk on Everything: The Encyclopedia Philomena, published by Two Roads on 1 November  In December 2019, Morgan appeared as Cunk for short episodes of Cunk and Other Humans, once again on BBC Two  She returned in a one-off episode of Charlie Brooker's Weekly Wipe titled "Antiviral Wipe", about the COVID-19 pandemic, in May 2020  Another series, Cunk on Earth, began broadcasting in September 2022  For her performance in the latter, Morgan was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Female Comedy Performance 

Other roles
Morgan played David Brent's public relations guru in the film David Brent: Life on the Road (2016)  She has appeared in several short films, including The Boot Sale, which was shortlisted in the Virgin Media Shorts film competition 2010 In 2016, Morgan played Mandy in Sky One's comedy Rovers, appearing in all six episodes of the first series  She also appeared in the pilot for the BBC2 comedy We the Jury as Olivia  She also plays receptionist Talia in Sky's comedy drama Mount Pleasant and Liz in the BBC2 sitcom Motherland 
Morgan plays Kath in the Netflix black-comedy series After Life, written by Ricky Gervais  She starred in the Gold sitcom The Cockfields, again alongside Wilkinson, and in comedy-drama Frayed in 2019  In 2019, she wrote, directed, and starred in the BBC2 comedy short Mandy, described as "a comedy by Diane Morgan about Mandy, a woman who really, really wants a sofa, and will stop at absolutely nothing to get it"  Carol Decker appeared as herself in the short  The character returned in August 2020 for the full series Mandy, with Shaun Ryder, Maxine Peake, and Natalie Cassidy in guest roles  A Christmas special, We Wish You a Mandy Christmas, loosely based on A Christmas Carol, was broadcast in December 2021 Also in 2020, Morgan played Gemma Nerrick in the British mockumentary Death to 2020, created by Charlie Brooker and Annabel Jones  She reprised the role in Death to 2021  She voiced the character 105E in the 2021 animated Cartoon Network series Elliott from Earth 
In April 2022, Morgan starred as Donna in the first episode of the seventh series of Inside No  9  In December 2022, Morgan reprised her role as Liz on Motherland for the Christmas special 

Personal life
Morgan lives in the Bloomsbury district of London with her boyfriend, BBC comedy producer Ben Caudell Interviewed by Stuart Jeffries for The Guardian' in 2016, she said, "I've always wanted to make people laugh  It's been my only ambition, ever since my dad introduced me to the genius of the great comedians: Tony Hancock, Woody Allen, people like that  While other kids were into New Kids on the Block, I was into Harold Lloyd and Stan Laurel  I'm still like that  I don't have any hobbies "

Filmography
Passage 6:
My Family (series 10)
The tenth series of the BBC family sitcom My Family originally aired between 9 July 2010, and 27 August 2010, with a Christmas special that went to air on 24 December 2010  The series was commissioned following consistent ratings from the previous series  The opening episode, "Wheelie Ben", re-introduces the six main characters, with the addition of regular appearances from Kenzo Harper, played by Tayler Marshall  However, the character of Roger Bailey only made an appearance in the series finale  All episodes from the tenth series are thirty minutes in length, with the exception of the Christmas Special  The series was once again produced by Rude Boy Productions, a company that produces comedies created by Fred Barron  Unlike previous series of the show, which were filmed on a yearly basis, both Series 10 and 11 were filmed back-to-back  For the first time in the show's history, two episodes of the series remained unaired for some time  At the time of release, the DVD of the series contained two episodes that had yet to be broadcast on television  On 17 June 2011, one of these two episodes were aired, and the remaining one aired on 22 July 2011  The series averaged 4 55 million per episode; however, they managed to get over 6 00 million viewers for the Christmas Special 

Episode Information
Notes
Passage 7:
David Earl (actor)
David Geoffrey Earl (born 20th March 1974) is a British actor and comedian, best known for his comedy character Brian Gittins  He has featured in several projects associated with Ricky Gervais, most notably as Kevin "Kev" Twine in the comedy-drama Derek, and in smaller roles in Extras, After Life and the film Cemetery Junction  Earl also works frequently with comic Joe Wilkinson  Together they co-wrote and starred in the sitcom Rovers, and the comedy series The Cockfields  They also host three podcasts called Gossipmongers, Chatabix and My New Football Club  He also co-wrote and starred in the feature film Brian and Charles where he plays an isolated inventor who builds a robot 

Early life
Earl was born in Crawley in 1974  Before undertaking any acting roles, Earl worked as a gardener and as a van driver, delivering building tools 

Comedy career
One of Earl's earliest online videos featured him playing a character called Graham, which he sent to a friend who showed it to Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant  They liked the video and Gervais asked Earl to play an obsessive fan, based on the character from the video, who talks to Andy Millman in a pub in an episode of Extras  Around this time Earl played Tony Queen in the film The Penalty King Earl went on to create a number of online videos in character as Brian Gittins and played this role in the film Cemetery Junction  In 2012 a sitcom pilot entitled Gittins was broadcast on Channel 4  In the pilot Gittins works as a taxi driver: previously the character had been a cafe owner and this discrepancy is highlighted in an episode of the podcast Flatshare Slamdown, in which Earl appears as Brian  He releases regular Brian Gittins and Friends podcasts Another of Earl's characters is Steve "Cumbo" Cumberland, who features in a number of online videos, including a Channel 4 Comedy Blaps series, co-written with Brett Goldstein In 2011, Earl was revealed to be the person behind the popular Twitter account of Dr Peter Thraft, a supposed sex therapist 

Personal life
Earl has three children and lives in Devon 

Filmography
Podcasts
The Brian Gittins Show
A live radio show hosted on Spreaker from 2012-2017, where Brian played the role of 'the worst radio presenter in the world'  Callers would Skype in from around the world, and these included David Edwards and Charles Petrescu 

Brian Gittins and Friends
Brian, David Edwards and Charles Petrescu have a chat with various comedians  It started in 2016, with guests including John Kearns, Lolly Adefope, and Scroobius Pip 

Gossipmongers
In 2019, David Earl, Joe Wilkinson and Poppy Hillstead began a podcast called Gossipmongers, a weekly podcast where listeners send in unsubstantiated rumours  At the end of each episode they choose their favourite piece of gossip from that episode  In 2020 Poppy was booted from the podcast by Joe and David 

Chatabix
In 2021, David Earl and Joe Wilkinson began a podcast called Chatabix, a daily weekday podcast recorded very early in the morning 

My New Football Club
In 2021, David Earl and Jon Beer began a podcast called My New Football Club  A weekly podcast about David becoming a new fan of Exeter City 
Passage 8:
7 Day Sunday
7 Day Sunday (7 Day Saturday in 2013) is a British comedy radio talk show hosted by Al Murray on BBC Radio 5 Live  Broadcast weekly on Sunday mornings, the show takes an irreverent look at the topical news stories of the past seven days  
Originally presented by Chris Addison: he was joined by regular guests Sarah Millican and Andy Zaltzman, and a fourth special guest each episode  It premièred in January 2010 to mixed reviews  It returned for a second series in September 2010  Al Murray served as host for the last five episodes of the second series, joined by regular guests Rebecca Front and Joe Wilkinson  The show returned for a third series in January 2012 with Murray hosting alongside Andy Zaltzman and Rebecca Front as the regular guests  A fourth series followed from September 2012 

History
7 Day Sunday was announced as a new show on 11 December 2009, to be hosted by Addison and broadcast for an hour in the 11 am to 12 noon slot  The guests for the opening episode were to be Zaltzman, Millican, and a special guest  It was to replace another comedy show The Christian O'Connell Solution, hosted by Christian O'Connell with Bob Mills  The new show was to begin on 10 January 2010, as part of the wider re-organisation of 5 Live's schedule which had already begun to be announced in October 2009, the largest since controller Adrian Van Klaveren joined the station in April 2008 The show is produced for 5 Live by Avalon Television  It was initially commissioned for a 20-week run  This first series duly ran from 10 January 2010 until 6 June 2010  After three months it resumed for a second series on 5 September 2010 until 3 April 2011  The third series began 8 January 2012 In press interviews during March 2010 while promoting his upcoming stand-up tour, Addison explained that doing a radio show was a childhood ambition, and that as a "current affairs junkie", hosting 7 Day Sunday was ideal, more relaxed than television and good fun, with the weekly deadline being a good motivation



ground_truth: University of Vienna

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which composer was wrote his music most recently, Michael Tippett or Luigi Cherubini?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: 

Format
When the show was announced, it was cast as a topical news series aiming to "pull apart the week's big news stories and see what makes them tick", with Addison describing it as "four relatively ill-informed idiots fail to take the news seriously for an hour" 

Hosts and regulars
The following people have hosted the show during its run:

As well as the host there are usually two other regulars plus a guest   For series 1 and 2 regulars were Andy Zaltzman and Sarah Millican   For series 3 Rebecca Front replaced Sarah Millican 

Broadcasts
Last updated January 2018The show aired on Sundays from 11 am to noon  It once aired at 9 pm on 31 January 2010  The series occasionally missed a week for sporting events (Formula 1 Grand Prix, London Marathon, etc ) 
Series One featured 20 episodes which were broadcast between 10 January 2010 and 6 June 2010   There were no episodes broadcast on 7 February 2010, 25 April 2010 Series Two consisted of 26 episodes, broadcast between 5 September 2010 and 3 April 2011  There were no episode broadcast on 19 September 2010, 3 October 2010, 26 December 2010, 2 January 2010 and 30 January 2010 Series Three had 15 episodes which were broadcast between 8 January 2012 and 6 May 2012  No episode was broadcast on 25 March 2012 Series Four also had 15 episodes, began on 9 September 2012, and ended on 16 December 
In 2013, the show returned for a new, slightly different series: it was moved to Saturdays, renamed 7 Day Saturday, had 11 episodes between 8 June and 24 August, kept Al Murray as host, and featured Andy Zaltzman and two guests each programme  There was also a Christmas special, 7 Days of Christmas, broadcast on 24 December 2013 
Series Five only had 5 episodes, broadcast between 11 May and 8 June 2014 
The last edition of 7 Day Sunday was broadcast on 9 August 2015  This edition was hosted by Jenny Eclair, with the final guests included Andy Zaltzman, Holly Walsh and Stephen Grant 
The show was made available on the BBC's iPlayer service and as a podcast, which features additional material 

Reception
After the first show, Jane Thynne of The Independent questioned the lack of variety, covering as it did mainly the heavy snowfall with little political content, which given Addison had made his name in a political satire, she found odd  She ultimately reserved judgement on the show, calling Addison witty but recommending he slow down the pace and stop his "nervous giggling" Chris Campling of The Times criticised the first episode as being a duplicate of the "dismal, desperate" The Christian O'Connell Solution it replaced, with a turgid format  Persevering, he described the second episode as just as dreary with no chemistry and "none of the News Quiz-esque scoring of laughter points, where clever people fall over each other in their desperation to be funnier than the last "After the third episode, Elisabeth Mahoney of The Guardian said the show was "really quite funny" but the listener needed to stay focussed on the content as the four way dialogue was quite involved as it covered a comprehensive sweep of topics  For listeners who might want to multi-task on a Sunday morning, she recommended Dave Gorman's show on Absolute Radio 
Passage 9:
John Jackson (writer)
John Jackson is an English television screenwriter 

Life and career
After leaving Cambridge University, John Jackson developed and script edited the ITV soap Night and Day  Altogether he wrote 35 episodes for the TV Series  In 2009 he wrote the episode The King Is Dead, Long Live the King…  for the BBC One series Robin Hood  From 2010 to 2012 he wrote two episodes of the serial drama Lip Service  From 2011 until 2013 he wrote three episodes for the supernatural drama Being Human  This brought him a Writers' Guild of Great Britain award for Best TV Drama Series  He also wrote two episodes for the Being Human spin off Becoming Human In 2014 Jackson wrote an episode for another BBC Three series, In the Flesh  He would become a regular writer on ITV's Grantchester, and in 2020, was lead writer on season 3 of Sky's Riviera 

Filmography
Awards and nominations
Awards
Writers' Guild of Great Britain Award:

2012: Best TV Drama Series (Being Human)
Passage 10:
Egypt (TV series)
Egypt is a BBC television docudrama serial portraying events in the history of Egyptology from the 18th through early 20th centuries  It originally aired on Sunday nights at 9 pm on BBC1 in 2005  The first two episodes explored the work of Howard Carter and his archaeological quest in Egypt in the early part of the twentieth century  The next two episodes focused on the eccentric explorer "The Great Belzoni" played here by Matthew Kelly  The final two episodes dramatise the discovery and deciphering of the Rosetta Stone by Jean-François Champollion (Elliot Cowan) 
The music was recorded by the Warsaw Radio Orchestra and is featured on the CD Timeless Histories by Chappell music, produced by Clare Isaacs 

Production
The series was a major new docudrama series produced by the BBC for the Autumn 2005 schedule 
"The whole idea behind the series was to be able to discover Ancient Egypt through the eyes of Howard Carter – famous for uncovering the tomb of Tutankhamun; The Great Belzoni – an amazing adventurer and explorer; and the scholar Jean-François Champollion, who was the first to decipher the Rosetta Stone and open up the meaning of hieroglyphics "
In order to create a sense of "seeing the treasures of Ancient Egypt for the first time", Dolling and Bradshaw felt it essential to film at the actual archaeological sites referenced in the series 

"We had fantastic help from the Government and a local production crew, they managed to fix it for us to film in areas that, as far as we know, have never been used by other television or film productions "
"Being the first UK TV company to attempt such a project in the most amazing historical sights was very exhilarating, and to be able to return them - with additional sets and some computer imagery - to how they were during the time of the Pharaohs was incredible "
Filming at such invaluable and popular sites created new challenges for the film makers 

"Keeping people out of shot was one — sometimes this was nearing impossible — but we tended to shoot early in the day so disruptions were kept to a minimum  The other was obviously making sure we didn't damage anything, which thankfully we managed!"
"It was difficult keeping such a unique project running so far from home, and it is a tribute to the cast and crew that we managed to succeed  The series really is great and looks fantastic, well worth all the hard work "
The co-production between BBC and The Learning Channel was initially budgeted at around £6 5m but problems filming on location in Egypt, including the weather and illness, meant the producers required another £2million  Post production costs involved in recreating Ancient Egypt meant that the final costs could have resulted in a £5million overspend but the BBC denied this 

"To suggest the overspend is anything in the [range of] £5m is utterly ridiculous — it is simply not true  This was a huge project shot on location in Egypt and, as with any project of such scale, we had contingency funds available to us — so the unavoidable overspend was accommodated for and fully authorised "
"I think it's useful to point out that the cost per hour of Egypt will still be lower than other comparable programmes such as Pompeii, Genghis Khan and Pyramid  In fact, due to the international co-financing, this is actually incredibly good value for money providing full period drama for the budget normally associated with a documentary "
Several multi-media productions were commissioned to tie-in with the series including interactive drama BBC Egypt Interactive, award-winning online-game Death in Sakkara: An Egyptian Adventure, and an interactive exhibition at BBC Birmingham A companion series Egyptian Journeys with Dan Cruickshank, in which architectural historian Cruickshank travels the country to explore some of the intriguing stories that have emerged from ancient Egypt, was broadcast concurrently on BBC Two 

Reception
Reviews
Sam Wollaston writing about episode one in The Guardian said that he "was expecting to hate this show," fearing it would be "narration interspersed with lame reconstruction," but he was pleased to discover it was, in fact, "a proper drama, with a very decent script and real actors " "And it's a great story, too," he states, although he did not enjoy the re-enactments of the life of Tutankhamun, which he described as "olive-skinned actors with non-speaking parts and an awful lot of eye-liner, wandering around in a semi-darkness lit by flickering candles," and claims were not necessary, "but maybe that will help to sell it to America " He concludes that he is "looking forward to part two "David Liddiment writing in The Guardian complimented the cleverly twinning of this docudrama with the more cerebral Egyptian Journeys with Dan Cruickshank on BBC Two but he points out that this was done during the final stages of the BBC's charter renewal review and insists that the corporation should keep up standards after this process is completed 

Ratings
Episode one (2005-10-30): 7 million viewers (29% audience share) 
Episode two (2005-11-06): 6 million viewers (24% audience share) 
Episode three (2005-11-13): 5 7 million viewers (23% audience share) 
Episode four (2005-11-20): 4 8 million viewers 
Episode five (2005-11-27): 4 5 million viewers (18% audience share) 

Episodes
Part one: Howard Carter
The story of the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun by Howard Carter and the popular belief in the Curse of the Pharaohs, a supposed result of Carter's disturbing Tutankhamen's resting place  The episodes include short dramatizations of the life of Tutankhamun 

Episode one: The Search for Tutankhamun
Tutankhamun vanished from history in 1324 BC following his hurried burial and the erasure of his name from all monuments  In the winter of 1898 Carter is at the temples of Deir el Bahri recording wall reliefs threatened by a freak storm when he is thrown from his horse and makes a discovery in the sand  Retired Boston lawyer Theodore M  Davis funds Carter's excavation of Queen Hatshepsut's tomb but it is found to be empty and Carter deprived of further funding is reduced to selling his paintings to tourists on the street 
In 1905 Lord Carnarvon arrives in Luxor to convalesce after a road accident and is shown an artifact bearing the cartouche of the mysterious Tutankhamun discovered by Davis on his new dig  Tutankhamun succeeded his heretical father as pharaoh at the age of 8 and was named in honour of Amun to symbolise his mission to restore the old gods and save the empire from turmoil  An inspired Carnarvon employs Carter but they are denied access to the Valley of the Kings for which only Davis has a permit  Amidst the flurry of construction that marked the beginning of Tutankhamun's reign the most important to the boy Pharaoh would have been that of his tomb  An ailing Davis announces his discovery of this, the final Pharaoh's tomb, prior to his retirement  Carter doubts the find and convinces Carnarvon to take up the concession  The methodical and meticulous excavation commences in 1914 but is quickly interrupted by World War I 
The Carnarvons return to Egypt at the end of the war and Carter recommences his excavation but with a continued lack of results leading to doubts that any undiscovered tombs are left in the valley the funding is finally cut in 1922  Tutankhamun's tomb was well concealed to ensure his undisturbed afterlife  Carter convinces Carnarvon to fund one last season during which the tomb is finally unearthed  When the tomb is opened in the presence of Carnarvon and his daughter it is revealed to be the only unplundered pharaoh's tomb in the valley 

Episode two: The Curse of Tutankhamun
In 1922 Carter goes to the Egyptian Antiquities Service in Cairo to announce his discovery but disagrees with Director Pierre Lacau over the clearance and cataloguing of the contents  The discovery revealed a dark time in the history of Egypt and the death of its boy king  Carter assembles an international team of experts to commence the work under the unwelcome scrutiny of Lacau's inspector and the western press  Carnarvon's cavalier attitude to the finds he considers his property starts to infuriate both Carter and Lacau 
As the finds are slowly catalogued and removed Carter becomes close to Carnarvon's daughter Evelyn but his strictness begins to alienate his team  Tutankhamun was married to his own sister but the union failed to produce an heir to secure the future of the kingdom  Stories of the curse begin to circulate as Carter breaks through into the burial chamber to reveal an intact tomb  As Lacau threatens to take over the excavation and several of the experts quit, Carnarvon questions Carter over his leadership and his relationship with Evelyn  When he came of age Tutankhamun took over control of the kingdom from his military advisor Ay only to die from unknown causes shortly thereafter  Carter rushes to Carnarvon's death-bed where the two make-up  Upon Tutankhamun's death Ay seized the throne and married the widowed queen  Carter, disappointed by Evelyn's engagement to another man, returns to continue his work  Tutankhamun's death came before the royal tomb could be completed so he was hastily buried in the tomb Ay had prepared for himself  Lacau takes over the running of the tomb in 1924 when Carter and his team stop work to protest continued Egyptian interference 
The following year Carter is called back by Lacau to reopen the tomb with funding from Lady Carnarvon  The team start to extract the nested coffins revealing one of them to be made of pure gold that confirms the presence of a Pharaoh  The team begin to notice evidence that the burial was done in a hurry as the body itself is finally uncovered  When Ay died without heir a new dynasty took to the throne that erased all references to the Boy King  In 1932 with his work complete Carter leaves the tomb for the last time and hands the key to Lacau 

Cast
Stuart Graham as Howard Carter
Julian Wadham as Lord Carnarvon
Caroline Langrishe as Lady Carnarvon
Alex Weaver as Evelyn Carnarvon
Valentine Pelka as Pierre Lacau
William Hope as Theodore M  Davis
Laurence Fox as Leonard

Part two: The Great Belzoni
The story of Italian engineer and circus strongman Giovanni Belzoni who became the most unlikely Egyptologist the world has ever seen, intercut with Flashbacks to the life of Ramses the Great, in whose footsteps Belzoni would continually stray 

Episode three: The Pharaoh and the Showman
A dissatisfied Belzoni leaves England with his wife, Sarah, and servant, James Curtin, to see the world  Finding themselves destitute in the streets of Cairo after work on an irrigation project falls through, they are rescued by the eccentric John Lewis Bukhardt who introduces them to British Consul Henry Salt  Belzoni is hired to recover the massive Head of Memnon, later revealed to a statue of the Pharaoh Ramesses the Great, as a gift for the British Museum  Arriving in Luxor in 1816 amidst a gold rush of black market antiquities dealers Belzoni finds himself unwelcome 
At the Ramesseum Belzoni examines the head and devises a plan for its removal  The local Caimakan, under advice from Belzoni's French rival Bernardino Drovetti, denies Belzoni's permit and initially refuses to supply labour until threats bring him around  Ramesses marriage to his true love Nefertari was fruitful and secured the family line and the country too was fertile thanks to the annual flooding of the Nile  The approaching flood season however threatens to strand the head in the heart of the flood plain bringing an abrupt halt to Belzoni's mission  When the local labourers finally arrive Belzoni immediately sets to work moving the head using the same techniques its builders had used 3,000 years previous  Belzoni sends the ailing Jim back to Cairo to request a bigger boat so that they can collect even more antiquities and with time running out is forced to take greater risks to get the head to the bank of the Nile 
With the head secured the Belzonis heads south along the Nile to Abu Simbal in uncharted Nubia to expand the collection of antiquities  Ramesses built two temples at Abu Simbal; one dedicated his beloved wife and the other to his military prowess in the first victorious campaign  Belzoni locates the entrance to the Great Temple but finds it blocked, and so forced to head back to Cairo he vows to return to excavate the site the following season 

Episode four: The Temple of the Sands
Belzoni, arriving back in Cairo, is informed by Salt that only the head is to be sent to the British Museum while the rest of the antiquities he has collected are to be kept at the consulate  Salt refuses to fund an excavation at Abu Simbal and Belzoni is sent south again with Salt's secretary William Beechey and a local dealer called Yanni  Belzoni, whilst becalmed at Minya  spots Yenni talking to his French rival Drovetti and hastily rides to Luxor determined to get there first  Arriving to late Belzoni discovers that the entire area licensed to Drovetti and he must dig elsewhere 
Belzoni, guided by the image of Ramesses, digs in an unlicensed area and discovers a perfectly preserved bust  An infuriated Drovetti has the local ruler issue an edict against Belzoni  With no other option Belzoni heads south to the Island of Philae to collect the antiquities he has stored there only to discover upon arrival that the French have ransacked them  Funds arrive from Salt to begin excavation at Abu Simbal and Belzoni heads to the site with two British Royal Navy officers  Work progresses slowly in the shifting desert until Belzoni devises a plan to build a palisade to hold back the sand  With the entrance uncovered the group cautiously enter to view the magnificent interior  Belzoni records every detail of the temple decorations, which celebrate the capture of Kadesh that made Ramesses a great warrior king  Back in Luxor Belzoni, reunited with Sarah and Jim, is threatened by Drevetti but undeterred he heads deep into the western hills where he enters the Valley of the Kings  Belzoni learns from Yanni and Beechey that Salt is selling off the antiquities he collects rather than donating them to the British Museum 
Persuaded to go on with his explorations Belzoni constructs a battering ram to break through the thick walls of the valley side and open up an undiscovered tomb  Defying booby-traps Belzoni pushes on into the lavish interior of the tomb where he enters the burial chamber of the Pharaoh Seti I  It was here upon the death of his father that Ramesses started his reign, which would bring peace and prosperity to Egypt  The discovery of Belzoni's Tomb secures the Egyptologist's reputation and makes him a celebrity in his adopted home of London where the British Museum would later honour him 

Cast
Matthew Kelly as Belzoni
Lynsey Baxter as Sarah Belzoni
Nevan Finnigan as James Curtin
Robert Portal as Henry Salt
Richard Dempsey as William Beechey
Thomas Lockyer as John Lewis Bukhardt
Joseph Long as Bernardino Drovetti

Part three: Champollion
Jean-François Champollion uses the Rosetta Stone to unlock the mysteries of the lost civilisation of Ancient Egypt which had been closed off to Europeans for centuries prior to the invasion of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798  The stone, discovered by the French in 1799, had been created as a work of propaganda by the Greek-speaking Pharaoh Ptolemy V to establish his place in Egyptian cosmology and flashbacks are included to explain this belief system 

Episode five: The Mystery of the Rosetta Stone
The young Champollion, encouraged to develop his gift for languages by his elder brother, becomes obsessed with deciphering hieroglyphs as a means to telling the age of the world and revenging France against the British who had confiscated the stone in 1801  When Alexander the Great had conquered Egypt, he had fuelled local resentment by bringing in a Greek speaking elite to rule  Their descendant King Tutankhamun had commissioned a series of stones written in Greek, common Egyptian and hieroglyphs for temples across the land to extol his virtues and underline his claim to the throne 
Champollion studies under Silvestre de Sacy in Paris but finds the professor who had himself failed decipher hieroglyphs dismissive of further attempts believing them to be symbolic rather than a true language  English scientist Thomas Young uses mathematics to decipher the inscription like a code whilst Champollion believing hieroglyphs to be representative of a spoken language attempts to relate them to the Coptic language of Egypt's ancient Christian communities  Young makes a number of breakthroughs including the spelling of Ptolemy in hieroglyphs while Champollion finds work as assistant professor at the University of Grenoble  France is thrown into political turmoil in 1815 following defeat at the Battle of Waterloo and the republican Champollion is arrested for sedition and exiled to Figeac until 1821  Eccentric Egyptologist Giovanni Belzoni discovers an obelisk inscribed with the name of Cleopatra in Greek and hieroglyphs at Philae and sends it back to Young in England 
Young makes a mistake in translating the obelisk setting back his work whilst Champollion using a copy of the obelisk creates a hieroglyphic alphabet that he uses along with Coptic to translate the name of Ramesses the Great from sketches of Abu Simbal  Champollion's discovery arouses the suspicions of the Catholic Church who fear hieroglyphs might disprove the historical accuracy of the Bible  Young wishes Champllion good luck in proving his theories but Sacy and the Church are determined to stop him 

Episode six: The Secrets of the Hieroglyphs
Champollion is determined to travel to Egypt to prove his theory but poor and jobless he is reduced to buying up whatever scraps of papyrus he can find and this obsession alienates his wife  The Dendera zodiac purchased by the French King Charles X threatens to challenge the biblical chronologies of church scholars, as it is believed by some to date to before the Great Flood of 2349 BC  Champollion is called in to confirm Sacy's dating of the antiquity to around 2000 BC; he disputes Sacy's dating but not Church authorities by dating it to some 2,000 years later than that during the Roman period 
Champollion is sent to Turin by the King to value a collection put up for sale by the French Consul to Egypt Bernardino Drovetti  Prior to his departure Champollion's wife announces that she is pregnant and she is not pleased by his new job  Champollion builds a strong reputation for himself in Italy even being invited for an audience with Pope Leo XII  Returning to Paris with a large collection of antiquities for the King he is put in charge of the Egyptian collection at the Louvre  The King finally agrees to fund Champollion's expedition to Egypt on the proviso that he does not publish any finds that contradict the teachings of the Church  Champollion, arriving in 1828, starts by studying the Great Pyramid at Giza discovering it to be a tomb built for the Pharaoh Khufu around 2560 BC  At Saqqara he finds the site largely stripped by dealers but in a forgotten tomb he discovers ancient hieroglyphs he translates to prove his theories  Eager to understand the Ancient Egyptians he pushes on to the ancient capital of Thebes where at the sprawling Temple of Karnak he reads the story of Ramesses the Great and the battle against the Hittites at Kadesh 
At Belzoni's Tomb in the Valley of the Kings the ailing Champollion reads the story of Pharaoh Seti I and learns of the burial rites of Pharaohs  He is thus able to comprehend the belief system of the Ancient Egyptians for the first time  Champollion dies back in France 18 months later but his legacy allows Egyptologist to comprehend the meaning behind monuments such as the Great Pyramid of Giza and to decipher papyri that lead to such discoveries as the Tomb of Tutankhamun by Howard Carter 

Cast
Elliot Cowan as Jean-François Champollion
Stuart Bunce as Jacques-Joseph Champollion

Media information
DVD release
Released on Region 2 DVD by BBC Video on 2006-02-06 Also released on Region 1 DVD (2 discs, but does not include the bonus 'Pyramid') by BBC Worldwide 2006-05-23

Companion book
The 2005 companion book to the series was written by author and archaeologist Joyce Tyldesley expands on the series to tell the full story of the discoveries and the colourful characters who made them 

Selected editions
Tyldesley, Joyce (6 October 2005)  Egypt, How A Lost Civilization Was Rediscovered  BBC Books (hardcover)  ISBN 978-0-563-52257-7 
Tyldesley, Joyce (1 June 2003)  Egypt, How A Lost Civilization Was Rediscovered  BBC Books (paperback)  ISBN 978-0-563-49381-5 
Tyldesley, Joyce (18 September 2005)  Egypt, How A Lost Civilization Was Rediscovered  UC Press (hardcover)  ISBN 978-0-520-25020-8 

See also
Building the Great Pyramid



ground_truth: Michael Kemp Tippett