prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the first name of the author who wrote the play in which Rønnaug Alten made her stage debut at Den Nationale Scene in 1930 as "Viola"?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Rasmus Rasmussen (actor)
Rasmus Rasmussen (4 November 1862 – 17 July 1932) was a Norwegian actor, folk singer and theatre director 
He was born in Molde, a son of captain Chrispinus Martinus Rasmussen and Anna Helene Carlsen  He emigrated to the United States around 1880, where he earned his living as a logger, but returned to Norway some years later  He performed at Den Nationale Scene in Bergen from 1887 to 1910  The next two years he toured Norway as a singer  He was the first theatre director of Det Norske Teatret, from 1912 to 1914, and during this period he also contributed as actor in several plays  He served as theatre director at Trondhjems nationale Scene from 1916 to 1924 He appeared in the several silent movies, including Bride of Glomdal and Brudeferden i Hardanger, both from 1926 and his only sound film, Kristine Valdresdatter in 1930 

Selected filmography
Dolken (1915)
The Sea Vultures (1916)
Passage 2:
Morten Borgersen
Morten Borgersen (born 12 October 1950) is a Norwegian actor, theatre director, artistic director and writer  
He has worked for various theatres, including Trøndelag Teater, Rogaland Teater, Riksteatret, Teatret Vårt, Teater Ibsen, Oslo Nye Teater, Det Norske Teatret, Nationaltheatret, Fjernsynsteatret, Den Nationale Scene, Haugesund teater,  Nordland Teater,  Kilden teater og Konserthus, Opera Bergen og Maksim Gorkij teater, Vladivostok, Russland( Anna Karenina og Et dukkehjem) ]  In 1991 he was appointed as the first theatre director of Teatret Vårt in Molde, after nineteen years of collective management, and had this position until 1997  From 1998 to 2001 he was artistic director of Teater Ibsen   He was artistic director of Den Nationale Scene in Bergen from 2001 to 2007 He published his first novel in 2012: Jeg har arvet en mørk skog  His second novel 2014: Forestillinger  Non-fiction 2015: Våre stemmer 
Passage 3:
Bjarte Hjelmeland
Bjarte Hjelmeland (born 24 February 1970) is a Norwegian actor and theatre director  He was born in Bergen  He made his stage debut in 1991 at Oslo Nye Teater, and also had notable roles at the National Theatre, Rogaland Teater, Torshovteatret, Den Nationale Scene and Chateau Neuf  In 2008 he was hired as director of Den Nationale Scene Films include his screen debut Byttinger (1991), Livredd (1997) and Desperate bekjennelser (1998)  Television series include Vestavind (1994–1995), the talk show Mandagsklubben (1996–1997) and Hvaler  He was a judge on Series 6 of Norske_Talenter  He has also released music albums Hjelmeland is openly gay 
Passage 4:
Karl Bergmann
Karl Bergmann (15 November 1882 – 16 June 1964) was a Norwegian actor and theatre director  He made his stage debut in 1901 at Den Nationale Scene in Bergen  He served as theatre director of Den Nationale Scene from 1931 to 1934 

Personal life
Bergmann was born in Bergen on 15 November 1882, a son of hairdresser Carl Pedersen and Alida Bergmann  In 1906 he married actress Lilly Catharina Thomsen 
Passage 5:
Den Nationale Scene
Den Nationale Scene (English: National Theater) is the largest theatre in Bergen, Norway  Den Nationale Scene is also one of the oldest permanent theatres in Norway 

History
Opened under the name Det Norske Theater in 1850,  the theatre has roots dating back to its founding on the initiative of the Norwegian violinist Ole Bull  The theatre was created to develop Norwegian playwrights  Henrik Ibsen was one of the first writers-in-residences and art-directors of the theatre and it saw the première in Norway of his first contemporary realist drama The Pillars of Society (Samfundets støtter) on 30 November 1877 The theatre was initially housed in the Komediehuset på Engen  In 1909, The National Theatre moved into the new theatre building at Engen  The current theatre building was designed by Einar Oscar Schou, and opened 19 February 1909 with a production of Erasmus Montanus by Ludvig Holberg  King Haakon VII of Norway and Queen Maud were in attendance  It soon became apparent that the building was too small  In 1913 the company bought Ekserserhuset Jonsvoll to use as a warehouse  In 1920, an extension was built to the northwest  Over the years the building has undergone major changes, extensions, renovation, restoration and stage technical modernisation  The foyer and the hall were destroyed during the Second World War, and only temporarily restored The theatre experienced a pre-war high point during the period 1934-39 under the leadership Hans Jacob Nilsen  Especially noteworthy was the 1935 premiere of the play Vår ære og vår makt ("Our Honor and our Power") by Nordahl Grieg 
In 2001 the building was restored almost to its original shape  Today the theatre houses three stages/venues and presents approximately 20 productions each year, both international and national classics, musicals and contemporary drama, as well as children's theatre   Since 1993, the theatre has been state property 

Directors of the Theatre
1876–1879 Nils Wichstrøm
1879–1880 Johan Bøgh
1880–1881 John Grieg
1881–1884 Johan Bøgh
1884–1888 Gunnar Heiberg
1888–1889 Henrik Jæger
1889–1890 Otto Valseth
1890–1895 Johan Irgens-Hansen
1895–1898 Olaf Hansson
1899–1900 Hans Aanrud
1900–1905 Gustav Thomassen
1905–1907 Anton Heiberg
1908–1909 Olaf Mørch Hansson
1910–1924 Ludvig Bergh
1924–1925 Christian Sandal
1925–1931 Thomas Thomassen
1931–1934 Karl Bergmann
1934–1939 Hans Jacob Nilsen
1939–1946 Egil Hjorth-Jenssen
1946–1948 Stein Bugge
1948–1952 Georg Løkkeberg
1952–1961 Per Schwab
1961–1963 Bjarne Andersen
1963–1967 Gisle Straume
1967–1976 Knut Thomassen
1976–1982 Sven Henning
1982–1986 Kjetil Bang-Hansen
1986–1996 Tom Remlov
1996–1997 Ketil Egge
1997 Aksel-Otto Bull
1998 Lars Arrhed
1998–2001 Bentein Baardson
2001–2007 Morten Borgersen
2008–2012 Bjarte Hjelmeland
2012– Agnete Haaland

See also
Thorolf Rafto Memorial Prize
Passage 6:
Rønnaug Alten
Rønnaug Alten (9 February 1910 – 20 January 2001) was a Norwegian actress and stage instructor 

Biography
She was born in Tromsø, Norway  Her parents were Emil Bredenbech Melle (1878–1950) and Ragna Aass (1880–1975)  After her parents' divorce in 1913, she was raised by her mother and her stepfather, Supreme Court Justice Edvin Alten (1876–1967)  Her half-sister Berit Alten (1915–2002) was married to literary historian Asbjørn Aarnes (1923–2013)  She grew up in Kristiania (now Oslo) and attended Frogner School graduating artium in 1928 In 1932, she married the actor Georg Løkkeberg (1909–1986)  Their marriage was dissolved in 1947  She was the mother of the film director and screenwriter Pål Løkkeberg (1934–1998) She made her stage debut at Den Nationale Scene in 1930 as "Viola" in Shakespeare's play Twelfth Night  During her career, she worked for various theatres, including Det Nye Teater (1931–38), Nationaltheatret (1935), Trøndelag Teater (1945–48), Riksteatret (1949–51), Folketeatret (1952–59), Oslo Nye Teater (1959–68) and Teatret Vårt in Molde (1972–74)  Her final performance was at the Riksteatret in 1975 Rønnaug Alten's film career began in 1936 with a role under film director Olav Dalgard  She also translated and organized a series of recordings for NRK  She served as an instructor principally for children's performances  She was a board member of the Norwegian Actors' Equity Association  
She was decorated Knight, First Class of the Order of St  Olav in 1982  Also in 1982, she shared the award for Best Actress at the 18th Guldbagge Awards with Sunniva Lindekleiv and Lise Fjeldstad for their roles in Little Ida 

External links
Rønnaug Alten at IMDb
Passage 7:
Viola (Twelfth Night)
Viola is the protagonist of the play Twelfth Night, written by William Shakespeare 

Role in the play
Viola's actions produce all of the play's momentum  She is a young woman of Messaline  In the beginning, Viola is found shipwrecked on the shores of Illyria and separated from her twin brother, not knowing whether he is alive or dead, the Sea Captain tells her that this place is ruled by the Duke Orsino, who is in love with Countess Olivia  Viola wants to serve her, but, finding this impossible, she has the Sea Captain dress her up like a eunuch, so she can serve the Duke instead 
Viola chooses the name Cesario and secures a position as a page working for the Duke  He then entrusts Cesario (Viola) to express his love for Olivia, without knowing that Viola had begun to fall in love with him  When Viola hears this she is heartbroken but listens reluctantly  Cesario continues to pass messages back and forth between the Duke and Olivia, but this eventually places her in somewhat of a quandary: she is forced by duty to do her best to plead Orsino's case to Olivia, but an internal conflict of interest arises when she falls in love with Orsino, and Olivia, believing her to be male, falls in love with her  Upon receiving a ring from Olivia's steward, Viola contemplates the love triangle her disguise has created, admitting only time can solve it 
When Sebastian, Viola's lost twin, arrives alive and well in Illyria with a pirate named Antonio, the chaos of mistaken identity ensues because of their remarkably similar looks, only made more similar due to Viola dressing up as a male  The absurdity of the identity crisis builds until Sebastian and Viola as Cesario meet for the first time, and eventually recognise one another  Olivia and Sebastian have already been secretly married, as she mistook him for Cesario, and Sebastian, ignorant of the foregoing love triangle, was simply entranced by a beautiful woman  Ultimately then, given what he has witnessed, Orsino admits that he will no longer pursue Olivia, agreeing to love her as his sister, and decides to take Viola as his wife once she quits her disguise 
Although Viola is the play's protagonist, her true name is not spoken by any character—including herself—until the final scene of the play (Act 5, scene 1) 

Art and stage depictions
Circa 1771 Francis Wheatley used actress Elizabeth Younge as a model to paint Viola in Act III, Scene 4 after she and Sir Andrew have drawn swords (painting top-right) 

William Hamilton painted the confrontation between Olivia and Viola circa 1797: in Act V, Scene 1 Olivia believes Viola (dressed as Cesario) to be Sebastian (Viola's twin brother) who she has just married  After Viola denies any knowledge, incredulous Olivia asks the priest to confirm they were married just two hours prior Walter Howell Deverell used model Elizabeth Siddal in his 1850 painting, showing Viola as Cesario looking longingly at Duke Orsino 

In the mid-19th century Frederick Richard Pickersgill painted a few scenes, including: in Act 1, Scene 4 after the character Viola is shipwrecked, when she cross-dresses as Cesario, enters the service of Duke Orsino as his page and falls in love with him; and in Act 3, Scene 1 when Olivia declares her love for Cesario (1859 painting) 

In the 20th century German actress Lucie Höflich played Viola in Was ihr wollt (Twelfth Night in German) at the Deutsches Theater in Berlin Tallulah Bankhead played Viola in a 1937 radio broadcast of the play Eddie Redmayne made his professional stage debut as Viola for Shakespeare's Globe at the Middle Temple Hall in 2002 In 2009, Anne Hathaway played Viola in the Shakespeare in the Park production of Twelfth Night in Central Park, directed by David Sullivan 

Film representations
Twelfth Night (1910) – Directed by Eugene Mullin – Viola: Florence Turner
Twelfth Night (1937) – Director N/A – Viola: Dorothy Black
Twelfth Night (1939) – Directed by Michel Saint Denis – Viola: Peggy Ashcroft
Twelfth Night (1957) [TV] – Directed by David Greene – Viola: Rosemary Harris
Twelfth Night (1957) – Directed by Caspar Wrede – Viola: Dilys Hamlett
Twelfth Night (1969) – Directed by John Sichel – Viola: Joan Plowright
Twelfth Night (1974) – Directed by David Giles – Viola: Janet Suzman
Twelfth Night (1980) [TV] – Directed by John Gorrie – Viola: Felicity Kendal
Twelfth Night (1987) – Directed by Neil Armfield – Viola: Gillian Jones
Twelfth Night or What You Will (1988) – Directed by Kenneth Branagh of the Royal Shakespeare Company/produced for television by Thames Television – Viola: Frances Barber
Twelfth Night, or What You Will (1988)– Directed by Paul Kafno – Viola: Frances Barber
Twelfth Night (1992) – [Animated Tales] – Directed by Mariya Muat – Viola: Fiona Shaw
Twelfth Night (1996) – Directed by Trevor Nunn – Viola: Imogen Stubbs
Twelfth Night, or What You Will (1998) [TV] – Directed by Nicholas Hytner – Viola: Helen Hunt
Twelfth Night, or What You Will (2003) – Directed by Tim Supple – Viola: Parminder Nagra
She's the Man (2006) – Directed by Andy Fickman – Viola: Amanda Bynes (Inspired by Twelfth Night)
Passage 8:
Gustav Thomassen
Gustav Thomassen (16 February 1862  – 6 May 1929) was a Norwegian stage actor and theatre director 

Biography
Thomassen was born in Bergen, Norway   He was the son of Salmaker Osmund Thomassen (1816-1892) and Caroline Olava Thomine Eckhoff (1828-1871)  He made his stage debut in 1881 at Den Nationale Scene in Bergen   He worked at Den Nationale Scene until 1905, and served as theatre director from 1900 to 1905 From 1905 to 1929 he worked as an actor and instructor at Nationaltheatret in Oslo   He was noted for his title role in the four act comedy Jan Herwitz  Gamle Bergensbilleder which was written by  Hans Wiers-Jenssen in 1913  From 1916-1923, he worked as a director  His main effort at the Nationaltheater was the staging of comedies by Ludvig Holberg, especially Jeppe på bjerget (1722), Den Stundesløse (1723) Erasmus Montanus (1722)  and Barselstuen (1723) 
Passage 9:
Kolbjørn Buøen
Kolbjørn Buøen (20 January 1895 – 5 October 1975) was a Norwegian actor  He was born in Flå  He made his stage debut at Den Nationale Scene in Bergen in 1920  He played "the hangman" in the first stage adaptation of Pär Lagerkvist's Bödeln in 1934, a play that received much attention  Buøen was appointed at Den Nationale Scene from 1920 to 1938, and thereafter at Nationaltheatret from 1938 to 1965  He made his film debut in 1951, in Kranes konditori  He received the Norwegian Theatre Critics Award in 1957 

External links
Kolbjørn Buøen at IMDb
Passage 10:
Thomas Thomassen
Thomas Thomassen (19  November 1878 – 7  January 1962) was a Norwegian actor, director and theater manager 
Thomassen was born in Tønsberg, Norway  He was the son of Thomas Marthinius Thomassen (1845–1925) and Laura Christine Thoresen (1847–1931) 
He made his stage debut in 1900 at Centralteatret  He served as theatre director of Stavanger Faste Scene from 1918 to 1921, and of Den Nationale Scene in Bergen from 1925 to 1931 He chaired the Norwegian Actors' Equity Association from 1915 to 1918, and from 1924 to 1925 In 1904, he married Ingebjørg Klafstad (1878–1961)  He was the father of the actor and director Knut Thomassen (1921–2002) 
Context 2: Passage 1:
Stones into Schools
Stones into Schools: Promoting Peace with Books, Not Bombs, in Afghanistan and Pakistan is a New York Times bestselling book by Greg Mortenson published by Viking in 2009   The book is the sequel to the bestselling book Three Cups of Tea and tells the story of Mortenson's humanitarian efforts to build schools in Pakistan and Afghanistan with his non-profit charity organization, Central Asia Institute (CAI)   CAI reports that as of 2010, it has overseen the building over 171 schools in the two countries  These schools reportedly provide education to over 64,000 children, including 54,000 girls, where few education opportunities existed before in the remote regions of Pakistan and Afghanistan 

Summary
Stones into Schools picks up where Three Cups of Tea left off in late 2003   Tracing the efforts of CAI to work in the northeast corner of Afghanistan, the book describes how the book's author and Sarfraz Khan worked to establish the first schools in the area   Mortenson and Khan's efforts were thwarted for a time when a devastating earthquake hit the Azad Kashmir region of Pakistan   CAI assisted with relief efforts in the region by setting up temporary tent schools and later build several earthquake-proof schools   After CAI's relief efforts were completed, the non-profit charity organization then opens schools in areas controlled by the Taliban and Mortenson assists the US military to formulate strategic plans in the region 

Advice solicited by US Military in Afghanistan
Due to attention paid to Mortenson's books first by their wives,  US military leaders in Afghanistan have sought Mortenson's advice on how to work with the elders of local Afghan communities since 2007   Seeking his knowledge on dealing with Afghan elders, the military has also included Mortenson as an active participant in meetings between the elders and US military commanders   He has not, however, accepted any payment for his services, nor does he have any contractual or other formal relationship with the US military 

Criticism
Allegations
On the April 17, 2011 broadcast of CBS News' 60 Minutes, correspondent Steve Kroft alleged inaccuracies in Stones into Schools and its prequel, Three Cups of Tea   In particular, CBS News disputed  Mortenson's claim that he got lost near K2 and ended up in Korphe; that he was captured by the Taliban in 1996; whether the number of schools built and supported by CAI is accurate; and the propriety in the use of CAI funds for Mortenson's book tours  60 Minutes asked Mortenson for an interview prior to their broadcast, but Mortenson did not respond to their requests Jon Krakauer, a former financial supporter of CAI, has also questioned Mortenson's accounts separately and was interviewed for the 60 Minutes segment  The day after the broadcast, Krakauer released his allegations in a lengthy online article, Three Cups of Deceit - How Greg Mortenson, Humanitarian Hero, Lost His Way Mansur Khan Mahsudhe, a tribesmen Greg Mortenson describes as a kidnapper in Stones into Schools, states he is "looking into how to sue" Greg Mortenson for what he claims are lies about him 

Response to allegations
In response to the allegations made against him and his books, Mortenson wrote a statement that was published in the Bozeman Chronicle: "I stand by the information conveyed in my book, and by the value of CAI's work in empowering local communities to build and operate schools that have educated more than 60,000 students " Mortenson further stated, "The time about our final days on K2 and ongoing journey to Korphe village and Skardu is a compressed version of events that took place in the fall of 1993   "Scott Darsney, a respected mountaineer and friend of Greg Mortenson, wrote an email subsequently turned into an exclusive article for Outside magazine's online version as a response to the allegations against Mortenson  Darnsey questioned the accuracy and fairness of both the Krakauer piece and the 60 Minutes report  Darnsey had been interviewed by Krakauer, and maintained that Krakauer either misquoted or misunderstood what he said 
As a response to Krakauer's allegations, CAI produced a comprehensive list of projects completed over a period of years and projects CAI is currently working on  The list was released in December, 2011 (see external links below) 
Passage 2:
Socrates
Socrates (; Greek: Σωκράτης; c  470–399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought  An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no texts and is known mainly through the posthumous accounts of classical writers, particularly his students Plato and Xenophon  These accounts are written as dialogues, in which Socrates and his interlocutors examine a subject in the style of question and answer; they gave rise to the Socratic dialogue literary genre  Contradictory accounts of Socrates make a reconstruction of his philosophy nearly impossible, a situation known as the Socratic problem  Socrates was a polarizing figure in Athenian society  In 399 BC, he was accused of impiety and corrupting the youth  After a trial that lasted a day, he was sentenced to death  He spent his last day in prison, refusing offers to help him escape 
Plato's dialogues are among the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity  They demonstrate the Socratic approach to areas of philosophy including epistemology and ethics  The Platonic Socrates lends his name to the concept of the Socratic method, and also to Socratic irony  The Socratic method of questioning, or elenchus, takes shape in dialogue using short questions and answers, epitomized by those Platonic texts in which Socrates and his interlocutors examine various aspects of an issue or an abstract meaning, usually relating to one of the virtues, and find themselves at an impasse, completely unable to define what they thought they understood  Socrates is known for proclaiming his total ignorance; he used to say that the only thing he was aware of was his ignorance, seeking to imply that the realization of our ignorance is the first step in philosophizing 
Socrates exerted a strong influence on philosophers in later antiquity and has continued to do so in the modern era  He was studied by medieval and Islamic scholars and played an important role in the thought of the Italian Renaissance, particularly within the humanist movement  Interest in him continued unabated, as reflected in the works of Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche  Depictions of Socrates in art, literature, and popular culture have made him a widely known figure in the Western philosophical tradition 

Sources and the Socratic problem
Socrates did not document his teachings  All that is known about him comes from the accounts of others: mainly the philosopher Plato and the historian Xenophon, who were both his pupils; the Athenian comic dramatist Aristophanes (Socrates's contemporary); and Plato's pupil Aristotle, who was born after Socrates's death  The often contradictory stories from these ancient accounts only serve to complicate scholars' ability to reconstruct Socrates's true thoughts reliably, a predicament known as the Socratic problem  The works of Plato, Xenophon, and other authors who use the character of Socrates as an investigative tool, are written in the form of a dialogue between Socrates and his interlocutors and provide the main source of information on Socrates's life and thought  Socratic dialogues (logos sokratikos) was a term coined by Aristotle to describe this newly formed literary genre  While the exact dates of their composition are unknown, some were probably written after Socrates's death  As Aristotle first noted, the extent to which the dialogues portray Socrates authentically is a matter of some debate 

Plato and Xenophon
An honest man, Xenophon was no trained philosopher  He could neither fully conceptualize nor articulate Socrates's arguments  He admired Socrates for his intelligence, patriotism, and courage on the battlefield  He discusses Socrates in four works: the Memorabilia, the Oeconomicus, the Symposium, and the Apology of Socrates  He also mentions a story featuring Socrates in his Anabasis  Oeconomicus recounts a discussion on practical agricultural issues  Like Plato's Apology, Xenophon's Apologia describes the trial of Socrates, but the works diverge substantially and, according to W  K  C  Guthrie, Xenophon's account portrays a Socrates of "intolerable smugness and complacency"  Symposium is a dialogue of Socrates with other prominent Athenians during an after-dinner discussion, but is quite different from Plato's Symposium: there is no overlap in the guest list  In Memorabilia, he defends Socrates from the accusations of corrupting the youth and being against the gods; essentially, it is a collection of various stories gathered together to construct a new apology for Socrates Plato's representation of Socrates is not straightforward  Plato was a pupil of Socrates and outlived him by five decades  How trustworthy Plato is in representing the attributes of Socrates is a matter of debate; the view that he did not represent views other than Socrates's own is not shared by many contemporary scholars  A driver of this doubt is the inconsistency of the character of Socrates that he presents  One common explanation of this inconsistency is that Plato initially tried to accurately represent the historical Socrates, while later in his writings he was happy to insert his own views into Socrates's words  Under this understanding, there is a distinction between the Socratic Socrates of Plato's earlier works and the Platonic Socrates of Plato's later writings, although the boundary between the two seems blurred Xenophon's and Plato's accounts differ in their presentations of Socrates as a person  Xenophon's Socrates is duller, less humorous and less ironic than Plato's  Xenophon's Socrates also lacks the philosophical features of Plato's Socrates—ignorance, the Socratic method or elenchus—and thinks enkrateia (self-control) is of pivotal importance, which is not the case with Plato's Socrates  Generally, logoi Sokratikoi cannot help us to reconstruct the historical Socrates even in cases where their narratives overlap, as authors may have influenced each other's accounts 

Aristophanes and other sources
Writers of Athenian comedy, including Aristophanes, also commented on Socrates  Aristophanes's most important comedy with respect to Socrates is The Clouds, in which Socrates is a central character  In this drama, Aristophanes presents a caricature of Socrates that leans towards sophism, ridiculing Socrates as an absurd atheist  Socrates in Clouds is interested in natural philosophy, which conforms to Plato's depiction of him in Phaedo  What is certain is that by the age of 45, Socrates had already captured the interest of Athenians as a philosopher  It is not clear whether Aristophanes's work is useful in reconstructing the historical Socrates Other ancient authors who wrote about Socrates were Aeschines of Sphettus, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Bryson, Cebes, Crito, Euclid of Megara, Phaedo and Aristotle, all of whom wrote after Socrates's death  Aristotle was not a contemporary of Socrates; he studied under Plato at the latter's Academy for twenty years  Aristotle treats Socrates without the bias of Xenophon and Plato, who had an emotional tie with Socrates, and he scrutinizes Socrates's doctrines as a philosopher  Aristotle was familiar with the various written and unwritten stories of Socrates  His role in understanding Socrates is limited  He does not write extensively on Socrates; and, when he does, he is mainly preoccupied with the early dialogues of Plato  There are also general doubts on his reliability on the history of philosophy  Still, his testimony is vital in understanding Socrates 

The Socratic problem
In a seminal work titled "The Worth of Socrates as a Philosopher" (1818), the philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher attacked Xenophon's accounts; his attack was widely accepted and gave rise to the Socratic problem  Schleiermacher criticized Xenophon for his naïve representation of Socrates  Xenophon was a soldier, argued Schleiermacher, and was therefore not well placed to articulate Socratic ideas  Furthermore, Xenophon was biased in his depiction of his former friend and teacher: he believed Socrates was treated unfairly by Athens, and sought to prove his point of view rather than to provide an impartial account  The result, said Schleiermacher, was that Xenophon portrayed Socrates as an uninspiring philosopher  By the early 20th century, Xenophon's account was largely rejected The philosopher Karl Joel, basing his arguments on Aristotle's interpretation of logos sokratikos, suggested that the Socratic dialogues are mostly fictional: according to Joel, the dialogues' authors were just mimicking some Socratic traits of dialogue  In the mid-20th century, philosophers such as Olof Gigon and Eugène Dupréel, based on Joel's arguments, proposed that the study of Socrates should focus on the various versions of his character and beliefs rather than aiming to reconstruct a historical Socrates  Later, ancient philosophy scholar Gregory Vlastos suggested that the early Socratic dialogues of Plato were more compatible with other evidence for a historical Socrates than his later writings, an argument that is based on inconsistencies in Plato's own evolving depiction of Socrates  Vlastos totally disregarded Xenophon's account except when it agreed with Plato's  More recently, Charles H  Kahn has reinforced the skeptical stance on the unsolvable Socratic problem, suggesting that only Plato's Apology has any historical significance 

Biography
Socrates was born in 470 or 469 BC to Sophroniscus and Phaenarete, a stoneworker and a midwife, respectively, in the Athenian deme of Alopece; therefore, he was an Athenian citizen, having been born to relatively affluent Athenians  He lived close to his father's relatives and inherited, as was customary, part of his father's estate, securing a life reasonably free of financial concerns  His education followed the laws and customs of Athens  He learned the basic skills of reading and writing and, like most wealthy Athenians, received extra lessons in various other fields such as gymnastics, poetry and music  He was married twice (which came first is not clear): his marriage to Xanthippe took place when Socrates was in his fifties, and another marriage was with a daughter of Aristides, an Athenian statesman  He had three sons with Xanthippe  Socrates fulfilled his military service during the Peloponnesian War and distinguished himself in three campaigns, according to Plato Another incident that reflects Socrates's respect for the law is the arrest of Leon the Salaminian  As Plato describes in his Apology, Socrates and four others were summoned to the Tholos and told by representatives of the Thirty Tyrants (which began ruling in 404 BC) to arrest Leon for execution  Again Socrates was the sole abstainer, choosing to risk the tyrants' wrath and retribution rather than to participate in what he considered to be a crime Socrates attracted great interest from the Athenian public and especially the Athenian youth  He was notoriously ugly, having a flat turned-up nose, bulging eyes and a large belly; his friends joked about his appearance  Socrates was indifferent to material pleasures, including his own appearance and personal comfort  He neglected personal hygiene, bathed rarely, walked barefoot, and owned only one ragged coat  He moderated his eating, drinking, and sex, although he did not practice full abstention  Although Socrates was attracted to youth, as was common and accepted in ancient Greece, he resisted his passion for young men because, as Plato describes, he was more interested in educating their souls  Socrates did not seek sex from his disciples, as was often the case between older and younger men in Athens  Politically, he did not take sides in the rivalry between the democrats and the oligarchs in Athens; he criticized both  The character of Socrates as exhibited in Apology, Crito, Phaedo and Symposium concurs with other sources to an extent that gives confidence in Plato's depiction of Socrates in these works as being representative of the real Socrates Socrates died in Athens in 399 BC after a trial for impiety and the corruption of the young that lasted for only a day  He spent his last day in prison among friends and followers who offered him a route to escape, which he refused  He died the next morning, in accordance with his sentence, after drinking poison hemlock  He had never left Athens, except during the military campaigns which he had participated in 

Trial of Socrates
In 399 BC, Socrates went on trial for corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, and for impiety  Socrates defended himself unsuccessfully  He was found guilty by a majority vote cast by a jury of hundreds of male Athenian citizens and, according to the custom, proposed his own penalty: that he should be given free food and housing by the state, for the services he rendered to the city  In the alternative, he proposed that he be fined one mina of silver (according to him, all he had)  The jurors declined his offer and ordered the death penalty  The official charges were: (1) corrupting youth; (2) worshipping false gods; and (3) not worshipping the state religion Socrates was charged in a politically tense climate  In 404 BC, the Athenians had been crushed by Spartans at the decisive naval Battle of Aegospotami, and subsequently, the Spartans laid siege to Athens  They replaced the democratic government with a new, pro-oligarchic government, named the Thirty Tyrants  Because of their tyrannical measures, some Athenians organized to overthrow the Tyrants—and, indeed, they managed to do so briefly—until a Spartan request for aid from the Thirty arrived and a compromise was sought  When the Spartans left again, however, democrats seized the opportunity to kill the oligarchs and reclaim the government of Athens The accusations against Socrates were initiated by a poet, Meletus, who asked for the death penalty in accordance with the charge of asebeia  Other accusers were Anytus and Lycon  After a month or two, in late spring or early summer, the trial started and likely went on for most of one day  There were two main sources for the religion-based accusations  First, Socrates had rejected the anthropomorphism of traditional Greek religion by denying that the gods did bad things like humans do  Second, he seemed to believe in a daimonion—an inner voice with, as his accusers suggested, divine origin Plato's Apology starts with Socrates answering the various rumours against him that have given rise to the indictment  First, Socrates defends himself against the rumour that he is an atheist naturalist philosopher, as portrayed in Aristophanes's The Clouds; or a sophist  Against the allegations of corrupting the youth, Socrates answers that he has never corrupted anyone intentionally, since corrupting someone would carry the risk of being corrupted back in return, and that would be illogical, since corruption is undesirable  On the second charge, Socrates asks for clarification  Meletus responds by repeating the accusation that Socrates is an atheist  Socrates notes the contradiction between atheism and worshipping false gods  He then claims that he is "God's gift" to the Athenians, since his activities ultimately benefit Athens; thus, in condemning him to death, Athens itself will be the greatest loser  After that, he says that even though no human can reach wisdom, seeking it is the best thing someone can do, implying money and prestige are not as precious as commonly thought 

Socrates was given the chance to offer alternative punishments for himself after being found guilty  He could have requested permission to flee Athens and live in exile, but he did not do so  Instead, according to Plato, he requested that a fine should be imposed on him and also suggested that free meals should be provided for him daily in recognition of his worth to Athens  According to Xenophon, however, Socrates made no proposals  The jurors favoured the death penalty by making him drink a cup of hemlock (a poisonous liquid)  In return, Socrates warned jurors and Athenians that criticism of them by his many disciples was inescapable, unless they became good men  After a delay caused by Athenian religious ceremonies, Socrates spent his last day in prison  His friends visited him and offered him an opportunity to escape, which he declined The question of what motivated Athenians to convict Socrates remains controversial among scholars  There are two theories  The first is that Socrates was convicted on religious grounds; the second, that he was accused and convicted for political reasons  Another, more recent, interpretation synthesizes the religious and political theories, arguing that religion and state were not separate in ancient Athens The argument for religious persecution is supported by the fact that Plato's and Xenophon's accounts of the trial mostly focus on the charges of impiety  In those accounts, Socrates is portrayed as making no effort to dispute the fact that he did not believe in the Athenian gods  Against this argument stands the fact that many skeptics and atheist philosophers during this time were not prosecuted  According to the argument for political persecution, Socrates was targeted because he was perceived as a threat to democracy  It was true that Socrates did not stand for democracy during the reign of the Thirty Tyrants and that most of his pupils were against the democrats  The case for it being a political persecution is usually challenged by the existence of an amnesty that was granted to Athenian citizens in 403 BC to prevent escalation to civil war after the fall of the Thirty  However, as the text from Socrates's trial and other texts reveal, the accusers could have fuelled their rhetoric using events prior to 403 BC 

Philosophy
Socratic method
A fundamental characteristic of Plato's Socrates is the Socratic method, or the method of refutation (elenchus)  It is most prominent in the early works of Plato, such as Apology, Crito, Gorgias, Republic I, and others  The typical elenchus proceeds as follows  Socrates initiates a discussion about a topic with a known expert on the subject, usually in the company of some young men and boys, and by dialogue proves the expert's beliefs and arguments to be contradictory  Socrates initiates the dialogue by asking his interlocutor for a definition of the subject  As he asks more questions, the interlocutor's answers eventually contradict the first definition  The conclusion is that the expert did not really know the definition in the first place  The interlocutor may come up with a different definition  That new definition, in turn, comes under the scrutiny of Socratic questioning  With each round of question and answer, Socrates and his interlocutor hope to approach the truth  More often, they continue to reveal their ignorance  Since the interlocutors' definitions most commonly represent the mainstream opinion on a matter, the discussion places doubt on the common opinion Socrates also tests his own opinions through the Socratic method  Thus Socrates does not teach a fixed philosophical doctrine  Rather, he acknowledges his own ignorance while searching for truth with his pupils and interlocutors Scholars have questioned the validity and the exact nature of the Socratic method, or indeed if there even was a Socratic method  In 1982, the scholar of ancient philosophy Gregory Vlastos claimed that the Socratic method could not be used to establish the truth or falsehood of a proposition  Rather, Vlastos argued, it was a way to show that an interlocutor's beliefs were inconsistent  There have been two main lines of thought regarding this view, depending on whether it is accepted that Socrates is seeking to prove a claim wrong  According to the first line of thought, known as the constructivist approach, Socrates indeed seeks to refute a claim by this method, and the method helps in reaching affirmative statements  The non-constructivist approach holds that Socrates merely wants to establish the inconsistency between the premises and conclusion of the initial argument 

Socratic priority of definition
Socrates starts his discussions by prioritizing the search for definitions  In most cases, Socrates initiates his discourse with an expert on a subject by seeking a definition—by asking, for example, what virtue, goodness, justice, or courage is  To establish a definition, Socrates first gathers clear examples of a virtue and then seeks to establish what they had in common  According to Guthrie, Socrates lived in an era when sophists had challenged the meaning of various virtues, questioning their substance; Socrates's quest for a definition was an attempt to clear the atmosphere from their radical skepticism Some scholars have argued that Socrates does not endorse the priority of definition as a principle, because they have identified cases where he does not do so  Some have argued that this priority of definition comes from Plato rather than Socrates  Philosopher Peter Geach, accepting that Socrates endorses the priority of definition, finds the technique fallacious  Αccording to Geach, one may know a proposition even if one cannot define the terms in which the proposition is stated 

Socratic ignorance
Plato's Socrates often claims that he is aware of his own lack of knowledge, especially when discussing ethical concepts such as arete (i e , goodness, courage) since he does not know the nature of such concepts  For example, during his trial, with his life at stake, Socrates says: "I thought Evenus a happy man, if he really possesses this art (technē), and teaches for so moderate a fee  Certainly I would pride and preen myself if I knew (epistamai) these things, but I do not know (epistamai) them, gentlemen"  In some of Plato's dialogues, Socrates appears to credit himself with some knowledge, and can even seem strongly opinionated for a man who professes his own ignorance There are varying explanations of the Socratic inconsistency (other than that Socrates is simply being inconsistent)  One explanation is that Socrates is being either ironic or modest for pedagogical purposes: he aims to let his interlocutor to think for himself rather than guide him to a prefixed answer to his philosophical questions  Another explanation is that Socrates holds different interpretations of the meaning of "knowledge"  Knowledge, for him, might mean systematic understanding of an ethical subject, on which Socrates firmly rejects any kind of mastery; or might refer to lower-level cognition, which Socrates may accept that he possesses  In any case, there is consensus that Socrates accepts that acknowledging one's lack of knowledge is the first step towards wisdom Socrates is known for disavowing knowledge, a claim encapsulated in the saying "I know that I know nothing"  This is often attributed to Socrates on the basis of a statement in Plato's Apology, though the same view is repeatedly found elsewhere in Plato's early writings on Socrates  In other statements, though, he implies or even claims that he does have knowledge  For example, in Plato's Apology Socrates says: "   but that to do injustice and disobey my superior, god or man, this I know to be evil and base   " (Apology, 29b6–7)  In his debate with Callicles, he says: "   I know well that if you will agree with me on those things which my soul believes, those things will be the very truth   "Whether Socrates genuinely thought he lacked knowledge or merely feigned a belief in his own ignorance remains a matter of debate  A common interpretation is that he was indeed feigning modesty  According to Norman Gulley, Socrates did this to entice his interlocutors to speak with him  On the other hand, Terence Irwin claims that Socrates's words should be taken literally Gregory Vlastos argues that there is enough evidence to refute both claims  On his view, for Socrates, there are two separate meanings of "knowledge": Knowledge-C and Knowledge-E (C stands for "certain", and E stands for elenchus, i e  the Socratic method)  Knowledge-C is something unquestionable whereas Knowledge-E is the knowledge derived from Socrates's elenchus  Thus, Socrates speaks the truth when he says he knows-C something, and he is also truthful when saying he knows-E, for example that it is evil for someone to disobey his superiors, as he claims in Apology  Not all scholars have agreed with this semantic dualism  James H  Lesher has argued that Socrates claimed in various dialogues that one word is linked to one meaning (i e  in Hippias Major, Meno, and Laches)  Lesher suggests that although Socrates claimed that he had no knowledge about the nature of virtues, he thought that in some cases, people can know some ethical propositions 

Socratic irony
There is a widespread assumption that Socrates was an ironist, mostly based on the depiction of Socrates by Plato and Aristotle  Socrates's irony is so subtle and slightly humorous that it often leaves the reader wondering if Socrates is making an intentional pun  Plato's Euthyphro is filled with Socratic irony  The story begins when Socrates is meeting with Euthyphro, a man who has accused his own father of murder  When Socrates first hears the details of the story, he comments, "It is not, I think, any random person who could do this [prosecute one's father] correctly, but surely one who is already far progressed in wisdom"  When Euthyphro boasts about his understanding of divinity, Socrates responds that it is "most important that I become your student"  Socrates is commonly seen as ironic when using praise to flatter or when addressing his interlocutors Scholars are divided on why Socrates uses irony  According to an opinion advanced since the Hellenistic period, Socratic irony is a playful way to get the audience's attention  Another line of thought holds that Socrates conceals his philosophical message with irony, making it accessible only to those who can separate the parts of his statements which are ironic from those which are not  Gregory Vlastos has identified a more complex pattern of irony in Socrates  On Vlastos's view, Socrates's words have a double meaning, both ironic and not  One example is when he denies having knowledge  Vlastos suggests that Socrates is being ironic when he says he has no knowledge (where "knowledge" means a lower form of cognition); while, according to another sense of "knowledge", Socrates is serious when he says he has no knowledge of ethical matters  This opinion is not shared by many other scholars 

Socratic eudaimonism and intellectualism
For Socrates, the pursuit of eudaimonia motivates all human action, directly or indirectly  Virtue and knowledge are linked, in Socrates's view, to eudaimonia, but how closely he considered them to be connected is still debated  Some argue that Socrates thought that virtue and eudaimonia are identical  According to another view, virtue serves as a means to eudaimonia (the "identical" and "sufficiency" theses, respectively)  Another point of debate is whether, according to Socrates, people desire what is in fact good—or, rather, simply what they perceive as good Moral intellectualism refers to the prominent role Socrates gave to knowledge  He believed that all virtue was based on knowledge (hence Socrates is characterized as a virtue intellectualist)  He also believed that humans were guided by the cognitive power to comprehend what they desire, while diminishing the role of impulses (a view termed motivational intellectualism)  In Plato's Protagoras (345c4–e6), Socrates implies that "no one errs willingly", which has become the hallmark of Socratic virtue intellectualism  In Socratic moral philosophy, priority is given to the intellect as being the way to live a good life; Socrates deemphasizes irrational beliefs or passions  Plato's dialogues that support Socrates's intellectual motivism—as this thesis is named—are mainly the Gorgias (467c–8e, where Socrates discusses the actions of a tyrant that do not benefit him) and Meno (77d–8b, where Socrates explains to Meno his view that no one wants bad things, unless they do not know what is good and bad in the first place)  Scholars have been puzzled by Socrates's view that akrasia (acting because of one's irrational passions, contrary to one's knowledge or beliefs) is impossible  Most believe that Socrates left no space for irrational desires, although some claim that Socrates acknowledged the existence of irrational motivations, but denied they play a primary role in decision-making 

Religion
Socrates's religious nonconformity challenged the views of his times and his critique reshaped religious discourse for the coming centuries  In Ancient Greece, organized religion was fragmented, celebrated in a number of festivals for specific gods, such as the City Dionysia, or in domestic rituals, and there were no sacred texts  Religion intermingled with the daily life of citizens, who performed their personal religious duties mainly with sacrifices to various gods  Whether Socrates was a practicing man of religion or a 'provocateur atheist' has been a point of debate since ancient times; his trial included impiety accusations, and the controversy has not yet ceased Socrates discusses divinity and the soul mostly in Alcibiades, Euthyphro, and Apology  In Alcibiades Socrates links the human soul to divinity, concluding "Then this part of her resembles God, and whoever looks at this, and comes to know all that is divine, will gain thereby the best knowledge of himself " His discussions on religion always fall under the lens of his rationalism  Socrates, in Euthyphro, reaches a conclusion which takes him far from the age's usual practice: he considers sacrifices to the gods to be useless, especially when they are driven by the hope of receiving a reward in return  Instead he calls for philosophy and the pursuit of knowledge to be the principal way of worshipping the gods  His rejection of traditional forms of piety, connecting them to self-interest, implied that Athenians should seek religious experience by self-examination Socrates argued that the gods were inherently wise and just, a perception far from traditional religion at that time  In Euthyphro, the Euthyphro dilemma arises  Socrates questions his interlocutor about the relationship between piety and the will of a powerful god: Is something good because it is the will of this god, or is it the will of this god because it is good? In other words, does piety follow the good, or the god? The trajectory of Socratic thought contrasts with traditional Greek theology, which took lex talionis (the eye for an eye principle) for granted  Socrates thought that goodness is independent from gods, and gods must themselves be pious Socrates affirms a belief in gods in Plato's Apology, where he says to the jurors that he acknowledges gods more than his accusers  For Plato's Socrates, the existence of gods is taken for granted; in none of his dialogues does he probe whether gods exist or not  In Apology, a case for Socrates being agnostic can be made, based on his discussion of the great unknown after death, and in Phaedo (the dialogue with his students in his last day) Socrates gives expression to a clear belief in the immortality of the soul  He also believed in oracles, divinations and other messages from gods  These signs did not offer him any positive belief on moral issues; rather, they were predictions of unfavorable future events In Xenophon's Memorabilia, Socrates constructs an argument close to the contemporary teleological intelligent-design argument  He claims that since there are many features in the universe that exhibit "signs of forethought" (e g , eyelids), a divine creator must have created the universe  He then deduces that the creator should be omniscient and omnipotent and also that it created the universe for the advance of humankind, since humans naturally have many abilities that other animals do not  At times, Socrates speaks of a single deity, while at other times he refers to plural "gods"  This has been interpreted to mean that he either believed that a supreme deity commanded other gods, or that various gods were parts, or manifestations, of this single deity It has been a source of puzzlement how Socrates's religious beliefs can be consistent with his strict adherence to rationalism  Philosophy professor Mark McPherran suggests that Socrates interpreted every divine sign through secular rationality for confirmation  Professor of ancient philosophy A  A  Long suggests that it is anachronistic to suppose that Socrates believed the religious and rational realms were separate 

Socratic daimonion
In several texts (e g , Plato's Euthyphro 3b5; Apology 31c–d; Xenophon's Memorabilia 1 1 2) Socrates claims he hears a daimōnic sign—an inner voice heard usually when he was about to make a mistake  Socrates gave a brief description of this daimonion at his trial (Apology 31c–d): "  



ground_truth: William

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The "New York Times" bestselling book "The 50th Law" contains lessons and anecdotes from this historical figure who was a classical Greek (Athenian) philosopher who is known mainly through the writings of which philosopher?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: The reason for this is something you have heard me frequently mention in different places—namely, the fact that I experience something divine and daimonic, as Meletus has inscribed in his indictment, by way of mockery  It started in my childhood, the occurrence of a particular voice  Whenever it occurs, it always deters me from the course of action I was intending to engage in, but it never gives me positive advice  It is this that has opposed my practicing politics, and I think its doing so has been absolutely fine " Modern scholarship has variously interpreted this Socratic daimōnion as a rational source of knowledge, an impulse, a dream or even a paranormal experience felt by an ascetic Socrates 

Virtue and knowledge
Socrates's theory of virtue states that all virtues are essentially one, since they are a form of knowledge  For Socrates, the reason a person is not good is because they lack knowledge  Since knowledge is united, virtues are united as well  Another famous dictum—"no one errs willingly"—also derives from this theory  In Protagoras, Socrates argues for the unity of virtues using the example of courage: if someone knows what the relevant danger is, they can undertake a risk  Aristotle comments: "     Socrates the elder thought that the end of life was knowledge of virtue, and he used to seek for the definition of justice, courage, and each of the parts of virtue, and this was a reasonable approach, since he thought that all virtues were sciences, and that as soon as one knew [for example] justice, he would be just   "

Love
Some texts suggest that Socrates had love affairs with Alcibiades and other young persons; others suggest that Socrates's friendship with young boys sought only to improve them and were not sexual  In Gorgias, Socrates claims he was a dual lover of Alcibiades and philosophy, and his flirtatiousness is evident in Protagoras, Meno (76a–c) and Phaedrus (227c–d)  However, the exact nature of his relationship with Alcibiades is not clear; Socrates was known for his self-restraint, while Alcibiades admits in the Symposium that he had tried to seduce Socrates but failed The Socratic theory of love is mostly deduced from Lysis, where Socrates discusses love at a wrestling school in the company of Lysis and his friends  They start their dialogue by investigating parental love and how it manifests with respect to the freedom and boundaries that parents set for their children  Socrates concludes that if Lysis is utterly useless, nobody will love him—not even his parents  While most scholars believe this text was intended to be humorous, it has also been suggested that Lysis shows Socrates held an egoistic view of love, according to which we only love people who are useful to us in some way  Other scholars disagree with this view, arguing that Socrates's doctrine leaves room for non-egoistic love for a spouse; still others deny that Socrates suggests any egoistic motivation at all  In Symposium, Socrates argues that children offer the false impression of immortality to their parents, and this misconception yields a form of unity among them  Scholars also note that for Socrates, love is rational It is notable that Socrates, who claims to know only that he does not know, makes an exception (in Plato's Symposium), where he says he will tell the truth about Love, which he learned from a 'clever woman'  Classicist Armand D'Angour has made the case that Socrates was in his youth close to Aspasia, and that Diotima, to whom Socrates attributes his understanding of love in Symposium, is based on her; however, it is also possible that Diotima really existed 

Socratic philosophy of politics
While Socrates was involved in public political and cultural debates, it is hard to define his exact political philosophy  In Plato's Gorgias, he tells Callicles: "I believe that I'm one of a few Athenians—so as not to say I'm the only one, but the only one among our contemporaries—to take up the true political craft and practice the true politics  This is because the speeches I make on each occasion do not aim at gratification but at what's best " His claim illustrates his aversion for the established democratic assemblies and procedures such as voting—since Socrates saw politicians and rhetoricians as using tricks to mislead the public  He never ran for office or suggested any legislation  Rather, he aimed to help the city flourish by "improving" its citizens  As a citizen, he abided by the law  He obeyed the rules and carried out his military duty by fighting wars abroad  His dialogues, however, make little mention of contemporary political decisions, such as the Sicilian Expedition Socrates spent his time conversing with citizens, among them powerful members of Athenian society, scrutinizing their beliefs and bringing the contradictions of their ideas to light  Socrates believed he was doing them a favor since, for him, politics was about shaping the moral landscape of the city through philosophy rather than electoral procedures  There is a debate over where Socrates stood in the polarized Athenian political climate, which was divided between oligarchs and democrats  While there is no clear textual evidence, one widely held theory holds that Socrates leaned towards democracy: he disobeyed the one order that the oligarchic government of the Thirty Tyrants gave him; he respected the laws and political system of Athens (which were formulated by democrats); and, according to this argument, his affinity for the ideals of democratic Athens was a reason why he did not want to escape prison and the death penalty  On the other hand, there is some evidence that Socrates leaned towards oligarchy: most of his friends supported oligarchy, he was contemptuous of the opinion of the many and was critical of the democratic process, and Protagoras shows some anti-democratic elements  A less mainstream argument suggests that Socrates favoured democratic republicanism, a theory that prioritizes active participation in public life and concern for the city Yet another suggestion is that Socrates endorsed views in line with liberalism, a political ideology formed in the Age of Enlightenment  This argument is mostly based on Crito and Apology, where Socrates talks about the mutually beneficial relationship between the city and its citizens  According to Socrates, citizens are morally autonomous and free to leave the city if they wish—but, by staying within the city, they also accept the laws and the city's authority over them  On the other hand, Socrates has been seen as the first proponent of civil disobedience  Socrates's strong objection to injustice, along with his refusal to serve the Thirty Tyrants' order to arrest Leon, are suggestive of this line  As he says in Critias, "One ought never act unjustly, even to repay a wrong that has been done to oneself " Ιn the broader picture, Socrates's advice would be for citizens to follow the orders of the state, unless, after much reflection, they deem them to be unjust 

Legacy
Hellenistic era
Socrates's impact was immense in philosophy after his death  With the exception of the Epicureans and the Pyrrhonists, almost all philosophical currents after Socrates traced their roots to him: Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum, the Cynics, and the Stoics  Interest in Socrates kept increasing until the third century AD  The various schools differed in response to fundamental questions such as the purpose of life or the nature of arete (virtue), since Socrates had not handed them an answer, and therefore, philosophical schools subsequently diverged greatly in their interpretation of his thought  He was considered to have shifted the focus of philosophy from a study of the natural world, as was the case for pre-Socratic philosophers, to a study of human affairs Immediate followers of Socrates were his pupils, Euclid of Megara, Aristippus, and Antisthenes, who drew differing conclusions among themselves and followed independent trajectories  The full doctrines of Socrates's pupils are difficult to reconstruct  Antisthenes had a profound contempt of material goods  According to him, virtue was all that mattered  Diogenes and the Cynics continued this line of thought  On the opposite end, Aristippus endorsed the accumulation of wealth and lived a luxurious life  After leaving Athens and returning to his home city of Cyrene, he founded the Cyrenaic philosophical school which was based on hedonism, and endorsing living an easy life with physical pleasures  His school passed to his grandson, bearing the same name  There is a dialogue in Xenophon's work in which Aristippus claims he wants to live without wishing to rule or be ruled by others  In addition, Aristippus maintained a skeptical stance on epistemology, claiming that we can be certain only of our own feelings  This view resonates with the Socratic understanding of ignorance  Euclid was a contemporary of Socrates  After Socrates's trial and death, he left Athens for the nearby town of Megara, where he founded a school, named the Megarians  His theory was built on the pre-Socratic monism of Parmenides  Euclid continued Socrates's thought, focusing on the nature of virtue 
The Stoics relied heavily on Socrates  They applied the Socratic method as a tool to avoid inconsistencies  Their moral doctrines focused on how to live a smooth life through wisdom and virtue  The Stoics assigned virtue a crucial role in attaining happiness and also prioritized the relation between goodness and ethical excellence, all of which echoed Socratic thought  At the same time, the philosophical current of Platonism claimed Socrates as its predecessor, in ethics and in its theory of knowledge  Arcesilaus, who became the head of the Academy about 80 years after its founding by Plato, radically changed the Academy's doctrine to what is now known as Academic Skepticism, centered on the Socratic philosophy of ignorance  The Academic Skeptics competed with the Stoics over who was Socrates's true heir with regard to ethics  While the Stoics insisted on knowledge-based ethics, Arcesilaus relied on Socratic ignorance  The Stoics' reply to Arcesilaus was that Socratic ignorance was part of Socratic irony (they themselves disapproved the use of irony), an argument that ultimately became the dominant narrative of Socrates in later antiquity While Aristotle considered Socrates an important philosopher, Socrates was not a central figure in Aristotelian thought  One of Aristotle's pupils, Aristoxenus even authored a book detailing Socrates's scandals 
The Epicureans were antagonistic to Socrates  They attacked him for superstition, criticizing his belief in his daimonion and his regard for the oracle at Delphi  They also criticized Socrates for his character and various faults, and focusing mostly on his irony, which was deemed inappropriate for a philosopher and unseemly for a teacher The Pyrrhonists were also antagonistic to Socrates, accusing him of being a prater about ethics, who engaged in mock humility, and who sneered at and mocked people 

Medieval world
Socratic thought found its way to the Islamic Middle East alongside that of Aristotle and the Stoics  Plato's works on Socrates, as well as other ancient Greek literature, were translated into Arabic by early Muslim scholars such as Al-Kindi, Jabir ibn Hayyan, and the Muʿtazila  For Muslim scholars, Socrates was hailed and admired for combining his ethics with his lifestyle, perhaps because of the resemblance in this regard with Muhammad's personality  Socratic doctrines were altered to match Islamic faith: according to Muslim scholars, Socrates made arguments for monotheism and for the temporality of this world and rewards in the next life  His influence in the Arabic-speaking world continues to the present day In medieval times, little of Socrates's thought survived in the Christian world as a whole; however, works on Socrates from Christian scholars such as Lactantius, Eusebius and Augustine were maintained in the Byzantine Empire, where Socrates was studied under a Christian lens  After the fall of Constantinople, many of the texts were brought back into the world of Roman Christianity, where they were translated into Latin  Overall, ancient Socratic philosophy, like the rest of classical literature before the Renaissance, was addressed with skepticism in the Christian world at first During the early Italian Renaissance, two different narratives of Socrates developed  On the one hand, the humanist movement revived interest in classical authors  Leonardo Bruni translated many of Plato's Socratic dialogues, while his pupil Giannozzo Manetti authored a well-circulated book, a Life of Socrates  They both presented a civic version of Socrates, according to which Socrates was a humanist and a supporter of republicanism  Bruni and Manetti were interested in defending secularism as a non-sinful way of life; presenting a view of Socrates that was aligned with Christian morality assisted their cause  In doing so, they had to censor parts of his dialogues, especially those which appeared to promote homosexuality or any possibility of pederasty (with Alcibiades), or which suggested that the Socratic daimon was a god  On the other hand, a different picture of Socrates was presented by Italian Neoplatonists, led by the philosopher and priest Marsilio Ficino  Ficino was impressed by Socrates's un-hierarchical and informal way teaching, which he tried to replicate  Ficino portrayed a holy picture of Socrates, finding parallels with the life of Jesus Christ  For Ficino and his followers, Socratic ignorance signified his acknowledgement that all wisdom is God-given (through the Socratic daimon) 

Modern times
In early modern France, Socrates's image was dominated by features of his private life rather than his philosophical thought, in various novels and satirical plays  Some thinkers used Socrates to highlight and comment upon controversies of their own era, like Théophile de Viau who portrayed a Christianized Socrates accused of atheism, while for Voltaire, the figure of Socrates represented a reason-based theist  Michel de Montaigne wrote extensively on Socrates, linking him to rationalism as a counterweight to contemporary religious fanatics In the 18th century, German idealism revived philosophical interest in Socrates, mainly through Hegel's work  For Hegel, Socrates marked a turning point in the history of humankind by the introduction of the principle of free subjectivity or self-determination  While Hegel hails Socrates for his contribution, he nonetheless justifies the Athenian court, for Socrates's insistence upon self-determination would be destructive of the Sittlichkeit (a Hegelian term signifying the way of life as shaped by the institutions and laws of the State)  Also, Hegel sees the Socratic use of rationalism as a continuation of Protagoras' focus on human reasoning (as encapsulated in the motto homo mensura: "man is the measure of all things"), but modified: it is our reasoning that can help us reach objective conclusions about reality  Also, Hegel considered Socrates as a predecessor of later ancient skeptic philosophers, even though he never clearly explained why Søren Kierkegaard considered Socrates his teacher, and authored his master's thesis on him, The Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates  There he argues that Socrates is not a moral philosopher but is purely an ironist  He also focused on Socrates's avoidance of writing: for Kierkegaard, this avoidance was a sign of humility, deriving from Socrates's acceptance of his ignorance  Not only did Socrates not write anything down, according to Kierkegaard, but his contemporaries misconstrued and misunderstood him as a philosopher, leaving us with an almost impossible task in comprehending Socratic thought  Only Plato's Apology was close to the real Socrates, in Kierkegaard's view  In his writings, he revisited Socrates quite frequently; in his later work, Kierkegaard found ethical elements in Socratic thought  Socrates was not only a subject of study for Kierkegaard, he was a model as well: Kierkegaard paralleled his task as a philosopher to Socrates  He writes, "The only analogy I have before me is Socrates; my task is a Socratic task, to audit the definition of what it is to be a Christian", with his aim being to bring society closer to the Christian ideal, since he believed that Christianity had become a formality, void of any Christian essence  Kierkegaard denied being a Christian, as Socrates denied possessing any knowledge Friedrich Nietzsche resented Socrates's contributions to Western culture  In his first book, The Birth of Tragedy (1872), Nietzsche held Socrates responsible for what he saw as the deterioration of ancient Greek civilization during the 4th century BC and after  For Nietzsche, Socrates turned the scope of philosophy from pre-Socratic naturalism to rationalism and intellectualism  He writes: "I conceive of [the Presocratics] as precursors to a reformation of the Greeks: but not of Socrates"; "with Empedocles and Democritus the Greeks were well on their way towards taking the correct measure of human existence, its unreason, its suffering; they never reached this goal, thanks to Socrates"  The effect, Nietzsche proposed, was a perverse situation that had continued down to his day: our culture is a Socratic culture, he believed  In a later publication, The Twilight of the Idols (1887), Nietzsche continued his offensive against Socrates, focusing on the arbitrary linking of reason to virtue and happiness in Socratic thinking  He writes: "I try to understand from what partial and idiosyncratic states the Socratic problem is to be derived: his equation of reason = virtue = happiness  It was with this absurdity of a doctrine of identity that he fascinated: ancient philosophy never again freed itself [from this fascination]"  From the late 19th century until the early 20th, the most common explanation of Nietzsche's hostility towards Socrates was his anti-rationalism; he considered Socrates the father of European rationalism  In the mid-20th century, philosopher Walter Kaufmann published an article arguing that Nietzsche admired Socrates  Current mainstream opinion is that Nietzsche was ambivalent towards Socrates 

Continental philosophers Hannah Arendt, Leo Strauss and Karl Popper, after experiencing the horrors of World War II, amidst the rise of totalitarian regimes, saw Socrates as an icon of individual conscience  Arendt, in Eichmann in Jerusalem (1963), suggests that Socrates's constant questioning and self-reflection could prevent the banality of evil  Strauss considers Socrates's political thought as paralleling Plato's  He sees an elitist Socrates in Plato's Republic as exemplifying why the polis is not, and could not be, an ideal way of organizing life, since philosophical truths cannot be digested by the masses  Popper takes the opposite view: he argues that Socrates opposes Plato's totalitarian ideas  For Popper, Socratic individualism, along with Athenian democracy, imply Popper's concept of the "open society" as described in his Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) 

See also
Bibliography of Socrates
De genio Socratis
List of cultural depictions of Socrates
List of speakers in Plato's dialogues
Socratic fallacy
Socratic Letters

Notes
Sources
Further reading
Brun, Jean (1978)  Socrate (in French) (6th ed )  Presses universitaires de France  pp  39–40  ISBN 978-2-13-035620-2 
Benson, Hugh (1992)  Essays on the philosophy of Socrates  New York: Oxford University Press  ISBN 978-0-19-506757-6  OCLC 23179683 
Rudebusch, George (2009)  Socrates  Chichester, UK; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell  ISBN 978-1-4051-5085-9  OCLC 476311710 
Taylor, C  C  W  (1998)  Socrates  Oxford University Press  ISBN 978-0-19-287601-0 
Taylor, C  C  W  (2019)  Socrates: A Very Short Introduction  Oxford University Press  ISBN 978-0-19-883598-1 
Vlastos, Gregory (1994)  Socratic Studies  Cambridge University Press  ISBN 978-0-521-44735-5 

External links

Socrates at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
The Dialogues of Plato at Project Gutenberg
Passage 3:
The 50th Law
The 50th Law is a New York Times bestselling book on strategy and fearlessness written collaboratively by rapper 50 Cent and author Robert Greene  The book is a semi-autobiographical account detailing 50 Cent's rise as both a young urban hustler and as an up-and-coming musician with lessons and anecdotes from historical figures such as Abraham Lincoln, Sun Tzu, Socrates, Napoleon, Malcolm X, and James Baldwin 

Origins
The 50th Law grew out of the friendship and mutual admiration between 50 Cent and Robert Greene  Greene's book The 48 Laws of Power, which has long been a staple in the hip hop world, came to the attention of 50 Cent, who asked his manager to arrange a meeting  Greene said that he was surprised by 50 Cent's persona and was impressed by his "Zen-like calmness" and eye for strategy  The two began to work on a book project that would combine their two worlds According to Greene, 50 Cent is an example of what Machiavelli called a New Prince, a leader who emerges in a time of chaos or turmoil and rewrites the rules  According to 50 Cent, Greene's books describe the laws and strategies used by hustlers on the street, even if they might not know the "technical terms" for what they were doing 

Synopsis
Each of the 10 chapters in the book explains a factor of fearlessness and begins by telling how 50 Cent learned this Fearless Philosophy in Southside Queens  The 50th Law illustrates the laws of the book by supplementing anecdotes from 50 Cent's life with historical examples from Malcolm X, Miles Davis, Sun Tzu, François de La Rochefoucauld, Machiavelli, Richard Wright, James Baldwin, Thucydides, Dostoyevsky, Charlie Parker, and the Baron de Montesquieu 

Reception
The book debuted at #5 on The New York Times Bestseller list and was a USA Today bestseller  The book was met with positive reviews, with the New York Post calling The 50th Law "a modern day Art of War," The Guardian referring to the book as "a manual on power similar to the works of Machiavelli and Sun Tzu," and Library Journal stating that The 50th Law is written for "anyone interested in how to succeed in business and the game of life "The book was also featured in The New York Times, MSNBC, Huffington Post, The Sun, The New York Daily News, Forbes, Business Insider, Fast Company, The Telegraph, MTV, Vibe and Billboard  In promotion of the book, Greene and 50 Cent appeared on The Today Show, CNBC, ABC, BBC and MTV News  The 50th Law was also published as a 60-page comic book 
Passage 4:
Trust Me, I'm Lying
Trust Me, I'm Lying: Confessions of a Media Manipulator is a book by Ryan Holiday chronicling  his time working as a media strategist for clients including  Tucker Max, Robert Greene, and Dov Charney 

Background and description
Trust Me, I'm Lying was billed as an exposé of the  online journalism system that rose to prominence in the decade before the book's 2012 publication 
Holiday is the former Director of Marketing for American Apparel, where he created controversial campaigns that garnered widespread publicity  Holiday has also done publicity work for Tucker Max, including marketing for the film adaptation of I Hope They Serve Beer in Hell and a media stunt about Max's failed attempt to donate $500,000 to Planned Parenthood The book is split into two parts: the first explains why blogs matter, how they drive the news, and how they can be manipulated, while the second shows what happens when this is done, how it backfires, and the consequences of the current media system As an example of his argument that blogs shape the news, Holiday outlines how the political blog Politico dedicated significant coverage to the campaign of Tim Pawlenty two years before the 2012 elections in order to generate pageviews for advertisers  Although Pawlenty did not yet have an official campaign, this kickstarted the media cycle which painted Pawlenty as a serious presidential candidate  As an example of the pageview-intensive blogosphere, Holiday uses the example of Jezebel writer Irin Carmon's attack on Jon Stewart and The Daily Show with misleading claims of "The Daily Show's Woman Problem " The book is also the source of a marketing and media concept now referred to as "trading up the chain", in which news is broken on small blogs and passed to successively larger and more influential media outlets 

Release
In 2011, it was reported that Holiday received a $500,000 advance for a tell-all exposé about these clients and the modern media system from Portfolio, a subsidiary of Penguin Books  However, some outlets later accused the advance of being a strategic marketing stunt engineered by Holiday Trust Me, I'm Lying debuted on the Wall Street Journal bestseller list  Publishers Weekly stated that "Media students and bloggers would do well to heed Holiday's informative, timely, and provocative advice " Kirkus Reviews called Trust Me, I'm Lying "[a] sharp and disturbing look into the world of online reality "In anticipation of the book's release, Holiday infiltrated the public relations service Help a Reporter Out and posed as an "expert" on various issues to show that journalists will print statements without fact checking  Holiday made decoy claims to prove the point; some of those were subsequently quoted in articles about subjects ranging from boating upkeep to insomnia to vinyl records in outlets such as The New York Times, MSNBC, and ABC, and the story was profiled in Forbes and Yahoo! News In 2013, The Edmonton Journal named Trust Me, I'm Lying one of their “favourite books of the year ”
Passage 5:
Bianca Bosker
Bianca Bosker is an American journalist and bestselling author  Her nonfiction book on sommelier training,  Cork Dork, was a New York Times bestseller  Her work has appeared in publications including The Wall Street Journal, Fast Company, The Atlantic, Food & Wine, The New York Times, Far Eastern Economic Review, and  The Oregonian Bosker is the author of Original Copies: Architectural Mimicry in Contemporary China  She is an alumna of Princeton University, and co-founder of the Huffington Post Technology section 
Passage 6:
The Nasty Bits
The Nasty Bits: Collected Varietal Cuts, Usable Trim, Scraps, and Bones, is a largely nonfiction New York Times bestselling book by Anthony Bourdain, published in 2006  The book is a collection of 37 exotic, provocative, and humorous anecdotes and essays, many of them centered around food, followed by a 30-page fiction piece ("A Chef's Christmas")  The book concludes with an appendix of commentaries on the various pieces, including when and why they were written The essays range from descriptions of restaurant-kitchen life; to various rants about places, people, and things Bourdain objects to; to lively accounts of far-flung world travels and remote ethnic life and food; to accolades of the unsung Latinos who cook most fine-dining restaurant food in America; to glowing reports of cutting-edge chefs like Ferran Adrià; to details of Bourdain's obsessions and pursuits when he is not working; to opinions and anecdotes on various other subjects 
Bourdain organized the various essays and anecdotes into sections named for each of the five traditional flavors:

Salty
Sweet
Sour
Bitter
UmamiThe book is, according to Bourdain, basically a collection of the best of his magazine and newspaper writings during the previous few years  As he says in the preface:

I've done a lot of writing for magazines and newspapers in the last few years, and it's the better morsels (I hope) from that work that follow       I've been writing this stuff for much the same reason behind my frenetic traveling: Because I can  Because there's so little time  Because there's been so much to see and remember      It's an irritating reality that many places and events defy description  Angkor Wat and Machu Picchu, for instance, seem to demand silence, like a love affair you can never talk about  For a while after, you fumble for words, trying vainly to assemble a private narrative, an explanation, a comfortable way to frame where you've been and what's happened  In the end, you're just happy you were there—with your eyes open—and lived to see it 
Passage 7:
Andrew Ross Sorkin
Andrew Ross Sorkin (born February 19, 1977) is an American journalist and author   He is a financial columnist for The New York Times and a co-anchor of CNBC's Squawk Box  He is also the founder and editor of DealBook, a financial news service published by The New York Times  He wrote the bestselling book Too Big to Fail and co-produced a movie adaptation of the book for HBO Films  He is also a co-creator of the Showtime series Billions 

Early life and education
Sorkin was born in New York, the son of Joan Ross Sorkin, a playwright, and Laurence T  Sorkin, a partner at the law firm Cahill Gordon & Reindel  Sorkin graduated from Scarsdale High School in 1995 and earned a Bachelor of Science in communications from Cornell University in 1999 where he was a member of Sigma Pi fraternity  He is not related to writer Aaron Sorkin nor defense lawyer Ira Lee Sorkin  His family heritage and religion are Jewish 

Career
Journalist
Sorkin first joined The New York Times as a student intern during his senior year in high school  He also worked for the paper while he was in college, publishing 71 articles before he graduated  He began by writing media and technology articles while assisting the advertising columnist, Stuart Elliott  Sorkin spent the summer of 1996 working for Businessweek, before returning to The New York Times   He moved to London for part of 1998  While there, he wrote about European business and technology for The New York Times and then returned to Cornell to complete his studies  At Cornell, he was vice president of the Sigma Pi fraternity 

Mergers and acquisitions reporter
Sorkin joined The New York Times full-time in 1999 as the newspaper's European mergers and acquisitions reporter, and was based in London  In 2000, Sorkin became the paper's chief mergers and acquisitions reporter, based in New York, a position he still holds  In 2001, Sorkin founded "DealBook," an online daily financial report published by the Times  As Editor-at-Large of "DealBook," Sorkin writes a weekly column of the same name  Sorkin is also an assistant editor of business and finance news for the paper Sorkin has broken news of major mergers and acquisitions, including Chase's acquisition of J P  Morgan and Hewlett-Packard's acquisition of Compaq  He also led The New York Times' coverage of the largest takeover in history, Vodafone's $183 billion hostile bid for Mannesmann  Additionally, he broke the news of IBM's sale of its PC business to Lenovo, Boston Scientific's $25 billion acquisition of Guidant and Symantec's $13 billion deal for Veritas Software, and reported on News Corp 's acquisition of Dow Jones and The Wall Street Journal 
Sorkin has reported on the Wall Street financial crisis, including the collapse of Bear Stearns and Lehman Brothers, and the government bailout of other major investment banks and AIG  He has also written about the troubled American auto industry 
In 2007, Sorkin was one of the first journalists to identify and criticize a tax loophole for private equity firms and hedge funds  He first wrote about the topic in a column in March 2007, calling the tax treatment a "charade", and later wrote about it on the front page of The New York Times  He has written at least a half dozen articles critiquing the tax practice by private equity firms and advocated for the government to end the loophole In 2014, Sorkin wrote a series of columns criticizing American corporations for trying to lower their US tax bill by merging with smaller foreign companies in a transaction known as an "inversion"  He also criticized the Wall Street banks that advised US companies to pursue such deals, describing the banks as "corporate co-conspirators"  Sorkin called on the government to end the practice  On September 22, 2014, the Obama Administration changed the tax laws to make it more difficult for US companies to merge to avoid taxes On the PRISM surveillance program and Edward Snowden situation, Sorkin said, "I would arrest him and now I'd almost arrest Glenn Greenwald, the journalist who seems to be out there, he wants to help him get to Ecuador " The next day, Sorkin apologized for the comment; Greenwald accepted, tweeting "Thank you: accepted & appreciated" 

DealBook
In October 2001, while a journalist at The New York Times, Sorkin started DealBook, a newsletter about deal-making and Wall Street  DealBook was one of the first financial news aggregation services on the Internet  In March 2006, Sorkin introduced a companion website published on The New York Times, with updated news and original analysis throughout the day  In 2007, DealBook won a Webby Award for Best Business Blog and it won a SABEW award for overall excellence  In 2008, the site won an EPpy Award for Best Business Blog 

Television
In July 2011, Sorkin became a co-anchor on CNBC's Squawk Box in addition to his duties at The New York Times  Sorkin has appeared on NBC's Today show, Charlie Rose and The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer on PBS, MSNBC's Hardball and Morning Joe, ABC's Good Morning America, The Chris Matthews Show, HBO's Real Time with Bill Maher, the BBC World Service, Comedy Central's The Daily Show and The Colbert Report, and was a frequent guest host of CNBC's Squawk Box before joining the ensemble  Sorkin also hosted a weekly seven-part, half-hour PBS talk-show series called It's the Economy, NY, which focused on how the evolving economic crisis was affecting New Yorkers Along with Brian Koppelman and David Levien, Sorkin is a co-creator of the Showtime series Billions, an American television drama series starring Paul Giamatti and Damian Lewis  The series is loosely based on crusading federal prosecutor of financial crimes, Preet Bharara, the former U S  Attorney for the Southern District of New York  The show premiered in January 2016 

Too Big to Fail
Sorkin's book on the Wall Street banking crisis, Too Big to Fail: The Inside Story of How Wall Street and Washington Fought to Save the Financial System—and Themselves, was published by Viking on October 20, 2009  It won the 2010 Gerald Loeb Award for best business book of the year, was on the shortlist for the 2010 Samuel Johnson Prize, shortlisted for the 2010 Financial Times and Goldman Sachs Business Book of the Year Award, and was on The New York Times Best Seller list (non-fiction hardcover and paperback) for six months 
The book was adapted as a movie by HBO Films and premiered on HBO on May 23, 2011  The film was directed by Curtis Hanson and the screenplay was written by Peter Gould  The cast included William Hurt as Hank Paulson, the Treasury Secretary; Paul Giamatti as Ben Bernanke, the chairman of the Federal Reserve;  Billy Crudup as Timothy Geithner, the then-president of the New York Federal Reserve Bank; James Woods as Richard Fuld, the CEO of Lehman Brothers; Edward Asner as Warren Buffett, the CEO of Berkshire Hathaway; Cynthia Nixon as Michele Davis, assistant secretary for public affairs at Treasury; Bill Pullman as Jamie Dimon, CEO of JPMorgan Chase; as well as Topher Grace as Jim Wilkinson, Chief of Staff to the Treasury Secretary  Sorkin was a co-producer of the film and had a cameo appearance as a reporter 

Awards
Sorkin shared the Gerald Loeb Award in 2005 for Deadline Writing and earned another for Business Book in 2010 for his book Too Big to Fail  He also won a Society of American Business Editors and Writers Award for breaking news in 2005 and again in 2006  In 2007, the World Economic Forum named him a Young Global Leader  Also in 2007, SiliconAlleyInsider com named Sorkin one of New York's "most influential scribes " In 2008, Vanity Fair magazine named Sorkin as one of 40 new members of the "Next Establishment," and he appeared on the UJA Federation's 2013 list of 40 under 40 top "movers and shakers" in the Jewish community  He is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations  In 2022, Sorkin won an Emmy Award for his New York Times interview with WeWork founder Adam Neumann 

In popular culture
In the penultimate episode of Breaking Bad, called "Granite State," Sorkin is briefly referenced  He is said to have written an op-ed in The New York Times accusing fictional entrepreneurs Gretchen and Elliott Schwartz of making donations to drug rehabilitation centers in the hopes of cleansing their company's image after the Walter White scandal  Sorkin later wrote the entire fictional article 

Personal life
Sorkin married Pilar Jenny Queen on June 9, 2007 Sorkin has a coloboma in his left eye that sometimes makes it appear as if he has two different colored eyes 

See also
New Yorkers in journalism
Passage 8:
G-Unit Books
G-Unit Books was an American book publishing imprint started by rapper 50 Cent in partnership with MTV/Pocketbooks on January 4, 2007, following a prior relationship with the company dating back to the publication of his memoir in 2005  He launched  G-Unit Books at the Time Warner Building in New York In addition to his memoir, 50 also co-wrote The Ski Mask Way, a novel about a small-time drug dealer who attempts to rob his employers   All G-Unit books were meant to be street fiction encouraging reading at a younger age G-Unit Books released its last books in 2011 

Bibliography
From Pieces To Weight : Once Upon A Time In Southside Queens (Release Date : August 15, 2006)
Baby Brother (Release Date : January 9, 2007)
Death Before Dishonor (Release Date : January 9, 2007)
The Ski Mask Way (Release Date : January 9, 2007)
Blow (Release Date : July 12, 2007)
Derelict (Release Date : July 12, 2007)
Harlem Heat (Release Date : July 24, 2007)
Heaven's Fury (Release Date : November 20, 2007)
The Diamond District (Release Date : March 25, 2008)
Tia's Diary : Deeper Than Rap (Release Date : May 25, 2009)
The 50th Law (Released : September 8, 2009)
Playground (Released : November 1, 2011)
Context 3: Passage 1:
Richie Ginther
Paul Richard "Richie" Ginther (Hollywood, California, August 5, 1930 – September 20, 1989 in France) was a racecar driver from the United States  During a varied career, the 1965 Mexican Grand Prix saw Ginther take Honda's first Grand Prix victory, a victory which would also prove to be Ginther's only win in Formula One  Ginther competed in 54 World Championship Formula One Grand Prix races and numerous other non-Championship F1 events 

Early career
Richie Ginther was born in Hollywood but his family moved to Ohio for his father's work before moving back to California and to Santa Monica, the same Californian town as future Formula One World Champion Phil Hill, and it was through Hill, a friend of Ginther's older brother, George, that he first began to race  After finishing school in 1948, Ginther followed in his father's footsteps and went to work for Douglas Aircraft, initially in the tool and die shop  In his spare time he helped Hill to repair, maintain and race his collection of old cars and hot rods, as Hill's racing career began to gather pace  Ginther made his race debut at Pebble Beach in 1951, driving a Ford-engined MG T-type sports car However, Ginther's career was put on hold shortly after, when he was drafted for two years of national service during the Korean War  During this time he received training and experience working in aircraft and engine mechanics, skills which he would later put to good use during his driving career  On emergence from the military, Hill requested that Ginther join him, principally as a riding mechanic, in driving a privately entered 4 1-liter Ferrari in the 1953 Carrera Panamericana  The pair ran high in the rankings until Hill lost control, crashed, and wrote off the car  Both Ginther and Hill were unharmed and returned in 1954 to take second place, beaten only by the works Ferrari of Umberto Maglioli 
Nineteen fifty-four was also the year that Ginther returned to race driving himself, mostly in a self-prepared Austin-Healey  His results were impressive enough that the following year VW and Porsche dealer John von Neumann hired him to drive a Porsche in domestic competitions  When von Neumann started dealing in Ferrari cars in 1956, Ginther also got the chance to drive these  In between working in von Neumann's Ferrari dealership — including trips to the Ferrari factory in Italy to sort customer problems — Ginther began to build an impressive racing reputation on the West Coast  This, and his choice of Ferrari mounts, brought him to the attention of the East Coast Ferrari franchise-holder, three-time 24 Hours of Le Mans-winner, Luigi Chinetti  Aside from importing Ferrari road cars, Chinetti also operated a successful race team, soon to metamorphose into Ferrari's official motorsport presence in North America: NART  Ginther first raced for Chinetti in 1957 and with him made his first appearances in international-level events, first in the 12 Hours of Sebring and then driving a two-liter Ferrari 500 TR in the 1957 Le Mans race 
Also in 1957, Ginther was signed to drive the Aston Martin of Joe Lubin and over the next three years would continue to compete in many sports car racing events in both Aston and Ferrari machinery, with great success  That June, he won a 15-lap GT race at the new Lime Rock Park, and won the opening race of the national championship in his Ferrari  In early-1958, he piloted a two-liter Ferrari to victory at the County Fairgrounds in Pomona, California, averaging 83 8 mph (134 9 km/h), and won in a three-liter GT in a five-lap qualifying preliminary for the SCCA Pacific Coast Championship  By the end of the year Ginther had captured the Pacific Coast Sports Car Championship outright  He triumphed by a wide margin at Pomona at the opening sports car race of 1959, in a von Neumann 4 1-liter Ferrari, and in June 1959, won in a three-liter Ferrari TR in the first Hourglass road races in San Diego, California  Throughout this period he continued to mix his race driving with a steady job at von Neumann's dealership, and by late 1959 the strain was beginning to show 

Formula One
Ferrari
Ginther made his F1 debut at the 1960 Monaco Grand Prix driving for Ferrari, which he stayed with through 1961  In the September 1960 Italian Grand Prix in Monza, he placed second to Hill  Ginther led from the start until the 25th lap when Hill passed him and led until the finish Following the 1960 season the Ferrari team gave up 1000 cc in engine size  The 2500 cc engine,
permitted the previous year, was replaced by a 1 5-liter rear-engine model, with 110 less horsepower  However, the newer engine was superior in both "profiling" and handling  The conservative Enzo Ferrari was the last major Formula 1 race car manufacturer to make the transition to cars with engines in the rear 
In 1961, Ginther was the No  3 Ferrari driver, behind No  1 Wolfgang Von Trips and No  2 Hill  Giancarlo Baghetti occasionally piloted a fourth car  The team manager was Romulo Tavoni On May 14, 1961, Ginther finished second to Stirling Moss at the 1961 Monaco Grand Prix, 3 6 seconds behind, a few hundred feet  He was driving a new rear-engine Ferrari with a 120-degree V-6 which had a lower center of gravity  Ginther had qualified second, just ahead of Hill, with an average speed of 70 7 mph (113 8 km/h), and a qualifying time of 1:39 3  He eclipsed the previous course record of 1:39 6, before Moss took pole position the day after In August 1961, Ginther and Baghetti were teammates at the Pescara Grand Prix, a world auto manufacturers' championship event  Their Ferrari was leading on the 10th lap when it stopped on a straight stretch with a flat tire  Ginther averaged more than 133 mph (214 km/h) on the 6 2-mile (10 0 km) Autodromo Nazionale Monza in September 1961, to lead the first day of qualifying for the 1961 Italian Grand Prix  Von Trips qualified first with Ginther taking the third starting position after Ricardo Rodriguez  Ginther retired in the race  Von Trips died in a spectacular crash on the second lap, which also killed eleven spectators, when his Ferrari climbed a 5-foot-high (1 5 m) earth embankment  
It brushed a wire fence employed to restrain a portion of the crowd and struck the spectators  Some who were injured eventually succumbed and brought the total to 15 deaths  The Ferrari team ceased competition until January 1, 1962, as a mark of respect to Von Trips 

BRM and Honda
In 1962, Ginther switched to the British-based BRM team to race alongside Graham Hill  The highlight of his time at BRM was finishing equal-second (with Hill) in the 1963 World Championship  Ginther scored more points than his British teammate over the whole season, but only a driver's six best scores were counted towards the championship 
His reputation as a solid "team player" and excellent test and development driver earned him an invitation to join the works Honda F1 team for 1965, for whom he scored his one and only GP win, at the 1965 Mexican Grand Prix  The win was also Honda's first in Formula 1  Ginther averaged 151 7 kilometres per hour (94 3 mph) over the curving 5 kilometres (3 1 mi) track in the 65 lap Mexico City event  His speed eclipsed the previous course record of 150 185 km/h (93 321 mph) established by Dan Gurney in 1964  It was the first time Honda had entered the Mexican Grand Prix  Honda reentered international competition in the 1966 Italian Grand Prix  The team was three years old and had encountered difficulty in the preparation of a larger engine  Ginther led in Italy before his car crashed into a retaining wall and he broke his collarbone  He signed with the Eagle F1 team in 1967 and raced in the Race of Champions  His last race entered was the Monaco Grand Prix, but he failed to qualify 
Ginther won one race, achieved 14 podiums, and scored a total of 107 championship points 
He appeared in an uncredited role in the 1966 film Grand Prix as John Hogarth, a driver in the Japanese funded "Yamura" team  He also acted as one of the technical racing advisors for the movie 
While making an attempt to qualify for the 1967 Indianapolis 500, Ginther broke a fuel line in his American Eagle Indy Car   A mix of ethanol and gasoline, was sprayed down his back   This experience, along with the recent fiery death of close friend Lorenzo Bandini, along with other factors, led to his sudden retirement He participated in a rally with sixty-five other competitors, including actor James Garner, in June 1969  The California Sports Car Club event was three hours cross country from Los Angeles to Huntington Beach  It benefited students from the Braille Institute 
Ginther managed a Porsche 911S with two American drivers during the 39th 24 hours of Le Mans, in June 1971 

Death
Ginther died of a heart attack while on vacation with his family in France, in Touzac, near Bordeaux, on September 20, 1989 

Awards
He was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2008 

Biography
In 2020, to mark what would have been Ginther's 90th birthday, a biography was released about Richie's life and career by Richard Jenkins, published by Performance Publishing  "Richie Ginther: Motor Racing's Free Thinker" won the RAC Motoring Book of the Year Award for its depth of research and previously unpublished information

Racing record
Formula One World Championship results
(key) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Non-Championship Formula One results
(key)

Complete British Saloon Car Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap )

† Events with 2 races staged for the different classes 

Footnotes
Passage 2:
Bobby Santos III
Robert Santos III (born October 3, 1985) is an American professional racing driver from Franklin, Massachusetts  He graduated in 2004 from Tri-County Regional Vocational Technical High School  Santos, nicknamed "Bobby New England", is the grandson of Bobby Santos, a former modified racer   His sister, Erica Santos, is also a racecar driver  He is the cousin of former University of New Hampshire quarterback Ricky Santos 

Early career
Before stock cars, Santos was a successful midget racer  He raced in the Northeastern Midget Association, USAC, PRA Big Car, and ISMA   He had the most wins of any driver in the USAC National Midget Tour in 2006, collecting five wins, including a win at O'Reilly Raceway Park on the Night Before the 500  He was signed to Bill Davis Racing 

ARCA career
In 2006, Santos made his stock car debut at Iowa Speedway for Bill Davis Racing in the #02 Dodge  He started 10th and finished 6th   Bobby returned to ARCA in 2007 for Bill Davis, now in a Toyota Camry  He won Toyota's first stock car pole at USA International Speedway in Lakeland, Florida   While leading the race, he was involved in an incident with a lapped car and did not finish  He returned at Nashville Superspeedway, but had a mid-pack run  At Kansas Speedway, Bobby started second, but a blown engine relegated him to another DNF   Santos broke his dry spell at Kentucky Speedway when he started fourth and finished third, behind Erik Darnell and Erin Crocker   Santos placed third in the next race at Kentucky, as well   The third-generation racer won a pole at Pocono Raceway in early August and qualified fifth at Talladega Superspeedway, but was unable to back up either with a strong finish 

NASCAR career
In 2007, Santos made his NASCAR Busch Series debut at Richmond International Raceway for the new Riley D'Hondt Motorsports team  He qualified seventh in his #91 Toyota but faded back to a thirtieth-place finish after running in the top 10 at the beginning of the race  He also qualified fourth for the Camping World 200 at New Hampshire Motor Speedway and was running in the top 10 before being hit by a lapped car  He ran two additional races for RDHM but did not finish better than 30th 
Santos has also participated in the Whelen Modified Tour, collecting his first two wins at Thompson International Speedway in October 2007, and the Ice Breaker, also at Thompson International Speedway, in April 2010  He parlayed his season-opening Icebreaker win into the 2010 Whelen Modified Tour championship, collecting a total of four wins and four poles on the season Santos ran the 2011 Nationwide Series opener for Jimmy Means in what was a back-up JR Motorsports car after wrecking the 52 in practice; the Earnhardt family has a long friendship with the independent owner and former driver  Santos finished 17th after vowing to run the race in its entirety 

Current career
After his stint in stock car racing, Santos returned to his roots, racing the full NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour for Bob Garbarino's Mystic Missile Racing team and a limited schedule in all three USAC divisions  Santos also made select appearances in the NEMA ranks in 2009   Santos' post-NASCAR career has been highlighted by wins in many of the nation's largest midget races, including the Turkey Night Grand Prix and Copper World Classic  He also won the 2020 Little 500 USAC Sprint car race at Anderson Speedway He will drive part-time in the NASCAR Nationwide Series in 2012 for Tommy Baldwin Racing and will continue to compete on the NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour behind the wheel of the Tinio Corporation No  44 
Santos registered back-to-back Musket 250 wins in 2019 and 2020 

Motorsports career results
NASCAR
(key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time  Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time  * – Most laps led )

Nationwide Series
Camping World Truck Series
1 Ineligible for series points

Whelen Modified Tour
ARCA Re/Max Series
(key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time  Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time  * – Most laps led )

Superstar Racing Experience
(key) * – Most laps led  1 – Heat 1 winner  2 – Heat 2 winner 

* Season still in progress
Passage 3:
1971 Canadian Grand Prix
The 1971 Canadian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Mosport Park on September 19, 1971  It was race 10 of 11 in both the 1971 World Championship of Drivers and the 1971 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers  
During a Formula Ford preliminary race, one of the twenty drivers of the field spun at Turn 1 involving four other competitors and a group of marshals  Four of them suffered severe injuries and were taken to hospital  One lap later, Wayne Kelly, a 37‐year‐old driver from Ottawa, was killed instantly when he crashed into a stationary ambulance parked on the outside of Turn 1 whose crew was helping the injured marshals and competitors  
The events of the Formula Ford race meant that the Grand Prix was delayed, and when it did start, it was raining and thick fog had arrived  Jackie Stewart took the win after the race was stopped after 64 laps of the scheduled 80 due to the weather  American Mark Donohue finished third on his F1 debut 
This was the first ever Formula One race to be red flagged 

Qualifying
Qualifying classification
Race
Classification
Championship standings after the race

Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings 
Passage 4:
Peter Ryan (racing driver)
Peter Barry Ryan (June 10, 1940 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States – July 2, 1962 in Paris, France) was an American-born Canadian racecar driver from Mont-Tremblant, Quebec  He had a short Formula One career  He participated in one Grand Prix, the 1961 United States Grand Prix at Watkins Glen, finishing ninth  He scored no championship points  However, he became the first Canadian ever to take part in a Formula One Grand Prix 

Career
Ryan first came to prominence as a skier, winning the National Ski Association's junior downhill championship at Mount Rose, Nevada, in 1957  "Immediately after Ryan's victory, Americans protested that Canadians could not win an American championship " The protest was disallowed  His Olympic prospects were such that a dispute arose as to which country he should represent  The Americans asserted that he: "was born in the United States as were his father, the late Joseph P  Ryan, and his mother " Ryan expressed a preference for the Canadian team: "But while he would like to ski for Canada, he wouldn't care to give up his American citizenship " "An outstanding skier, Ryan shifted to auto racing in 1959 after a ski crackup in which both his legs were broken "On April 25, 1959, Denise McCluggage, writing in Competition Press, reported: "Peter Ryan of the Mont Tremblant Ryans bought Bernie Vihl's beautifully kept old 550 Porsche in which to take up racing-sports car racing that is  Peter at 19, is an old hand at ski racing being a downhill expert " Ryan's successes came in sports cars racing in Canada, the US and Nassau  On October 1, 1960, Ryan co-drove with Roger Penske in a Porsche RS60 to win the six-hour Sundown Grand Prix at Harewood, in Ontario, Canada  The next week Ryan was entered in the 230-mile Formula Libre road race at Watkins Glen, New York  In qualifying he was "the surprise of the day, taking the fifth position over England's Roy Salvadori " Ahead of him were Stirling Moss, Jack Brabham, Joakim Bonnier and Olivier Gendebien  He was driving Bill Sadler's Formula Libre special, known as "Formula Ferocious," a rear-engined single-seater device, when his motor blew on lap 56 
At Sebring on March 25, 1961, Ryan, teamed with Frances Bradley and Ludwig Heimrath, finished eighth overall in the Florida International 12-Hour Grand Prix of Endurance, driving a Porsche RS  In June 1961 Ryan withdrew from a race at Mosport  He "was expected to give Moss his stiffest competition, but did not compete  He withdrew at the last minute  Ryan, a member of the Sports Car Club of America, feared he would lose his amateur status in the United States if he entered the race 
The S C C A  ordered its members not to compete in the Canadian race because prize money was being given " In July 1961 Peter Ryan (Comstock Sadler-Chevrolet) was leading the Meadowdale Grand Prix when Roger Penske (Maserati birdcage Telar Special): "banged into him from the rear on the 18th lap " Ryan clung on to the lead, but after spinning recovered to finish second  On August 6, 1961, Ryan won the Vanderbilt Cup for Formula Junior cars at Bridgehampton, New York, driving a Lotus 20, averaging 87 95 miles an hour Ryan was the winner of the inaugural Canadian Grand Prix, in a Lotus Monte Carlo-Climax, held at Mosport on September 30, 1961, when it was a non-Championship sports car race  Second that day was Pedro Rodriguez (Ferrari V12) and third Stirling Moss (Lotus Monte Carlo)  The win at Mosport led to an invitation from Colin Chapman to drive a Lotus in the 1961 United States Grand Prix 
In the first 3-hr Daytona Continental GT and sports car race at Daytona on February 11, 1962, Ryan finished 15th overall, sharing a Ferrari 3 0-litre with Ricardo Rodriguez  The previous day he had finished fifth in the Lurani Trophy Race for Formula Junior cars, driving a Lotus 20  At Sebring on March 24, 1962, Ryan, teamed with John Fulp, finished thirteenth overall in the Florida International 12-Hour Grand Prix of Endurance, driving a Ferrari 248 SP for the North American Racing Team An offer of a factory-Lotus Formula Junior drive in Europe for 1962 did not materialise: "The young Canadian-American, bitterly disappointed, has gone to England to see what arrangements can be made for the coming season " "Placed under a three-year contract by Team Lotus he was lent to the Ian Walker Racing Team for the 1962 season,  " On May 27, 1962, Ryan was teamed with Paul Hawkins in an Ian Walker Racing Team Lotus 23 at the Nurburgring 1,000 km sports car race  The car suffered from overheating and was unplaced  At Monaco on June 2, 1962, Ryan won a heat race in an FJ Lotus, finishing eleventh in the final  Denis Jenkinson commented: "The driving of Ryan, the Canadian, and Spence, both in Ian Walker Lotus-Juniors, was very impressive,  " At Mallory Park, England, on June 11, 1962, Ryan drove an FJ Lotus: "The Formula Junior event saw Peter Ryan adding to his growing reputation in Europe by tailing Peter Arundell's works Lotus for the whole race, then nipping through on lap 28 to win by a second "Ryan made his Le Mans debut on June 23 and 24, 1962, partnered by John 'Buck' Fulp, driving the #18 NART Ferrari 250 TRI/61  The car completed 150 laps and 15 hours when it was crashed by Ryan  "Poor Peter Ryan put his Ferrari in the sandbank at Mulsanne and dug for ages before giving up,  "Ryan's last race was in the Coupe Internationale des Juniors Formula Junior race at Rheims, on July 2, 1962  "First of the heats, run at 10 a m  round an almost deserted circuit, began as a terrific scrap between Peter Ryan's Ian Walker Lotus, Bill Moss's Gemini, Gardner's Brabham with Love's Cooper and Arundell's Lotus lurking just behind  This struggle continued until the 5th lap, when Ryan's Lotus and Bill Moss's Gemini touched as they left the very fast right-hand bend past Gueux  Both cars left the road at high speed and were totally wrecked; Bill Moss escaped with minor injuries but Ryan was taken to hospital seriously hurt " He succumbed to his injuries in a Paris hospital where he was taken following the accident 
Peter Garnier, writing in Autocar, said of Peter Ryan: "During his all too-brief-spell on British and Continental circuits, he had proved himself to be extremely skilful and fast, with just that touch of fire which can often indicate the makings of a great driver "Peter Ryan was inducted into the Canadian Motorsport Hall of Fame as one of the initial inductees in 1993 

Complete Formula One results
(key)
Passage 5:
Bob Drake (racing driver)
Phil Robert "Bob" Drake (December 14, 1919 – April 18, 1990) was an American racecar driver  He participated in one Formula One Grand Prix, on November 20, 1960  He scored no championship points  Drake was the last driver to race the famous Maserati 250F in a Formula One World Championship Grand Prix, the 1960 United States Grand Prix  The 250F was a 2 5 litre front-engined Grand Prix car that was considered obsolete in 1961 due to new engine rules 
Aside from being a race car driver, he was a naval diver, restaurateur, and stunt performer 

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key)
Passage 6:
2010 Canadian Grand Prix
The 2010 Canadian Grand Prix (formally the Formula 1 Grand Prix du Canada 2010) was the eighth round of the 2010 Formula One season  It was held in Montreal, Quebec, Canada at the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve on 13 June 2010  This was the first Grand Prix to be held on the North American continent since the 2008 Canadian Grand Prix  The race was won by McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton, his second Canadian Grand Prix victory, ahead of teammate Jenson Button and Ferrari driver Fernando Alonso 
This was McLaren's last 1-2 finish until the 2021 Italian Grand Prix and the last  one-two finish between British drivers until the 2022 São Paulo Grand Prix 

Report
Background
After dominating the previous three races, it was widely expected that the Montreal circuit would not play to the Red Bull's strengths, with intense media speculation that the controversial crash between Sebastian Vettel and Mark Webber whilst fighting for the lead of the Turkish Grand Prix would only worsen the team's chances  However, while neither driver was prepared to accept full responsibility for causing the accident, both expressed a desire to forget about it and move on None of the teams planned to introduce major updates for the race, though several brought customised packages specifically for the high-speed, low-downforce circuit  Those who had developed an "F-duct" system for the previous race were still running it in the trial phase 

Free Practice
The Friday sessions passed without incident save for minor off-track excursions by several drivers and a spin by Pedro de la Rosa at l'Epingle  Lucas di Grassi was the only driver who failed to set a time in the first session after stopping on the circuit  While reigning World Champion Jenson Button set the fastest time of the first session, Hispania Racing improved dramatically, beating both the Virgins, while Karun Chandhok also beat the Lotus of Jarno Trulli  The session also showed the progress of the new teams as a whole, with Heikki Kovalainen finishing the session just over a second adrift of Jaime Alguersuari; the difference between the new and established teams had been as great as three seconds in the first race of the season  Kovalainen would go on to repeat his feat in the second session, finishing just over half a second behind Alguersuari and a full second ahead of Chandhok, the next-fastest driver 
The biggest story of the day was the extreme tyre degradation the drivers experienced while running on the super-soft compound  Several sections of the circuit had been resurfaced since Formula One's previous visit in 2008, with the net result being that they offered comparatively little grip compared to other circuits  Hirohide Hamashima, Bridgestone's director of motosport tyre development, commented that the problem was a result of the tyres being unable to reach their optimum operating temperature  With several teams expecting rain at some point during the weekend, the lack of grip and unpredictable conditions made setting the car up exceptionally difficult  Sebastian Vettel was the fastest driver in the session, narrowly outclassing the Ferrari of Fernando Alonso and Mercedes' Nico Rosberg  Despite setting the fastest times of the first session, the McLarens both struggled, with Lewis Hamilton finishing seventh and Button only managing eleventh 
McLaren bounded back in time for the third session, with Hamilton comfortably setting the fastest time of both the session and the weekend, ahead of Webber, Alonso and Schumacher  Hamilton was sighted clipping the concrete walls lining the circuit as one point, as did Felipe Massa, but both were able to continue without damage  Pedro de la Rosa very nearly came unstuck at the same point, but Karun Chandhok was less fortunate, his Hispania F110 stopping on the circuit early on  Nico Rosberg was sidelined with a clutch problem for most of the session  The only other incident was Lucas di Grassi losing control under braking at l'Epingle and coming to rest in the gravel trap shortly after he recorded the fastest speed – 324 km/h (201 mph) – through the speed trap 

Qualifying
To compound the problems associated with heavy graining, overnight rain washed away whatever rubber had been laid down on the circuit during the Friday practice sessions, further reducing grip  With ambient temperatures being no higher than on Friday and the forecast predicting more of the same for the race, Bridgestone projected that a one-stop strategy in the race would be impossible with the harder prime compound losing up to seven seconds over half race distance, and the super-soft option tyres losing over sixteen seconds in the same window  With the rules dictating that drivers must start the race on the tyres they set their best qualifying time on, tyre selection for qualifying was therefore crucial 
On Saturday afternoon, qualifying started without rain on the track  The first qualifying session had no surprises when both drivers from HRT, Virgin Racing and Lotus failed to make the cut, they were joined by BMW Sauber pilot Kamui Kobayashi  The second qualifying session saw Michael Schumacher miss the cut as the only surprise elimination  With two more cars setting faster times, Schumacher started the race from thirteenth  Barrichello was the fastest of this group followed by Hülkenberg, Schumacher, Petrov, Buemi, Alguersuari and de la Rosa 

At the third and final session all eyes were on Lewis Hamilton as he had set the fastest time in both qualifying sessions  But it was Mark Webber who grabbed the lead early on  The teams were running different tyres, making the results unpredictable  On the very last lap, Hamilton snatched the pole from Webber who could not answer  With Hamilton ending Red Bull's run of pole positions after seven races, Webber was set to start second right in front of his teammate Sebastian Vettel  Fernando Alonso was fourth, Jenson Button fifth followed by Vitantonio Liuzzi, who qualified at a career-best sixth; Felipe Massa, Robert Kubica, Adrian Sutil and Nico Rosberg completed the top ten 
On the cool down lap, Hamilton was instructed by his team to slow down and stop on the circuit because the team realised he would not have enough fuel left in his tank for a sample to be taken by the FIA  Hamilton turned his car off and let it continue rolling down the back straight of the circuit  He undid his belts and sat higher up in the cockpit of his car, relaxed until his McLaren nearly came to a stop  Hamilton then got out and started to push his still rolling car down the back straight  A group of circuit marshalls finally came to help him and he was picked up by the course car and taken to the press conference  The FIA later handed Hamilton a reprimand and fined the McLaren team $10,000 for not completing the cool down lap in the given time, with Hamilton retaining his pole position 

Race
The race was the first of the season in which all twenty-four cars started on the grid; prior to the Montreal race, at least one car—usually from Virgin, Lotus or Hispania—was forced to start from the pit lane with a mechanical issue of some kind  Mark Webber was demoted from second place on the grid to seventh after Red Bull found iron filings in a sample of oil taken from the gearbox used in Webber's car during qualifying  This finding, which suggested damage to the internals of the gearbox and necessitated a gearbox change under parc ferme conditions, resulted in the five-place grid penalty 
The opening lap saw drama unfold before the field had even cleared the start gantry  While Lewis Hamilton won the drag race to the first corner, in the middle of the pack, Vitaly Petrov jumped the start and was forced onto the grassy verge as he attempted to go around the outside  This resulted in a spin that forced Pedro de la Rosa to take evasive action; Petrov earned two drive-through penalties in the space of one hundred metres for his efforts and spent the rest of the race fighting with the new teams  Felipe Massa and Vitantonio Liuzzi made contact three times in one corner, with the Italian getting spun around in the process and sliding down the order  As Hamilton, Vettel and Alonso established the running order, Kamui Kobayashi and Nico Hülkenberg tangled on the run into the final corners  While the Williams driver cut the chicane to avoid further contact, Kobayashi was not as lucky and he became the Wall of Champions' 2010 victim  He retired a lap later with accident damage  After avoiding the spinning Petrov at the start, Kobayashi's Sauber teammate Pedro de la Rosa joined him on the sidelines shortly thereafter and gave the team the unenviable record of eleven retirements from sixteen starts 

The predicted early round of stops passed without incident, although Red Bull elected to run their drivers on separate strategies; Mark Webber ran the harder prime compound back-to-back with a finish on the softer options, while Vettel ran the options in his middle stint and picked up the primes for the run to the finish  Every other driver except Robert Kubica had qualified on and subsequently started the race with the softer options  The tyre lottery produced an unlikely winner with Toro Rosso's Sébastien Buemi inheriting the lead for a lap before his stop, the first time a Toro Rosso had led a race since Sébastien Bourdais led three laps at the 2008 Japanese Grand Prix  Elsewhere in the field, Hülkenberg proved to be his own worst enemy when he over-extended himself under brakes while attempting to pass Nico Rosberg at l'Epingle and damaging his front wing in the process  He was then flagged for speeding in the pit lane when he pitted to replace the wing, robbing himself of a potential points place as he was forced to serve a drive-through penalty 
An accident between Michael Schumacher and Robert Kubica was narrowly avoided as Schumacher emerged from the first of his scheduled stops  Schumacher refused to yield on the approach to the fourth corner and the two took a short trip across the grassy verge  The altercation damaged Kubica's undertray while the incident was investigated by the stewards  It was the first of many incidents involving Schumacher, with the Mercedes driver later tangling with Adrian Sutil and Felipe Massa  Massa's race was marked by a perpetual battle with the Force India drivers including several near-misses in the second corner, the scene of his first-lap tangle with Liuzzi  Massa would later force his way past Sutil as the two closed in on the Lotus of Heikki Kovalainen, the cars running three-abreast into turn six  His late altercation with former Ferrari teammate Schumacher required him to pit for a replacement front wing and, like Hülkenberg before him, the Brazilian driver was cited for speeding in the pit lane  Twenty seconds were added to his time after the race as punishment 

Webber's tyre strategy initially paid off but, as the race wore on, his tyres began to deteriorate rapidly  Hamilton, running second at the time, quickly reduced the Australian's lead and caught him with twenty laps to go, dragging the Ferrari of Alonso through in the process  Webber eventually pitted, emerging behind teammate Vettel in fifth place as Vettel struggled with an unspecified but serious problem that he had to nurse to the finish; the team later clarified this as being related to the gearbox  As Hamilton settled back into the lead, reigning World Champion Jenson Button took Alonso by surprise, passing him around the back half of the circuit and positioning McLaren for their second consecutive one-two finish  Button briefly attempted a run at his teammate, narrowing Hamilton's lead to just two seconds with ten laps to go, but Hamilton responded with a fast lap that dissuaded Button from making further attempts  The top five—Hamilton, Button, Alonso, Vettel and Webber—would remain in place until the very end with Vettel stopping on the circuit just after he crossed the finish line at the end of the race  Nico Rosberg fended off a late surge from Kubica to claim sixth while Buemi finished eighth and a lap down  Liuzzi and Sutil both found their way past Schumacher on the final lap—in Sutil's case this was in the final corner—as the Mercedes driver struggled with tyres that were almost completely out of grip and leaving the seven-time World Champion scoreless in what BBC commentator Martin Brundle later described as the German's "worst weekend of his career"  Kovalainen was the best of the new teams, two laps down and fighting off Petrov for the final phase of the race, while Karun Chandhok and Lucas di Grassi were the final cars home, four and five laps down respectively 

The race was notably short of attrition compared to previous races at the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve, which have seen the safety car deployed so often that teams factor an accident into their strategies  However, the 2010 race was so short of retirements that it boasted the greatest number of finishers in the season to date with nineteen classified drivers  In addition to the dual retirements for BMW Sauber, Bruno Senna was once again the victim of a gearbox problem while Jarno Trulli stopped in the pit entry on lap forty-seven with terminal brake problems  Timo Glock retired due to a steering rack leak that crippled his VR-01 on lap fifty-five 
The final result meant that Hamilton leapfrogged both Button and Webber in the championship standings with six points covering the top three drivers  With McLaren claiming the lead of the constructors' championship from Red Bull in Turkey, their maximum points score in Montreal placed them a further twenty points clear of the Austrian team  The race was also the first time since the 1991 United States Grand Prix that three former drivers' champions stood on the podium and the last 1–2 finish for the McLaren team until the 2021 Italian Grand Prix  The race was also the last time until the 2022 São Paulo Grand Prix where British drivers finished first and second on the podium 

Classification
Qualifying
Notes:

1 ^  – Mark Webber was demoted five places on the grid after the gearbox in his car was changed pre-race 
2 ^  – Karun Chandhok was given a five place penalty after the gearbox in his car was changed overnight  It did not affect his starting position 

Race
Notes

1 ^  – Felipe Massa was given a 20-second time penalty post-race for exceeding the pit lane speed limit in the closing stages of the race  However, as Massa finished one lap down and one lap clear of the next-placed car, the penalty did not affect his finishing position 

Championship standings after the race
Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings 
Passage 7:
Kevin Cogan
John Kevin Cogan (born in Culver City, California on March 31, 1956) is a former race car driver who drove in Formula One from 1980 to 1981  Driving a RAM Williams in the 1980 Canadian Grand Prix, he failed to qualify, suffering the same result driving for Tyrrell at the 1981 US GP West  He then moved over to Indy cars in 1982 but his career was cut short by a series of accidents 

Racing career
Cogan made his Indycar debut at the 1981 Indianapolis 500, driving the No  32 Sugaripe Prunes Phoenix PR-01-Cosworth DFX for Jerry O'Connell Racing, as part of the USAC Gold Crown Championship  Cogan qualified in 12th place and finished the race in fourth place with 197 laps completed  Despite this Cogan lost the Rookie of the Year Award to Josele Garza  Cogan then competed in the rival CART/PPG World Series for O'Connell  In his debut, the Gould Rex Mays Classic at the Milwaukee Mile, Cogan qualified in seventh place and finished in second  After the race, he was ranked fifth in points  Cogan participated in four more races that season with his best finish coming at the Los Angeles Times 500 at Riverside International Raceway  Cogan finished his first CART season 23rd in points 
In 1982 Cogan joined Team Penske to drive the No  4 Norton Spirit Penske PC-10-Cosworth DFX  At the season-opening Kraco Car Stereos 150 at Phoenix International Raceway, he qualified and finished in third place  The remainder of his season was inconsistent, highlighted by a second-place finish at the Domino's Pizza Pocono 500 at Pocono International Raceway to teammate Rick Mears  Cogan also had two pole positions at the Budweiser Cleveland 500 at Burke Lakefront Airport and the AirCal 500 at Riverside International Raceway  He finished the season sixth in points while Mears won the championship  Penske released Cogan at the end of the season 

1982 Indianapolis 500 controversy
During qualifying, Cogan set a new one-lap track record of 204 638 mph (329 333 km/h) and a record four-lap average of 204 082 mph (328 438 km/h)  He was beaten only by his teammate, Mears 
Cogan started from the middle of the front row, next to pole-sitter Mears, and A  J  Foyt  As the field approached the start-finish line to start the race, Cogan suddenly swerved right, touching and bouncing off Foyt's car, and directly into the path of and collecting Mario Andretti  The cars of Dale Whittington and Roger Mears, deeper in the field, were also damaged due to the field checking up  Bobby Rahal also reported getting hit from behind, but was undamaged  The race was immediately red-flagged 
Cogan's shocking accident took out four cars, including himself and Andretti  Foyt's team was able to make repairs and pushed his car out for the restart attempt  Meanwhile, Andretti and Foyt were furious and outspoken about their displeasure with Cogan  Andretti shunned Cogan's attempts to explain himself with a light shove 
Andretti on live radio and television said,  "This is what happens when you have children doing a man's job up front " Back in the garage area, Andretti complained about Cogan's abilities, claiming that Cogan was "looking for trouble", that he "couldn't handle the responsibilities of the front row" and that the Penske car he was driving was "too good for him" The commonly outspoken Foyt also chimed in during comments to ABC's Chris Economaki with, "   he ran right square into my goddamned left front   'Coogin' " Later, Foyt said back in the garage area,  of the crash and of Cogan that "It was a stupid deal  The guy had his head up his ass "
Gordon Johncock, Johnny Rutherford and Bobby Unser later placed some blame for the accident on the polesitter Rick Mears, for bringing the field down at such a slow pace  Johncock, who went on to win the 1982 race, pointed out that Andretti had jumped the start, and could have avoided the spinning car of Cogan had he been lined up properly in the second row  Foyt wrote a memoir of his career in 1983 and when mentioning the crash, in a more analytic form, assigned some blame on Mears for the slow start, while assigning Cogan the rest of the responsibility 
At the end of the USAC Gold Crown season, Cogan finished 47th in points  The reason was that Cogan ran the 1981 race without a USAC Class I license and received no points for his 4th-place finish 

Aftermath
Cogan quickly fell out of favor following the humiliation stemming from the accident  It was followed by a noticeable "blacklisting" by fans and press  Cogan nearly had the dubious distinction of taking out two of the most famous American auto racing legends (Foyt and Andretti) in one move in the biggest race of the season  The incident also further rehashed a standing feud between Team Penske and Patrick Racing  A year earlier, Penske and Patrick were the key fixtures in the controversial 1981 race  In a post-wreck interview, Penske stood behind Cogan, although he also refused to confirm nor deny the broken CV-joint believed to be responsible  As a result, Cogan faced a firestorm of controversy that impacted the remainder of his career 
Cogan never managed to win a race in 1982, and was possibly fired by Roger Penske because of it and replaced by Al Unser in 1983 
The accident was never explained by the Penske team, however, several experts had differing opinions  Rodger Ward, working for the IMS Radio Network immediately believed the rear brakes locked up  It was a common practice for drivers in the turbocharged era to "ride the brakes" during warm up laps in order to engage the turbocharger  Others theorized it may have happened due to a broken CV joint  Some feel that Sam Posey on ABC-TV inadvertently may have added to the controversy when he proclaimed "absolutely no idea" to the question of how it could have happened, and saying "it was as if he turned the wheel intentionally " The comments led many to conclude that the accident may have been entirely of Cogan's doing  As soon as he climbed from the car, Cogan was observed looking at the rear end axle, suggesting that he thought something broke 

1983–1993
In 1983 Cogan began driving for Bignotti-Cotter Racing in the No  6 Master Mechanic/Caesar's Palace March 83C-Cosworth DFX (numbered 16 at Indianapolis only)  During the season results were hard to come by for Cogan with his best finish being a 5th place at the Indianapolis 500 where teammate Tom Sneva won  Helping neither Cogan nor Sneva was that Bignotti-Cotter began to develop the Theodore 83 rather than continue to use the proven March 83C  At the end of the season Cogan finished 15th in the CART standings and 6th in the USAC standings  At year's end, team co-owner George Bignotti retired and sold his share of the operation to co-owner Dan Cotter, who did not retain Cogan for 1984 
For 1984 Cogan was originally going to drive the No  98 Dubonnet/Curb Records Ligier LC02-Cosworth DFX for Curb Racing and the No  98 Dubonnet Eagle 84SB-Pontiac V8 for All American Racers each in select races  At the season-opening Toyota Grand Prix of Long Beach on the Streets of Long Beach Cogan would start 21st and finish in 28th place in the Ligier  At the Dana Jimmy Bryan 150 at Phoenix International Raceway Cogan would finish in 8th place aboard the Eagle  Then at the Indianapolis 500 Cogan returned to the Ligier  The car was off the pace at the beginning of practice and Cogan faced the possibility of failing to qualify  Cogan would eventually qualify for the race after Ligier and Curb parted ways and when Michael Chandler suffered career-ending injuries in the Eagle  During this time Mike Curb and Dan Gurney merged their teams to form Curb-All American Racers  In the race Cogan qualified in 27th place, setting a new speed record for stock block engines at Indianapolis  In the race Cogan retired to 20th place after suffering a frozen wheel after 137 laps  Cogan would leave Curb-All American Racers after the Budweiser Cleveland Grand Prix at Burke Lakefront Airport  Cogan would then start driving for Forsythe Racing in the No  33 Skoal Bandit March 84C-Cosworth DFX  Initially results were good as Cogan was able to start 5th and finish 8th in his debut for the team at the Michigan 500 at Michigan International Speedway and would follow it up with a 10th-place finish at the Provimi Veal 200 at Road America  During practice for the Domino's Pizza 500 at Pocono International Raceway Cogan would suffer season-ending injuries  Cogan would finish 24th in points 
In 1985 Cogan would begin to drive for Kraco Racing in the No  18 Kraco Car Stereo/Wolff Systems March 85C-Cosworth DFX  The season had its ups and downs uch as Cogan nearly failing to qualify for the Indianapolis 500, eventually starting in 32nd place and finishing 11th  Cogan would also get a 4th-place finish at the Detroit News 200 at Michigan International Speedway and a 5th-place finish at the Stroh's/G I  Joe's 200 at Portland International Raceway to get a 14th-place finish in points 
For 1986 Cogan joined Patrick Racing to drive the No  7 7-Eleven March 86C-Cosworth DFX  At the season opening Dana 200 for Special Olympics at Phoenix International Raceway Cogan scored his first Indycar win, leading 2nd place Tom Sneva by a lap  It was also the first time Cogan led the CART standings in his career  With 13 laps to go in the Indianapolis 500, Cogan made a bold move to pass Rick Mears and Bobby Rahal in less than a lap when both were held up by the slower car of Randy Lanier  Despite his car conspicuously oversteering in the turns, Cogan pulled away to a 3-second lead before a caution came out on lap 195 for a crash by Arie Luyendyk in turn four  Cogan did not get a good restart on lap 198 and was passed by Rahal, eventually finishing in 2nd place  Cogan still led the standings after Indianapolis but suffered retirements in seven of the fourteen remaining races and fell to 6th in the championship 
For 1987 Cogan would return with Patrick, making it the first team Cogan drove for in consecutive years, driving the No  7 Marlboro March 87C-Ilmor-Chevrolet Indy V8 265A  The season would turn out to be a disappointment as Cogan got a best finish of 5th at the Escort Radar Warning 200 at Mid-Ohio Sports Car Course and the Bosch Spark Plug Grand Prix at Nazareth Speedway to get a 16th-place finish in points 
In 1988 Cogan would begin to drive for Machinists Union Racing in the No  11 Schaefer Beer/Playboy Fashions March 88C-Cosworth DFX (although an 87C was used at the Miller High Life 200 at the Milwaukee Mile)  The season started off well as Cogan got a 3rd-place finish at the Toyota Grand Prix of Long Beach on the Streets of Long Beach  After seven rounds Cogan was ranked 11th in points when he was injured while competing at the Molson Indy Toronto at Exhibition Place  Cogan would miss four races but would still finish 13th in points on the strength of a 4th-place finish at the Nissan Indy Challenge at Tamiami Park 
For 1989 Cogan returned with the Machinists Union driving the No  11 Schaefer Beer/Playboy Fashions March 88C-Cosworth DFX  Another frustrating season saw Cogan finish 14th in points with a best finish of 8th at the Champion Spark Plug 300K at Laguna Seca Raceway  The only 'highlight' of Cogan's season was a major crash at the Indianapolis 500  At the end of the third lap, Cogan spun in turn four and hit the entrance to the pit lane  The car broke in half, rebounded and slammed into the end of the pit wall before finally sliding to a stop on its side in the pit lane  To everyone's surprise, Cogan immediately climbed from his destroyed car unharmed 
In 1990 Cogan could only get a drive for Indianapolis for Vince Granatelli Racing in the No  11 Tuneup Masters Penske PC18-Buick V6  In the race Cogan qualified in 15th place and finished in 9th place  Cogan would later get a second race at the Marlboro 500 at Michigan International Speedway for Stoops Racing in the No  17 Conseco Lola T9000-Cosworth DFS starting 13th and finishing 20th  Cogan would finish out the season 23rd in points 
In 1991 Cogan would join Team Menard to drive the No  9 Glidden/Menards Lola T9100-Buick V6 at the Indianapolis 500  During qualifying Cogan was unable to make an attempt due to rain and would have to wait for the second day  Cogan would easily qualify for the race in 16th place with a speed that would have placed him easily in the top ten along with other drivers, such as teammate Gary Bettenhausen, Arie Luyendyk, Emerson Fittipaldi and Stan Fox  In the race Cogan was involved in a crash with Roberto Guerrero on lap 25  In the wreck Cogan broke his arm and leg  Original television footage was inconclusive, and Cogan firmly assessed the blame on Guerrero, claiming that Guerrero cut down on him  An amateur home video shot from the grandstands surfaced, however, which showed that Cogan may have moved up into Guerrero  At the very least, the video showed that it may have been a simple racing accident, although Cogan still holds Guerrero responsible  As a result of the crash Cogan missed the remainder of the year (Menard wasn't going to do anymore races) and the next year  Cogan scored no points during the season 
For 1993 Cogan would drive for Galles-Kraco Racing in the No  11 Conseco Lola T9300-Ilmor-Chevrolet Indy V8 265A in a part-time schedule  At Cogan's debut for the year, the Indianapolis 500 Cogan was on the bubble on Bump Day and was nearly bumped by Bobby Rahal  Rahal was not successful and Cogan started in 14th place and would lead for four laps during pit stops, eventually finishing in 14th place  Cogan would drive in three more races for Galles-Kraco, getting a best finish of 13th at the Budweiser Grand Prix of Cleveland at Burke Lakefront Airport  Cogan would again score no points towards the championship 
Cogan would retire from racing at the end of 1993 with 6th place in 1982 and 1986 being his best finish in the CART standings and his win at Phoenix in 1986 being his only win 

Personal life
Since leaving IndyCar, Cogan has distanced himself from racing to concentrate on a real estate business in Los Angeles, Palos Verdes Estates LLC  Cogan declined invitations to be interviewed for the centennial era of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway (2009) in which many IndyCar legends and IndyCar drivers were interviewed by ESPN  Cogan also refused invitations to participate in Indianapolis 500 festivities during the 100th anniversary of the race in 2011 (9)
In 1988, ESPN reporter Jack Arute reported that Cogan was married, to Tracy, and had a son  The couple has since been divorced since 2004  In a 2015 interview with a news reporter, it was revealed that Cogan has 2 more children, a daughter and a son, since his retirement 

Racing record
SCCA National Championship Runoffs
Complete USAC Mini-Indy Series results
Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key)

American open-wheel racing
(key)

CART
Indianapolis 500
24 Hours of Le Mans
Passage 8:
Mark Donohue
Mark Neary Donohue Jr  (March 18, 1937 – August 19, 1975), nicknamed "Captain Nice," and later "Dark Monohue," was an American race car driver and engineer known for his ability to set up his own race car as well as driving it to victories Donohue is probably best known as the driver of the 1500+ bhp "Can-Am Killer" Porsche 917-30 and as the winner of the Indianapolis 500 in 1972  Cars that Donohue raced include: AMC Javelin, AMC Matador, Chevrolet Camaro, Eagle-Offy, Elva Courier, Ford GT40 MK IV, Ferrari 250LM, Ferrari 512, Lola T70, Lola T330, Lotus 20, McLaren M16, Porsche 911, Porsche 917/10, Porsche 917/30, Shelby Cobra, and Shelby Mustang GT350R 

Early life
Born in Haddon Township, New Jersey, Donohue grew up in Summit, graduated from the Pingry School in Hillside, and entered Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island  At the age of 22 while a senior at Brown, Donohue began racing his 1957 Corvette  He won the first event he entered, a hillclimb in Belknap County, New Hampshire  He graduated from Brown in 1959 with a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering Donohue won the SCCA national championship in an Elva Courier in 1961  Experienced race driver Walt Hansgen (who worked for Inskip Motors in New York & Rhode Island) recognized Donohue's ability and befriended him, eventually providing an MGB (through Inskip Motors in Providence, RI and prepped by their race shop Competition Engineering) for Donohue to race at the 1964 Bridgehampton 
500-mile (800 km) SCCA endurance event, which he won  Hansgen arranged for Donohue to become his teammate in 1965, co-driving a Ferrari 275 at the 12 Hours of Sebring endurance race, which they finished in 11th place  That year, Donohue also won two divisional championships: in SCCA B Class in a GT350 and in SCCA Formula C in a Lotus 20B Donohue was hired on March 29, 1964, by Jack Griffith [Griffith Motors, Syosset, N Y /Plainview, N Y ] as design engineer for the Griffith, formerly TVR Grantura Mk III, powered by a Ford 289 cid (4 7l) V8 engine  He went on to assist TVR's David Hives in designing the Series 400 Griffith and then working on the ill-fated Bob Cumberford-designed, Intermeccanica-(Torino, Italy) produced Series 600 Griffith 
During its production life, there were 192 Series 200 Griffiths built, 59 of the Series 400 and only 10 of the Series 600 
During his tenure at Griffith Mark drove the Griffith-owned Shelby 289 Cobra making his mark on the SCCA circuit 
In February of '65 Donohue was named comptroller at Griffith Motors, but was soon lured from Griffith by Roger Penske early in 1966 
The Griffith company went defunct in November, 1966 

Ford GT40 and joining with Penske
In 1966, thanks to his friendship with Hansgen, word quickly spread to the Ford Motor Company about the young driver  Ford immediately signed Donohue to drive one of their GT-40 Mk II race cars campaigned at the 24 Hours of Le Mans by the Holman & Moody racing team   Le Mans proved frustrating for Donohue   Hansgen died while testing the GT40 in preparation for Le Mans so Donohue partnered with Australian Paul Hawkins   Donohue and Hawkins completed only twelve laps due to differential failure and finished 47th  Earlier that year, co-driving with Hansgen, Donohue finished third at the 24 Hours of Daytona and second at the 12 Hours of Sebring At Hansgen's funeral, Roger Penske spoke to Donohue about driving for him  In his first race for Penske, at Watkins Glen in June 1966, Donohue qualified well but crashed the car at the top of a hill, destroying it Donohue was invited back to Le Mans by Ford in 1967  Ford had developed a new GT, the Mark IV  Donohue co-drove in the No  4 yellow car with sports car driver and race car builder Bruce McLaren for Shelby American Racing  The two drivers disagreed on many aspects of racing and car setup, but as a team were able to muster a fourth-place finish in the endurance classic In 1967, Penske contacted Donohue about driving Penske's brand new Lola T70 spyder in the United States Road Racing Championship   Donohue dominated the 1967 race, driving a Lola T70 MkIII Chevrolet for Penske  Donohue raced in seven of the eight races that year, winning six (at Las Vegas, Riverside, Bridgehampton, Watkins Glen, Pacific Raceways, and Mid-Ohio) and finishing third at the Laguna Seca Raceway round behind Lothar Motschenbacher and Mike Goth 
In 1968, Donohue and Penske returned to defend their USRRC championship with the McLaren M6A Chevrolet  Donohue did not start the first race of the year at Circuit Hermanos Rodriguez in Mexico City due to problems getting the engine to start  Despite this, Donohue still dominated the series, even though he suffered three DNFs during the season due to mechanical problems with the M6A 

Trans-Am
Donohue began his Trans-Am series campaign in 1967, winning three of twelve races in a Roger Penske-owned Chevrolet Camaro  In 1967 and 1968, Trans-Am schedule included two of the most prized endurance races in the world, the 24 Hours of Daytona and the 12 Hours of Sebring  Donohue finished fourth at Daytona and won the Trans-Am class at the 12 Hours of Sebring 
1968 would be a banner year for Donohue in the Trans-Am series, as he successfully defended his 12 Hours of Sebring victory by partnering with Craig Fisher and driving his Penske Chevrolet Camaro to victory  Donohue went on to win 10 of 13 races, a Trans-Am series record which would stand until Tommy Kendall went 11 for 13 in the 1997 Trans-Am championship, winning the first 11 races that year in his All-Sport liveried Mustang 
Donohue was considered a leading Trans-Am driver of the late 1960s and early 1970s  Had there been a Drivers' Championship in place at the time, he would have won three of them (his last in 1971) while driving Camaros in 1968 and 1969, and an AMC Javelin in 1971, all for Roger Penske Racing 
During their enormous success in Trans-Am, Penske and Donohue would begin to experiment with their Camaros  They discovered that using a drag racing trick of dipping a car in an acid bath would eat away small amounts of metal, which in turn made the car incrementally lighter, and allowed it to be driven faster  The 1967 Z-28 won its last race by lapping the entire field of cars, causing suspicion throughout the paddock During a post-race inspection, race stewards discovered that the car was 250 pounds lighter than the 2,800-pound minimum weight requirement  Donohue was about to have his race victory taken away for cheating, but Roger Penske stepped in  Penske warned that any disqualification would have the potential of motivating Chevrolet to pull all support for the Trans-Am series  After considering the potential consequences, the race stewards allowed Donohue's victory to stand, but the rules for the 1968 season incorporated a change whereby all cars would be weighed during the technical inspection before the race 
Penske and Donohue did not stop acid-dipping after this, however  Continuing the practice of reducing weight allowed them to place weights of certain sizes strategically in specific locations within the car, thus helping to balance the car while being driven on the limit  Acid-dipping car bodies was prevalent with competing Trans-Am teams also 
They continued to use the "lightweight" car in 1968, at the Sebring 12-hour race  They changed the grille and taillight to the 1968 model, and then painted both cars identically  They sent the legal weight car through the technical inspection with the number 15 and again with the number 16 on it  Then they put both cars in the race, number 15 and 16, one car being 250 pounds lighter  They won the race, finished third overall, and went on to win 10 out of 13 races that year 
They also acid-dipped the body on the Camaro and had to caution people not to lean against it, for fear it would dent  The lightweight car was featured on an episode of Dream Car Garage on Speed TV in 2005 
In 1970 new Javelin team owner Roger Penske and driver Mark Donohue would breathe new life into the AMC team  Donohue drove the Javelin to three victories, with AMC finishing second overall in the Manufacturers' Championship  In 1971, of the ten races that the Over 2 5L Class cars participated in, Donohue won seven of them, including the final six races in a row, with AMC winning the Manufacturers' championship for the first time ever  In the final race of the season, Javelins finished in first, second and third place, with George Follmer becoming the only other Javelin driver to win besides Donohue 

Indianapolis 500
In 1969, Penske and Donohue raced in their first Indianapolis 500, with Donohue finishing seventh, winning the rookie of the year award  Donohue raced at Indianapolis each year following, finishing second in 1970 and 25th in 1971 
Donohue won in 1972, driving for Penske  He finished the race in his McLaren-Offy setting a record speed of over 162 mph (261 km/h), which stood for twelve years  The victory was the first for Penske in the Indy 500 

NASCAR
Donohue raced in several NASCAR Grand American races and a NASCAR pony car division from 1968 until 1971  In the 1972–1973 season, driving an AMC Matador for Penske Racing in NASCAR's top division, the Winston Cup Series, Donohue won the season-opening event at Riverside  That race was Penske's first NASCAR win in a long history of NASCAR participation  Although photographs of Donohue with the more aerodynamic 1974 Matador coupe exist and are published, he did not drive it in competition 

Can-Am Porsche
Between 1971 and 1972, Penske Racing (along with Donohue as the primary test and development driver) was commissioned by Porsche to help develop the 917-10 to compete in the Can-Am series  During testing at Road Atlanta, Donohue recommended larger brake ducts, believing that more cooling would slow the brakes' degradation during a race 
The Porsche engineers obliged, but the new ducts interfered with the bodywork closure pins that attached body panels to the car  Coming out of turn seven at about 150 mph (240 km/h), the rear bodywork flew off the car, which became extremely unstable, lifted off the ground, and tumbled down the track  The front of the car was torn away, leaving Donohue, still strapped to his safety seat, with his legs dangling outside the car  Amazingly, Donohue only suffered an internal derangement of his knee with meniscus damage and limited cruciate plus collateral ligament damage  (He was operated on at Piedmont Hospital in Atlanta by Drs  J  Funk and J  L  Watts )  George Follmer, Donohue's old Trans-Am teammate, took over testing the 917-10 for Donohue, who said:

It just doesn't feel right  Seeing another man driving your car, a car you know so well  I imagine it must feel like watching another man in bed with your wife 

Porsche, Penske, and Donohue quickly started the development of the 917-30, complete with a reworked aerodynamic "Paris" body and a 5 4-liter turbocharged flat-12 engine whose output could be adjusted from about 1,100 to 1,500 bhp by turning a boost knob in the cockpit  During the development of this motor, the German Porsche engineers often asked Donohue if the motor finally had enough power  He answered, "It will never have enough power until I can spin the wheels at the end of the straightaway in high gear "
On August 9, 1975, Donohue drove the 917–30 to a world closed-course speed record at the Talladega Superspeedway in Talladega, Alabama  His average speed around the 2 66-mile (4 28 km) high-banked oval was 221 120 mph (355 858 km/h)  Donohue held the record for 11 years, until it was broken by Rick Mears at Michigan International Speedway 
The 917-30 is referred to as the "Can-Am killer"  as it dominated the competition, winning all but two races of the 1973 Can-Am championship (which is an untrue statement, because OPEC killed the Can-Am series in 1975–1976)  After the Arab oil embargo in 1973, it led the SCCA, IMSA and other race series to impose fuel limitations on motor sport racing as a whole, which hampered the performance of the 917/30, making it uncompetitive in the Can-Am series  Brian Redman drove it once in 1974, and that was it for the car as far as Penske campaigning it  The 917/30 generally is considered one of the most powerful and most dominant racing machines ever created 

First IROC champion
Donohue raced in the inaugural IROC series in 1973–74, racing identical, specially-prepared Porsche RSRs  In the four-race series, Donohue won the first and third of three races at Riverside and the final race of the year at Daytona  The only person to beat Donohue was his former Penske Trans-Am teammate, George Follmer  In winning the first IROC championship, Donohue beat the best racing drivers of that era from all of the major championships, such as Denny Hulme, Richard Petty, A  J  Foyt, Emerson Fittipaldi, Bobby Allison, David Pearson, Peter Revson, Bobby Unser, and Gordon Johncock 

Retirement and Formula One
The pressures of racing and designing the car took their toll on Donohue  By 1973, the "Captain Nice" nickname he had earned earlier in his career was being supplanted by the nickname "Dark Monohue"   Donohue announced that he would retire from racing after the 1973 Can-Am season  In addition, the horrific events at the 1973 Indianapolis 500 and the subsequent death of his friend, Swede Savage, pushed him to quit  His retirement was short-lived, however, as he was lured back to full-time competitive driving by Penske when he formed a Formula One team, Penske Cars Ltd, to compete in the final two events of the 1974 Formula One World Championship, and to continue competing in 1975 with the new Penske PC1 

Donohue previously had debuted in Formula One on September 19, 1971, with a Penske-sponsored McLaren at the Canadian Grand Prix at Mosport Park, finishing on the podium in third place  After coming out of retirement with his former boss, Penske, Donohue returned to Formula One, entering into the final two races of the 1974 Formula One season  Donohue finished in 12th place at the Canadian Grand Prix, but failed to finish at the United States Grand Prix 
A full season of racing for the 1975 Formula One season was planned  The 1975 season turned out to be a difficult one for Donohue and Penske   Donohue was able to muster fifth-place finishes at the Swedish Grand Prix and the British Grand Prix, but the new Penske PC1 chassis proved problematic, as evidenced by three retirements in the first six races  At the Austrian Grand Prix, Donohue's career, along with Roger Penske's Formula One aspirations, took a tragic turn 

Death
Midway through the 1975 F1 season, Penske abandoned the troublesome PC1 and started using the March 751  Donohue recently had arrived in Austria for the Austrian Grand Prix at the Österreichring race track following the successful closed-course speed record attempt at Talladega Superspeedway in Alabama just a few days earlier  During a practice session for the race, Donohue lost control of his March after a tire failed, sending him into the catch fencing at the fastest corner on the track, Vöest Hügel Kurve  A track marshal was killed by debris from the accident, but Donohue did not appear to be injured significantly  It is said that Donohue's head struck either a catch fencing post or the bottom of the wood frame for an advertising billboard located alongside of the racetrack  A headache resulted, however, and worsened  After going to the hospital in Graz the next day, Donohue lapsed into a coma from a cerebral hemorrhage and died  He was survived by his second wife and two sons from his first marriage  Donohue is buried at St  Teresa Cemetery in Summit, New Jersey 

Commemorations and legacy
In 2003, in commemoration of Penske Racing's 50th NASCAR win, Nextel Cup driver Ryan Newman drove a Dodge Intrepid painted to resemble Donohue's 1973 AMC (with a No  12 and current Alltel decals) at the fall Rockingham, North Carolina, race 
Penske's new Penske Racing complex in Mooresville, North Carolina is decorated with various murals of Donohue and his racing cars, most notably the AMC stock car and the various Porsche prototypes that Donohue drove through his career 
Donohue chronicled his entire racing career in the book, The Unfair Advantage (co-written with noted motorsports and engineering journalist Paul Van Valkenburgh)  The book documents his career from his first races to his final full season of racing the year before he was killed  This was not merely a celebrity autobiography, but a detailed, step-by-step record of the engineering approach he took to getting the absolutely highest performance from every car he drove, always looking for that elusive "unfair advantage"  Donohue (along with Penske) were pioneers in many rights, some as notable as the use of a skidpad as a tool for developing and perfecting race car suspension designs and setups  The book told how Donohue learned to exploit the antilock braking system and the powerful turbocharged engine of several prototype Porsches, as well as how he learned from various mishaps, including a near-fatal crash  The book was published shortly before Donohue's death 
The book was re-released in 2000 by Bentley Publishers (Cambridge, Massachusetts)  It includes information and additional photography that was not available before the first edition was published 
Donohue's racing tradition is carried on by his son, David Donohue, a successful road racer in his own right 

Awards
Drexel University presented Mark Donohue with its Engineering and Science Award in 1973 
Mark Donohue was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 1990 
He was also inducted in the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 1990 
He was inducted in the Sports Car Club of America Hall of Fame in its 2006 class 

Motorsports career results
SCCA National Championship Runoffs
Formula One World Championship
(key)

Formula One Non-Championship
(key)

Complete USAC Championship Car results
Indianapolis 500 results
NASCAR
Winston Cup Series
Daytona 500
International Race of Champions
(key) (Bold – Pole position  * – Most laps led )

Complete Canadian-American Challenge Cup results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results
See also
Roger Penske
Indianapolis Motor Speedway
George Follmer
Walt Hansgen
Skidpad
Turbocharger
Brown University
Lola Cars
Vehicle Dynamics
Elva (car manufacturer)



ground_truth: Plato

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which racecar driver who performed in the 1971 Canadian Grand Prix was born in 1937?

The following are given passages.
Context 4:  It is the home of the Iowa Wolves of the NBA G League, the Iowa Wild of the American Hockey League, and the Iowa Barnstormers of the Indoor Football League 
The Simon Estes Riverfront Amphitheater is an outdoor concert venue on the east bank of the Des Moines River which hosts music events such as the Alive Concert Series 

The Des Moines Art Center, with a wing designed by architect I  M  Pei, presents art exhibitions and educational programs as well as studio art classes  The Center houses a collection of artwork from the 19th century to the present  An extension of the art center is downtown in an urban museum space, featuring three or four exhibitions each year 

The Pappajohn Sculpture Park was established in 2009  It showcases a collection of 24 sculptures donated by Des Moines philanthropists John and Mary Pappajohn  Nearby is the Temple for Performing Arts, a cultural center for the city  Next to the Temple is the 117,000-square-foot (10,900 m2) Central Library, designed by renowned English architect David Chipperfield 
Salisbury House and Gardens is a 42-room historic house museum on 10 acres (4 ha) of woodlands in the South of Grand neighborhood of Des Moines  It is named after—and loosely inspired by—King's House in Salisbury, England  Built in the 1920s by cosmetics magnate Carl Weeks and his wife, Edith, the Salisbury House contains authentic 16th-century English oak and rafters dating to Shakespeare's days, numerous other architectural features re-purposed from other historic English homes, and an internationally significant collection of original fine art, tapestries, decorative art, furniture, musical instruments, and rare books and documents  The Salisbury House is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and has been featured on A&E's America's Castles and PBS's Antiques Roadshow  Prominent artists in the Salisbury House collection include Joseph Stella, Lillian Genth, Anthony van Dyck and Lawrence Alma-Tadema 
Built in 1877 by prominent pioneer businessman Hoyt Sherman, Hoyt Sherman Place mansion was Des Moines' first public art gallery and houses a distinctive collection of 19th and 20th century artwork  Its restored 1,250-seat theater features an intricate rococo plaster ceiling and excellent acoustics and is used for a variety of cultural performances and entertainment 

Attractions
Arising in the east and facing westward toward downtown, the Iowa State Capitol building with its 275-foot (84 m), 23-karat gold leafed dome towering above the city is a favorite of sightseers  Four smaller domes flank the main dome  The Capitol houses the governor's offices, legislature, and the old Supreme Court Chambers  The ornate interior also features a grand staircase, mural "Westward", five-story law library, scale model of the USS Iowa, and collection of first lady dolls  Guided tours are available 
The Capitol grounds include a World War II memorial with sculpture and Wall of Memories, the 1894 Soldiers and Sailors Monument of the Civil War and memorials honoring those who served in the Spanish–American, Korean, and Vietnam Wars 
The West Capitol Terrace provides the entrance from the west to the state's grandest building, the State Capitol Building  The 10-acre (4 ha) "people's park" at the foot of the Capitol complex includes a promenade and landscaped gardens, in addition to providing public space for rallies and special events  A granite map of Iowa depicting all 99 counties rests at the base of the terrace and has become an attraction for in-state visitors, many of whom walk over the map to find their home county 

Iowa's history lives on in the State of Iowa Historical Museum  This modern granite and glass structure at the foot of the State Capitol Building houses permanent and temporary exhibits exploring the people, places, events, and issues of Iowa's past  The showcase includes native wildlife, American Indian and pioneer artifacts, and political and military items  The museum features a genealogy and Iowa history library, museum gift shop, and cafe 
Terrace Hill, a National Historic Landmark and Iowa Governor's Residence, is among the best examples of American Victorian Second Empire architecture  This opulent 1869 home was built by Iowa's first millionaire, Benjamin F  Allen, and restored to the late 19th century period  It overlooks downtown Des Moines and is situated on 8 acres (3 2 ha) with a re-created Victorian formal garden  Tours are conducted Tuesdays through Saturdays from March through December 
The 110,000-square-foot (10,000 m2) Science Center of Iowa and Blank IMAX Dome Theater offers seven interactive learning areas, live programs, and hands-on activities encouraging learning and fun for all ages  Among its three theaters include the 216-seat Blank IMAX Dome Theater, 175-seat John Deere Adventure Theater featuring live performances, and a 50-foot (15 m) domed Star Theater 

The Greater Des Moines Botanical Garden, an indoor conservatory of over 15,000 exotic plants, is one of the largest collections of tropical, subtropical, and desert-growing plants in the Midwest  The Center blooms with thousands of flowers year-round  Nearby are the Robert D  Ray Asian Gardens and Pavilion, named in honor of the former governor whose influence helped relocate thousands of Vietnamese refugees to Iowa homes in the 1970s and 1980s  Developed by the city's Asian community, the Gardens include a three-story Chinese pavilion, bonsai landscaping, and granite sculptures to highlight the importance of diversity and recognize Asian American contributions in Iowa 
Blank Park Zoo is a landscaped 22-acre (8 9 ha) zoological park on the south side  Among the exhibits include a tropical rain forest, Australian Outback, and Africa  The Zoo offers education classes, tours, and rental facilities 
The Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary was established as a scientific research facility with a 230-acre (93 ha) campus housing bonobos and orangutans for the noninvasive interdisciplinary study of their cognitive and communicative capabilities 

The East Village, on the east side of the Des Moines River, begins at the river and extends about five blocks east to the State Capitol Building, offering an eclectic blend of historic buildings, hip eateries, boutiques, art galleries, and a wide variety of other retail establishments mixed with residences 
Adventureland Park is an amusement park in neighboring Altoona, just northeast of Des Moines  The park boasts more than 100 rides, shows, and attractions, including six rollercoasters  A hotel and campground is just outside the park  Also in Altoona is Prairie Meadows Racetrack and Casino, an entertainment venue for gambling and horse racing  Open 24 hours a day, year-round, the racetrack and casino features live racing, plus over 1,750 slot machines, table games, and concert and show entertainment   The racetrack hosts two Grade III races annually, the Iowa Oaks and the Cornhusker Handicap 
Living History Farms in suburban Urbandale tells the story of Midwestern agriculture and rural life in a 500-acre (2 0 km2) open-air museum with interpreters dressed in period costume who recreate the daily routines of early Iowans  Open daily from May through October, the Living History Farms include a 1700 Ioway Indian village, 1850 pioneer farm, 1875 frontier town, 1900 horse-powered farm, and a modern crop center 
Wallace House was the home of the first Henry Wallace, a national leader in agriculture and conservation and the first editor of Wallaces' Farmer farm journal  This restored 1883 Italianate Victorian houses exhibits, artifacts, and information covering four generations of Henry Wallaces and other family members 
Historic Jordan House in West Des Moines is a stately Victorian home built in 1850 and added to in 1870 by the first white settler in West Des Moines, James C  Jordan  Completely refurbished, this mansion was part of the Underground Railroad and today houses 16 period rooms, a railroad museum, West Des Moines community history, and a museum dedicated to the Underground Railroad in Iowa  In 1893 Jordan's daughter Eda was sliding down the banister when she fell off and broke her neck  She died two days later, and her ghost is reputed to haunt the house The Chicago Tribune wrote that Iowa's capital city has "walker-friendly downtown streets and enough outdoor sculpture, sleek buildings, storefronts and cafes to delight the most jaded stroller" 

Festivals and events
Des Moines plays host to a growing number of nationally acclaimed cultural events, including the annual Des Moines Arts Festival in June, Metro Arts Jazz in July, Iowa State Fair in August, and the World Food & Music Festival in September  On Saturdays from May through October, the Downtown Farmers' Market draws visitors from across the state  Local parades include Saint Patrick's Day Parade, Drake Relays Parade, Capitol City Pride Parade, Iowa State Fair Parade, Labor Day Parade, and Beaverdale Fall Festival Parade 
Other annual festivals and events include: Des Moines Beer Week, 80/35 Music Festival, 515 Alive Music Festival, ArtFest Midwest, Blue Ribbon Bacon Fest, CelebrAsian Heritage Festival, Des Moines Pride Festival, Des Moines Renaissance Faire, Festa Italiana, Festival of Trees and Lights, World Food & Music Festival, I'll Make Me a World Iowa, Latino Heritage Festival, Oktoberfest, Winefest, ImaginEve!, Iowa's Premier Beer, Wine & Food Show, and Wild Rose Film Festival 

Museums
Des Moines Art Center
Des Moines Police Museum & Historical Society
Fort Des Moines Museum and Education Center
Jordan House Museum
Hoyt Sherman Place
Salisbury House
Science Center of Iowa
State Historical Society of Iowa
Terrace Hill – Official residence of the governor of Iowa
Wallace House Museum
World Food Prize Hall of Laureates
Wells Fargo History Museum

Government
Des Moines operates under a council–manager form of government  The council consists of a mayor (Frank Cownie) and is elected in citywide vote, two at-large members, and four members representing each of the city's four wards  In 2014, Jonathan Gano was appointed as the new Public Works Director  In 2015, Dana Wingert was appointed as Police Chief  In 2018, Steven L  Naber was appointed as the new City Engineer The council members include:
A plan to merge the governments of Des Moines and Polk County was rejected by voters during the November 2, 2004, election  The consolidated city-county government would have had a full-time mayor and a 15-member council that would have been divided among the city and its suburbs  Each suburb would still have retained its individual government but with the option to join the consolidated government at any time  Although a full merger was soundly rejected, many city and county departments and programs have been consolidated 

Transportation
Des Moines has an extensive skywalk system within its downtown core  With over four miles of enclosed walkway, it is one of the largest of such systems in the United States  The Des Moines Skywalk System has been criticized for hurting street-level business, though a recent initiative has been made to make street-level Skywalk entrances more visible 

Interstate 235 (I-235) cuts through the city, and I-35 and I-80 both pass through the Des Moines metropolitan area, as well as the city of Des Moines  On the northern side of the city of Des Moines and passing through the cities of Altoona, Clive, Johnston, Urbandale and West Des Moines, I-35 and I-80 converge into a long concurrency while I-235 takes a direct route through Des Moines, Windsor Heights, and West Des Moines before meeting up with I-35 and I-80 on the western edge of the metro  The Des Moines Bypass passes south and east of the city   Other routes in and around the city include US 6, US 69, Iowa 28, Iowa 141, Iowa 163, Iowa 330, Iowa 415, & Iowa 160 

Des Moines's public transit system, operated by DART (Des Moines Area Regional Transit), which was the Des Moines Metropolitan Transit Authority until October 2006, consists entirely of buses, including regular in-city routes and express and commuter buses to outlying suburban areas 
Characteristics of household ownership of cars in Des Moines are similar to national averages  In 2015, 8 5 percent of Des Moines households lacked a car, and increased to 9 6 percent in 2016  The national average was 8 7 percent in 2016  Des Moines averaged 1 71 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1 8 
Burlington Trailways, and Jefferson Lines run long-distance, intercity bus routes through Des Moines  The bus station is located north of downtown  Although Des Moines was historically a train hub, it does not have passenger train service  For east–west traffic it was served at the Rock Island Depot by the Corn Belt Rocket express from Omaha to the west, to Chicago in the east  The Rock Island also offered the Rocky Mountain Rocket from Colorado Springs in the west, to Chicago, and the Twin Star Rocket to Minneapolis to the north and Dallas and Houston to the south  The last train was an unnamed service ending at Council Bluffs, and it was discontinued on May 31, 1970   Today, this line constitutes the mainline of the Iowa Interstate Railroad  
Other railroads used the East Des Moines Union Station  Northward and northwest bound, there were Chicago and North Western trains to destinations including Minneapolis  The Wabash Railroad ran service to the southeast to St  Louis   These lines remain in use but are now operated by Union Pacific and BNSF 
The nearest Amtrak station is in Osceola, about 40 miles (64 km) south of Des Moines  The Osceola station is served by the Chicago–San Francisco California Zephyr; there is no Osceola–Des Moines Amtrak Thruway Motorcoach connecting service  There have been proposals to extend Amtrak's planned Chicago–Moline Quad City Rocket to Des Moines via the Iowa Interstate Railroad The Des Moines International Airport (DSM), on Fleur Drive in the southern part of Des Moines, offers nonstop service to destinations within the United States  The only international service is cargo service, but there have been discussions about adding an international terminal 

Education
The Des Moines Public Schools district is the largest community school district in Iowa with 32,062 enrolled students as of the 2012–2013 school year  The district consists of 63 schools: 38 elementary schools, eleven middle schools, five high schools (East, Hoover, Lincoln, North, and Roosevelt), and ten special schools and programs  Small parts of the city are instead served by Carlisle Community Schools, Johnston Community School District, the Southeast Polk Community School District and the Saydel School District Grand View Christian School is the only private school in the city, although Des Moines Christian School (in Des Moines from 1947 to 2006) in Urbandale, Dowling Catholic High School in West Des Moines, and Ankeny Christian Academy on the north side of the metro area serve some city residents 
Des Moines is also home to the main campuses of three four-year private colleges: Drake University, Grand View University, and Mercy College of Health Sciences  The University of Iowa has a satellite facility in the city's Western Gateway Park, while Iowa State University hosts Master of Business Administration classes downtown  Simpson College, Upper Iowa University, William Penn University, and Purdue University Global   Des Moines Area Community College is the area's community college with campuses in Ankeny, Des Moines, and West Des Moines  The city is also home to Des Moines University, an osteopathic medical school 

Media
The Des Moines market, which originally consisted of Polk, Dallas, Story, and Warren counties, was ranked 91st by Arbitron as of the fall of 2007 with a population of 512,000 aged 12 and older  But in June 2011 it was moved up to 72nd with the addition of Boone, Clarke, Greene, Guthrie, Jasper, Lucas, Madison and Marion counties 

Radio
Commercial stations
iHeartMedia owns five radio stations in the area, including WHO 1040 AM, a 50,000-watt AM news/talk station that has the highest ratings in the area and once employed future President Ronald Reagan as a sportscaster  In addition to WHO, iHeartMedia owns KDRB 100 3 FM (adult hits), KKDM 107 5 FM (contemporary hits), KXNO-FM 106 3, and KXNO 1460 AM (sports radio)  They also own news/talk station KASI 1430 AM and hot adult contemporary station KCYZ 105 1 FM, both of which broadcast from Ames 
Cumulus Media owns five stations that broadcast from facilities in Urbandale: KBGG 1700 AM (sports), KGGO 94 9 FM (classic rock), KHKI 97 3 FM (country music), KJJY 92 5 FM (country music), and KWQW 98 3 FM (classic hip hop) Saga Communications owns nine stations in the area: KAZR 103 3 FM (rock), KAZR-HD2 (oldies), KIOA 93 3 FM (oldies), KIOA-HD2 99 9FM & 93 3 HD2 (Rhythmic Top 40), KOEZ 104 1 FM (soft adult contemporary), KPSZ 940 AM (contemporary Christian music, religious teaching, and conservative talk), KRNT 1350 AM (ESPN Radio), KSTZ 102 5 FM (adult contemporary hits), and KSTZ-HD2 (classic country)  Other stations in the Des Moines area include religious stations KWKY 1150 AM, and KPUL 101 7 FM 

Non-commercial stations
Non-commercial radio stations in the Des Moines area include KDPS 88 1 FM, a station operated by the Des Moines Public Schools; KWDM 88 7 FM, a station operated by Valley High School; KJMC 89 3 FM, an urban contemporary station; K213DV 90 5 FM, the contemporary Christian K-Love affiliate for the area; and KDFR 91 3 FM, operated by Family Radio  Iowa Public Radio broadcasts several stations in the Des Moines area, all of which are owned by Iowa State University and operated on campus  WOI 640 am, the networks flagship station, and WOI-FM 90 1, the networks flagship "Studio One" station, are both based out of Ames and serve as the area's National Public Radio outlets  The network also operates classical stations KICG, KICJ, KICL and KICP   The University of Northwestern – St  Paul operates Contemporary Christian simulcasts of KNWI-FM at 107 1 Osceola/Des Moines, KNWM-FM at 96 1 Madrid/Ames/Des Moines, and K264CD at 100 7 in downtown Des Moines 
Low-power FM stations include KFMG-LP 99 1, a community radio station broadcasting from the Hotel Fort Des Moines and also webstreamed 

Television
The Des Moines-Ames media market consists of 35 central Iowa counties: Adair, Adams, Appanoose, Audubon, Boone, Calhoun, Carroll, Clarke, Dallas, Decatur, Franklin, Greene, Guthrie, Hamilton, Hardin, Humboldt, Jasper, Kossuth, Lucas, Madison, Mahaska, Marion, Marshall, Monroe, Pocahontas, Polk, Poweshiek, Ringgold, Story, Taylor, Union, Warren, Wayne, Webster, and Wright  It was ranked 71st by Nielsen Media Research for the 2008–2009 television season with 432,410 television households Commercial television stations serving Des Moines include CBS affiliate KCCI channel 8, NBC affiliate WHO-DT channel 13, and Fox affiliate KDSM-TV channel 17  ABC affiliate WOI-TV channel 5 and CW affiliate KCWI-TV channel 23 are both licensed to Ames and broadcast from studios in West Des Moines  KFPX-TV channel 39, the local ION affiliate, is licensed to Newton  Two non-commercial stations are also licensed to Des Moines: KDIN channel 11, the local PBS member station and flagship of the Iowa Public Television network, and KDMI channel 19, a TCT affiliate  Mediacom is the Des Moines area's cable television provider  Television sports listings for Des Moines and Iowa can be found on the Des Moines Register website 

Print
The Des Moines Register is the city's primary daily newspaper  As of March 31, 2007, the Register ranked 71st in circulation among daily newspapers in the United States according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations with 146,050 daily and 233,229 Sunday subscribers  Weekly newspapers include Juice, a publication aimed at the 25–34 demographic published by the Register on Wednesdays; Cityview, an alternative weekly published on Thursdays; and the Des Moines Business Record, a business journal published on Sundays, along with the West Des Moines Register, the Johnston Register, and the Waukee Register on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, or Thursdays depending on the address of the subscriber  Additionally, magazine publisher Meredith Corporation was based in Des Moines prior to its acquisition by IAC and merger with Dotdash in 2021 

Sports and recreation
Sports
Des Moines hosts professional minor league teams in several sports — baseball, basketball, hockey, indoor football, and soccer — and is home to the sports teams of Drake University which play in NCAA Division I 
The Des Moines Menace soccer club, a member of USL League Two, play their home games at Valley Stadium in West Des Moines 
Des Moines is home to the Iowa Cubs baseball team of the Triple-A East  The I-Cubs, which are the Triple-A affiliate of the major league Chicago Cubs, play their home games at Principal Park near the confluence of the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers 
Wells Fargo Arena of the Iowa Events Center is home to the Iowa Barnstormers of the Indoor Football League, the Iowa Wild of the American Hockey League, and the Iowa Wolves of the NBA G League  The Barnstormers relaunched as an af2 club in 2008 before joining a relaunched Arena Football League in 2010 and the Indoor Football League in 2015; the Barnstormers had previously played in the Arena Football League from 1994 to 2000 (featuring future NFL Hall of Famer and Super Bowl MVP quarterback Kurt Warner) before relocating to New York  The Iowa Energy, a D-League team, began play in 2007  They were bought by the Minnesota Timberwolves in 2017 and were renamed the Iowa Wolves to reflect the new ownership  The Wild, the AHL affiliate of the National Hockey League's Minnesota Wild have played at Wells Fargo Arena since 2013; previously, the Iowa Chops played four seasons in Des Moines (known as the Iowa Stars for three of those seasons )
Additionally, the Des Moines Buccaneers of the United States Hockey League play at Buccaneer Arena in suburban Urbandale 
Des Moines is also home to the Drake University Bulldogs, an NCAA Division I member of the Missouri Valley Conference, primarily playing northwest of downtown at the on-campus Drake Stadium and Knapp Center  Drake Stadium is home to the famed Drake Relays each April  In addition to the Drake Relays, Drake Stadium has hosted multiple NCAA Outdoor Track and Field Championships and USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships The Vikings of Grand View University also compete in intercollegiate athletics in Des Moines  A member of the Heart of America Athletic Conference, within the NAIA, they field 21 varsity athletic teams  They were NAIA National Champions in football in 2013 
The Principal Charity Classic, a Champions Tour golf event, is held at Wakonda Club in late May or early June  The IMT Des Moines Marathon is held throughout the city each October 

Parks and recreation
Des Moines has 76 city parks and three golf courses, as well as three family aquatic centers, five community centers and three swimming pools  The city has 45 miles (72 km) of trails  The first major park was Greenwood Park  The park commissioners purchased the land on April 21, 1894 
The Principal Riverwalk is a riverwalk park district being constructed along the banks of the Des Moines River in the downtown  Primarily funded by the Principal Financial Group, the Riverwalk is a multi-year jointly funded project also funded by the city and state  Upon completion, it will feature a 1 2-mile (1 9 km) recreational trail connecting the east and west sides of downtown via two pedestrian bridges  A landscaped promenade along the street level is planned  The Riverwalk includes the downtown Brenton Skating Plaza, open from November through March 
Gray's Lake, part of the 167 acres (68 ha) of Gray's Lake Park, features a boat rental facility, fishing pier, floating boardwalks, and a park resource center  Located just south of the downtown, the centerpiece of the park is a lighted 1 9-mile (3 1 km) Kruidenier Trail, encircling it entirely 
From downtown Des Moines primarily along the east bank of the Des Moines River, the Neil Smith and John Pat Dorrian Trails are 28 2-mile (45 4 km) paved recreational trails that connect Gray's Lake northward to the east shore of Saylorville Lake, Big Creek State Park, and the recreational trails of Ankeny including the High Trestle Trail  These trails are near several recreational facilities including the Pete Crivaro Park, Principal Park, the Principal Riverwalk, the Greater Des Moines Botanical Garden, Union Park and its Heritage Carousel of Des Moines, Birdland Park and the Birdland Marina/Boatramp on the Des Moines River, Riverview Park, McHenry Park, and River Drive Park  Although outside of Des Moines, Jester Park has 1,834 acres (742 ha) of land along the western shore of Saylorville Lake and can be reached from the Neil Smith Trail over the Saylorville Dam 
Just west of Gray's Lake are the 1,500 acres (607 ha) of the Des Moines Water Works Park  The Water Works Park is along the banks of the Raccoon River immediately upstream from where the Raccoon River empties into the Des Moines River  The Des Moines Water Works Facility, which obtains the city's drinking water from the Raccoon River, is entirely within the Water Works Park  A bridge in the park crosses the Raccoon River  The Water Works Park recreational trails link to downtown Des Moines by travelling past Gray's Lake and back across the Raccoon River via either along the Meredith Trail near Principal Park, or along the Martin Luther King Jr  Parkway  The Water Works Park trails connect westward to Valley Junction and the recreational trails of the western suburbs: Windsor Heights, Urbandale, Clive, and Waukee  Also originating from Water Works Park, the Great Western Trail is an 18-mile (29 km) journey southward from Des Moines to Martensdale through the Willow Creek Golf Course, Orilla, and Cumming  Often, the location for summer music festivals and concerts, Water Works Park was the overnight campground for thousands of bicyclists on Tuesday, July 23, 2013, during RAGBRAI XLI 

Sister cities
The Greater Des Moines Sister City Commission, with members from the City of Des Moines and the suburbs of Cumming, Norwalk, Windsor Heights, Johnston, Urbandale, and Ankeny, maintains sister city relationships with:
 Kōfu, Japan (1958)
 Saint-Étienne, France (1985)
 Shijiazhuang, China (1985)
 Stavropol, Russia (1992)
 Pristina, Kosovo (2018) (Kosovo also opened Consulate in downtown Des Moines in 2015 – List of diplomatic missions of Kosovo)
 Catanzaro, Italy (2006)
 Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia (1987)

See also
List of people from Des Moines, Iowa
B-Bop's (1988)
Moingona
Des Moines Police Department
USS Des Moines, 3 ships
Des Moines-class cruiser

Notes
Passage 3:
The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid
The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid is a 2006 memoir by best-selling travel writer Bill Bryson  The book delves into Bryson's past, telling of his youth growing up in Des Moines, Iowa, during the 1950s and early 1960s  It also reveals the backstory between himself and Stephen Katz, who appeared in A Walk in the Woods and "Neither Here Nor There: Travels in Europe " Bryson also describes and comments on American life in the 1950s  The title of the book comes from an imaginary alter-ego Bryson invented for himself in his childhood, who has the ability to vaporise people The book was released on September 1, 2006, in the United Kingdom, where it was published by Doubleday  In the United States and Canada, the book was launched on  October 17, 2006, and was published by Broadway Books and Doubleday Canada respectively 

Plot
Bryson was born on December 8, 1951  He spent his childhood growing up in Des Moines, Iowa, part of the baby-boom generation born in the post-war years  He describes his early life and his parents, Bill Sr  and Mary Bryson  His father was a well-known sports writer for The Des Moines Register, the leading newspaper in Des Moines  His mother was also a writer for the Register, she also wrote for magazines like Better Homes and Gardens, Good Housekeeping, and House Beautiful 
He recounts many things that were invented during his childhood that fascinated him, which include frozen dinners, atomic toilets, and television  His middle-class, all-American lifestyle is shown constantly throughout the book, and the influence of his depression-era raised parents rubs off on him  He also remembers his adventures as "the Thunderbolt Kid," an alter ego he made up for himself when he felt powerless  He was able to vaporize people with his heat vision and thought that he came from another planet  He tells amusing stories of his misadventures as Billy Bryson, including his first days in school when he figured out that when the entire class was running drills to protect themselves from a bomb, he would simply read comic books instead  However, when the principal and a police officer came in one day to supervise, he got in trouble  Trouble was something fairly common for "the Thunderbolt Kid", as throughout his childhood his teachers were unamused by his activities  In fact, Bryson recounts how he really was uninterested in getting up before noon, thus not even going to school very often  Despite his unique behavior, Bryson tells his story through the eyes of a child, filled with hilarious observations about the world — from "Lumpy" Kowalski's curious nickname to the joy that was to be had in the department stores 
Though Bryson focuses mostly on his childhood, he tells of many of the events that were happening at the time, including the development of the atomic bomb, and the beginnings of the civil rights movement  He tells of his first days in junior high and high school, and during both he began smoking, drinking, and stealing, although he didn’t get caught for any of it  He met Stephen Katz in junior high school, when they were both in the school's audio-visual club  Katz would accompany Bryson on many of his travel experiences  At the end of the book, Bryson tells the reader that "life moves on", and that he wishes that the world could be more similar to life in the 1950s and 1960s  The last lines of the book are, "What a wonderful world that would be  What a wonderful world it was  We won’t see its like again, I'm afraid "

Reception
The book received mostly positive reviews from critics  Carole Cadwalladr of The Observer wrote "What Bryson has achieved with this book is final confirmation that he is the Frank Capra of American letters", and later added "And it really is a wonderful life to be immersed in the American Midwest in the Fifties with Bill as your tour guide [   ] Bryson has to pad his tale with other stuff  And it's the other stuff at which he excels " 
Ian Sansom of The Guardian stated "He has a natural-seeming style in which he doesn't so much tell jokes as let his sentences stretch out and relax into feet-up, contented good humour " and "Bryson's descriptions of 50s Des Moines [   ] makes you wish that you could emigrate, become a child, get a flat-top haircut and some long-laced baseball boots, and sneak in and take up residence unnoticed with little Billy Bryson in his parents' household " The only complaint Tom Fort of The Daily Telegraph made about the autobiography was that "His handicap is that he is entirely free of the malice, the appetite for smut, scandal and unpleasantness — above all, the narcissism — absolutely essential to the form "The book has a 73/100 rating at the website Metacritic, earning it the rank of "Generally favorable reviews" 

Editions
ISBN 0-7679-1936-X (US hardcover, 2006)
ISBN 0-385-60826-8 (UK hardcover, 2006)
ISBN 0-385-66161-4 (CDN hardcover, 2006)
ISBN 0-7679-1937-8 (US paperback, 2007)
ISBN 978-0-552-77254-9 (UK paperback, 2007)
ISBN 0-385-66162-2 (CDN paperback, 2007)
ISBN 0-7393-1523-4 (US audiobook, 2006)
ISBN 978-0-552-15365-2 (UK audiobook, 2006)
Passage 4:
Bill Bryson's African Diary
Bill Bryson's African Diary is a 2002 book by bestselling travel writer Bill Bryson  The book details a trip Bryson took to Kenya in 2002  Bryson describes his experiences there and observations about Kenyan culture, geography, and politics, as well as his visits to poverty-fighting projects run by CARE International, to which he donated all royalties for the book 

Reception
In a review published in the Guardian Lionel Shriver was critical of the book's length, describing it as "less a book than a pamphlet"   Shriver also disliked the book's tone, "a po-faced, gee-whizz sincerity ill-suited to a writer who has made his reputation for being light and wry (and even snide) in droll travel books "
Passage 5:
Notes from a Big Country
Notes from a Big Country, or as it was released in the United States, I'm a Stranger Here Myself, is a collection of articles written by Bill Bryson for The Mail on Sunday's Night and Day supplement during the 1990s, published together first in Britain in 1998 and in paperback in 1999  The book discusses Bryson's views on relocating to Hanover, New Hampshire, after spending two decades in Britain 
The American and British editions are not quite identical as, besides spelling differences, some explanatory information suitable for each intended audience is added or omitted within individual articles  This is freely acknowledged in the introduction 

Content
The book contains articles which Bryson wrote for the Mail between 1996 and 1998  He discusses a multitude of topics in the articles such as the death penalty, the war on drugs, gardening, commercials, book tours, inefficiency, Thanksgiving, and air travel 
Passage 6:
Michael Bryson
Michael G  Bryson (August 22, 1942 – May 22, 2012) was a news and sports reporter and editor from Des Moines, Iowa and the elder brother of travel writer Bill Bryson  He co-authored a book The Babe Didn't Point: And Other Stories About Iowans and Sports with his son Michael G  Bryson Jr in 1989  He wrote The Twenty-Four-Inch Home Run in 1990 
Bryson was an editor and associate publisher of the Sun Press Newspapers in Hawaii from 1979 to 1986  He covered the New York Mets in 1969 while a sports reporter for the Associated Press  He was a news reporter for the Des Moines Register and Tribune from 1970 to 1979  He attended Drake University 
Passage 7:
The Lost Continent: Travels in Small-Town America
The Lost Continent: Travels in Small-Town America is a book by travel writer Bill Bryson, chronicling his 13,978-mile trip around the United States in the autumn of 1987 and spring 1988   It was Bryson's first travel book He begins his journey, made almost entirely by car, in his childhood hometown of Des Moines, Iowa, heading from there towards the Mississippi River, often reminiscing about his childhood in Iowa  The journey was made after his father's death, and so is in part a collection of memories of his father in Des Moines while he was growing up 
The book is split into two sections: 'East' and 'West', the former part being considerably longer than the latter  These sections correspond to two separate journeys made in the autumn of 1987 and spring of 1988  The first section covers the Midwest, the Deep South, the East Coast and New England, before returning to Des Moines  The second section focuses on the Great Plains, the South West, California and the Rocky Mountains 
Bryson's goal in this trip was generally to avoid tourist destinations, instead choosing to experience the real every-day America, stopping at small towns and forgotten points of interest  This book is an overview of the United States from Bryson's point of view  There is less focus on factual insight into the history, geography and culture of the destinations in this book than is found in some of Bryson's later books, focusing instead on observations made with the intention of being humorous 

Bibliography
Bryson, Bill (1989): The Lost Continent: Travels in Small-Town America  London: Secker 

See also
Americana
Passage 8:
The Mother Tongue
The Mother Tongue is a 1990 book by Bill Bryson which compiles the history and origins of the English language and its various quirks  It is subtitled English And How It Got That Way  The book discusses the Indo-European origins of English, the growing status of English as a global language, the complex etymology of English words, the dialects of English, spelling reform, prescriptive grammar, and other topics including swearing  This account popularises the subject and makes it accessible to the lay reader, but it has been criticised for some inaccuracies, such as the perpetuation of several urban myths This book has also been published in the UK by Penguin Books under the title Mother Tongue: The English Language 
Bryson has since followed up this work with Made in America 
Passage 9:
Bill Bryson Sr 
William Eugene Bryson Sr  (March 3, 1915 – January 31, 1986) was an American sportswriter who wrote for The Des Moines Register from 1937 until his retirement in 1978  He covered 32 consecutive World Series 

Early life
Bryson was born and raised in Winfield, Iowa 

Career
Bryson began his career as a reporter for the Winfield Beacon, his hometown newspaper 
Bryson Sr  has been called "one of the finest sportswriters in the country and widely recognized as such " As his son Bill describes in The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid, due to the quality of Bryson Sr 's work, one prominent television sports journalist thought of him as being "possibly the greatest baseball writer there ever was " He contributed to Baseball Digest and many other publications 
The Babe Didn't Point: And Other Stories About Iowans and Sports, a book of some of his best sports stories, was published by his son Michael 

Personal life and death
Bryson married Mary Agnes McGuire (1913-2015), an editor for The Des Moines Register : 6  They had three children: Michael (who also became a sports journalist), Bill Jr  (who also became a journalist and a writer), and Mary Elizabeth  Bryson died of an apparent heart attack, on January 31, 1986, at his home in Des Moines, Iowa Bryson's son, Bill Jr , the renowned writer, published a loving tribute to his father in 2001 which described how Bryson had conducted what was probably  the very last interview with Babe Ruth, just a month before the legendary New York Yankee died in August 1948  The profile also includes the praise of Bryson noted above by a former NBC News president, who had said he "may have been the best baseball writer ever, anywhere "
Passage 10:
Down Under (book)
Down Under is the British title of a 2000 travelogue book about Australia written by best-selling travel writer Bill Bryson  In the United States and Canada it was published titled In a Sunburned Country, a title taken from the famous Australian poem, "My Country"  It was also published as part of Walk About, which included Down Under and another of Bryson's books, A Walk in the Woods: Rediscovering America on the Appalachian Trail, in one volume 

Summary
Bill Bryson describes his travels by railway and car throughout Australia, his conversations with people in all walks of life about the history, geography, unusual plants and animals of the country, and his wry impressions of the life, culture and amenities (or lack thereof) in each locality 
In a style similar to his book A Walk in the Woods, or William Least Heat-Moon's Blue Highways, Bryson's research enabled him to include many stories about Australia's 19th-century explorers and settlers who suffered extreme deprivations, as well as details about its natural resources, culture, and economy  His writings are intertwined with recurring humorous themes 

Synopsis
The book consists of three parts:
1  Into the Outback
The first part of the book mainly describes the journey taken by Bryson aboard the Indian Pacific from Sydney to Perth  He is accompanied on this journey by a young English photographer named Trevor Ray Hart  The author describes his experiences on the train, the places the train passes through on its way to Perth such as the Blue Mountains and White Cliffs  The author also supplies plenty of humor in the form of historical accounts of early explorers and settlers of Australia 

2  Civilized Australia (The Boomerang Coast)
This section of the book starts off with historical accounts from the time when Australia was discovered and goes on to illustrate how the Australians built a dynamic and prosperous society from a modest and unpropitious beginning  The rest of this section is devoted to the author's account of what he considers to be Civilized Australia, with accounts of Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Canberra, the Gold Coast, Surfers Paradise, and many countryside towns in between 
3  Around the Edges
This part of the journey covers the Great Barrier Reef, the cities of Cairns, Darwin, and Alice Springs, and the mighty monolithic rock Uluru   Later Bryson visits Perth and the Shark Bay area of Western Australia 



ground_truth: Mark Neary Donohue Jr.