prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who had the lowest vocal range in Cosmos?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Vocal fry register
The vocal fry register (also known as pulse register, laryngealization, pulse phonation, creaky voice, creak, croak, popcorning, glottal fry, glottal rattle, glottal scrape) is the lowest vocal register and is produced through a loose glottal closure that permits air to bubble through slowly with a popping or rattling sound of a very low frequency  During this phonation, the arytenoid cartilages in the larynx are drawn together, which causes the vocal folds to compress rather tightly and become relatively slack and compact  This process forms a large and irregularly vibrating mass within the vocal folds that produces the characteristic low popping or rattling sound when air passes through the glottal closure  The register (if well controlled) can extend far below the modal voice register, in some cases up to 8 octaves lower, such as in the case of Tim Storms who holds the world record for lowest frequency note ever produced by a human, a G−7, which is only 0 189 Hz, inaudible to the human ear 
Vocal fry is thought to have become more common among young female speakers of American English in the early 21st century, with the style of speaking being considered informal, nonaggressive and urban-oriented 

History of register classification
The vocal fry register has been a recognized and identifiable register in American English only within the past few decades, but its characteristic sound was recognized much earlier  Discussion of the vocal fry or pulse register began first within the field of phonetics and speech therapy and did not enter the vocabulary of vocal music pedagogists until the early 1970s, when it was initially controversial  However, the controversy surrounding the term within vocal music has subsided as more research into the use of the vocal fry register within the context of singing ensued  In particular, vocal pedagogist Margaret Greene's videotaping of the physiological processes occurring in the body while singers were phonating in the vocal fry register offered solid evidence that this type of vocal phonation should be considered a vocal register from both speech pathology and vocal music perspectives  Like any other vocal register, the vocal fry register has a unique vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound that distinguishes it from other vocal registers 

In speech
Discussion of vocal fry is much more frequent in books related to phonetics and speech therapy than it is in those dealing with singing  Some authorities consider the use of vocal fry in speech a dysphonia, but others consider it so only if it is used excessively such as Hollien, Moore, Wendahl, and Michel:

It is simply our intent to suggest that ordinarily vocal fry constitutes one of several physiologically available types of voice production on the frequency-pitch continuum and hence, of itself, is not logically classified among the laryngeal pathologies  While the excessive use of fry could result in a diagnosis of voice disorder, this quality is too often heard in normal voices (especially in descending inflections where the voice fundamentally falls below frequencies in the modal register) to be exclusively a disorder 
Many are quick to point out that although vocal fry is minimally a part of routine speaking patterns, the continued use of such a pattern makes it non-utilitarian or pathological Some evidence exists of vocal fry becoming more common in the speech of young female speakers of American English in the early 21st century, but its frequency's extent and significance are disputed  Researcher Ikuko Patricia Yuasa suggests that the tendency is a product of young women trying to infuse their speech with gravitas by means of reaching for the male register and found that "college-age Americans     perceive female creaky voice as hesitant, nonaggressive, and informal but also educated, urban-oriented, and upwardly mobile "A 2014 national study of American adults found that speech with vocal fry was perceived more negatively than a voice without vocal fry, particularly in a labor market context  In young adult women, it was perceived as sounding less trustworthy, less competent, less attractive, and less hireable  The negative evaluation was stronger when the evaluator was also a woman The national study of 800 listeners across age groups found that people making hiring decisions preferred a voice without vocal fry to one with vocal fry  A limitation of the study was that the vocal fry samples were produced by imitators rather than natural vocal fry speakers  That suggests that more research is needed, as the negative reaction could be attributable to other factors In native speakers of American English, young women use vocal fry more frequently than men  When asked to read a passage, female speakers used vocal fry at a rate four times higher than male speakers Some languages, such as Jalapa Mazatec, use vocal fry (creaky voice) as a linguistically significant marker; the presence or absence of vocal fry can then change the meaning of a word 

Social implications
Some people seek out the help of speech pathologists as they feel vocal fry makes them appear unsure and less confident  Researchers have found that young adult women who use vocal fry are perceived as less competent and less hireable (listeners have less of a negative reaction to male voices)  Others argue that these perceptions are part of a broader attack on women's speech Vocal fry is generally seen as a negative characteristic in the workplace, but a study by Duke University researchers has determined the phenomenon is becoming more common and socially acceptable 

In singing
The croaking sound produced by male singers at the start of phrases in American country music is produced by moving from this to the modal register  Within choral music, when true basses are not available, choirs often rely on singers who can "fry" the low bass notes  Singers such as Tim Storms, Mike Holcomb and various other gospel basses use this technique to sing very low tones   Some styles of folk singing showcase the vocal fry register in the female voice  Vocal fry is also used in metal music, usually in combination with air from the diaphragm, in order to create a "growl" or "scream," which sounds aggressive and harsh The chief use of the vocal fry register in singing is to obtain pitches of very low frequency, which are not available to the singer in the modal register  The physiological production of the vocal fry register may be extended up into the modal register  In some cases, vocal pedagogues have found the use of vocal fry therapeutically helpful to students who have trouble producing lower notes  Singers often lose their low notes or never learn to produce them because of the excessive tension of the laryngeal muscles and of the support mechanism that leads to too much breath pressure Some throat singing styles such as kargyra use vocal techniques similar to vocal fry 

See also
Notes
Passage 2:
Bass (voice type)
A bass is a type of classical male singing voice and has the lowest vocal range of all voice types  According to The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, a bass is typically classified as having a vocal range extending from around the second E below middle C to the E above middle C (i e , E2–E4)  Its tessitura, or comfortable range, is normally defined by the outermost lines of the bass clef  Categories of bass voices vary according to national style and classification system 
Italians favour subdividing basses into the basso cantante (singing bass), basso buffo ("funny" bass), or the dramatic basso profondo (low bass)  The American system identifies the bass-baritone, comic bass, lyric bass, and dramatic bass 
The German Fach system offers further distinctions: Spielbass (Bassbuffo), Schwerer Spielbass (Schwerer Bassbuffo), Charakterbass (Bassbariton), and Seriöser Bass  These classification systems can overlap  Rare is the performer who embodies a single Fach without also touching repertoire from another category 

History
Cultural influence and individual variation create a wide variation in range and quality of bass singers  Parts for basses have included notes as low as the B-flat two octaves and a tone below middle C (B♭1), for example in Gustav Mahler's Symphony No  2 and the Rachmaninov's All-Night Vigil, A below that in Frederik Magle's symphonic suite Cantabile, G below that (e g  Measure 76 of Ne otverzhi mene by Pavel Chesnokov) or F below those in Kheruvimskaya pesn (Song of Cherubim) by Krzysztof Penderecki  Many basso profondos have trouble reaching those notes, and the use of them in works by Slavic composers has led to the colloquial term "Russian bass" for an exceptionally deep-ranged basso profondo who can easily sing these notes  Some traditional Russian religious music calls for A2 (110 Hz) drone singing, which is doubled by A1 (55 Hz) in the rare occasion that a choir includes exceptionally gifted singers who can produce this very low human voice pitch 
Many British composers such as Benjamin Britten have written parts for bass (such as the first movement of his choral work Rejoice in the Lamb) that center far higher than the bass tessitura as implied by the clef  The Harvard Dictionary of Music defines the range as being from the E below low C to middle C (i e  E2–C4) 

In choral music
In SATB four-part mixed chorus, the bass is the lowest vocal range, below the tenor, alto, and soprano  Voices are subdivided into first bass and second bass with no distinction being made between bass and baritone voices, in contrast to the three-fold (tenor–baritone–bass) categorization of solo voices  The exception is in arrangements for male choir (TTBB) and barbershop quartets (TLBB), which sometimes label the lowest two parts baritone and bass 

Range and Subtypes
Bass has the lowest vocal range of all voice types, with the lowest tessitura  The low extreme for basses is generally C2 (two Cs below middle C)  Some extreme bass singers, referred to as basso profondos and oktavists, are able to reach much lower than this  Within opera, the lowest note in the standard bass repertoire is D2, sung by the character Osmin in Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail, but few roles fall below F2  
Although Osmin's note is the lowest 'demanded' in the operatic repertoire, lower notes are heard, both written and unwritten: for example, it is traditional for basses to interpolate a low C in the duet "Ich gehe doch rathe ich dir" in the same opera; in Richard Strauss' Der Rosenkavalier, Baron Ochs has an optional C2 ("Mein lieber Hippolyte")  The high extreme: a few bass roles in the standard repertoire call for a high F♯ or G (F♯4 and G4, the one above middle C), but few roles go over F4  In the operatic bass repertoire, the highest notes are a G♯4 (The Barber in The Nose by Shostakovich) and, in the aria "Fra l'ombre e gl'orrori" in Handel's serenata Aci, Galatea e Polifemo, Polifemo reaches an A4 
Within the bass voice type category are seven generally recognized subcategories: basso cantante (singing bass), hoher bass (high bass), jugendlicher bass (juvenile bass), basso buffo ("funny" bass), Schwerer Spielbass (dramatic bass), lyric bass, and dramatic basso profondo (low bass) 

Basso cantante/lyric high bass/lyric bass-baritone
Basso cantante means "singing bass"  Basso cantante is a higher, more lyrical voice  It is produced using a more Italianate vocal production, and possesses a faster vibrato, than its closest Germanic/Anglo-Saxon equivalent, the bass-baritone 

Hoher Bass/dramatic high bass/dramatic bass-baritone
Hoher Bass or "high bass" or often a dramatic bass-baritone 

Jugendlicher Bass
Jugendlicher Bass (juvenile bass) denotes the role of a young man sung by a bass, regardless of the age of the singer 

Masetto, Don Giovanni by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Colline, La bohème by Giacomo Puccini

Basso buffo/lyric buffo
Buffo, literally "funny", basses are lyrical roles that demand from their practitioners a solid coloratura technique, a capacity for patter singing and ripe tonal qualities if they are to be brought off to maximum effect  They are usually the blustering antagonist of the hero/heroine or the comic-relief fool in bel canto operas 

Schwerer Spielbass/dramatic buffo
English equivalent: dramatic bass

Lyric basso profondo
Basso profondo (lyric low bass) is the lowest bass voice type  According to J  B  Steane in Voices, Singers & Critics, the basso profondo voice "derives from a method of tone-production that eliminates the more Italian quick vibrato  In its place is a kind of tonal solidity, a wall-like front, which may nevertheless prove susceptible to the other kind of vibrato, the slow beat or dreaded wobble "

Dramatic basso profondo
English equivalent: dramatic low bass  Dramatic basso profondo is a powerful basso profondo voice 

In Gilbert and Sullivan
All of the Gilbert and Sullivan Savoy operas, except Patience and The Yeomen of the Guard, have at least one lead bass  Notable roles include:

See also
Category of basses
Fach, the German system for classifying voices
Voice classification in non-classical music
List of basses in non-classical music
Passage 3:
Basso profondo
Basso profondo (Italian: "deep bass"), sometimes basso profundo, contrabass or oktavist, is the lowest bass voice type 

While The New Grove Dictionary of Opera defines a typical bass as having a range that is limited to the second E below middle C (E2), operatic bassi profondi can be called on to sing low C (C2), as in the role of Baron Ochs in Der Rosenkavalier  Often choral composers make use of lower notes, such as G1 or even F1; in such rare cases the choir relies on exceptionally deep-ranged bassi profondi termed oktavists or octavists, who sometimes sing an octave below the bass part 
Bass singer Tim Storms holds the Guinness World Record for the "lowest note produced by a human" 

Definition
According to Rousseau (1775): "Basse-contres – the most profound of all voices, singing lower than the bass like a double bass, and should not be confused with contrabasses, which are instruments "

Oktavist
An oktavist is an exceptionally deep-ranged basso profondo, especially typical of Russian Orthodox choral music  This voice type has a vocal range which extends down to A1 (an octave below the baritone range) and sometimes to F1 (an octave below the bass staff) with the extreme lows for oktavists, such as Mikhail Zlatopolsky or Alexander Ort, reaching C1 Slavic choral composers sometimes make use of lower notes such as B♭1 as in Rachmaninoff's All-Night Vigil, G#1 in "The Twelve Brigands" by Vladimir Pasjukov, G1 in "Ne otverzhi mene" by Pavel Chesnokov, or F1 in "Kheruvimskaya pesn" (Song of Cherubim) by Krzysztof Penderecki, although such notes sometimes also appear in repertoire by non-Slavic composers (e g  B♭1 appears in Gustav Mahler's Second and Eighth Symphonies) 
In popular culture, several a capella groups have bass singers with an oktavist range, such as Home Free's Tim Foust, VoicePlay's Geoff Castellucci, and Avi Kaplan formerly of Pentatonix, as well as Tony nominated broadway performer Patrick Page, each of these being able to reach down to a G1 or in some cases even lower, with Castellucci able to hit a B0 using subharmonic singing and Foust able to hit a G0 using growl 

See also
Bass
Fach
Vocal weight
Passage 4:
Cosmos (band)
Cosmos was a Latvian a cappella band that formed in Riga in 2002  The band comprised singers Jānis Šipkēvics, Andris Sējāns (both countertenors), Juris Lisenko (tenor), Jānis Ozols (baritone), Jānis Strazdiņš (bass) and Reinis Sējāns (rhythm) 
Cosmos gained national and international recognition after they were chosen to represent Latvia in the 2006 Eurovision Song Contest held in Athens, Greece with the song "I Hear Your Heart"  Despite winning the national Eirodziesma 2006 contest, the band finished in joint sixteenth place out of the twenty-four finalists, with thirty points 

Discography
Cosmos (2003)
Pa un par (2005)
Тетради любви (2005)
Ticu un viss (2005)
Turbulence (2008)
Pasaki man un tev (2009)

External links
Official website
Review of Pa un par Archived 2008-10-25 at the Wayback Machine at RARB org
Passage 5:
Cosmos Holidays
Cosmos (formerly Cosmos Tours) is a UK independent tour operator providing a range of package holidays to the UK market  The tour operator is connected to the international Globus Travel Group, founded in 1928, which remains family owned with headquarters in Lugano, Switzerland  Under parent company Cosmos Tours Ltd, the tour operator offers holidays through two brands: Cosmos and Avalon Waterways 
Cosmos Holidays was founded in 1961 as Cosmos Tours  It became Cosmos Holidays in 1987  After Globus Travel Group sold Monarch Travel Group to Greybull Capital in October 2014, Monarch stopped using Cosmos as a Monarch Group brand in 2015  However, in March 2017 it was announced that Cosmos Tours had regained full rights and licences to the Cosmos brand and Monarch would change its corporate name from Cosmos Holidays Limited to Monarch Holidays Limited 

Background
Origins of Cosmos (1928–1986)
In 1928, Antonio Mantegazza started a company specialising in coach touring called Globus Viaggi   The company began with a fleet of 12 coaches which operated local excursions for European tourists in Switzerland   By 1950, Globus Viaggi had grown to a fleet of 33 coaches and featured overnight excursions to Rome, Venice, the Dolomites and the French Riviera   Gradually these became regular scheduled tours and grew longer to cover more ground   Later that decade Globus pioneered the concept of Grand European Touring by offering first-class European tours to North Americans 
Cosmos Tours was founded in the UK in 1961 by Sergio Mantegazza  The company was created to provide British customers with affordable package holidays by coach and air travel to Europe   Destinations included Italy, Spain, Switzerland, and Austria by motor coach from London’s Victoria station, and by flights from Southend and Lympne airports   Although the company's main programme focused on motor coach tours, it soon increased the choice of air package holidays too   In 1968, the success of the company's air package holidays allowed Cosmos to form the airline Monarch Airlines Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Cosmos Tours increased its UK departure airports to include Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow, Edinburgh and East Midlands, serving new destinations including Portugal, Yugoslavia, Greece, Malta and Tunisia, and longhaul destinations such as Florida, Thailand and Mexico 
In 1986 Cosmos Tours became the first mainstream operator in the UK to launch a Christmas Lapland programme 

Expansion (1987–2009)
In 1987, the company changed its name from Cosmos Tours to Cosmos Holidays 
In September 1991, the Globus Travel Group acquired 80% of Avro Plc, a flight-only company set up by Paul Dendle  This acquisition enhanced the company’s charter seat-only presence in the market  In 1994, the Globus Group acquired the remaining 20% 
In 1994, Cosmos launched a direct-sell brand, Archers Direct (later Archers Holidays, shut down in November 2018), featuring a worldwide touring programme 
In 2002, Cosmos launched an accommodation-only brand, somewhere2stay, which supplied hotel, apartment and villa accommodation to the UK travel trade  Four years after launching somewhere2stay, sales made up £20-£40 million of an estimated £300-£350 million turnover in the accommodation-only sector  During 2006, the decision was made to run somewhere2stay separately from Cosmos Holidays In 2007, Cosmos announced they would introduce package holidays using Monarch’s full range of scheduled flights, in line with the expansion plans announced by the airline during the same year In 2009, executive chairman, Iain Rawlinson announced plans to reinvent the company as a scheduled carrier, after the company made financial losses  It was predicted at the time that the parent company of Cosmos Holidays would make a loss of around £45 million  During the same year, media coverage suggested there were problems with their approach  The Mantegazza family from Switzerland, which had owned Group Voyagers since its foundation, invested money into the group to cover the losses 

Consolidation (2014-present)
In 2014, the Mantegazza family announced plans to sell Monarch Holdings Ltd  Subsidiaries included Monarch Airlines, Monarch Aircraft Engineering, First Aviation, Cosmos Holidays, somewhere2stay and Avro  On 31 October 2014, the holiday group was sold to venture capitalists, Greybull Capital  Cosmos Tours & Cruises was retained by the Mantegazza Family In 2016, Cosmos introduced a private tour programme based on existing tour itineraries in Asia, Africa and India with a private guide/driver included 
From 1 April 2017, the tour operator regained all rights to the brand Cosmos, having reached a formal agreement with Monarch which terminated the licence covering the use of the name 

Destinations
Cosmos provides tours, cruises and rail journeys in over 40 countries, flying from up to 27 UK airports 
The tour operator with its origins in touring in Italy, offers holidays across Europe and the Mediterranean   Other destinations include North America & Canada, Central & South America, Asia and the Far East, Africa, the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, Australia and New Zealand 
In recent years, river and ocean cruises have been added to the product range of tours 

Awards
Cosmos has been shortlisted for travel industry and consumer awards including the TTG Travel Awards, the Globe Travel Awards, British Travel Awards as well as World of Cruising’s Wave Awards, and Cruise International’s Cruise Awards 
Passage 6:
List of basses in non-classical music
The bass singing voice has a vocal range that lies around the second E below middle C to the E above middle C (i e , E2–E4)  As with the contralto singing voice being the rarest female voice type, the bass voice is the rarest for males, and has the lowest vocal range of all voice types  However, the bass voice is determined not only by its vocal range, but also by its timbre, which tends to be darker than that of a baritone voice 
The term bass was developed in relation to classical and operatic voices, where the classification is based not merely on the singer's vocal range but also on the tessitura and timbre of the voice  For classical and operatic singers, their voice type determines the roles they will sing and is a primary method of categorization  In non-classical music, singers are primarily defined by their genre and their gender and not by their vocal range  When the terms soprano, mezzo-soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, and bass are used as descriptors of non-classical voices, they are applied more loosely than they would be to those of classical singers and generally refer only to the singer's perceived vocal range 
The following is a list of singers in country, popular music, jazz, and musical theatre who have been described as basses 

List of names
Gallery
See also
Voice classification in non-classical music
List of baritones in non-classical music
List of tenors in non-classical music
List of contraltos in non-classical music
List of mezzo-sopranos in non-classical music
List of sopranos in non-classical music
Voice type

Notes
Passage 7:
Alto
The musical term alto, meaning "high" in Italian (Latin: altus), historically refers to the contrapuntal part higher than the tenor and its associated vocal range  In 4-part voice leading alto is the second-highest part, sung in choruses by either low women's or high men's voices  In vocal classification these are usually called contralto and male alto or countertenor 
Such confusion of "high" and "low" persists in instrumental terminology  Alto flute and alto trombone are respectively lower and higher than the standard instruments of the family (the standard instrument of the trombone family being the tenor trombone), though both play in ranges within the alto clef  Alto recorder, however, is an octave higher, and is defined by its relationship to tenor and soprano recorders; alto clarinet is a fifth lower than B-flat clarinet, already an 'alto' instrument  There is even a contra-alto clarinet, (an octave lower than the alto clarinet), with a range B♭0 – D4 

Etymology
In choral music for mixed voices, "alto" describes the lowest part commonly sung by women  The explanation for the anomaly of this name is to be found not in the use of adult falsettists in choirs of men and boys but further back in innovations in composition during the mid-15th century  Before this time it was usual to write a melodic cantus or superius against a tenor (from Latin tenere, to hold) or 'held' part, to which might be added a contratenor, which was in counterpoint with (in other words, against = contra) the tenor  The composers of Ockeghem's generation wrote two contratenor parts and designated them as contratenor altus and contratenor bassus; they were respectively higher and lower than the tenor part  From these derive both the modern terms "alto" (and contralto) and "bass" 

Solo voices
The contralto voice is a matter of vocal timbre and tessitura as well as range, and a classically trained solo contralto would usually have a range greater than that of a normal choral alto part in both the upper and lower ranges  However, the vocal tessitura of a classically trained contralto would still make these singers more comfortable singing in the lower part of the voice  A choral non-solo contralto may also have a low range down to D3 (thus perhaps finding it easier to sing the choral tenor part), but some would have difficulty singing above E5  In a choral context mezzo-sopranos and contraltos might sing the alto part, together with countertenors, thus having three vocal timbres (and two means of vocal production) singing the same notes The use of the term "alto" to describe solo voices is mostly seen in contemporary music genres (pop, rock, etc ) to describe singers whose range is lower than that of a mezzo-soprano but higher than that of a true contralto, and is very rarely seen in classical music outside of soloists in choral works  In classical music, most women with an alto range would be grouped within mezzo-sopranos, but many terms in common usage in various languages and in different cultures exist to describe solo classical singers with this range  Examples include contralto, countertenor, haute-contre, and tenor altino, among others 

In choral music
In SATB four-part mixed chorus, the alto is the second-highest vocal range, above the tenor and bass and below the soprano  The alto range in choral music is approximately from F3 (the F below middle C) to F5 (the second F above middle C)  In common usage, alto is used to describe the voice type that typically sings this part, though this is not strictly correct  Alto, like the other three standard modern choral voice classifications (soprano, tenor and bass) was originally intended to describe a part within a homophonic or polyphonic texture, rather than an individual voice type; neither are the terms alto and contralto interchangeable or synonymous, though they are often treated as such 
Although some women who sing alto in a choir are contraltos, many would be more accurately called mezzo-sopranos (a voice of somewhat higher range and different timbre)  Men singing in this range are countertenors, although this term is a source of considerable controversy, some authorities preferring the usage of the term "male alto" for those countertenors who use a predominantly falsetto voice production (boys singing in their natural range may be termed "boy altos") 

See also
Voice classification in non-classical music
Passage 8:
List of contraltos in non-classical music
The contralto singing voice has a vocal range that lies between the F below "middle C" (F3) to two Fs above middle C (F5) and is the lowest type of female voice   In the lower and upper extremes, some contralto voices can sing from two Bs below middle C (B2) to two B♭s above middle C (B♭5) The term contralto was developed in relation to classical and operatic voices, where the classification is based not merely on the singer's vocal range but also on the tessitura and timbre of the voice  For classical and operatic singers, their voice type determines the roles they will sing and is a primary method of categorization  In classical music, a "pure" contralto is considered the rarest type of female voice  In non-classical music, singers are primarily defined by their genre and their gender, not their vocal range  When the terms soprano, mezzo-soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, and bass are used as descriptors of non-classical voices, they are applied more loosely than they would be to those of classical singers and generally refer only to the singer's perceived vocal range  Contemporarily, the informal term alto is sometimes used interchangeably with contralto The following is a list of singers in country, popular music, jazz, and musical theatre who have been described as contraltos 

List of names
See also
List of mezzo-sopranos in non-classical music
List of sopranos in non-classical music
List of basses in non-classical music
List of baritones in non-classical music
List of tenors in non-classical music
List of operatic contraltos
Voice classification in non-classical music
Voice type

Notes
Passage 9:
Georgia Brown (Brazilian singer)
Rossana Monti, better known by the stage name Georgia Brown, is a Brazilian singer noted for her extensive vocal range 

Career
At the age of fifteen, Brown toured as backup vocalist for Brazilian singer Jorge Ben, during his "W Brasil Tour" in 1995  Following the conclusion of the tour, she entered in contests "Skol Rock" and "Fest Valda"  In 1997, Brown relocated to California in the United States of America to begin recording her first album  In 2001, Brown released her debut album "Black Nature"  The album spawned the singles: "Commit A Crime" and "Hold On"  Following the release of her debut album, she headlined her first tour "Black Nature Tour"  In 2002, "Black Nature" was certified gold in Brazil with sales in excess of 120,000 copies 
In 2003, she released a single "Forgiven"  The song was remixed by DJ Patife and featured on his album "Na Estrada", released in 2005  In 2004, she released her second album Heart Beats, which became certified platinum in Brazil  She headlined first international tour "Heart Beats World Tour" in 2004  In the same year, Brown broke American singer Mariah Carey's vocal records on Guinness World Records and received a certificate for two records: "World's Greatest Vocal Range by a Female B2-F8" and "World's Highest Note "F8" In 2006, Brown began recording her third album  In 2008, she released her third studio album The Renascence of Soul  In 2010, Brown released house music single titled "Love 4 Real"  In 2012, she released an extended play entitled Me & Myself 
In July 2018, Brown released a single "#HighVibration (Sweet Sensation)" 

Discography
AlbumsBlack Nature (2001)
Heart Beats (2004)
The Renascence of Soul (2008)
Me & Myself – EP (2012)Singles"Commit A Crime" (2001)
"Hold On" (2001)
"Forgiven" (2003)
"Lost Love" (2004)
"Art A Shield for Me" (2008)
"Save My Soul" (2008)
"Loneliness" (2009)
"Love 4 Real" (2010)
"#HighVibration (Sweet Sensation)" (2018)
Passage 10:
Range (music)
In music, the range, or chromatic range, of a musical instrument is the distance from the lowest to the highest pitch it can play  For a singing voice, the equivalent is vocal range  The range of a musical part is the distance between its lowest and highest note 

Compass
Among British English speakers, and perhaps others, compass means the same thing as chromatic range—the interval between the lowest and highest note attainable by a voice or musical instrument 

Other ranges
The terms  sounding range, written range,  designated range, duration range and dynamic range have specific meanings 
The sounding range refers to the pitches produced by an instrument, while the written range refers to the compass (span) of notes written in the sheet music, where the part is sometimes transposed for convenience  A piccolo, for example, typically has a sounding range one octave higher than its written range  The designated range is the set of notes the player should or can achieve while playing  All instruments have a designated range, and all pitched instruments have a playing range  Timbre, dynamics, and duration ranges are interrelated and one may achieve registral range at the expense of timbre  The designated range is thus the range in which a player is expected to have comfortable control of all aspects 
The duration range is the difference between the shortest and longest rhythm used  Dynamic range is the difference between the quietest and loudest volume of an instrument, part or piece of music 

Range limits
Although woodwind instruments and string instruments have no theoretical upper limit to their range (subject to practical limits), they generally cannot go below their designated range   Brass instruments, on the other hand, can play beyond their designated ranges  Notes lower than the brass instrument's designated range are called pedal tones  The playing range of a brass instrument depends on both the technical limitations of the instrument and the skill of the player 
Classical arrangements seldom make woodwind or brass instruments play beyond their designed range  String musicians play the bottom of their ranges very frequently, but the top of a string instrument's range is rather fuzzy, and it is unusual for a string player to exceed the designated range  It is quite rare for wind musicians to play the extremes of their instruments  The most common exception is that in many 20th century works, pedal tones are called for in bass trombones 
This chart uses standard numberings for octaves where middle C corresponds to C4  In the MIDI language middle C is referred to as MIDI note number 60 
The lowest note that a pipe organ can sound (with a true pipe) is C−1 (or CCCC), which is 8 Hz, below the range of human hearing and not visible on this chart  However, if acoustic combination (a note and its fifth) counts, the lowest note is C−2 (or CCCCC), which is 4 Hz 
In terms of recording and reproduction, many speakers have a low limit of around 40–60 Hz 

Typical ranges
*This chart only displays down to C0, though some pipe organs, such as the Boardwalk Hall Auditorium Organ, extend down to C−1 (one octave below C0)  Also, the fundamental frequency of the subcontrabass tuba is B♭−1 

See also
Tessitura
Extension (music)
Sub-bass
Hearing range
Context 2: Passage 1:
FIBT World Championships 1960
The FIBT World Championships 1960 took place in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy for the fifth time  The Italian city had hosted the event previously in 1937 (Two-man), 1939 (Four-man), 1950, and 1954  This was an extraordinary event because bobsleigh was not included in the program at the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley, California 

Two man bobsleigh
The Italian duo of Monti and Alvera won their fourth straight championships in this event 

Four man bobsleigh
Medal table
Passage 2:
Steven Langton
Steven Daniel Langton (born April 15, 1983) is an American bobsledder  He won silver medals in both the two-man and four-man events at the 2014 Winter Olympics, and gold in both the two-man and four-man events at the 2012 FIBT World Championships 

Early life
Langton attended Northeastern University, in Boston, Massachusetts, graduating cum laude in 2006 with a degree in Business Management and Entrepreneurship  At Northeastern, he was a member of the track and field team and was a two-year team captain, with personal bests of 6 49 seconds in the indoor 55m dash, 10 58 seconds in the outdoor 100m dash, and 7 04m in the long jump  He was inspired to try bobsled after watching the 2006 Winter Olympics 

Olympic career
At the 2010 Olympic Games, Langton competed in both the two-man and four-man events with pilot, John Napier  Langton finished tenth in the two-man event  Due to injuries that were sustained during USA 2's crash in the second run of the four-man event, Langton and his team did compete on the second day 
At the 2014 Olympic Games, Langton competed in both the two-man and four-man events with pilot Steven Holcomb  He won a bronze medal (later upgraded to silver) in the two-man event at the Sochi Winter Olympic Games, marking the first time in 62 years an American sled had won an Olympic medal in the two-man event  Following this accomplishment, Langton teamed with Steven Holcomb, Curt Tomasevicz and Christopher Fogt to win a bronze medal (later also upgraded to silver) in the four-man event  With this medal, they became the first American team in 62 years to win an Olympic medal in both the two- and four-man events at the same Olympics 

World Championships and World Cups
Outside of the Olympic Games, Langton has also won four world championships medals: bronze in the four-man in 2011 and 2013, and gold in both events in 2012  The 2012 victory marked the first time an American sled won gold in the two-man event at a world championships, and the first time the American team won both events at a single world championships 
He has also won 21 World Cup medals during his career: 11 gold, 7 silver and 3 bronze  During the 2010–11 season Langton also won the Inaugural World Push Championships held in Cesana Pariol, Italy 

Family
Steven Langton's brother, Christopher Langton, was an All-Ivy lacrosse player at Cornell University  Chris served as Team USA's Alternate for the Sochi Winter Olympic Games  Another brother, Sean Langton, currently works as a dentist 
Passage 3:
Urs Aeberhand
Urs Aeberhand (sometimes known as Urs Aeberhard) is a Swiss bobsledder who competed from the late 1990s to the early 2000s  He won three bronze medals at the FIBT World Championships (Two-man: 2000, Four-man: 2000, FIBT World Championships 2001) 
Aeberhand also finished sixth in the four-man event at Salt Lake City in 2002 
Passage 4:
FIBT World Championships 1981
The FIBT World Championships 1981 took place in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy for the seventh time, having hosted the event previously in 1937 (Two-man), 1939 (Four-man), 1950, 1954, 1960, and 1966 
Following the death of West Germany's Toni Pensperger at the track in 1966, numerous safety improvements were done at the track which were satisfactory enough for the FIBT to allow the championships to be hosted  These improvements would not be enough as American bobsled driver James Morgan was killed during the third run of the four-man event A stuntman fatality on the track a week later, during the first day of filming of For Your Eyes Only, led track officials to shorten the track to its current configuration  Cortina did not host another championship until 1989 

Two man bobsleigh
Four man bobsleigh
February 8, 1981

Medal table
Passage 5:
Eugenio Monti track
The Eugenio Monti olympic track (Italian: Pista olimpica Eugenio Monti  ) is a bobsleigh and skeleton track located in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy  It is named after Eugenio Monti (1928–2003), who won six bobsleigh medals at the Winter Olympic Games between 1956 and 1968 and ten medals at the FIBT World Championships between 1957 and 1966  It was featured in the 1981 James Bond film For Your Eyes Only, held after the 1981 FIBT World Championships, before the track was shortened to its current configuration  In January 2008, after a last bobsleigh race tournament, the track was closed 

History
Bobsleigh at Cortina d'Ampezzo was introduced in 1905-6 using a snow-covered road on the Dolomite Road between Cortina and Pocol  An attempt was made in 1911 to build an artificial bobsleigh run near the centre of Cortina, but that failed due to funding issues  By 1923, a new track 1200 metres in length, was constructed in Ronco, a village near Cortina on the Dolomite Road laid with special water piping constructed into the earth and covered with turf to allow for track freezing The track made its international debut in 1928 at the International University Winter Games (forerunner of the Winter Universiade, under administration by the International University Sports Federation), giving the track first notice, increasing its growth  Rebuilding of the track occurred in 1936 to meet the standards of other tracks such as St  Moritz, Switzerland and Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany with the finish of the track moving down to the bank of the Boite River  This extended the track length to 1500 metres with 15 turns and a vertical drop of 152 metres  The track hosted its first FIBT World Championships in 1937 in the two-man event  Two years later, it hosted the four-man event of the FIBT World Championships though it would lead to the death of Swiss bobsledder Reto Capadrutt during competition  Another renovation occurred with the track after World War II in 1948, when all of the turns were rebuilt and the track lengthened to 1700 metres and 16 turns When the International Olympic Committee awarded the 1956 Winter Olympics to Cortina, the Italian National Olympic Committee (CONI) took over all operations and improvement of the track at considerable expense  Following the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo, track officials added large scoreboards, and electronic timing and scoring  The track used for the 1956 Winter Olympics was 1720 metres long with 16 turns and an elevation drop of 152 metres  When a bobsleigh track was not built for the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley, California in the United States, the track in Cortina was used to host the world championships that year in place of being excluded from the Winter Olympic Games 

The track played a key role in improving bobsleigh safety when West Germany's Toni Pensperger was killed during the four-man event at the 1966 world championships  Because of Pensperger's death, the world championships did not take place at the track until safety improvements were made satisfactory to the Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing (FIBT)  This was not until 1981, though the death of American bobsledder James Morgan during the four-man event on February 8 led to track officials shortening the course to its current configuration  The week following the 1981 championships, the track was filmed as part of the movie For Your Eyes Only; one of the stuntmen involved, Paolo Rigon, was killed during the first day of filming By 1989 the track was deemed safe enough by the FIBT to host another world championship  Following the death of Eugenio Monti in 2003, the Olympic Bobrun Cortina was renamed the Eugenio Monti pista (track in (in Italian)) early the following year  The track was awarded the 2011 world championships in June 2007 over Winterberg, Germany and was to have undergone homologation to involve skeleton (last competed in 1992) though that was not done during the 2007-08 Bobsleigh and Skeleton World Cup season  Following some issues with the city of Cortina, the track withdrew its bid to host the 2011 championships so the FIBT awarded the championships instead to Königssee, Germany  The track is now artificially refrigerated  The venue could be reopened when Cortina co-host the 2026 Winter Olympics with Milan 

Track statistics
The track used for the 1956 Winter Olympics had 16 curves that was 1,700 meters long with an elevation difference of 152 meters  Turns 3 and 5 were not named 

Following the 1981 FIBT World Championships, the track was shortened to 1350 meters in length with 13 curves, an elevation drop of 120 45 meters, a maximum grade of 15 9%, and an average grade of 9 3% 

Championships hosted
Winter Olympics: 1956, 2026
FIBT World Championships: 1937 (Two-man), 1939 (Four-man), 1950, 1954, 1960 (Extraordinary event since bobsleigh was not included for the 1960 Winter Olympics), 1966, 1981, 1989 (Bobsleigh only), 1999 (Bobsleigh only)
Bobsleigh European Championship: 1965, 1970, 1982, 2000, 2002, 2007
Bobsleigh Italian Championship: 1930, 1933, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1940, 1949, 1950, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1962, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1969, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008

Gallery
See also
Italy national bobsleigh team
Passage 6:
Katie Uhlaender
Katie Uhlaender (born July 17, 1984) is an American skeleton racer who has competed since 2003  She has won six medals at the FIBT World Championships with two gold (women's skeleton: FIBT World Championships 2012, mixed bobsleigh-skeleton team event: 2012), one silver (women's skeleton: 2008), and three bronze (women's skeleton: 2007, mixed bobsleigh-skeleton team event: 2008, 2009) 

Career
Uhlaender won the women's Skeleton World Cup title twice (2006-7, 2007-8)  She also finished sixth in the women's skeleton event at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin  She earned a medical waiver to compete in the 2009-10 Skeleton World Cup season following surgery in the wake of an April 2009 snowmobile accident where Uhelander shattered her kneecap  She then broke it again in August 2009 (having a total of four surgeries)  She qualified for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, where she finished 11th   She then had another surgery (microfracture labral repair by Dr Phillipon at Steadman Hawkins)  On January 18, 2014, Uhlaender was named to the 2014 Olympic team  She placed fourth at the 2014 Olympics, missing out on a medal by  04 seconds Uhlaender has also participated in weightlifting competitions  The 2012 U S  Olympic trials were just the third meet of her weightlifting career, but she did not make the team  Discovering that her hip had ossified (there was no soft tissue) and her ankle had a hole in it, she took the 2014-15 season off from skeleton and gave up on weightlifting to get healthy  She participated in track cycling, attempting to be a starter in the women's team sprint  She posted her best one-lap time of 20 7 at Senior Nationals 2015 
Uhlaender was named, along with Kendall Wesenberg, to represent the U S  in women's skeleton at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang In July 2018, Uhlaender testified before the U S  Helsinki Commission in Washington, DC, on the subject of doping in sports  She was on a panel alongside Travis Tygart, CEO of the U S  Anti-Doping Administration, Jim Walden, the attorney for Russian whistleblower Dr  Grigory Rodchenkov, and Yuliya Stepanova, a former Russian track star turned whistleblower  Uhlaender told the body that she felt she was twice unfairly denied an Olympic medal  The loss "erased the meaning of sport and the Olympics as I knew it "

Personal life
A native of Vail, Colorado, Uhlaender lives in nearby Breckenridge while training, but lives in McDonald, Kansas the rest of the year  She is the daughter of Major League Baseball outfielder (and former Cleveland Indians coach) Ted Uhlaender  In memory of her father, she wears his National League Championship ring from the 1972 Cincinnati Reds on a necklace 
Passage 7:
FIBT World Championships 1951
The FIBT World Championships 1951 took place in Alpe d'Huez, France  Germany returned to the FIBT World Championships for the first time since World War II, albeit as the separate countries of East Germany and West Germany 

Two man bobsleigh
Four man bobsleigh
Medal table
Passage 8:
Andreas Barucha
Andreas Barucha (born 2 April 1979 in Potsdam) is a German bobsledder who has competed since 1999  He won a gold in the mixed team event at the 2009 FIBT World Championships in Lake Placid, New York  His best finish at the FIBT World Championships was seventh in the four-man event at Calgary in 2005 
Barucha's best World Cup finish was second three times in the four-man event (2005, 2006, 2009) 
He finished fourth in the four-man event at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver 
Passage 9:
Cortina d'Ampezzo
Cortina d'Ampezzo (Italian pronunciation: [korˈtiːna damˈpɛttso]; Ladin: Anpezo, Ampëz; historical Austrian German: Hayden) is a town and comune in the heart of the southern (Dolomitic) Alps in the Province of Belluno, in the Veneto region of Northern Italy  Situated on the Boite river, in an alpine valley, it is a summer and winter sport resort known for its skiing trails, scenery, accommodation, shops and après-ski scene, and for its jet set and Italian aristocratic crowd 
In the Middle Ages, Ampezzo fell under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Aquileia and of the Holy Roman Empire  In 1420 it was conquered by the Republic of Venice  From 1508, it then spent much of its history under Habsburg rule, briefly undergoing some territorial changes under Napoleon, before being returned to the Austrian Empire (later Austria-Hungary), which held it until 1918  From the nineteenth century, Ampezzo became a notable regional centre for crafts  The local handmade products were appreciated by early British and German holidaymakers as tourism emerged late nineteenth century  Among the specializations of the town were crafting wood for furniture, the production of tiled stoves, and iron, copper and glass items  
Today, the local economy thrives on tourism, particularly during the winter season, when the population of the town typically increases from about 7,000 to 40,000  The Basilica Minore dei Santi Filippo e Giacomo was built between 1769 and 1775 on the site of two former thirteenth and sixteenth-century churches; it is home to the parish and the deanery of Cortina d'Ampezzo  The town also contains the Rinaldo Zardini Palaeontology Museum, established in 1975, the Mario Rimoldi Modern Art Museum, and the Regole of Ampezzo Ethnographic Museum  
Although Cortina d'Ampezzo was unable to go ahead with the scheduled 1944 Winter Olympics because of World War II, it hosted the Winter Olympics in 1956 and subsequently a number of world winter-sports events  Cortina d'Ampezzo will host the Winter Olympics for a second time when it co-hosts the 2026 Winter Olympics with Milan  The town is home to SG Cortina, a top league professional ice hockey team, and Cortina d'Ampezzo is also the start and end point of the annual Dolomites Gold Cup Race  
Several films have been shot in the town, most notably The Pink Panther (1963), For Your Eyes Only (1981), and Cliffhanger (1993) 

History
Prehistory
The discovery in 1987 of a primitive tomb at Mondeval de Sora high up in the mountains to the south of Cortina testifies to the presence of Mesolithic man in the area as far back as the 6th millennium B C  In the 6th century B C , Etruscan writing was introduced in the province of Cadore, in whose possession it remained until the early 5th century  From the 3rd century B C , the Romans assimilated the Veneti people, giving the area the name of Amplitium (from amplus meaning wide), today's Ampezzo 

Middle Ages to 19th century
No historical information exists on the Cadore region from the fall of the Roman Empire until the Lombard period  It is assumed that during the Barbarian invasions, the inhabitants fled to the Fassa, Badia, Cordevole and Ampezzo valleys In the Middle Ages, Ampezzo fell under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Aquileia and of the Holy Roman Empire  In 1420, the village was conquered by the Republic of Venice  In 1508 it was conquered by the Habsburgs, and by 1511 people of Ampezzo swore loyalty to the Emperor Maximilian, and that area was subsequently adjoined to the region of Pusterthal  In 1797, when the Treaty of Campo Formio was signed, Napoleon initially permitted the Habsburg Empire to retain it, but in 1810 he added Ampezzo to the Department of Piave, following an attack on the town in which it was burned by the French  It was short-lived; the Austrian Empire reclaimed it in 1813, and it remained in its possession even after the battles of Custoza and Sadowa in 1866 when Venice was ceded to Italy  The town gained a reputation as a health resort; it was reportedly free of diseases such as cholera In 1874 the Ampezzo forest became the property of the Carnic Woods Consortium  Although remaining an Austrian possession until 1920 (as a part of kronland Tyrol), aside from being home for an ethnic German-speaking minority, Ampezzo never became a German-speaking territory and conserved its original language Ladin, a Rhaeto-Romance language 

20th century
When Italy entered World War I in 1915, most of the male inhabitants were fighting for Austria-Hungary on the Russian front  669 male inhabitants (most of them under 16 or over 50) tried to fight the Italian troops  Outnumbered by the Italians, they had to retreat  After the Austrian recovery in 1917, the town was occupied again by the Tyrolean Standschützen  On 24 November 1917, the Habsburg Emperor Charles (Karl) traveled through Ampezzo and was received with enthusiasm by the population  A little girl handed the emperor a letter with the request to send her father home from the front because his wife and mother of nine children had died  After ten days, Bepe Manaigo was with his children  A total of 144 Ampezzans died as a result of the war  Ampezzo soldiers received 16 silver and 4 bronze medals for bravery  In the surrounding area of Cortina there were 38 military cemeteries, everywhere trenches, barbed wire, impact holes, splinters, ammunition and barracks; 2,450 hectares of forest were devastated 
The mountains surrounding Cortina were themselves the theatre of several battles during the Great War  

Following Italy's victory in World War I, Ampezzo was (together with the central and southern part of Tyrol) definitively ceded to Italy in 1920  Three years later, it was separated from Tyrol (along with Colle Santa Lucia and Livinallongo del Col di Lana) and incorporated into the province of Belluno, itself part of the Veneto region 
After the war the city was renamed "Cortina d'Ampezzo" (Curtain of the Ampezzo Valley), adopting the name of one of the six villages that made up the territory of Ampezzo, located in the middle of the Ampezzo valley Cortina d'Ampezzo was designated as a major redoubt and held a large ammunition storage depot (46°36'50"N / 12°09'27"E) in 1945 and had been assigned as a hold out by Italian and German troops to prevent the American and British from advancing into Austria   Town and depot was scheduled to be attacked on 26 April 1945 only last minute weather prevented this strike by the 15th AF / 49th BW
Already an elite destination for the first British tourists in the late 18th and early 20th centuries, after World War I Cortina d'Ampezzo became a resort for upper-class Italians, too  Cortina d'Ampezzo was chosen as the venue of the 1944 winter Olympics, which did not take place due to World War II  Thanks to finally hosting the winter Olympics in 1956,  Cortina grew into a world-famous resort, with a substantial increase in tourism  With a resident population of 6,150 people in 2008, Cortina has a temporary population of around 50,000 during peak periods such as the Christmas holidays and mid-August  The Ford Cortina, the UK's best-selling car of the 1970s, was named after Cortina d'Ampezzo 

21st-century politics
In 2002 the Ampezzaner rifle company Ŝizar Anpezo Hayden was brought back to life  Since Otto von Habsburg, the then head of the Habsburg family, visited Cortina in 2005, their patron has been Charles I of Austria  Especially because of the eventful history, the Habsburg brand is still very present in Cortina in the 21st century, as many pictures and photos of Franz Joseph I of Austria and of Charles I, who is particularly revered here, in inns, restaurants, bars and hotels testify  Since 2011 there has been a memorial for Maximilian I on the main square in memory of the year 1511 and the union of the Ampezzo valley basin with Tyrol The town voted in October 2007 to secede from the region of Veneto and join the neighbouring region, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol  This was motivated by cultural ties with the Ladin-speaking community in South Tyrol and the attraction of lower taxes  The referendum is not executive, and a final decision on the matter can only be made by law from the Italian parliament with consent of both regional councils of Veneto and Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol In the European elections of 2014, the leading party was the Democratic Party with 30 4% of the vote, followed by Forza Italia (19 4%) and the autonomist Südtiroler Volkspartei with 14 1% 

Geography and climate
Cortina is situated more or less in the centre of the Ampezzo valley, at the top of the Valle del Boite in the Dolomites, which encircle the town
Context 3: Passage 1:
English general election, 1689
The 1689 English general election, held in January 1689, elected the Convention Parliament, which was summoned in the aftermath of the Glorious Revolution  
513 Members of Parliament were returned, across 53 counties and 217 boroughs in England and Wales, most returning two members  Only nine counties and 41 boroughs (a total of 69 seats) had contested elections, with the other candidates being returned unopposed  Six boroughs had double returns, where multiple members were recorded elected, and five of these were subsequently voided by Parliament forcing by-elections 

The majority of seats were not contested on a party basis, but partisan alignment can be identified by historians looking at subsequent voting on key issues  174 members are identified as Whigs, and 151 as Tories  The remaining members, around 190, are considered uncommitted  An older estimate based on activity throughout the Parliament suggested that the 551 Members (including those returned in by-elections) could be listed as 232 Tories and 319 Whigs or Court Tories, with none classed as uncommitted (but with over 40% recorded as "inactive")  Finally, an estimate at the end of the parliament, when party groups had had time to develop further, estimated the strength of the parties as 254 Whigs, 221 Tories, and 38 uncommitted members 

See also
List of MPs elected to the English Parliament in 1689
Convention Parliament (1689)
List of English Parliaments

Notes
Passage 2:
English general election, 1695
The 1695 English general election was the first to be held under the terms of the Triennial Act of 1694, which required parliament to be dissolved and fresh elections called at least every three years  This measure helped to fuel partisan rivalry over the coming decades, with the electorate in a constant state of excitement and the Whigs and Tories continually trying to gain the upper hand  Despite the potential for manipulation of the electorate, as was seen under Robert Walpole and his successors, with general elections held an average of every other year, and local and central government positions frequently changing hands between parties, it was impossible for any party or government to be certain of electoral success in the period after 1694, and election results were consequently genuinely representative of the views of at least the section of the population able to vote 
The election of 1695, however, was comparatively quiet, being fought mainly on local issues  The new government led by the Whig junto made gains in most contested constituencies, and their party was returned with a narrow majority  The junto's support was not certain, however, as their policies increasingly alienated backbench 'country' Whigs, who were willing to co-operate with the Tories, and the government frequently ran into trouble in the House of Commons  Eighty-five constituencies were contested, 31% of the total 

Party strengths are an approximation, with many MPs' allegiances being unknown 

Summary of the constituencies
See 1796 British general election for details  The constituencies used in England and Wales were the same throughout the period  In 1707 alone the 45 Scottish members were not elected from the constituencies, but were returned by co-option of a part of the membership of the last Parliament of Scotland elected before the Union 

See also
3rd Parliament of King William III
List of parliaments of England
Passage 3:
English general election, 1690
The 1690 English general election occurred after the dissolution of the Convention Parliament summoned in the aftermath of the Glorious Revolution, and saw the partisan feuds in that parliament continue in the constituencies  The Tories made significant gains against their opponents, particularly in the contested counties and boroughs, as the electorate saw the Whigs increasingly as a source of instability and a threat to the Church of England 
Following the election, William continued his policy of forming a coalition government around non-partisan figures  The nominal leader of the new government was the Marquess of Carnarvon, though the Tories were able to use their greater numbers in the House of Commons to increase their share of government positions  Contests occurred in 103 constituencies, 38% of the total 
Party strengths are as estimated by the History of Parliament, though division lists for this parliament are not available and so a precise count may not be possible 

Summary of the constituencies
See 1796 British general election for details  The constituencies used in England and Wales were the same throughout the period  In 1707 alone the 45 Scottish members were not elected from the constituencies, but were returned by co-option of a part of the membership of the last Parliament of Scotland elected before the Union 

See also
2nd Parliament of William and Mary
List of parliaments of England

Notes
Passage 4:
English general election, March 1679
The March 1679 English general election resulted in the  Habeas Corpus Parliament, named after the Habeas Corpus Act, which it enacted in May, 1679 to define and strengthen the ancient prerogative writ benefitting all subjects  It was dissolved while in recess on 12 July 1679  
On the current issue of excluding the King's younger brother from the succession to the throne, 218 members were in favour of the Exclusion Bill, while 137 were opposed  However, 167 members did not attend the parliament at all, so their view about Exclusion is unknown 
Passage 5:
English general election, 1685
The 1685 English general election elected the only parliament of James II of England, known as the Loyal Parliament  This was the first time the pejorative words Whig and Tory were used as names for political groupings in the Parliament of England  Party strengths are an approximation, with many MPs' allegiances being unknown 
513 Members of Parliament were returned across 53 counties and 217 boroughs in England and Wales, most returning two members  Only 15 counties and 57 boroughs (a total of 100 seats) had contested elections, with the other candidates being returned unopposed  One borough had a double return, where multiple members were recorded elected, and another was subsequently voided by Parliament, forcing a by-election 

While the number of seats had not changed from the previous election, their electorate had been substantially altered by royal influence  Following the Exclusion crisis, ninety-nine boroughs had received new charters, the aim being to eliminate the influence of the Whigs  The Whigs also lost seats in county constituencies - which were not liable to charter manipulation - dropping from around sixty county seats in 1681 to only eight In the new parliament, the Tories now had their own majority in both houses, Commons and Lords  The exact breakdown of members returned at the election is not clear, but of the 525 members who served during the 1685-89 Parliamentary term, including those elected at later by-elections, 468 are estimated as Tories and 57 as Whigs  This estimate does not treat any members as uncommitted, and up to 30% of members were recorded as inactive The election had significant effects on Parliament demographically as well as politically  The newly elected members were mostly inexperienced, with slightly over half never having sat in Parliament before  The majority of these would stand down or lose their seats at the subsequent election in 1689  Members were much more likely to be High Church Anglicans, with very few Presbyterians or Independents compared to other Parliaments of the period  There was an unusually high share of government officials and military officers, and fewer country gentry  Two minors were elected, Peter Legh and the Hon  Thomas Windsor, aged 15 and 16 respectively 
Passage 6:
English general election, October 1679
The October 1679 English general election returned a majority of members in favour of the Exclusion Bill  Consequently, this parliament  was known as the Exclusion Bill Parliament  It did not assemble until 21 October 1680, and was dissolved three months later on 18 January 1681 
Passage 7:
English general election, 1661
The 1661 English general election returned a majority of members in support of Charles II of England  This Parliament was called the Cavalier Parliament, since many of the MPs elected were former Cavaliers or the sons of Cavaliers 
Yet during the course of the Cavalier Parliament, there was considerable movement between the Cavaliers and the Roundheads 

See also
List of MPs elected to the English Parliament in 1661
Passage 8:
Glorious Revolution
The Glorious Revolution is the term, first used in 1689, to summarise events leading to the deposition of James II and VII of England, Ireland and Scotland in November 1688, and his replacement by his daughter Mary II and her husband and James's nephew William III of Orange, de facto ruler of the Dutch Republic  Known as the Glorieuze Overtocht or Glorious Crossing in the Netherlands,  it has been described both as the last successful invasion of England and as an internal coup Despite being Catholic, James became king in February 1685 with widespread support from the Protestant majority in England and Scotland  Many feared his exclusion would cause a repetition of the 1639–1653 Wars of the Three Kingdoms, while it was viewed as a short-term issue, since the heir presumptive was his Protestant elder daughter Mary  James soon lost popular support by suspending the Parliaments of Scotland and England in 1685, and thereafter ruling by personal decree Two events in June 1688 turned dissatisfaction into a political crisis  The first was the birth on 10 June of a male heir, James Francis Edward, displacing Mary and creating the prospect of a Catholic dynasty  The second was the prosecution for seditious libel of seven bishops from the Protestant Church of England  Many saw this as the latest in a series of attacks on the state church; their acquittal on 30 June sparked widespread anti-Catholic riots and destroyed James's political authority  A coalition of English politicians, soldiers and religious leaders issued the Invitation to William, asking him to intervene militarily and "protect the Protestant religion" 
William wanted to prevent British military and financial resources being used against him in the Nine Years War, launched by Louis XIV of France in September 1688  On 5 November, he landed in Brixham, Devon with 20,000 men, and advanced on London  As he did so, the Royal Army disintegrated, and James went into exile in France on 23 December  In April 1689, Parliament made William and Mary joint monarchs of England and Ireland  A separate but similar Scottish settlement was made in June 
While the Revolution itself was quick and relatively bloodless, pro-Stuart revolts in Scotland and Ireland caused significant casualties  Although Jacobitism persisted into the late 18th century, the Revolution ended a century of political dispute by confirming the primacy of Parliament over the Crown, a principle established in the Bill of Rights 1689  The Toleration Act 1688 granted freedom of worship to nonconformist Protestants, but restrictions on Catholics contained in the 1678 and 1681 English and Scottish Test Acts remained in force until 1828  Religious prohibitions on the monarch's choice of spouse were removed in 2015, but those applying to the monarch themselves remain 

Background
Despite his Catholicism, James became king in 1685 with widespread support, as demonstrated by the rapid defeat of the Argyll and Monmouth Rebellions; less than four years later, he was forced into exile  Often seen as an exclusively English event, modern historians argue James failed to appreciate the extent to which Royal power relied at the local level on the landed gentry, and the loss of that support fatally damaged his regime  The vast majority of the gentry in England and Scotland were Protestant, while even in largely Catholic Ireland a disproportionate number were members of the Protestant Church of Ireland  Although willing to accept James's personal religious beliefs, his backers did so only so long as he maintained the primacy of the Protestant Church of England and Church of Scotland  When his policies appeared to undermine the existing political and religious order, the result was to alienate his English and Scottish supporters and destabilise Ireland 

Stuart political ideology derived from James VI and I, who in 1603 had created a vision of a centralised state, run by a monarch whose authority came from God, and where the function of Parliament was simply to obey  Disputes over the relationship between king and Parliament led to the War of the Three Kingdoms and continued after the 1660 Stuart Restoration  Charles II came to rely on the Royal Prerogative since measures passed in this way could be withdrawn when he decided, rather than Parliament  However, it could not be used for major legislation or taxation Concern that James intended to create an absolute monarchy led to the 1679 to 1681 Exclusion Crisis, dividing the English political class into those who wanted to 'exclude' him from the throne, mostly Whigs, and their opponents, mostly Tories  However, in 1685 many Whigs feared the consequences of bypassing the 'natural heir', while Tories were often strongly anti-Catholic and their support assumed the continued primacy of the Church of England  Most importantly, it was seen as a short-term issue; James was 52, his marriage to Mary of Modena remained childless after 11 years, and the heirs were his Protestant daughters, Mary and Anne There was much greater sympathy in Scotland for a 'Stuart heir', and the 1681 Succession Act confirmed the duty of all to support him, 'regardless of religion ' Over 95 percent of Scots belonged to the national church or kirk; even other Protestant sects were banned, and by 1680, Catholics were a tiny minority confined to parts of the aristocracy and the remote Highlands  Episcopalians had regained control of the kirk in 1660, leading to a series of Presbyterian uprisings, but memories of the bitter religious conflicts of the Civil War period meant the majority preferred stability In England and Scotland, most of those who backed James in 1685 wanted to retain existing political and religious arrangements, but this was not the case in Ireland  While he was guaranteed support from the Catholic majority, James was also popular among Irish Protestants, since the Church of Ireland depended on Royal support for its survival, while Ulster was dominated by Presbyterians who supported his tolerance policies  However, religion was only one factor; of equal concern for Catholics were laws barring them from serving in the military or holding public office, and land reform  In 1600, 90% of Irish land was owned by Catholics but following a series of confiscation during the 17th century, this had dropped to 22% in 1685  Catholic and Protestant merchants in Dublin and elsewhere objected to commercial restrictions placing them at a disadvantage to their English competitors 

The political background in England
While James's supporters viewed hereditary succession as more important than his personal Catholicism, they opposed his policies of 'Tolerance' under which Catholics would be allowed to hold public office and engage in public life  Opposition was led by devout Anglicans who argued that the measures he proposed were incompatible with the oath he had sworn as king to uphold the supremacy of the Church of England  In an age when oaths were seen as fundamental to a stable society, by demanding that Parliament approve his measures James was seen not only to be breaking his own word but requiring others to do the same  Parliament refused to comply, despite being "the most Loyal Parliament a Stuart ever had" Although historians generally accept James wished to promote Catholicism, not establish an Absolute monarchy, his stubborn and inflexible reaction to opposition had the same result  When the English and Scottish Parliaments refused to repeal the 1678 and 1681 Test Acts, he suspended them in November 1685 and ruled by decree  Attempts to form a 'King's party' of Catholics, English Dissenters and dissident Scottish Presbyterians was politically short-sighted, since it rewarded those who joined the 1685 rebellions and undermined his supporters Demanding tolerance for Catholics was also badly timed  In October 1685 Louis XIV of France issued the Edict of Fontainebleau revoking the 1598 Edict of Nantes which had given French Protestants the right to practise their religion; over the next four years, an estimated 200,000 to 400,000 went into exile, 40,000 of whom settled in London  Combined with Louis's expansionist policies and the killing of 2,000 Vaudois Protestants in 1686, it led to fears Protestant Europe was threatened by a Catholic counter-reformation  These concerns were reinforced by events in Ireland; the Lord Deputy, the Earl of Tyrconnell, wanted to create a Catholic establishment able to survive James's death, which meant replacing Protestant officials at a pace that was inherently destabilising 

Timeline of events: 1686 to 1688
The majority of those who backed James in 1685 did so because they wanted stability and the rule of law, qualities frequently undermined by his actions  After suspending Parliament in November 1685, he sought to rule by decree; although the principle was not disputed, the widening of its scope caused considerable concern, particularly when judges who disagreed with its application were dismissed  He then alienated many by perceived attacks on the established church; Henry Compton, Bishop of London, was suspended for refusing to ban John Sharp from preaching after he gave an anti-Catholic sermon He often made things worse by political clumsiness; to general fury, the Ecclesiastical Commission of 1686 established to discipline the Church of England included suspected Catholics like the Earl of Huntingdon  This was combined with an inability to accept opposition; in April 1687, he ordered Magdalen College, Oxford, to elect a Catholic sympathiser named Anthony Farmer as president, but as he was ineligible under the college statutes, the fellows elected John Hough instead  Both Farmer and Hough withdrew in favour of another candidate selected by James, who then demanded the fellows personally apologise on their knees for 'defying' him; when they refused, they were replaced by Catholics Attempts to create an alternative 'Kings Party' were never likely to succeed, as English Catholics made up only 1 1% of the population and Nonconformists 4 4%  Both groups were divided; since private worship was generally tolerated, Catholic moderates feared greater visibility would provoke a backlash  Among Nonconformists, while Quakers and Congregationalists supported repeal of the Test Acts, the majority wanted to amend the 1662 Act of Uniformity and be allowed back into the Church of England  When James ensured the election of the Presbyterian John Shorter as Lord Mayor of London in 1687, he insisted on complying with the Test Act, reportedly because of a 'distrust of the King's favour   thus encouraging that which His Majesties whole Endeavours were intended to disannull '

To ensure a compliant Parliament, James required potential MPs to be approved by their local Lord Lieutenant; eligibility for both offices required positive answers in writing to the 'Three Questions', one being a commitment to repeal of the Test Act  In addition, local government and town corporations were purged to create an obedient electoral machine, further alienating the county gentry who had formed the majority of those who backed James in 1685  On 24 August 1688, writs were issued for a general election The expansion of the military caused great concern, particularly in England and Scotland, where memories of the Civil War left huge resistance to standing armies  In Ireland, Talbot replaced Protestant officers with Catholics; James did the same in England, while basing the troops at Hounslow appeared a deliberate attempt to overawe Parliament  In April 1688, he ordered his Declaration of Indulgence read in every church; when the Archbishop of Canterbury and six other bishops refused, they were charged with seditious libel and confined in the Tower of London  Two events turned dissent into a crisis; the birth of James Francis Edward Stuart on 10 June created the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, while the acquittal of the Seven Bishops on 30 June destroyed James's political authority 

Dutch intervention
Prelude: 1685 to June 1688
In 1677, James's elder daughter and heir Mary married her Protestant cousin William of Orange, stadtholder of the main provinces of the Dutch Republic  The two initially shared common objectives in wanting Mary to succeed her father, while French ambitions in the Spanish Netherlands threatened both English and Dutch trade  Although William sent James troops to help suppress the 1685 Monmouth Rebellion, their relationship deteriorated thereafter The Franco-Dutch War, continued French expansion, and expulsion of the Huguenots meant William assumed another war was inevitable, and although the States General of the Netherlands preferred peace, the majority accepted he was correct  This view was widely shared throughout Protestant Europe; in October 1685, Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg renounced his French alliance for one with the Dutch  In July 1686, other Protestant states formed the anti-French League of Augsburg, with Dutch support; securing or neutralising English resources, especially the Royal Navy, now became key to both sides Following a skirmish between French and Dutch naval vessels in July 1686, William concluded English neutrality was not enough and he needed their active support in the event of war  His relationship with James was affected by the fact both men relied on advisors with relatively limited views; in William's case, mainly English and Scots Presbyterian exiles, the latter with close links to the Protestant minority in Ireland, who saw Tyrconnell's policies as a threat to their existence  Having largely alienated his Tory support base, James depended on a small circle of Catholic converts like Sunderland, Melfort and Perth 

Suspicions increased when James sought William's backing for repealing the Test Acts; he predictably refused, further damaging their relationship  Having previously assumed he was guaranteed English support in a war with France, William now worried he might face an Anglo-French alliance, despite assurances by James he had no intention of doing so  Historians argue these assurances were genuine, but James did not appreciate the distrust caused by his domestic policies  In August 1687, William's cousin de Zuylestein travelled to England with condolences on the death of Mary of Modena's mother, allowing him to make contact with the political opposition  Throughout 1688, his English supporters provided William detailed information on public opinion and developments, very little of which was intercepted In October 1687, after fourteen years of marriage and multiple miscarriages, it was announced the Queen was pregnant, Melfort immediately declaring it was a boy  When James then wrote to Mary urging her to convert to Catholicism, it convinced many he was seeking a Catholic heir, one way or the other and may have been a deciding factor in whether to invade  Early in 1688, a pamphlet circulated in England written by Dutch Grand Pensionary Gaspar Fagel; this guaranteed William's support for freedom of worship for Dissenters and retaining the Test Acts, unlike James who offered tolerance in return for repeal In April 1688, Louis XIV announced tariffs on Dutch herring imports, along with plans to support the Royal Navy in the English Channel  James immediately denied making any such request, but fearing it was the prelude to a formal alliance, the Dutch began preparing a military intervention  On the pretext of needing additional resources to deal with French privateers, in July the States General authorised an additional 9,000 sailors and 21 new warships 

Invitation to William
An invasion required domestic support, and at the end of April William met with Edward Russell, unofficial envoy for the Whig opposition  In a conversation recorded by Gilbert Burnet, he requested a formal invitation asking him to "rescue the nation and the religion", with a projected date of end September  William subsequently claimed he was 'forced' to take control of the conspiracy when Russell warned him the English would rise against James even without his help, and he feared this would lead to a republic, depriving his wife of her inheritance Although this version is strongly disputed, Zuylestein returned to England in June, ostensibly to congratulate James on his new son, in reality to co-ordinate with William's supporters  Spurred by the prospect of a Catholic successor, the "Invitation to William" was quickly drafted by Henry Sydney, later described as "the great wheel on which the Revolution rolled"   The signatories were selected to represent a broad spectrum; Danby, a Whig, and Devonshire, a Tory; Henry Compton, Bishop of London, for the church; Shrewsbury and Lumley for the army, and finally Russell and Sydney for the navy  They promised to support a Dutch landing, but stressed the importance of acting quickly The Invitation was carried to The Hague on 30 June by Rear Admiral Herbert, disguised as a common sailor  Meanwhile, William's ally Bentinck launched a propaganda campaign in England, which presented him as a "true Stuart", but one without the faults of either James or Charles II  Much of the "spontaneous" support for William on his landing was organised by Bentinck and his agents 

Dutch preparations: July to September 1688
William's key strategic purpose was creating a defensive coalition that would block further French expansion in Europe, an objective not shared by the majority of his English supporters  In 1672, an alliance with the Electorate of Cologne had enabled France to bypass Dutch forward defences and nearly over-run the Republic, so ensuring an anti-French ruler was vital to prevent a repetition  As an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire, Cologne's ruler was nominated by Pope Innocent XI, in conjunction with Emperor Leopold I  Both Louis and James were in dispute with Innocent over the right to appoint Catholic bishops and clergy; when the old Elector died in June 1688, Innocent and Leopold ignored the French candidate in favour of Joseph Clemens of Bavaria After 1678, France continued its expansion into the Rhineland, including the 1683 to 1684 War of the Reunions, additional territorial demands in the Palatinate, and construction of forts at Landau and Traben-Trarbach  This presented an existential threat to Habsburg dominance, guaranteeing Leopold's support for the Dutch, and negating French attempts to build German alliances  William's envoy Johann von Görtz assured Leopold English Catholics would not be persecuted and intervention was to elect a free Parliament, not depose James, a convenient fiction that allowed him to remain neutral Although his English supporters considered a token force sufficient, William assembled 260 transport ships and 15,000 men, nearly half the 30,000 strong Dutch States Army  With France on the verge of war, their absence was of great concern to the States General and Bentinck hired 13,616 German mercenaries to man Dutch border fortresses, freeing elite units like the Scots Brigade for use in England  The increase could be presented as a limited precaution against French aggression, as the Dutch would typically double or triple their army strength in wartime; William instructed his experienced deputy Schomberg to prepare for a campaign in Germany 

Decision to invade
At the beginning of September, an invasion remained in the balance, with the States General fearing a French attack via Flanders while their army was in England  However, the surrender of Belgrade on 6 September seemed to presage an Ottoman collapse and release Austrian resources for use in Germany  Hoping to act before Leopold could respond and relieve pressure on the Ottomans, Louis attacked Philippsburg  With France now committed in Germany, this greatly reduced the threat to the Dutch Instead, Louis attempted to intimidate the States General, and on 9 September, his envoy D'Avaux handed them two letters  The first warned an attack on James meant war with France, the second any interference with French operations in Germany would end with the destruction of the Dutch state  Both misfired; convinced Louis was trying to drag him into war, James told the Dutch there was no secret Anglo-French alliance against them, although his denials only increased their suspicions  By confirming France's primary objective was the Rhineland, the second allowed William to move troops from the eastern border to the coast, even though most of the new mercenaries had yet to arrive On 22 September, the French seized over 100 Dutch ships, many owned by Amsterdam merchants; in response, on 26 September the Amsterdam City Council agreed to back William  This was a significant decision since the Council dominated the States of Holland, the most powerful political body in the Dutch Republic which contributed nearly 60% of its budget  French troops entered the Rhineland on 27 September and in a secret session held on 29th, William argued for a pre-emptive strike, as Louis and James would "attempt to bring this state to its ultimate ruin and subjugation, as soon as they find the occasion"  This was accepted by the States, with the objective left deliberately vague, other than making the English "King and Nation live in a good relation, and useful to their friends and allies, and especially to this State" Following their approval, the Amsterdam financial market raised a loan of four million guilders in only three days, with further financing coming from various sources, including two million guilders from the banker Francisco Lopes Suasso  The biggest concern for Holland was the potential impact on the Dutch economy and politics of William becoming ruler of England; the claim he had no intention of "removing the King from the throne" was not believed  These fears were arguably justified; William's access to English resources permanently diminished Amsterdam's power within the Republic and its status as the world's leading commercial and financial centre 

English defensive strategy
Neither James nor Sunderland trusted Louis, correctly suspecting that his support would continue only so long as it coincided with French interests, while Mary of Modena claimed his warnings were simply an attempt to drag England into an unwanted alliance  As a former naval commander, James appreciated the difficulties of a successful invasion, even in good weather, and as autumn approached, the likelihood seemed to diminish  With the Dutch on the verge of war with France, he did not believe the States General would allow William to make the attempt; if they did, his army and navy were strong enough to defeat it Reasonable in theory, his reliance on the loyalty and efficiency of the military proved deeply flawed  Both the army and the navy remained overwhelmingly Protestant and anti-Catholic; in July, only personal intervention by James prevented a naval mutiny when a Catholic captain held Mass on his ship  The transfer of 2,500 Catholics from the Royal Irish Army to England in September led to clashes with Protestant troops, some of his most reliable units refused to obey orders, and many of their officers resigned When James demanded the repatriation of all six regiments of the Scots Brigade in January 1688, William refused but used the opportunity to purge those considered unreliable, a total of 104 officers and 44 soldiers  Some may have been Williamite agents, such as Colonel Belasyse, a Protestant with over 15 years of service who returned to his family estates in Yorkshire and made contact with Danby  The promotion of Catholic former Brigade officers like Thomas Buchan and Alexander Cannon to command positions led to the formation of the Association of Protestant Officers, which included senior veterans like Charles Trelawny, Churchill, and Percy Kirke On 14 August, Churchill offered his support to William, helping convince him it was safe to risk an invasion; although James was aware of the conspiracy, he took no action  One reason may have been fears over the impact on the army; with a notional strength of 34,000, it looked impressive on paper but morale was brittle while many were untrained or lacked weapons  It also had to fill policing roles previously delegated to the militia, which had been deliberately allowed to decay; most of the 4,000 regular troops brought from Scotland in October had to be stationed in London to keep order  In October, attempts were made to restore the militia but many members were reportedly so angry at the changes made to local corporations, James was advised it was better not to raise them 

Widespread discontent and growing hostility to the Stuart regime were particularly apparent in North-East and South-West England, the two landing places identified by William  A Tory whose brother Jonathan was one of the Seven Bishops, Trelawny's commitment confirmed support from a powerful and well-connected West Country bloc, allowing access to the ports of Plymouth and Torbay  In the north, a force organised by Belasyse and Danby prepared to seize York, its most important city, and Hull, its largest port Herbert had been replaced by Dartmouth as commander of the fleet when he defected in June but many captains owed him their appointments and were of doubtful loyalty  Dartmouth suspected Berkeley and Grafton of plotting to overthrow him; to monitor them, he placed their ships next to his and minimised contact between the other vessels to prevent conspiracy  A lack of funds meant that excluding fireships and light scouting vessels, only 16 warships were available in early October, all third rates or fourth rates that were short of both men and supplies While The Downs was the best place to intercept a cross-Channel attack, it was also vulnerable to a surprise assault, even for ships fully manned and adequately provisioned  Instead, James placed his ships in a strong defensive position near Chatham Dockyard, believing the Dutch would seek to establish naval superiority before committing to a landing  While this had been the original plan, winter storms meant conditions deteriorated rapidly for those on the transports; William therefore decided to sail in convoy and avoid battle  The easterly winds that allowed the Dutch to cross prevented the Royal Navy leaving the Thames estuary and intervening The English fleet was outnumbered 2:1, undermanned, short of supplies, and in the wrong place  Key landing locations in the South-West and Yorkshire had been secured by sympathisers, while both army and navy were led by officers whose loyalty was questionable  Even early in 1686, foreign observers doubted the military would fight for James against a Protestant heir and William claimed only to be securing the inheritance of his wife Mary  While still a dangerous undertaking, the invasion was less risky than it seemed 

Invasion
Embarkation of the army and the Declaration of The Hague
The Dutch preparations, though carried out with great speed, could not remain secret  The English envoy Ignatius White, the Marquess d'Albeville, warned his country: "an absolute conquest is intended under the specious and ordinary pretences of religion, liberty, property and a free Parliament"  Louis threatened an immediate declaration of war if William proceeded and sent James 300,000 livres Embarkations, begun on 22 September (Gregorian calendar), had been completed on 8 October, and the expedition was that day openly approved by the States of Holland; the same day James issued a proclamation to the English nation that it should prepare for a Dutch invasion to ward off conquest  On 30 September/10 October (Julian/Gregorian calendars) William issued the Declaration of The Hague (actually written by Fagel), of which 60,000 copies of the English translation by Gilbert Burnet were distributed after the landing in England, in which he assured that his only aim was to maintain the Protestant religion, install a free parliament and investigate the legitimacy of the Prince of Wales  He would respect the position of James  William declared:

It is both certain and evident to all men, that the public peace and happiness of any state or kingdom cannot be preserved, where the Laws, Liberties, and Customs, established by the lawful authority in it, are openly transgressed and annulled; more especially where the alteration of Religion is endeavoured, and that a religion, which is contrary to law, is endeavoured to be introduced; upon which those who are most immediately concerned in it are indispensably bound to endeavour to preserve and maintain the established Laws, Liberties and customs, and, above all, the Religion and Worship of God, that is established among them; and to take such an effectual care, that the inhabitants of the said state or kingdom may neither be deprived of their Religion, nor of their Civil Rights 
William went on to condemn James's advisers for overturning the religion, laws, and liberties of England, Scotland, and Ireland by the use of the suspending and dispensing power; the establishment of the "manifestly illegal" commission for ecclesiastical causes and its use to suspend the Bishop of London and to remove the Fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford  William also condemned James's attempt to repeal the Test Acts and the penal laws through pressuring individuals and waging an assault on parliamentary boroughs, as well as his purging of the judiciary  James's attempt to pack Parliament was in danger of removing "the last and great remedy for all those evils" 

"Therefore", William continued, "we have thought fit to go over to England, and to carry over with us a force sufficient, by the blessing of God, to defend us from the violence of those evil Counsellors     this our Expedition is intended for no other design, but to have, a free and lawful Parliament assembled as soon as is possible"  On 4/14 October, William responded to the allegations by James in a second declaration, denying any intention to become king or to conquer England, a claim which remains controversial The swiftness of the embarkations surprised all foreign observers  Louis had in fact delayed his threats against the Dutch until early September because he assumed it then would be too late in the season to set the expedition in motion anyway, if their reaction proved negative; typically such an enterprise would take at least some months  Being ready after the last week of September / first week of October would normally have meant that the Dutch could have profited from the last spell of good weather, as the autumn storms tend to begin in the third week of that month  However, this year they came early  For three weeks, the invasion fleet was prevented by adverse south-westerly gales from departing from the naval port of Hellevoetsluis and Catholics all over the Netherlands and the British kingdoms held prayer sessions that this "popish wind" might endure  However, on 14/24 October, it became the famous "Protestant Wind" by turning to the east 

Crossing and landing
Although most of the warships were provided by the Admiralty of Amsterdam, the expedition was officially treated as a private affair, with the States General allowing William use of the Dutch army and fleet  For propaganda purposes, English admiral Arthur Herbert was nominally in command, but in reality operational control remained with Lieutenant-Admiral Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and Vice-Admiral Philips van Almonde  Accompanied by Willem Bastiaensz Schepers, the Rotterdam shipping magnate who provided financing, William boarded the frigate Den Briel on 16/26 October  Roughly twice the size of the Spanish Armada, the fleet included 49 warships, 76 transports for the soldiers, 120 transports for the 5,000 horses required by the cavalry and supply train, and 40,000 men on board, of whom 9,500 were sailors of the Dutch navy  It was to remain the largest fleet assembled in European waters until the D-Day operations of 1944 Having departed on 19/29 October, the expedition was halfway across the North Sea when it was scattered by a gale, forcing the Brill back to Hellevoetsluis on 21/31 October  William refused to go ashore and the fleet reassembled, having lost only one ship but nearly a thousand horses; press reports deliberately exaggerated the damage and claimed the expedition might be postponed until next spring  Dartmouth and his senior commanders considered taking advantage of this by blockading Hellevoetsluis, then decided against it, partly because the stormy weather made it dangerous but also because they could not rely on their men William replaced his losses and departed when the wind changed on 1/11 November, this time heading for Harwich where Bentinck had prepared a landing site  It has been suggested this was a feint to divert some of Dartmouth's ships north, which proved to be the case and when the wind shifted again, the Dutch armada sailed south into the Strait of Dover  In doing so, they twice passed the English fleet, which was unable to intercept because of the adverse winds and tides 

On 3/13 November, the invasion fleet entered the English Channel in an enormous formation 25 ships deep, the troops lined up on deck, firing musket volleys, colours flying and military bands playing  Intended to awe observers with its size and power, Rapin de Thoyras later described it as "the most magnificent and affecting spectacle   ever seen by human eyes"  The same wind blowing the Dutch down the Channel kept Dartmouth confined in the Thames estuary; by the time he was able to make his way out, he was too far behind to stop William reaching Torbay on 5 November As anticipated, the French fleet remained in the Mediterranean, in order to support an attack on the Papal States if needed, while a south-westerly gale now forced Dartmouth to shelter in Portsmouth harbour and kept him there for two days, allowing William to complete his disembarkation undisturbed  The regular Dutch troops amounted to 14,000-15,000 men, consisting of around 11,000 infantry, including nearly 5,000 members of the elite Anglo-Scots Brigade and Dutch Blue Guards, 3,660 cavalry and an artillery train of twenty-one 24-pounder cannon Some 5,000 volunteers, consisting of British exiles and Huguenots, also accompanied the fleet, making a total army of over 20,000 men   William brought these volunteers along to accelerate English army reforms, because they could replace the soldiers who were loyal to James  William brought weapons to equip another 20,000 men, although the subsequent and rapid collapse of James's army meant the 12,000 local volunteers who joined by 20 November were eventually dismissed 

The collapse of James's rule
Panicked by the prospect of invasion, James met with the bishops on 28 September, offering concessions; five days later they presented demands, which included restoring the religious position to that prevailing in February 1685, along with free elections for a new Parliament  Although they hoped this would allow James to remain king, in reality there was little chance of this, since at a minimum he would have to disinherit his son, enforce the Test Acts, and accept the supremacy of Parliament, all of which were unacceptable  In addition, by now his Whig opponents did not trust him to keep his promises, while Tories like Danby were too committed to William to escape punishment Although his veteran force had the capability of defeating the largely untested recruits of the Royal Army, William and his English supporters preferred to avoid bloodshed and allow the regime to collapse on its own



ground_truth: Jānis Strazdiņš

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The FIBT World Championships 1960 took place in a town located in which part of Italy ?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  The Boite river flows directly through the town of Cortina itself  The mountains in the area are described as "craggy" and "soaring", "unmistakable; like a massive coral reef ripped from the sea, strung with conifers and laced with snow"  The town is positioned between Cadore (to the south) and the Puster Valley (to the north), Val d'Ansiei (to the east) and Agordo (to the west)  Originally it consisted of numerous frazioni, isolated villages and hamlets, but from the 1950s it grew rapidly as a result of tourism  Only the most remote villages have remained isolated from the main town  San Vito di Cadore is 9 kilometres (5 6 mi) to the south of Cortina d'Ampezzo Among the surrounding mountains are Tofane to the west, Pomagagnon to the north, Cristallo to the northeast, Faloria and Sorapiss to the east, and Becco di Mezzodì, Croda da Lago and Cinque Torri to the south  Monte Antelao (Nantelou in Ladin) is at 3264 m the highest mountain in the Ampezzo Dolomites and the second highest in the Dolomites  When the weather is good, Monte Antelao is clearly visible from the rive in Trieste on the Adriatic Sea  The town centre is located at an elevation of 1,224 metres (4,016 ft), the closest high peak is that of Tofana di Mezzo, which towers at 3,244 metres (10,643 ft)  There are numerous fast flowing rivers, streams and small lakes in the territory, such as the Ghedina, Pianozes and d'Ajal, which fill particularly during the summer snow-melt season  Fauna include marmots, roe deer, chamois and hares and, on occasion, wolves, bears and lynx  Much of the area of Cortina is part of the "Natural Park of the Ampezzo Dolomites" 

Frazioni
The comune contains the following frazioni (parishes/wards) with their Ladino names in parentheses: Acquabona (Agabòna), Alverà, Bigontina (Begontina), Cadelverzo (Cadelvèrzo), Cademai, Cadin (Ciadìn), Campo (Ciànpo), Chiamulera (Ciamulèra), Chiave (Ciàe), Cianderìes, Coiana (Cojana), Col, Cortina, Crìgnes, Doneà, Fiames (Fiàmes), Fraìna, Gilardon (Jilardòn), Gnòche o Gràa, Guargné, Lacedel (Lazedèl), Manaigo, Majon, Melères, Mortisa (Mortìja), Pecol (Pecòl), Pezié, Pian da Lago, Pocol (Pocòl), Rònco, Salieto, Socol, Staulin (Staulìn), Val, Verocai, Vera (Vèra), Zuel (Zuèl) 

Climate
Cortina d'Ampezzo has a humid continental climate (Dfb) with short summers and long winters that vacillate between frigid, snowy, unsettled, and temperate  In late December and early January, some of Italy's lowest recorded temperatures are to be found in the region, especially at the top of the Cimabanche Pass on the border between the provinces of Belluno and Bolzano  The other seasons are generally rainy, cool to warm, and windy  During the summer temperature up to 25 degrees are present 

Demographics
Cortina's population grew steadily from the time when it was annexed to the Italian State until the 1960s  Thereafter, it underwent a sharp decline (down by 2,099 inhabitants over a 30-year period), with signs of recovery only in the very last few years  Nevertheless, with 6,112 inhabitants, Cortina d'Ampezzo is the seventh most populous place in the province following Belluno (36,509), Feltre (20,688), Sedico (9,734), Ponte nelle Alpi (8,521), Santa Giustina (6,795) and Mel (6,272)  In 2008, there were 44 births (7 1 ‰) and 67 deaths (10 9%), resulting in an overall reduction of 23 inhabitants (−3 8 ‰)  The town's 2,808 families consisted on average of 2 2 persons The presence of foreign residents in Cortina d'Ampezzo is a fairly recent phenomenon, accounting for only a small number of inhabitants in what in any case is a fairly small town  There are 298 resident foreigners in the town, representing 4 9% of the total population  This compares with 7 0% in the town Belluno, 6 4% in the entire province of Belluno, and 10 2% in the Veneto region 

Language and dialects
In addition to Italian, the majority of the population speak fluent Ampezzano, a local variant of Ladin, now recognized as a language rather than a dialect  Ladin is a Rhaeto-Romance language and closely resembles Romansh, which is spoken in Switzerland  The preservation of the local language, as a living medium used by younger generations, is seen as a symbol of pride and attachment to local heritage  Ladin and Tyrolean culture continues to survive despite the increasing pressure faced in recent years  Its importance is even beginning to be recognized by the local authorities who in December 2007 decided to use Ladin on signs for the names of streets and villages in compliance with regulations for the protection of linguistic minorities in force since 1999 

Economy
Beginning in the 19th century, Ampezzo became a notable regional centre for crafts  The growing importance of this sector led the Austrian Ministry of Commerce to authorize the opening of a State Industrial School in 1874, which later became the Art Institute  It became a reputable institution in teaching wood and metalwork, admitting boys from the age of 13 for up to four years of study  The local handmade products were appreciated by early British and German vacationers as tourism emerged in the late 19th century  Some of the local items were said to have mythical qualities; the Austrian journalist and anthropologist Karl Felix Wolff, for example, stated in 1935 that according to legend a local man "once made a sword that was so flexible that you could bend it over, tie it up, and then allow it to straighten out again"  Among the specializations of the town were crafting wood for furniture; the production of tiled stoves; and iron, copper, and glass items 

Today the local economy thrives on tourism, particularly during the winter season, when the population of the town typically increases from about 7,000 to 40,000  Lonely Planet refers to Cortina d'Ampezzo as "one of Italy's most famous, fashionable and expensive ski resorts", which "boasts first-class facilities (skiing, skating, sledding, climbing) and superb hiking" Cortina is home to some of the most prestigious names in fashion (including Bulgari, Benetton, Gucci, and Geox) and various artisan shops, antiquarians, and craft stores  It is also home to many stores specializing in mountaineering equipment  The symbol of Cortina shopping remains La Cooperativa di Cortina, founded on 28 June 1893 as Consumverein Ampezzo  In this shopping centre many trades can be found, from confectioners to newspaper vendors, toys, gift shops, skiing stores, and blacksmiths  The building is divided into three levels (more a raised plan and a balcony)  The cooperative in Cortina was one of the first cooperatives founded in the Italian Peninsula and currently provides employment to approximately 200 people 
The five-star Miramonti Majestic Grand Hotel, of James Bond fame, is more than 100 years old  Previously an Austro-Hungarian hunting lodge, it contains 105 rooms  Other hotels of note include Hotel Cornelio on Via Cantore, Hotel Montana on Corso Italia, Hotel Menardi on Via Majom, Hotel Villa Gaiai on Via Guide Alpine, and the Grand Hotel Savoia on Via Roma  There are several mountain hostels in the vicinity, including Rifugio Faloria, Rifugio son Forca, Rifugio Capanna Tondi and Rifugio duca D'Aosta, which contains restaurants 

Landmarks
Near the bridge on the Bigontina River is the Town Hall, a palace in the Tyrolean style  Piazza Angelo Dibona houses several landmarks  The Ciasa de ra Regoles is one of the more important legal buildings in Ampezzo, where the "regolieri" — a council for the local villages that stood before the town merged — train the community and give administrative orders  It was at one time the see of Ampezzo's primary school  Currently it contains the offices of Comunanza delle Regole d'Ampezzo and the Modern Art Museum "Mario Rimoldi"  The main square of Cortina d'Ampezzo is named after the famous local mountain guide Angelo Dibona 

Museums
The Regole d'Ampezzo administer the Musei delle Regole d'Ampezzo, which covers three museums: 
Rinaldo Zardini Palaeontology Museum, Regole of Ampezzo Ethnographic Museum, and Mario Rimoldi Modern Art Museum The Rinaldo Zardini Palaeontology Museum, established in 1975, is a paleontological museum with a collection of hundreds of fossils of all colors, shapes, and sizes, which were found, gathered, and cataloged by local photographer Rinaldo Zardini  All of the pieces were found in the Dolomites and tell of a time when these high mountain peaks were still on the bottom of a large tropical sea, populated by marine invertebrates, fish, corals, and sponges The Regole of Ampezzo Ethnographic Museum is an ethnographic museum situated in an old restored Venetian sawmill at the confluence of the Boite and Felizon rivers to the north of the town  There are objects related to everyday life, rural, and pastoral practices in the vicinity; agricultural tools; techniques; materials processing; and clothing typical of the valley  
The Mario Rimoldi Modern Art Museum is an art gallery, established in 1941, which preserves over 800 works by major Italian artists of the 20th century including Filippo De Pisis, Felice Carena, Pio Semeghini, Renato Guttuso, Tullio Garbari, Massimo Campigli, and many others  It also hosts temporary exhibitions on various topics 
The Great War Tour stretches over 80 km (50 mi) across the mountains between Lagazuoi and Sass de Stria  It includes the Great War Open Air Museum with its trenches and tunnels  In winter it is accessible to skiers, but it is easier to visit on foot or by mountain bike in the summer months 

Churches
The Basilica Minore dei Santi Filippo e Giacomo was built between 1769 and 1775 on the site of two former 13th and 16th-century churches; it is home to the parish and the deanery of Cortina d'Ampezzo  Its high wooden altar, crowned by a figure of Christ the Redeemer, was carved by Andrea Brustolon  On the ceiling are three frescoes by Luigi Ghedina: "Christ Purifying the Temple", "The Martyrdom of St  Philip", and "The Beheading of St  James" The Chiesa della Madonna della Difesa was built in 1750 on the site of a ruined 14th-century building  Its façade features an intricate fresco depicting the Madonna della Difesa, and the interior is decorated with a wealth of statues, paintings, polychrome marble, and gold leaf 

The Cappella della Beata Vergine di Lourdes (Chapel of Our Lady of Lourdes) was completed in 1907  Decorated by artist Corrado Pitscheider of the Val Gardena, it is a small church of particular interest given the reconstruction sculpture The Cappella di Sant'Antonio da Padova in the village of Chiave was completed in 1791, but the interior was renovated in 1809 after serious fire damage caused by the Napoleonic troops  The furnishings include two wooden busts (Christ and St  Catherine) and a richly designed altar Sacrario militare di Pocol (also known as Ossario di Pocol) is a cemetery and shrine located at an altitude of 1,535 metres (5,036 ft) towards Passo Falzarego, in the locality of Pocol  The small church and cemetery were built in 1916 as a military cemetery by the 5th Alpine group  A shrine was built in 1935 as a memorial to the thousands who lost their lives during World War I on the Dolomite front  It is a massive square tower of stone, clearly visible from the entire Ampezzo valley below  In a crypt in the centre of the structure rests the body of general Antonio Cantore, who was awarded the gold medal for military valor 

Castles and forts
The Castello de Zanna is a small fortress, situated in the vila of Minel  It consists of low, white outer walls and two white corner towers, with a small chapel dedicated to the Holy Trinity  The construction of the castle began in 1694, but on 19 August 1696 work was interrupted; the building remained unfinished in 1809 when it was burned by French revolutionary troops who had invaded Ampezzo  Since then the castle has undergone restoration 
Forte Tre Sassi (or Forte Tra i Sassi) is a fortress constructed in 1897 during the Austro-Hungarian period on the Passo Valparola  It lies between Sass de Stria and Piccolo Lagazuoi, dominating the passage between the Passo Falzarego and Val Badia in South Tyrol (Alto Adige)  It was part of the large complex of Austrian fortifications built on the Italian border in the late 19th and early 20th centuries 
Rendered unusable due to a bombing by the Italians on 5 July 1915, the ruins remained in a state of disrepair until the advent of the 21st century, when it was restored by the local administration of Ampezzo with the assistance of the Lacedelli family  The fort houses a museum containing relics related to the First World War Castello di Botestagno (also known as Podestagno) was a medieval fort perched on a rock in the valley of the river Boite, a little farther north of Cortina d'Ampezzo  It is believed that it was first erected as a stakeout during conflict with the Lombards between the 7th and 8th centuries, with the aim of dominating the three valleys that converge beneath it: the Boite, the Val di Fanes, and the Val Felizon  The cornerstone, however, probably dates to the 11th century  It was held by the Germans until 1077, and then by the patriarchs of Aquileia (12th century) and Camino (13th century), until Botestagno became the seat of a captaincy  It then passed into Venetian hands and finally to the Habsburgs  During the 18th century the castle gradually lost importance until it was auctioned in 1782 by order of Emperor Joseph II  Today the fort has now almost completely disappeared; only the remnants of what must have been the wine cellars and the foundations remain, now weathered and largely covered up by vegetation 

Culture
Cortina has a long tradition in hosting writers, intellectuals, poets and editors from all over the world  Ernest Hemingway, Saul Bellow, Dino Buzzati, as well as Vittorio Gassman, Leonardo Sciascia, Leonardo Mondadori and many others, spent their vacations in the town and took part in the cultural life of the city  Through the years, this led to a continuous activity of literature festivals and book presentations, like Una Montagna di Libri ("A Mountain of Books"), held twice a year since 2009  The festival attracted to Cortina writers as Azar Nafisi, Peter Cameron, Emmanuel Carrère 
Music is important to the locals of Cortina, with a guitar found in most houses, and young musicians are often found walking the streets  Every year, from the end of July to early August, Cortina hosts the Dino Ciani Festival and Academy  It is held in honour of the celebrated Italian pianist Dino Ciani (1941–1974) who died when he was only 32  The festival attracts young pianists from around the world who are able to benefit from classes with some of the world's leading performers  The Festival of the Bands is another annual musical event featuring brass bands from Italy and beyond during the last week of August  Cortina's own band, parading in traditional costumes, is a central attraction dating back to 1861  Cortina d'Ampezzo hosted the 1953 Miss Italia contest, won by Marcella Mariani  Traditionally, on the eves of the festivals of Ascension, Pentecost, Trinity and St Philip and St James, the youth of the town would climb the hills at sunset and light fires After Ernest Hemingway's wife Hadley lost a suitcase filled with Hemingway's manuscripts at the Gare de Lyon in Paris, he took a time off  He began writing that same year in Cortina d'Ampezzo, writing Out of Season The dominant religion in the comune of Cortina d'Ampezzo is Roman Catholicism 
Among the religious minorities, mainly a result of recent immigration, there is a small community of Eastern Orthodox Christians and Muslims  There is also a congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses, which has its headquarters in Pian da Lago The surroundings of Cortina have been the location for a number of movies, including mountain climbing scenes for Cliffhanger, Krull and  The Pink Panther  The resort was the primary area for location shooting in Sergio Corbucci's Revisionist Spaghetti Western The Great Silence; the resort was used to represent Utah in the winter of 1898  It was a glamorous location for Elizabeth Taylor in Ash Wednesday (1973), and was also a major location for the 1981 James Bond film For Your Eyes Only  Roger Moore's James Bond meets the character Luigi Ferrara (John Moreno) at the peak of Tofana and stays at the Hotel Miramonti  A number of action sequences were shot in the town involving Bond and Erich Kriegler (John Wyman), as Kriegler competes in the biathlon  The battle culminates in one of the famous ski chase sequences in film, where Bond has to escape Kriegler and a crew of assassins on a spike-wheeled motorcycles, his route taking them all onto the bobsleigh run  The actual town centre was also the scene of the first attack on Bond and his partner Melina Havelock (Carole Bouquet) by two motorcyclists who attempted to run them over, only for Bond to eliminate them both, putting one of them through the window of a local florist 

Sports
Cortina d'Ampezzo hosted the 1956 Winter Olympics, originally scheduled for 1944, but cancelled because of World War II  The 1927 Nordic, 1941 Nordic, and 1941 Alpine World Championships were held in Cortina as well, although both 1941 championships were withdrawn by the International Ski Federation (FIS) in 1946  The region lost Winter Olympics bids in 1988 (Calgary, Alberta) and 1992 (Albertville, France) 
 Cortina hosted the 2021 Alpine World Championships, and, with Milan, will jointly host the 2026 Winter Olympics and the 2026 Winter Paralympics 
The town is home to SG Cortina, a professional ice hockey team in Serie A1, Italy's top division  Cortina is also the start and end point of the annual Dolomites Gold Cup Race, a historical re-evocation event for production cars on public roads  The town hosted the Red Bull Road Rage in 2009 

Cortina also offers skiing facilities for amateurs, centrally located among the 12 resorts of the Dolomiti Superski area  Cortina itself has 115 km (71 mi) of pistes with 34 lifts and guaranteed snow coverage of over 95% from December to April  There are six ski schools (two for cross-country) and some 300 instructors  The Faloria-Cristallo-Mietres ski area has views over the Ampezzo Valley and is suitable forall abilities, including children  The Tofane area offers more challenging opportunities from an elevation of 2,500 m (8,200 ft) with the Canalone and Schuss ski runs  The longest run, the Armentarola piste in the Lagazuoi-5 Torri area, starts next to the Lagazuoi refuge at 2,752 m (9,029 ft) and is reached by cable car  With the Forcella Staunies (currently not in operation) and the Forcella Rossa, the ski area has one of the steepest slopes in the Dolomites  There are numerous ski freeride and tour options in the mountains around Cortina Facilities also exist for cross-country skiing, including a long stretch of the old railway line  In and around Cortina, there are opportunities to participate in many other winter sports such as curling, ski mountaineering, snowboarding, sledding, and extreme skiing  In the summer months, sports include trekking, trail running, biking, rock climbing, tennis, golf, swimming, and ice skiing  Cortina is known for the many via ferratas in the surrounding mountains such as the VF Ivano Dibona that was used in the movie Cliffhanger  The annual Lavaredo Ultra Trail series of international trail running races is based at Cortina 

Transport
Cortina Airport was built for the 1956 Winter Olympics, but is currently closed  The town has its own bus service, connecting the centre to surrounding villages and cable car lifts  The nearest airports are those serving Venice: the distance to Treviso is 138 km (86 mi) while that to Venice Marco Polo Airport is 148 km (92 mi)  Both can be reached in about two and a quarter hours by road  The railway station for Cortina is Calalzo di Cadore, 37 km (23 mi) to the south east, with rail connections to Venice and a bus service to Cortina  The total journey time to Venice is about three and a half hours  There are also direct bus links from Venice Mestre and Padova railway stations, coordinated with the arrivals and departures of Eurostar trains Cortina was the principal intermediate station on the narrow-gauge (950mm) Dolomites Railway from Calalzo to Toblach  When the line was electrified in 1929  the only sub-station was established at Cortina  The line closed in 1964 but in February 2016 the regional governments of Veneto and Trentino-Alto Adige announced that they are to commission a feasibility study to build a new line between Calalzo, Cortina and Toblach 

Notable people
Cortina has attracted many distinguished guests, often inspiring them in their creative work  They include the Italian novelists Dino Buzzati (1906–1972), author of The Tartar Steppe, Goffredo Parise (1929–1986) and Fernanda Pivano (1917–2009)  Ernest Hemingway, author of A Farewell to Arms, also arrived in the area in 1918 as a young ambulance driver  Other notable visitors include John Ball (1818–1889), the Irish mountaineer and naturalist who climbed Monte Pelmo in 1857, the Italian mountaineers Emilio Comici (1901–1940), Angelo Dibona (1879–1956) and Lino Lacedelli (1925–2009), the Italian skier Kristian Ghedina (born 1969), the Italian bobsledder Eugenio Monti (1928–2003), the Austrian mountaineer Paul Grohmann (1838–1908) and the Austrian skier Toni Sailer (1935–2009)  Frequent visitors include the Italian businessman and former racing driver Paolo Barilla (born 1961) and the journalist and writer Indro Montanelli (1909–2001) Among the distinguished sportsmen from Cortina itself are the skiers Enrico Colli, his younger brother Vincenzo, and Giuseppe Ghedina who competed in the 1924 Winter Olympics, Severino Menardi who participated in the 1932 and 1936 Winter Olympics, and Stefania Constantini, gold-medalist curler in the 2022 Winter Olympics  Other local citizens include the climbers Angelo Dibona (1879–1956) and Lino Lacedelli (1925–2009), and the painter Luigi Gillarduzzi (1822–1856) 

International relations
Twin towns / sister cities
Cortina is twinned with:

 Cattolica, Italy (since 16 March 1971)
 Skardu, Pakistan

See also
Italian front (World War I)
White War
Passage 10:
FIBT World Championships 1966
The FIBT World Championships 1966 took place in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy for the sixth time, having hosted the event previously in 1937 (Two-man), 1939 (Four-man), 1950, 1954, and 1960  The Four-man event was cancelled following the death of West Germany's Toni Pensperger during competition  Pensperger would be awarded a posthumous gold medal from the FIBT along with his surviving teammates Ludwig Siebert, Helmut Werzer, and Roland Ebert  As of 2010, Pensperger's death would set the FIBT to increase and improve safety among all bobsleigh competitions at all levels, including the Winter Olympics and the World championships 

Two man bobsleigh
Four man bobsleigh
This event was cancelled when Toni Pensperger of West Germany was killed during competition  Pensperger was awarded a posthumous gold medal along with his grieving teammates (Siebert, Werzer, and Ebert) 

Medal table
Context 3:  Landing in Torbay provided space and time for this, while heavy rainfall forced a slow advance regardless and to avoid alienating the local population by looting, his troops were well supplied and paid three months in advance  On 9 November, he entered Exeter and issued a proclamation stating his objectives were only to secure the rights of his wife and a free Parliament  There was little enthusiasm for either James or William and the general mood was one of confusion and distrust  After Danby had the Declaration publicly read in York on 12 November, much of the northern gentry confirmed their backing and the document was widely distributed On 19 November, James joined his main force of 19,000 at Salisbury, but it soon became apparent his army was not eager to fight and the loyalty of his commanders was doubtful  Three regiments sent out on 15 November to make contact with William promptly defected, while supply problems left the rest short of food and ammunition  On 20 November, dragoons led by Irish Catholic Patrick Sarsfield clashed with Williamite scouts at Wincanton; along with a minor skirmish at Reading on 9 December, also featuring Sarsfield, these were the only substantial military actions of the campaign  After securing his rear by taking Plymouth on 18 November, William began his advance on 21 November, while Danby and Belasyse captured York and Hull several days later 

James's commander Feversham and other senior officers advised retreat  Lacking information on William's movements, unable to rely on his own soldiers, worn out by lack of sleep and debilitating nose-bleeds, on 23 November James agreed  Next day Churchill, Grafton and Princess Anne's husband George deserted to William, followed by Anne herself on 26 November  The next day, James held a meeting at Whitehall Palace with those peers still in London; with the exception of Melfort, Perth and other Catholics, they urged him to issue writs for a Parliamentary election and negotiate with William On 8 December, Halifax, Nottingham and Godolphin met with William at Hungerford to hear his demands, which included the dismissal of Catholics from public office and funding for his army  Many viewed these as a reasonable basis for a settlement but James decided to flee the country, convinced by Melfort and others that his life was threatened – a suggestion generally dismissed by historians  William made it clear he would not allow James to be harmed, most Tories wanted him to retain his throne, while the Whigs simply wanted to drive him out of the country by imposing conditions he would refuse The Queen and Prince of Wales left for France on 9 December, James following separately on 10 December  Accompanied only by Edward Hales and Ralph Sheldon, he made his way to Faversham in Kent seeking passage to France, first dropping the Great Seal in the River Thames in a last-ditch attempt to prevent Parliament being summoned  In London, his flight and rumours of a "Papist" invasion led to riots and destruction of Catholic property, which quickly spread throughout the country  To fill the power vacuum, the Earl of Rochester set up a temporary government including members of the Privy Council and City of London authorities, but it took them two days to restore order 

When news arrived James had been captured in Faversham on 11 December by local fishermen, Lord Ailesbury, one of his personal attendants, was sent to escort him back to London  On entering the city on 16 December, he was welcomed by cheering crowds  By making it seem that James remained in control, Tory loyalists hoped for a settlement which would leave them in government  To create an appearance of normality, he heard Mass and presided over a meeting of the Privy Council  James made it clear to the French ambassador Paul Barillon that he still intended to escape to France  His few remaining supporters viewed his flight as cowardice, and a failure to ensure law and order criminally negligent Happy to help him into exile, William recommended he relocate to Ham, largely because it was easy to escape from  James suggested Rochester instead, allegedly because his personal guard was there, in reality conveniently positioned for a ship to France  On 18 December, he left London with a Dutch escort as William entered, cheered by the same crowds who greeted his predecessor two days before  On 22 December, Berwick arrived in Rochester with blank passports allowing them to leave England, while his guards were told that if James wanted to leave, "they should not prevent him, but allow him to gently slip through"  Although Ailesbury and others begged him to stay, he left for France on 23 December 

The revolutionary settlement
James's departure significantly shifted the balance of power in favour of William, who took control of the provisional government on 28 December  He was now master of England and in control of the country's army, navy, and finances  Elections were held in early January for a Convention Parliament, which assembled on 22 January  The Whigs had a slight majority in the Commons and the Lords was dominated by the Tories, but both were led by moderates  Archbishop Sancroft and other Stuart loyalists wanted to preserve the line of succession; they recognised keeping James on the throne was no longer possible, so they preferred Mary either be appointed his regent or sole monarch The next two weeks were spent debating how to resolve this issue, much to the annoyance of William, who needed a swift resolution; the situation in Ireland was rapidly deteriorating, while the French had over-run large parts of the Rhineland and were preparing to attack the Dutch  At a meeting with Danby and Halifax on 3 February, he announced his intention to return home if the Convention did not appoint him joint monarch; Mary let it be known she would only rule jointly with her husband  Faced with this ultimatum, on 6 February Parliament declared that in deserting his people James had abdicated and thus vacated the Crown, which was therefore offered jointly to William and Mary Historian Tim Harris argues the most radical act of the 1688 Revolution was breaking the succession and establishing the idea of a "contract" between ruler and people, a fundamental rebuttal of the Stuart ideology of divine right  While this was a victory for the Whigs, other pieces of legislation were proposed by the Tories, often with moderate Whig support, designed to protect the Anglican establishment from being undermined by future monarchs, including the Calvinist William  The Declaration of Right was a tactical compromise, setting out where James had failed and establishing the rights of English citizens, without agreeing their cause or offering solutions  In December 1689, this was incorporated into the Bill of Rights 

However, there were two areas that arguably broke new constitutional ground, both responses to what were viewed as specific abuses by James  First, the Declaration of Right made keeping a standing army without Parliamentary consent illegal, overturning the 1661 and 1662 Militia Acts and vesting control of the military in Parliament, not the Crown  The second was the Coronation Oath Act 1688; the result of James's perceived failure to comply with that taken in 1685, it established obligations owed by the monarchy to the people At their coronation on 11 April, William and Mary swore to "govern the people of this kingdom of England, and the dominions thereunto belonging, according to the statutes in Parliament agreed on, and the laws and customs of the same"  They were also to maintain the Protestant Reformed faith and "preserve inviolable the settlement of the Church of England, and its doctrine, worship, discipline and government as by law established" 

Scotland and Ireland
While Scotland was not involved in the landing, by November 1688 only a tiny minority supported James  Many of those who accompanied William were Scots exiles, including Melville, the Duke of Argyll, his personal chaplain William Carstares and Gilbert Burnet  News of James's flight led to celebrations and anti-Catholic riots in Edinburgh and Glasgow  Most members of the Scottish Privy Council went to London  On 7 January 1689, they asked William to take over government  Elections were held in March for a Scottish Convention, which was also a contest between Presbyterians and Episcopalians for control of the Kirk  While only 50 of the 125 delegates were classed as Episcopalian, they were hopeful of victory since William supported the retention of bishops On 16 March a Letter from James was read out to the convention, demanding obedience and threatening punishment for non-compliance  Public anger at its tone meant some Episcopalians stopped attending the convention, claiming to fear for their safety and others changed sides  The 1689–1691 Jacobite Rising forced William to make concessions to the Presbyterians, ended Episcopacy in Scotland and excluded a significant portion of the political class  Many later returned to the Kirk but Non-Juring Episcopalianism was the key determinant of Jacobite support in 1715 and 1745 The English Parliament held that James 'abandoned' his throne  The Convention argued that he 'forfeited' it by his actions, as listed in the Articles of Grievances  On 11 April, the Convention ended James's reign and adopted the Articles of Grievances and the Claim of Right Act, making Parliament the primary legislative power in Scotland  On 11 May, William and Mary accepted the Crown of Scotland; after their acceptance, the Claim and the Articles were read aloud, leading to an immediate debate over whether or not an endorsement of these documents was implicit in that acceptance Under the 1542 Crown of Ireland Act, the English monarch was automatically king of Ireland as well  Tyrconnell had created a largely Roman Catholic army and administration which was reinforced in March 1689 when James landed in Ireland with French military support; it took the two years of fighting of the Williamite War in Ireland before the new regime controlled Ireland 

Anglo-Dutch alliance
Though he had carefully avoided making it public, William's main motive in organising the expedition had been the opportunity to bring England into an alliance against France  On 9 December 1688 he had already asked the States General to send a delegation of three to negotiate the conditions  On 18 February (Julian calendar) he asked the convention to support the Republic in its war against France  It refused, only consenting to pay £600,000 for the continued presence of the Dutch army in England  On 9 March (Gregorian calendar) the States General responded to Louis's earlier declaration of war by declaring war on France in return 
On 19 April (Julian calendar) the Dutch delegation signed a naval treaty with England  It stipulated that the combined Anglo-Dutch fleet would always be commanded by an Englishman, even when of lower rank  The Dutch agreed to this to make their dominance over the English army less painful for the British  William had after all placed several Dutch officers and officials in key positions in the English military organisation, in order to reorganise the English army according to the Dutch model  The treaty also specified that the two parties would contribute in the ratio of five English vessels against three Dutch vessels, meaning in practice that the Dutch navy in the future would be smaller than the English  The Navigation Acts were not repealed  On 18 May the new Parliament allowed William to declare war on France  On 9 September 1689 (Gregorian calendar), William as King of England joined the League of Augsburg against France 

The decline of the Dutch Republic
Having England as an ally meant that the military situation of the Republic was strongly improved, but this very fact induced William to be uncompromising in his position towards France  This policy led to a large number of very expensive campaigns which were largely paid for with Dutch funds  In 1712 the Republic was financially exhausted and was forced to let its fleet deteriorate, making what was by then the Kingdom of Great Britain the dominant maritime power of the world The Dutch economy, already burdened by the high national debt and concomitant high taxation, suffered from the other European states' protectionist policies, which its weakened fleet was no longer able to resist  To make matters worse, the main Dutch trading and banking houses moved much of their activity from Amsterdam to London after 1688  Between 1688 and 1720, world trade dominance shifted from the Republic to Britain 

Assessment and historiography
While the 1688 revolution was labeled "Glorious" by Protestant preachers two decades later, its historiography is complex, and its assessment disputed  Thomas Macaulay's account of the Revolution in The History of England from the Accession of James the Second exemplifies the "Whig history" narrative of the Revolution as a largely consensual and bloodless triumph of English common sense, confirming and strengthening its institutions of tempered popular liberty and limited monarchy  Edmund Burke set the tone for that interpretation when he proclaimed: "The Revolution was made to preserve our ancient indisputable laws and liberties, and that ancient constitution of government which is our only security for law and liberty "An alternative narrative emphasizes William's successful foreign invasion from the Netherlands, and the size of the corresponding military operation  Several researchers have emphasized that aspect, particularly after the third centenary of the event in 1988  The historian J  R  Jones suggested that the invasion "should be seen     as the first and arguably the only decisive phase of the Nine Years' War " The invasion story is unusual because the establishment of a constitutional monarchy (a de facto republic, see Coronation Oath Act 1688) and Bill of Rights meant that the apparently invading monarchs, legitimate heirs to the throne, were prepared to govern with the English Parliament  It is difficult to classify the entire proceedings of 1687–1689 but it can be seen that the events occurred in three parts: conspiracy, invasion by Dutch forces, and "Glorious Revolution" It has been argued that the invasion aspect had been downplayed as a result of British pride and effective Dutch propaganda, trying to depict the course of events as a largely internal English affair  As the invitation was initiated by figures who had little influence, the legacy of the Glorious Revolution has been described as a successful propaganda act by William to cover up and justify his invasion  The claim that William was fighting for the Protestant cause in England was used to great effect to disguise the military, cultural and political impact that the Dutch regime had on England 
A third version, proposed by Steven Pincus, underplays the invasion aspect but unlike the Whig narrative views the Revolution as a divisive and violent event that involved all classes of the English population, not just the main aristocratic protagonists  Pincus argues that his interpretation echoes the widely held view of the Revolution in its aftermath, starting with its revolutionary labelling  Pincus argues that it was momentous especially when looking at the alternative that James was trying to enact – a powerful centralised autocratic state, using French-style "state-building"  England's role in Europe and the country's political economy in the 17th century rebuts the view of many late-20th-century historians that nothing revolutionary occurred during the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89  Pincus says it was not a placid turn of events In diplomacy and economics William III transformed the English state's ideology and policies  This occurred not because William III was an outsider who inflicted foreign notions on England but because foreign affairs and political economy were at the core of the English revolutionaries' agenda  The revolution of 1688–89 cannot be fathomed in isolation  It would have been inconceivable without the changes resulting from the events of the 1640s and 1650s  The ideas accompanying the Glorious Revolution were rooted in the mid-century upheavals  The 17th century was a century of revolution in England, deserving of the same scholarly attention that 'modern' revolutions attract James II tried building a powerful militarised state on the mercantilist assumption that the world's wealth was necessarily finite and empires were created by taking land from other states  The East India Company was thus an ideal tool to create a vast new English imperial dominion by warring with the Dutch and the Mughal Empire in India  After 1689 came an alternative understanding of economics, which saw Britain as a commercial rather than an agrarian society  It led to the foundation of the Bank of England, the creation of Europe's first widely circulating credit currency and the commencement of the "Age of Projectors"  This subsequently gave weight to the view, advocated most famously by Adam Smith in 1776, that wealth was created by human endeavour and was thus potentially infinite 

Impact
As a coup, albeit largely bloodless, its legitimacy rests in the will expressed separately by the Scottish and English Parliaments according to their respective legal processes  On this point, the Earl of Shaftesbury declared in 1689, "The Parliament of England is that supreme and absolute power, which gives life and motion to the English government"  The Revolution established the primacy of parliamentary sovereignty, a principle still relevant in consultation with the 15 Commonwealth realms regarding succession issues  The Bill of Rights 1689 formally established a system of constitutional monarchy and ended moves towards absolute monarchy by restricting the power of the monarch, who could no longer suspend laws, levy taxes, make royal appointments or maintain a standing army during peacetime without Parliament's consent  The British Army remains the military arm of Parliament, not the monarch, although the Crown is the source of all military executive authority Unlike the 1638 to 1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms, most ordinary people in England and Scotland were relatively untouched by the "Glorious Revolution", the majority of the bloodshed taking place in Ireland  As a consequence, some historians suggest that in England at least it more closely resembles a coup d'état, rather than a social upheaval such as the French Revolution  This view is consistent with the original meaning of "revolution" as a circular process under which an old system of values is restored to its original position, with England's supposed "ancient constitution" being reasserted, rather than formed anew  Contemporary English political thought, as expressed in John Locke's then popular social contract theory, linked to George Buchanan's view of the contractual agreement between the monarch and their subjects, an argument used by the Scottish Parliament as justification for the Claim of Right 
Under the Coronation Oath Act 1688, William had sworn to maintain the primacy of the Church of England, which both his native Dutch Reformed Church and the Church of Scotland viewed as ideologically suspect in both doctrine and use of bishops  This required a certain degree of religious flexibility on his part, especially as he needed to placate his Catholic allies, Spain and Emperor Leopold  Despite promising legal toleration for Catholics in his Declaration of October 1688, William failed due to domestic opposition  The Act of Toleration 1689 granted relief to Nonconformists but Catholic emancipation would be delayed until 1829 The Williamite War in Ireland can be seen as the source of later ethno-religious conflict, including The Troubles of the twentieth century  The Williamite victory in Ireland is still commemorated by the Orange Order for preserving British and Protestant supremacy in the country  In North America, the Glorious Revolution precipitated the 1689 Boston revolt in which a well-organised "mob" of provincial militia and citizens deposed the hated governor Edmund Andros  In New York, Leisler's Rebellion caused the colonial administrator, Francis Nicholson, to flee to England  A third event, Maryland's Protestant Rebellion was directed against the proprietary government, seen as Catholic-dominated  A series of events in Pennsylvania saw William Penn's Quaker-dominated proprietary government challenged by liberal elements while he was temporarily detained in England due to his well established loyalty to James and the former King Charles (James' brother)  Charles awarded Pennsylvania to Penn for his support during the Restoration  Penn was in England during the Revolution disputing a competing claim for what is now Delaware 

Footnotes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Ashley, Maurice (1966)  The Glorious Revolution of 1688  Hodder & Stoughton 
Cruickshanks, Eveline (2000)  The Glorious Revolution (British History in Perspective)  Palgrave Macmillan  ISBN 978-0-312-23009-8  OL 9818099M 
DeKrey, Gary S  (2007)  Restoration and Revolution in Britain: A Political History of the Era of Charles II and the Glorious Revolution  Palgrave Macmillan  ISBN 978-0-333-65103-2 
Glassey, Lionel K  J , ed  (1997)  The Reigns of Charles II and James VII and II  ISBN 978-0-333-62500-2 
Hamowy, Ronald (2008)  "Glorious Revolution"  The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism  Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE; Cato Institute  pp  208–211  doi:10 4135/9781412965811 n125  ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4  LCCN 2008009151  OCLC 750831024 
MacCubbin, R  P ; Hamilton-Phillips, M , eds  (1988)  The Age of William III and Mary II: Power, Politics and Patronage, 1688–1702  College of William and Mary in Virginia  ISBN 978-0-9622081-0-2 
McCaffrey, Carmel (2006)  In Search of Ireland's Heroes  Ivan R Dee  ISBN 978-1-56663-615-5  OL 8670276M 
Miller, John (1997)  The Glorious Revolution (2 ed )  ISBN 978-0-582-29222-2 
Ogg, David (1956)  William III  ISBN 978-0-758-18954-7  OL 13525080M 
Onnekink, David (2007)  The Anglo-Dutch Favourite: The Career of Hans Willem Bentinck, 1st Earl of Portland (1649–1709)  Ashgate Publishing  ISBN 978-0-7546-5545-9 
Pincus, Steven C  A  (2005)  England's Glorious Revolution 1688–1689: A Brief History with Documents  Bedford/St  Martin's  ISBN 978-0-312-16714-1  OL 24936969M 
Prall, Stuart (1972)  The Bloodless Revolution: England, 1688  Anchor Books  OCLC 644932859 
Vallance, Edward (2006)  The Glorious Revolution: 1688 – Britain's Fight for Liberty  Brown Little  ISBN 978-1-933648-24-8 

External links

Weiss, B  (2014)  "Medals of the Glorious Revolution: The Influence of Catholic-Protestant Antagonism" (PDF)  ANS Magazine  Vol  13, no  1  New York: American Numismatic Society  pp  6–23  Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 December 2014 
Glorious Revolution on In Our Time at the BBC
"Charles II (1630–1685)"  BBC History  Retrieved 15 August 2010 
"English Revolution of 1688"  Catholic Encyclopedia 
The Civil War team, presented by Tristram Hunt (7 January 2001)  "Aftershocks – The Glorious Revolution"  open2 net (BBC & Open University) 
Quinn, Stephen (17 April 2003)  "The Glorious Revolution of 1688"   In Whaples, Robert (ed )  EH Net Encyclopedia 
Royal Household at Buckingham Palace, ed  (2008–2009)  "History of the Monarchy >United Kingdom Monarchs (1603–present) >The Stuarts >Mary II, William III and The Act of Settlement > William III (r  1689–1702) and Mary II (r  1689–1694)"  Official web site of the British Monarchy 
Wilkes, Donald E  Jr ; Kramer, Matthew  "The Glorious Revolution of 1688"  Retrieved 15 August 2010 
Passage 9:
Samuel Manetoali
Samuel Manetoali (born 24 January 1969) is a member of the National Parliament of the Solomon Islands  He represents the Gao/Bugotu constituency in Isabel Province 

Early life and education
Manetoali attended Lepi Primary School and then went on to do his secondary education at King George Sixth National School in Honiara  He attended law school at the University of Papua New Guinea and graduated with an LLB degree and further unspecified qualifications from the University of Tasmania and University of South Australia 

Career
Prior to entering politics, Manetoali worked in the country's Public Solicitors Office, as a private lawyer, and a legal adviser to the Isabel Provincial Government 
He first entered parliament in the 2006 general election and re-elected in the 2010 general election  He served as the Solomon Islands' Minister of Police, National Security and Correctional Services in Prime Minister Derek Sikua's Cabinet until May 2009, when he was transferred to the position of Minister for Lands, Survey, and Housing Following the 2010 general election, he remained in Cabinet, under new Prime Minister Danny Philip, as Minister for Tourism and Culture  In the 2014 general election, he ran as an independent candidate and was re-elected for a third term in a landslide He was re-elected as a Member of Parliament in the 2019 general election for Gao/Bugotu, representing the Kadere Party 
Passage 10:
English general election, 1681
The 1681 English general election returned members to the last parliament of Charles II   Dubbed the Oxford Parliament, the body elected sat for one week from 21 March 1681 until 28 March 1681  Party strengths are an approximation, with many MPs' allegiances being unknown 



ground_truth: the Veneto region of Northern Italy

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was the last monarch of England to be overthrown before The English General Election, 1690?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: 
Williams, Tony  2003  Body and Soul: the cinematic vision of Robert Aldrich  The Scarecrow Press, Inc  Lanham, Maryland  ISBN 978-0-8108-4993-8

Further reading
Robert Aldrich biography and credits at the BFI's Screenonline Entry written by Robert Shail 
"Aldrich & Associates special section"  Screening the Past (10)  2000  A special issue of a film journal that emerged from a symposium devoted to Aldrich & Associates on August 2, 1998, in Melbourne 
Silver, Alain (May 2002)  "Robert Aldrich"  Senses of Cinema (20)  Silver's contribution to the journal's "Great Directors" series 

External links

Robert Aldrich at IMDb
Robert Aldrich at the TCM Movie Database 
Robert Aldrich at AllMovie
Robert Aldrich at Find a Grave
Literature on Robert Aldrich
Passage 2:
Hush… Hush, Sweet Charlotte
Hush   Hush, Sweet Charlotte is a 1964 American psychological thriller film directed and produced by Robert Aldrich, and starring Bette Davis, Olivia de Havilland, Joseph Cotten, Agnes Moorehead and Mary Astor in her final film role  It follows a middle-aged Southern woman, suspected in the unsolved murder of her lover from decades before, who is plagued by bizarre occurrences after summoning her cousin to help challenge the local government's impending demolition of her home  The screenplay was adapted by Henry Farrell and Lukas Heller, from Farrell's unpublished short story "What Ever Happened to Cousin Charlotte?"
Following his previous success adapting Farrell's novel What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?, Aldrich originally cast the film to reunite Davis with Joan Crawford, despite their notorious turbulence on set  Principal photography began with Davis in the title role and Crawford as Miriam, but shooting was postponed while Crawford dropped out and the role was recast with de Havilland  The film was a critical success, earning seven Academy Award nominations 

Plot
In 1927, young Southern belle Charlotte Hollis and her married lover John Mayhew plan to elope during a party at the Hollis family's antebellum mansion in Ascension Parish, Louisiana  Charlotte's father, Sam, confronts John over the affair and intimidates him with the news that John's wife Jewel visited the day before and revealed the affair  John pretends to Charlotte he can no longer love her and that they must part  Shortly after, John is ambushed and decapitated in the summerhouse by an assailant with a cleaver  Charlotte returns to the house in a bloodstained dress, which all of the guests witness 
Thirty-seven years later, Charlotte, a spinster, having inherited the estate after her father died, is tended to by her loyal housekeeper, Velma  In the intervening years, John's death has remained an unsolved murder, though it is commonly held that Charlotte was responsible  Despite notice from the Louisiana Highway Commission that she has been evicted from the property to make way for the impending construction of a new interstate, Charlotte is defiant, and threatens the demolition crew with a rifle  Seeking help in her fight against the Highway Commission, Charlotte summons Miriam, a poor cousin who lived with the family as a girl, but has since moved to New York City  Miriam returns and soon renews her relationship with Drew Bayliss, a local doctor who jilted her  Charlotte's sanity soon deteriorates following Miriam's arrival, her nights haunted by a mysterious harpsichord playing the song John wrote for her and by the appearance of his disembodied hand and head  Suspecting that Miriam and Drew are after Charlotte's money, Velma seeks help from Mr  Willis, an insurance investigator from England who is still fascinated by the case and who has visited Mayhew's ailing widow, Jewel; she gave him an envelope only to be opened after her death 
Miriam fires Velma, who later returns to discover Charlotte has been drugged  Velma plans to expose Miriam's exploitation of Charlotte, but Miriam hits Velma with a chair and she falls down the stairs to her death  Drew covers up the murder by declaring it an accident  One night, a drugged Charlotte runs downstairs in the grip of a hallucination, believing that John has returned to her  After Miriam tricks the intoxicated Charlotte into shooting Drew with a gun loaded with blanks, the two dispose of his body in a swamp  Charlotte returns to the house and witnesses the revived Drew walking downstairs after he returned, reducing her to insanity  Believing she has shattered Charlotte's mental state, Miriam celebrates with Drew in the garden, where they discuss the plan to have Charlotte committed to a psychiatric hospital and usurp her fortune  Charlotte overhears the entire conversation from the balcony, except for Miriam's admission that she had witnessed Jewel kill John, and has been using the knowledge to blackmail Jewel throughout the years  Charlotte kills Miriam and Drew, by pushing a large stone urn off the  balcony 
The next day, the authorities escort Charlotte from home, as a crowd gathers around to observe the spectacle  Charlotte receives an envelope from Mr Willis, which he received from Jewel (who died of a stroke after hearing of the incident which occurred on the previous night), ostensibly confessing to the murder of her husband John   As the authorities leave with Charlotte, she looks back at the house 

Cast
Production
Development and casting
Following the unexpected box office success of What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962), Aldrich wanted to make a film with similar themes for Joan Crawford and Bette Davis  Their feud was infamous and legendary, and they were not initially eager to repeat themselves  
Writer Henry Farrell, on whose novel the film had been based, had written an unpublished short story called "What Ever Happened to Cousin Charlotte?" that Aldrich envisioned as a suitable follow-up  It told a similar story of a woman who manipulates a relative for personal gain, but for this film, Aldrich's idea was that the two actresses would switch the roles from the previous one, with Crawford playing the devious cousin trying to manipulate the innocent Davis into giving up her estate  Aldrich's frequent collaborator, Lukas Heller, wrote a draft of the screenplay, but was replaced by Farrell in late 1963 Three other cast members from What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? were cast in Hush   Hush, Sweet Charlotte: Wesley Addy, Dave Willock and Victor Buono 

The cast included Mary Astor, a friend of Davis' since their days at Warner Bros  Astor retired from acting and died in 1987  She said: My agent called: 'There's this cameo in a movie with Bette Davis  It's a hell of a part; it could put you right up there again ' I read the script  The opening shot described a severed head rolling down the stairs, and each page contained more blood and gore and hysterics and cracked mirrors and everybody being awful to everybody else  I skipped to my few pages–a little old lady sitting on her veranda waiting to die  There was a small kicker to it inasmuch as it was she who was the murderess in her youth and had started all the trouble  And then in the story, she died  Good! Now, I'd really be dead! And it was with Bette–which seemed sentimentally fitting 

Filming
Principal photography of the film began in mid-1964, with the on-location shooting commencing in Baton Rouge, Louisiana  However, the shoot was temporarily suspended on several occasions early on  Initially, it was halted after a third-party lawsuit was brought against Davis by Paramount Pictures over a commitment to complete additional filming on Where Love Has Gone (1964)  When this was resolved, filming recommenced 
The production was postponed again to allow Crawford to recover after she was admitted into the hospital due to an upper respiratory ailment, though Aldrich hired a private investigator to track her and determine whether or not she was actually ill  By August 4, 1964, the production had been suspended indefinitely, and the studio's insurance company insisted that Crawford be replaced, or else the film would have to be cancelled entirely Aldrich sought several actresses to replace Crawford, including Loretta Young, and Vivien Leigh, but they were each either unable or unwilling to take the role  Aldrich ultimately sought Olivia de Havilland for the part, and flew to her home in Switzerland to attempt to convince her to take the role  de Havilland agreed and she subsequently flew to Los Angeles to begin filming  In later interviews, de Havilland expressed displeasure with the film: "I wasn't thrilled with the script, and I definitely didn't like my part  I was reverse-typecast, being asked to be an unsympathetic villain  It wasn't what people expected of me  It wasn't really what I wanted to do  Bette wanted it so much, so I did it  I can't say I regretted it, because working with her was special, but I can't say it was a picture I am proud to put on my resume  Given the choice, I wouldn't have deprived Joan Crawford of the honor " According to Crawford, she only learned of her firing from a news radio broadcast  However, despite  being replaced (and because a planned reshoot with de Havilland in Louisiana was cancelled), brief footage of Crawford made it into the film, when she is seen sitting in the taxi in the wide shot for Miriam's arrival at the house (Crawford can be seen peering out of the window wearing dark sunglasses/clothing) 
Scenes outside the Hollis mansion were shot on location at Houmas House plantation in Louisiana  Scenes of the interior were shot on a soundstage in Hollywood 

Musical score
The title song by Frank de Vol became a hit for Patti Page, who recorded a version which reached no  8 on the Billboard Hot 100 

Release
Box office
According to Fox records, the film needed to earn $3,900,000 in rentals to break even and made $4,950,000, meaning it made a profit of $1,050,000  In France, the film sold 79,168 tickets 

Critical reception
Hush   Hush, Sweet Charlotte was another hit for Aldrich, opening to positive reviews  A pan, however, came from The New York Times  Bosley Crowther observed, "So calculated and coldly carpentered is the tale of murder, mayhem and deceit that Mr  Aldrich stages in this mansion that it soon appears grossly contrived, purposely sadistic and brutally sickening  So, instead of coming out funny, as did Whatever Happened to Baby Jane?, it comes out grisly, pretentious, disgusting and profoundly annoying "Variety's reviewer wrote: "Davis' portrayal is reminiscent of Jane in its emotional overtones, in her style of characterization of the near-crazed former Southern belle, aided by haggard makeup and outlandish attire  It is an outgoing performance, and she plays it to the limit  De Havilland, on the other hand, is far more restrained but nonetheless effective dramatically in her offbeat role " Judith Crist wrote about the film, "The guignol is about as grand as it gets " Kenneth Tynan asserted that "(Davis) has done nothing better since The Little Foxes " A later review for Time Out (London) observed: "Over the top, of course, and not a lot to it, but it's efficiently directed, beautifully shot, and contains enough scary sequences amid the brooding, tense atmosphere  Splendid performances from Davis and Moorehead, too "On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 82% of 28 reviews are positive, with an average rating of 7 3/10 

Accolades
Moorehead won the Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actress  The film also received seven nominations (two more than Baby Jane: one less in the acting category, namely for Davis) for the 37th Academy Awards, breaking the record as the most for a horror film up to that time 

Home media
The film was first released on DVD on August 9, 2005  It was re-released on April 8, 2008, as part of The Bette Davis Centenary Celebration Collection 5-DVD box-set  On October 17, 2016, It was released onto high-definition Blu-ray in the US by Twilight Time as a 3,000-print limited edition  Another Blu-ray edition was released in the UK by Eureka Entertainment as a part of their "Masters of Cinema" collection on January 21, 2019 

See also
List of American films of 1964
Psycho-biddy
Passage 3:
A Kiss for Corliss
A Kiss for Corliss (retitled Almost a Bride before its release) is a 1949 American comedy film directed by Richard Wallace, written by Howard Dimsdale, and starring David Niven and Shirley Temple  The film, which was the last for both Wallace and Temple, was released on November 25, 1949, by United Artists  It is a sequel to the 1945 film Kiss and Tell, also directed by Wallace and starring Temple 

Plot
Playboy Kenneth Marquis is divorcing his third wife, who is represented by her attorney, Harry Archer  Corliss, Archer's teenaged daughter, is smitten with the charismatic Marquis and his free-wheeling lifestyle  Marquis sends a box of candy to Corliss, infuriating Archer, who interprets the gift as a jab at his settlement demand  Archer also prohibits Corliss' boyfriend Dexter from dating her after he sees Dexter at the Penguin Club, a restaurant that doubles as a gambling joint  Corliss manipulates Dexter into taking her to the club, but just after they arrive, the club is raided by police  Corliss and Dexter hide in the basement, but are temporarily trapped, causing Corliss to arrive home late, so she feigns amnesia to her parents to cover the truth  To refresh Corliss' memory, Archer reads her diary, which contains her imaginary romantic trysts with Marquis  The contents of the diary, along with Marquis' gift of candy, cause Corliss' parents to assume the worst 
Corliss' friend Raymond Pringle, who publishes a neighborhood paper, shows Marquis some of the diary entries, threatening to publish them unless Marquis buys advertising  Marquis visits the Archers and says that every word in the diary is true, that he is in love with Corliss, and that he wants to make her his fourth wife  When Archer explodes in anger, Corliss admits that the diary is not true and was written to make Dexter jealous  Marquis insists that the diary is true, though Corliss reveals why she was out late  Dexter arrives and eventually agrees with Corliss' version of events, but the Archers remain unconvinced  Marquis announces his engagement to Corliss in the newspaper to sue the Archers for breach of promise when the engagement is cancelled  The Archers delay rescinding the engagement to avoid the appearance of an immediate breach 
Marquis has gifts for Corliss delivered, and Archer is hounded by the media  Corliss continues to insist that the diary is false to her parents' continuing disbelief  Glimpse, a national magazine, runs photos of Marquis and Corliss  Archer's brother Uncle George, a Navy chaplain, visits and offers to perform the wedding  At the wedding rehearsal, held in the Archers' home, Dexter tells Mr  Archer that he has a witness who can attest to Corliss and his version of the events from the night when she was out late  Marquis' lie is revealed and the men escort him outside, where an offscreen fight ensues, and Archer and Dexter both return bloodied  Archer had overcome Marquis in the fight, but Dexter had accidentally hit  Archer  Marquis passes by an open window, his eye blackened, and mocks Archer and Dexter as he departs 

Cast
Shirley Temple as Corliss Archer
David Niven as Kenneth Marquis
Tom Tully as Harry P  Archer
Virginia Welles as Mildred Pringle
Darryl Hickman as Dexter Franklin
Gloria Holden as Mrs  Janet Archer
Robert Ellis as Raymond Pringle
Kathryn Card as Louise
Richard Gaines as Taylor
Roy Roberts as Uncle George
Passage 4:
The Ambulance
The Ambulance is a 1990 American comedy thriller film written and directed by Larry Cohen  It stars Eric Roberts, Megan Gallagher, James Earl Jones, Janine Turner, Red Buttons, and Eric Braeden as the Doctor  Kevin Hagen plays a cop   In his first film role, Stan Lee of Marvel Comics has a small role as himself 

Plot
Aspiring comic book artist Josh Baker meets a young woman named Cheryl on the streets of New York City, who proceeds to collapse and is rushed to a hospital by an ambulance   When Josh arrives at the hospital, he is shocked to find that there is no record of Cheryl ever being admitted and he soon learns another startling discovery, Cheryl's roommate also vanished after being picked up by the same ambulance 
Convinced that there is some sort of conspiracy going on, Josh proceeds to investigate the disappearances, despite the overt disdain and discouragement from Lt  Spencer 

Cast
Eric Roberts as Josh Baker
James Earl Jones as Lieutenant Frank Spencer
Megan Gallagher as Officer Sandra Malloy
Red Buttons as Elias Zacharai
Janine Turner as Cheryl Turner
Eric Braeden as The Doctor
Richard Bright as Detective Jerry McClosky
James Dixon as Detective John "Jughead" Ryan
Jill Gatsby as Jerilyn O'Brien
Martin Barter as Street Gang Leader
Laurene Landon as Patty
Nick Chinlund as Hugo (as Nicholas Chinlund)
Beatrice Winde as Head Nurse
Kevin Hagen as Cop At Stables
Matt Norklun as Ambulance Driver
Rudy Jones as Ambulance Driver
Stan Lee as Marvel Comics Editor
Deborah Hedwall as Nurse Barbera Feinstein
Susan Blommaert as Hospital Receptionist
Jordan Derwin as Hospital Official
Alexandra Jones as The Waitress
Michael O'Hare as Hal

Production
Cohen later said he was inspired by "the concept of taking something that is thought of as being benign or benevolent    or anything else that has a safe and wholesome image, and turning it into an object of terror " He had done this for It's Alive (babies) and The Stuff (junk food) and wanted to do it with ambulances  "When you hear or see an ambulance on the street, it’s usually considered to be something that is going to rescue you and take care of you, a vehicle of mercy," said Cohen  "In this story, it’s actually a vehicle of murder  The whole idea of an ambulance that suddenly arrives from nowhere, picks people up, and takes them away to some dark place where they are never seen or heard of again was completely original and creepy "Cohen says at one stage the financiers wanted a "classier" title than The Ambulance so he retitled it In Thin Air  They changed their mind and the film went back to being called The Ambulance  In the May, 1990 edition of his column Stan's Soapbox, Stan Lee mentions playing himself in a scene in "an adventure mystery called Into Thin Air and refers to the name change in a later column Cohen wanted to cast John Travolta or Jim Carrey in the lead but his producers refused Donald Trump made a small cameo in a deleted scene 
Jamie Lee Curtis was originally considered to play Officer Sandra Malloy
The role of the villain was originally played by Wesley Addy  However Cohen was unhappy with his performance and recast the role with Eric Braeden  Braeden's casting came at the suggestion of Cohen's mother who was a fan of The Young and the Restless 

Home media
The film was released on Blu-ray on March 13, 2018 by Scream Factory 

See also
List of films featuring diabetes
Passage 5:
Vera Cruz (film)
Vera Cruz is a 1954 American Western film directed by Robert Aldrich and starring Gary Cooper and Burt Lancaster, featuring Denise Darcel, Sara Montiel, Cesar Romero, Ernest Borgnine, Charles Bronson and Jack Elam  Set during the Franco-Mexican War, the film centers on a group of American mercenaries tasked with transporting a large shipment of Imperial gold to the port of Veracruz, but begin to have second thoughts about their allegiances  It was produced by Hecht-Lancaster Productions and released by United Artists on 25 December 1954 
The picture's amoral characters and cynical attitude towards violence (including a scene where Lancaster's character threatens to murder child hostages) were considered shocking at the time and influenced future Westerns such as The Magnificent Seven (1960), The Professionals (1966), Sam Peckinpah's The Wild Bunch (1969), and the Spaghetti Western films of Sergio Leone, which often featured supporting cast members from Vera Cruz in similar roles  Its influence on the latter led some critics to label it "the first Spaghetti Western "

Plot
During the Franco-Mexican War, ex-Confederate soldier Ben Trane travels to Mexico seeking a job as a mercenary  He falls in with Joe Erin, a younger gunslinger who heads a gang of cutthroats  They are recruited by Marquis Henri de Labordere for service with Emperor Maximilian  Maximilian offers them $25,000 to escort the Countess Duvarre to the city of Veracruz  Trane gets the emperor to double the offer 
During a river crossing, Trane notices that the stagecoach in which the countess is traveling is extremely heavy  Erin and Trane later discover that hidden inside are six cases of gold coins  The countess informs them that it is worth $3 million which is intended to pay for reinforcements from Europe  They form an uneasy alliance to steal and split the gold  Unbeknownst to them, the marquis is listening from the shadows 
The Juaristas, led by General Ramírez, attack the column several times  Pickpocket and Juarista undercover agent Nina joins the convoy  When Trane, Erin and their men are surrounded by the Juaristas, Trane persuades Ramirez to join forces and agree to pay them $100,000  The marquis succeeds in getting the gold to Veracruz  In the Juarista attack, the French are defeated, but most of Erin's men are killed  Erin attempts to steal the gold for himself by getting the countess to reveal the location of the ship she had hired to transport it  He even kills one of his own men  However, Trane arrives in time to confront him  They face off in a showdown that ends in Erin's death  Trane and Nina leave, while women search the dead for their loved ones 

Cast
Production
Burt Lancaster and Harold Hecht had just signed a contract with United Artists to make two films, starting with Apache, also directed by Robert Aldrich  Just before filming on that movie began in October 1953, Lancaster announced their second film would be Vera Cruz with himself and Gary Cooper, based on a story by Borden Chase In December 1953, after Apache finished filming, Lancaster announced Aldrich would direct Vera Cruz United Artists were so happy with Apache they changed the two-picture deal with Hecht and Lancaster into a two-year deal covering seven films 

Casting
Before taking the role of Ben Trane, Gary Cooper was advised by Clark Gable not to work with Burt Lancaster, fearing the younger actor would upstage him Mari Blanchard was meant to play the female lead and Hecht signed to borrow her from Universal  However, there was a clause forbidding her to appear on television which Hecht disagreed with  Instead they cast Denise Darcel  Mamie Van Doren claimed in her autobiography Playing the Field that Lancaster interviewed her for the role of the Countess, but she lost the part after refusing to sleep with him Charles Bronson was billed under his real name, 'Charles Buchinsky', in the film  This would mark the last time he would be credited that way, before he adopted his more well-known stage name 

Shooting
Filming started in February 1954  Vera Cruz was the first American film production to be shot entirely in Mexico  Though set in the city of Veracruz, the majority of the film was actually shot in and around Cuernavaca  Exterior shots were filmed at Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City, the ruins of Teotihuacan, and the climax was shot at Molino de Flores Nezahualcóyotl National Park in Texcoco de Mora  The interiors were filmed at Estudios Churubusco Vera Cruz was also the first production to use the SuperScope widescreen process, which was designed to achieve anamorphic prints from standard flat 35mm negatives  Shot at a conventional 1 37:1 aspect ratio, the film was cropped to 2:1 in post-production, given a CinemaScope-compatible (2x) squeeze, and blown up to normal frame height  
Aldrich and Lancaster got along well on Apache but as to Vera Cruz, the director said "we probably had a less amicable relationship than we anticipated  This was because Burt, until he directed The Kentuckian, thought he was going to be a director and when you're directing your first great big picture you don't welcome somebody else on hand with directorial notions  There were a few differences of opinion about concepts and about action " Lancaster recalled that Cooper demanded rewrites to his character to make him less morally-gray and more conventionally heroic 
According to Eli Wallach, the Mexican authorities were appalled at the unflattering depiction of their country, so any subsequent Hollywood productions (including The Magnificent Seven) were thoroughly overseen by state censors 

Reception
The film earned an estimated $5 million at the North American box office during its first run and $9 million overall In 1963, Aldrich announced he was working on a sequel There Really Was a Gold Mine but it was never made 

Legacy
Critic and historian Dave Kehr would later cite Vera Cruz as one of the most influential films of the 1950s, inspiring later Westerns by such directors as Sam Peckinpah and especially Sergio Leone  Kehr also praised Cooper and Lancaster's performances in the film, writing that "the generational transition from an aging star to his up-and-coming replacement has seldom been handled with better humor or more biting wit "

Home media
Vera Cruz was released to DVD by MGM Home Video on March 20, 2001, and to Blu-Ray on June 7, 2011  Kino Lorber re-released the film on Blu-ray on October 12, 2021 

See also
You Can't Win 'Em All, a 1970 film with a similar plot set in the Greco-Turkish War 
Passage 6:
Ten Tall Men
Ten Tall Men is a 1951 American adventure film starring Burt Lancaster about the French Foreign Legion during the Rif War in Morocco  Though co-written and directed by Willis Goldbeck, Goldbeck walked off the film due to disputes with Lancaster (whose own company, Norma Productions, produced the film) with the movie being completed by Robert Parrish   Credited as an associate producer, Robert Aldrich was a production manager on the film where he met Lancaster, which led him to direct Vera Cruz for him  Robert Clary made his debut in the film as an Arab batman  Portions of the film were filmed in Palm Springs, California  The story was released as a Fawcett Movie Comic #16 in April 1951 

Plot
After capturing an important Rif prisoner in an undercover operation, Sergeant Mike Kincaid (Lancaster) is imprisoned himself for striking a lieutenant (Stephen Bekassy) who beats a French woman (Mari Blanchard) with his riding crop for preferring Kincaid to him  Kincaid has a longstanding rivalry with the lieutenant, but the lieutenant is now in command of the company holding the city of Tarfa while the regiment is away  As the ranking officer, the lieutenant uses Kincaid's striking of him to get his revenge 
Kincaid is imprisoned alongside seven military prisoners and the captured Rif who has refused to talk, with the lieutenant refusing food and water to both Kincaid and the Rif   When his two comrades-in-arms who accompanied him on the mission, Corporals Luis Delgado (Gilbert Roland) and Pierre Molier (Kieron Moore), sneak food and water to Kincaid, he shares them with the Rif   To repay Kincaid's kindness and assuage his own guilt for telling the lieutenant about Kincaid's assignation with the Frenchwoman, the tells of an impending attack on Tarfa while the garrison is weak  The Rif believes Kincaid will escape to save himself, but he instead warns the lieutenant 
The experienced Kincaid tells the lieutenant that their only chance is to release him to lead a series of guerrilla hit-and-run attacks to delay the enemy for five days until the regiment returns   The lieutenant agrees, but only if Kincaid will testify that the idea was his  Kincaid agrees to his terms  The only men available for the mission are the seven prisoners, who receive full pardons for their crimes   His two corporals join them, raising their number to ten 
When scouting an enemy camp, the Legionnaires discover two rival tribes have joined forces, making them strong enough to take the city  Using his expertise in disguise and language, Kincaid finds out that the Rif leader, Khalid Hussein (Gerald Mohr), is marrying Mahla (Jody Lawrance) in order to cement an alliance with the other tribe  Kincaid kidnaps her to force the enemy to chase him for the five days 
Mahla begins to fall in love with her handsome captor, as Hussein pursues the Legionnaires across the desert  In the midst of the dangers, the patrol finds a destroyed Legion truck containing a safe that one of the men opens, revealing a large Legion payroll  When Jardine (John Dehner) tries to get away with the payroll, he is shot, but that tells the Rifs where they are 
Kincaid is eventually captured and Mahla freed  She demands that Kincaid be released unharmed, or she will not marry Hussein  Hussein reluctantly does so  Kincaid and his men infiltrate the wedding ceremony, and fighting breaks out  Mahla's tribe switches sides, and Hussein is killed 

Cast
Production
The film was the first of a two-picture deal Columbia Pictures signed with Norma Productions, the company of Burt Lancaster and Harold Hecht  (The second was to be Small Wonder, a film in which Lancaster would not appear )It was originally a Western story by James Warner Bellah and Willis Goldbeck which concerned conflict between the US cavalry and Apaches  Producer Harold Hecht and star Burt Lancaster then decided that "John Ford and other Hollywood operators have so effectively decimated the Apache population" that they hired writer A I  Bezzerides to reimagine the story with a Foreign Legion setting which wound up involving the Rif War (1911-1927)  Roland Kibbee and Frank Davis were hired to rewrite the script to make it more comedic The film was shot in February 1950 at the Columbia Ranch in the San Fernando Valley and on location in Yuma, Arizona 

Notes
External links
Ten Tall Men at the American Film Institute Catalog
Ten Tall Men at IMDb
Ten Tall Men at the TCM Movie Database
Passage 7:
Enteng the Dragon
Enteng the Dragon is a 1988 Philippine comedy film directed by Romy Villaflor and written by Tony S  Mortel  It is a parody of the film Enter the Dragon 

Plot
The story revolves around \ Enteng (Dolphy) a vendor of a mobile food house in China Town  Enteng is known for his humor, and a journalist and star reporter named Rowena (Dang Cecilio) was interested to cover his story after her Editor-in-Chief saw him as worthy of human interest  Kuto (Vandolph), a young boy that he found sleeping in his food wagon, led him to the shrine of the monks, that sealed his destiny as a vigilante and hero 

Cast
Dolphy as Enteng
Vandolph as Kuto
Dang Cecilio as Rowena
Eddie Garcia as the Evil Leader
Monica Herrera as Christina
Monsour del Rosario
Rommel Valdez
Tsing Tong Tsai
Panchito
Babalu
Don Pepot
Che-Che Sta  Ana
Roy Aoyama
Ros Olgado
Ernie Ortega
Estrella Querubin

Production
The film was produced by the RVQ Productions, a production owned by Dolphy himself 

Release
The film was released on July 14, 1988 

Accolades
Passage 8:
O Cangaceiro
O Cangaceiro (lit  "The Cangaceiro"; also known as The Bandit and The Bandits) is a 1953 Brazilian adventure western film directed by Lima Barreto  After some reluctance by its studio Vera Cruz, Barreto shot it in 1952  After its release it was national and international success, and won several awards, including the Adventure Film Award at the 1953 Cannes Film Festival  It was poorly received in retrospect despite being praised by the time of its release and started a subgenre in Brazilian cinema 

Cast
Alberto Ruschel as Teodoro
Marisa Prado as Olívia
Milton Ribeiro as Galdino
Vanja Orico as Maria Clódia
Adoniran Barbosa as Mané Mole

Production
In 1950, Lima Barreto joined the film studio Companhia Cinematográfica Vera Cruz invited by its then president Alberto Cavalcanti  After releasing two documentaries successfully for the studio, Painel and Santuário, Barreto get the chance to direct a feature film  With the idea to shoot a film about Lampião since the early 1940s, he only commenced to shoot it in 1952 after some reluctance by Franco Zampari, Vera Cruz's founder  Although he went to Bahia and did some research there, it was shot in Vargem Grande do Sul, São Paulo, with a production that lasted nine months due to internal conflicts 

Reception
O Cangaceiro was released on January 20, 1953, and was  a public success; it grossed ₢$30 million (about US$1 5 million) in the 24 Brazilian theaters in which it spent six weeks  After its national success, it was distributed to over 80 countries, becoming one of the most internationally successful Brazilian films—a feat uncommon in that time  It led it to be considered Vera Cruz's "high point" and its "most important production" by Georges Sadoul, author of Dictionary of Films, and by O Estado de S  Paulo's Luiz Zanin, respectively After winning several Brazilian awards, the film was entered into the 1953 Cannes Film Festival, where it was "much liked for its original and truly national flavour " O Cangaceiro won the Best Adventure Film Award, making it the first Brazilian film to win a prize at Cannes, and received a special mention to Gabriel Migliori's musical composition  At the Edinburgh International Film Festival it was awarded the Best Film It received mixed commentaries since its release  It was once voted the best Brazilian film in 1968 by National Film Institute's magazine Revista Film Cultura  Sadoul declared, "Lima Barreto well conveys a sense of poetry of the open desert space of the Sertão and makes this story lively and suspenseful"  After praising its cast performances and its "thrilling" musical score, Bosley Crowther of The New York Times said, "This [O] Cangaceiro is a picture that will cause the Western fans to rub their eyes " However, Cinema Novo representants—mainly Glauber Rocha—would criticize it for borrowing too much the style of American films  Critics also went on to comment on its "sociological inaccuracies "

Legacy
It is the first film to mix cangaço with Western, starting a genre called "Nordestern" —an amalgam of the words "Nordeste" (Northeast) and "Western"  It would be followed by successful films such as Carlos Coimbra's A Morte Comanda o Cangaço (1960), Lampião, o Rei do Cangaço (1964) and Corisco, o Diabo Louro (1969), and Aurélio Teixeira's Os Três Cabras de Lampião  It also established cangaço as a subgenre in Brazilian cinema; subsequently, cangaço would be featured as a theme from comedy—such as Os Três Cangaceiro and O Lamparina—to pornochanchada films—As Cangaceiras Eróticas and A Ilha das Cangaceiras Virgens  Also, Ruschel and Ribeiro would reprise the role of "good cangaceiro" and "bad cangaceiro" in other films 



ground_truth: King James II of England