prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: The Pluralist school is said to have included what creator of the theory of atomism? 

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Buddhist atomism
Buddhist atomism is a school of atomistic Buddhist philosophy that flourished on the Indian subcontinent during two major periods  During the first phase, which began to develop prior to the 6th century CE, Buddhist atomism had a very qualitative, Aristotelian-style atomic theory  This form of atomism identifies four kinds of atoms, corresponding to the standard elements  Each of these elements has a specific property, such as solidity or motion, and performs a specific function in mixtures, such as providing support or causing growth   Like the Hindus and Jains, the Buddhists were able to integrate a theory of atomism with their logical presuppositions  

According to Noa Ronkin, this kind of atomism was developed in the Sarvastivada and Sautrantika schools for whom material reality can be: reduced to discrete momentary atoms, namely, the four primary elements  These momentary atoms, through their spatial arrangement and by their concatenation with prior and posterior atoms of the same type, create the illusion of persisting things as they appear in our everyday experience  Atomic reality is thus understood first and foremost as change, though not in the sense of a thing x transforming into y  That is, change itself is the very nature of atomic reality rather than its being made of enduring substances the qualities of which undergo change  Atoms that appear to endure are, in fact, a series of momentary events that ascend and fall in rapid succession and in accordance with causal relations  Unlike the atoms of the Vaifesika, the atoms of the Sarvastivada-Vaibhasika and the Sautrantika are not permanent: they come into being and cease from one moment to the next going through a process of birth, continuance, decay and destruction  Yet the material compounds that consist of these atoms are real, if only in the minimal, phenomenological sense The second phase of Buddhist atomism, which flourished in the 7th century CE, was very different from the first  Indian Buddhist philosophers, including Dharmakirti and Dignāga, considered atoms to be point-sized, durationless, and made of energy  In discussing Buddhist atomism, Stcherbatsky writes:
    The Buddhists denied the existence of substantial matter altogether  Movement consists for them of moments, it is a staccato movement, momentary flashes of a stream of energy    "Everything is evanescent,"     says the Buddhist, because there is no stuff     Both systems [Sānkhya and later Indian Buddhism] share in common a tendency to push the analysis of Existence up to its minutest, last elements which are imagined as absolute qualities, or things possessing only one unique quality  They are called "qualities" (guna-dharma) in both systems in the sense of absolute qualities, a kind of atomic, or intra-atomic, energies of which the empirical things are composed  Both systems, therefore, agree in denying the objective reality of the categories of Substance and Quality,     and of the relation of Inference uniting them  There is in Sānkhya philosophy no separate existence of qualities  What we call quality is but a particular manifestation of a subtle entity  To every new unit of quality corresponds a subtle quantum of matter which is called guna "quality", but represents a subtle substantive entity  The same applies to early Buddhism where all qualities are substantive     or, more precisely, dynamic entities, although they are also called dharmas ("qualities") 

See also
Atomism
Dharmakirti
Dignaga
Kalapas
Mereological nihilism

Notes
Passage 2:
Leucippus
Leucippus (; Greek: Λεύκιππος, Leúkippos; fl  5th century BCE) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who has been credited as the first philosopher to develop a theory of atomism 
Leucippus' reputation, even in antiquity, was obscured by the reputation of his much more famous pupil, Democritus, who is also credited with the first development of atomic theory  Few details about Leucippus' life are known, and even his historical existence has on occasion been questioned 

Biography
Leucippus's dates are not recorded and he is often mentioned in conjunction with his more well-known pupil Democritus  Diogenes Laertius lists possible birthplaces as Miletus, Abdera and Elea  Some sources claim that around 440 or 430 BCE Leucippus founded a school at Abdera, with which his pupil, Democritus, was closely associated  There is mention that a Leucippus founded the city of Metapontum, which honored this Leucippus with a coin 

Philosophical views
"Nothing happens at random, but everything from reason and by necessity "
Leucippus is typically associated with atomism—the idea that the only two things are atoms, which are imperishable, indivisible elements that compose everything, and void, which is the space that atoms do occupy or can occupy  It is difficult to determine which contributions to atomism come from Democritus and which come from Leucippus  Aristotle and his student Theophrastus explicitly credit Leucippus with the invention of atomism  In Aristotelian terms, Leucippus agreed with the Eleatic argument that "true being does not admit of vacuum" and there can be no movement in the absence of vacuum  Leucippus contended that since movement exists, there must be empty space  However, he concludes that vacuum is identified with nonbeing, since "nothing" cannot really be  According to Aristotle, Leucippus differed from the Eleatics in not being encumbered by the "conceptual intermingling" of being and non-being, and Plato made the necessary distinction between "grades of being and types of negation" 

Writings
According to Theophrastus, Leucippus was the author of a work called The Great World System that was otherwise typically attributed to Democritus, which has not survived  A single quotation survives from another work attributed to him called On Mind 

Legacy
A brief notice in Diogenes Laërtius's life of Epicurus says that on the testimony of Epicurus, Leucippus never existed  As the philosophical heir of Democritus, Epicurus's word has some weight, and indeed a controversy over this matter raged in German scholarship for many years at the close of the 19th century  Furthermore, in his Corpus Democriteum, Thrasyllus of Alexandria, an astrologer and writer living under the emperor Tiberius (14–37 CE), compiled a list of writings on atomism that he attributed to Democritus to the exclusion of Leucippus  The present consensus among the world's historians of philosophy is that this Leucippus is historical  Moreover, it is not clear how to interpret Epicurus' comment in the first place  Epicurus said that there was no philosopher Leucippus, which might mean that Leucippus never existed, but it also might mean that Leucippus existed but was not a philosopher  As far as ancient evidence of his existence is concerned, it must be mentioned that Aristotle, who lived closer in time to Leucippus than Epicurus, attributes to Leucippus the framework of atomism as a philosophical system, lending more credibility to the thesis that Leucippus existed 
Fragments and doxographical reports about Leucippus were collected by Hermann Diels (1848–1922), firstly in Doxographi Graeci (Berlin, 1879, reprint Berlin: de Gruyter, 1929) and then in Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Berlin, 1903, 6th ed , rev  by Walther Kranz (Berlin: Weidmann, 1952; the editions after the 6th are mainly reprints with little or no change ) Diels was the leading proponent for a historical Leucippus 

See also
Indeterminism
Kanada

Notes
Bibliography
Surviving Fragments and Testimonia
In the Diels-Kranz numbering system for fragments of the pre-Socratic philosophers, Leucippus is number 67  The following works contain Diels-Kranz fragments 
 Laërtius, Diogenes (1925)  "Others: Leucippus"   Lives of the Eminent Philosophers  Vol  2:9  Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed )  Loeb Classical Library  § 30-33  - A1
 Laërtius, Diogenes (1925)  "Epicurus"   Lives of the Eminent Philosophers  Vol  2:10  Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed )  Loeb Classical Library  § 13  - A2
Simplicius, Commentary on Aristotle's Physics - A3, A8, A13-14,20
Clement of Alexandria, Stromata - A4, A37
Pseudo-Galen, History of philosophy - A5
Aristotle, Metaphysics - A6, A18
Aristotle, On Generation and Corruption -A7, A9
Aristotle, On The Heavens - A19
Aristotle, On the Soul - A28
Hippolytus, Refutation of all Heresies A10
Cicero, Academica - A11
Stobaeus, Anthologium - A12, A15, A16, A21, A22, A23, A24, A25, A26, A29, A30, A31, A32, A34, A35, A36, B2
Epiphanius - A33
Achilles Tatius - B1These fragments are collected together in:

Hermann Diels; Walther Kranz (1963)  Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (in Ancient Greek)  Vol  2  Hildesheim Weidmann  ISBN 978-3-615-12200-8  Retrieved 8 April 2022 
Passage 3:
Atomism (social)
Atomism or social atomism is a sociological theory arising from the scientific notion atomic theory, coined by the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus and the Roman philosopher Lucretius  In the scientific rendering of the word, atomism refers to the notion that all matter in the universe is composed of basic indivisible components, or atoms  When placed into the field of sociology, atomism assigns the individual as the basic unit of analysis for all implications of social life  This theory refers to "the tendency for society to be made up of a collection of self-interested and largely self-sufficient individuals, operating as separate atoms " Therefore, all social values, institutions, developments and procedures evolve entirely out of the interests and actions of the individuals who inhabit any particular society  The individual is the "atom" of society and therefore the only true object of concern and analysis 

Political implications
Political theorists such as John Locke and Thomas Hobbes extend social atomism to the political realm  They assert that human beings are fundamentally self-interested, equal, and rational social atoms that together form an aggregate society of self-interested individuals  Those participating in society must sacrifice a portion of their individual rights in order to form a social contract with the other persons in society  Ultimately, although some rights are renounced, self-interested cooperation occurs for the mutual preservation of the individuals and for society at large 
According to the philosopher Charles Taylor, The term "atomism" is used loosely to characterize the doctrines of social contract theory which arose in the seventeenth century and also successor doctrines which may not have made use of the concept of social contract but which inherited a vision of society as in some sense constituted by individuals for the fulfilment of ends which were primarily individual  Certain forms of utilitarianism are successor doctrines in this sense  The term is also applied to contemporary doctrines which hark back to social contract theory, or which try to defend in some sense the priority of the individual and his rights over society, or which present a purely instrumental view of society 

Critiques
Those who criticize the theory of social atomism believe that it neglects the idea of the individual as unique  The sociologist Elizabeth Wolgast asserts that, From the atomistic standpoint, the individuals who make up a society are interchangeable like molecules in a bucket of water – society a mere aggregate of individuals  This introduces a harsh and brutal equality into our theory of human life and it contradicts our experience of human beings as unique and irreplaceable, valuable in virtue of their variety – in what they don't share – not in virtue of their common ability to reason  Those who question social atomism argue that it is unjust to treat all persons equally when individual necessities and circumstances are clearly dissimilar 

See also
Anomie
Differentiation (sociology)
Holism
Id, ego and super-ego § Ego
Independence
Individualism
Social alienation
Social integration
Socialization
Passage 4:
Pluralist school
Pre-Socratic philosophy, also known as Early Greek Philosophy, is ancient Greek philosophy before Socrates  Pre-Socratic philosophers were mostly interested in cosmology, the beginning and the substance of the universe, but the inquiries of these early philosophers spanned the workings of the natural world as well as human society, ethics, and religion  They sought explanations based on natural law rather than the actions of gods  Their work and writing has been almost entirely lost  Knowledge of their views comes from testimonia, i e  later authors' discussions of the work of pre-Socratics  Philosophy found fertile ground in the ancient Greek world because of the close ties with neighboring civilizations and the rise of autonomous civil entities, poleis 
Pre-Socratic philosophy began in the 6th century BCE with the three Milesians: Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes  They all attributed the arche (a word that could take the meaning of "origin," "substance" or "principle") of the world to, respectively, water, apeiron (the unlimited), and air  Another three pre-Socratic philosophers came from nearby Ionian towns: Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Pythagoras  Xenophanes is known for his critique of the anthropomorphism of gods  Heraclitus, who was notoriously difficult to understand, is known for his maxim on impermanence, ta panta rhei, and for attributing fire to be the arche of the world  Pythagoras created a cult-like following that advocated that the universe was made up of numbers  The Eleatic school (Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, and Melissus) followed in the 5th century BCE  Parmenides claimed that only one thing exists and nothing can change  Zeno and Melissus mainly defended Parmenides' opinion  Anaxagoras and Empedocles offered a pluralistic account of how the universe was created  Leucippus and Democritus are known for their atomism, and their views that only void and matter exist  The Sophists advanced philosophical relativism 
The impact of the pre-Socratics has been enormous  The pre-Socratics invented some of the central concepts of Western civilization, such as naturalism and rationalism, and paved the way for scientific methodology 

Terminology
Pre-Socratic is a term adopted in the 19th century to refer to this group of philosophers  It was first used by the German philosopher J A  Eberhard as "vorsokratische Philosophie' in the late 18th century  In earlier literature they were referred to as physikoi ("physicists", after physis, "nature"), and their activity, as physiologoi (physical or natural philosophers), with this usage arising with Aristotle to differentiate them from theologoi (theologians) and mythologoi (storytellers and bards who conveyed Greek mythology), who attributed natural phenomena to the gods The term was coined to highlight a fundamental change in philosophical inquiries between the philosophers who lived before Socrates, who were interested in the structure of nature and cosmos (i e , the universe, with the implication that the universe had order to it), and Socrates and his successors, who were mostly interested in ethics and politics  The term comes with drawbacks, as several of the pre-Socratics were highly interested in ethics and how to live the best life  Further, the term implies that the pre-Socratics are less significant than Socrates, or even that they were merely a stage (implying teleology) to classical era philosophy  The term is also chronologically inaccurate, as the last of the pre-Socratics were contemporaries of Socrates According to James Warren, the distinction between the pre-Socratic philosophers and philosophers of the classical era is demarcated not so much by Socrates, but by geography and what texts survived  The shift from the pre-Socratic to the classical periods involves a shift from philosophers being dispersed throughout the Greek-speaking world to their being concentrated in Athens  Further, starting in the classical period we have complete surviving texts, whereas in the pre-Socratic era we have only fragments  Scholar André Laks distinguishes two traditions of separating pre-Socratics from Socratics, dating back to the classical era and running through current times  The first tradition is the Socratic-Ciceronian, which uses the content of their philosophical inquires to divide the two groups: the pre-Socratics were interested in nature whereas Socrates focused on human affairs  The other tradition, the Platonic-Aristotelian, emphasizes method as the distinction between the two groups, as Socrates moved to a more epistemological approach of studying various concepts  Because of the drawbacks of the term pre-Socratic, Early Greek Philosophy is also used, most commonly in Anglo-Saxon literature André Laks and Glenn W  Most have especially popularized this shift in describing the era as "Early Greek Philosophy" over "Pre-Socratic Philosophy" through their comprehensive, nine volume Loeb editions of Early Greek Philosophy  In their first volume, they distinguish their systematic approach from that of Hermann Diels, beginning with the choice of "Early Greek Philosophy" over "pre-Socratic philosophy" most notably because Socrates is contemporary and sometimes even prior to philosophers traditionally considered "pre-Socratic" (e g , the Atomists) 

Sources
Very few fragments of the works of the pre-Socratic philosophers have survived  The knowledge we have of the pre-Socratics derives from the accounts of later writers such as Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, Diogenes Laërtius, Stobaeus, and Simplicius, and some early Christian theologians, especially Clement of Alexandria and Hippolytus of Rome  Many of the works are titled Peri Physeos, or On Nature, a title probably attributed later by other authors  These accounts, known as testimonia (testimonies), often come from biased writers  Consequently, it is sometimes difficult to determine the actual line of argument some pre-Socratics used in supporting their views  Adding more difficulty to their interpretation is the obscure language they used  Plato paraphrased the pre-Socratics and showed no interest in accurately representing their views  Aristotle was more accurate, but saw them under the scope of his philosophy  Theophrastus, Aristotle's successor, wrote an encyclopedic book Opinion of the Physicists that was the standard work about the pre-Socratics in ancient times  It is now lost, but Simplicius relied on it heavily in his accounts In 1903, the German professors H  Diels and W  Kranz published Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (The Fragments of the pre-Socratics), which collected all of the known fragments  Scholars now use this book to reference the fragments using a coding scheme called Diels–Kranz numbering  The first two characters of the scheme are "DK" for Diels and Kranz  Next is a number representing a specific philosopher  After that is a code regarding whether the fragment is a testimonia, coded as "A", or "B" if is a direct quote from the philosopher  Last is a number assigned to the fragment, which may include a decimal to reflect specific lines of a fragment  For example, "DK59B12 3" identifies line 3 of Anaxagoras fragment 12  A similar way of referring to quotes is the system prefixed with "LM" by André Laks and Glenn W  Most who edited Early Greek Philosophy in 2016 Collectively, these fragments are called doxography (derived from the latin doxographus; derived from the Greek word for "opinion" doxa) 

Historical background
Philosophy emerged in ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE  The pre-Socratic era lasted about two centuries, during which the expanding Persian Achaemenid Empire was stretching to the west, while the Greeks were advancing in trade and sea routes, reaching Cyprus and Syria  The first pre-Socratics lived in Ionia, on the western coast of Anatolia  Persians conquered the towns of Ionia c  540 BCE and Persian tyrants then ruled them  The Greeks revolted in 499 BCE, but ultimately were defeated in 494 BCE  Slowly but steadily Athens became the philosophical center of Greece by the middle of the fifth century  Athens was entering its Classical Era, with philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, but the impact of the pre-Socratics continued Several factors contributed to the birth of pre-Socratic philosophy in Ancient Greece  Ionian towns, especially Miletus, had close trade relations with Egypt and Mesopotamia, cultures with observations about the natural world that differed from those of the Greeks  Apart from technical skills and cultural influences, of paramount significance was that the Greeks acquired the alphabet c  800 BCE Another factor was the ease and frequency of intra-Greek travel, which led to the blending and comparison of ideas  During the sixth century BCE, various philosophers and other thinkers moved easily around Greece, especially visiting pan-Hellenic festivals  While long-distance communication was difficult during ancient times, persons, philosophers, and books moved through other parts of the Greek peninsula, the Aegean islands, and Magna Graecia, a coastal area in Southern Italy The democratic political system of independent poleis also contributed to the rise of philosophy  Most Greek towns were not ruled by autocrats or priests, allowing citizens to question freely a wide range of issues  Various poleis flourished and became wealthy, especially Miletus  which was a centre of trade and production during the early phases of pre-Socratic philosophy  Trade of grain, oil, wine, and other commodities among each polis and colonies meant these towns were not isolated but embedded – and economically dependent – on a complex and changeable web of trade routes Greek mythology also influenced the birth of philosophy  The philosophers' ideas, were, to a certain extent, answers to questions that were subtly present in the work of Homer and Hesiod  The pre-Socratics arose from a world dominated by myths, sacred places, and local deities  The work of epic poets such as Homer, Hesiod and others reflected this environment  They are considered predecessors of the pre-Socratics since they seek to address the origin of the world and to organize traditional folklore and legends systematically  Greek popular religion contained many features of the religions of neighboring civilizations, such as the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, and Hittites  The first pre-Socratic philosophers also traveled extensively to other lands, meaning that pre-Socratic thought had roots abroad as well as domestically Homer, in his two epic poems, not only personifies gods and other natural phenomena, such as the Night, but he hints at some views on the origin and the nature of the world that came under scrutiny by the pre-Socratics  In his epic poem Theogony (literally meaning the birth of gods) Hesiod (c  700 BCE) describes the origin of gods, and apart from the solid mythical structure, one can notice an attempt towards organizing beliefs using some form of rationalization; an example would be that Night gives birth to Death, Sleep and Dreams   Transmigration of life, a belief of the Orphics, a religious cult originating from Thrace, had affected the thought of the 5th century BCE but the overall influence of their cosmology on philosophy is disputed  Pherecydes, a poet, magician, and contemporary of Thales, in his book describes a particular cosmogony, asserting that three gods pre-existed – a step towards rationality 

General features
The most important feature of pre-Socratic philosophy was the use of reason to explain the universe  The pre-Socratic philosophers shared the intuition that there was a single explanation that could explain both the plurality and the singularity of the whole – and that explanation would not be direct actions of the gods  The pre-Socratic philosophers rejected traditional mythological explanations of the phenomena they saw around them in favor of more rational explanations, initiating analytic and critical thought  Their efforts were directed at the investigation of the ultimate basis and essential nature of the external world  Many sought the material principle (arche) of things, and the method of their origin and disappearance  They emphasized the rational unity of things and rejected supernatural explanations, seeking natural principles at work in the world and human society  The pre-Socratics saw the world as a cosmos, an ordered arrangement that could be understood via rational inquiry  In their effort to make sense of the cosmos they coined new terms and concepts such as rhythm, symmetry, analogy, deductionism, reductionism, mathematization of nature and others An important term that is met in the thought of several pre-Socratic philosophers is arche  Depending on the context, it can take various related meanings  It could mean the beginning or origin with the undertone that there is an effect on the things to follow  Also, it might mean a principle or a cause (especially in Aristotelian tradition) A common feature of the pre-Socratics is the absence of empiricism and experimentation in order to prove their theories  This may have been because of a lack of instruments, or because of a tendency to view the world as a unity, undeconstructable, so it would be impossible for an external eye to observe tiny fractions of nature under experimental control According to Jonathan Barnes, a professor of ancient philosophy, pre-Socratic philosophy exhibits three significant features: they were internal, systematic and economical  Internal meaning they tried to explain the world with characteristics found within this world  Systematic because they tried to universalize their findings  Economical because they tried to invoke only a few new terms  Based on these features, they reached their most significant achievement, they changed the course of human thought from myth to philosophy and science The pre-Socratics were not atheists; however, they minimized the extent of the gods' involvement in natural phenomena such as thunder or totally eliminated the gods from the natural world Pre-Socratic philosophy encompasses the first of the three phases of ancient Greek philosophy, which spanned around a thousand years  The pre-Socratic phase itself is divided into three phases  The first phase of pre-Socratic philosophy, mainly the Milesians, Xenophanes, and Heraclitus, consisted of rejecting traditional cosmogony and attempting to explain nature based on empirical observations and interpretations  A second phase – that of the Eleatics – resisted the idea that change or motion can happen  Based on their radical monism, they believed that only one substance exists and forms Kosmos  The Eleatics were also monists (believing that only one thing exists and everything else is just a transformation of it)   In the third phase, the post-Eleatics (mainly Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and Democritus) opposed most Eleatic teaching and returned to the naturalism of the Milesians The pre-Socratics were succeeded by the second phase of ancient philosophy, where the philosophical movements of Platonism, Cynicism, Cyrenaicism, Aristotelianism, Pyrrhonism, Epicureanism, Academic skepticism, and Stoicism rose to prominence until 100 BCE  In the third phase, philosophers studied their predecessors 

Pre-Socratic philosophers
Milesian beginning: Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes
The Milesian school was located in Miletus, Ionia, in the 6th century BCE   It consisted of Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, who most probably had a teacher-pupil relationship  They were mainly occupied with the origin and substance of the world; each of them attributed the Whole to a single arche (beginning or principle), starting the tradition of naturalistic monism 

Thales
Thales (c  624–546 BCE) is considered to be the father of philosophy  None of his writings have survived  He is considered the first western philosopher since he was the first to use reason, to use proof, and to generalize  He created the word cosmos, the first word to describe the universe  He contributed to geometry and predicted the eclipse of 585 BCE  Thales may have been of Phoenician ancestry  Miletus was a meeting point and trade centre of the then great civilizations, and Thales visited the neighbouring civilizations, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete, and Phoenicia   In Egypt, geometry was advanced as a means of separating agricultural fields  Thales, though, advanced geometry with his abstract deductive reasoning reaching universal generalizations  Proclus, a later Athenian philosopher, attributed the theorem now known as Thales's theorem to Thales  He is also known for being the first to claim that the base angles of isosceles triangles are equal, and that a diameter bisects the circle  Thales visited Sardis, as many Greeks then, where astronomical records were kept and used astronomical observations for practical matters (oil harvesting)  Thales was widely considered a genius in ancient times and was revered as one of the Seven Sages of Greece Most importantly, what marks Thales as the first philosopher is the posing of the fundamental philosophical question about the origin and the substance of the world, while providing an answer based on empirical evidence and reasoning  He attributed the origin of the world to an element instead of a divine being  Our knowledge of Thales' claim derives from Aristotle  Aristotle, while discussing opinions of previous philosophers, tells us that "Thales, the founder of this type of philosophy, says the principle (arche) is water " What he meant by arche, is a matter of interpretation (might be the origin, the element, or an ontological matrix), but regardless of the various interpretations, he conceived the world as One thing instead of a collection of various items and speculated on the binding/original elements Another important aspect of Thales' philosophy is his claim that everything is full of gods  What he meant by that is again a matter of interpretation, that could be from a theistic view to an atheist one  But the most plausible explanation, suggested by Aristotle, is that Thales is advocating a theory of hylozoism, that the universe, the sum of all things that exist, is divine and alive  Lastly, another notable claim by Thales is that earth "rests on water"- maybe that was a conclusion after observing fish fossils on land 

Anaximander
Anaximander (610–546 BCE), also from Miletus, was 25 years younger than Thales  He was a member of the elite of Miletus, wealthy and a statesman  He showed interest in many fields, including mathematics and geography  He drew the first map of the world, was the first to conclude that the earth is spherical, and made instruments to mark time, something like a clock  In response to Thales, he postulated as the first principle an undefined, unlimited substance without qualities (apeiron), out of which the primary opposites, hot and cold, moist and dry, became differentiated  His answer was an attempt to explain observable changes by attributing them to a single source that transforms to various elements  Like Thales, he provided a naturalistic explanation for phenomena previously given supernatural explanations  He is also known for speculating on the origin of mankind  He proclaimed that the earth is not situated in another structure but lies unsupported in the middle of the universe  Further, he developed a rudimentary evolutionary explanation for biodiversity in which constant universal powers affected the lives of animals  According to Giorgio de Santillana, a philosophy professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Anaximander's conception of a universe governed by laws shaped the philosophical thinking of centuries to come and was as important as the discovery of fire or Einstein's breakthroughs in science 

Anaximenes
Little is known of Anaximenes' (585–525 BCE) life  He was a younger contemporary and friend of Anaximander, and the two worked together on various intellectual projects  He also wrote a book on nature in prose  Anaximenes took for his principle aēr (air), conceiving it as being modified, via thickening and thinning, into the other classical elements: fire, wind, clouds, water, and earth  While his theory resembled that of Anaximander, as they both claimed a single source of the universe, Anaximenes suggested sophisticated mechanisms in which air is transformed to other elements, mainly because of changes of density  Since the classical era, he was considered the father of naturalistic explanations  Anaximenes expanded Anaximander's attempt to find a unitary cause explaining natural phenomena both living and nonliving, without, according to James Warren, having to "reduce living things in some way to mere locations of material change" 

Xenophanes
Xenophanes was born in Colophon, an Ionian town near Miletus  He was a well-traveled poet whose primary interests were theology and epistemology  Concerning theology, he pointed out that we did not know whether there was one god or many gods, or in such case whether there was a hierarchy among them  To critique the anthropomorphic representation of the gods by his contemporary Greeks, he pointed out that different nations depicted their gods as looking like themselves  He famously said that if oxen, horses, or lions could draw, they would draw their gods as oxen, horses, or lions  This critique was not limited to the looks of gods but also their behaviour  Greek mythology, mostly shaped by the poets Homer and Hesiod, attributed moral failures such as jealously and adultery to the gods  Xenophanes opposed this  He thought gods must be morally superior to humans  Xenophanes, however, never claimed the gods were omnipotent, omnibenevolent, or omniscient  Xenophanes also offered naturalistic explanations for phenomena such as the sun, the rainbow and St  Elmo's fire  Traditionally these were attributed to divine intervention but according to Xenophanes they were actually effects of clouds  These explanations of Xenophanes indicate empiricism in his thought and might constitute a kind of proto-scientism  Scholars have overlooked his cosmology and naturalism since Aristotle (maybe due to Xenophanes' lack of teleology) until recently but current literature suggests otherwise  Concerning epistemology,  Xenophanes questioned the validity of human knowledge  Humans usually tend to assert their beliefs are real and represent truth  While Xenophanes was a pessimist about the capability of humans to reach knowledge, he also believed in gradual progress through critical thinking  Xenophanes tried to find naturalistic explanations for meteorological and cosmological phenomena Ancient philosophy historian Alexander Mourelatos notes Xenophanes used a pattern of thought that is still in use by modern metaphysics  Xenophanes, by reducing meteorological phenomena to clouds, created an argument that "X in reality is Y", for example B32, "What they call Iris [the rainbow] that too is in reality a cloud: one that
appears to the eye as purple, red, and green  This is still use[d] today 'lightning is massive electrical discharge' or 'items such as tables are a cloud of micro-particles' " Mourelatos comments that the type of analogy that the cloud analogy is remains present in scientific language and "   is the modern philosopher's favourite subject for illustrations of inter-theoretic identity" According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, Xenophanes was Parmenides' teacher; but is a matter of debate in current literature whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic 

Heraclitus
The hallmark of Heraclitus' philosophy is flux  In fragment DK B30, Heraclitus writes: This world-order [Kosmos], the same of all, no god nor man did create, but it ever was and is and will be: everliving fire, kindling in measures and being quenched in measures  Heraclitus posited that all things in nature are in a state of perpetual flux  Like previous monist philosophers, Heraclitus claimed that the arche of the world was fire, which was subject to change – that makes him a materialist monist  From fire all things originate and all things return to it again in a process of eternal cycles  Fire becomes water and earth and vice versa  These everlasting modifications explain his view that the cosmos was and is and will be  The idea of continual flux is also met in the "river fragments"  There, Heraclitus claims we can not step into the same river twice, a position summarized with the slogan ta panta rhei (everything flows)  One fragment reads: "Into the same rivers we both step and do not step; we both are and are not" (DK 22 B49a)  Heraclitus is seemingly suggesting that not only the river is constantly changing, but we do as well, even hinting at existential questions about humankind Another key concept of Heraclitus is that opposites somehow mirror each other, a doctrine called unity of opposites  Two fragments relating to this concept state, "As the same thing in us is living and dead, waking and sleeping, young and old  For these things having changed around are those, and those in turn having changed around are these" (B88) and "Cold things warm up, the hot cools off, wet becomes dry, dry becomes wet" (B126)   Heraclitus' doctrine on the unity of opposites suggests that unity of the world and its various parts is kept through the tension produced by the opposites  Furthermore, each polar substance contains its opposite, in a continual circular exchange and motion that results in the stability of the cosmos  Another of Heraclitus' famous axioms highlights this doctrine (B53): "War is father of all and king of all; and some he manifested as gods, some as men; some he made slaves, some free", where war means the creative tension that brings things into existence A fundamental idea in Heraclitus is logos, an ancient Greek word with a variety of meanings; Heraclitus might have used a different meaning of the word with each usage in his book  Logos seems like a universal law that unites the cosmos, according to a fragment: "Listening not to me but to the logos, it is wise to agree (homologein) that all things are one" (DK 22 B50)  While logos is everywhere, very few people are familiar with it  B 19 reads: [hoi polloi] "   do not know how to listen [to Logos] or how to speak [the truth]"  Heraclitus' thought on logos influenced the Stoics, who referred to him to support their belief that rational law governs the universe 

Pythagoreanism
Pythagoras (582–496 BCE) was born on Samos, a small island near Miletus  He moved to Croton at about age 30, where he established his school and acquired political influence  Some decades later he had to flee Croton and relocate to Metapontum Pythagoras was famous for studying numbers and the geometrical relations of numbers  A large following of Pythagoreans adopted and extended his doctrine  They advanced his ideas, reaching the claim that everything consists of numbers, the universe is made by numbers and everything is a reflection of analogies and geometrical relations  Numbers, music and philosophy, all interlinked, could comfort the beauty-seeking human soul and hence Pythagoreans espoused the study of mathematics Pythagorianism perceived the world as perfect harmony, dependent on number, and aimed at inducing humankind likewise to lead a harmonious life, including ritual and dietary recommendations  Their way of life was ascetic, restraining themselves from various pleasures and food  They were vegetarians and placed enormous value on friendship   Pythagoras politically was an advocate of a form of aristocracy, a position which later Pythagoreans rejected, but generally, they were reactionary and notably repressed women  Other pre-Socratic philosophers mocked Pythagoras for his belief in reincarnation Notable Pythagorians included Philolaus (470-380 BCE), Alcmaeon of Croton, Archytas (428-347 BCE) and Echphantus  The most notable was Alcmaeon, a medical and philosophical writer  Alcmaeon noticed that most organs in the body come in pairs and suggested that human health depends on harmony between opposites (hot/cold, dry/wet), and illness is due to an imbalance of them  He was the first to think of the brain as the center of senses and thinking  Philolaus advanced cosmology through his discovery of heliocentricism – the idea that the Sun lies in the middle of the earth's orbit and other planets Pythagoreanism influenced later Christian currents as Neoplatonism, and its pedagogical methods were adapted by Plato  Furthermore, there seems to be a continuity in some aspects of Plato's philosophy  As Prof  Carl Huffman notes, Plato had a tendency to invoke mathematics in explaining natural phenomena, and he also believed in the immortality, even divinity of the human soul 

The Eleatics: Parmenides, Zeno and Melissus
The Eleatic school is named after Elea, an ancient Greek town on the southern Italian Peninsula  Parmenides is considered the founder of the school  Other eminent Eleatics include Zeno of Elea and Melissus of Samos  According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, Xenophanes was Parmenides' teacher, and it is debated whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic   Parmenides was born in Elea to a wealthy family around 515 BCE  Parmenides of Elea was interested in many fields, such as biology and astronomy  He was the first to deduce that the earth is spherical  He was also involved in his town's political life 

Parmenides' contributions were paramount not only to ancient philosophy but to all of western metaphysics and ontology  Parmenides wrote a hard to interpret poem, named On Nature or On What-is, that substantially influenced later Greek philosophy  Only 150 fragments of this poem survive  It tells a story of a young man (kouros in ancient Greek) dedicated to finding the truth carried by a goddess on a long journey to the heavens  The poem consists of three parts, the proem (i e , preface), the Way of Truth and the Way of Opinion   Very few pieces from the Way of Opinion survive  In that part, Parmenides must have been dealing with cosmology, judging from other authors' references  The Way of Truth was then, and is still today, considered of much more importance  In the Way of Truth, the goddess criticizes the logic of people who do not distinguish the real from the non-existent ("What-is" and "What-is-Not")  In this poem Parmenides unfolds his philosophy: that all things are One, and therefore nothing can be changed or altered  Hence, all the things that we think to be true, even ourselves, are false representations  What-is, according to Parmenides, is a physical sphere that is unborn, unchanged, and infinite  This is a monist vision of the world, far more radical than that of Heraclitus  The goddess teaches Kouros to use his reasoning to understand whether various claims are true or false, discarding senses as fallacious  Other fundamental issues raised by Parmenides' poem are the doctrine that nothing comes from nothing and the unity of being and thinking  As quoted by DK fragment 3: To gar auto noein estin te kai einai (For to think and to be is one and the same) Zeno and Melissus continued Parmenides' thought on cosmology  Zeno is mostly known for his paradoxes, i e , self-contradictory statements which served as proofs that Parmenides' monism was valid, and that pluralism was invalid  The most common theme of those paradoxes involved traveling a distance, but since that distance comprises infinite points, the traveler could never accomplish it  His most famous is the Achilles paradox, which is mentioned by Aristotelis: "The second is called the 'Achilles' and says that the slowest runner will never be caught by the fastest, because it is necessary for the pursuer first to arrive at the point from which the pursued set off, so it is necessary that the slower will always be a little ahead " (Aristotle Phys  239b14–18 [DK 29 A26]) Melissus defended and advanced Parmenides' theory using prose, without invoking divinity or mythical figures  He tried to explain why we think various non-existent objects exist The Eleatics' focus on Being through means of logic initiated the philosophical discipline of ontology  Other philosophers influenced by the Eleatics (such as the Sophists, Plato, and Aristotle) further advanced logic, argumentation, mathematics and especially elenchos (proof)  The Sophists even placed Being under the scrutiny of elenchos  Because of the Eleatics reasoning was acquiring a formal method 

The Pluralists: Anaxagoras and Empedocles
The Pluralist school marked a return to Milesian natural philosophy, though much more refined because of Eleatic criticism Anaxagoras was born in Ionia, but was the first major philosopher to emigrate to Athens  He was soon associated with the Athenian statesman Pericles and, probably due to this association, was accused by a political opponent of Pericles for impiety as Anaxagoras held that the sun was not associated with divinity; it was merely a huge burning stone  Pericles helped Anaxagoras flee Athens and return to Ionia  Anaxagoras was also a major influence on Socrates Anaxagoras is known for his "theory of everything"  He claimed that "in everything there is a share of everything " Interpretations differ as to what he meant  Anaxagoras was trying to stay true to the Eleatic principle of the everlasting (What-is) while also explaining the diversity of the natural world  Anaxagoras accepted Parmenides' doctrine that everything that exists (What-is) has existed forever, but contrary to the Eleatics, he added the ideas of panspermia and nous  All objects were mixtures of various elements, such as air, water, and others  One special element was nous, i e , mind, which is present in living things and causes motion  According to Anaxagoras, Nous was one of the elements that make up the cosmos  Things that had nous were alive   According to Anaxagoras, all things are composites of some basic elements; although it is not clear what these elements are  All objects are a mixture of these building blocks and have a portion of each element,  except nous  Nous was also considered a building block of the cosmos, but it exists only in living objects  Anaxagoras writes: "In everything there is a portion (moira) of everything except mind (nous), but there are some things in which mind too is present " Nous was not just an element of things, somehow it was the cause of setting the universe into motion   Anaxagoras advanced Milesian thought on epistemology, striving to establish an explanation that could be valid for all natural phenomena  Influenced by the Eleatics, he also furthered the exploration of metatheoretical questions such as the nature of knowledge Empedocles was born in Akragas, a town in the southern Italian peninsula  According to Diogenes Laertius, Empedocles wrote two books in the form of poems: Peri Physeos (On nature) and the Katharmoi (Purifications)  Some contemporary scholars argue these books might be one; all agree that interpreting Empedocles is difficult On cosmological issues, Empedocles takes from the Eleatic school the idea that the universe is unborn, has always been and always will be  He also continues Anaxagoras' thought on the four "roots" (i e , classical elements), that by intermixing, they create all things around us  These roots are fire, air, earth, and water  Crucially, he adds two more components, the immaterial forces of love and strife  These two forces are opposite and by acting upon the material of the four roots unite in harmony or tear apart the four roots, with the resulting mixture being all things that exist  Empedocles uses an analogy of how this is possible: as a painter uses a few basic colors to create a painting, the same happens with the four roots  It is not quite clear if love and strife co-operate or have a greater plan, but love and strife are in a continual cycle that generates life and the earth we live in  Other beings, apart from the four roots and love and strife, according to Empedocles' Purifications are mortals, gods, and daemons  Like Pythagoras, Empedocles believed in the soul's transmigration and was vegetarian 

Atomists: Leucippus and Democritus
Leucippus and Democritus both lived in Abdera, in Thrace  They are most famous for their atomic cosmology even though their thought included many other fields of philosophy, such as ethics, mathematics, aesthetics, politics, and even embryology  The atomic theory of Leucippus and Democritus was a response to the Eleatic school, who held that motion is not possible because everything is occupied with What-is  Democritus and Leucippus reverted the Eleatic axiom, claiming that since motions exist, What-is-not must also exist; hence void exists  Democritus and Leucippus were skeptics regarding the reliability of our senses, but they were confident that motion exists  Atoms, according to Democritus and Leucippus, had some characteristics of the Eleatic What-is: they were homogeneous and indivisible  These characteristics allowed answers to Zeno's paradoxes  Atoms move within the void, interact with each other, and form the plurality of the world we live in, in a purely mechanical manner One conclusion of the Atomists was determinism - the philosophical view that all events are determined completely by previously existing causes  As Leucippus said, (DK 67 B2) "Nothing comes to be random but everything is by reason and out of necessity " Democritus concluded that since everything is atoms and void, several of our senses are not real but conventional  Color, for example, is not a property of atoms; hence our perception of color is a convention  As Democritus said, (DK 68 B9) "By convention sweet, by convention bitter, by convention hot, by convention cold, by convention colour; in reality atoms and void " This can be interpreted in two ways  According to James Warren there is an eliminativist interpretation, such that Democritus means that color is not real, and there is a relativist interpretation, such that Democritus means that color and taste are not real but are perceived as such by our senses through sensory interaction 

Sophists
The sophists were a philosophical and educational movement that flourished in ancient Greece before Socrates  They attacked traditional thinking, from gods to morality, paving the way for further advances of philosophy and other disciplines such as drama, social sciences, mathematics, and history Plato disparaged the sophists, causing long-lasting harm to their reputation  Plato thought philosophy should be reserved for those who had the appropriate intellect to understand it; whereas the sophists would teach anyone who would pay tuition  The sophists taught rhetoric and how to address issues from multiple viewpoints  Since the sophists and their pupils were persuasive speakers at court or in public, they were accused of moral and epistemological relativism, which indeed some sophists appeared to advocate  Prominent sophists include Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, Thrasymachus, Prodicus, Callicles, Antiphon, and Critias Protagoras is mostly known for two of his quotes  One is that  "[humans are  ] the measure of all things, of things that are that they are, of things that are not that they are not" which is commonly interpreted as affirming philosophical relativism, but it can also be interpreted as claiming that knowledge is only relevant to humankind, that moral rightness and other forms of knowledge are relevant to and limited to human mind and perception  The other quote is, "Concerning the gods, I cannot ascertain whether they exist or whether they do not, or what form they have; for there are many obstacles to knowing, including the obscurity of the question and the brevity of human life "Gorgias wrote a book named On Nature, in which he attacked the Eleatics' concepts of What-is and What-is-not  He claimed it is absurd to hold that nonexistence exists, and that What-is was impossible since it had to either be generated or be unlimited and neither is sufficient  There is an ongoing debate among modern scholars whether he was a serious thinker, a precursor of extreme relativism and skepticism, or merely a charlatan Antiphon placed natural law against the law of the city  One need not obey the city's laws as long as one will not get caught  One could argue that Antiphon was a careful hedonist—rejecting dangerous pleasures 

Philolaous of Croton and Diogenes of Apollonia
Philolaus of Croton and Diogenes of Apollonia from Thrace (born c  460 BCE) are considered the last generation of pre-Socratics  Rather than advancing a cosmological perspective on how our universe is constructed, they are mostly noted for advancing abstract thinking and argumentation 
Pythagorianism, Anaxagoras and Empedocles influenced Philolaus  He attempted to explain both the variety and unity of the cosmos  He addressed the need to explain how the various masses of the universe interact among them and coined the term Harmonia, a binding force that allows mass to take shape  The structure of the cosmos consisted of apeira (unlimiteds) and perainonta (limiters) 
Diogenes of Apollonia returned to Milesian monism, but with a rather more elegant thought  As he says in DK64 B2 "It seems to me, overall, that all things are alterations of the same things and are the same thing"  He explains that things, even when changing shapes, remain ontologically the same 

Topics
Knowledge
The mythologoi, Homer and Hesiod, along with other poets, centuries before the pre-Socratics, thought that true knowledge was exclusive to the divine  But starting with Xenophanes, the pre-Socratics moved towards a more secular approach to knowledge  The pre-Socratics sought a method to understand the cosmos, while being aware that there is a limit to human knowledge While Pythagoras and Empedocles linked their self-proclaimed wisdom to their divinely inspired status, they tried to teach or urge mortals to seek the truth about the natural realm—Pythagoras by means of mathematics and geometry and Empedocles by exposure to experiences  Xenophanes thought that human knowledge was merely an opinion that cannot be validated or proven to be true  According to Jonathan Warren, Xenophanes set the outline of the nature of knowledge  Later, Heraclitus and Parmenides stressed the capability of humans to understand how things stand in nature through direct observation, inquiry, and reflection 

Theology
Pre-Socratic thought contributed to the demythologization of the Greek popular religion  The narrative of their thought contributed to shifting the course of ancient Greek philosophy and religion away from the realm of divinity and even paved the way for teleological explanations  They attacked the traditional representations of gods that Homer and Hesiod had established and put Greek popular religion under scrutiny, initiating the schism between natural philosophy and theology   Pre-Socratic philosophers did not have atheistic beliefs, but it should be kept in mind that being an atheist those days was not without social or legal dangers  Despite that, arguments rejecting deities were not barred from the public sphere which can be seen in Protagoras's quotation on the gods: "About the gods I am able to know neither that they exist nor that they do not exist "The theological thought starts with the Milesian philosophers  It is evident in Anaximander's idea of the apeiron steering everything, which had other abilities usually attributed to Zeus  Later, Xenophanes developed a critique of the anthropomorphism of the gods  Xenophanes set three preconditions for God: he had to be all good, immortal and not resembling humans in appearance, which had a major impact on western religious thought The theological thought of Heraclitus and Parmenides is not entirely certain, but it is generally accepted that they believed in some kind of divinity  The Pythagoreans and Empedocles believed in the transmigration of souls  Anaxagoras asserted that cosmic intelligence (nous) gives life to things  Diogenes of Appollonia expanded this line of thinking and might have constructed the first teleological argument "it would not be possible without Intellection for it so to be divided up that it has the measures of all things — of winter and summer and night and day and rains and winds and fair weather  The other things, too, if one wishes to consider them, one would find disposed of in the best possible way " While some pre-Socratics were trying to find alternatives to divinity, others were setting the foundation of explaining the universe in terms of teleology and intelligent design by a divine force 

Medicine
Prior to the pre-Socratics, health and illness were thought to be governed by gods  Pre-Socratic philosophy and medicine advanced in parallel, with medicine as a part of philosophy and vice versa  It was Hippocrates (often hailed as the father of medicine) who separated – but not completely – the two domains  Physicians incorporated pre-Socratic philosophical ideas about the nature of the world in their theoretical framework, blurring the border between the two domains  An example is the study of epilepsy, which in popular religion was thought to be a divine intervention to human life, but Hippocrates' school attributed it to nature, just as Milesian rationalism demythologized other natural phenomena such as earthquakes  The systematic study of anatomy, physiology, and illnesses led to the discovery of cause-effect relations and a more sophisticated terminology and understanding of the diseases that ultimately yielded rational science 

Cosmology
The pre-Socratics were the first to attempt to provide reductive explanations for a plethora of natural phenomena Firstly, they were preoccupied with the mystery of the cosmic matter—what was the basic substance of the universe? Anaximander suggested apeiron (limitless), which hints, as Aristotle analyzed, there is no beginning and no end to it, both chronologically and within the space  Anaximenes placed aêr (air) as the primary principle, probably after realizing the importance of air to life and/or the need to explain various observable changes  Heraclitus, also seeking to address the issue of the ever changing world, placed fire as the primary principle of the universe, that transforms to water and earth to produce the universe  Ever-transforming nature is summarized by Heraclitus' axiom panta rhei (everything is in a state of flux)  Parmenides suggested two ever-lasting primary building blocs, night and day, which together form the universe  Empedocles increased the building blocks to four and named them roots, while also adding Love and Strife, to serve as the driving force for the roots to mingle  Anaxagoras extended even more the plurality of Empedocles, claiming everything is in everything, myriads of substances were mixing among each other except one, Nous (mind) that orchestrates everything—but did not attribute divine characteristics to Nous  Leucippus and Democritus asserted the universe consists of atoms and void, while the motion of atoms is responsible for the changes we observe 

Rationalism, observation and the beginning of scientific thought
The pre-Socratic intellectual revolution is widely considered to have been the first step towards liberation of the human mind from the mythical world and initiated a march towards reason and scientific thought that yielded modern western philosophy and science  The pre-Socratics sought to understand the various aspects of nature by means of rationalism, observations, and offering explanations that could be deemed as scientific, giving birth to what became Western rationalism   Thales was the first to seek for a unitary arche of the world  Whether arche meant the beginning, the origin, the main principle or the basic element is unclear, but was the first attempt to reduce the explanations of the universe to a single cause, based on reason and not guided by any sort of divinity   Anaximander offered the principle of sufficient reason, a revolutionary argument that would also yield the principle that nothing comes out of nothing  Most of pre-Socratics seemed indifferent to the concept of teleology, especially the Atomists who fiercely rejected the idea  According to them, the various phenomena were the consequence of the motion of atoms without any purpose  Xenophanes also advanced a critique of anthropomorphic religion by highlighting in a rational way the inconsistency of depictions of the gods in Greek popular religion Undoubtedly, pre-Socratics paved the way towards science, but whether what they did could constitute science is a matter of debate  Thales had offered the first account of a reduction and a generalization, a significant milestone towards scientific thought  Other pre-Socratics also sought to answer the question of arche, offering various answers, but the first step towards scientific thought was already taken  Philosopher Karl Popper, in his seminal work Back to Presocratics (1958) traces the roots of modern science (and the West) to the early Greek philosophers  He writes: "There can be little doubt that the Greek tradition of philosophical criticism had its main source in Ionia     It thus leads the tradition which created the rational or scientific attitude, and with it our Western civilization, the only civilization, which is based upon science (though, of course, not upon science alone) " Elsewhere in the same study Popper diminishes the significance of the label they should carry as purely semantics  "There is the most perfect possible continuity of thought between [the Presocratics'] theories and the later developments in physics  Whether they are called philosophers, or pre-scientists, or scientists, matters very little " Other scholars did not share the same view  F  M  Cornford considered the Ionanians as dogmatic speculators, due to their lack of empiricism 

Reception and legacy
Antiquity
The pre-Socratics had a direct influence on classical antiquity in many ways  The philosophic thought produced by the pre-Socratics heavily influenced later philosophers, historians and playwrights  One line of influence was the Socrato-Ciceronian tradition, while the other was the Platonic-Aristotelian Socrates, Xenophon and Cicero were highly influenced by the physiologoi (naturalists) as they were named in ancient times  The naturalists impressed young Socrates and he was interested in the quest for the substance of the cosmos, but his interest waned as he became steadily more focused on epistemology, virtue, and ethics rather than the natural world  According to Xenophon, the reason was that Socrates believed humans incapable of comprehending the cosmos  Plato, in the Phaedo, claims that Socrates was uneasy with the materialistic approach of the pre-Socratics, particularly Anaxagoras  Cicero analyzed his views on the pre-Socratics in his Tusculanae Disputationes, as he distinguished the theoretical nature of pre-Socratic thought from previous "sages" who were interested in more practical issues  Xenophon, like Cicero, saw the difference between pre-Socratics and Socrates being his interest in human affairs (ta anthropina) The pre-Socratics deeply influenced both Plato and Aristotle  Aristotle discussed the pre-Socratics in the first book of Metaphysics, as an introduction to his own philosophy and the quest for arche  He was the first to state that philosophy starts with Thales  It is not clear whether Thales talked of water as arche, or that was a retrospective interpretation by Aristotle, who was examining his predecessors under the scope of his views  More crucially, Aristotle  criticized the pre-Socratics for not identifying a purpose as a final cause, a fundamental idea in Aristotelian metaphysics  Plato also attacked pre-Socratic materialism Later, during the Hellenistic era, philosophers of various currents focused on the study of nature and advanced pre-Socratic ideas  The Stoics incorporated features from Anaxagoras and Heraclitus, such as nous and fire respectively  The Epicureans saw Democritus' atomism as their predecessor while the Sceptics were linked to Xenophanes 

Modern era
The pre-Socratics, along with the rest of ancient Greece,  invented the central concepts of Western civilization: freedom, democracy, individual autonomy and rationalism  Francis Bacon, a 16th-century philosopher known for advancing the scientific method, was probably the first philosopher of the modern era to use pre-Socratic axioms extensively in his texts  He criticized the pre-Socratic theory of knowledge by Xenophanes and others, claiming that their deductive reasoning could not yield meaningful results—an opinion contemporary philosophy of science rejects  Bacon's fondness for the pre-Socratics, especially Democritus' atomist theory, might have been because of his anti-Aristotelianism Friedrich Nietzsche admired the pre-Socratics deeply, calling them "tyrants of the spirit" to mark their antithesis and his preference against Socrates and his successors  Nietzsche also weaponized pre-Socratic antiteleology, coupled with the materialism exemplified by Democritus, for his attack on Christianity and its morals  Nietzsche saw the pre-Socratics as the first ancestors of contemporary science—linking Empedocles to Darwinism and Heraclitus to physicist Helmholtz  According to his narrative, limned in many of his books, the pre-Socratic era was the glorious era of Greece, while the so-called Golden Age that followed was an age of decay, according to Nietzsche  Nietzsche incorporated the pre-Socratics in his Apollonian and Dionysian dialectics, with them representing the creative Dionysian aspect of the duo Martin Heidegger found the roots of his phenomenology and later thinking of Things and the Fourfold in the pre-Socratics, considering Anaximander, Parmenides, and Heraclitus as the original thinkers on being, which he identified in their work as physis [φύσις] (emergence, contrasted against κρύπτεσθαι, kryptesthai, in Heraclitus’ Fragment 123) or aletheia [αλήθεια] (truth as unconcealment) 
Passage 5:
Pluralist theories of truth
A pluralist theory of truth is a theory of truth which posits that there may be more than one property that makes a proposition true 

Overview
Most traditional theories of truth are monist: that is, they hold that there is one and only property the having of which makes a belief or proposition true  Pluralist theories of truth deny this assumption  According to pluralism, ethical propositions might be true by more than one property, for example by virtue of coherence; propositions about the physical world might also be true by corresponding to the objects and properties they are about  Pluralism, in short, holds out the prospect that propositions might be "true in more than one way" 
Crispin Wright is the most well-known advocate of pluralism about truth  In his 1992 book Truth and Objectivity, Wright argued that any predicate which satisfied certain platitudes about truth qualified as a truth predicate  In some discourses, Wright argued, the role of the truth predicate might be played by the notion of superassertibility Michael Lynch (philosopher) has recently advocated a different type of pluralism about truth  In a series of articles and in his 2009 book Truth as One and Many Lynch argues that we should see truth as a functional property capable of being multiply manifested in distinct properties like correspondence or coherence 

See also
Criteria of truth
Degrees of truth
Passage 6:
Ann Pettifor
Ann Pettifor (born February 1947) is a British economist who advises governments and organisations  She has published several books  Her work focuses on the global financial system, sovereign debt restructuring, international finance and sustainable development  Pettifor is best known for correctly predicting the financial crisis of 2007–08  She was one of the leaders of the Jubilee 2000 debt cancellation campaign 
She is the director of Policy Research In Macroeconomics (PRIME) a network of economists researching Keynesian monetary theory and policies, an honorary research fellow at the Political Economy Research Centre at City, University of London (CITYPERC), Chair of the  Political Economy Research Centre's Advisory Board at Goldsmiths, a fellow of the New Economics Foundation, a director of  Advocacy International and a trustee of the PREP Foundation for pluralist economics  Pettifor is a member of the Green New  Deal Group of economists, environmentalists and entrepreneurs 

Biography
Lynda Ann Pettifor was born in South Africa in February 1947, and graduated with a degree in politics and economics from the University of the Witwatersrand  In the 1980s she held several posts as adviser to Frances Morrell, the leader of the Inner London Education Authority and later advised  Greater London Council, Ken Livingstone  She also advised the Right Hon  Margaret Beckett MP who went on to serve in the 1997 Labour government  She also worked as a lobbyist for Ian Greer Associates 
Pettifor co-founded the Jubilee 2000 worldwide campaign for the cancellation of the debts of the poorest countries  In 1998 Jubilee 2000 organised a human chain of approximately 70,000 people, which surrounded the 1998 G8 summit in Birmingham, United Kingdom  In 1999 at the Cologne G8 Summit the G8 agreed to write off approximately $100 billion of third world debt owed by 37 countries, in large part due to the campaign  Jubilee 2000 had supporters including Pope John Paul II, Muhammad Ali, Bono, Tony Blair, Gordon Brown and Bill Clinton  The Independent would later describe her work on the campaign as 'genius' At the conclusion of the Jubilee 2000 campaign Pettifor joined the New Economics Foundation in London where she headed their research unit on global macro-economics Pettifor became a member of the Green New  Deal Group of economists, environmentalists and entrepreneurs that published The Green New Deal in July 2008  The group argued that "The triple crunch of financial meltdown, climate change and ‘peak oil’ has its origins firmly rooted in the current model of globalisation  Financial deregulation has facilitated the creation of almost limitless credit  With this credit boom have come irresponsible and often fraudulent patterns of lending, creating inflated bubbles in assets such as property, and powering environmentally unsustainable consumption "
In the 2010 general election Pettifor attempted to stand for Parliament as a Labour candidate and was shortlisted in the North West Durham selection process but lost to Pat Glass  She has also unsuccessfully stood as a local election candidate for the West End ward on Westminster City Council 
As a director of Advocacy International she worked on designing and promoting the MamaYe campaign together with Options Consultancy Services  Working in five African countries the campaign makes life-saving changes for mothers and babies during pregnancy and childbirth In September 2015, she was appointed to the British Labour Party's Economic Advisory Committee, convened by Shadow Chancellor John McDonnell and reporting to Labour Party Leader Jeremy Corbyn, regarding which she stated that she was honoured to be asked to serve with such distinguished colleagues and that she hoped to play her part in overturning the Chancellor's deficit fetishism, and his employment of it as a smokescreen for an attack on the state  She currently resides in London, England 
Pettifor contributed an article to the Labour in the City Anthology in October 2018, which was launched at the City Corporation by Alistair Darling  Pettifor argues that far more radical reforms are needed to prevent a recurrence of the 2008 crisis 

Awards
Pettifor was granted the freedom of the city of Callao in Peru in 1999 (for her work on debt cancellation for Peru); and the Pax Christi International Peace Award in 2000  In 2001 she was awarded an honorary doctorate by Lord Patten, Vice-Chancellor of Newcastle University, and in the same year was honoured with a Masters of Letters Degree (a Lambeth Degree) by the Archbishop of Canterbury  The President of Nigeria, President Obasanjo made her a Member of the Order of the Niger (MON) for her work in leading the campaign to write off billions of dollars of debt owed by Africa's poorest countries  In 2018, she was awarded with the Hannah Arendt Prize 

Works
Pettifor is known for correctly predicting the global financial crises in several publications including in the book The Real World Economic Outlook, and summarised in the New Statesman in an article published on 1 September 2003 entitled "Coming soon: The new poor”  This was followed by her September 2006 book The Coming First World Debt Crisis 
1996: Debt, the Most Potent Form of Slavery: : a discussion of the role of Western lending policies in subordinating the economies of poor countries  Debt Crisis Network 
2000: Kicking the Habit: Finding a Lasting Solution to Addictive Lending and Borrowing and Its Corrupting Side-Effects (Joseph Hanlon & Angela Travis)  Jubilee 2000 Coalition 
2001: It Takes Two to Tango: Creditor Co-Responsibility for Argentina's Crisis – and the Need for Independent Resolution (with Liana Cisneros & Alejandro Olmos)  New Economics Foundation 
2002: Chapter 9/11?: Resolving International Debtcrises – The Jubilee Framework for International Insolvency  New Economics Foundation  ISBN 978-1-899407-44-6
2003: The Real World Economic Outlook Palgrave Macmillan  ISBN 978-1-4039-1794-2
2006: The Coming First World Debt Crisis  Palgrave Macmillan  ISBN 978-0-230-00784-0
2008: The Green New Deal – Joined up policies to solve the triple crunch of credit crises, climate change and high oil prices  New Economics Foundation  ISBN 978-1-904882-35-0
2013: National Plan for the UK: From Austerity to the Age of the Green New Deal New Economics Foundation
2014: Just Money: How Society Can Break the Despotic Power of Finance  Commonwealth Publishing 
2017: The Production of Money – How to Break the Power of Bankers, Verso ISBN 9781786631374
2019: The Case for the Green New Deal  Verso ISBN 9781788738156
Context 2: Passage 1:
Arnold Bennett
Enoch Arnold Bennett (27 May 1867 – 27 March 1931) was an English author, best known as a novelist who wrote prolifically  Between the 1890s and the 1930s he completed 34 novels, seven volumes of short stories, 13 plays (some in collaboration with other writers), and a daily journal totalling more than a million words  He wrote articles and stories for more than 100 newspapers and periodicals, worked in and briefly ran the Ministry of Information in the First World War, and wrote for the cinema in the 1920s  Sales of his books were substantial and he was the most financially successful British author of his day 
Born into a modest but upwardly mobile family in Hanley, in the Staffordshire Potteries, Bennett was intended by his father, a solicitor, to follow him into the legal profession  Bennett worked for his father, before moving to another law firm in London as a clerk, aged 21  He became assistant editor and then editor of a women's magazine, before becoming a full-time author in 1900  Always a devotee of French culture in general and French literature in particular, he moved to Paris in 1903; there the relaxed milieu helped him overcome his intense shyness, particularly with women  He spent ten years in France, marrying a Frenchwoman in 1907  In 1912 he moved back to England  He and his wife separated in 1921 and he spent the last years of his life with a new partner, an English actress  He died in 1931 of typhoid fever, having unwisely drunk tap-water in France 
Many of Bennett's novels and short stories are set in a fictionalised version of the Staffordshire Potteries, which he called The Five Towns  He strongly believed that literature should be accessible to ordinary people, and he deplored literary cliques and élites  His books appealed to a wide public and sold in large numbers  For this reason, and for his adherence to realism, writers and supporters of the modernist school, notably Virginia Woolf, belittled him, and his fiction became neglected after his death  During his lifetime his journalistic "self-help" books sold in substantial numbers, and he was also a playwright; he did less well in the theatre than with novels, but achieved two considerable successes with Milestones (1912) and The Great Adventure (1913) 
Studies by Margaret Drabble (1974), John Carey (1992) and others have led to a re-evaluation of Bennett's work  His finest novels, including Anna of the Five Towns (1902), The Old Wives' Tale (1908), Clayhanger (1910) and Riceyman Steps (1923), are now widely recognised as major works 

Life and career
Early years
Arnold Bennett was born on 27 May 1867 in Hanley, Staffordshire, now part of Stoke-on-Trent but then a separate town  He was the eldest child of the three sons and three daughters of Enoch Bennett (1843–1902) and his wife Sarah Ann, née Longson (1840–1914)  Enoch Bennett's early career had been one of mixed fortunes: after an unsuccessful attempt to run a business making and selling pottery, he set up as a draper and pawnbroker in 1866  Four years later Enoch's father died, leaving him some money with which he articled himself to a local law firm; in 1876 he qualified as a solicitor  The Bennetts were staunch Wesleyans, musical, cultured and sociable  Enoch Bennett had an authoritarian side, but it was a happy household, although a mobile one: as Enoch's success as a solicitor increased, the family moved, within the space of five years in the late 1870s and early 1880s, to four different houses in Hanley and the neighbouring Burslem From 1877 to 1882, Bennett's schooling was at the Wedgwood Institute, Burslem, followed by a year at a grammar school in Newcastle-under-Lyme  He was good at Latin and better at French; he had an inspirational headmaster who gave him a love for French literature and the French language that lasted all his life  He did well academically and passed Cambridge University examinations that could have led to an Oxbridge education, but his father had other plans  In 1883, aged 16, Bennett left school and began work – unpaid – in his father's office  He divided his time between uncongenial jobs, such as rent collecting, during the day, and studying for examinations in the evening  He began writing in a modest way, contributing light pieces to the local newspaper  He became adept in Pitman's shorthand, a skill much sought after in commercial offices, and on the strength of that he secured a post as a clerk at a firm of solicitors in Lincoln's Inn Fields, London  In March 1889, aged 21, he left for London and never returned to live in his native county 

First years in London
In the solicitors' office in London, Bennett became friendly with a young colleague, John Eland, who had a passion for books  Eland's friendship helped alleviate Bennett's innate shyness, which was exacerbated by a lifelong stammer  Together they explored the world of literature  Among the writers who impressed and influenced Bennett were George Moore, Émile Zola, Honoré de Balzac, Guy de Maupassant, Gustave Flaubert and Ivan Turgenev  He continued his own writing, and won a prize of twenty guineas from Tit-Bits in 1893 for his story 'The Artist's Model'; another short story, 'A Letter Home', was submitted successfully to The Yellow Book, where it featured in 1895 alongside contributions from Henry James and other well-known writers In 1894 Bennett resigned from the law firm and became assistant editor of the magazine Woman  The salary, £150 a year, was £50 less than he was earning as a clerk, but the post left him much more free time to write his first novel  For the magazine he wrote under a range of female pen-names such as "Barbara" and "Cecile"  As his biographer Margaret Drabble puts it:

The informal office life of the magazine suited Bennett, not least because it brought him into lively female company, and he began to be a little more relaxed with young women  He continued work on his novel and wrote short stories and articles  He was modest about his literary talent: he wrote to a friend, "I have no inward assurance that I could ever do anything more than mediocre viewed strictly as art – very mediocre", but he knew he could "turn out things which would be read with zest, & about which the man in the street would say to friends 'Have you read so & so in the What-is-it?'" He was happy to write for popular journals like Hearth and Home or for the highbrow The Academy His debut novel, A Man from the North, completed in 1896, was published two years later, by John Lane, whose reader, John Buchan, recommended it for publication  It elicited a letter of praise from Joseph Conrad and was well and widely reviewed, but Bennett's profits from the sale of the book were less than the cost of having it typed In 1896 Bennett was promoted to be editor of Woman; by then he had set his sights on a career as a full-time author, but he served as editor for four years  During that time he wrote two popular books, described by the critic John Lucas as "pot-boilers": Journalism for Women (1898) and Polite Farces for the Drawing Room (1899)  He also began work on a second novel, Anna of the Five Towns, the five towns being Bennett's lightly fictionalised version of the Staffordshire Potteries, where he grew up 

Freelance; Paris
In 1900 Bennett resigned his post at Woman, and left London to set up house at Trinity Hall Farm, near the village of Hockliffe in Bedfordshire, where he made a home not only for himself but for his parents and younger sister  He completed Anna of the Five Towns in 1901; it was published the following year, as was its successor, The Grand Babylon Hotel  The latter, an extravagant story of crime in high society, sold 50,000 copies in hardback and was almost immediately translated into four languages  By this stage he was confident enough in his abilities to tell a friend:

In January 1902 Enoch Bennett died, after a decline into dementia  His widow chose to move back to Burslem, and Bennett's sister married shortly afterwards  With no dependants, Bennett − always a devotee of French culture − decided to move to Paris; he took up residence there in March 1903  Biographers have speculated on his precise reasons for doing so   Drabble suggests that perhaps "he was hoping for some kind of liberation  He was thirty-five and unmarried"; Lucas writes that it was almost certainly Bennett's desire to be recognised as a serious artist that prompted his move; according to his friend and colleague Frank Swinnerton, Bennett was following in the footsteps of George Moore by going to live in "the home of modern realism"; in the view of the biographer Reginald Pound it was "to begin his career as a man of the world"  The 9th arrondissement of Paris was Bennett's home for the next five years, first in the rue de Calais, near the Place Pigalle, and then the more upmarket rue d'Aumale Life in Paris evidently helped Bennett overcome much of his remaining shyness with women  His journals for his early months in Paris mention a young woman identified as "C" or "Chichi", who was a chorus girl; the journals – or at least the cautiously selected extracts published since his death – do not record the precise nature of the relationship, but the two spent a considerable amount of time together In a restaurant where he dined frequently a trivial incident in 1903 gave Bennett the germ of an idea for the novel generally regarded as his masterpiece  A grotesque old woman came in and caused a fuss; the beautiful young waitress laughed at her, and Bennett was struck by the thought that the old woman had once been as young and lovely as the waitress  From this grew the story of two contrasting sisters in The Old Wives' Tale  He did not begin work on that novel until 1907, before which he wrote ten others, some "sadly undistinguished", in the view of his biographer Kenneth Young  Throughout his career, Bennett interspersed his best novels with some that his biographers and others have labelled pot-boilers 

Marriage; Fontainebleau and US visit
In 1905 Bennett became engaged to Eleanor Green, a member of an eccentric and capricious American family living in Paris, but at the last moment, after the wedding invitations had been sent out, she broke off the engagement and almost immediately married a fellow American  Drabble comments that Bennett was well rid of her, but it was a painful episode in his life  In early 1907 he met Marguerite Soulié (1874–1960), who soon became first a friend and then a lover  In May he was taken ill with a severe gastric complaint, and Marguerite moved into his flat to look after him  They became still closer, and in July 1907, shortly after his fortieth birthday, they were married at the Mairie of the 9th arrondissement  The marriage was childless  Early in 1908 the couple moved from the rue d'Aumale to the Villa des Néfliers in Fontainebleau-Avon, about 40 miles (64 km) south-east of Paris Lucas comments that the best of the novels written while in France – Whom God Hath Joined (1906), The Old Wives' Tale (1908), and Clayhanger (1910) – "justly established Bennett as a major exponent of realistic fiction"  In addition to these, Bennett published lighter novels such as The Card (1911)  His output of literary journalism included articles for T  P  O'Connor's T  P 's Weekly and the left-wing The New Age; his pieces for the latter, published under a pen-name, were concise literary essays aimed at "the general cultivated reader", a form taken up by a later generation of writers including J  B  Priestley and V  S  Pritchett In 1911 Bennett made a financially rewarding visit to the US, which he later recorded in his 1912 book Those United States  Crossing the Atlantic aboard the Lusitania, he visited not only New York and Boston but also Chicago, Indianapolis, Washington and Philadelphia in a tour that was described by US publisher George Doran as "one of continuous triumph": in the first three days of his stay in New York he was interviewed 26 times by journalists  While rival E P  Dutton had secured rights to such Bennett novels as Hilda Lessways and the Card (retitled Denry the Audacious), Doran, who travelled everywhere with Bennett while in America, was the publisher of Bennett’s wildly successful ‘pocket philosophies’ How to Live on Twenty-Four Hours a Day and Mental Efficiency  Of these books the influential critic Willard Huntington Wright wrote that Bennett had "turned preacher and a jolly good preacher he is"  While in the US Bennett also sold the serial rights of his forthcoming novel, The Price of Love (1913–14), to Harpers for £2,000, eight essays to Metropolitan magazine for a total of  £1,200, and the American rights of a successor to Clayhanger for £3,000 During his ten years in France he had gone from a moderately well-known writer enjoying modest sales to outstanding success  Swinnerton comments that in addition to his large sales, Bennett's critical prestige was at its zenith 

Return to England
In 1912, after an extended stay at the Hotel Californie in Cannes, during which time he wrote The Regent, a light-hearted sequel to The Card, Bennett and his wife moved from France to England  Initially they lived in Putney, but "determined to become an English country landowner", he bought Comarques, an early-18th-century country house at Thorpe-le-Soken, Essex, and moved there in February 1913  Among his early concerns, once back in England, was to succeed as a playwright  He had dabbled previously but his inexperience showed  The Times thought his 1911 comedy The Honeymoon, staged in the West End with a starry cast, had "one of the most amusing first acts we have ever seen", but fell flat in the other two acts  In the same year Bennett met the playwright Edward Knoblauch (later Knoblock) and they collaborated on Milestones, the story of the generations of a family seen in 1860, 1885 and 1912  The combination of Bennett's narrative gift and Knoblauch's practical experience proved a success  The play was strongly cast, received highly favourable notices, ran for more than 600 performances in London and over 200 in New York, and made Bennett a great deal of money  His next play, The Great Adventure (1913), a stage version of his novel Buried Alive (1908), was similarly successful Bennett's attitude to the First World War was that British politicians had been at fault in failing to prevent it, but that once it had become inevitable it was right that Britain should join its allies against the Germans  He concentrated his attention on journalism, aiming to inform and encourage the public in Britain and allied and neutral countries  He served on official and unofficial committees, and in 1915 he was invited to visit France to see conditions at the front and write about them for readers at home  The collected impressions appeared in a book called Over There (1915)  He was still writing novels, however: These Twain, the third in his Clayhanger trilogy, was published in 1916 and in 1917 he completed a sequel, The Roll Call, which ends with its hero, George Cannon, enlisting in the army  Wartime London was the setting for Bennett's The Pretty Lady (1918), about a high-class French cocotte: although well reviewed, because of its subject-matter the novel provoked "a Hades of a row" and some booksellers refused to sell it When Lord Beaverbrook became Minister of Information in February 1918 he appointed Bennett to take charge of propaganda in France  Beaverbrook fell ill in October 1918 and made Bennett director of propaganda, in charge of the whole ministry for the last weeks of the war  At the end of 1918 Bennett was offered, but declined, a knighthood in the new Order of the British Empire instituted by George V  The offer was renewed some time later, and again Bennett refused it  One of his closest associates at the time suspected that he was privately hoping for the more prestigious Order of Merit As the war was ending, Bennett returned to his theatrical interests, although not primarily as a playwright  In November 1918 he became chairman, with Nigel Playfair as managing director, of the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith  Among their productions were Abraham Lincoln by John Drinkwater, and The Beggar's Opera, which, in Swinnerton's phrase, "caught different moods of the post-war spirit", and ran for 466 and 1,463 performances respectively 

Last years
In 1921 Bennett and his wife legally separated  They had been drifting apart for some years and Marguerite had taken up with Pierre Legros, a young French lecturer  Bennett sold Comarques and lived in London for the rest of his life, first in a flat near Bond Street in the West End, on which he had taken a lease during the war  For much of the 1920s he was widely known to be the highest-paid literary journalist in England, contributing a weekly column to Beaverbrook's Evening Standard under the title 'Books and Persons'; according to Frank Swinnerton these articles were "extraordinarily successful and influential     and made a number of new reputations"  By the end of his career, Bennett had contributed to more than 100 newspapers, magazines and other publications  He continued to write novels and plays as assiduously as before the war Swinnerton writes, "Endless social engagements; inexhaustible patronage of musicians, actors, poets, and painters; the maximum of benevolence to friends and strangers alike, marked the last ten years of his life"  Hugh Walpole, James Agate and Osbert Sitwell were among those who testified to Bennett's generosity  Sitwell recalled a letter Bennett wrote in the 1920s:

In 1922 Bennett met and fell in love with an actress, Dorothy Cheston (1891–1977)  Together they set up home in Cadogan Square, where they stayed until moving in 1930 to Chiltern Court, Baker Street  As Marguerite would not agree to a divorce, Bennett was unable to marry Dorothy, and in September 1928, having become pregnant, she changed her name by deed poll to Dorothy Cheston Bennett  The following April she gave birth to the couple's only child, Virginia Mary (1929–2003)  She continued to appear as an actress, and produced and starred in a revival of Milestones which was well reviewed, but had only a moderate run  Bennett had mixed feelings about her continuing stage career, but did not seek to stop it During a holiday in France with Dorothy in January 1931, Bennett twice drank tap-water – not, at the time, a safe thing to do there  On his return home he was taken ill; influenza was diagnosed at first, but the illness was typhoid fever; after several weeks of unsuccessful treatment he died in his flat at Chiltern Court on 27 March 1931, aged 63 Bennett was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium and his ashes were interred in Burslem Cemetery in his mother's grave  A memorial service was held on 31 March 1931 at St Clement Danes, London, attended by leading figures from journalism, literature, music, politics and theatre, and, in Pound's words, many men and women who at the end of the service "walked out into a London that for them would never be the same again" 

Works
From the outset, Bennett believed in the "democratisation of art which it is surely the duty of the minority to undertake"  He admired some of the modernist writers of his time, but strongly disapproved of their conscious appeal to a small élite and their disdain for the general reader  Bennett believed that literature should be inclusive, accessible by ordinary people From the start of his career, Bennett was aware of the appeal of regional fiction  Anthony Trollope, George Eliot and Thomas Hardy had created and sustained their own locales, and Bennett did the same with his Five Towns, drawing on his experiences as a boy and young man  As a realistic writer he followed the examples of the authors he admired – above all George Moore, but also Balzac, Flaubert and Maupassant among French writers, and Dostoevsky, Turgenev and Tolstoy among Russians  In writing about the Five Towns Bennett aimed to portray the experiences of ordinary people coping with the norms and constraints of the communities in which they lived  J  B  Priestley considered that the next influence on Bennett's fiction was his time in London in the 1890s, "engaged in journalism and ingenious pot-boiling of various kinds" 

Novels and short stories
Bennett is remembered chiefly for his novels and short stories  The best known are set in, or feature people from, the six towns of the Potteries of his youth  He presented the region as "the Five Towns", which correspond closely with their originals: the real-life Burslem, Hanley, Longton, Stoke and Tunstall become Bennett's Bursley, Hanbridge, Longshaw, Knype and Turnhill  These "Five Towns" make their first appearance in Bennett's fiction in Anna of the Five Towns (1902) and are the setting for further novels including Leonora (1903), Whom God Hath Joined (1906), The Old Wives' Tale (1908) and the Clayhanger trilogy – Clayhanger (1910), Hilda Lessways (1911) and These Twain (1916) – as well as for dozens of short stories  Bennett's fiction portrays the Five Towns with what The Oxford Companion to English Literature calls "an ironic but affectionate detachment, describing provincial life and culture in documentary detail, and creating many memorable characters"  In later life Bennett said that the writer George Moore was "the father of all my Five Towns books" as it was reading Moore's 1885 novel A Mummer's Wife, set in the Potteries, that "opened my eyes to the romantic nature of the district I had blindly inhabited for over twenty years" It was not only locations on which Bennett drew for his fiction  Many of his characters are discernibly based on real people in his life  His Lincoln's Inn friend John Eland was a source for Mr Aked in Bennett's first novel, A Man from the North (1898); A Great Man (1903) contains a character with echoes of his Parisienne friend Chichi; Darius Clayhanger's early life is based on that of a family friend and Bennett himself is seen in Edwin in Clayhanger  He has been criticised for making literary use in that novel of the distressing details of his father's decline into senility, but in Pound's view, in committing the details to paper Bennett was unburdening himself of painful memories These Twain is Bennett's "last extended study of Five Towns life"  The novels he wrote in the 1920s are largely set in London and thereabouts: Riceyman Steps (1923), for instance, generally regarded as the best of Bennett's post-war novels, was set in Clerkenwell: it was awarded the James Tait Black novel prize for 1923, "the first prize for a book I ever had," Bennett noted in his journal on 18 October 1924  His Lord Raingo (1926), described by Dudley Barker as "one of the finest of political novels in the language", benefited from Bennett's own experience in the Ministry of Information and his subsequent friendship with Beaverbrook: John Lucas states that "As a study of what goes on in the corridors of power [Lord Raingo] has few equals"  And Bennett's final – and longest – novel, Imperial Palace (1930), is set in a grand London hotel reminiscent of the Savoy, whose directors assisted him in his preliminary research Bennett usually gave his novels subtitles; the most frequent was "A fantasia on modern themes", individual books were called "A frolic" or "A melodrama", but he was sparing with the label "A novel" which he used for only a few of his books – for instance Anna of the Five Towns, Leonora, Sacred and Profane Love, The Old Wives' Tale, The Pretty Lady (1918) and Riceyman Steps  Literary critics have followed Bennett in dividing his novels into groups  The literary scholar Kurt Koenigsberger proposes three categories  In the first are the long narratives – "freestanding, monumental artefacts" – Anna of the Five Towns, The Old Wives' Tale, Clayhanger and Riceyman Steps, which "have been held in high critical regard since their publication"  Koenigsberger writes that the "Fantasias" such as The Grand Babylon Hotel (1902), Teresa of Watling Street (1904) and The City of Pleasure (1907), have "mostly passed from public attention along with the 'modern' conditions they exploit"  His third group includes "Idyllic Diversions" or "Stories of Adventure", including Helen with the High Hand (1910), The Card (1911), and The Regent (1913), which "have sustained some enduring critical and popular interest, not least for their amusing treatment of cosmopolitanism and provinciality" Bennett published 96 short stories in seven volumes between 1905 and 1931  His ambivalence about his native town is vividly seen in "The Death of Simon Fuge" in the collection The Grim Smile of the Five Towns (1907), judged by Lucas the finest of all the stories  His chosen locations ranged widely, including Paris and Venice as well as London and the Five Towns  As with his novels, he would sometimes give a story a label, calling "The Matador of the Five Towns" (1912) "a tragedy" and "Jock-at-a-Venture" from the same collection "a frolic"  The short stories, particularly those in Tales of the Five Towns (1905), The Grim Smile of the Five Towns (1907), and The Matador of the Five Towns contain some of the most striking examples of Bennett's concern for realism, with an unflinching narrative focus on what Lucas calls "the drab, the squalid, and the mundane"  In 2010 and 2011 two further volumes of Bennett's hitherto uncollected short stories were published: they range from his earliest work written in the 1890s, some under the pseudonym Sarah Volatile, to US magazine commissions from the late 1920s 

Stage and screen
In 1931 the critic Graham Sutton, looking back at Bennett's career in the theatre, contrasted his achievements as a playwright with those as a novelist, suggesting that Bennett was a complete novelist but a not-entirely-complete dramatist  His plays were clearly those of a novelist: "He tends to lengthy speeches  Sometimes he overwrites a part, as though distrusting the actor  He is more interested in what his people are than in what they visibly do  He 'thinks nowt' of mere slickness of plot "
Bennett's lack of a theatrical grounding showed in the uneven construction of some of his plays, such as his 1911 comedy The Honeymoon, which played for 125 performances from October 1911  The highly successful Milestones was seen as impeccably constructed, but the credit for that was given to his craftsmanlike collaborator, Edward Knoblauch (Bennett being credited with the inventive flair of the piece)  By far his most successful solo effort in the theatre was The Great Adventure, based on his 1908 novel Buried Alive, which ran in the West End for 674 performances, from March 1913 to November 1914  Sutton praised its "new strain of impish and sardonic fantasy" and rated it a much finer play than Milestones After the First World War Bennett wrote two plays on metaphysical questions, Sacred and Profane Love (1919, adapted from his novel) and Body and Soul (1922), which made little impression  The Saturday Review praised the "shrewd wit" of the former, but thought it "false in its essentials     superficial in its accidentals"  Of the latter, the critic Horace Shipp wondered "how the author of Clayhanger and The Old Wives' Tale could write such third-rate stuff"  Bennett had more success in a final collaboration with Edward Knoblock (as Knoblauch had become during the war) with Mr Prohack (1927), a comedy based on his 1922 novel; one critic wrote "I could have enjoyed the play had it run to double its length", but even so he judged the middle act weaker than the outer two  Sutton concludes that Bennett's forte was character, but that the competence of his technique was variable  The plays are seldom revived, although some have been adapted for television Bennett wrote two opera libretti for the composer Eugene Goossens: Judith (one act, 1929) and Don Juan (four acts, produced in 1937 after the writer's death)  There were comments that Goossens's music lacked tunes and Bennett's libretti were too wordy and literary  The critic Ernest Newman defended both works, finding Bennett's libretto for Judith "a drama told simply and straightforwardly" and Don Juan "the best thing that English opera has so far produced … the most dramatic and stageworthy", but though politely received, both operas vanished from the repertory after a few performances Bennett took a keen interest in the cinema, and in 1920 wrote The Wedding Dress, a scenario for a silent movie, at the request of Jesse Lasky of the Famous Players film company  It was never made, though Bennett wrote a full-length treatment, assumed to be lost until his daughter Virginia found it in a drawer in her Paris home in 1983; subsequently the script was sold to the Potteries Museum and Art Gallery and was finally published in 2013  In 1928 Bennett wrote the  scenario for the silent film Piccadilly, directed by E  A  Dupont and starring Anna May Wong, described by the British Film Institute as "one of  the true greats of British silent films"  In 1929, the year the film came out, Bennett was in discussion with a young Alfred Hitchcock to script a silent film, Punch and Judy, which foundered on artistic disagreements and  Bennett's refusal to see the film as a "talkie" rather than silent  His original scenario, acquired by Pennsylvania State University, was published in the UK in 2012 

Journalism and self-help books
Bennett published more than two dozen non-fiction books, among which eight could be classified as "self-help": the most enduring is How to Live on 24 Hours a Day (1908), which is still in print and has been translated into several languages  Other "self-help" volumes include How to Become an Author (1903), The Reasonable Life (1907), Literary Taste: How to Form It (1909), The Human Machine (1908), Mental Efficiency (1911), The Plain Man and his Wife (1913), Self and Self-Management (1918) and How to Make the Best of Life (1923)  They were, says Swinnerton, "written for small fees and with a real desire to assist the ignorant"  According to the Harvard academic Beth Blum, these books "advance less scientific versions of the argument for mental discipline espoused by William James"  In his biography of Bennett Patrick Donovan argues that in the US "the huge appeal to the ordinary readers" of his self-help books "made his name stand out vividly from other English writers across the massive, fragmented American market " As Bennett put it to his London-based agent J  B  Pinker, these "pocket philosophies are just the sort of book for the American public"  However, How to Live on 24 Hours was aimed initially at "the legions of clerks and typists and other meanly paid workers caught up in the explosion of British office jobs around the turn of the century … they offered a strong message of hope from somebody who so well understood their lives" Bennett never lost his journalistic instincts, and throughout his life sought and responded to newspaper and magazine commissions with varying degrees of enthusiasm: "from the start of the 1890s right up to the week of his death there would never be a period when he was not churning out copy for newspapers and magazines"  In a journal entry at the end of 1908, for instance, he noted that he had written "over sixty newspaper articles" that year; in 1910 the figure was "probably about 80 other articles"  While living in Paris he was a regular contributor to T  P 's Weekly; later he reviewed for The New Age under the pseudonym Jacob Tonson and was associated with the New Statesman as not only a writer but also a director 

Journals
Inspired by the Journal des Goncourt, Bennett kept a journal throughout his adult life  Swinnerton says that it runs to a million words; it has not been published in full  Edited extracts were issued in three volumes, in 1932 and 1933  According to Hugh Walpole, the editor, Newman Flower, "was so appalled by much of what he found in the journals that he published only brief extracts, and those the safest"  Whatever Flower censored, the extracts he selected were not always "the safest": he let some defamatory remarks through, and in 1935 he, the publishers and printers had to pay an undisclosed sum to the plaintiff in one libel suit and £2,500 in another 

Critical reputation
Novels and short stories
The literary modernists of his day deplored Bennett's books, and those of his well-known contemporaries H  G  Wells and John Galsworthy  Of the three, Bennett drew the most opprobrium from modernists such as Virginia Woolf, Ezra Pound and Wyndham Lewis who regarded him as representative of an outmoded and rival literary culture  There was a strong element of class-consciousness and snobbery in the modernists' attitude: Woolf accused Bennett of having "a shopkeeper's view of literature" and in her essay "Mr Bennett and Mrs Brown" accused Bennett, Galsworthy and Wells of ushering in an "age when character disappeared or was mysteriously engulfed" In a 1963 study of Bennett, James Hepburn summed up and dissented from the prevailing views of the novels, listing three related evaluative positions taken individually or together by almost all Bennett's critics: that his Five Towns novels are generally superior to his other work, that he and his art declined after The Old Wives' Tale or Clayhanger, and that there is a sharp and clear distinction between the good and bad novels  Hepburn countered that one of the novels most frequently praised by literary critics is Riceyman Steps (1923) set in Clerkenwell, London, and dealing with material imagined rather than observed by the author  On the third point he commented that although received wisdom was that The Old Wives' Tale and Clayhanger are good and Sacred and Profane Love and Lillian are bad, there was little consensus about which other Bennett novels were good, bad or indifferent  He instanced The Pretty Lady (1918), on which critical opinion ranged from "cheap and sensational"     "sentimental melodrama" to "a great novel"  Lucas (2004) considers it "a much underrated study of England during the war years, especially in its sensitive feeling for the destructive frenzy that underlay much apparently good-hearted patriotism" In 1974 Margaret Drabble published Arnold Bennett, a literary biography  In the foreword she demurred at the critical dismissal of Bennett:

Writing in the 1990s the literary critic John Carey called for a reappraisal of Bennett in his book The Intellectuals and the Masses (1992):

In 2006 Koenigsberger commented that one reason why Bennett's novels had been sidelined, apart from "the exponents of modernism who recoiled from his democratising aesthetic programme", was his attitude to gender  His books include the pronouncements "the average man has more intellectual power than the average woman" and "women as a sex love to be dominated"; Koenigsberger nevertheless praises Bennett's "sensitive and oft-praised portrayals of female figures in his fiction" Lucas concludes his study with the comment that Bennett's realism may be limited by his cautious assumption that things are as they are and will not change  Nevertheless, in Lucas's view, successive generations of reader have admired Bennett's best work, and future generations are certain to do so 

Crime fiction
Bennett dabbled in crime fiction, in The Grand Babylon Hotel and The Loot of Cities (1905)  In Queen's Quorum (1951), a survey of crime fiction, Ellery Queen listed the latter among the 100 most important works in the genre  This collection of stories recounts the adventures of a millionaire who commits crimes to achieve his idealistic ends  Although it was "one of his least known works," it was nevertheless "of unusual interest, both as an example of Arnold Bennett's early work and as an early example of dilettante detectivism" 

Legacy
Arnold Bennett Society
The Society was founded in 1954 "to promote the study and appreciation of the life, works and times not only of Arnold Bennett himself but also of other provincial writers, with particular relationship to North Staffordshire"  In 2021 its president was Denis Eldin, Bennett's grandson; among the vice-presidents was Margaret Drabble In 2017 the society instituted an annual Arnold Bennett Prize as part of author's 150th anniversary celebrations, to be awarded to an author who was born, lives or works in North Staffordshire and has published a book in the relevant year, or to the author of a book which features the region  In 2017 John Lancaster won the award for his poetry collection Potters: A Division of Labour  Subsequent winners have been Jan Edwards for her novel Winter Downs (2018), Charlotte Higgins for Red Thread: On Mazes and Labyrinths (2019) and Lisa Blower for her story collection It's Gone Dark Over Bill's Mother's (2020)  The prize was not awarded in 2021 because of the Covid-19 situation, but in 2022 it was won by John Pye, a former detective inspector turned crime writer, for his novel Where the Silent Screams Are Loudest  The prize in 2023 went to Philip Nanney Williams for his book Adams: Britain's Oldest Potting Dynasty 

Plaques and statuary
Bennett has been commemorated by several plaques  Hugh Walpole unveiled one at Comarques in 1931, and in the same year another was placed at Bennett's birthplace in Hanley  A plaque to and bust of Bennett were unveiled in Burslem in 1962, and there are blue plaques commemorating him at the house in Cadogan Square where he lived from 1923 to 1930 and on the house in Cobridge where he lived in his youth  The southern Baker Street entrance of Chiltern Court has a plaque to Bennett on the left and another to H  G  Wells on the right  A blue plaque has been placed on the wall of Bennett's home in Fontainebleau There is a two-metre-high bronze statue of Bennett outside The Potteries Museum & Art Gallery in Hanley, Stoke-on-Trent, unveiled on 27 May 2017 during the events marking the 150th anniversary of his birth 

Archives
There are substantial archives of Bennett's papers and artworks, including drafts, diaries, letters, photographs and watercolours, at The Potteries Museum & Art Gallery in Stoke-on-Trent and at Keele University  Other Bennett papers are held by University College London, the British Library, and, in the US, Texas and Yale universities and the Berg Collection in the New York Public Library 

Omelettes
Bennett shares with the composer Gioachino Rossini, the singer Nellie Melba and some other celebrities the distinction of having a well-known dish named in his honour  An omelette Arnold Bennett is one that incorporates smoked haddock, hard cheese (typically Cheddar), and cream  It was created at the Savoy Grill in London for Bennett, who was an habitué, by the chef Jean Baptiste Virlogeux  It remains a British classic; cooks from Marcus Wareing to Delia Smith and Gordon Ramsay have published their recipes for it, and a variant remains on the menu at the Savoy Grill 

Notes, references and sources
Notes
Passage 2:
Mermaid Series
The Mermaid Series was a major collection of reprints of texts from English Elizabethan, Jacobean and Restoration drama  It was launched in 1887 by the British publisher Henry Vizetelly and under the general editorship of Havelock Ellis  Around 1894 the series was taken over by the London firm of T  Fisher Unwin  Many well-known literary figures edited or introduced the texts  Some of the plays published had not been reprinted in recent editions, and most had dropped out of the stage repertoire 
The name alludes to the Mermaid Tavern in London  There has been a later New Mermaids Series 

The Best Plays of Beaumont and Fletcher
Notes by John Strachey, two volumes
(volume I) The Maid's Tragedy - Philaster - The Wild Goose Chase - Thierry and Theodoret - The Knight of the Burning Pestle
(volume II) A King and No King - Bonduca - The Spanish Curate - The Faithful Shepherdess - Valentinian

The Best Plays of George Chapman
Edited by William Lyon Phelps
All Fools - Bussy D'Ambois - The Revenge of Bussy D'Ambois - The Conspiracy of Charles, Duke of Byron - The Tragedy of Charles, Duke of Byron

The Complete Plays of William Congreve
Edited by Alexander Charles Ewald
The Old Bachelor - The Double-Dealer - Love for Love - The Way of the World - The Mourning Bride

The Best Plays of Thomas Dekker
Notes by Ernest Rhys
The Shoemaker's Holiday - The Honest Whore - Old Fortunatus - The Witch of Edmonton

The Best Plays of John Dryden
Edited by George Saintsbury, two volumes
(Volume I) Almanzor and Almahide, or The Conquest of Grenada, parts 1 & 2 - Marriage A La Mode - Aureng-Zebe
(Volume II) All for Love - The Spanish Friar - Albion and Albanius - Don Sebastian

The Best Plays of George Farquhar
Edited by William Archer
The Constant Couple - The Twin Rivals - The Recruiting Officer - The Beaux' Stratagem

The Best Plays of John Ford
Edited by Havelock Ellis
The Lover's Melancholy - 'Tis Pity She's a Whore - The Broken Heart - Love's Sacrifice - Perkin Warbeck

The Complete Plays of Robert Greene
Edited by Thomas H  Dickinson
Alphonsus, King of Arragon - A Looking Glass for London and England - Orlando Furioso - Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay - James the Fourth - George-A-Green, the Pinner of Wakefield

The Best Plays of Thomas Heywood
Edited by A  Wilson Verity, introduction by John Addington Symonds
A Woman Killed with Kindness - The Fair Maid of the West - The English Traveller - The Wise Woman of Hogsdon - The Rape of Lucrece

The Best Plays of Ben Jonson
Notes by Brinsley Nicholson and C  H  Herford, three volumes
(Volume I) Every Man in His Humour - Every Man out of His Humour - The Poetaster
(Volume II) Bartholomew Fair - Cynthia's Revels; or, The Fountain of Self-Love - Sejanus His Fall
(Volume III) Volpone; or, The Fox - Epicœne; or, The Silent Woman - The Alchemist

The Best Plays of Christopher Marlowe
Notes by Havelock Ellis, series introduction by John Addington Symonds
Tamburlaine the Great Part the First - Tamburlaine the Great Part the Second
- Doctor Faustus - The Jew of Malta - Edward the Second
Also includes a biography of Christopher Marlowe and appendices 

The Best Plays of Philip Massinger
Notes by Arthur Symons, two volumes
(Volume I) The Duke of Milan - A New Way to Pay Old Debts - The Great Duke of Florence - The Maid of Honour - The City Madam
(Volume II) The Roman Actor - The Fatal Dowry - The Guardian - The Virgin Martyr - Believe as You List

The Best Plays of Thomas Middleton
Introduction by Algernon Charles Swinburne, with Havelock Ellis, two volumes
(Volume I) A Trick to Catch the Old One - The Changeling - A Chaste Maid in Cheapside - Women Beware Women - The Spanish Gypsy
(Volume II) The Roaring Girl - The Witch - A Fair Quarrel - The Mayor of Queensborough - The Widow

Nero and Other Plays (1888)
Edited by H  P  Horne, A  W  Verity, Arthur Symons and Havelock Ellis
Nero (anonymous) - The Two Angry Women of Abington (Henry Porter) - The Parliament of Bees (John Day) - Humour Out of Breath (John Day) - A Woman is a Weathercock (Nathan Field)- Amends for Ladies (Nathan Field)

The Best Plays of Thomas Otway
Notes by Roden Noel
Don Carlos, Prince of Spain - The Orphan - The Soldier's Fortune - Venice Preserved

The Best Plays of Thomas Shadwell
Edited by George Saintsbury
The Sullen Lovers - A True Widow - The Squire of Alsatia - Bury Fair

The Best Plays of James Shirley
Introduction by Edmund Gosse
The Witty Fair One - The Traitor - Hyde Park - The Lady of Pleasure - The Cardinal - The Triumph of Peace

The Complete Plays of Richard Steele
Edited by G  A  Aitken
The Funeral - The Lying Lover - The Tender Husband - The Conscious Lovers - The School of Action - The Gentleman

The Select Plays of Sir John Vanbrugh
Edited by A  E  H  Swain
The Relapse - The Provok'd Wife - The Confederacy - A Journey to London

The Best Plays of Webster and Tourneur
Notes by John Addington Symonds
The White Devil (Webster) - The Duchess of Malfi (Webster) - The Atheist's Tragedy (Tourneur) - The Revenger's Tragedy (Tourneur, but now usually attributed to Thomas Middleton)

The Complete Plays of William Wycherley
Edited by W  C  Ward
Love in a Wood - The Gentleman Dancing Master - The Country Wife - The Plain Dealer

Online editions
Beaumont and Fletcher I • 
Beaumont and Fletcher II • 
George Chapman • 
William Congreve • 
Thomas Dekker • 
John Dryden I • 
John Dryden II • 
George Farquhar • 
John Ford • 
Robert Greene • 
Thomas Heywood • 
Ben Jonson I • 
Ben Jonson II • 
Ben Jonson III • 
Christopher Marlowe • 
Philip Massinger I • 
Philip Massinger II • 
Thomas Middleton I • 
Thomas Middleton II • 
Nero and Other Plays • 
Thomas Otway • 
Thomas Shadwell • 
James Shirley • 
Richard Steele • 
Sir John Vanbrugh • 
Webster and Tourneur • 
William Wycherley
Passage 3:
John Dicks (publisher)
John Thomas Dicks (1818–1881) was a publisher in London in the 19th century  He issued popular, affordably priced fiction and drama, such as "shilling Shakespeares and wonderfully cheap reprints of Scott and other standard authors " Earlier in his career he worked with Peter Perring Thoms and George W  M  Reynolds  Employees included illustrator Frederick Gilbert  Readers included Thomas Burt and Havelock Ellis  Dicks retired in the 1870s, when his sons took over the firm which continued into the 1960s 

Works issued by John Dicks
Musical Treasures (sheet music series); numbered list

Drama
The British drama: illustrated, vol  1–4, John Dicks, 1864–66
Dicks' British Drama, 1866–, 1866 (series)

Dicks' Standard Plays
Dicks' Standard Plays, 1874–1907 (series)
List of Dicks' Standard Plays and Free Acting Drama, 1883, OL 7225611M – arranged by number, title, author (Ainsworth, Dickens, Lytton, Scott, etc ), and theme (nautical, dumb hero, ghost, Irish, Scotch, military, temperance, fairy, equestrian, etc )

Fiction
George W  M  Reynolds  Mysteries of the Court of London 
Dicks' English Novels (series); numbered list
Dicks' English Library of Standard Works (series) Dicks' English Library of Standard Works, v 33 (via British Library on Flickr)
WorldCat  Dicks' English Library of Standard Works (series)
Dicks' Celebrated Works (series); numbered list

Periodicals
Bow Bells: A Weekly Magazine of General Literature and Art, 1862, pp  83 v – authors included George Manville Fenn, George Augustus SalaFashion plate, 1865
Fashion plates, 1870s
Reynolds' Miscellany
Halfpenny Gazette, 1861–1865
Every Week, 1869–1896
Penny Illustrated Weekly News
Fiction, edited by Eliza Winstanley – weekly

Catalogues
Shakespeare, William (c  1860s), List of Books Published by John Dicks
John Dicks' Catalogue, 1874, OCLC 500243028
Passage 4:
Havelock Ellis
Henry Havelock Ellis (2 February 1859 – 8 July 1939) was an English physician, eugenicist, writer, progressive intellectual and social reformer who studied human sexuality  He co-wrote the first medical textbook in English on homosexuality in 1897, and also published works on a variety of sexual practices and inclinations, as well as on transgender psychology  He developed the notions of narcissism and autoeroticism, later adopted by psychoanalysis 
Ellis was among the pioneering investigators of psychedelic drugs and the author of one of the first written reports to the public about an experience with mescaline, which he conducted on himself in 1896  He supported eugenics and served as one of 16 vice-presidents of the Eugenics Society from 1909 to 1912 

Early life and career
Ellis, son of Edward Peppen Ellis and Susannah Mary Wheatley, was born in Croydon, Surrey (now part of Greater London)  He had four sisters, none of whom married  His father was a sea captain and an Anglican, while his mother was the daughter of a sea captain who had many other relatives that lived on or near the sea  When he was seven his father took him on one of his voyages, during which they called at Sydney, Australia; Callao, Peru; and Antwerp, Belgium  After his return, Ellis attended the French and German College near Wimbledon, and afterward attended a school in Mitcham 
In April 1875, Ellis sailed on his father's ship for Australia; soon after his arrival in Sydney, he obtained a position as a master at a private school  After the discovery of his lack of training, he was fired and became a tutor for a family living a few miles from Carcoar, New South Wales  He spent a year there and then obtained a position as a master at a grammar school in Grafton, New South Wales  The headmaster had died and Ellis carried on at the school for that year, but was unsuccessful 
At the end of the year, he returned to Sydney and, after three months' training, was given charge of two government part-time elementary schools, one at Sparkes Creek, near Scone, New South Wales, and the other at Junction Creek  He lived at the school house on Sparkes Creek for a year  He wrote in his autobiography, "In Australia, I gained health of body, I attained peace of soul, my life task was revealed to me, I was able to decide on a professional vocation, I became an artist in literature; these five points covered the whole activity of my life in the world  Some of them I should doubtless have reached without the aid of the Australian environment, scarcely all, and most of them I could never have achieved so completely if chance had not cast me into the solitude of the Liverpool Range "

Medicine and psychology
Ellis returned to England in April 1879  He had decided to take up the study of sex and felt his first step must be to qualify as a physician  He studied at St Thomas's Hospital Medical School, now part of King's College London, but never had a regular medical practice  His training was aided by a small legacy and also income earned from editing works in the Mermaid Series of lesser known Elizabethan and Jacobean drama  He joined The Fellowship of the New Life in 1883, meeting other social reformers Eleanor Marx, Edward Carpenter and George Bernard Shaw 
The 1897 English translation of Ellis's book Sexual Inversion, co-authored with John Addington Symonds and originally published in German in 1896, was the first English medical textbook on homosexuality  It describes male homosexual relations as well as adolescent rape  Ellis wrote the first objective study of homosexuality, as he did not characterise it as a disease, immoral, or a crime  The work assumes that same-sex love transcended age taboos as well as gender taboo  The work also uses the term bisexual throughout The first edition of the book was bought-out by the executor of Symond's estate, who forbade any mention of Symonds in the second edition In 1897 a bookseller was prosecuted for stocking Ellis's book  Although the term homosexual is attributed to Ellis, he wrote in 1897, "'Homosexual' is a barbarously hybrid word, and I claim no responsibility for it " In fact, the word homosexual was coined in 1868 by the Hungarian author Karl-Maria Kertbeny Ellis may have developed psychological concepts of autoeroticism and narcissism, both of which were later developed further by Sigmund Freud  Ellis's influence may have reached Radclyffe Hall, who would have been about 17 years old at the time Sexual Inversion was published  She later referred to herself as a sexual invert and wrote of female "sexual inverts" in Miss Ogilvy Finds Herself and The Well of Loneliness  When Ellis bowed out as the star witness in the trial of The Well of Loneliness on 14 May 1928, Norman Haire was set to replace him but no witnesses were called 

Eonism
Ellis studied what today are called transgender phenomena  Together with Magnus Hirschfeld, Havelock Ellis is considered a major figure in the history of sexology to establish a new category that was separate and distinct from homosexuality  Aware of Hirschfeld's studies of transvestism, but disagreeing with his terminology, in 1913 Ellis proposed the term sexo-aesthetic inversion to describe the phenomenon  In 1920 he coined the term eonism, which he derived from the name of a historical figure, the Chevalier d'Éon  Ellis explained:
On the psychic side, as I view it, the Eonist is embodying, in an extreme degree, the aesthetic attitude of imitation of, and identification with, the admired object  It is normal for a man to identify himself with the woman he loves  The Eonist carries that identification too far, stimulated by a sensitive and feminine element in himself which is associated with a rather defective virile sexuality on what may be a neurotic basis 
Ellis found eonism to be "a remarkably common anomaly", and "next in frequency to homosexuality among sexual deviations", and categorized it as "among the transitional or intermediate forms of sexuality"  As in the Freudian tradition, Ellis postulated that a "too close attachment to the mother" may encourage eonism, but also considered that it "probably invokes some defective endocrine balance" 

Marriage
In November 1891, at the age of 32, and reportedly still a virgin, Ellis married the English writer and proponent of women's rights Edith Lees  From the beginning, their marriage was unconventional, as Edith Lees was openly bisexual  At the end of the honeymoon, Ellis went back to his bachelor rooms in Paddington  She lived at Fellowship House  Their "open marriage" was the central subject in Ellis's autobiography, My Life  Ellis reportedly had an affair with Margaret Sanger According to Ellis in My Life, his friends were much amused at his being considered an expert on sex  Some knew that he reportedly suffered from impotence until the age of 60  He then discovered that he could become aroused by the sight of a woman urinating  Ellis named this "undinism"  After his wife died, Ellis formed a relationship with a French woman, Françoise Lafitte 

Eugenics
Ellis was a supporter of eugenics  He served as vice-president to the Eugenics Education Society and wrote on the subject, among others, in The Task of Social Hygiene:

Eventually, it seems evident, a general system, whether private or public, whereby all personal facts, biological and mental, normal and morbid, are duly and systematically registered, must become inevitable if we are to have a real guide as to those persons who are most fit, or most unfit to carry on the race 
The superficially sympathetic man flings a coin to the beggar; the more deeply sympathetic man builds an almshouse for him so he need no longer beg; but perhaps the most radically sympathetic of all is the man who arranges that the beggar shall not be born 
In his early writings, it was clear that Ellis concurred with the notion that there was a system of racial hierarchies, and that non-western cultures were considered to be "lower races"  Before explicitly talking about eugenic topics, he used the prevalence of homosexuality in these 'lower races' to indicate the universality of the behavior  In his work, Sexual Inversions, where Ellis presented numerous cases of homosexuality in Britain, he was always careful to mention the race of the subject and the health of the person's 'stock', which included their neuropathic conditions and the health of their parents  However, Ellis was clear to assert that he did not feel that homosexuality was an issue that eugenics needed to actively deal with, as he felt that once the practice was accepted in society, those with homosexual tendencies would comfortably choose not to marry, and thus would cease to pass the 'homosexual heredity' along In a debate in the Sociological Society, Ellis corresponded with the eugenicist Francis Galton, who was presenting a paper in support of marriage restrictions  While Galton analogized eugenics to breeding domesticated animals, Ellis felt that a greater sense of caution was needed before applying the eugenic regulations to populations, as "we have scarcely yet realized how subtle and far-reaching hereditary influences are " Instead, because unlike domesticated animals, humans were in charge of who they mated with, Ellis argued that a greater emphasis was needed on public education about how vital this issue was  Ellis thus held much more moderate views than many contemporary eugenicists  In fact, Ellis also fundamentally disagreed with Galton's leading ideas that procreation restrictions were the same as marriage restrictions  Ellis believed that those who should not procreate should still be able to gain all the other benefits of marriage, and to not allow that was an intolerable burden  This, in his mind, was what led to eugenics being "misunderstood, ridiculed, and regarded as a fad" Throughout his life, Ellis was both a member and later a council member of the Eugenics Society  Moreover, he played a role on the General Committee of the First International Eugenics Congress 

Sexual impulse in youth
Ellis' 1933 book, Psychology of Sex, is one of the many manifestations of his interest in human sexuality  In this book, he goes into vivid detail of how children can experience sexuality differently in terms of time and intensity  He mentions that it was previously believed that, in childhood, humans had no sex impulse at all  "If it is possible to maintain that the sex impulse has no normal existence in early life, then every manifestation of it at that period must be 'perverse,'" he adds 
He continues by stating that, even in the early development and lower functional levels of the genitalia, there is a wide range of variation in terms of sexual stimulation  He claims that the ability of some infants producing genital reactions, seen as "reflex signs of irritation" are typically not vividly remembered  Since the details of these manifestations are not remembered, there is no possible way to determine them as pleasurable  However, Ellis claims that many people of both sexes can recall having agreeable sensations with the genitalia as a child  "They are not (as is sometimes imagined) repressed " They are, however, not usually mentioned to adults  Ellis argues that they typically stand out and are remembered for the sole contrast of the intense encounter to any other ordinary experience Ellis claims that sexual self-excitement is known to happen at an early age  He references authors like Marc, Fonssagrives, and Perez in France, who published their findings in the nineteenth century  These "early ages" are not strictly limited to ages close to puberty, as can be seen in their findings  These authors provide cases for children of both sexes who have masturbated from the age of three or four  Ellis references Robie's findings that boys' first sex feelings appear between the ages of five and fourteen  For girls, this age ranges from eight to nineteen 
For both sexes, these first sexual experiences arise more frequently during the later years as opposed to the earlier years  Ellis then references G V  Hamilton's studies that found twenty percent of males and fourteen percent of females have pleasurable experiences with their sex organs before the age of six  This is only supplemented by Ellis' reference to Katharine Davis' studies, which found that twenty to twenty-nine percent of boys and forty-nine to fifty-one percent of girls were masturbating by the age of eleven  However, in the next three years after, boys' percentages exceeded those of girls 
Ellis also contributed to the idea of varying levels of sexual excitation  He asserts it is a mistake to assume all children are able to experience genital arousal or pleasurable erotic sensations  He proposes cases where an innocent child is led to believe that stimulation of the genitalia will result in a pleasurable erection  Some of these children may fail and not be able to experience this, either pleasure or an erection, until puberty  Ellis concludes, then, that children are capable of a "wide range of genital and sexual aptitude"  Ellis even considers ancestry as a contributions to different sexual excitation levels, stating that children of "more unsound heredity" and/or hypersexual parents are "more precociously excitable" 

Auto-eroticism
Ellis' views of auto-eroticism were very comprehensive, including much more than masturbation  Auto-eroticism, according to Ellis, includes a wide range of phenomena  Ellis states in his 1897 book Studies in the Psychology of Sex, that auto-eroticism ranges from erotic day-dreams, marked by a passivity shown by the subject, to "unshamed efforts at sexual self-manipulation witnessed among the insane" Ellis also argues that auto-erotic impulses can be heightened by bodily processes like menstrual flow  During this time, he says, women, who would otherwise not feel a strong propensity for auto-eroticism, increase their masturbation patterns  This trend is absent, however, in women without a conscious acceptance of their sexual feelings and in a small percentage of women suffering from a sexual or general ailment which result in a significant amount of "sexual anesthesia" Ellis also raises social concern over how auto-erotic tendencies affect marriages  He goes on to tying auto-eroticism to declining marriage rates  As these rates decline, he concludes that auto-eroticism will only increase in both amount and intensity for both men and women  Therefore, he states, this is an important issue to both the moralist and physician to investigate psychological underpinnings of these experiences and determine an attitude toward them 

Smell
Ellis believed that the sense of smell, although ineffective at long ranges, still contributes to sexual attraction, and therefore, to mate selection  In his 1905 book, Sexual selection in man, Ellis makes a claim for the sense of smell in the role of sexual selection  He asserts that while we have evolved out of a great necessity for the sense of smell, we still rely on our sense of smell with sexual selection  The contributions that smell makes in sexual attraction can even be heightened with certain climates  Ellis states that with warmer climates come a heightened sensitivity to sexual and other positive feelings of smell among normal populations  Because of this, he believes people are often delighted by odors in the East, particularly in India, in "Hebrew and Mohammedan lands"  Ellis then continues by describing the distinct odours in various races, noting that the Japanese race has the least intense of bodily odours  Ellis concludes his argument by stating, "On the whole, it may be said that in the usual life of man odours play a not inconsiderable part and raise problems which are not without interest, but that their demonstrable part in actual sexual selection is comparatively small "

Views on women and birth control
Ellis favoured feminism from a eugenic perspective, feeling that the enhanced social, economic, and sexual choices that feminism provided for women would result in women choosing partners who were more eugenically sound  In his view, intelligent women would not choose, nor be forced to marry and procreate with feeble-minded men 
Ellis viewed birth control as merely the continuation of an evolutionary progression, noting that natural progress has always consisted of increasing impediments to reproduction, which lead to a lower quantity of offspring, but a much higher quality of them  From a eugenic perspective, birth control was an invaluable instrument for the elevation of the race  However, Ellis noted that birth control could not be used randomly in a way that could have a detrimental impact by reducing conception, but rather needed to be used in a targeted manner to improve the qualities of certain 'stocks'  He observed that it was the 'superior stocks' who had knowledge of and used birth control while the 'inferior stocks' propagated without checks  Ellis's solution to this was a focus on contraceptives in education, as this would disseminate the knowledge in the populations that he felt needed them the most  Ellis argued that birth control was the only available way of making eugenic selection practicable, as the only other option was wide-scale abstention from intercourse for those who were 'unfit' 

Views on sterilization
Ellis was strongly opposed to the idea of castration of either sex for eugenic purposes  In 1909, regulations were introduced at the Cantonal Asylum in Bern which allowed those deemed 'unfit' or with strong sexual inclinations to be subject to mandatory sterilization  In a particular instance, several men and women, including epileptics and pedophiles, were castrated, some of whom voluntarily requested it  While the results were positive, in that none of the subjects were found guilty of any more sexual offences, Ellis remained staunchly opposed to the practice  His view on the origin of these inclinations was that sexual impulses do not reside in the sexual organs, but rather they persist in the brain  Moreover, he posited that the sexual glands provided an important source of internal secretions vital for the functioning of the organism, and thus the glands' removal could greatly injure the patient However, already in his time, Ellis was witness to the rise of vasectomies and ligatures of the Fallopian tubes, which performed the same sterilization without removing the whole organ  In these cases, Ellis was much more favorable, yet still maintaining that "sterilization of the unfit, if it is to be a practical and humane measure commanding general approval, must be voluntary on the part of the person undergoing it, and never compulsory " His opposition to such a system was not only rooted in morality  Rather, Ellis also considered the practicality of the situation, hypothesizing that if an already mentally unfit man is forced to undergo sterilization, he would only become more ill-balanced, and would end up committing more anti-social acts 
Though Ellis was never at ease with the idea of forced sterilizations, he was willing to find ways to circumvent that restriction  His focus was on the social ends of eugenics, and as a means to it, Ellis was in no way against 'persuading' 'volunteers' to undergo sterilization by withdrawing Poor Relief from them  While he preferred to convince those he deemed unfit using education, Ellis supported coercion as a tool  Furthermore, he supported adding ideas about eugenics and birth control to the education system in order to restructure society, and to promote social hygiene  For Ellis, sterilization seemed to be the only eugenic instrument that could be used on the mentally unfit  In fact, in his publication The Sterilization of the Unfit, Ellis argued that even institutionalization could not guarantee the complete prevention of procreation between the unfit, and thus, "the burdens of society, to say nothing of the race, are being multiplied  It is not possible to view sterilization with enthusiasm when applied to any class of people…but what, I ask myself, is the practical alternative?"

Psychedelics
Ellis was among the pioneering investigators of psychedelic drugs and the author of one of the first written reports to the public about an experience with mescaline, which he conducted on himself in 1896  He consumed a brew made of three Lophophora williamsii buds in the afternoon of Good Friday alone in his set of rooms in Temple, London  During the experience, lasting for about 24 hours, he noted a plethora of extremely vivid, complex, colourful, pleasantly smelling hallucinations, consisting both of abstract geometrical patterns and objects such as butterflies and other insects  He published the account of the experience in The Contemporary Review in 1898 (Mescal: A New Artificial Paradise)  The title of the article alludes to an earlier work on the effects of mind-altering substances, an 1860 book Les Paradis artificiels by French poet Charles Baudelaire (containing descriptions of experiments with opium and hashish) 
Ellis was so impressed with the aesthetic quality of the experience that he gave some specimens of peyote to the Irish poet W B  Yeats, a member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, an organisation of which another mescaline researcher, Aleister Crowley, was also a member 

Later life and death
Ellis resigned from his position as a Fellow of the Eugenics Society over its stance on sterilization in January 1931 Ellis spent the last year of his life at Hintlesham, Suffolk, where he died in July 1939  His ashes were scattered at Golders Green Crematorium, North London, following his cremation 

Works
The Criminal (1890)
The New Spirit (1890)
The Nationalisation of Health (1892)
Man and Woman: A Study of Secondary and Tertiary Sexual Characteristics (1894) (revised 1929)
Das konträre Geschlechtsgefühl (in German)  Leipzig: Wigand  1896  p  1  with J A  Symonds
Studies in the Psychology of Sex (1897–1928) six volumes (listed below)
Studies in the Psychology of Sex  Vol  1 The Evolution of Modesty, The Phenomena of Sexual Periodicity, Auto–Erotism  1897 
Affirmations (1898)
"Mescal: A New Artificial Paradise"  The Contemporary Review  LXXIII  1898 
The Nineteenth Century (1900)
Studies in the Psychology of Sex  Vol  2 Sexual Inversion  1900 
Studies in the Psychology of Sex  Vol  3 Analysis of the Sexual Impulse, Love and Pain, The Sexual Impulse in Women  1903 
A Study of British Genius (1904)
Studies in the Psychology of Sex  Vol  4 Sexual Selection in Man  1905 
Studies in the Psychology of Sex  Vol  5 Erotic Symbolism, The Mechanism of Detumescence, The Psychic State in Pregnancy  1906 
The Soul of Spain (1908)
"The sterilisation of the unfit"  The Eugenics Review  1 (3): 203–06  1909  PMC 2986668  PMID 21259474 
Studies in the Psychology of Sex  Vol  6 Sex in Relation to Society  1910 
The Problem of Race-Regeneration (1911)
The World of Dreams (1911) (new edition 1926)
The task of social hygiene  New York  1912  p  10 
"Birth control and eugenics"  The Eugenics Review  9 (1): 32–41  1917  PMC 2942166  PMID 21259632 
The Task of Social Hygiene (1912)
Essays in War-Time  February 2006 
The Philosophy of Conflict (1919)
On Life and Sex: Essays of Love and Virtue (1921)
Kanga Creek: an Australian Idyll  The Golden Cockerel press  1922 
Little Essays of Love and Virtue (1922)
The Dance of Life  1923 
Impressions and Comments  Vol  3  1924 
Sonnets, with Folk Songs from the Spanish (1925)
Eonism and Other Supplementary Studies (1928)
Studies in the Psychology of Sex Vol  7 (1928)
The Art of Life (1929) (selected and arranged by Mrs  S  Herbert)
More Essays of Love and Virtue (1931)
ed : James Hinton: Life in Nature (1931)
Views and Reviews  1932 
Psychology of Sex  1933 
ed : Imaginary Conversations and Poems: A Selection, by Walter Savage Landor (1933)
Chapman (1934)
My Confessional (1934)
Questions of Our Day (1934)
From Rousseau to Proust (1935)
Selected Essays (1936)
Poems (1937) (selected by John Gawsworth; pseudonym of T  Fytton Armstrong)
Love and Marriage (1938) (with others)
My life  Houghton Mufflin  1939 
Sex Compatibility in Marriage (1939)
From Marlowe to Shaw (1950) (ed  by J  Gawsworth)
The Genius of Europe (1950)
Sex and Marriage (1951) (ed  by J  Gawsworth)
The Unpublished Letters of Havelock Ellis to Joseph Ishill (1954)

Translations
Germinal (by Zola) (1895) (reissued 1933)
The Psychology of the Emotions by Théodule-Armand Ribot (1897)



ground_truth: Leucippus

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Havelock Ellis and Arnold Bennett were both what?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: Passage 1:
Red Branch (novel)
Red Branch (ISBN 080410591X, 1989), by the Irish-American author Morgan Llywelyn, is a novel about the life of the Irish hero Cú Chulainn   Red Branch novelizes several stories from the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology, including the well-known Táin Bó Cúailnge (Cattle Raid of Cooley) and Deirdre (of the Sorrows) 
Passage 2:
Robert Jordan
James Oliver Rigney Jr  (October 17, 1948 – September 16, 2007), better known by his pen name Robert Jordan, was an American author of epic fantasy  He is known best for his series  The Wheel of Time (finished by Brandon Sanderson after Jordan's death) which comprises 14 books and a prequel novel  He is one of several writers to have written original Conan the Barbarian novels; his are considered by fans to be some of the best of the non-Robert E  Howard efforts  Jordan also published historical fiction using the pseudonym Reagan O'Neal, a western as Jackson O'Reilly, and dance criticism as Chang Lung  Jordan claimed to have ghostwritten an "international thriller" that is still believed to have been written by someone else 

Early life
Jordan was born in Charleston, South Carolina  He went to Clemson University after high school, but dropped out after one year and enlisted in the U S  Army  He served two tours of duty during the Vietnam War as a helicopter gunner  He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross with oak leaf cluster, the Bronze Star with "V" and oak leaf cluster, and two Vietnamese Gallantry Crosses with palm After returning from Vietnam in 1970, Jordan studied physics at The Citadel  He graduated in 1974 with a Bachelor of Science degree and began working for the U S  Navy as a nuclear engineer  He began writing in 1977 

Personal life
Robert Jordan was a history buff and enjoyed hunting, fishing, sailing, poker, chess, pool, and pipe-collecting  He described himself as a "High church" Episcopalian and received communion more than once a week  Politically, he described himself as a "libertarian monarchist"  He lived with his wife, Harriet McDougal, who works as a book editor (currently with Tor Books; she was also Jordan's editor) in a house built in 1797  He listed John D  MacDonald, Jane Austen, Louis L'Amour, Charles Dickens, Robert A  Heinlein, Mark Twain and Montaigne as his favorite authors 

Illness and death
On March 23, 2006, Jordan disclosed that he had been diagnosed with cardiac amyloidosis and that, with treatment, his median life expectancy was four years  In a separate weblog post, he encouraged his fans not to worry about him and stated that he intended to have a long and creative life He began chemotherapy at Mayo Clinic during early April 2006  He participated in a study of the drug Revlimid, which had been approved recently for multiple myeloma but not yet tested for primary amyloidosis Jordan died on September 16, 2007, from complications stemming from Multiple Myeloma  His funeral service was on September 19, 2007  He was cremated and his ashes buried in the churchyard of St  James Church in Goose Creek, outside Charleston, South Carolina Jordan's papers can be found in the special collections of the College of Charleston 

Selected works
The Wheel of Time
Jordan published 11 books of 14 in the main sequence of the Wheel of Time series  Reviewers and fans of the earlier books noted a slowing of the pace of events in the last few installments written solely by Jordan owing to the expansion of the scale of the series as a whole  Because of his health problems, Jordan did not work at full force on the final installment A Memory of Light (later split into three volumes beginning with The Gathering Storm), but blog entries confirmed that he continued work on it until his death, and he shared all of the significant plot details with his family not long before he died  He maintained that in doing so the book would get published even if "the worst actually happens"  On December 7, 2007, Tor Books announced that Brandon Sanderson had been chosen to finish the Wheel of Time series  Harriet McDougal, Jordan's widow, chose him after reading Mistborn: The Final Empire 
All paperback (PB) page totals given are for the most widely available mass-market paperback editions  The page count for the hardback (HB) editions does not include glossary or appendix page counts 
The World of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time is an encyclopedia for the series about the unnamed world where the plot takes place, which is often referred to by fans of the series as the World of the Wheel  It is published in the United States by Tor Books and in the United Kingdom by Orbit Books  The bulk of the text was written by Teresa Patterson based on notes and information provided by Jordan, who also served as the overall editor on the project  While the information in the guide is broadly canonical, the book is deliberately written with vague, biased, or even downright false (or guessed) information in places, as Patterson felt this would reflect a key theme of the series (the mutability of knowledge across time and distance) 

Conan the Barbarian
Jordan was one of several writers who has written Conan the Barbarian stories  When Tom Doherty obtained the rights, he needed a novel very quickly, so Jordan's wife Harriet McDougal recommended him because she knew he had written his first novel, Warriors of the Altaii, in thirteen days 

So he thought I could write something fast, and he was right, and I liked it  It was fun writing something completely over the top, full of purple prose, and in a weak moment I agreed to do five more and the novelization of the second Conan movie  I've decided that those things were very good discipline for me  I had to work with a character and a world that had already been created and yet find a way to say something new about the character and the world  That was a very good exercise 
Conan the Invincible (1982)
Conan the Defender (1982)
Conan the Unconquered (1983)
Conan the Triumphant (1983)
Conan the Magnificent (1984)
Conan the Destroyer (1984) (adaptation of the movie of the same title)
Conan the Victorious (1984)They were packed into two separate volumes par Conan the Destroyer:

The Conan Chronicles
The Further Chronicles of Conan (The Conan Chronicles II in the UK, different contents)Jordan also compiled a well-known Conan Chronology 
Passage 3:
Lion of Ireland
Lion of Ireland, by the American-Irish author Morgan Llywelyn, is a novel about the life of the Irish hero and High King Brian Boru 

Plot summary
The story begins with Brian as a child of around 8 or 9 and it ends with him as an 88-year-old man  The book shows his rise to power and his struggle to maintain it  His personal life is an important part of the plot, because Brian's war against Máel Mórda (leader of the Leinstermen) and Sihtric (king of Dublin) was to be inextricably connected with his complicated marital relations, in particular his marriage to Gormlaith, Máel Mórda's sister and Sihtric's mother, who had been in turn the wife of Amlaíb Cuarán, king of Dublin and York, then of Máel Sechnaill  Even though the book is based on a historical figure, most of it is fiction 

Film adaptation
In 2003, Ireland based RiverFilms proposed a film adaptation of the book as Braveheart and El Cid meet The Vikings On March 4, 2019, it was announced in Deadline that a new movie adaptation was in the works  The series would be created by Irish author Michael Scott  The article was subsequently picked up the Sunday Times, and Irish Central who listed both Scott and BCDF Pictures as producers 
Passage 4:
List of locations in The Wheel of Time
The Wheel of Time is a series of high fantasy novels by American author Robert Jordan, with Brandon Sanderson as a co-author for the final three novels  Originally planned as a six-book series at its debut in 1990, The Wheel of Time came to span 14 volumes, in addition to a prequel novel and two companion books  Jordan died in 2007 while working on what was planned to be the final volume in the series  He prepared extensive notes which enabled fellow fantasy author Brandon Sanderson to complete the final book, which grew into three volumes: The Gathering Storm (2009), Towers of Midnight (2010), and A Memory of Light (2013) 
The series draws on numerous elements of both European and Asian mythology, most notably the cyclical nature of time found in Buddhism and Hinduism; the metaphysical concepts of balance, duality, and a respect for nature found in Taoism; the Abrahamic concepts of God and Satan; and Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace The Wheel of Time is notable for its length, detailed imaginary world, and magic system, and its large cast of characters  The eighth through fourteenth books each reached number one on the New York Times Best Seller list  After its completion, the series was nominated for a Hugo Award  As of 2021, the series has sold over 90 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling epic fantasy series since The Lord of the Rings  Its popularity has spawned a collectible card game, a video game, a roleplaying game, and a soundtrack album  A TV series adaptation produced by Sony Pictures and Amazon Studios premiered in 2021 

Setting
The series is set in a future unnamed world and that, due to the cyclical nature of time as depicted in the series, is simultaneously the distant past and the distant future Earth  Fans have come to refer to this world as Randland (from the name of the central character) or the World of the Wheel (cf  a section of the companion book The World of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time) 

Premise
At the dawn of time, a deity known as the Creator forged the universe and the Wheel of Time, which spins the Pattern of the Ages using the lives of men and women as its threads  The Wheel has seven spokes, each representing an age, and it is rotated by the One Power, which flows from the True Source  The One Power is divided into male and female halves, saidin and saidar, which work in opposition and in unison to drive the Wheel  Humans who can use its power are known as channelers; their principal organization is called the Aes Sedai or "Servants of All" in the Old Tongue 
The Creator imprisoned its antithesis, "Shai'tan", the Dark One, at the moment of creation, sealing him away from the Wheel  However, in a time called the Age of Legends, an Aes Sedai experiment inadvertently breached the Dark One's prison, allowing his influence to seep back into the world  He rallied the proud, the corrupt, and the ambitious to his cause and these servants began an effort to fully free the Dark One from his prison, so he might remake time and reality in his own image  In response to this threat, the Wheel spun out the Dragon, a channeler of immense power, to be a champion for the Light  In the Age of Legends, the Dragon was a man named Lews Therin Telamon, who eventually rose to command the Aes Sedai and their allies in the struggle against the Dark One's forces  After a grueling 10-year war, Lews Therin led his forces to victory in a daring assault on the volcano of Shayol Ghul (the site of the earthly link to the Dark One's prison) and was able to reseal the prison  However, at the moment of victory, the Dark One was able to taint saidin, driving male channelers of the One Power insane  Lews Therin killed his friends and family and then, by intentionally overloading himself with the One Power, killed himself  The other male channelers devastated the world with the One Power, unleashing earthquakes and tidal waves that reshaped the world  Eventually, the last male channeler was killed or cut off from the One Power, leaving the human race all but destroyed and only women able to wield the One Power safely  The Aes Sedai reconstituted and guided humanity out of this dark time  Mankind now lived under the shadow of a prophecy that the Dark One would break free from his prison and the Dragon would be reborn to fight him once more, and although he is humanity's only hope against the Dark One, he would devastate the world a second time in the process 
After a span of three thousand years, the human race has rebuilt a level of technology roughly comparable to that of the Late Middle Ages or Early Modern Era, though with a higher level of general education and understanding of hygiene and anatomy, but nevertheless an almost complete lack of formal science, industrial production, and academic institutions  This can be traced to the post-apocalyptic nature of the world, where much knowledge has survived, but the structures and institutions that made that knowledge possible were destroyed  One major difference from our history is that women enjoy full equality with men in most societies, and are superior in some  This is attributed to the power and prestige of the female-only Aes Sedai influencing the larger society 
Several major wars have ravaged the main continent since the defeat of the Dark One, such as the Trolloc Wars, when the surviving servants of the Dark One tried to destroy civilization once more but were defeated by an alliance of nations led by the Aes Sedai; and the War of the Hundred Years, a devastating civil war that followed the fall of a continent-spanning empire ruled by the high king, Artur Hawkwing  These wars have prevented the human race from regaining the power and high technology of the Age of Legends and also left humanity divided  Even the prestige of the Aes Sedai has fallen, with their shrinking numbers and the emergence of rival organizations such as the Children of the Light, a military order who believe that all who channel the One Power are servants of the Shadow  The nations of the modern era are able to unite in defense against the warrior-clans of the Aiel, who cross into the western kingdoms on a mission of vengeance after they suffer a grievous insult, but are too divided to work effectively together in other areas 

Plot summary
The prequel novel, New Spring, takes place during the Aiel War and chronicles the end of the conflict  The Aes Sedai discover that the Prophecies of the Dragon have been fulfilled and the Dragon has been Reborn  Aes Sedai agents are dispatched to try to find the newborn child before servants of the Shadow can do the same 
The series proper commences almost 20 years later in the Two Rivers district of the kingdom of Andor, a near-forgotten backwater place  A young sheep herder named Rand al’Thor (the series protagonist) and his father Tam al’Thor travel to the nearby town of Emond's Field to deliver cider  Rand, keen to further explore his romance with the mayor's daughter, Egwene al’Vere, becomes caught up with an Aes Sedai called Moiraine Damodred, and her Warder, Lan, after his father sustains a serious wound  Rand and his friends, Matrim "Mat" Cauthon and Perrin Aybara discover from Moiraine that servants of the Dark One are searching for one particular young man living in the area  Unfortunately, Moiraine is unable to determine which of three men it is: Rand himself, Mat, or Perrin, and so takes all three of them out of the Two Rivers district along with his romantic interest Egwene (whom Moiraine has determined can channel the One Power and would teach to be Aes Sedai) and the village "Wisdom" (a local healer) Nynaeve al'Meara after a terrible battle with creatures created by The Dark One  The first novel depicts their flight from various agents of the Shadow and their attempts to escape to the Aes Sedai city of Tar Valon 
From then, the story expands and protagonist Rand, as well as the other characters, are frequently split into different groups, pursuing different missions or agendas aimed at furthering the cause of the Dragon Reborn, sometimes thousands of miles apart  Broadly speaking, the original group of characters from the Two Rivers make new allies, gain experience, and become figures of some influence and authority  As they struggle to unite the western kingdoms against the Dark One's forces, their task is complicated by rulers of the nations who refuse to give up their authority and by factions such as the Children of the Light, who do not believe in the prophecies, and the Seanchan, the people of a long-lost colony of Artur Hawkwing's empire across the western ocean who have returned, believing it is their destiny to conquer the world  The Aes Sedai also become divided between those who believe the Dragon Reborn should be strictly controlled and those who believe he must lead them into battle as he did in the earlier war  As the story expands, new characters representing different factions are introduced; although this expansion of the narrative allows the sheer scale of the growing struggle to be effectively depicted, it has been criticized for slowing the pace of the novels and sometimes reducing the appearances of the original or main cast to extended cameos 
By the sixth novel, it has become clear that the Last Battle, caused when the Dark One is able to exert its influence directly on the world once more, is imminent, as only three Seals (keys to the Dark One's prison) are intact  Once the remaining Seals break, the Dark One will be free to touch the world  The Last Battle, Tarmon Gai'don, is depicted in the fourteenth and final novel in the series, A Memory of Light 

Books in the series
All paperback (PB) page totals given are for the most widely available mass-market paperback editions  The page count for the hardback (HB) editions does not include a glossary or appendix, page counts 
In 2002 the first book, The Eye of the World, was repackaged as two volumes with new illustrations for younger readers: From the Two Rivers, including an extra chapter (Ravens) before the existing prologue, and To the Blight with an expanded glossary  In 2004 the same was done with The Great Hunt, with the two parts being The Hunt Begins and New Threads in the Pattern 

Prologue eBooks
On several occasions, chapters from various books in the series were released several months in advance of publication  These were released in eBook format as promotional tools for the then-upcoming release 
The prologue eBook releases included:

Snow: The Prologue to Winter's Heart (September 2000)
Glimmers: The Prologue to Crossroads of Twilight (July 17, 2002)
Embers Falling on Dry Grass: The Prologue to Knife of Dreams (July 22, 2005) 
What the Storm Means: The Prologue to The Gathering Storm (September 17, 2009) 
Chapter 1 of The Gathering Storm, Tears from Steel, was released free on Friday September 4, 2009 on Tor com
Chapter 2 of The Gathering Storm, The Nature of Pain, was released in Audio form free on Thursday September 24, 2009 on Tor com
Distinctions: The Prologue to Towers of Midnight (Tuesday September 21, 2010) 
Chapter 1 of Towers of Midnight, Apples First, was released free on Friday October 1, 2010 on Tor com
Chapter 2 of Towers of Midnight, Questions of Leadership was released in Audio form free on Tuesday October 19, 2010
Chapter 8 of Towers of Midnight, The Seven-Striped Lass (on September 16, 2010, Chapter 8, The Seven-Striped Lass, was revealed as part of The Great Hunt scavenger hunt setup by Brandon on his website beginning August 30, 2010 in relation to his new book: The Way of Kings) 
By Grace And Banners Fallen: The Prologue to A Memory Of Light (Wednesday September 19, 2012) 
A segment of chapter 1 of A Memory Of Light was released in mid-2012 on Dragonmount com
A segment of chapter 11 of A Memory Of Light was similarly released publicly in mid-2012 on Dragonmount com

Short stories
Jordan wrote two short stories within the franchise in the late 1990s  The first, The Strike at Shayol Ghul, predates the main series by several thousand years  It was made available on the Internet and was later published in The World of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time  Jordan also wrote a short story entitled New Spring, for the 1998 Legends anthology edited by Robert Silverberg  Jordan later expanded this into the stand-alone novel New Spring that was published in January 2004 
During Brandon Sanderson's work on A Memory of Light, two sections of the book were cut and later published as short stories in anthologies  The first, River of Souls, was published in Unfettered: Tales by Masters of Fantasy (2013)  The second, A Fire Within the Ways was published in Unfettered III in 2019  Unlike "River of Souls", "A Fire Within the Ways" is not considered canon 

Encyclopedic works
Tor Books published a companion book to the series, entitled The World of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time, in November 1997, which contains much hitherto unrevealed background information about the series including the first maps of the entire world and the Seanchan home continent  Jordan co-authored the book with Teresa Patterson  Jordan ruled the book broadly canonical but stated that it was written from the perspective of an historian within The Wheel of Time universe and was prone to errors of bias and guesswork On November 3, 2015, The Wheel of Time Companion: The People, Places, and History of the Bestselling Series was released in hardback format, written by Harriet McDougal, Alan Romanczuk, and Maria Simons from Tor Books  Alan Romanczuk and Maria Simons were Robert Jordan's editorial assistants  The book is an encapsulating glossary of the entire series  The authors began compiling material for the volume as early as 2005, and the final book was released after the series' conclusion Origins of The Wheel of Time by Michael Livingston was released on November 8, 2022 

Development
Writing and conception
The novel proved extremely difficult to write because characters and storylines changed considerably during the writing process  The series was originally centered on an older man who discovered relatively late in life that he was the 'chosen one' who had to save the world  However, Jordan deliberately decided to move closer to the tone and style of J  R  R  Tolkien's The Fellowship of the Ring and made the characters younger and less experienced  Once this decision had been made, writing proceeded much more easily and Jordan completed the second volume, The Great Hunt, at roughly the same time the first book was published Jordan wrote full-time at breakneck speed for the next several years until he completed the seventh volume, A Crown of Swords, at which point he slowed down, delivering a book every two years  Fans objected when he took some time off to expand a short story into a prequel novel called New Spring, so he decided to shelve his plans for additional prequels in favor of finishing off the last two volumes in the series  He rejected criticisms of the later volumes of the series slowing down in pace in order to concentrate on minor secondary characters at the expense of the main characters from the opening volumes but acknowledged that his structure for the tenth volume, Crossroads of Twilight (where he showed a major scene from the prior book, Winter's Heart, from the perspective of the main characters that were not involved in the scene), had not worked out as he had planned  Knife of Dreams, the eleventh volume, had a much more positive reception from critics and fans alike and Jordan announced the twelfth volume, which he had previously announced would have the working title A Memory of Light, would conclude the series  According to Forbes, Jordan had intended for it to be the final book "even if it reaches 2,000 pages "

Jordan's death, and completion by Sanderson
Jordan was diagnosed with the terminal heart disease primary amyloidosis with cardiomyopathy in December 2005, and while he intended to finish at least A Memory of Light even if the "worse comes to worst," he made preparations in case he was not able to complete the book: "I'm getting out notes, so if the worst actually happens, someone could finish A Memory of Light and have it end the way I want it to end "With Jordan's death on September 16, 2007, the conclusion of the series was in question  On December 7, of that year the publisher Tor Books announced that fantasy author Brandon Sanderson was to finish A Memory of Light  Sanderson, a longtime fan of the series, was chosen by Jordan's widow Harriet McDougal partly because she liked Sanderson's novels and partly because of a eulogy he had written for Jordan On March 30, 2009, Tor Books announced that A Memory of Light would be split into three volumes, with Brandon Sanderson citing timing and continuity reasons  By his estimate in early 2009, the book would have taken several years to write and would have reached 800,000 words  McDougal doubted that Jordan could have concluded it in a single volume  The three volumes were published from 2009 to 2013,  as The Gathering Storm, Towers of Midnight, and A Memory of Light, with the last book using Jordan's title 

After A Memory of Light
Prior to his death, Jordan had often discussed adding an additional two prequels and an 'outrigger' sequel trilogy  In a Q&A following the release of A Memory of Light, Sanderson ruled out the completion of these works; Jordan had left very little in the way of notes for these additional novels – only two sentences in the case of the sequel trilogy Sanderson went on to release two cut portions of A Memory of Light as short stories  These were released in Unfettered anthologies, part of a charitable endeavour to support authors and artists with medical debt



ground_truth: writer

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was born first,  Morgan Llywelyn or Robert Jordan?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  River of Souls, a canonical segment removed from the published book due to pacing, was released in the first volume in 2013  A Fire in the Ways, a non-canon alternate sequence of events around the climax of the final book, was included in the third volume in 2019  A glossary to the series, The Wheel of Time Companion was released in 2015 

Themes and influences
The Wheel of Time is a novel from the modern fantasy genre, specifically high fantasy  The book is set in a world that is simultaneously the distant past and distant future of the real world, as a result of time being cyclical rather than linear  The opening of the first book establishes the concept:

The Wheel of Time turns, and Ages come and pass, leaving memories that become legend  Legend fades to myth, and even myth is long forgotten when the Age that gave it birth comes again  In one Age, called the Third Age by some, an Age yet to come, an Age long past, a wind rose   Jordan acknowledged the influence of J  R  R  Tolkien, including deliberately modelling the setting of the first chapters on the Shire in The Lord of the Rings  Concepts drawn from Abrahamic religions include the duality between good and evil and between "Creator" (Light) and Shai'tan, "The Dark One" (Shaitan is an Arabic word that, in Islamic contexts, is used as a name for the Devil or Satan)  Other influences include Arthurian legends, Norse mythology and Irish mythology, as well as real life history In addition, Jordan also drew influences from Eastern mythology, which was rare for a Western fantasy series  The concept of a wheel of time was drawn from Hinduism  Versions of the concept include the Yuga cycle in Hinduism and Kalachakra in Buddhism  The series was also influenced by the concepts of reincarnation and balance, and the symbol of the Aes Sedai resembles the yin and yang 
Fate is an important theme to the series  The series explores in great detail the implications of a common fantasy premise, in which an ordinary boy on the verge of adulthood discovers he is fated to lead a major struggle  It also deals with the divide between fate and free will  Some major characters are ta'veren, who have exceptional abilities to influence the course of history in a tumultuous period, but even they can only go so far as permitted by "The Pattern" that is being set by the Wheel of Time 
The series also featured alternative portrayals of the role of gender in society  The nature of magic in its world means that only women can safely use it  This disparity influences the power dynamics at multiple levels of its societies, including familial, communal and political levels; many of its societies are ruled by women 

Adaptations
Comic books
In 2004, Jordan sold the film, television, video game, and comic rights to the series to production company Red Eagle Entertainment  Dabel Brothers began adapting the series in comic book form, starting with the prequel New Spring in July 2005  The series initially ran on a monthly schedule, but then went on a three-year hiatus after the fifth issue  Red Eagle cited delays and changes to the creative team on the DB Pro end  The final three issues were ultimately completed and published in 2009–10 
In 2009 Dabel moved on to their adaptation of the first book of the series proper, The Eye of the World  On March 17, 2009, they showcased ten pages of art from the prelude to the series "The Wheel of Time: Eye of the World #0 – Dragonmount" on their website  Dynamite Entertainment published 35 issues of Robert Jordon's The Wheel of Time: The Eye of the World comic book series, which concluded in March 2013 When asked in a 2013 interview about whether the comics would continue their run, Harriet McDougal replied "Well, eventually, [we'll] do the whole thing, unless it stops selling in a dreadful way  In other words, I don't really know " The 43 New Spring and Eye of the World comics were later collected together and released as a series of six graphic novels, the last of which was released in February 2015 

Games
There is a Wheel of Time MUD, identified as such or by the initialism WoTMUD, which is based on a world like that of the Wheel of Time but set in a time frame around 30 world years prior   It has been in operation almost continuously since 1993  Notably, the WoTMUD had gained written permission from the author to use his creation including all but major characters A Wheel of Time computer game was released in 1999  Over the course of the game, Aes Sedai must track down a robber following an assault on the White Tower, and prevent the Dark One from being released prematurely  She eventually learns of and executes a long-forgotten ritual at Shayol Ghul to ensure the Dark Lord remains sealed within the prison  While Robert Jordan was consulted in the creation of the game, he did not write the storyline himself, and the game is not considered canon The Wheel of Time Roleplaying Game was released in 2001 from Wizards of the Coast using the d20 rules developed for the third edition of the Dungeons and Dragons game  The game had a single adventure module published in 2002, Prophecies of the Dragon  Shortly after the release of the adventure book Wizards of the Coast announced they would not be releasing any further products for the game  Robert Jordan cited some problems with the roleplaying game, such as storyline details in the adventure module that contradicted the books In early 2009 EA Games announced that they had bought the rights for a MMORPG, with the plan to publish it through the EA Partners-Program  The following year Obsidian Entertainment announced that they would be working on the project, for a PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and PC release  However, the project was seemingly dropped around 2014 

Music
In 1999, A Soundtrack for the Wheel of Time was released, featuring music by Robert Berry and inspired by the books 
The German power metal band Blind Guardian have written two songs dedicated to the Wheel of Time series as part of their 2010 album At the Edge of Time: "Ride into Obsession" and "Wheel of Time"  Swedish heavy metal band Katana also wrote a song, entitled "The Wisdom of Emond's Field", on their 2012 album Storms of War  The American power metal band Noble Beast, on their 2014 album of the same name, wrote a song entitled "The Dragon Reborn", in reference to Rand al'Thor  The American black metal band Shaidar Logoth takes its name from an adaptation of the city of Shadar Logoth, and lyrically expands on the character Padan Fain  The Austrian metal band Dragony, on their 2018 album "Masters of the Multiverse", released the song "Flame of Tar Valon", referencing the Amyrlin Seat  The Swedish metal band Freternia, on their 2019 album "The Gathering", released the song "Reborn", referencing the Dragon Reborn, Rand al'Thor  The American band Lyra wrote the song "The Sword That Could Not Be Broken", about the history of Manetheren, as well as the song "Betrayer of Hope", in reference to Ishamael  The Dread Crew of Oddwood produced the song "The Gleeman", which refers to Thom's battle with a Myrddraal in Whitebridge  The Scottish metal band Farseer, on their 2016 album "Fall Before the Dawn", released the song "Luck of the Joker", which references the most important events that happen to Matrim Cauthon during the whole series In the tradition of the literature-inspired symphonic poem, American composer Seth Stewart produced a full-scale orchestral work entitled "Age of Legends", inspired by the eponymous era of myth and magic described throughout the Wheel of Time series  The orchestral piece was premiered and recorded in 2011 at the Beall Concert Hall 

Television and film
In a 2000 chat on CNN com, Robert Jordan mentioned that NBC had purchased an option to do a miniseries of The Eye of the World  But he expressed doubts that the series would be made stating "key people involved in getting that contract together have left NBC " The series was optioned by Universal Pictures in 2008 for film adaptations, with plans to adapt The Eye of the World as the first film  Neither project ultimately emerged 
In February 2015, Red Eagle Entertainment paid air time to cable network FXX to air Winter Dragon, a  low-budget 22-minute pilot for a potential The Wheel of Time series that allowed Red Eagle to hold on to the rights to the series  The pilot, based on the prologue to The Eye of the World, starred Max Ryan as Lews Therin Thelamon and Billy Zane as Ishamael and aired after Midnight with no announcements or publicity  Harriet McDougal initially stated she was unaware of the show ahead of time, and that the film rights to The Wheel of Time were set to revert to the Bandersnatch Group, her company, a few days later on February 11, 2015  Her comments triggered a slander lawsuit with Red Eagle, which was ultimately dismissed during settlement talks that July  In an interview with io9, Red Eagle Entertainment's CEO Rick Selvage stated "it was more of an [issue of] getting it on the air "  A spokesman for FXX stated that the channel was paid to air the show, but Selvage hinted that it was indeed produced with a future series in mind  "We think there's huge demand for the television series internationally, and we're looking forward to producing it and getting it out in the marketplace "On April 29, 2016, Harriet McDougal confirmed that the legal issues had been resolved and that a TV series was in development  Further details emerged on 20 April 2017, when it was announced that Sony Pictures Television would be handling the adaptation, with Rafe Judkins as writer and executive producer  In February 2018, Amazon Studios revealed that it had struck a deal with Sony Pictures Television to co-develop the series for distribution on Amazon's video streaming service  The series was formally greenlit in October 2018  Production began in late 2019, but was hindered in part due to the COVID-19 pandemic  The series premiered on 19 November 2021 

Fan culture
Many fans of The Wheel of Time attend Dragon Con, which had an exclusive Wheel of Time content track from 2001 through 2012  The Wheel of Time now has its own annual convention, JordanCon, which has been held annually in Atlanta, Georgia, since 2009  The 2020 convention was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic  Instead, it took place over the Internet, some aspects being held through the use of the Zoom platform  The 2023 convention in April was the 15th anniversary of the founding of JordanCon 
In 2022, a new convention titled WoT Con, took place in Dublin, OH  This convention was created to be dedicated to the world of the Wheel of Time in all media aspects: novels, social media, and the television show  The second convention will take place July 14-16, 2023 
Passage 5:
The World of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time
The World of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time is an encyclopedia for the bestselling The Wheel of Time epic fantasy series of novels by Robert Jordan about the unnamed world where the plot takes place, which is often referred by fans of the series as the World of the Wheel  It is published in the United States by Tor Books and in the United Kingdom by Orbit Books  The bulk of the text was written by Teresa Patterson based on notes and information provided by Jordan, who also serves as overall editor on the project  While the information in the guide is broadly canonical, the book is deliberately written with vague, biased, or even downright false (or guessed) information in places, as Patterson felt this would reflect a key theme of the series (the mutability of knowledge across time and distance) 

Publication history
The book has been printed in several formats  The original release on 6 November 1997 was a large-format hardback with a predominantly white cover  This led to the book being dubbed 'The Big White Book' by fans  Some additional fans, citing poor quality of the internal illustrations, have dubbed the volume "The Big Book With Bad Art"  This edition of the book runs to 304 pages  The book was reprinted in a slightly different edition of the same size a year later  This edition has a different cover (a map of the Westlands) and the gallery has been expanded to include the cover of the eighth novel, The Path of Daggers, which was released at the same time  A large-format paperback edition followed in November 1999  On 6 June 2002 Orbit re-released the book as a 461-page mass-market paperback, stripped of all illustrations apart from the maps  This is the 'current' UK edition 

Description
The book is an attempt to fill in the enormous backstory of The Wheel of Time novels and also serves as 'guidebook' to the world presented in the books  The original large-editions of the book were presented with full-colour art by Todd Cameron Hamilton and includes maps by Ellisa Mitchell, John M  Ford and Thomas Canty  The covers of the novels, painted by Darrell K  Sweet, were also included  The mass-market paperback editions only include the Mitchell, Ford, and Canty maps, however  The original artwork by Hamilton was fiercely criticised on release The book consists of six sections, outlined as follows:

The Wheel and the Power: a description and explanation of The Wheel of Time, the True Source and the One Power, the relationships between the three, and how they are tapped and used 
The Age of Legends: a historical overview of the Age of Legends, the War of the Shadow and the Breaking of the World  Includes biographies and character studies of the thirteen Forsaken and information on the Friends of the Dark and Shadowspawn 
The World Since the Breaking: a historical overview of events since the Breaking, including the founding of the White Tower and the rise of the Ten Nations, the Trolloc Wars, the rise of Artur Hawkwing in the War of the Second Dragon, the colonisation of Seanchan, the War of the Hundred Years, the start of the New Era, the Whitecloak War, and the Aiel War 
Narrative Paintings: the cover artwork for the first seven (expanded to eight in later editions) novels in the series  This section is missing from mass-market paperback editions of the book 
The World of the Wheel: a gazetteer to the world of the novels, including information on Shara, Seanchan, the Aiel Waste, the Land of the Madmen, and the Ogier  A map of the whole world is shown, along with a more detailed map of Shara and the Aiel Waste, and another of the Seanchan home continent  Information on history, customs, and the Seanchan exotic animals is also included 
Within the Land: focuses on the fourteen nations and the major city-states that make up the main continent shown in the books, featuring information on holidays, prophecies, military forces, governments, trade, and the influence of the Aes Sedai 
Passage 6:
Morgan Llywelyn
Morgan Llywelyn (born December 3, 1937) is an American-Irish historical interpretation author of historical and mythological fiction and historical non-fiction  Her interpretation of mythology and history has received several awards and has sold more than 40 million copies, and she herself is recipient of the 1999 Exceptional Celtic Woman of the Year Award from Celtic Women International 

Biography
Llywelyn was born Sally Snyder in New York in 1937  She was the daughter of Joseph John (an attorney) and she attended high school in Dallas  In her teens, Llywelyn moved to the Dallas area, where she developed a love of horses  By the age of 16, Llywelyn was competing in professional horse shows across the United States  By age 18, she modeled for Neiman Marcus and Arthur Murray  After 15 years of experience as a horse trainer and instructor, she tried out for and narrowly missed making the 1976 United States Olympic Team in dressage  She was instead shortlisted, missing the cut off score by  05 percent With her mother's encouragement and a successfully published article on horse training, she refocused her efforts in tracing the Llywelyn family history and eventually made a career out of writing historical novels that allowed the exploration of her Celtic roots  In reference to this career change, Llywelyn had this to say:

I have a strong strain of Welsh on my mother's side, which does indeed go back to Llywelyn ap Iorwerth  And Llywelyn the Great! (We have the proven genealogy from the College of Heralds ) She was very proud of her royal Welsh connection  That is why she was so interested in genealogy in the first place, and inspired me to get involved as well     leading in turn to THE WIND FROM HASTINGS  But both my parents were predominantly Irish – my father totally so – and I spent half the years of my childhood here  So I have always been much more interested in Ireland and its history and legends 
Llywelyn has received several awards for her works  She received the Novel of the Year Award from the National League of American Penwomen for her novel, The Horse Goddess, as well as the Woman of the Year Award from the Irish-American Heritage Committee for Bard: The Odyssey of the Irish  The latter award was presented to her by Ed Koch, then-mayor of New York City Although Llywelyn's grandparents have their roots in Ireland, it was only after the death of her parents and her husband in 1985 that she relocated to Ireland  Llywelyn now lives outside Dublin and has become an Irish citizen In 1990, Llywelyn began her focus on writing books geared for younger readers  These works started with Brian Boru: Emperor of the Irish, for which she won an Irish Children's Book Trust Bisto Award in 1991, and includes other titles, such as Strongbow: The Story of Richard and Aoife, for which she won a Bisto Award in the Historical Fiction category, 1993 and the Reading Association of Ireland Award, 1993, and Star Dancer, which departed from her usual Celtic topic and was centered on her experiences with dressage  Further works include The Vikings in Ireland, an exploration of when the Norsemen arrived in Ireland, and Pirate Queen, a younger reader's version of the story of Grace O'Malley, told through letters from Granuaile to her beloved son 

Bibliography
Novels and short fiction collections
1978 The Wind from Hastings, Tor Books, ISBN 9781429983563
1980 Lion of Ireland, Forge Books, ISBN 9780765302571
1983 The Horse Goddess, Tor Books, ISBN 9781429983464
1984 Bard: The Odyssey of the Irish, Tor Books, ISBN 9780765334886 
1984 Personal Habits, Doubleday
1986 Grania: She-King of the Irish Seas, Forge Books, ISBN 9781429920636
1987 Xerxes, Chelsea House Publications, ISBN 0877544476
1989 The Isles of the Blest, Olmstead Press, ISBN 9781587541131
1989 Red Branch, Ivy Books, ISBN 9780804105910
1990 Brian Boru: Emperor of the Irish, Tor Books, ISBN 9780812544619
1989 On Raven's Wing, Mandarin, ISBN 9780749302054
1991 Druids, Del Rey, ISBN 9780804108447
1992 The Last Prince of Ireland: A Novel, W  Morrow, ISBN 9780688107949
1992 O'Sullivan's March
1993 The Elementals, Tor Books, ISBN 9780312855680
1993 Star Dancer, The O'Brien Press, ISBN 9780862783310
1994 Finn Mac Cool, Forge Books, ISBN 9781250754226  
1995 Cold Places
1995 Ireland: A Graphic History (with Michael Scott)
1995 Silverhand (Arcana, Book 1; with Michael Scott), Baen, ISBN 9780671877286
1996 19 Railway Street (with Michael Scott), Poolbeg Press Ltd, ISBN 9781853716423
1996 The Vikings in Ireland
1996 Strongbow: The Story of Richard & Aoife, The O'Brien Press, ISBN 9780862782740
1996 Silverlight (Arcana, Book 2; with Michael Scott)
1996 Pride of Lions
1998 1916, A Novel Of the Irish Rebellion, Forge Books, ISBN 9780765386144 
1999 The Essential Library for Irish Americans
2000 Etruscans (with Michael Scott), Tor Books, ISBN 9780312875510
2000 A Pocket History of Irish Rebels
2000 The Earth Is Made Of Stardust, Borgo Press, ISBN 9781587151590
2001 1921, The War for Independence, Forge Books, ISBN 9780765326935 
2001 Granuaile, The Pirate Queen (republished as Pirate Queen in 2006), The O'Brien Press, ISBN 9780862789749
2003 1949, The Irish Republic, Forge Books, ISBN 9780765381347
2005 1972, A Novel of Ireland's Unfinished Revolution, Forge Books, ISBN 9780765381330
2006 The Greener Shore: A Novel of the Druids of Hibernia, Del Rey, ISBN 9780345477675, 0345477677
2006 The Young Rebels, The O'Brien Press, ISBN 9780862785796
2006 The History of Irish Rebels
2006 The Vikings in Ireland
2008 1999 - A Novel of the Celtic Tiger and the Search for Peace, Forge Books, ISBN 9781429927062
2010 Brendan - The Remarkable Life and Voyage of Brendan of Clonfert, Forge Books, ISBN 9780312860998
2012 Cave of Secrets, The O'Brien Press, ISBN 9781847172075
2013 After Rome, Forge Books, ISBN 9781429987400 
2014 1014: Brian Boru & the Battle for Ireland, Dover Publications, ISBN 9780486842004
2016 Only the Stones Survive, Forge Books, ISBN 9780765337931 
2018 Drop by Drop, Tor Books, ISBN 9781250245311 
2019 Step by Step
2020 Inch by Inch, Tor Books, ISBN 9781250245328 
2021 Breath by Breath, Tor Books, ISBN 9780765388728

Awards
Passage 7:
Grania: She-King of the Irish Seas
Grania: She-King of the Irish Seas is a 1986 historical fiction novel about Grace O'Malley (Irish: Gráinne Ní Mháille), the so-called "Sea Queen of Connemara", by American-born Irish author Morgan Llywelyn  Llywelyn's novel is a heavily fictionalized account of O'Malley's life, with the author having created characters as needed for the plot of the story  The novel was the basis for the 2007 Broadway musical The Pirate Queen 
Passage 8:
Pride of Lions (novel)
Pride of Lions (ISBN 9780812536508, 1996), by the American-Irish author Morgan Llywelyn, is a novel about the lives of the children of Irish hero and High King Brian Boru, particularly his son, Donough, after the Battle of Clontarf  It is a sequel to Lion of Ireland published in 1980 
Passage 9:
Bard: The Odyssey of the Irish
Bard: The Odyssey of the Irish is a 1984 historical fantasy novel by Morgan Llywelyn  It depicts the migration of Galicians to Ireland, led by Amergin the bard and the Sons of the Mil  It is loosely based on the Early Irish Lebor Gabála Érenn or The Book of Invasions found in several medieval manuscripts 

Plot summary
Official tagline: "The sweeping historical tale of the coming of the Irish to Ireland, and of the men and women who made the Emerald Isle their own "
In the 4th century BC a group of Gaelic speaking people living in the northwest of Iberia, the Galicians, are waning in prosperity  A group of Phoenician traders unexpectedly arrives and gives hope to the tribe 
The story follows Amergin, druid and chief bard of the Galicians, and his brothers; Éremón, Colptha, Éber Finn, Donn, and Ír - all sons of Milesios  After years of declining prosperity, the Gaelicians hope that the Phoenician traders, led by Age-Nor, will help bring them back  Unfortunately, neither side has anything of much worth to trade 
At a reception in the Heroes' Hall, Age-Nor is attacked by Ír, while Milesios is asleep and unaware  Amergin uses his bardic talent to entrance Ír, thus saving Age-Nor 
Later in the novel, Age-Nor rewards Amergin, despite the bard's vehement protests, by giving him a servant, a shipwright named Sakkar, and regaling him with a tale of a fabled land to the north, Ierne  After a series of mishaps and bad decisions, it is eventually decided that a group of the Gaelicians, led by the Sons of the Mil, will settle this land 
The tribe builds a series of ships with the help of Sakkar, and set sail 
When they arrive on Ierne, they are confronted by the mysterious Tuatha Dé Danann, People of the Goddess Danu  After a battle, the Dananns vanish with no trace, leaving Ierne for the Milesians after Éiru (A Goddess of the Tuatha De Dannan) hands over Ireland to Amergin for it was foretold 

External links
Morgan Llywelyn
Passage 10:
Finn Mac Cool (novel)
Finn Mac Cool is a 1994 novel by the Irish-American author Morgan Llywelyn  It is based on the Fenian Cycle about the Irish hero Finn Mac Cool and the fianna  Terri Windling described it as "a skilfully crafted Irish novel       in the shadowy realm between history and mythology" 



ground_truth: Morgan Llywelyn