prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who lived longer, Charles Wheatstone or Jean-Claude Lauzon?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Lyse Lafontaine
Lyse Lafontaine (born 1942) is a Canadian film producer known for working with directors Jean-Claude Lauzon and Xavier Dolan  She works at Lyla Films in Montreal, Quebec, Canada 

Early life
Born to La Presse reporter Gaston Lafontaine, Lyse studied literature at the Université de Montréal and earned her degree  She married Stéphane Venne and managed the rock band Offenbach in 1972  She became a stage manager on the 1974 film The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz, and married her second husband, moving to The Bahamas for two years before returning to Canada 

Career
In 1976, Lafontaine served as location manager for the film The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane, starring Jodie Foster  Lafontaine met Lauzon when he was pitching his screenplay for Léolo (1992), which other producers had rejected  It became the first film she produced, with Aimée Danis, for which they were nominated for the Genie Award for Best Motion Picture  While in Italy during filming, Lauzon gave Lafontaine a letter thanking her for her ineptitude in business, which he considered necessary to make a film with feeling  She kept it as a cherished keepsake Working with Dolan, she produced Laurence Anyways (2012) and served as an associate producer for Mommy (2014)  Dolan's Laurence Anyways was inspired by Lafontaine's ex-boyfriend Luc Baillairgé, the father of her son Mikaël, who had a small part in Léolo  With Dolan, she personally traveled to London in 2017 to work on his The Death and Life of John F  Donovan In 2015, Lafontaine produced La Passion d’Augustine with François Tremblay, winning the Québec Cinéma Award for Best Film  On 1 June 2017 at the 19th Quebec Cinema Awards, she was awarded the Iris Hommage for 30 years of contributions to Quebec cinema 

Filmography
Her films include:
Passage 2:
Jean-Claude Lutanie
Jean-Claude Lutanie is a French writer 

Biography
Jean-Claude Lutanie was born in Poitiers, France in 1951  In the 1970s and 80s, he entered into social protest and contestation, but early on, broke off from any movement in particular  In 1981, he publishes Protestation devant les libertaires du présent et du futur sur les capitulations de 1980 anonymously, followed by Une lecture paranoïaque-critique de La Maison Tellier (Guy de Maupassant) in 1993  Lutanie’s university research focused on the work of Jean-Pierre Brisset  He taught French in Tebessa, Algeria, from 1985 to 1987, before teaching as Professor of Literature and History in a pre-professional high school in La Rochelle until his death, in 2006 

Bibliography
Harangue des Ciompi à Florence  Rééditée à l'usage des prolétaires de Longwy, (poster, Toulouse, c  1979, anonymous, no publisher, 60 × 39 cm)
Protestation devant les libertaires du présent et du futur sur les capitulations de 1980, (poster, Toulouse, 1981, anonymous, no publisher, 65 × 45 cm)
Protestation devant les libertaires du présent et du futur sur les capitulations de 1980, (1981, anonymous, no publisher, re-published in 2011 by Editions Lutanie)
Une lecture paranoïaque-critique de La Maison Tellier (Guy de Maupassant), Le Veilleur Éditeur, 1993

Articles
"Introduction to Jean-Claude Lutanie" by Rachel Valinsky in The Third Rail #7


== Notes ==
Passage 3:
Johannes Crucius
Johannes Crucius, or Jean de la Croix (1560 – 1625), was a Dutch theologian 

Biography
He was born in Lille, France, as the son of Jacobus de la Croix, a Walloon preacher of Middelburg, among other cities  He was the brother of Jacobus Crucius  Crucius studied in Geneva and on 28 September 1586 he matriculated at the Heidelberg University a year after Franciscus Gomarus, along with the students Abrahamus Vandermylen of Dordrecht, Meinardus ab Idzaerda of Friesland, and Andreas ab Hiddema of Friesland  He then matriculated at Leiden in 1589 and the following year he was selected to succeed Jean Taffin as Walloon preacher at the Waalse Kerk, Haarlem, where he is buried He married Elisabeth Stoock and their first child was baptised 7 June 1591  Their son Jacobus became a doctor, and their sons Nicolaas (1595-1643) and Johannes (1598-1666) became preachers like their father  From 1592, Crucius was the representative of the Wallonian church at the Walloon Synod in Middelburg and in 1618 & 1619 he was their representative at the Synod of Dort  He is known for his translations of religious works From Latin and Dutch into French, most notably by Antonius Walaeus 
He died in Haarlem 
Passage 4:
Jean-Claude Bonnefond
Claude Bonnefond, or Jean-Claude Bonnefond (27 March 1796, Lyon - 27 June 1860, Lyon) was a French painter and lithographer; noted for his portrayals of peasant life  His work was heavily influenced by a visit to Italy 

Biography
His father was a baker who died shortly after Jean-Claude was born  His mother remarried in 1797, to another baker who was an associate of her first husband  An elder brother died in military service  In 1808, at the age of twelve, he entered the École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts de Lyon, where he studied with Pierre Revoil and Alexis Grognard (1752-1840) 
In 1816, he was exempted from military service for being his family's only surviving son  The following year, he had his first exhibit at the Salon, where one of his paintings was purchased by Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry 
At the age of 28, he and Victor Orsel went to Paris to work in the studios of Pierre-Narcisse Guérin  Shortly after, Guérin was named Director of the Villa Medici and Bonnefond accompanied him to Rome 
While in Italy, he also visited Campania and Tuscany and made the acquaintance of several German painters of the Nazarene movement, including Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Joseph Anton Koch and Johann Friedrich Overbeck 
In 1830, Victor Prunelle, the Mayor of Lyon, offered him the directorship of the École des Beaux-arts  He accepted, replacing Revoil, and held that position for thirty years  He created a school of engraving, operated by Victor Vibert (1799-1860), and the École produced seventeen laureates of the Prix de Rome between 1831 and 1860  In 1834, he was named a Knight in the Legion of Honor  His own work continued to be in the Italian style until 1840, when he turned to painting portraits of the local bourgeoisie 
He died of what was described as "blood congestion" after a long period of illness 

Selected paintings
Notes
Passage 5:
Jean Edelinck
Jan, or Jean Edelinck (c 1640 – 1680), was a Flemish engraver who worked in Paris 

Life
He was born in Antwerp, the brother of Gerard Edelinck  He was probably younger than Gerard, though his date of birth is unknown  He preceded his brother to Paris  Joseph Strutt, writing in the late 18th century, compared his work unfavourably to Gerard's, saying that, although he closely imitated his style, "he never equalled him, either in drawing or the execution of the mechanical part of his plates "He died in Paris in 1680 

Works
Edelinck made several engravings of the statues in the gardens at Versailles, of which Strutt said "they do him great credit, though the effect is cold, and the extremities rather heavy"  He also made plates after a portrait of the anatomist  Isbrandus de Diemerbroeck by Romeyn de Hooghe, and The Deluge by Alessandro Turchi  The latter was finished after his death by his youngest brother, Gaspard François Edelinck 
Passage 6:
Jean-Claude Dague
Jean-Claude Dague, born Jean-Claude Dagouassat in 1937, is a French film director 

Biography
After having directed four films, Jean-Claude Dague's production company was almost bankrupt  He then attempted a hold-up in Bry-sur-Marne in 1971, but was easily caught with his two partners, having used his own car to flee  The two partners were actor René Chapotot and stuntman Germain Roig  Dague then spent eight years in prison, and wrote about it in a book, Le Dénommé, of which he made a film in 1990 

Filmography
Director1968 : Le Bal des voyous
1969 : Poussez pas grand-père dans les cactus
1970 : Désirella
1971 : L'Homme qui vient de la nuit
1990 : Le Dénommé
1999 : La Paix pour les Enfants du MondeActor1966 : Espions à l'affûtScreenwriter1991 : La Dernière Saison
Passage 7:
Jean-Claude Lauzon
Jean-Claude Lauzon (September 29, 1953 – August 10, 1997) was a Canadian filmmaker and screenwriter  Born to a working class family in Montreal, Quebec, Lauzon dropped out of high school and worked various jobs before studying film at the Université du Québec à Montréal  His two feature-length films, Night Zoo (1987) and Léolo (1992), established him as one of the most important Canadian directors of his generation  American film critic Roger Ebert wrote that "Lauzon is so motivated by his resentments and desires that everything he creates is pressed into the cause and filled with passion "His film Léolo is widely considered to be one of the best Canadian films of all time  It was nominated for the Palme d'Or at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival, and was included on Time's list of the 100 greatest films that were released between March 3, 1923—when the first issue of Time was published—and early 2005, when the list was compiled Lauzon's career was cut short by his death in a plane crash in 1997 at the age of 43 

Early life
Born to a working class family in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, Lauzon worked a variety of odd jobs after dropping out of high school  He went on to study film at the Université du Québec à Montréal at the behest of Andre Petrowski, a member of the National Film Board of Canada 

Career
While studying at the Université du Québec à Montréal, Lauzon began experimenting with 16mm film stock  His first short film, titled Super Maire, won the Norman McLaren Grand Prize at the Canadian Student Film Festival in 1979  His second short film, titled Piwi, which he started working on while spending time at the American Film Institute in Los Angeles, won the Jury Prize at the Montreal World Film Festival in 1981 In 1983, Lauzon wrote the first draft for his debut feature, Night Zoo, but spent most of the 1980s directing television commercials in Quebec and earning his pilot's licence  He eventually directed the film, making his feature-length film debut, and the film premiered in the Director's Fortnight at the Cannes Film Festival, where it was warmly received by most critics  The Globe and Mail’s Jay Scott wrote that “more than anything, Zoo is a movie of extremes; few films in the history of the cinema have wandered so successfully all over so much of the emotional map ” The film went on to win a record-breaking 13 Genie Awards in 1988, and won the Golden Reel Award for being the highest-grossing Canadian film of that year Lauzon achieved further success and acclaim with his second feature-length film, Léolo, which was nominated for the Palme d'Or at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival  Léolo won three Genie Awards and was a box office success in Canada and across Europe, but failed to make much of an impact in the U S  upon release  Léolo has been called one of the best Canadian films of all time by various media outlets  It was included on Time's list of the 100 greatest films that were released between March 3, 1923—when the first issue of Time was published—and early 2005, when the list was compiled After the success of his first two films, Lauzon focused on directing commercials for television and spent most of his time in northern Quebec flying his Cessna 180 Skywagon, fishing, and hunting 

Artistry
Playback wrote that Lauzon's films were "substantially autobiographical in nature"  Collaborators described the director as "an extremely creative and intense personality for whom making films was painful " American film critic Roger Ebert wrote that "Lauzon is so motivated by his resentments and desires that everything he creates is pressed into the cause and filled with passion "

Death
Lauzon was preparing his third feature-length film when he died, along with his girlfriend, Canadian actress Marie-Soleil Tougas, in a plane crash  On August 10, 1997, the Cessna 180 Skywagon that Lauzon was piloting flew into a mountainside in strong winds and rain near Kuujjuaq, Quebec while returning from a fishing trip  Lauzon was 43 years old when he died  He was buried in a private ceremony 

Filmography
Super Maire (1979), short film
Piwi (1981), short film
Night Zoo also known as Un zoo la nuit (1987), feature film
Léolo (1992), feature film
Passage 8:
Silvi Jan
Silvi Jan (Hebrew: סילבי ז'אן; born 27 October 1973) an Israeli former footballer who played as a striker  With 29 goals, she is the all-time Israel national team top goalscorer 

Club career
Jan played school football in Netanya, and was part of the boys' football team of Shorashim school  As there was no women's league, Jan tried to find an active team in Europe, eventually signing with Kolbotn I L  in Norway  In 1999, with the establishment of the Israeli Women's League, Jan returned to Israel and signed with Hapoel Tel Aviv 
Jan played at Hapoel Tel Aviv for four seasons, until the team folded, winning the league and cup in 2000–01  After Hapoel Tel Aviv folded, Jan signed with Maccabi Holon, where she played until her retirement in 2007  With Maccabi Holon Jan won the league 4 times and the cup 5 times 
In January 2009, Jan returned to league action and joined ASA Tel Aviv University  On 21 February 2012, in a league match against her former club, Maccabi Holon, Jan scored her 1000th goal in all club and national team competitions  Jan played at ASA Tel Aviv until her retirement in May 2012  With ASA Tel Aviv Jan Jan won three championships and two cups  Jan scored a total of 1,010 goals in all competitions 

International career
Silvi Jan has been a striker for the Israel national team for many years, appearing in 23 matches and scoring 29 goals  Jan made her debut against Romania on 2 November 1997, and scored her debut goal against Bosnia and Herzegovina on 8 April 2008, one of four she scored on the day 
Her last international goal was also scored against Bosnia and Herzegovina, in a match played on 23 November 2006, in which Israel won 5–2  Jan made her last international appearance against Poland on 10 May 2007 

International goals
Personal life
Jan came out as a lesbian in December 2017  She got engaged to her partner in November the following year 
In September 2018  Jan was diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis 

Honours
Hapoel Tel Aviv

Ligat Nashim: 2000–01
Israeli Women's Cup: 2000–01Haccabi Holon

Ligat Nashim: 2002–03, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2006–07
Israeli Women's Cup: 2002–03, 2003–04, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2006–07ASA Tel Aviv University

Ligat Nashim: 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12
Israeli Women's Cup: 2010–11, 2011–12Individual

Ligat Nashim top goalscorer: 1999–2000, 2006–07, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12
Israeli Women's Cup top goalscorer: 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2006–07, 2011–12
Passage 9:
Jean-Claude Casadesus
Jean-Claude Probst (born 7 December 1935), known professional as Jean-Claude Casadesus, is a French conductor 

Biography
Casadesus was born in Paris on 7 December 1935, the son of actress Gisèle Casadesus and her husband Lucien Pascal   He began his career as a percussionist before studying composition and conducting with Pierre Dervaux and Pierre Boulez 
In 1969 he was hired as assistant conductor at the Paris Opéra and the Opéra-Comique   In 1971 he co-founded the Orchestre National des Pays de la Loire with Pierre Dervaux, and acted as Dervaux's deputy there until 1976   In 1976 he became principal conductor of the Orchestre national de Lille, performing concerts locally and internationally   He directed the French Youth Orchestra in 2007 

Personal life
Jean-Claude has been married twice and has three children, his only daughter Caroline (b  30 October 1962) is an opera singer and his first born son Sebastian Copeland (b  3 April 1964) is a film director whose mother is Pénélope Copeland, his second son Olivier (b  2 September 1970) is an actor whose mother is Anne Sevestre 

Distinctions
Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur
Commandeur de l'Ordre national du Mérite
Commandeur des Arts et Lettres
Commandeur de l'Ordre d'Orange-Nassau
Officier de l'Ordre de Léopold de Belgique
Chevalier des Palmes AcadémiquesIn 2004, the Victoires de la musique classique awarded him a victory of honour 

Discography with l'Orchestre National de Lille
Richard Wagner, Ouvertures et monologues célèbres, Le Vaisseau Fantôme, Tännhauser, Les Maîtres chanteurs de Nuremberg, La Walkyrie, avec José van Dam, Label Forlane
Darius Milhaud, La Création du monde, Le Bœuf sur le toit, Suite Provençale, L'Homme et son Désir, Label Naxos
Serge Prokofiev, Alexander Nevsky (Cantata), Lieutenant Kijé (Suite), Label Naxos
Hector Berlioz, La Damnation de Faust, Label Naxos
Hector Berlioz, Symphonie Fantastique, Label Harmonia Mundi
Joseph Canteloube, Chants d'Auvergne, Label Naxos
Gustav Mahler, Symphonies, Label Forlane
Georges Bizet, Clovis et Clotilde - Te Deum, Label Naxos - Abeille Musique, 2010

Bibliography
Le plus court chemin d'un cœur à l'autre, Jean-Claude Casadesus, Éditions Stock
Passage 10:
Charles Wheatstone
Sir Charles Wheatstone FRS FRSE (; 6 February 1802 – 19 October 1875), was an English scientist and inventor of many scientific breakthroughs of the Victorian era, including the English concertina, the stereoscope (a device for displaying three-dimensional images), and the Playfair cipher (an encryption technique)  However, Wheatstone is best known for his contributions in the development of the Wheatstone bridge, originally invented by Samuel Hunter Christie, which is used to measure an unknown electrical resistance, and as a major figure in the development of telegraphy 

Life
Charles Wheatstone was born in Barnwood, Gloucestershire  His father, W  Wheatstone, was a music-seller in the town, who moved to 128 Pall Mall, London, four years later, becoming a teacher of the flute  Charles, the second son, went to a village school, near Gloucester, and afterwards to several institutions in London  One of them was in Kennington, and kept by a Mrs  Castlemaine, who was astonished at his rapid progress  From another he ran away, but was captured at Windsor, not far from the theatre of his practical telegraph  As a boy he was very shy and sensitive, liking well to retire into an attic, without any other company than his own thoughts 

When he was about fourteen years old he was apprenticed to his uncle and namesake, a maker and seller of musical instruments at 436 Strand, London; but he showed little taste for handicraft or business, and loved better to study books  His father encouraged him in this, and finally took him out of the uncle's charge 
At the age of fifteen, Wheatstone translated French poetry, and wrote two songs, one of which was given to his uncle, who published it without knowing it as his nephew's composition  Some lines of his on the lyre became the motto of an engraving by Bartolozzi  He often visited an old book-stall in the vicinity of Pall Mall, which was then a dilapidated and unpaved thoroughfare  Most of his pocket-money was spent in purchasing the books which had taken his fancy, whether fairy tales, history, or science 
One day, to the surprise of the bookseller, he coveted a volume on the discoveries of Volta in electricity, but not having the price, he saved his pennies and secured the volume  It was written in French, and so he was obliged to save again, until he could buy a dictionary  Then he began to read the volume, and, with the help of his elder brother, William, to repeat the experiments described in it, with a home-made battery, in the scullery behind his father's house  In constructing the battery, the boy philosophers ran short of money to procure the requisite copper-plates  They had only a few copper coins left  A happy thought occurred to Charles, who was the leading spirit in these researches, 'We must use the pennies themselves,' said he, and the battery was soon complete 
At Christchurch, Marylebone, on 12 February 1847, Wheatstone was married to Emma West  She was the daughter of a Taunton tradesman, and of handsome appearance  She died in 1866, leaving a family of five young children to his care  His domestic life was quiet and uneventful 
Though silent and reserved in public, Wheatstone was a clear and voluble talker in private, if taken on his favourite studies, and his small but active person, his plain but intelligent countenance, was full of animation  Sir Henry Taylor tells us that he once observed Wheatstone at an evening party in Oxford earnestly holding forth to Lord Palmerston on the capabilities of his telegraph  'You don't say so!' exclaimed the statesman  'I must get you to tell that to the Lord Chancellor ' And so saying, he fastened the electrician on Lord Westbury, and effected his escape  A reminiscence of this interview may have prompted Palmerston to remark that a time was coming when a minister might be asked in Parliament if war had broken out in India, and would reply, 'Wait a minute; I'll just telegraph to the Governor-General, and let you know '

Wheatstone was knighted in 1868, after his completion of the automatic telegraph  He had previously been made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour  Some thirty-four distinctions and diplomas of home or foreign societies bore witness to his scientific reputation  Since 1836 he had been a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1859 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in 1873 a Foreign Associate of the French Academy of Sciences  The same year he was awarded the Ampere Medal by the French Society for the Encouragement of National Industry  In 1875 he was created an honorary member of the Institution of Civil Engineers  He was a D C L  of Oxford and an LL D  of Cambridge 
While on a visit to Paris during the autumn of 1875, and engaged in perfecting his receiving instrument for submarine cables, he caught a cold, which produced inflammation of the lungs, an illness from which he died in Paris, on 19 October 1875 aged 73  A memorial service was held in the Anglican Chapel, Paris, and attended by a deputation of the Academy  His remains were taken to his home in Park Crescent, London, (marked by a blue plaque today) and buried in Kensal Green Cemetery 

Music instruments and acoustics
In September 1821, Wheatstone brought himself into public notice by exhibiting the 'Enchanted Lyre,' or 'Acoucryptophone,' at a music shop at Pall Mall and in the Adelaide Gallery  It consisted of a mimic lyre hung from the ceiling by a cord, and emitting the strains of several instruments – the piano, harp, and dulcimer  In reality it was a mere sounding box, and the cord was a steel rod that conveyed the vibrations of the music from the several instruments which were played out of sight and ear-shot  At this period Wheatstone made numerous experiments on sound and its transmission  Some of his results are preserved in Thomson's Annals of Philosophy for 1823 
He recognised that sound is propagated by waves or oscillations of the atmosphere, as light was then believed to be by undulations of the luminiferous ether  Water, and solid bodies, such as glass, or metal, or sonorous wood, convey the modulations with high velocity, and he conceived the plan of transmitting sound-signals, music, or speech to long distances by this means  He estimated that sound would travel 200 miles per second (320 km/s) through solid rods, and proposed to telegraph from London to Edinburgh in this way  He even called his arrangement a 'telephone ' (Robert Hooke, in his Micrographia, published in 1667, writes: 'I can assure the reader that I have, by the help of a distended wire, propagated the sound to a very considerable distance in an instant, or with as seemingly quick a motion as that of light ' Nor was it essential the wire should be straight; it might be bent into angles  This property is the basis of the mechanical or lover's telephone, said to have been known to the Chinese many centuries ago  Hooke also considered the possibility of finding a way to quicken our powers of hearing )
A writer in the Repository of Arts for 1 September 1821, in referring to the 'Enchanted Lyre,' beholds the prospect of an opera being performed at the King's Theatre, and enjoyed at the Hanover Square Rooms, or even at the Horns Tavern, Kennington  The vibrations are to travel through underground conductors, like to gas in pipes 

And if music be capable of being thus conducted,' he observes, 'perhaps the words of speech may be susceptible of the same means of propagation  The eloquence of counsel, the debates of Parliament, instead of being read the next day only, – But we shall lose ourselves in the pursuit of this curious subject Besides transmitting sounds to a distance, Wheatstone devised a simple instrument for augmenting feeble sounds, to which he gave the name of 'Microphone ' It consisted of two slender rods, which conveyed the mechanical vibrations to both ears, and is quite different from the electrical microphone of Professor Hughes 
In 1823, his uncle, the musical instrument maker, died, and Wheatstone, with his elder brother, William, took over the business  Charles had no great liking for the commercial part, but his ingenuity found a vent in making improvements on the existing instruments, and in devising philosophical toys  He also invented instruments of his own  One of the most famous was the Wheatstone concertina  It was a six sided instrument with 64 keys  These keys provided for simple chromatic fingerings  The English Concertina became increasingly famous throughout his lifetime, however it didn't reach its peak of popularity until the early 20th century 
In 1827, Wheatstone introduced his 'kaleidophone', a device for rendering the vibrations of a sounding body apparent to the eye  It consists of a metal rod, carrying at its end a silvered bead, which reflects a 'spot' of light  As the rod vibrates the spot is seen to describe complicated figures in the air, like a spark whirled about in the darkness  His photometer was probably suggested by this appliance  It enables two lights to be compared by the relative brightness of their reflections in a silvered bead, which describes a narrow ellipse, so as to draw the spots into parallel lines 
In 1828, Wheatstone improved the German wind instrument, called the Mundharmonika, until it became the popular concertina, patented on 19 December 1829  The portable harmonium is another of his inventions, which gained a prize medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851  He also improved the speaking machine of De Kempelen, and endorsed the opinion of Sir David Brewster, that before the end of this century a singing and talking apparatus would be among the conquests of science 
In 1834, Wheatstone, who had won a name for himself, was appointed to the Chair of Experimental Physics in King's College London  His first course of lectures on sound were a complete failure, due to his abhorrence of public speaking  In the rostrum he was tongue-tied and incapable, sometimes turning his back on the audience and mumbling to the diagrams on the wall  In the laboratory he felt himself at home, and ever after confined his duties mostly to demonstration 

Velocity of electricity
He achieved renown by a great experiment made in 1834 – the measurement of the velocity of electricity in a wire  He cut the wire at the middle, to form a gap which a spark might leap across, and connected its ends to the poles of a Leyden jar filled with electricity  Three sparks were thus produced, one at each end of the wire, and another at the middle  He mounted a tiny mirror on the works of a watch, so that it revolved at a high velocity, and observed the reflections of his three sparks in it  The points of the wire were so arranged that if the sparks were instantaneous, their reflections would appear in one straight line; but the middle one was seen to lag behind the others, because it was an instant later  The electricity had taken a certain time to travel from the ends of the wire to the middle  This time was found by measuring the amount of lag, and comparing it with the known velocity of the mirror  Having got the time, he had only to compare that with the length of half the wire, and he could find the velocity of electricity  His results gave a calculated velocity of 288,000 miles per second, i e  faster than what we now know to be the speed of light (299,792 458 kilometres per second (186,000 mi/s)), but were nonetheless an interesting approximation It was already appreciated by some scientists that the "velocity" of electricity was dependent on the properties of the conductor and its surroundings  Francis Ronalds had observed signal retardation in his buried electric telegraph cable (but not his airborne line) in 1816 and outlined its cause to be induction  Wheatstone witnessed these experiments as a youth, which were apparently a stimulus for his own research in telegraphy  Decades later, after the telegraph had been commercialised, Michael Faraday described how the velocity of an electric field in a submarine wire, coated with insulator and surrounded with water, is only 144,000 miles per second (232,000 km/s), or still less 
Wheatstone's device of the revolving mirror was afterwards employed by Léon Foucault and Hippolyte Fizeau to measure the relative speeds of light in air versus water, and later to measure the speed of light 

Spectroscopy
Wheatstone and others also contributed to early spectroscopy through the discovery and exploitation of spectral emission lines As John Munro wrote in 1891, "In 1835, at the Dublin meeting of the British Association, Wheatstone showed that when metals were volatilised in the electric spark, their light, examined through a prism, revealed certain rays which were characteristic of them  Thus the kind of metals which formed the sparking points could be determined by analysing the light of the spark  This suggestion has been of great service in spectrum analysis, and as applied by Robert Bunsen, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, and others, has led to the discovery of several new elements, such as rubidium and thallium, as well as increasing our knowledge of the heavenly bodies "

Telegraph
Wheatstone abandoned his idea of transmitting intelligence by the mechanical vibration of rods, and took up the electric telegraph  In 1835 he lectured on the system of Baron Schilling, and declared that the means were already known by which an electric telegraph could be made of great service to the world  He made experiments with a plan of his own, and not only proposed to lay an experimental line across the Thames, but to establish it on the London and Birmingham Railway  Before these plans were carried out, however, he received a visit from William 
Cooke at his house in Conduit Street on 27 February 1837, which had an important influence on his future 

Cooperation with Cooke
Cooke was an officer in the Madras Army, who, being home on leave, was attending some lectures on anatomy at the University of Heidelberg, where, on 6 March 1836, he witnessed a demonstration with the telegraph of professor Georg Munke, and was so impressed with its importance, that he forsook his medical studies and devoted all his efforts to the work of introducing the telegraph  He returned to London soon after, and was able to exhibit a telegraph with three needles in January 1837  Feeling his want of scientific knowledge, he consulted Michael Faraday and Peter Roget (then secretary of the Royal Society): Roget sent him to Wheatstone 
At a second interview, Cooke told Wheatstone of his intention to bring out a working telegraph, and explained his method  Wheatstone, according to his own statement, remarked to Cooke that the method would not act, and produced his own experimental telegraph  Finally, Cooke proposed that they should enter into a partnership, but Wheatstone was at first reluctant to comply  He was a well-known man of science, and had meant to publish his results without seeking to make capital of them  Cooke, on the other hand, declared that his sole object was to make a fortune from the scheme  In May they agreed to join their forces, Wheatstone contributing the scientific, and Cooke the administrative talent  The deed of partnership was dated 19 November 1837  A joint patent was taken out for their inventions, including the five-needle telegraph of Wheatstone, and an alarm worked by a relay, in which the current, by dipping a needle into mercury, completed a local circuit, and released the detent of a clockwork 
The five-needle telegraph, which was mainly, if not entirely, due to Wheatstone, was similar to that of Schilling, and based on the principle enunciated by Ampère – that is to say, the current was sent into the line by completing the circuit of the battery with a make and break key, and at the other end it passed through a coil of wire surrounding a magnetic needle free to turn round its centre  According as one pole of the battery or the other was applied to the line by means of the key, the current deflected the needle to one side or the other  There were five separate circuits actuating five different needles  The latter were pivoted in rows across the middle of a dial shaped like a diamond, and having the letters of the alphabet arranged upon it in such a way that a letter was literally pointed out by the current deflecting two of the needles towards it 

Early installations
An experimental line, with a sixth return wire, was run between the Euston terminus and Camden Town station of the London and North Western Railway on 25 July 1837  The actual distance was only one and a half-miles (2 4 km), but spare wire had been inserted in the circuit to increase its length  It was late in the evening before the trial took place  Cooke was in charge at Camden Town, while Robert Stephenson and other gentlemen looked on; and Wheatstone sat at his instrument in a dingy little room, lit by a tallow candle, near the booking-office at Euston  Wheatstone sent the first message, to which Cooke replied: and "never" said Wheatstone, "did I feel such a tumultuous sensation before, as when, all alone in the still room, I heard the needles click, and as I spelled the words, I felt all the magnitude of the invention pronounced to be practicable beyond cavil or dispute "
In spite of this trial, however, the directors of the railway treated the 'new-fangled' invention with indifference, and requested its removal  In July 1839, however, it was favoured by the Great Western Railway, and a line erected from the Paddington station terminus to West Drayton railway station, a distance of thirteen miles (21 km)  Part of the wire was laid underground at first, but subsequently all of it was raised on posts along the line  Their circuit was eventually extended to Slough in 1841, and was publicly exhibited at Paddington as a marvel of science, which could transmit fifty signals a distance of 280,000 miles per minute (7,500 km/s)  The price of admission was a shilling (£0 05), and in 1844 one fascinated observer recorded the following:

"It is perfect from the terminus of the Great Western as far as Slough – that is, eighteen miles; the wires being in some places underground in tubes, and in others high up in the air, which last, he says, is by far the best plan  We asked if the weather did not affect the wires, but he said not; a violent thunderstorm might ring a bell, but no more  We were taken into a small room (we being Mrs Drummond, Miss Philips, Harry Codrington and myself – and afterwards the Milmans and Mr Rich) where were several wooden cases containing different sorts of telegraphs  In one sort every word was spelt, and as each letter was placed in turn in a particular position, the machinery caused the electric fluid to run down the line, where it made the letter show itself at Slough, by what machinery he could not undertake to explain  After each word came a  sign from Slough, signifying "I understand", coming certainly in less  than one second from the end of the word      Another prints the messages it brings, so that if no-one attended to the bell,    the message would not be lost  This is effected by the electrical fluid causing a little hammer to strike the letter which presents itself, the letter which is raised hits some manifold writing paper (a new invention, black paper which, if pressed, leaves an indelible black mark), by which means the impression is left on white paper beneath  This was the most ingenious of all, and apparently Mr  Wheatstone's favourite; he was very good-natured in explaining but understands it so well himself that he cannot feel how little we know about it, and goes too fast for such ignorant folk to follow him in everything  Mrs Drummond told me he is wonderful for the rapidity with which he thinks and his power of invention; he invents so many things that he cannot put half his ideas into execution, but leaves them to be picked up and used by others, who get the credit of them "

Public attention and success
The public took to the new invention after the capture of the murderer John Tawell, who in 1845, had become the first person to be arrested as the result of telecommunications technology  In the same year, Wheatstone introduced two improved forms of the apparatus, namely, the 'single' and the 'double' needle instruments, in which the signals were made by the successive deflections of the needles  Of these, the single-needle instrument, requiring only one wire, is still in use The development of the telegraph may be gathered from two facts  In 1855, the death of the Emperor Nicholas at St  Petersburg, about one o'clock in the afternoon, was announced in the House of Lords a few hours later  The result of The Oaks of 1890 was received in New York fifteen seconds after the horses passed the winning-post 

Differences with Cooke
In 1841 a difference arose between Cooke and Wheatstone as to the share of each in the honour of inventing the telegraph  The question was submitted to the arbitration of the famous engineer, Marc Isambard Brunel, on behalf of Cooke, and Professor Daniell, of King's College, the inventor of the Daniell cell, on the part of Wheatstone  They awarded to Cooke the credit of having introduced the telegraph as a useful undertaking which promised to be of national importance, and to Wheatstone that of having by his researches prepared the public to receive it  They concluded with the words: 'It is to the united labours of two gentlemen so well qualified for mutual assistance that we must attribute the rapid progress which this important invention has made during five years since they have been associated ' The decision, however vague, pronounces the needle telegraph a joint production  If it had mainly been invented by Wheatstone, it was chiefly introduced by Cooke  Their respective shares in the undertaking might be compared to that of an author and his publisher, but for the fact that Cooke himself had a share in the actual work of invention 

Further work on telegraphs
From 1836–7 Wheatstone had thought a good deal about submarine telegraphs, and in 1840 he gave evidence before the Railway Committee of the House of Commons on the feasibility of the proposed line from Dover to Calais  He had even designed the machinery for making and laying the cable  In the autumn of 1844, with the assistance of J  D  Llewellyn, he submerged a length of insulated wire in Swansea Bay, and signalled through it from a boat to the Mumbles Lighthouse  Next year he suggested the use of gutta-percha for the coating of the intended wire across the English Channel 
In 1840 Wheatstone had patented an alphabetical telegraph, or, 'Wheatstone A B C instrument,' which moved with a step-by-step motion, and showed the letters of the message upon a dial  The same principle was used in his type-printing telegraph, patented in 1841  This was the first apparatus which printed a telegram in type  It was worked by two circuits, and as the type revolved a hammer, actuated by the current, pressed the required letter on the paper 
The introduction of the telegraph had so far advanced that, on 2 September 1845, the Electric Telegraph Company was registered, and Wheatstone, by his deed of partnership with Cooke, received a sum of £33,000 for the use of their joint inventions 
In 1859 Wheatstone was appointed by the Board of Trade to report on the subject of the Atlantic cables, and in 1864 he was one of the experts who advised the Atlantic Telegraph Company on the construction of the successful lines of 1865 and 1866 
In 1870 the electric telegraph lines of the United Kingdom, worked by different companies, were transferred to the Post Office, and placed under Government control 
Wheatstone further invented the automatic transmitter, in which the signals of the message are first punched out on a strip of paper (punched tape), which is then passed through the sending-key, and controls the signal currents  By substituting a mechanism for the hand in sending the message, he was able to telegraph about 100 words a minute, or five times the ordinary rate  In the Postal Telegraph service this apparatus is employed for sending Press telegrams, and it has recently been so much improved, that messages are now sent from London to Bristol at a speed of 600 words a minute, and even of 400 words a minute between London and Aberdeen  On the night of 8 April 1886, when Gladstone introduced his Bill for Home Rule in Ireland, no fewer than 1,500,000 words were dispatched from the central station at St  Martin's-le-Grand by 100 Wheatstone transmitters  The plan of sending messages by a running strip of paper which actuates the key was originally patented by Alexander Bain in 1846; but Wheatstone, aided by Augustus Stroh, an accomplished mechanician, and an able experimenter, was the first to bring the idea into successful operation  This system is often referred to as the Wheatstone Perforator and is the forerunner of the stock market ticker tape 

Optics
Stereopsis was first described by Wheatstone in 1838  In 1840 he was awarded the Royal Medal of the Royal Society for his explanation of binocular vision, a research which led him to make stereoscopic drawings and construct the stereoscope  He showed that our impression of solidity is gained by the combination in the mind of two separate pictures of an object taken by both of our eyes from different points of view  Thus, in the stereoscope, an arrangement of lenses or mirrors, two photographs of the same object taken from different points are so combined as to make the object stand out with a solid aspect  Sir David Brewster improved the stereoscope by dispensing with the mirrors, and bringing it into its existing form with lenses 
The 'pseudoscope' (Wheatstone coined the term from the Greek ψευδίς σκοπειν) was introduced in 1852, and is in some sort the reverse of the stereoscope, since it causes a solid object to seem hollow, and a nearer one to be farther off; thus, a bust appears to be a mask, and a tree growing outside of a window looks as if it were growing inside the room  Its purpose was to test his theory of stereo vision and for investigations into what would now be called experimental psychology 

Measuring time
In 1840, Wheatstone introduced his chronoscope, for measuring minute intervals of time, which was used in determining the speed of a bullet or the passage of a star  In this apparatus an electric current actuated an electro-magnet, which noted the instant of an occurrence by means of a pencil on a moving paper  It is said to have been capable of distinguishing 1/7300 part of a second (137 microsecond), and the time a body took to fall from a height of one inch (25 mm) 
On 26 November 1840, he exhibited his electro-magnetic clock in the library of the Royal Society, and propounded a plan for distributing the correct time from a standard clock to a number of local timepieces  The circuits of these were to be electrified by a key or contact-maker actuated by the arbour of the standard, and their hands corrected by electro-magnetism  The following January Alexander Bain took out a patent for an electro-magnetic clock, and he subsequently charged Wheatstone with appropriating his ideas  It appears that Bain worked as a mechanist to Wheatstone from August to December 1840, and he asserted that he had communicated the idea of an electric clock to Wheatstone during that period; but Wheatstone maintained that he had experimented in that direction during May  Bain further accused Wheatstone of stealing his idea of the electro-magnetic printing telegraph; but Wheatstone showed that the instrument was only a modification of his own electro-magnetic telegraph 
In 1840, Alexander Bain mentioned to the Mechanics Magazine editor his financial problems  The editor introduced him to Sir Charles Wheatstone  Bain demonstrated his models to Wheatstone, who, when asked for his opinion, said "Oh, I shouldn't bother to develop these things any further! There's no future in them " Three months later Wheatstone demonstrated an electric clock to the Royal Society, claiming it was his own invention  However, Bain had already applied for a patent for it  Wheatstone tried to block Bain's patents, but failed  When Wheatstone organised an Act of Parliament to set up the Electric Telegraph Company, the House of Lords summoned Bain to give evidence, and eventually compelled the company to pay Bain £10,000 and give him a job as manager, causing Wheatstone to resign 

Polar clock
One of Wheatstone's most ingenious devices was the 'Polar clock,' exhibited at the meeting of the British Association in 1848  It is based on the fact discovered by Sir David Brewster, that the light of the sky is polarised in a plane at an angle of ninety degrees from the position of the sun  It follows that by discovering that plane of polarisation, and measuring its azimuth with respect to the north, the position of the sun, although beneath the horizon, could be determined, and the apparent solar time obtained 
The clock consisted of a spyglass, having a Nicol (double-image) prism for an eyepiece, and a thin plate of selenite for an object-glass  When the tube was directed to the North Pole—that is, parallel to the Earth's axis—and the prism of the eyepiece turned until no colour was seen, the angle of turning, as shown by an index moving with the prism over a graduated limb, gave the hour of day  The device is of little service in a country where watches are reliable; but it formed part of the equipment of the 1875–1876 North Polar expedition commanded by Captain Nares 

Wheatstone bridge
In 1843 Wheatstone communicated an important paper to the Royal Society, entitled 'An Account of Several New Processes for Determining the Constants of a Voltaic Circuit ' It contained an exposition of the well known balance for measuring the electrical resistance of a conductor, which still goes by the name of Wheatstone's Bridge or balance, although it was first devised by Samuel Hunter Christie, of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, who published it in the Philosophical Transactions for 1833  The method was neglected until Wheatstone brought it into notice His paper abounds with simple and practical formulae for the calculation of currents and resistances by the law of Ohm  He introduced a unit of resistance, namely, a foot of copper wire weighing one hundred grains (6 5 g), and showed how it might be applied to measure the length of wire by its resistance  He was awarded a medal for his paper by the Society  The same year he invented an apparatus which enabled the reading of a thermometer or a barometer to be registered at a distance by means of an electric contact made by the mercury  A sound telegraph, in which the signals were given by the strokes of a bell, was also patented by Cooke and Wheatstone in May of that year 

Cryptography
Wheatstone's remarkable ingenuity was also displayed in the invention of ciphers  He was responsible for the then unusual Playfair cipher, named after his friend Lord Playfair  It was used by the militaries of several nations through at least World War I, and is known to have been used during World War II by British intelligence services It was initially resistant to cryptanalysis, but methods were eventually developed to break it  He also became involved in the interpretation of cipher manuscripts in the British Museum  He devised a cryptograph or machine for turning a message into cipher which could only be interpreted by putting the cipher into a corresponding machine adjusted to decrypt it 
As an amateur mathematician, Wheatstone published a mathematical proof in 1854 (see Cube (algebra)) 

Electrical generators
In 1840, Wheatstone brought out his magneto-electric machine for generating continuous currents 
On 4 February 1867, he published the principle of reaction in the dynamo-electric machine by a paper to the Royal Society; but Mr  C  W  Siemens had communicated the identical discovery ten days earlier, and both papers were read on the same day 
It afterwards appeared that Werner von Siemens, Samuel Alfred Varley, and Wheatstone had independently arrived at the principle within a few months of each other  Varley patented it on 24 December 1866; Siemens called attention to it on 17 January 1867; and Wheatstone exhibited it in action at the Royal Society on the above date 

Disputes over invention
Wheatstone was involved in various disputes with other scientists throughout his life regarding his role in different technologies and appeared at times to take more credit than he was due  As well as William Fothergill Cooke, Alexander Bain and David Brewster, mentioned above, these also included Francis Ronalds at the Kew Observatory  Wheatstone was erroneously believed by many to have created the atmospheric electricity observing apparatus that Ronalds invented and developed at the observatory in the 1840s and also to have installed the first automatic recording meteorological instruments there (see for example, Howarth, p158) 

Personal life
Wheatstone married Emma West, spinster, a daughter of John Hooke West, deceased, at Christ Church, Marylebone, on 12 February 1847  The marriage was by licence 

See also
William Fothergill Cooke
Oliver Heaviside
Context 2: Passage 1:
Elizabeth of Carinthia, Queen of Germany
Elisabeth of Carinthia (also known as Elisabeth of Tyrol; c  1262 – 28 October 1312), was a Duchess of Austria from 1282 and Queen of the Romans from 1298 until 1308, by marriage to King Albert I of Habsburg 

Life
Born in Munich, Bavaria, Elisabeth was the eldest daughter of Count Meinhard of Gorizia-Tyrol, and Elizabeth of Bavaria, Queen of Germany, widow of the late Hohenstaufen King Conrad IV of Germany  
Elizabeth thus was a half-sister of Conradin, King of Jerusalem and Duke of Swabia  Elizabeth was in fact better connected to powerful German rulers than her future husband: a descendant of earlier monarchs, for example Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, she was also a niece of the Bavarian dukes, Austria's important neighbors 

Duchess and Queen
Elisabeth was married in Vienna on 20 December 1274 to Count Albert I of Habsburg, eldest son and heir of the newly elected Rudolf I, King of the Romans, thus becoming daughter-in-law of the King of the Romans and Emperor-to-be  After Rudolf had defeated his rival King Ottokar II of Bohemia in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld, he invested his son Albert with the duchies of Austria and Styria at the Imperial Diet in Augsburg on 17 December 1282 Albert initially had to share the rule with his younger brother Rudolf II, who nevertheless had to waive his rights according to the Treaty of Rheinfelden the next year  Duke Albert and Elizabeth solidified their rule in what was to become the Habsburg "hereditary lands", also with the help of Elizabeth's father Meinhard, who in his turn was created Duke of Carinthia by King Rudolf I in 1286 Elizabeth was described as shrewd and enterprising, in possession of some commercial talents  The construction of the Saline plant in Salzkammergut goes back to her suggestion  
Upon the death of Albert's father in 1291, the princes elected Count Adolf of Nassau German king, while Duke Albert himself became entangled in internal struggles with the Austrian nobility  Not until Adolf's deposition in 1298, Elizabeth's husband was finally elected King of the Romans on 23 June 1298  Two weeks later, Adolf was defeated and killed in the Battle of Göllheim  In 1299, Elizabeth was crowned Queen of the Romans in Nuremberg 

Later life
On 1 May 1308 her husband was murdered by his nephew John "the Parricide" near Windisch, Swabia (in modern-day Switzerland)  After Albert's assassination, Elizabeth had the Poor Clare monastery of Königsfelden erected at the site, where she died on 28 October 1312 and was also buried  Today her mortal remains rest at Saint Paul's Abbey in Carinthia 

Issue
Elizabeth's and Albert's children were:

Anna (1275, Vienna – 19 March 1327, Breslau) 
married in Graz ca  1295 to Margrave Herman, Margrave of Brandenburg-Salzwedel (ca  1275 – 1308);
married in Breslau 1310 to Duke Heinrich VI of Breslau (1294-1335) 
Agnes (18 May 1281 – 10 June 1364, Königsfelden)
married in Vienna on 13 February 1296 to King Andrew III of Hungary (ca  1265-1301) 
Rudolf III (ca  1282 – 4 July 1307), married but line extinct  He predeceased his father 
married on 25 May 1300 to Duchess Blanche of France (ca  1282 – 1305);
married in Prague on 16 October 1306 to Elizabeth Richeza of Poland (1288 – 1335) 
Elisabeth (1285 – 19 May 1353) 
married in 1304 to Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (1282 – 1328) 
Frederick I (1289 – 13 January 1330) 
married on 11 May 1315 to Isabella of Aragon, Queen of Germany (1305 – 1330) but line extinct 
Leopold I (4 August 1290 – 28 February 1326, Strassburg) 
married in 1315 to Catherine of Savoy (1284 – 1336) 
Catherine (1295 – 18 January 1323, Naples) 
married in 1316 to Charles, Duke of Calabria (1328 – 1298) 
Albert II (12 December 1298, Vienna – 20 July 1358, Vienna) 
married in Vienna on 15 February 1324 to Joanna of Pfirt (ca  1300 – 1351) 
Henry the Gentle (1299 – 3 February 1327, Bruck an der Mur) 
married Countess Elizabeth of Virneburg but line extinct 
Meinhard (1300 – 1301) 
Otto (23 July 1301, Vienna – 26 February 1339, Vienna) 
married on 15 May 1325 to Elizabeth of Bavaria, Duchess of Austria (ca  1306 – 1330);
married on 16 February 1335 to Anne of Bohemia, Duchess of Austria (1323 – 1338) 
Jutta (1302 – 5 March 1329) 
married in Baden 26 March 1319 to Count Ludwig VI of Öttingen 
Passage 2:
John de Bohun, 5th Earl of Hereford
John de Bohun, 5th Earl of Hereford (23 November 1306 – 20 January 1336) was born in St Clement's, Oxford to Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford and Elizabeth of Rhuddlan, a daughter of Edward I of England 
After his father's death at the Battle of Boroughbridge, the family lands were forfeited  It was not until after the fall of the Despensers that John was permitted to succeed to his inherited position as Earl of Hereford and Essex, hereditary Constable of England, and Lord of Brecknock 

Marriages
He married firstly, in 1325, to Alice FitzAlan (died 1326), daughter of Edmund FitzAlan, 2nd Earl of Arundel, and secondly to Margaret Basset (died 1355)  After the marriage, it was discovered that the couple were related to the fourth degree of consanguinity and they were forced to live apart  An appeal to Pope John XXII resulted on 19 February 1331 in a papal commission to the bishops of Lichfield and London to hold an enquiry into the case  However, Roger Northburgh, the Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, failed to act and the case was still pending when the Pope issued a further demand for an enquiry in 1334 

Death
He did not play much of a public role, despite his high titles and offices, most likely because he had some sort of incapacity  His younger brothers were often deputed to fulfil his duties as Constable  He died at Kirkby Thore, Westmorland and was interred in Stratford Langthorne Abbey, London 


== Notes ==
Passage 3:
Edward I of England
Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307  Concurrently, he was Lord of Ireland, and from 1254 to 1306, he ruled Gascony as Duke of Aquitaine in his capacity as a vassal of the French king  Before his accession to the throne, he was commonly referred to as the Lord Edward  The eldest son of Henry III, Edward was involved from an early age in the political intrigues of his father's reign  In 1259, he briefly sided with a baronial reform movement, supporting the Provisions of Oxford  After reconciliation with his father, he remained loyal throughout the subsequent armed conflict, known as the Second Barons' War  After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was held hostage by the rebellious barons, but escaped after a few months and defeated the baronial leader Simon de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham in 1265  Within two years the rebellion was extinguished and, with England pacified, Edward left to join the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1270  He was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed of his father's death  Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster Abbey 
Edward spent much of his reign reforming royal administration and common law  Through an extensive legal inquiry, he investigated the tenure of several feudal liberties  The law was reformed through a series of statutes regulating criminal and property law, but the King's attention was increasingly drawn toward military affairs  After suppressing a minor conflict in Wales in 1276–77, Edward responded to a second one in 1282–83 by conquering Wales  He then established English rule, built castles and towns in the countryside and settled them with English people  After the death of the heir to the Scottish throne, Edward was invited to arbitrate a succession dispute  He claimed feudal suzerainty over Scotland and invaded the country, and the ensuing First Scottish War of Independence continued after his death  Simultaneously, Edward found himself at war with France (a Scottish ally) after King Philip IV confiscated the Duchy of Gascony  The duchy was eventually recovered but the conflict relieved English military pressure against Scotland  By the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation and this met with both lay and ecclesiastical opposition  When the King died in 1307, he left to his son Edward II a war with Scotland and other financial and political burdens 
Edward's temperamental nature and height made him an intimidating figure and he often instilled fear in his contemporaries, although he held the respect of his subjects for the way he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship as a soldier, an administrator and a man of faith  Modern historians are divided in their assessment of Edward; some have praised him for his contribution to the law and administration, but others have criticised his uncompromising attitude towards his nobility  Edward is credited with many accomplishments, including restoring royal authority after the reign of Henry III and establishing Parliament as a permanent institution, which allowed for a functional system for raising taxes and reforming the law through statutes  At the same time, he is also often condemned for his wars against Scotland and for expelling the Jews from England in 1290 

Early years, 1239–1263
Childhood and marriage
Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on the night of 17–18 June 1239, to King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence  Edward, an Anglo-Saxon name, was not commonly given among the aristocracy of England after the Norman conquest, but Henry was devoted to the veneration of Edward the Confessor and decided to name his firstborn son after the saint  Edward's birth was widely celebrated at the royal court and throughout England, and he was baptised three days later at Westminster Abbey  He was commonly referred to as the Lord Edward until his accession to the throne in 1272  Among his childhood friends was his cousin Henry of Almain, son of King Henry's brother Richard of Cornwall  Henry of Almain remained a close companion of the prince for the rest of his life  Edward was placed in the care of Hugh Giffard – father of the future Chancellor Godfrey Giffard – until Bartholomew Pecche took over at Giffard's death in 1246  Edward received an education typical of an aristocratic boy his age, including in military studies, although the details of his upbringing are unknown There were concerns about Edward's health as a child, and he fell ill in 1246, 1247, and 1251  Nonetheless, he grew up to become a strong, athletic, and imposing man  At 6 ft 2 in (188 cm) he towered over most of his contemporaries, hence his epithet "Longshanks", meaning "long legs" or "long shins"  The historian Michael Prestwich states that his "long arms gave him an advantage as a swordsman, long thighs one as a horseman  In youth, his curly hair was blond; in maturity it darkened, and in old age it turned white  The regularity of his features was marred by a drooping left eyelid     His speech, despite a lisp, was said to be persuasive "In 1254, English fears of a Castilian invasion of the English-held province of Gascony induced King Henry to arrange a politically expedient marriage between fifteen-year-old Edward and thirteen-year-old Eleanor, the half-sister of King Alfonso X of Castile  They were married on 1 November 1254 in the Abbey of Santa María la Real de Las Huelgas in Castile  As part of the marriage agreement, Alfonso X gave up his claims to Gascony, and Edward received grants of land worth 15,000 marks a year  The marriage eventually led to the English acquisition of Ponthieu in 1279 upon Eleanor's inheritance of the county  Henry made sizeable endowments to Edward in 1254, including Gascony; most of Ireland, which was granted to Edward with the stipulation that it would never be separated from the English crown; and much land in Wales and England, including the Earldom of Chester  They offered Edward little independence for Henry retained much control over the land in question, particularly in Ireland, and benefited from most of the income from those lands  Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester had been appointed as royal lieutenant of Gascony the year before and drew its income, so in practice Edward derived neither authority nor revenue from this province  Around the end of November, Edward and Eleanor left Castile and entered Gascony, where they were warmly received by the populace  Here, Edward styled himself as "ruling Gascony as prince and lord", a move that the historian J  S  Hamilton states was a show of his blooming political independence From 1254 to 1257, Edward was under the influence of his mother's relatives, known as the Savoyards, the most notable of whom was Peter II of Savoy, the Queen's uncle  After 1257, Edward became increasingly close to the Lusignan faction – the half-brothers of his father Henry III – led by such men as William de Valence  This association was significant because the two groups of privileged foreigners were resented by the established English aristocracy, who would be at the centre of the ensuing years' baronial reform movement  Edward's ties to his Lusignan kinsmen were viewed unfavourably by contemporaries, including the chronicler Matthew Paris, who circulated tales of unruly and violent conduct by Edward's inner circle, which raised questions about his personal qualities 

Early ambitions
Edward showed independence in political matters as early as 1255, when he sided with the Soler family in Gascony in their conflict with the Colomb family  This ran contrary to his father's policy of mediation between the local factions  In May 1258, a group of magnates drew up a document for reform of the King's government – the so-called Provisions of Oxford – largely directed against the Lusignans  Edward stood by his political allies and strongly opposed the Provisions  The reform movement succeeded in limiting the Lusignan influence, and Edward's attitude gradually changed  In March 1259, he entered into a formal alliance with one of the main reformers, Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Gloucester and on 15 October announced that he supported the barons' goals, and their leader, the Earl of Leicester The motive behind Edward's change of heart could have been purely pragmatic: the Earl of Leicester was in a good position to support his cause in Gascony  When the King left for France in November, Edward's behaviour turned into pure insubordination  He made several appointments to advance the cause of the reformers, and his father believed that Edward was considering a coup d'état  When Henry returned from France, he initially refused to see his son, but through the mediation of Richard of Cornwall and Boniface, Archbishop of Canterbury, the two were eventually reconciled  Edward was sent abroad to France, and in November 1260 he again united with the Lusignans, who had been exiled there Back in England, early in 1262, Edward fell out with some of his former Lusignan allies over financial matters  The next year, King Henry sent him on a campaign in Wales against the Welsh prince Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, but Edward's forces were besieged in northern Wales and achieved only limited results  Around the same time, Leicester, who had been out of the country since 1261, returned to England and reignited the baronial reform movement  As the King seemed ready to give in to the barons' demands, Edward began to take control of the situation  From his previously unpredictable and equivocating attitude, he changed to one of firm devotion to protection of his father's royal rights  He reunited with some of the men he had alienated the year before – including Henry of Almain and John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey – and retook Windsor Castle from the rebels  Through the arbitration of King Louis IX of France an agreement was made between the two parties  This Mise of Amiens was largely favourable to the royalist side and would cause further conflict 

Civil war and crusades, 1264–1273
Second Barons' War
The years 1264–1267 saw the conflict known as the Second Barons' War, in which baronial forces led by the Earl of Leicester fought against those who remained loyal to the King  Edward initiated the armed conflict by capturing the rebel-held city of Gloucester  When Robert de Ferrers, 6th Earl of Derby, came to the assistance of the baronial forces, Edward negotiated a truce with the Earl  Edward later broke the terms of the agreement  He then captured Northampton from Simon de Montfort the Younger before embarking on a retaliatory campaign against Derby's lands  The baronial and royalist forces met at the Battle of Lewes, on 14 May 1264  Edward, commanding the right wing, performed well, and soon defeated the London contingent of the Earl of Leicester's forces  Unwisely, he pursued the scattered enemy, and on his return found the rest of the royal army defeated  By the Mise of Lewes, Edward and his cousin Henry of Almain were given up as hostages to Leicester 
Edward remained in captivity until March 1265, and even after his release he was kept under strict surveillance  In Hereford, he escaped on 28 May while out riding and joined up with Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Gloucester, who had recently defected to the King's side  The Earl of Leicester's support was now dwindling, and Edward retook Worcester and Gloucester with little effort  Meanwhile, Leicester had made an alliance with Llywelyn and started moving east to join forces with his son Simon  Edward made a surprise attack at Kenilworth Castle, where the younger Montfort was quartered, before moving on to cut off the Earl of Leicester  The two forces then met at the Battle of Evesham, on 4 August 1265  The Earl of Leicester stood little chance against the superior royal forces, and after his defeat he was killed and mutilated on the field Through such episodes as the deception of Derby at Gloucester, Edward acquired a reputation as untrustworthy  During the summer campaign he began to learn from his mistakes and gained the respect and admiration of contemporaries through actions such as showing clemency towards his enemies  The war did not end with the Earl of Leicester's death, and Edward participated in the continued campaigning  At Christmas, he came to terms with Simon the Younger and his associates at the Isle of Axholme in Lincolnshire, and in March he led a successful assault on the Cinque Ports  A contingent of rebels held out in the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle and did not surrender until the drafting of the conciliatory Dictum of Kenilworth in October 1266  In April it seemed as if the Earl of Gloucester would take up the cause of the reform movement, and civil war would resume, but after a renegotiation of the terms of the Dictum of Kenilworth, the parties came to an agreement  Around this time, Edward was made steward of England and began to exercise influence in the government  He was also appointed Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports in 1265  Despite this, he was little involved in the settlement negotiations following the wars  His main focus was on planning his forthcoming crusade 

Crusade and accession
Edward pledged himself to undertake a crusade in an elaborate ceremony on 24 June 1268, with his brother Edmund Crouchback and cousin Henry of Almain  Some of Edward's former adversaries, such as John de Vescy and the 7th Earl of Gloucester, similarly committed themselves, although some, like Gloucester, did not ultimately participate  With the country pacified, the greatest impediment to the project was acquiring sufficient finances  King Louis IX of France, who was the leader of the crusade, provided a loan of about £17,500  This was not enough, and the rest had to be raised through a direct tax on the laity, which had not been levied since 1237  In May 1270, Parliament granted a tax of one-twentieth of all movable property; in exchange the King agreed to reconfirm the Magna Carta, and to impose restrictions on Jewish money lending  On 20 August Edward sailed from Dover for France  Historians have not determined the size of his accompanying force with any certainty, but it was probably fewer than 1000 men, including around 225 knights Originally, the Crusaders intended to relieve the beleaguered Christian stronghold of Acre in Palestine, but King Louis and his brother Charles of Anjou, the king of Sicily, decided to attack the emirate of Tunis to establish a stronghold in North Africa  The plans failed when the French forces were struck by an epidemic which, on 25 August, killed Louis himself  By the time Edward arrived at Tunis, Charles had already signed a treaty with the Emir, and there was little to do but return to Sicily  Further military action was postponed until the following spring, but a devastating storm off the coast of Sicily dissuaded both Charles and Philip III, Louis' successor, from any further campaigning  Edward decided to continue alone, and on 9 May 1271 he finally landed at Acre The Christian situation in the Holy Land was precarious  Jerusalem had been reconquered by the Muslims in 1244, and Acre was now the centre of the Kingdom of Jerusalem  The Muslim states were on the offensive under the Mamluk leadership of Baibars, and were threatening Acre  Though Edward's men were an important addition to the garrison, they stood little chance against Baibars' superior forces, and an initial raid at nearby St Georges-de-Lebeyne in June was largely futile  An embassy to the Ilkhan Abaqa of the Mongols helped bring about an attack on Aleppo in the north, which distracted Baibars' forces  The Mongol invasion ultimately failed  In November, Edward led a raid on Qaqun, which could have served as a bridgehead to Jerusalem, but this was unsuccessful  The situation in Acre grew desperate, and in May 1272 Hugh III of Cyprus, who was the nominal king of Jerusalem, signed a ten-year truce with Baibars  Edward was initially defiant, but in June 1272 he was the victim of an assassination attempt by a member of the Syrian Order of Assassins, supposedly ordered by Baibars  Although he managed to kill the assassin, he was struck in the arm by a dagger feared to be poisoned, and was severely weakened over the following months  This finally persuaded Edward to abandon the campaign It was not until 24 September 1272 that Edward left Acre  Shortly after arriving in Sicily, he was met with the news that his father had died on 16 November  Edward was deeply saddened by this news, but rather than hurrying home at once, he made a leisurely journey northwards  This was due partly to his still-poor health, but also to a lack of urgency  The political situation in England was stable after the mid-century upheavals, and Edward was proclaimed king after his father's death, rather than at his own coronation, as had until then been customary  In Edward's absence, the country was governed by a royal council, led by Robert Burnell  Edward passed through Italy and France, visiting Pope Gregory X and paying homage to Philip III in Paris for his French domains  Edward travelled by way of Savoy to receive homage from his uncle Count Philip I for castles in the Alps held by a treaty of 1246 Edward then journeyed to Gascony to order its affairs and put down a revolt headed by Gaston de Béarn  While there, he launched an investigation into his feudal possessions, which, as Hamilton puts it, reflects "Edward's keen interest in administrative efficiency     [and] reinforced Edward's position as lord in Aquitaine and strengthened the bonds of loyalty between the king-duke and his subjects"  Around the same time, the King organised political alliances with the kingdoms in Iberia  His four-year-old daughter Eleanor was promised in marriage to Alfonso, the heir to the Kingdom of Aragon, and Edward's heir Henry was betrothed to Joan, heiress to the Kingdom of Navarre  Neither union would come to fruition  Only on 2 August 1274 did Edward return to England, landing at Dover  The thirty-five-year-old king held his coronation on 19 August at Westminster Abbey, alongside Queen Eleanor  Immediately after being anointed and crowned by Robert Kilwardby, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Edward removed his crown, saying that he did not intend to wear it again until he had recovered all the crown lands that his father had surrendered during his reign 

Early reign, 1274–1296
Conquest of Wales
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd enjoyed an advantageous situation in the aftermath of the Barons' War  The 1267 Treaty of Montgomery recognised his ownership of land he had conquered in the Four Cantrefs of Perfeddwlad and his title of Prince of Wales  Armed conflicts nevertheless continued, in particular with certain dissatisfied Marcher Lords, such as the Earl of Gloucester, Roger Mortimer and Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford  Problems were exacerbated when Llywelyn's younger brother Dafydd and Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn of Powys, after failing in an assassination attempt against Llywelyn, defected to the English in 1274  Citing ongoing hostilities and Edward's harbouring of his enemies, Llywelyn refused to do homage to the King  For Edward, a further provocation came from Llywelyn's planned marriage to Eleanor, daughter of Simon de Montfort the Elder In November 1276, Edward declared war  Initial operations were launched under the captaincy of Mortimer, Edward's brother Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, and William de Beauchamp, 9th Earl of Warwick  Support for Llywelyn was weak among his own countrymen  In July 1277 Edward invaded with a force of 15,500, of whom 9,000 were Welshmen  The campaign never came to a major battle, and Llywelyn soon realised he had no choice but to surrender  By the Treaty of Aberconwy in November 1277, he was left only with the land of Gwynedd, though he was allowed to retain the title of Prince of Wales When war broke out again in 1282, it was an entirely different undertaking  For the Welsh, this war was over national identity, enjoying wide support, provoked particularly by attempts to impose English law on Welsh subjects  For Edward, it became a war of conquest rather than simply a punitive expedition, like the former campaign  The war started with a rebellion by Dafydd, who was discontented with the reward he had received from Edward in 1277  Llywelyn and other Welsh chieftains soon joined in, and initially the Welsh experienced military success  In June, Gloucester was defeated at the Battle of Llandeilo Fawr  On 6 November, while John Peckham, Archbishop of Canterbury, was conducting peace negotiations, Edward's commander of Anglesey, Luke de Tany, decided to carry out a surprise attack  A pontoon bridge had been built to the mainland, but shortly after Tany and his men crossed over, they were ambushed by the Welsh and suffered heavy losses at the Battle of Moel-y-don  The Welsh advances ended on 11 December, when Llywelyn was lured into a trap and killed at the Battle of Orewin Bridge  The conquest of Gwynedd was complete with the capture in June 1283 of Dafydd, who was taken to Shrewsbury and executed as a traitor the following autumn; Edward ordered Dafydd's head to be publicly exhibited on London Bridge  Further rebellions occurred in 1287–88 and, more seriously, in 1294, under the leadership of Madog ap Llywelyn, a distant relative of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd  This last conflict demanded the King's own attention, but in both cases the rebellions were put down 
By the 1284 Statute of Rhuddlan, the principality of Wales was incorporated into England and was given an administrative system like the English, with counties policed by sheriffs  English law was introduced in criminal cases, though the Welsh were allowed to maintain their own customary laws in some cases of property disputes  After 1277, and increasingly after 1283, Edward embarked on a project of English settlement of Wales, creating new towns like Flint, Aberystwyth and Rhuddlan  Their new residents were English migrants, the local Welsh being banned from living inside them, and many were protected by extensive walls An extensive project of castle-building was also initiated, under the direction of James of Saint George, a prestigious architect whom Edward had met in Savoy on his return from the crusade  These included the Beaumaris, Caernarfon, Conwy and Harlech castles, intended to act both as fortresses and royal palaces for the King  His programme of castle building in Wales heralded the introduction of the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern architectural influences  Also a product of the Crusades was the introduction of the concentric castle, and four of the eight castles Edward founded in Wales followed this design  The castles drew on imagery associated with the Byzantine Empire and King Arthur in an attempt to build legitimacy for his new regime, and they made a clear statement about Edward's intention to rule Wales permanently In 1284, King Edward had his son Edward (later Edward II) born at Caernarfon Castle, probably to make a deliberate statement about the new political order in Wales  David Powel, a 16th-century clergyman, suggested that the baby was offered to the Welsh as a prince "that was borne in Wales and could speake never a word of English", but there is no evidence to support this widely reported account  In 1301 at Lincoln, the young Edward became the first English prince to be invested with the title of Prince of Wales, when the King granted him the Earldom of Chester and lands across North Wales  The King seems to have hoped that this would help in the pacification of the region, and that it would give his son more financial independence 

Diplomacy and war on the Continent
Edward never again went on crusade after his return to England in 1274, but he maintained an intention to do so, and in 1287 took a vow to go on another Crusade  This intention guided much of his foreign policy, until at least 1291  To stage a European-wide crusade, it was essential to prevent conflict between the sovereigns on the Continent  A major obstacle to this was represented by the conflict between the French Capetian House of Anjou ruling southern Italy and the Kingdom of Aragon in Spain  In 1282, the citizens of Palermo rose up against Charles of Anjou and turned for help to Peter III of Aragon, in what has become known as the Sicilian Vespers  In the war that followed, Charles of Anjou's son, Charles of Salerno, was taken prisoner by the Aragonese  The French began planning an attack on Aragon, raising the prospect of a large-scale European war  To Edward, it was imperative that such a war be avoided, and in Paris in 1286 he brokered a truce between France and Aragon that helped secure Charles's release  As far as the crusades were concerned, Edward's efforts proved ineffective  A devastating blow to his plans came in 1291, when the Mamluks captured Acre, the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land Edward had long been deeply involved in the affairs of his own Duchy of Gascony  In 1278 he assigned an investigating commission to his trusted associates Otto de Grandson and the chancellor Robert Burnell, which caused the replacement of the seneschal Luke de Tany  In 1286, Edward visited the region himself and stayed for almost three years  The perennial problem was the status of Gascony within the Kingdom of France, and Edward's role as the French king's vassal  On his diplomatic mission in 1286, Edward had paid homage to the new king, Philip IV, but in 1294 Philip declared Gascony forfeit when Edward refused to appear before him in Paris to discuss the recent conflict between English, Gascon, and French sailors that had resulted in several French ships being captured, along with the sacking of the French port of La Rochelle Correspondence between Edward and the Mongol court of the east continued during this time  Diplomatic channels between the two had begun during Edward's time on crusade, regarding a possible alliance to retake the Holy Land for Europe  Edward received Mongol envoys at his court in Gascony while there in 1287, and one of their leaders, Rabban Bar Sauma, recorded an extant account of the interaction  Other embassies arrived in Europe in 1289 and 1290, the former relaying Ilkhan Abaqa's offer to join forces with the crusaders and supply them with horses  Edward responded favourably, declaring his intent to embark on a journey to the east once he obtained papal approval  Although this would not materialise, the King's decision to send Geoffrey of Langley as his ambassador to the Mongols revealed that he was seriously considering the prospective Mongol alliance Eleanor of Castile died on 28 November 1290  The couple loved each other, and like his father, Edward was very devoted to his wife and was faithful to her throughout their marriage  He was deeply affected by her death, and displayed his grief by erecting twelve so-called Eleanor crosses, one at each place where her funeral cortège stopped for the night  As part of the peace accord between England and France in 1294, it was agreed that Edward should marry Philip IV's half-sister Margaret, but the marriage was delayed by the outbreak of war  Edward made alliances with the German king, the counts of Flanders and Guelders, and the Burgundians, who would attack France from the north  The alliances proved volatile and Edward was facing trouble at home at the time, both in Wales and Scotland  It was not until August 1297 that he was finally able to sail for Flanders, at which time his allies there had already suffered defeat  The support from Germany never materialised, and Edward was forced to seek peace  His marriage to Margaret in 1299 ended the war, but the whole affair had proven both costly and fruitless for the English  French possession of Gascony would not end until 1303, at which point it was partially returned to the English crown 

Great Cause
The relationship between England and Scotland by the 1280s was one of relatively harmonious coexistence  The issue of homage did not reach the same level of controversy as it did in Wales; in 1278 King Alexander III of Scotland paid homage to Edward, who was his brother-in-law, but apparently only for the lands he held in England  Problems arose only with the Scottish succession crisis of the early 1290s  When Alexander died in 1286, he left as heir to the Scottish throne Margaret, his three-year-old granddaughter and sole surviving descendant  By the Treaty of Birgham, it was agreed that Margaret should marry King Edward's six-year-old son Edward of Carnarvon, though Scotland would remain free of English overlordship  Margaret, by now seven years of age, sailed from Norway for Scotland in the autumn of 1290, but fell ill on the way and died in Orkney  This left the country without an obvious heir, and led to the succession dispute known to history as the Great Cause Even though as many as fourteen claimants put forward their claims to the title, the foremost competitors were John Balliol and Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale  The Scottish magnates made a request to Edward to conduct the proceedings and administer the outcome, but not to arbitrate in the dispute  The actual decision would be made by 104 auditors – 40 appointed by Balliol, 40 by Brus and the remaining 24 selected by Edward from senior members of the Scottish political community  At Birgham, with the prospect of a personal union between the two realms, the question of suzerainty had not been of great importance to Edward



ground_truth: Charles Wheatstone

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What nationality is Elizabeth Of Rhuddlan's father?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  Now he insisted that, if he were to settle the contest, he had to be fully recognised as Scotland's feudal overlord  The Scots were reluctant to make such a concession, and replied that since the country had no king, no one had the authority to make this decision  This problem was circumvented when the competitors agreed that the realm would be handed over to Edward until a rightful heir had been found  After a lengthy hearing, a decision was made in favour of John Balliol on 17 November 1292 Even after Balliol's accession, Edward still continued to assert his authority over Scotland  Against the objections of the Scots, he agreed to hear appeals on cases ruled on by the court of guardians that had governed Scotland during the interregnum  A further provocation came in a case brought by Macduff, son of Malcolm II, Earl of Fife, in which Edward demanded that Balliol appear in person before the English Parliament to answer the charges  This the Scottish King did, but the final straw was Edward's demand that the Scottish magnates provide military service in the war against France  This was unacceptable; the Scots instead formed an alliance with France and launched an unsuccessful attack on Carlisle  Edward responded by invading Scotland in 1296 and taking the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed in a particularly bloody attack  At the Battle of Dunbar, Scottish resistance was effectively crushed  Edward confiscated the Stone of Destiny – the Scottish coronation stone – and brought it to Westminster, placing it in what became known as King Edward's Chair; he deposed Balliol and placed him in the Tower of London, and installed Englishmen to govern the country  The campaign had been very successful, but the English triumph would be only temporary 

Government and law
Character as king
Edward had a reputation for a fierce and sometimes unpredictable temper, and he could be intimidating; one story tells of how the Dean of St Paul's, wishing to confront Edward over the high level of taxation in 1295, fell down and died once he was in the King's presence, and one 14th-century chronicler attributed the death of Archbishop Thomas of York to the King's harsh conduct towards him  When Edward of Caernarfon demanded an earldom for his favourite Piers Gaveston, the King erupted in anger and supposedly tore out handfuls of his son's hair  Some of his contemporaries considered Edward frightening, particularly in his early days  The Song of Lewes in 1264 described him as a leopard, an animal regarded as particularly powerful and unpredictable  At times, Edward exhibited a gentler disposition, and was known to be devoted to his large family  He was close to his daughters, and frequently lavished expensive gifts on them whenever they visited court Despite his harsh disposition, Edward's contemporaries considered him an able, even an ideal, king  Though not loved by his subjects, he was feared and respected, as reflected in the fact that there were no armed rebellions in England during his reign  Edward met contemporary expectations of kingship in his role as an able, determined soldier and in his embodiment of shared chivalric ideals  In religious observance he also fulfilled the expectations of his age: he attended chapel regularly, gave alms generously and showed a fervent devotion to the Virgin Mary and Saint Thomas Becket  Like his father, Edward was a keen participant in the tradition of the royal touch, which had the supposed effect of curing those who were touched from scrofula  Contemporary records suggest that the King touched upwards of a thousand people each year  Despite his personal piety, Edward was frequently in conflict with the Archbishops of Canterbury who served during his reign  Relations with the Papacy were at times no better, Edward coming into conflict with Rome over the issue of ecclesiastical taxation Edward took a keen interest in the stories of King Arthur, which were highly popular in Europe during his reign  In 1278 he visited Glastonbury Abbey to open what was then believed to be the tomb of Arthur and Guinevere, recovering "Arthur's crown" from Llywelyn after the conquest of North Wales; his castle-building campaign in Wales drew upon the Arthurian myths in their design and location  He held "Round Table" events in 1284 and 1302, involving tournaments and feasting, and chroniclers compared him and the events at his court to Arthur  In some cases Edward appears to have used his interest in the Arthurian myths to serve his own political interests, including legitimising his rule in Wales and discrediting the Welsh belief that Arthur might return as their political saviour 

Administration and the law
Soon after assuming the throne, Edward set about restoring order and re-establishing royal authority after the troubled reign of his father  To accomplish this, he immediately ordered an extensive change of administrative personnel  The most important of these was the designation of Robert Burnell as chancellor in 1274, a man who would remain in the post until 1292 as one of the King's closest associates  The same year as Burnell's appointment, Edward replaced most local officials, such as the escheators and sheriffs  This last measure was taken in preparation for an extensive inquest covering all of England, that would hear complaints about abuse of power by royal officers  The second purpose of the inquest was to establish what land and rights the Crown had lost during the reign of Henry III The inquest produced a set of census documents called the Hundred Rolls  These have been likened to the 11th-century Domesday Book, and they formed the basis for the later legal inquiries called the Quo warranto proceedings  The purpose of these inquiries was to establish by what warrant (Latin: Quo warranto) liberties were held  If the defendant could not produce a royal licence to prove the grant of the liberty, then it was the Crown's opinion – based on the writings of the influential thirteenth-century legal scholar Henry de Bracton – that the liberty should revert to the King  Both the Statute of Westminster 1275 and Statute of Westminster 1285 codified the existing law in England  By enacting the Statute of Gloucester in 1278 the King challenged baronial rights through a revival of the system of general eyres (royal justices to go on tour throughout the land) and through a significant increase in the number of pleas of quo warranto to be heard by such eyres This caused great consternation among the aristocracy, who insisted that long use in itself constituted licence  A compromise was eventually reached in 1290, whereby a liberty was considered legitimate as long as it could be shown to have been exercised since the coronation of Richard the Lionheart in 1189  Royal gains from the Quo warranto proceedings were insignificant as few liberties were returned to the King, but he had nevertheless won a significant victory by establishing the principle that all liberties emanated from the Crown The 1290 statute of Quo warranto was only one part of a wider legislative reform, which was one of the most important contributions of Edward's reign  This era of legislative action had started already at the time of the baronial reform movement; the Statute of Marlborough (1267) contained elements both of the Provisions of Oxford and the Dictum of Kenilworth  The compilation of the Hundred Rolls was followed shortly after by the issue of Westminster I (1275), which asserted the royal prerogative and outlined restrictions on liberties  The Statutes of Mortmain (1279) addressed the issue of land grants to the Church  The first clause of Westminster II (1285), known as De donis conditionalibus, dealt with family settlement of land, and entails  The Statute of Merchants (1285) established firm rules for the recovery of debts, and the Statute of Winchester (1285) dealt with security and peacekeeping on a local level by bolstering the existing police system  Quia emptores (1290) – issued along with Quo warranto – set out to remedy land ownership disputes resulting from alienation of land by subinfeudation  The age of the great statutes largely ended with the death of Robert Burnell in 1292 

Finances, the expulsion of Jews, and Parliament
Edward's reign saw an overhaul of the coinage system, which was in a poor state by 1279  Compared to the coinage already circulating at the time of Edward's accession, the new coins issued proved to be of superior quality  In addition to minting pennies, halfpences and farthings, a new denomination called the groat (which proved to be unsuccessful) was introduced  The coinmaking process itself was also improved  The moneyer William Turnemire introduced a novel method of minting coins that involved cutting blank coins from a silver rod, in contrast with the old practice of stamping them out from sheets; this technique proved to be efficient  The practice of minting coins with the moneyer's name on them became obsolete under Edward's rule because England's mint administration became far more centralised under the Crown's authority  During this time, English coins were frequently counterfeited on the Continent, especially the Low Countries, and despite a ban in 1283, English coinage was secretly exported to the European continent  In August 1280, Edward forbade the usage of the old long cross coinage, which forced the populace to switch to the newly minted versions  Records indicate that the coinage overhaul successfully provided England with a stable currency 
Edward's frequent military campaigns put a great financial strain on the nation  There were several ways through which the King could raise money for war, including customs duties, money borrowing and lay subsidies, which were taxes collected at a certain fraction of the moveable property of all laymen who held such assets  In 1275, Edward negotiated an agreement with the domestic merchant community that secured a permanent duty on wool, England's primary export  In 1303, a similar agreement was reached with foreign merchants, in return for certain rights and privileges  The revenues from the customs duty were handled by the Riccardi, a group of bankers from Lucca in Italy  This was in return for their service as moneylenders to the crown, which helped finance the Welsh Wars  When the war with France broke out, the French king confiscated the Riccardi's assets, and the bank went bankrupt  After this, the Frescobaldi of Florence took over the role as money lenders to the English crown Another source of crown income was represented by the English Jews  The Jews were the King's personal property, and he was free to tax them at will  By 1280, the Jews had been exploited to a level at which they were no longer of much financial use to the crown, but they could still be used in political bargaining  Their loan-with-interest business – a practice forbidden to Christians – had made many people indebted to them and caused general popular resentment  In 1275, Edward had issued the Statute of the Jewry, which outlawed loan with interest and encouraged the Jews to take up other professions; in 1279, in the context of a crack-down on coin-clippers, he arrested all the heads of Jewish households in England and had around 300 of them executed  In 1280, he ordered all Jews to attend special sermons, preached by Dominican friars, with the hope of persuading them to convert, but these exhortations were not followed  The final attack on the Jews in England came in the Edict of Expulsion in 1290, whereby Edward formally expelled all Jews from England  This not only generated revenues through royal appropriation of Jewish loans and property, but it also gave Edward the political capital to negotiate a substantial lay subsidy in the 1290 Parliament  The expulsion, which was reversed in the 1650s, followed a precedent set by other European rulers, including Philip II of France, John I, Duke of Brittany and Louis IX of France Edward held Parliament on a regular basis throughout his reign  In 1295, a significant change occurred  For this Parliament, as well as the secular and ecclesiastical lords, two knights from each county and two representatives from each borough were summoned  The representation of commons in Parliament was nothing new; what was new was the authority under which these representatives were summoned  Whereas previously the commons had been expected simply to assent to decisions already made by the magnates, it was now proclaimed that they should meet with the full authority (plena potestas) of their communities, to give assent to decisions made in Parliament  The King now had full backing for collecting lay subsidies from the entire population  Whereas Henry III had only collected four of these in his reign, Edward collected nine  This format eventually became the standard for later Parliaments, and historians have named the assembly the "Model Parliament", a term first introduced by the English historian William Stubbs 

Later reign, 1297–1307
Constitutional crisis
The incessant warfare of the 1290s put a great financial demand on Edward's subjects  Whereas the King had levied only three lay subsidies until 1294, four such taxes were granted in the years 1294–1297, raising over £200,000  Along with this came the burden of prises, seizure of wool and hides, and the unpopular additional duty on wool, dubbed the maltolt ("unjustly taken")  The fiscal demands on the King's subjects caused resentment, which eventually led to serious political opposition  The initial resistance was caused not by the lay taxes, but by clerical subsidies  In 1294, Edward made a demand of a grant of one-half of all clerical revenues  There was some resistance, but the King responded by threatening opponents with outlawry, and the grant was eventually made  At the time, Robert Winchelsey, the designated Archbishop of Canterbury, was in Italy to receive consecration  Winchelsey returned in January 1295 and had to consent to another grant in November of that year  In 1296, his position changed when he received the papal bull Clericis laicos  This bull prohibited the clergy from paying taxes to lay authorities without explicit consent from the Pope  When the clergy, with reference to the bull, refused to pay, Edward responded with outlawry  Winchelsey was presented with a dilemma between loyalty to the King and upholding the papal bull, and he responded by leaving it to every individual clergyman to pay as he saw fit  By the end of the year, a solution was offered by the new papal bull Etsi de statu, which allowed clerical taxation in cases of pressing urgency  This allowed Edward to collect considerable sums by taxing the English clergy 

Opposition from the laity took longer to surface  This resistance focused on two things: the King's right to demand military service and his right to levy taxes  At the Salisbury Parliament of February 1297, the Earl Marshal Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk, objected to a royal summons of military service  Bigod argued that the military obligation only extended to service alongside the King; if the King intended to sail to Flanders, he could not send his subjects to Gascony  In July, Bigod and Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford and Constable of England, drew up a series of complaints known as the Remonstrances, in which objections to the extortionate level of taxation were voiced  Undeterred, Edward requested another lay subsidy  This one was particularly provocative, because the King had sought consent from only a small group of magnates, rather than from representatives of the communities in Parliament  While Edward was in Winchelsea, preparing for the campaign in Flanders, Bigod and de Bohun arrived at the Exchequer to prevent the collection of the tax  As the King left the country with a greatly reduced force, the kingdom seemed to be on the verge of civil war  The English defeat by the Scots at the Battle of Stirling Bridge resolved the situation  The renewed threat to the homeland gave king and magnates common cause  Edward signed the Confirmatio cartarum – a confirmation of the Magna Carta and its accompanying Charter of the Forest – and the nobility agreed to serve with the King on a campaign in Scotland Edward's problems with the opposition did not end with the Scottish campaign  Over the following years he would be held to the promises he had made, in particular that of upholding the Charter of the Forest  In the Parliament of 1301, the King was forced to order an assessment of the royal forests, but in 1305 he obtained a papal bull that freed him from this concession  Ultimately, it was a change in personnel that spelt the end of the opposition against Edward  De Bohun died late in 1298, after returning from the Scottish campaign  In 1302 Bigod arrived at an agreement with the King that was beneficial for both: Bigod, who had no children, made Edward his heir, in return for a generous annual grant  Edward finally got his revenge on Winchelsey, who had been opposed to the King's policy of clerical taxation, in 1305, when Clement V was elected pope  Clement was a Gascon sympathetic to the King, and on Edward's instigation had Winchelsey suspended from office 

Return to Scotland
Edward believed that he had completed the conquest of Scotland when he left the country in 1296, but resistance soon emerged under the leadership of Andrew de Moray in the north and William Wallace in the south  On 11 September 1297, a large English force under the leadership of John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey, and Hugh de Cressingham was routed by a much smaller Scottish army led by Wallace and Moray at the Battle of Stirling Bridge  The defeat sent shockwaves into England, and preparations for a retaliatory campaign started immediately  Soon after Edward returned from Flanders, he headed north  On 22 July 1298, in the only major battle he had fought since Evesham in 1265, Edward defeated Wallace's forces at the Battle of Falkirk  Edward underestimated the gravity of the ever-changing military condition in the north and was not able to take advantage of the momentum; the next year the Scots managed to recapture Stirling Castle  Even though Edward campaigned in Scotland both in 1300, when he successfully besieged Caerlaverock Castle and in 1301, the Scots refused to engage in open battle again, preferring instead to raid the English countryside in smaller groups The Scots appealed to Pope Boniface VIII to assert a papal claim of overlordship to Scotland in place of the English  His papal bull addressed to King Edward in these terms was firmly rejected on Edward's behalf by the Barons' Letter of 1301  The English managed to subdue the country by other means: in 1303, a peace agreement was reached between England and France, effectively breaking up the Franco-Scottish alliance  Robert the Bruce, the grandson of the claimant to the crown in 1291, had sided with the English in the winter of 1301–02  By 1304, most of the other nobles of the country had also pledged their allegiance to Edward, and this year the English also managed to re-take Stirling Castle  A great propaganda victory was achieved in 1305 when Wallace was betrayed by Sir John de Menteith and turned over to the English, who had him taken to London where he was publicly executed  With Scotland largely under English control, Edward installed Englishmen and collaborating Scots to govern the country The situation changed again on 10 February 1306, when Robert the Bruce murdered his rival John Comyn, and a few weeks later, on 25 March, was crowned King of Scotland  Bruce now embarked on a campaign to restore Scottish independence, and this campaign took the English by surprise  Edward was suffering ill health by this time, and instead of leading an expedition himself, he gave different military commands to Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, and Henry Percy, 1st Baron Percy, while the main royal army was led by the Prince of Wales  The English initially met with success; on 19 June, Aymer de Valence routed Bruce at the Battle of Methven  Bruce was forced into hiding, and the English forces recaptured their lost territory and castles Edward acted with unusual brutality against Bruce's family, allies, and supporters  His sister, Mary, was imprisoned in a cage at Roxburgh Castle for four years  Isabella MacDuff, Countess of Buchan, who had crowned Bruce, was held in a cage at Berwick Castle  His younger brother Neil was executed by being hanged, drawn, and quartered; he had been captured after he and his garrison held off Edward's forces who had been seeking his wife, daughter and sisters  Edward now regarded the struggle not as a war between two nations, but as the suppression of a rebellion of disloyal subjects  This brutality, though, rather than helping to subdue the Scots, had the opposite effect, and rallied growing support for Bruce 

Death and burial
In February 1307, Bruce resumed his efforts and started gathering men, and in May he defeated Valence at the Battle of Loudoun Hill  Edward, who had rallied somewhat, now moved north himself  He developed dysentery on the way, and his condition deteriorated  On 6 July he encamped at Burgh by Sands, just south of the Scottish border  When his servants came the next morning to lift him up so that he could eat, the King died in their arms Several stories emerged about Edward's deathbed wishes; according to one tradition, he requested that his heart be carried to the Holy Land, along with an army to fight the infidels  A more dubious story tells of how he wished for his bones to be carried along on future expeditions against the Scots  Another account of his deathbed scene is more credible; according to one chronicle, Edward gathered around him Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln; Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick; Aymer de Valence; and Robert de Clifford, 1st Baron de Clifford, and charged them with looking after his son Edward  In particular they should make sure that Piers Gaveston, whom he had banished earlier that year, was not allowed to return to the country  This wish the son ignored, and had his favourite recalled from exile almost immediately  The new king, Edward II, remained in the north until August, but then abandoned the campaign and headed south, partially due to financial limitations  He was crowned king on 25 February 1308 
Edward I's body was brought south, lying in state at Waltham Abbey, before being buried in Westminster Abbey on 27 October  There are few records of the funeral, which cost £473  Edward's tomb was an unusually plain sarcophagus of Purbeck marble, without the customary royal effigy, possibly the result of the shortage of royal funds  The Society of Antiquaries of London opened the tomb in 1774, finding that the body had been well preserved over the preceding 467 years, and took the opportunity to determine the King's original height  Traces of the Latin inscription Edwardus Primus Scottorum Malleus hic est, 1308  Pactum Serva ("Here is Edward I, Hammer of the Scots, 1308  Keep the Troth") can still be seen painted on the side of the tomb, referring to his vow to avenge the rebellion of Robert Bruce  This resulted in Edward being given the epithet the "Hammer of the Scots" by historians, but is not contemporary in origin, having been added by the Abbot John Feckenham in the 16th century 

Legacy
The first histories of Edward in the 16th and 17th centuries drew primarily on the works of the chroniclers, and made little use of the official records of the period  They limited themselves to general comments on Edward's significance as a monarch, and echoed the chroniclers' praise for his accomplishments  During the 17th century, the lawyer Edward Coke wrote extensively about Edward's legislation, terming the King the "English Justinian" after the renowned Byzantine lawmaker Justinian I  Later in the century, historians used the available record evidence to address the role of Parliament and kingship under Edward, drawing comparisons between his reign and the political strife of their own century  Eighteenth-century historians established a picture of Edward as an able, if ruthless, monarch, conditioned by the circumstances of his own time The influential Victorian historian William Stubbs instead suggested that Edward had actively shaped national history, forming English laws and institutions, and helping England to develop a parliamentary and constitutional monarchy  His strengths and weaknesses as a ruler were considered to be emblematic of the English people as a whole  Stubbs's student, Thomas Tout, initially adopted the same perspective, but after extensive research into Edward's royal household, and backed by the research of his contemporaries into the early Parliaments of the period, he changed his mind  Tout came to view Edward as a self-interested, conservative leader, using the parliamentary system as "the shrewd device of an autocrat, anxious to use the mass of the people as a check upon his hereditary foes among the greater baronage "Historians in the 20th and 21st centuries have conducted extensive research on Edward and his reign  Most have concluded this was a highly significant period in English medieval history, some going further and describing Edward as one of the great medieval kings, although most also agree that his final years were less successful than his early decades in power  G  Templeman argued in his 1950 historiographical essay that "it is generally recognized that Edward I deserves a high place in the history of medieval England"  More recently, Michael Prestwich argued that "Edward was a formidable king; his reign, with both its successes and its disappointments, a great one," and he was "without doubt one of the greatest rulers of his time", and John Gillingham suggests that "no king of England had a greater impact on the peoples of Britain than Edward I" and that "modern historians of the English state     have always recognized Edward I's reign as pivotal " Fred Cazel similarly comments that "no-one can doubt the greatness of the reign"  Most recently, Andrew Spencer has agreed with Prestwich, arguing that Edward's reign "was indeed     a great one", and Caroline Burt states that "Edward I was without a doubt one of the greatest kings to rule England" Three major academic narratives of Edward have been produced during this period  F  M  Powicke's volumes, published in 1947 and 1953, forming the standard works on Edward for several decades, were largely positive in praising the achievements of his reign, and in particular his focus on justice and the law  In 1988, Michael Prestwich produced an authoritative biography of the King, focusing on his political career, still portraying him in sympathetic terms, but highlighting some of the consequences of his failed policies  Marc Morris's biography followed in 2008, drawing out more of the detail of Edward's personality, and generally taking a harsher view of his weaknesses and less pleasant characteristics, pointing out that modern analysts of Edward's reign denounce the King for his policies against the Jewish community in England  Considerable academic debate has taken place around the character of Edward's kingship, his political skills, and in particular his management of his earls, and the degree to which this was collaborative or repressive in nature There is a great difference between English and Scottish historiography on King Edward  G  W  S  Barrow, in his biography of Robert the Bruce, accused Edward of ruthlessly exploiting the leaderless state of Scotland to obtain a feudal superiority over the kingdom followed by his determination to reduce it to nothing more than an English possession  Modern commentators have conflicting opinions on whether Edward's conquest of Wales was warranted  Contemporary English historians were firmly in favour of the King's campaigns there  Morris takes the position that the poor condition of Wales would have allowed England to dominate it at some point or another, whether by direct conquest or through natural deterioration 

Family
First marriage
By his first wife Eleanor of Castile, Edward had at least fourteen children, perhaps as many as sixteen  Of these, five daughters survived into adulthood, but only one son outlived his father, becoming King Edward II (r  1307–1327)  Edward's children with Eleanor were:
Katherine (1261 or 1263–1264)
Joan (1265–1265)
John (1266–1271)
Henry (1268–1274)
Eleanor (1269–1298)
Unnamed daughter (1271–1271 or 1272)
Joan (1272–1307)
Alphonso (1273–1284)
Margaret (1275–1333)
Berengaria (1276–1277 or 1278)
Unnamed child (1278–1278)
Mary (1278–1332)
Elizabeth (1282–1316)
Edward II (1284–1327)

Second marriage
By Margaret of France, Edward had two sons, both of whom lived to adulthood, and a daughter who died as a child  His progeny by Margaret of France were:
Thomas (1300–1338)
Edmund (1301–1330)
Eleanor (1306–1311)A genealogy in the Hailes Abbey chronicle indicates that John Botetourt may have been Edward's illegitimate son, but the claim is unsubstantiated 

Genealogical table
See also
List of earls in the reign of Edward I of England
Savoyard knights in the service of Edward I

Notes
Passage 4:
Elizabeth of Celje
Elizabeth of Celje  (1441 – 1455), also Elizabeth of Cilli, was the first wife of Matthias Corvinus, the future King of Hungary 

Family background
Elizabeth was born to Ulrich II, Count of Celje and his wife Catherine Branković, daughter of the Serb despot George Branković  Her father was a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, with extensive domains in both the Empire and in the Kingdom of Hungary, centered in Lower Styria, Carniola, and Slavonia  Her mother was the sister of Mara Branković, a favorite wife of the Ottoman sultan Murad II 
Elizabeth was most likely born in Celje, the family seat  She seems to have had a twin sister, called Catherine, who died as a child  Elizabeth was baptised in the Eastern Orthodox faith of her mother, an arrangement that aroused consternation in the Roman Catholic milieu of Celje 
Both of her brothers, Hermann IV and George, died by 1452  Thereafter she remained her parents' sole child, and the last offspring of the House of Celje 

Betrothal
Elizabeth was initially betrothed to John of Gorizia, son of count Henry IV of Gorizia, who was living in Celje under the tutelage of her father  However, it was later decided she would marry into the Hunyadi family 
Elizabeth's father and maternal grandfather were long-time opponents of John Hunyadi, as the houses of Celje and Hunyadi were competing for influence in the Kingdom of Hungary since the early 1440s  In June 1448, the two parties reached an agreement on the division of spheres of interest, sealed by Elizabeth's betrothal to Ladislaus, John Hunyadi's firstborn son In the autumn of the same year, Hunyadi was defeated by the Ottomans at Kosovo; captured by George Branković during his retreat, he was forced to return several estates to him  With the help of the pope, Hunyadi had the disvantageous agreement dissolved; as a consequence, the settlement with the Celjes was called off, as well  Under pressure from the estates, protracted negotiations ensued  In August 1451, a settlement was reached in Smederevo  This time, it was agreed that Elizabeth would marry John's second-born son, Matthias  The wedding was set to 6 December 1453, with the stipulation that should the marriage fail to materialize because any fault attributable to Branković, the latter’s castles and other estates in Hungary would be transferred to Hunyadi and his sons It was John Hunyadi himself, however, to call off the wedding few months before it was to take place  In the fall of 1453, in fact, Elizabeth's father fell out of favor with king Ladislaus, and Hunyadi took advantage of the situation to dissolve the alliance with the Celjes which limited his autonomy of action in Hungary  By February 1455, however, Ulrich was back in power, and George Branković was instrumental in renewing the alliance between his son-in-law and Hunyadi in order to secure a common front against the Ottoman threat 

Marriage and death
Following a renewal of the Celje-Hunyadi alliance, Elizabeth was married to Matthias in the spring of 1455, after having converted to Catholicism  By this time, Ulrich of Celje had remained without sons, with his wife approaching forty: Matthias thus became his most likely heir  He was sent to the royal court in Buda where Ulrich now resided as regent, while Elizabeth settled in the Hunyadis' estates; the two young spouses thus served mostly as hostages between their respective families In the winter of 1455, Elizabeth fell seriously ill  The famous preacher John Capistran organized public prayers for her recovery  However, she died before the end of the year at the Hunyadi court in Transylvania  With her death, Ulrich of Celje remained childless, and the last link between the Hunyadi and Celje families was cut 

Ancestry
Notes


== Sources ==
Passage 5:
Elizabeth of Rhuddlan
Elizabeth of Rhuddlan (7 August 1282 – 5 May 1316) was the eighth and youngest daughter of King Edward I of England and Queen Eleanor of Castile  Of all of her siblings, she was closest to her younger brother King Edward II, as they were only two years apart in age 

First marriage
In April 1285 there were negotiations with Floris V for Elizabeth's betrothal to his son John I, Count of Holland  The offer was accepted and John was sent to England to be educated  On 8 January 1297 Elizabeth was married to John at Ipswich  In attendance at the marriage were Elizabeth's sister Margaret, her father, Edward I of England, her brother Edward, and Humphrey de Bohun  After the wedding Elizabeth was expected to go to Holland with her husband, but did not wish to go, leaving her husband to go alone  It is recorded that while in Ipswich the King, in some outburst, threw his daughter's coronet into the fire  A great ruby and a great  emerald, stones supplied by Adam the Goldsmith, were lost as a result After some time travelling England, it was decided Elizabeth should follow her husband  Her father accompanied her, travelling through the Southern Netherlands between Antwerp, Mechelen, Leuven and Brussels, before ending up in Ghent  There they remained for a few months, spending Christmas with her two sisters Eleanor and Margaret  On 10 November 1299, John died of dysentery, though there were rumours of his murder  No children had been born from the marriage 

Second marriage
On her return trip to England, Elizabeth went through Brabant to see her sister Margaret  When she arrived in England, she met her stepmother Margaret, whom Edward had married while Elizabeth was in Holland  On 14 November 1302 Elizabeth was married to Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford, 3rd of Essex, also Constable of England, at Westminster Abbey In August 1304, she was pregnant and travelled from Linlithgow Palace in Scotland to Knaresborough Castle  She gave birth to her second son, Humphrey de Bohun, in September, assisted by a holy relic of the girdle of the Virgin, brought especially from Westminster Abbey  Humphrey died about six weeks later and was buried at Westminster Abbey with his sister Margaret 

Issue
The children of Elizabeth and Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford were:

Margaret de Bohun (born 1302 – died 7 Feb  1304) 
Humphrey de Bohun (born c  Oct  1303 – died c  Oct  1304) 
Lady Eleanor de Bohun (17 October 1304 – 1363)
John de Bohun, 5th Earl of Hereford (23 November 1306 – 20 January 1336)
Humphrey de Bohun, 6th Earl of Hereford (6 December c  1309 – 1361)
Margaret de Bohun, 2nd Countess of Devon (3 April 1311 – 1391)
William de Bohun, 1st Earl of Northampton (1312–1360) 
Edward de Bohun (1312–1334), twin of William
Agnes, Married Robert de Ferrers, 2nd Baron Ferrers of Chartley, son of John de Ferrers, 1st Baron Ferrers of Chartley
Eneas de Bohun, (1314 – after 1322); he is mentioned in his father's will
Isabel de Bohun (born and died 5 May 1316)

Later life
During Christmas 1315, Elizabeth, who was pregnant with her eleventh child, was visited by her sister-in-law, Queen Isabella of France  On 5 May 1316 she went into labour, giving birth to her daughter Isabella  Both Elizabeth and her daughter Isabella died shortly after the birth 
Elizabeth was interred at Waltham Abbey, Essex, together with her infant daughter & other members of the de Bohun family 

Ancestry
Passage 6:
Ali Rahuma
Ali Khalifa Rahuma (Arabic: علي ارحومه)  (born May 16, 1982) is a Libyan football midfielder, also a Libyan national  He currently plays for Al-Ittihad, and is a member of the Libya national football team 

External links
Ali Rahuma at National-Football-Teams com
SoccerPunter  “Ali Khalifa Rahuma Profile and Statistics ” SoccerPunter  SoccerPunter, n d  Web  6 Sept  2016
Context 3: Passage 1:
The Wind's Fierce
The Wind's Fierce (Spanish: La cólera del viento, Italian: La collera del vento, also known as Revenge of Trinity, Trinity Sees Red and The Wind's Anger) is a 1970 Spanish-Italian western-drama film written and directed by Mario Camus 

Plot
Andalusia, the late nineteenth century  Wealthy landowner Don Antonio hires two assassins, Marcos and Jacobo, to infiltrate a group of peasant revolutionaries and kill the leaders  After falling in love with the rebel Soledad, Marcos has a change of heart and decides to unite with the peasants 

Cast
Terence Hill as Marcos
Maria Grazia Buccella as Soledad
Mario Pardo as Jacobo
Máximo Valverde as  Ramón
Fernando Rey as Don Antonio
Ángel Lombarte as  José
William Layton as  Don Lucas
Manuel Alexandre as  Agustín
Manuel de Blas as  Rafael

Reception
Although set in Spain, this film is often classified as a spaghetti-western due to themes, scenes and settings deliberately evocative of the western genre 
Terence Hill gives a dramatic performance in his last film before attaining international stardom with They Call Me Trinity  After the success of that movie, The Wind's Fierce was re-released in many countries as a "Trinity" sequel and misleadingly marketed as a comedy 
Passage 2:
Claude Weisz
Claude Weisz is a French film director born in Paris 

Filmography
Feature films
Une saison dans la vie d'Emmanuel (1972) with Germaine Montéro, Lucien Raimbourg, Florence Giorgetti, Jean-François Delacour, Hélène Darche, Manuel Pinto, etc Festival de Cannes 1973 - Quinzaine des réalisateurs
Jury Prize: Festival Jeune Cinéma 1973

La Chanson du mal aimé (1981) with Rufus, Daniel Mesguich, Christine Boisson, Věra Galatíková, Mark Burns, Philippe Clévenot, Dominique Pinon, Madelon Violla, Paloma Matta, Béatrice Bruno, Catherine Belkhodja, Véronique Leblanc, Philippe Avron, Albert Delpy, etc Festival de Cannes 1982 - Perspectives du cinéma français
Competition selections: Valencia, Valladolid, Istanbul, Montréal

On l'appelait    le Roi Laid (1987) with Yilmaz Güney (mockumentary)Valencia Festival 1988 - Grand Prix for documentaries "Laurel Wreath"
Competition selections: Rotterdam, Valladolid, Strasbourg, Nyon, Cannes, Lyon, Cairo

Paula et Paulette, ma mère (2005) Documentary - Straight to DVD

Short and mid-length
La Grande Grève (1963 - Co-directed CAS collective, IDHEC)
L'Inconnue (1966 - with Paloma Matta and Gérard Blain - Prix CNC Hyères, Sidney)
Un village au Québec
Montréal
Deux aspects du Canada (1969)
La Hongrie, vers quel socialisme ? (1975 - Nominated for best documentary - Césars 1976)
Tibor Déry, portrait d'un écrivain hongrois (1977)
L'huître boudeuse
Ancienne maison Godin ou le familistère de Guise (1977)
Passementiers et Rubaniers
Le quinzième mois
C'était la dernière année de ma vie (1984 - FIPRESCI Prize- Festival Oberhausen 1985 - Nomination - Césars 1986)
Nous aimons tant le cinéma (Film of the European year of cinema - Delphes 1988)
Participation jusqu'en 1978 à la réalisation de films "militants"

Television
Series of seven dramas in German
Numerous documentary and docu-soap type films (TVS CNDP)
Initiation à la vie économique (TV series - RTS promotion)
Contemplatives    et femmes (TF1 - 1976)
Suzel Sabatier (FR3)
Un autre Or Noir (FR3)
Vivre en Géorgie
Portrait d'une génération pour l'an 2000 (France 5 - 2000)
Femmes de peine, femmes de coeur (FR3 - 2003)

Television documentaries
La porte de Sarp est ouverte (1998)
Une histoire balbynienne (2002)
Tamara, une vie de Moscou à Port-au-Prince (unfinished)
Hana et Khaman (unfinished)
En compagnie d'Albert Memmi (unfinished)
Le Lucernaire, une passion de théâtre
Les quatre saisons de la Taillade ou une ferme l'autre
Histoire du peuple kurde (in development)
Les kurdes de Bourg-Lastic (2008)
Réalisation de films institutionnels et industriels
Passage 3:
S D  Jones
Conrad Efraim (March 30, 1945 – October 26, 2008) was an Antiguan professional wrestler best known by his ring name, Special Delivery Jones or S  D  Jones (sometimes referred to as S  D  "Special Delivery" Jones) from his time (1974–1990) in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE)  He also wrestled in Jim Crockett Promotions and the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA), and he won the NWA Americas Tag Team Championship three times 

Professional wrestling career
Before becoming a wrestler, Efraim worked at a telephone company  He also took part in boxing and lifting weights  While there, he began training under Johnny Rodz in the sport of professional wrestling  Upon completion of his training, he quit his job and began working for NWA Mid-Atlantic under the name "Roosevelt Jones" in a tag team with his partner and kayfabe cousin Rufus R  Jones  While there, they had a memorable feud with the Anderson family (Ole and Gene) On January 17, 1975, after leaving the Mid-Atlantic area for California, Jones won his first of three tag team titles, combining with Porkchop Cash to take the NWA Americas Tag Team Championship from the Hollywood Blonds (Buddy Roberts and Jerry Brown)  The following month, Jones and Cash dropped the titles back to the Blonds  Jones won the title again in 1977, teaming with Tom Jones to defeat Black Gordman and Goliath  Gordman and Goliath regained the championship, but SD and Tom Jones won the belts back from them on November 18, 1977 S  D  Jones had his first match in the WWWF on April 25, 1974 facing Nikolai Volkoff in Trenton, New Jersey  Jones would continue to wrestle in the WWF (WWWF) as a mid-card babyface who would give the heels a hard time but end up losing  He did, however, win quite a few matches on smaller cards against lower card or fellow mid carders like Ron Shaw and Johnny Rodz  Jones was often featured in tag team matches partnered with Tony Atlas, and the two challenged Mr  Fuji and Mr  Saito for the WWF Tag Team Championship several times in 1981  On one occasion, the two ended up as the final men in a battle royal and flipped a coin to decide the winner, as seen on the WWF Coliseum Video 'Best of the WWF Volume 4' and 'Grand Slams' video cassettes S  D  helped put over Greg Valentine at a 1979 TV taping when Valentine locked in his figure-four leglock and refused to let go, leading to Jones doing a stretcher job and subsequently appearing in Madison Square Garden with his leg in a cast  He was also the tag team partner of André the Giant on November 13, 1984 when André's hair was cut by Ken Patera and Big John Studd  At the inaugural WrestleMania in 1985 he famously lost to King Kong Bundy in an official match time of nine seconds, although the actual time from bell to pinfall was seventeen seconds  In any case, it would stand as the quickest match in WrestleMania history until The Rock defeated Erick Rowan in six seconds at WrestleMania 32 in 2016 Jones was a workhorse for the WWF as he wrestled 240 matches per year during his career and twice wrestled over 300 matches in a single year with (302) in 1978 and (305) in 1984  Despite mainly being used as a preliminary talent in the 1980s WWF, Jones garnered further recognition when LJN created two action figures of him for their Wrestling Superstars toy line  One was yellow with blue palm trees and the other was a red shirt  He also appeared in the WWF's music video for Land of a Thousand Dances  Jones last match was in New York City at Madison Square Garden on October 19, 1990 losing by pinfall against Iron Mike Sharpe 
After WWF, he wrestled for Herb Abrams's Universal Wrestling Federation and Universal Wrestling Superstars in New York City  He retired from the sport in 1995  In 2006, S  D  Jones appeared for the WWE inducting Tony Atlas into the WWE Hall of Fame   S  D  Jones was added to the WWE Hall Of Fame on April 7, 2019 as a legacy inductee 

Personal life and death
After retiring from wrestling, Jones lost a considerable amount of weight and took a job at the New York Daily News  He died in Antigua on October 26, 2008, following a stroke suffered two days earlier Following his death, his wife recalled "On Wednesday, he was laughing and singing and all of that… He went to feed the dogs, and when he came back, he called my name  He said, ‘Kay ’ He showed me his fingers, and the next thing I know, his body went limp  We went to the doctor’s, and he had three-quarters of his brain bleeding, covered with blood "

Championships and accomplishments
NWA Hollywood Wrestling
NWA Americas Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Porkchop Cash (1 time) and Tom Jones (2 times)
Universal Superstars of America
USA Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Tony Atlas
WWE
WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2019)
Passage 4:
W  Augustus Barratt
W  Augustus Barratt (3 June 1873 – 12 April 1947) was a Scottish-born, later American, songwriter and musician 

Early life and songs
Walter Augustus Barratt was born 3 June 1873 in Kilmarnock, the son of composer John Barratt; the family later lived in Paisley  In 1893 he won a scholarship for composition to the Royal College of Music 
In his early twenties he contributed to The Scottish Students' Song Book, with three of his own song compositions and numerous arrangements 
By the end of 1897 he had published dozens of songs, such as Sir Patrick Spens, The Death of Cuthullin, an album of his own compositions, and arrangements of ten songs by Samuel Lover 
He then, living in London, turned his attention to staged musical comedy, co-creating, with Adrian Ross, The Tree Dumas Skiteers, a skit, based on Sydney Grundy's The Musketeers that starred Herbert Beerbohm Tree  He co-composed with Howard Talbot the successful Kitty Grey (1900) He continued to write songs and to receive recognition for them  The 1901 and 1902 BBC Promenade Concerts, "The Proms", included four of his compositions, namely Come back, sweet Love, The Mermaid, My Peggy and Private Donald 
His setting of My Ships, a poem by Ella Wheeler Wilcox, was performed by Clara Butt and republished several times  It also appeared four times, with different singers, in the 1913 and 1914 Proms 

America
In September 1904 he went to live in New York City, finding employment with shows on Broadway, including the following roles:

on-stage actor (Sir Benjamin Backbite) in Lady Teazle (1904-1905), a musical version of The School for Scandal;
musical director of The Little Michus (1907), also featuring songs by Barratt;
co-composer of Miss Pocahontas (1907), a musical comedy;
musical director of The Love Cure (1909–1910), a musical romance;
composer of The Girl and the Drummer (1910), a musical romance with book by George Broadhurst  Tried out in Chicago and elsewhere, it did not do well and never reached Broadway;
musical director of The Quaker Girl (1911–1912);
co-composer and musical director of My Best Girl (1912);
musical director of The Sunshine Girl (1913);
musical director of The Girl who Smiles (1915), a musical comedy;
musical director and contributor to music and lyrics of Her Soldier Boy (1916–1917);
composer, lyricist and musical director of Fancy Free (1918), with book by Dorothy Donnelly and Edgar Smith;
contributor of a song to The Passing Show of 1918;
composer and musical director of Little Simplicity (1918), with book and lyrics by Rida Johnson Young;
contributor of lyrics to The Melting of Molly (1918–1919), a musical comedy;
musical director of What's in a Name? (1920), a musical revue

1921 in London
Though domiciled in the US, he made several visits back to England  During an extended stay in 1921 he played a major part in the creation of two shows, both produced by Charles B  Cochran, namely

League of Notions, at the New Oxford Theatre, for which he composed the music and co-wrote, with John Murray Anderson, the lyrics;
Fun of the Fayre, at the London Pavilion, for which similarly he wrote the music and co-wrote the lyrics

Back to Broadway
Back in the US he returned to Broadway, working as
composer and lyricist of Jack and Jill (1923), a musical comedy;
musical director of The Silver Swan (1929), a musical romance

Radio plays
In later years he wrote plays and operettas mostly for radio, such as:

Snapshots: a radioperetta (1929)
Sushannah and the Brush Wielders: a play in 1 act (1929)
The Magic Voice: a radio series (1933)
Men of Action: a series of radio sketches (1933)
Say, Uncle: a radio series (1933)
Sealed Orders: a radio drama (1934)
Sergeant Gabriel (with Hugh Abercrombie) (1945)

Personal
In 1897 in London he married Lizzie May Stoner  They had one son  In 1904 he emigrated to the US and lived in New York City  His first marriage ended in divorce in 1915 and, in 1918, he married Ethel J Moore, who was American  In 1924, he became a naturalized American citizen  He died on 12 April 1947 in New York City 

Note on his first name
The book British Musical Biography by Brown & Stratton (1897) in its entry for John Barratt refers to "his son William Augustus Barratt" with details that make it clear that Walter Augustus Barratt is the same person and that a "William" Augustus Barratt is a mistake  For professional purposes up to about 1900 he appears to have written as "W  Augustus Barratt", and thereafter mostly as simply "Augustus Barratt" 
Passage 5:
Roscoe Arbuckle
Roscoe Conkling "Fatty" Arbuckle (; March 24, 1887 – June 29, 1933) was an American silent film actor, comedian, director, and screenwriter  He started at the Selig Polyscope Company and eventually moved to Keystone Studios, where he worked with Mabel Normand and Harold Lloyd as well as with his nephew, Al St  John  He also mentored Charlie Chaplin, Monty Banks and Bob Hope, and brought vaudeville star Buster Keaton into the movie business  Arbuckle was one of the most popular silent stars of the 1910s and one of the highest-paid actors in Hollywood, signing a contract in 1920 with Paramount Pictures for $1,000,000 a year (equivalent to $14,608,000 in 2022) 
Arbuckle was the defendant in three widely publicized trials between November 1921 and April 1922 for the rape and manslaughter of actress Virginia Rappe  Rappe had fallen ill at a party hosted by Arbuckle at San Francisco's St  Francis Hotel in September 1921, and died four days later  A friend of Rappe accused Arbuckle of raping and accidentally killing her  The first two trials resulted in hung juries, but Keaton testified for the defense in the third trial, which acquitted Arbuckle  The third jury took the unusual step of giving Arbuckle a written statement of apology for his treatment by the justice system 
Despite Arbuckle's acquittal, the scandal has mostly overshadowed his legacy as a pioneering comedian  At the behest of Adolph Zukor, president of Famous Players–Lasky, his films were banned by motion picture industry censor Will H  Hays after the trial, and he was publicly ostracized  Zukor was faced with the moral outrage of various groups such as the Lord's Day Alliance, the powerful Federation of Women's Clubs and even the Federal Trade Commission to curb what they perceived as Hollywood debauchery run amok and its effect on the morals of the general public   While Arbuckle saw a resurgence in his popularity immediately after his third trial (in which he was acquitted) Zukor decided he had to be sacrificed to keep the movie industry out of the clutches of censors and moralists   Hays lifted the ban within a year, but Arbuckle only worked sparingly through the 1920s  In their deal, Keaton promised to give him 35% of the Buster Keaton Comedies Co  profits  He later worked as a film director under the pseudonym William Goodrich  He was finally able to return to acting, making short two-reel comedies in 1932–33 for Warner Bros 

Arbuckle died in his sleep of a heart attack in 1933 at age 46, reportedly on the day that he signed a contract with Warner Bros  to make a feature film 

Early life
Roscoe Arbuckle was born on March 24, 1887, in Smith Center, Kansas, one of nine children of Mary E  Gordon and William Goodrich Arbuckle  He weighed in excess of 13 pounds (5 9 kg) at birth and his father believed that he was illegitimate, as both parents had slim builds  Consequently, he named him after Senator Roscoe Conkling of New York, a notorious philanderer whom he despised  The birth was traumatic for Mary and resulted in chronic health problems that contributed to her death eleven years later Arbuckle was nearly two when his family moved to Santa Ana, California  He first performed on stage with Frank Bacon's company at age 8 during their performance in Santa Ana  Arbuckle enjoyed performing and continued on until his mother's death in 1898, when he was 11  Arbuckle's father had always treated him harshly and now refused to support him, so he got work doing odd jobs in a hotel  He was in the habit of singing while he worked, and a professional singer heard him and invited him to perform in an amateur talent show  The show consisted of the audience judging acts by clapping or jeering, with bad acts pulled off the stage by a shepherd's crook  Arbuckle sang, danced, and did some clowning around, but he did not impress the audience  He saw the crook emerging from the wings and somersaulted into the orchestra pit in obvious panic  The audience went wild, and he won the competition and began a career in vaudeville 

Career
In 1904, Sid Grauman invited Arbuckle to sing in his new Unique Theater in San Francisco, beginning a long friendship between the two  He then joined the Pantages Theatre Group touring the West Coast and in 1906 played the Orpheum Theater in Portland, Oregon, in a vaudeville troupe organized by Leon Errol  Arbuckle became the main act and the group took their show on tour On August 6, 1908, Arbuckle married Minta Durfee (1889–1975), the daughter of Charles Warren Durfee and Flora Adkins  Durfee starred in many early comedy films, often with Arbuckle  They made a strange couple, as Minta was short and petite while Arbuckle tipped the scales at 300 lbs (136 kg)  Arbuckle then joined the Morosco Burbank Stock vaudeville company and went on a tour of China and Japan, returning in early 1909 Arbuckle began his film career with the Selig Polyscope Company in July 1909 when he appeared in Ben's Kid  He appeared sporadically in Selig one-reelers until 1913, moved briefly to Universal Pictures, and became a star in producer-director Mack Sennett's Keystone Cops comedies  Although his large size was undoubtedly part of his comedic appeal, Arbuckle was self-conscious about his weight and refused to use it to get "cheap" laughs like getting stuck in a doorway or chair Arbuckle was a talented singer  After famed operatic tenor Enrico Caruso heard him sing, he urged the comedian to "give up this nonsense you do for a living, with training you could become the second greatest singer in the world "

Screen comedian
Despite his physical size, Arbuckle was remarkably agile and acrobatic  Mack Sennett, when recounting his first meeting with Arbuckle, noted that he "skipped up the stairs as lightly as Fred Astaire" and that he "without warning went into a feather light step, clapped his hands and did a backward somersault as graceful as a girl tumbler"  His comedies are noted as rollicking and fast-paced, have many chase scenes, and feature sight gags  Arbuckle was fond of the "pie in the face", a comedy cliché that has come to symbolize silent-film-era comedy itself  The earliest known pie thrown in film was in the June 1913 Keystone one-reeler A Noise from the Deep, starring Arbuckle and frequent screen partner Mabel Normand In 1914, Paramount Pictures made the then unheard-of offer of US$1,000 a day plus twenty-five percent of all profits and complete artistic control to make movies with Arbuckle and Normand  The movies were so lucrative and popular that in 1918 they offered Arbuckle a three-year, $3 million contract (equivalent to about $58,000,000 in 2022 dollars) By 1916, Arbuckle was experiencing serious health problems  An infection that developed on his leg became a carbuncle so severe that doctors considered amputation  Although Arbuckle was able to keep his leg, he was prescribed morphine against the pain; he would later be accused of being addicted to it  Following his recovery, Arbuckle started his own film company, Comique, in partnership with Joseph Schenck  Although Comique produced some of the best short pictures of the silent era, Arbuckle transferred his controlling interest in the company to Buster Keaton in 1918 and accepted Paramount's $3 million offer to make up to 18 feature films over three years Arbuckle disliked his screen nickname  "Fatty" had also been Arbuckle's nickname since school; "It was inevitable", he said  Fans also called Roscoe "The Prince of Whales" and "The Balloonatic"  However, the name Fatty identifies the character that Arbuckle portrayed on-screen (usually a naive hayseed), not Arbuckle himself  When Arbuckle portrayed a female, the character was named "Miss Fatty", as in the film Miss Fatty's Seaside Lovers  Arbuckle discouraged anyone from addressing him as "Fatty" off-screen, and when they did so his usual response was, "I've got a name, you know "

Scandal
On September 5, 1921, Arbuckle took a break from his hectic film schedule and, despite suffering from second-degree burns to both buttocks from an on-set accident, drove to San Francisco with two friends, Lowell Sherman and Fred Fishback  The three checked into three rooms at the St  Francis Hotel: 1219 for Arbuckle and Fishback to share, 1221 for Sherman, and 1220 designated as a party room  Several women were invited to the suite  During the carousing, a 30-year-old aspiring actress named Virginia Rappe was found seriously ill in room 1219 and was examined by the hotel doctor, who concluded her symptoms were mostly caused by intoxication and gave her morphine to calm her  Rappe was not hospitalized until two days after the incident 
At the hospital, Rappe's companion at the party, Bambina Maude Delmont, told a doctor that Arbuckle had raped her friend  The doctor examined Rappe but found no evidence of rape  She died one day after her hospitalization from peritonitis caused by a ruptured bladder  Rappe suffered from chronic urinary tract infections, a condition that liquor irritated dramatically  
Delmont then told police that Arbuckle had raped Rappe; the police concluded that the impact of Arbuckle's overweight body lying on top of Rappe had eventually caused her bladder to rupture  At a later press conference, Rappe's manager, Al Semnacher, accused Arbuckle of using a piece of ice to simulate sex with Rappe, thus leading to her injuries  By the time the story was reported in newspapers, the object had evolved into a Coca-Cola or champagne bottle rather than a piece of ice  In fact, witnesses testified that Arbuckle rubbed the ice on Rappe's stomach to ease her abdominal pain  Arbuckle denied any wrongdoing  Delmont later made a statement incriminating Arbuckle to the police in an attempt to extort money from Arbuckle's attorneys Arbuckle's trial was a major media event  The story was fueled by yellow journalism, with the newspapers portraying Arbuckle as a gross lecher who used his weight to overpower innocent girls  William Randolph Hearst's nationwide newspaper chain exploited the situation with exaggerated and sensationalized stories   Hearst was gratified by the profits he accrued during the Arbuckle scandal, and he allegedly said that it had "sold more newspapers [   ] than when the Lusitania went down " Morality groups called for Arbuckle to be sentenced to death  The resulting scandal destroyed Arbuckle's career along with his personal life 
Arbuckle was regarded by those who knew him closely as a good-natured man who was shy around women; he has been described as "the most chaste man in pictures"  However, studio executives, fearing negative publicity by association, ordered Arbuckle's industry friends and fellow actors (whose careers they controlled) not to publicly speak up for him  Charlie Chaplin, who was in Britain at the time, told reporters that he could not and would not believe Arbuckle had anything to do with Rappe's death; having known Arbuckle since they both worked at Keystone in 1914, Chaplin "knew Roscoe to be a genial, easy-going type who would not harm a fly " Buster Keaton reportedly did make one public statement in support of Arbuckle's innocence, a decision which earned him a mild reprimand from the studio where he worked  Film actor William S  Hart, who had never met or worked with Arbuckle, made a number of damaging public statements in which he presumed that Arbuckle was guilty  Arbuckle later wrote a premise for a film parodying Hart as a thief, bully, and wife beater, which Keaton purchased from him  The resulting film, The Frozen North, was released in 1922, almost a year after the scandal first emerged  Keaton co-wrote, directed and starred in the picture; consequently, Hart refused to speak to Keaton for many years 

Trials
The prosecutor, San Francisco District Attorney Matthew Brady, an intensely ambitious man who planned to run for governor, made public pronouncements of Arbuckle's guilt and pressured witnesses to make false statements  Brady at first used Delmont as his star witness during the indictment hearing  The defense obtained a letter from Delmont admitting to a plan to extort payment from Arbuckle  In view of Delmont's constantly changing story, her testimony would have ended any chance of going to trial  Ultimately, the judge found no evidence of rape  After hearing testimony from one of the party guests, Zey Prevon, that Rappe told her "Roscoe hurt me" on her deathbed, the judge decided that Arbuckle could be charged with first-degree murder  Brady had originally planned to seek the death penalty  The charge was later reduced to manslaughter 

First trial
On September 17, 1921, Arbuckle was arrested and arraigned on charges of manslaughter  He arranged bail after nearly three weeks in jail  The trial began November 14, 1921, in the city courthouse in San Francisco  Arbuckle hired as his lead defense counsel Gavin McNab, a competent local attorney  The principal witness was Prevon  At the beginning of the trial Arbuckle told his already-estranged wife, Minta Durfee, that he did not harm Rappe; she believed him and appeared regularly in the courtroom to support him  Public feeling was so negative that Durfee was later shot at while entering the courthouse Brady's first witnesses during the trial included Betty Campbell, a model, who attended the party and testified that she saw Arbuckle with a smile on his face hours after the alleged rape occurred; Grace Hultson, a local hospital nurse who testified it was very likely that Arbuckle raped Rappe and bruised her body in the process; and Dr  Edward Heinrich, a local criminologist who claimed that the fingerprints on the door to the hallway proved that Rappe had tried to flee, but that Arbuckle had stopped her by putting his hand over hers  Dr  Arthur Beardslee, the hotel doctor who had examined Rappe, testified that an external force seemed to have damaged the bladder  During cross-examination, however, Campbell revealed that Brady had threatened to charge her with perjury if she did not testify against Arbuckle  Dr  Heinrich's claim to have found fingerprints was cast into doubt after McNab produced a maid from the St  Francis Hotel who testified that she had thoroughly cleaned the room before the investigation took place  Dr  Beardslee admitted that Rappe had never mentioned being assaulted while he was treating her  McNab was furthermore able to get Nurse Hultson to admit that the rupture of Rappe's bladder could very well have been a result of cancer, and that the bruises on her body could also have been a result of the heavy jewelry she was wearing that evening On November 28, Arbuckle testified as the defense's final witness  He was simple, direct, and unflustered in both direct and cross-examination  In his testimony, Arbuckle claimed that Rappe (whom he testified he had known for five or six years) came into the party room (1220) around noon that day, and that sometime afterward he went to his room (1219) to change clothes after Mae Taub, daughter-in-law of Billy Sunday, asked him for a ride into town  In his room, Arbuckle discovered Rappe in the bathroom vomiting into the toilet  He then claimed Rappe told him she felt ill and asked to lie down, and that he carried her into the bedroom and asked a few of the party guests to help treat her  When Arbuckle and a few of the guests re-entered the room, they found Rappe on the floor near the bed tearing at her clothing and going into violent convulsions  To calm Rappe down, they placed her in a bathtub of cool water  Arbuckle and Fischbach then took her to room 1227 and called the hotel manager and doctor  At this point all those present thought Rappe was just very drunk, including the hotel doctors  Probably assuming Rappe would simply sleep it off, Arbuckle drove Taub into town During the whole trial, the prosecution presented medical descriptions of Rappe's bladder as evidence that she had an illness  In his testimony, Arbuckle denied he had any knowledge of Rappe's illness  During cross-examination, Assistant District Attorney Leo Friedman aggressively grilled Arbuckle over the fact that he refused to call a doctor when he found Rappe sick, and argued that he refused to do so because he knew of Rappe's illness and saw a perfect opportunity to rape and kill her  Arbuckle calmly maintained that he never physically hurt or sexually assaulted Rappe in any way during the party, and he also stated that he never made any inappropriate sexual advances against any woman in his life  After over two weeks of testimony with sixty prosecution and defense witnesses, including eighteen doctors who testified about Rappe's illness, the defense rested  On December 4, 1921, the jury returned five days later deadlocked after nearly forty-four hours of deliberation with a 10–2 not guilty verdict, and a mistrial was declared Arbuckle's attorneys later concentrated their attention on one woman named Helen Hubbard, who had told jurors that she would vote guilty "until hell freezes over"  She refused to look at the exhibits or read the trial transcripts, having made up her mind in the courtroom  Hubbard's husband was a lawyer who did business with the D A 's office, and expressed surprise that she was not challenged when selected for the jury pool  While much attention was paid to Hubbard after the trial, some former jury members told reporters that they believed that Arbuckle was indeed guilty, but not beyond a reasonable doubt  During the deliberations, some jurors joined Hubbard in voting to convict, but they all recanted except for Thomas Kilkenny  Arbuckle researcher Joan Myers describes the political climate and the media attention to the presence of women on juries (which had only been legal for four years at the time) and how Arbuckle's defense immediately singled out Hubbard as a villain; Myers also records Hubbard's account of the jury foreman August Fritze's attempts to bully her into changing her vote to 'not guilty'  While Hubbard offered explanations on her vote whenever challenged, Kilkenny remained silent and quickly faded from the media spotlight after the trial ended 

Second trial
The second trial began January 11, 1922, with a new jury, but with the same legal defense and prosecution as well as the same presiding judge  The same evidence was presented, but this time one of the witnesses, Zey Prevon, testified that Brady had forced her to lie  Another witness who testified during the first trial, a former Culver Studios security guard named Jesse Norgard, testified that Arbuckle had once shown up at the studio and offered him a cash bribe in exchange for the key to Rappe's dressing room  The comedian supposedly said he wanted it to play a joke on the actress  Norgard said he refused to give him the key  During cross-examination, Norgard's testimony was called into question when he was revealed to be an ex-convict who was currently charged with sexually assaulting an eight-year-old girl, and who was also looking for a sentence reduction from Brady in exchange for his testimony  Further, in contrast to the first trial, Rappe's history of promiscuity and heavy drinking was detailed  The second trial also discredited some major evidence such as the identification of Arbuckle's fingerprints on the hotel bedroom door: Heinrich took back his earlier testimony from the first trial and testified that the fingerprint evidence was likely faked  The defense was so convinced of an acquittal that Arbuckle was not called to testify  His lawyer, McNab, made no closing argument to the jury  However, some jurors interpreted the refusal to let Arbuckle testify as a sign of guilt  After five days and over forty hours of deliberation, the jury returned on February 3, deadlocked with a 10–2 majority in favour of conviction, resulting in another mistrial 

Third trial
By the time of Arbuckle's third trial, his films had been banned, and newspapers had been filled for the past seven months with stories of Hollywood orgies, murder, and sexual perversion  Delmont was touring the country giving one-woman shows as, "The woman who signed the murder charge against Arbuckle", and lecturing on the evils of Hollywood 
The third trial began March 13, 1922, and this time the defense took no chances  McNab took an aggressive defense, completely tearing apart the prosecution's case with long and aggressive examination and cross-examination of each witness  McNab also managed to get in still more evidence about Rappe's lurid past and medical history  Another hole in the prosecution's case was opened because Prevon, a key witness, was out of the country after fleeing police custody and unable to testify  As in the first trial, Arbuckle testified as the final witness and again maintained his denials in his heartfelt testimony about his version of the events at the party  Buster Keaton is said to have been in the courtroom and provided important evidence to prove Arbuckle's innocence; Delmont was involved in prostitution, extortion, and blackmail  During closing statements, McNab reviewed how flawed the case was against Arbuckle from the very start and how Brady fell for the outlandish charges of Delmont, whom McNab described as "the complaining witness who never witnessed"  The jury began deliberations April 12 and took only six minutes to return with a unanimous not-guilty verdict; five of those minutes were spent writing a formal statement of apology to Arbuckle for putting him through the ordeal, a dramatic move in American justice  The jury statement as read by the jury foreman stated:

Acquittal is not enough for Roscoe Arbuckle  We feel that a great injustice has been done him  We feel also that it was only our plain duty to give him this exoneration, under the evidence, for there was not the slightest proof adduced to connect him in any way with the commission of a crime  He was manly throughout the case and told a straightforward story on the witness stand, which we all believed  The happening at the hotel was an unfortunate affair for which Arbuckle, so the evidence shows, was in no way responsible  We wish him success and hope that the American people will take the judgment of fourteen men and woman who have sat listening for thirty-one days to evidence, that Roscoe Arbuckle is entirely innocent and free from all blame 
After the reading of the apology statement, the jury foreman personally handed the statement to Arbuckle, who kept it as a treasured memento for the rest of his life  Then, one by one, the 12-person jury plus the two jury alternates walked up to Arbuckle's defense table, where they shook his hand and/or embraced and personally apologized to him  The entire jury proudly posed with Arbuckle for photographers after the verdict and apology Some experts later concluded that Rappe's bladder might also have ruptured as a result of an abortion she might have had a short time before the fateful party  Her organs had been destroyed and it was now impossible to test for pregnancy  Because alcohol was consumed at the party, Arbuckle was forced to plead guilty to one count of violating the Volstead Act and had to pay a $500 fine  At the time of his acquittal, he owed over $700,000 (equivalent to approximately $12,200,000 in 2022 dollars) in legal fees to his attorneys for the three criminal trials, and he was forced to sell his house and all of his cars to pay some of the debt The scandal and trials had greatly damaged Arbuckle's popularity among the general public  In spite of the acquittal and the apology, his reputation was not restored and the effects of the scandal continued  Will H  Hays, who served as the head of the newly formed Motion Pictures Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA) censor board, cited Arbuckle as an example of the poor morals in Hollywood  On April 18, 1922, six days after Arbuckle's acquittal, Hays banned him from ever working in U S  movies again  He had also requested that all showings and bookings of Arbuckle films be canceled, and exhibitors complied  In December of the same year, under public pressure, Hays elected to lift the ban  However, Arbuckle was still unable to secure work as an actor Most exhibitors still declined to show Arbuckle's films, several of which now have no copies known to have survived intact  One of Arbuckle's feature-length films known to survive is Leap Year, which Paramount declined to release in the U S  owing to the scandal  It was eventually released in Europe  With Arbuckle's films now banned, in March 1922 Keaton signed an agreement to give Arbuckle thirty-five percent of all future profits from his production company, Buster Keaton Comedies, in hopes of easing his financial situation 

Aftermath
In November 1923, Minta Durfee filed for divorce from Arbuckle, charging grounds of desertion  The divorce was granted the following January  They had been separated since 1921, though Durfee always claimed he was the nicest man in the world and they were still friends  After a brief reconciliation, Durfee again filed for divorce, this time while in Paris, in December 1924  Arbuckle married Doris Deane on May 16, 1925 Arbuckle tried returning to filmmaking, but industry resistance to distributing his pictures continued to linger after his acquittal  He retreated into alcoholism  In the words of his first wife, "Roscoe only seemed to find solace and comfort in a bottle"  Keaton attempted to help Arbuckle by giving him work on his films  Arbuckle wrote the story for a Keaton short called Day Dreams (1922)  Arbuckle allegedly co-directed scenes in Keaton's Sherlock Jr  (1924), but it is unclear how much of this footage remained in the film's final cut  In 1925, Carter DeHaven's short Character Studies, shot before the scandal, was released  Arbuckle appeared alongside Keaton, Harold Lloyd, Rudolph Valentino, Douglas Fairbanks, and Jackie Coogan  The same year, in Photoplay's August issue, James R  Quirk wrote: "I would like to see Roscoe Arbuckle make a comeback to the screen " He also said: "The American nation prides itself upon its spirit of fair play  We like the whole world to look upon America as the place where every man gets a square deal  Are you sure Roscoe Arbuckle is getting one today? I'm not "

William Goodrich pseudonym
Eventually, Arbuckle worked as a director under the pseudonym "William Goodrich"  Author David Yallop cites Arbuckle's father's full name as William Goodrich Arbuckle as the inspiration behind the alias  Another tale credits Keaton, an inveterate punster, with suggesting that Arbuckle become a director under the alias "Will B  Good"  The pun being too obvious, Arbuckle adopted the more formal pseudonym "William Goodrich"  Keaton himself told this story during a recorded interview with Kevin Brownlow in the 1960s Between 1924 and 1932, Arbuckle directed a number of comedy shorts under the pseudonym for Educational Pictures, which featured lesser-known comics of the day  Louise Brooks, who played the ingenue in Windy Riley Goes Hollywood (1931), told Brownlow of her experiences in working with Arbuckle:

He made no attempt to direct this picture  He just sat in his director's chair like a dead man  He had been very nice and sweetly dead ever since the scandal that ruined his career  But it was such an amazing thing for me to come in to make this broken-down picture, and to find my director was the great Roscoe Arbuckle  Oh, I thought he was magnificent in films  He was a wonderful dancer—a wonderful ballroom dancer, in his heyday  It was like floating in the arms of a huge doughnut—really delightful 
Among the more visible directorial projects under the Goodrich pseudonym was the Eddie Cantor feature Special Delivery (1927), which was released by Paramount and co-starred William Powell and Jobyna Ralston  His highest-profile project was arguably The Red Mill, also released in 1927, a Marion Davies vehicle 

Roscoe Arbuckle's Plantation Café
Arbuckle and Dan Coombs, one of Culver City's first mayors, re-opened the Plantation Club near the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios on Washington Boulevard as Roscoe Arbuckle's Plantation Café on August 2, 1928  By 1930, Arbuckle sold his interest and it became known as George Olsen's Plantation Café, later The Plantation Trailer Court and then Foreman Phillips County Barn Dance 

Second divorce and third marriage
In 1929, Doris Deane sued for divorce from Arbuckle in Los Angeles, charging desertion and cruelty  On June 21, 1932, Roscoe married Addie Oakley Dukes McPhail (later Addie Oakley Sheldon, 1905–2003) in Erie, Pennsylvania 

Brief comeback and death
In 1932, Arbuckle signed a contract with Warner Bros  to star under his own name in a series of six two-reel comedies, to be filmed at the Vitaphone studios in Brooklyn, New York  These six short films constitute the only recordings of Arbuckle's voice  Silent-film comedian Al St  John (Arbuckle's nephew) and actors Lionel Stander and Shemp Howard appeared with Arbuckle  One of the films (How've You Bean?) had grocery-store gags reminiscent of Arbuckle's 1917 short The Butcher Boy, with vaudeville comic Fritz Hubert as his assistant, dressed like Buster Keaton  The Vitaphone shorts were very successful in America, although when Warner Bros  attempted to release the first one (Hey, Pop!) in the United Kingdom, the British Board of Film Censors cited the ten-year-old scandal and refused to grant an exhibition certificate On June 28, 1933, Arbuckle had finished filming the last of the two-reelers (four of which had already been released)  The next day he signed a contract with Warner Bros  to star in a feature-length film  That night he went out with friends to celebrate his first wedding anniversary and the new Warner Bros  contract when he reportedly said: "This is the best day of my life " He suffered a heart attack later that night and died in his sleep  He was 46  His widow Addie requested that his body be cremated, as that was Arbuckle's wish 

Legacy
Many of Arbuckle's films, including the feature The Life of the Party (1920), survive only as worn prints with foreign-language inter-titles  As with most American films produced during the silent era, little or no effort was made to preserve original negatives and prints during Hollywood's first two decades, making most films that included him  lost media or lost films  However, it is likely that due to the reputation Arbuckle received around the rape and death of Virginia Rappe, that many studios wished to avoid any negative backlash and purposely destroyed any surviving films which he had a starring role in 
 By the early 21st century, some of Arbuckle's short subjects (particularly those co-starring Chaplin or Keaton) had been restored, released on DVD, and even screened theatrically  His early influence on American slapstick comedy is widely recognised For his contributions to the film industry, in 1960, some 27 years after his death, Arbuckle was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 6701 Hollywood Boulevard 

In popular culture
Neil Sedaka refers to Arbuckle, along with Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton, Stan Laurel, and Oliver Hardy in his 1971 song "Silent Movies", as heard on his Emergence album The James Ivory film The Wild Party (1975) has been repeatedly but incorrectly cited as a film dramatization of the Arbuckle–Rappe scandal  In fact it is loosely based on the 1926 poem by Joseph Moncure March  In this film, James Coco portrays a heavy-set silent film comedian named Jolly Grimm whose career is on the skids, but who is desperately planning a comeback  Raquel Welch portrays his mistress, who ultimately goads him into shooting her  This film was loosely based on the misconceptions surrounding the Arbuckle scandal, yet it bears almost no resemblance to the documented facts of the case In Ken Russell's 1977 biopic Valentino, Rudolph Nureyev as a pre-movie star Rudolph Valentino dances in a nightclub before a grossly overweight, obnoxious, and hedonistic celebrity called "Mr  Fatty" (played by William Hootkins), a caricature of Arbuckle rooted in the public view of him created in popular press coverage of the Rappe rape trial  In the scene, Valentino picks up starlet Jean Acker (played by Carol Kane) off a table in which she is sitting in front of Fatty and dances with her, enraging the spoiled star, who becomes apoplectic Before his death in 1997, comedian Chris Farley expressed interest in starring as Arbuckle in a biography film  According to the 2008 biography The Chris Farley Show: A Biography in Three Acts, Farley and screenwriter David Mamet agreed to work together on what would have been Farley's first dramatic role  In 2007, director Kevin Connor planned a film, The Life of the Party, based on Arbuckle's life  It was to star Chris Kattan and Preston Lacy  However, the project was shelved  Like Farley, comedians John Belushi and John Candy also considered playing Arbuckle, but each of them died before a biopic was made  Farley's film was signed with Vince Vaughn as his co-star In April and May 2006, the Museum of Modern Art in New York City mounted a 56-film, month-long retrospective of all of Arbuckle's known surviving work, running the entire series twice Arbuckle is the subject of a 2004 novel titled I, Fatty by author Jerry Stahl  The Day the Laughter Stopped by David Yallop and Frame-Up! The Untold Story of Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle by Andy Edmonds are other books on Arbuckle's life  The 1963 novel Scandal in Eden by Garet Rogers is a fictionalized version of the Arbuckle scandal Fatty Arbuckle's was an American-themed restaurant chain in the UK named after Arbuckle The 2009 novel Devil's Garden is based on the Arbuckle trials  The main character in the story is Dashiell Hammett, a Pinkerton detective in San Francisco at the time of the trials NOFX's 2012 album Self Entitled has a song called "I, Fatty" about Arbuckle The 2021 French graphic novel Fatty : le premier roi d'Hollywood, by Nadar and Julien Frey, portrays the period from Arbuckle's early days in Hollywood to his death 

Filmography
See also
List of actors with Hollywood Walk of Fame motion picture stars
List of American comedy films

Notes
Passage 6:
Special Delivery (1927 film)
Special Delivery is a 1927 American silent comedy film directed by Roscoe Arbuckle starring Eddie Cantor, Jobyna Ralston and William Powell  It was written by Cantor, John F  Goodrich, and George Marion Jr  (with Larry Semon, uncredited)  It was released by Paramount Pictures  The film's copyright was renewed in 1954, so it entered the public domain in the United States on January 1, 2023 

Plot
Eddie, a mailman, is in love with waitress Madge but finds amongst his rivals for her affections the dishonest promoter Harold Jones  Eddie, who cannot dance, impresses Madge at the postal ball by his energetic performance of the Black Bottom after a piece of ice falls down his shirt and wins a cup  He eventually unmasks Harold as a crooked swindler 

Cast
Eddie Cantor as Eddie, The Mail Carrier
Jobyna Ralston as Madge, The Girl
William Powell as Harold Jones
Donald Keith as Harrigan, The Fireman
Jack Dougherty as Flannigan, a cop
Victor Potel as Nip, a detective
Paul Kelly as Tuck, another detective
Mary Carr as The Mother
Marilyn Cantor Baker as Extra (uncredited) (as Marilyn Cantor)
Marjorie Cantor as Extra (uncredited)
Tiny Doll as Baby on Eddie's Route (uncredited)
Robert Livingston as Extra at Postal Ball (uncredited)
Natalie Cantor Metzger as Extra (uncredited) (as Natalie Cantor)
Spec O'Donnell as Office Boy (uncredited)

See also
Fatty Arbuckle filmography
Passage 7:
Mario Camus
Mario Camus García (20 April 1935 – 18 September 2021) was a Spanish film director and screenwriter  He won the  Golden Bear at the 33rd Berlin International Film Festival with La colmena  His 1987 film The House of Bernarda Alba was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1987 Cannes Film Festival and in the main competition at the 15th Moscow International Film Festival  His 1993 film Shadows in a Conflict was entered into the 18th Moscow International Film Festival 

Filmography
Passage 8:
Special Delivery (1955 film)
Special Delivery (German: Vom Himmel gefallen) is a 1955 American–West German comedy film, directed by John Brahm  It stars Joseph Cotten and Eva Bartok  Special Delivery was filmed simultaneously in an English- and German-language version 

Plot
Somewhere behind the Iron Curtain, mid 1950s  John Adams is a US embassy chargé d'affaires in a communist country in Eastern Europe  One day he has to deal with a very special case: in the front yard of the embassy, a baby has been laid down, as if it had "fallen from heaven"! Nobody knows how it got there, nobody saw the person who put it there  A found object in the front yard of the embassy is not all that unusual, because many a person persecuted by the regime has thrown something over the embassy fence so that it does not fall into the hands of the communist cultural barbarians  For the embassy, with its six exclusively male employees, the baby poses a serious problem: what to do? The government of the Eastern European country immediately demands the extradition of the young "citizen" and immediately sends a stubborn state representative, Comrade Kovacs  Adams, on the other hand, decides to stonewall and not hand the baby over to the communists  In order to ensure the care of the little one, who is simply called Sam after Uncle Sam, the host country also provides its own nanny  Sonja Novaswobida, as she is called, is also supposed to collect further information on site on behalf of her government 
Due to mutual distrust, the men's relationships with the Eastern European state employee initially ranged from difficult to cold, especially since Kovacs turned out to be a particularly tough opponent for Ambassador Adams  He insists on returning the baby to the country as a kind of public property  Adams, however, wants to hand over just that, and instead, with some ironic ulterior motive, gives Adams another find that someone had thrown over the embassy's bridle: a supposedly ingenious, modern musical score that Kovacs plays the piano reluctantly at first, but then enthusiastically after realizing it must, how little the Americans can do with such modern music  Trust in one another begins to develop slowly  Tensions between the two governments are only resolved when the little one's parents are located  They are Olaf, the embassy's Swedish cook, and a woman from the host country who used to work here  Ambassador Adams now ensures in no time at all that marriage papers are issued to the parents, so that the toddler is considered a Swedish citizen and can leave the communist country with the parents in the direction of freedom  Adams' relationship with Sonja also soon goes beyond the purely official: both eventually become a couple 

Cast
Joseph Cotten as John Adams
Eva Bartok as Sonja
Bob Cunningham as Captain Heinikan
René Deltgen as Kovak
Gert Fröbe as Olaf
Bruni Löbel as Lila
Ursula Herking as Madame Debrov

Production
It was filmed simultaneously in English- and German-language versions 

See also
1955 in film
List of comedy films of the 1950s
List of German films 1945–1959
Passage 9:
Sepideh Farsi
Sepideh Farsi (Persian: سپیده فارسی; born 1965) is an Iranian director 

Early years
Farsi left Iran in 1984 and went to Paris to study mathematics   However, eventually she was drawn to the visual arts and initially experimented in photography before making her first short films  A main theme of her works is identity  She still visits Tehran each year 

Awards/Recognition
Farsi was a Member of the Jury of the Locarno International Film Festival in Best First Feature in 2009  She won the FIPRESCI Prize (2002), Cinéma du Réel and Traces de Vie prize (2001) for "Homi D  Sethna, filmmaker" and Best documentary prize in Festival dei Popoli (2007) for "HARAT" 

Recent News
One of her latest films is called Tehran Bedoune Mojavez (Tehran Without Permission)   The 83-minute documentary shows life in Iran's crowded capital city of Tehran, facing international sanctions over its nuclear ambitions and experiencing civil unrest   It was shot entirely with a Nokia camera phone because of the government restrictions over shooting a film   The film shows various aspects of city life including following women at the hairdressers talking of the latest fads, young men speaking of drugs, prostitution and other societal problems, and the Iranian rapper “Hichkas”   The  dialogue is in Persian with English and Arabic subtitles  In December 2009, Tehran Without Permission was shown at the Dubai International Film Festival 

Filmography
Red Rose (2014)
Cloudy Greece (2013)
Zire Âb / The house under the water (2010)
Tehran bedoune mojavez / Tehran without permission (2009)
If it were Icarus (2008)
Harat (2007)
Negah / The Gaze (2006)
Khab-e khak / Dreams of Dust (2003)
Safar-e Maryam / The journey of Maryam (2002)
Mardan-e Atash / Men of Fire (2001)
Homi D  Sethna, filmmaker (2000)
Donya khaneye man ast / The world is my home (1999)
Khabe Âb / Water dreams (1997)
Bâd-e shomal / Northwind (1993)
Passage 10:
Special Delivery (2002 film)
Special Delivery (French: C'est le bouquet !) is a 2002 French comedy film directed by Jeanne Labrune 

Cast
Sandrine Kiberlain - Catherine
Jean-Pierre Darroussin - Raphaël
Dominique Blanc - Edith
Mathieu Amalric - Stéphane
Jean-Claude Brialy - Robert Fresnel
Maurice Bénichou - Antoine
Hélène Lapiower - Alice
Dominique Besnehard - Laurent
Richard Debuisne - Emmanuel Kirsch
Gisèle Casadesus - The lady
Didier Bezace - The theater director
László Szabó - The guardian
Lise Lamétrie - The maid



ground_truth: England

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which film has the director born later, The Wind'S Fierce or Special Delivery (1927 Film)?

The following are given passages.
Context 4:  The prosperity in his Empire, in contrast to the Mughal-Sikh wars era, largely came from the improvement in the security situation, reduction in violence, reopened trade routes and greater freedom to conduct commerce 

Muslim accounts
The mid 19th-century Muslim historians, such as Shahamat Ali who experienced the Sikh Empire first hand, presented a different view on Ranjit Singh's Empire and governance  According to Ali, Ranjit Singh's government was despotic, and he was a mean monarch in contrast to the Mughals  The initial momentum for the Empire building in these accounts is stated to be Ranjit Singh led Khalsa army's "insatiable appetite for plunder", their desire for "fresh cities to pillage", and eliminating the Mughal era "revenue intercepting intermediaries between the peasant-cultivator and the treasury" According to Ishtiaq Ahmed, Ranjit Singh's rule led to further persecution of Muslims in Kashmir, expanding the previously selective persecution of Shia Muslims and Hindus by Afghan Sunni Muslim rulers between 1752 and 1819 before Kashmir became part of his Sikh Empire  Bikramjit Hasrat describes Ranjit Singh as a "benevolent despot" 
The Muslim accounts of Ranjit Singh's rule were questioned by Sikh historians of the same era  For example, Ratan Singh Bhangu in 1841 wrote that these accounts were not accurate, and according to Anne Murphy, he remarked, "when would a Musalman praise the Sikhs?" In contrast, the colonial era British military officer Hugh Pearse in 1898 criticised Ranjit Singh's rule, as one founded on "violence, treachery and blood"  Sohan Seetal disagrees with this account and states that Ranjit Singh had encouraged his army to respond with a "tit for tat" against the enemy, violence for violence, blood for blood, plunder for plunder 

Decline
Singh made his empire and the Sikhs a strong political force, for which he is deeply admired and revered in Sikhism  After his death, empire failed to establish a lasting structure for Sikh government or stable succession, and the Sikh Empire began to decline  The British and Sikh Empire fought two Anglo-Sikh wars with the second ending the reign of Sikh Empire  Sikhism itself did not decline Clive Dewey has argued that the decline of the empire after Singh's death owes much to the jagir-based economic and taxation system which he inherited from the Mughals and retained  After his death, a fight to control the tax spoils emerged, leading to a power struggle among the nobles and his family from different wives  This struggle ended with a rapid series of palace coups and assassinations of his descendants, and eventually the annexation of the Sikh Empire by the British 

Death and legacy
Death
In the 1830s, Ranjit Singh suffered from numerous health complications as well as a stroke, which some historical records attribute to alcoholism and a failing liver  According to the chronicles of Ranjit Singh's court historians and the Europeans who visited him, Ranjit Singh took to alcohol and opium, habits that intensified in the later decades of his life  However, he neither smoked nor ate beef, and required all officials in his court, regardless of their religion, to adhere to these restrictions as part of their employment contract   He died in his sleep on 27 June 1839  Four of his Hindu wives- Mehtab Devi (Guddan Sahiba), daughter of Raja Sansar Chand, Rani Har Devi, the daughter of Chaudhri Ram, a Saleria rajput, Rani Raj Devi, daughter of Padma Rajput and Rani Rajno Kanwar, daughter of Sand Bhari along with seven Hindu concubines with royal titles committed sati by voluntarily placing themselves onto his funeral pyre as an act of devotion Singh is remembered for uniting Sikhs and founding the prosperous Sikh Empire  He is also remembered for his conquests and building a well-trained, self-sufficient Khalsa army to protect the empire  He amassed considerable wealth, including gaining the possession of the Koh-i-Noor diamond from Shuja Shah Durrani of Afghanistan, which he left to Jagannath Temple in Puri, Odisha in 1839 

Gurdwaras
Perhaps Singh's most lasting legacy was the restoration and expansion of the Harmandir Sahib, the most revered Gurudwara of the Sikhs, which is now known popularly as the "Golden Temple"  Much of the present decoration at the Harmandir Sahib, in the form of gilding and marblework, was introduced under the patronage of Singh, who also sponsored protective walls and water supply system to strengthen security and operations related to the temple  He also directed construction of two of the most sacred Sikh temples, being the birthplace and place of assassination of Guru Gobind Singh – Takht Sri Patna Sahib and Takht Sri Hazur Sahib, respectively – whom he much admired  The nine-storey tower of Gurdwara Baba Atal was constructed during his reign 

Memorials and museums
Samadhi of Ranjit Singh in Lahore, Pakistan, marks the place where Singh was cremated, and four of his queens and seven concubines committed sati 
On 20 August 2003, a 22-foot-tall bronze statue of Singh was installed in the Parliament of India 
A museum at Ram Bagh Palace in Amritsar contains objects related to Singh, including arms and armour, paintings, coins, manuscripts, and jewellery  Singh had spent much time at the palace in which it is situated, where a garden was laid out in 1818 
On 27 June 2019, a nine-feet bronze statue of Singh was unveiled at the Haveli Maharani Jindan, Lahore Fort at his 180th death anniversary  It has been vandalised several times since, specifically by members of the Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan 

Crafts
In 1783, Ranjit Singh established a crafts colony of Thatheras near Amritsar and encouraged skilled metal crafters from Kashmir to settle in Jandiala Guru  In the year 2014, this traditional craft of making brass and copper products got enlisted on the List of Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO  The Government of Punjab is now working under Project Virasat to revive this craft 

Awards
In 2020, Ranjit Singh was named as "Greatest Leader of All Time" in a poll conducted by 'BBC World Histories Magazine' 

In popular culture
Maharaja Ranjit Singh, a documentary film directed by Prem Prakash covers his rise to power and his reign  It was produced by the Government of India's Films Division 
In 2010, a TV series titled Maharaja Ranjit Singh aired on DD National based on his life which was produced by Raj Babbar's Babbar Films Private Limited  He was portrayed by Ejlal Ali Khan
Maharaja: The Story of Ranjit Singh (2010) is an Indian Punjabi-language animated film directed by Amarjit Virdi 
A teenage Ranjit was portrayed by Damanpreet Singh in the 2017 TV series titled Sher-e-Punjab: Maharaja Ranjit Singh  It aired on Life OK produced by Contiloe Entertainment 

See also
Baradari of Ranjit Singh
History of Punjab
Charat Singh
Hari Singh Nalwa
List of generals of Ranjit Singh
Koh-i-Noor
Battle of Balakot

Notes
Passage 6:
Duleep Singh
Maharaja Sir Duleep Singh, GCSI (4 September 1838 – 22 October 1893), or Sir Dalip Singh, and later in life nicknamed the "Black Prince of Perthshire", was the last Maharaja of the Sikh Empire  He was Maharaja Ranjit Singh's youngest son, the only child of Maharani Jind Kaur He was placed in power in September 1843, at the age of five, with his mother ruling on his behalf, and after their defeat in the Anglo-Sikh War, under a British Resident  He was subsequently deposed by the British Crown, and thereafter exiled to Britain at age 15 where he was befriended by Queen Victoria, who is reported to have written of the Punjabi Maharaja: "Those eyes and those teeth are too beautiful"  The Queen was godmother to several of his children  He died at 55, living most of his final years in the United Kingdom His mother had effectively ruled when he was very young and he managed to meet her again on 16 January 1861, in Calcutta and return with her to the United Kingdom  During the last two years of her life, his mother told the Maharaja about his Sikh heritage and the Empire which once had been his to rule  In June 1861, he was one of the first 25 Knights in the Order of the Star of India 

Early years
After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839, Duleep Singh lived quietly with his mother, Jind Kaur Aulakh, at Jammu ruled by Gulab Singh, under the protection of the Vizier, Raja Dhian Singh  He and his mother were recalled to Lahore in 1843 after the assassinations of Maharaja Sher Singh and Dhian Singh, and on 16 September, at the age of five, Duleep Singh was proclaimed Maharaja of the Sikh Empire, with Maharani Jind Kaur as Regent 
On 13 December 1845 the British East India Company declared war on the Sikhs and, after winning the First Anglo-Sikh War, retained the Maharaja as nominal ruler, but replaced the Maharani by a Council of Regency and later imprisoned and exiled her  Over thirteen years passed before Duleep Singh was permitted to see his mother again 
After the close of the Second Anglo-Sikh War and the subsequent annexation of the Punjab on 29 March 1849, he was deposed at the age of ten and was put into the care of Dr John Login and sent from Lahore to Fatehgarh on 21 December 1849, with tight restrictions on who he was allowed to meet  No Indians, except trusted servants, could meet him in private  As a matter of British policy, he was to be culturally anglicised in every possible aspect  His health was reportedly poor and he was often sent to the hill station of Landour near Mussoorie in the Lower Himalaya for convalescence, at the time about 4 days' journey  He would remain for weeks at a time in Landour at a grand hilltop building called The Castle, which had been lavishly furnished to accommodate him 

Conversion to Christianity
In 1853, under the tutelage of his long-time retainer Bhajan Lal (himself a Christian convert), he converted to Christianity at Fatehgarh with the approval of the Governor-General Lord Dalhousie  His conversion remains controversial, and it occurred before he turned 15  He later had serious doubts and regrets regarding this decision and reconverted to Sikhism in 1886 He was also heavily and continuously exposed to Christian texts under the tutelage of the devout Sir John Spencer Login  His two closest childhood friends were both English Anglican missionaries  In May 1854 he was sent into exile in Britain 

Life in exile
London
Duleep Singh arrived in England in late 1854 and was introduced to the British court  Queen Victoria showered affection upon the turbaned Maharaja, as did the Prince Consort  Duleep Singh was initially lodged at Claridge's Hotel in London before the East India Company took over a house in Wimbledon and then eventually another house in Roehampton which became his home for three years  He was also invited by the Queen to stay with the Royal Family at Osborne, where she sketched him playing with her children and Prince Albert photographed him, while the court artist, Winterhalter, made his portrait He eventually got bored with Roehampton and expressed a wish to go back to India but it was suggested by the East India Company Board he take a tour of the European continent which he did with Sir John Spencer Login and Lady Login  He was a member of the Photographic Society, later the Royal Photographic Society, from 1855 until his death 

Castle Menzies
On his return from Continental Europe in 1855 he was given an annual pension of £25,000 a year (approximately £2,500,000 in today's value) provided he "remain obedient to the British Government," and was officially under ward of Sir John Spencer Login and Lady Login, who leased Castle Menzies in Perthshire, Scotland, for him  He spent the rest of his teens there, but at 19 he demanded to be in charge of his household  Eventually, he was given this and an increase in his annual pension 
In 1859 Lt Col James Oliphant was installed as Equerry to the Maharaja at the recommendation of Sir John Login  Oliphant was to be a possible replacement should anything happen to the Maharaja's most trusted friend Sir John Login (who did indeed die four years later in 1863) In the 1860s, Singh moved from Castle Menzies to Grandtully Castle 

Mulgrave Castle
From 1858 to 1862 Duleep Singh rented Mulgrave Castle, near Whitby 

Sir Samuel White Baker
While Sir Samuel White Baker was visiting the Duke of Atholl on his shooting estate in Scotland, he befriended Maharaja Duleep Singh  In 1858–1859, the two partnered an extensive hunting trip in central Europe and the Balkans, via Frankfurt, Berlin, Vienna and Budapest  On the last part of the voyage, Baker and the Maharajah hired a wooden boat in Budapest, which was eventually abandoned on the frozen Danube  The two continued into Vidin where, to amuse the Maharajah, Baker went to the Vidin slave market  There, Baker fell in love with a white slave girl, destined for the Ottoman Pasha of Vidin  Baker was outbid by the Pasha but bribed the girl's attendants  The two ran away in a carriage together and eventually, as Florence Baker, she became Baker's lover and wife and accompanied him everywhere he journeyed 

Reunion with his mother
When he was 18, Singh wrote to his mother in Kathmandu, suggesting that she should join him in Great Britain, but his letter was intercepted by the British authorities in India and did not reach her  He then sent a courier, Pundit Nehemiah Goreh, who was also intercepted and forbidden to contact the Maharani  Duleep Singh then decided to go himself  Under cover of a letter from Login he wrote to the British Resident in Kathmandu, who reported that the Maharani had 'much changed, was blind and had lost much of the energy which formerly characterised her ' The British government decided she was no longer a threat and she was allowed to join her son on 16 January 1861 at Spence's Hotel in Calcutta and return with him to England 

Auchlyne and Aberfeldy
In 1858 the lease of Castle Menzies expired and Duleep Singh rented the house at Auchlyne from the Earl of Breadalbane  He was known for a lavish lifestyle, shooting parties, and a love of dressing in Highland costume and soon had the nickname "the Black Prince of Perthshire"  (At the same time, he was known to have gradually developed a sense of regret for his circumstances in exile, including some inner turmoil about his conversion to Christianity and his forced departure from the Punjab)  His mother stayed in Perthshire with him for a short time, before he rented the Grandtully Estate, near Aberfeldy  Following the death of his mother and Sir John Login in 1863, he returned to England 

Elveden Estate
Maharaja Duleep Singh (as he became in June 1861) bought (or the India Office purchased for him) a 17,000 acres (69 km2) country estate at Elveden on the border between Norfolk and Suffolk, close to Thetford, in 1863  He enjoyed living in Elveden Hall and the surrounding area and restored the church, cottages, and school  He transformed the run-down estate into an efficient game preserve and it was here that he gained his reputation as the fourth best shot in England The house was remodelled into a quasi-oriental palace where he lived the life of a British aristocrat  Maharaja Duleep Singh was accused of running up large expenses and the estate was sold after his death to pay his debts  Today, Elveden is owned by The 4th Earl of Iveagh, the head of the Anglo-Irish Guinness family of brewing fame; it remains an operating farm and private hunting estate 

Re-initiated into Sikhism
In 1864, Duleep Singh married Bamba Müller in Cairo and established his family home at Elveden Hall in Suffolk  He eventually became disaffected and embittered with the British, and he reverted to Sikhism 
While in exile, he sought to learn more about Sikhism and was eager to return to India  Though previous efforts were thwarted by his handlers, he re-established contact with his cousin Sardar Thakar Singh Sandhawalia, who on 28 September 1884 left Amritsar for England along with his sons Narinder Singh and Gurdit Singh and a Sikh granthi (priest), Pratap Singh Giani  He also brought a list of properties held by Sir Duleep Singh in India  All this renewed his connection with Sikhism The British Government decided in 1886 against his return to India or his re-embracing Sikhism  Despite protests from the India Office, he set sail for 'home' on 30 March 1886  However, he was intercepted and arrested in Aden, then part of Aden Settlement, where the writ of the Viceroy of India began  He could not be stopped from an informal re-conversion ceremony in Aden, far less grand and symbolic than it would have been in India, done by emissaries sent by Sardar Thakar Singh Sandhawalia, who was earlier planning the Pahaul ceremony at Bombay  Sir Duleep was forced to return to Europe 

Death
Maharaja Duleep Singh died in Paris in 1893 at the age of 55, having seen India after the age of fifteen during only two brief, tightly controlled visits in 1860 (to bring his mother to England) and in 1863 (to cremate his mother's body) 
Maharaja Duleep Singh's wish for his body to be returned to India was not honoured, in fear of unrest, given the symbolic value the funeral of the son of the Lion of the Punjab might have caused and the growing resentment of British rule  His body was brought back to be buried according to Christian rites, under the supervision of the India Office, in Elveden Church beside the grave of his wife Maharani Bamba, and his son Prince Edward Albert Duleep Singh  The graves are located on the west side of the Church 

A life-size bronze statue of the Maharaja, showing him on a horse, was unveiled by the then Prince of Wales in 1999 at Butten Island in Thetford, a town which benefited from his and his sons' generosity In an auction at Bonhams, London, on 19 April 2007, the 74 cm high white marble portrait bust of Maharaja Duleep Singh by Victorian sculptor John Gibson, R A , in Rome in 1859 fetched £1 7 million (£1 5 million plus premium and tax) A film titled Maharaja Duleep Singh: A Monument Of Injustice, was made in 2007, directed by P S  Narula 

Heraldry
The Maharaja and his family used a coat of arms which was drawn up by Prince Albert, despite not being registered at the College of Arms  It contained a coronet, lions, and a shield with a cross, along with the motto "Prodesse quam conspicii" ("to do good rather than be conspicuous") 

Family
Sir Duleep Singh married twice, first to Bamba Müller in 1864, and then to Ada Douglas Wetherill (1869-1930) in 1889  He had eight children in total 
He had seven children from his marriage to Bamba  Their first child and male heir died aged one day in 1865  The others were:

Prince Victor Albert Jay Duleep Singh (10 Jan 1866-7 Jun 1918)
Prince Frederick Victor Duleep Singh (23 Jan 1868-15 Aug 1926)
Princess Bamba Sofia Jindan Duleep Singh (29 Sep 1869-10 Mar 1957)
Princess Catherine Hilda Duleep Singh (27 Oct 1871-8 Nov 1942)
Princess Sophia Alexandra Duleep Singh (8 Aug 1876-22 Aug 1948)
Prince Albert Edward Alexander Duleep Singh (1879-1 May 1893)He also had two children from his marriage to Wetherill:

Princess Pauline Alexandra Duleep Singh (26 Dec 1887-10 Apr 1941)
Princess Ada Irene Beryl Duleep Singh (25 Oct 1889-14 Sep 1926)All the eight children died without legitimate issue, ending the direct line of the Sikh Royalty There is a memorial at Eton College in England to Princes Victor and Frederick, Maharaja Sir Duleep Singh's two sons who studied at Eton in the 1870s 

Maharani Bamba Müller
Maharani Bamba Müller was an Arabic-speaking, part-Ethiopian, part-German woman, whose father was a German banker and whose mother was an Abyssinian Coptic Christian slave  She and Sir Duleep met in Cairo in 1863 on his return from scattering his mother's ashes in India; they were married in Alexandria, Egypt, on 7 June 1864  The Maharani died in London on 18 September 1887 

Ada Douglas Wetherill
Ada Douglas Wetherill (born 15 January 1869 in Kennington, Surrey, the daughter of a civil engineer) had been Duleep's mistress before he decided to return to India with his family, and upon being stopped in Aden by the British authorities he abandoned his family and moved to Paris, where she joined him  They married in Paris on 28 April 1889  She stayed with him through his years in Paris and also travelled with him to St  Petersburg, Russia, where he failed to persuade the Czar of the benefits of invading India through the north and reinstalling him as ruler  She died in Sussex on 6 August 1930 
Queen Victoria and Maharaja Duleep Singh reconciled their differences before he died  Out of loyalty to Maharani Bamba, the Queen refused to receive Ada, whom she suspected had been involved with the Maharaja before Maharani Bamba's death in 1887 

Miscellany
In 1854, Madame Blavatsky, the founder of the  Theosophical Society, met her Master Morya in England, who was in her words, "in the company of a dethroned native prince"  This "native prince" according to general consent was Sir Duleep Singh 
He was a member of the Freemasons and was admitted into the lodge in 1861 On 21 October 1893, the day before Sir Duleep Singh's death, Prince Victor Duleep Singh, the eldest son of Sir Duleep Singh, had visions of his father looking at him through a picture frame 
Duleep Singh remembered his servant James Cawood who died in 1865 with a gravestone in Killin cemetery, Killin, Scotland A 2017 film, The Black Prince, by the Indian-born film director Kavi Raz told the story of Duleep and his relationship with Queen Victoria 
Maharaja Duleep Singh's character is featured in Ubisoft's Assassin's Creed: Syndicate game  He is featured as a young Duleep Singh, which based on his real-life struggle as an exiled ruler in Victorian London 

Further reading
Sikh History in 10 Volumes, by Dr Harjinder Singh Dilgeer  Published by Sikh University Press, Belgium, 2009–2012 
Sir John Login And Duleep Singh, by Lady Lena Login  W  H  Allen & Co , London  1890 
Maharaja Duleep Singh Correspondence, by Dhuleep Singh, Ganda Singh  Published by Punjabi University, 1977 
Sikh Portraits by European Artists,, by Aijazuddin, F S  Sotheby Parke Bernet, London and Oxford U  Press, Karachi and New Delhi, 1979 
The Duleep Singh's: The Photograph Album of Queen Victoria's Maharajah, by Peter Bance (Bhupinder Singh Bance)  Sutton Publishing, ISBN 0-7509-3488-3
The Maharajah's Box: An Imperial Story of Conspiracy, Love and a Guru's Prophecy, by Campbell, Christy  HarperCollins, ISBN 0-00-653078-8 The Maharaja's Box
Queen Victoria's Maharajah, Duleep Singh, 1838–93, by Michael Alexander and Sushila Anand  1980  ISBN 978-1-84212-232-7
Duleep Singh: The Maharaja of Punjab and the Raj, by Rishi Ranjan Chakrabarty  Published by D S  Samara, 1988  ISBN 0-9514957-0-4 
Maharaja Duleep Singh: The Last Sovereign Ruler of the Punjab, by Prithipal Singh Kapur  Published by Shiromani Gurudwara Parbandhak Committee, Dharam Parchar Committee, 1995 
Maharaja Duleep Singh, Fighter for Freedom, by Baldev Singh Baddan  Published by National Book Shop, 1998  ISBN 81-7116-210-X 
 Maharaja Daleep Singh, by Balihar Singh Randhawa  Sikh Literary & Cultural Stall, 1998  ISBN 1-900860-01-5 
The Maharajah Duleep Singh and the Government: A Narrative, by Surjit Singh Jeet  Published by Guru Nanak Dev University, 1999 
The Annexation of the Punjaub, and the Maharajah Duleep Singh, by Thomas Evans Bell  Adamant Media Corporation, 2001  ISBN 0-543-92432-7 
Maharaja Dalip Singh Cheated Out, by Avtar Singh Gill  Jaswant Printers  2007
The Exile, by Navtej Sarna  Penguin, 2008  ISBN 978-0-670-08208-7 
Sovereign, Squire & Rebel: Maharajah Duleep Singh and the heirs of a Lost Kingdom, by Peter Bance, Coronet House Publishing, London, 2009
The Last Sunset: The Rise and Fall of the Lahore Durbar, by Capt  Amarinder Singh, ISBN 978-8174367792
Passage 7:
Theodred II (Bishop of Elmham)
Theodred II was a medieval Bishop of Elmham 
The date of Theodred's consecration unknown, but the date of his death was sometime between 995 and 997 
Passage 8:
Bill Smith (footballer, born 1897)
William Thomas Smith (9 April 1897 – after 1924) was an English professional footballer 

Career
During his amateur career, Smith played in 17 finals, and captained the Third Army team in Germany when he was stationed in Koblenz after the armistice during the First World War  He started his professional career with Hull City in 1921  After making no appearances for the club, he joined Leadgate Park  He joined Durham City in 1921, making 33 league appearances in the club's first season in the Football League He joined York City in the Midland League in July 1922, where he scored the club's first goal in that competition  He made 75 appearances for the club in the Midland League and five appearances in the FA Cup before joining Stockport County in 1925, where he made no league appearances 
Passage 9:
Bamba Müller
Maharani Bamba, Lady Singh (Bamba Müller; 6 July 1848 – 18 September 1887)  Brought up by Christian missionaries, she married Maharaja Duleep Singh and became Maharani Bamba, wife of the last Maharaja of Lahore  Her transformation from illegitimate girl, born to a German father and Abyssinian (Ethiopian) mother, living in a Cairo mission to a Maharani living a life of luxury with the "Black Prince of Perthshire" has been compared to the "Cinderella" story 

Biography
Bamba Müller was the daughter of Ludwig Müller, a German merchant banker with the company Todd Müller and Co , by his mistress of Abyssinian descent called Sofia  The name Bamba was Arabic for pink  Her father already had a wife and he therefore placed his illegitimate daughter in the care of missionaries in Cairo  Her father had requested and paid for her education, and remained in contact with the missionaries  Müller became an enthusiastic and charismatic member of the Christian community and was the only female in a select group of communicants at the American Presbyterian Mission school in Cairo 

The prince
Duleep Singh was the last ruler of the Sikh Empire, being dethroned by the East India Company after the Second Anglo-Sikh War  In 1863, Singh was being supervised in Britain where he was a friend of Queen Victoria and kept a large social circle  He was known as the "Black Prince of Perthshire" around his home in Scotland  Singh was given money by the East India Company administration on condition that he complied with the demands of the British government  Duleep had been taken to Britain when a child and raised as a Christian  This was after he had been persuaded to agree to the annexation of the Punjab by the East India Company  The treaty also included handing the Koh-i-Nor diamond as well, which became part of the Crown Jewels  Singh was separated from his mother, Maharani Jindan Kaur  His mother remained in India, although eventually she was allowed to rejoin her son in England  Duleep collected her after special permission was given  Duleep was allowed by the East India Company to visit India for the second time to bury his mother after she died in Britain, although the body remained at Kensal Green Cemetery for nearly a year whilst this was negotiated upon  His mother's ashes were not allowed to be buried in Lahore (the main city of the Punjab), but had to be placed in a memorial in Bombay instead 

The proposal
On his return from Bombay Duleep passed through Cairo and visited the missionaries there on 10 February 1864  He visited again a few days later and was taken around the girls' school, where he first met Bamba Müller, who was an instructor  She was the only girl there who had committed herself to a Christian life  On each visit Duleep made presents to the mission of several hundreds of pounds 
Duleep Singh wrote to the teachers at the missionary school at the end of the month in the hope that they would recommend a wife for him as he was to live in Britain and he wanted a Christian wife of Eastern origin  Queen Victoria had told Duleep that he should marry an Indian princess who had been educated in England, but he desired a girl with less sophistication  The final proposal had to be done via an intermediary as Duleep did not speak Arabic, Müller's only language   The missionaries discussed this proposal with Müller  She was unsure whether to accept the proposal offered via the missionaries  Her first ambition was to rise to teach children in a missionary school  Her father was consulted but he left the choice to his daughter  Müller eventually made her decision after praying for guidance  She decided that the marriage was God's call for her to widen her ambitions  Singh made a substantial contribution of one thousand pounds to the school and married Müller on 7 June 1864 in the British Consulate in Alexandria, Egypt  The ceremony was described as brief, with few witnesses  Both of them wore European dress though Duleep wore a turban  Bamba wore simple jewellery including pearls  She had a short sleeved, moire, antique dress, orange blossoms in her hair, and a veil  The Prince made his vows in English, whilst Bamba spoke in Arabic 

Family and death
The couple had three sons and three daughters whom they brought up at Elveden Hall in Suffolk, England  Her six children were: Victor Albert Jay (1866–1918), Frederick Victor (1868–1926), Bamba Sophia Jindan  (1869–1957), Catherina Hilda (1871–1942), Sophia Alexandra (1876–1948), and Albert Edward Alexander (1879–1893) 
Victor and Frederick both joined the British Army whilst Frederick became a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London  One of her daughters, Bamba Sophia Jindan, returned to Lahore as the wife of a Dr Sutherland  She was known as Princess Bamba Sutherland 
In 1886 her husband resolved to return to India  On his way there he was arrested in Aden and forced to return to Europe  Bamba died on 18 September 1887 and was buried  at Elveden  The cause of death was reported as "comprehensive renal failure brought on by an acute case of diabetes, made worse by her drinking (of alcohol)" Bamba's husband went on to marry again in 1889 to Ada Douglas Wetherill and had two more children 
Her son Albert Edward Alexander Duleep Singh died aged thirteen in Hastings on 1 May 1893 and was buried next to his mother  When Bamba's husband died, his body was brought back to England and buried with his wife and son at Elveden 



ground_truth: The Wind'S Fierce