prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which country the director of film Renegade Force is from?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Dana Blankstein
Dana Blankstein-Cohen (born March 3, 1981) is the executive director of the Sam Spiegel Film and Television School  She was appointed by the board of directors  in November 2019   Previously she was the CEO of the Israeli Academy of Film and Television  She is a film director, and an Israeli culture entrepreneur 

Biography
Dana Blankstein was born in Switzerland in 1981 to theatre director Dedi Baron and Professor Alexander Blankstein  She moved to Israel in 1983 and grew up in Tel Aviv 
Blankstein graduated from the Sam Spiegel Film and Television School, Jerusalem in 2008 with high honors  During her studies she worked as a personal assistant to directors Savi Gabizon on his film Nina's Tragedies and to Renen Schorr on his film The Loners   She also directed and shot 'the making of' film on Gavison's film Lost and Found  Her debut film Camping competed at the Berlin International Film Festival, 2007 

Film and academic career
After her studies, Dana founded and directed the film and television department at the Kfar Saba municipality  The department encouraged and promoted productions filmed in the city of Kfar Saba, as well as the established cultural projects, and educational community activities 
Blankstein directed the mini-series "Tel Aviviot" (2012)  From 2016-2019 was the director of the Israeli Academy of Film and Television 
In November 2019 Dana Blankstein Cohen was appointed the new director of the Sam Spiegel Film and Television School where she also oversees the Sam Spiegel International Film Lab  In 2022, she spearheaded the launch of the new Series Lab and the film preparatory program for Arabic speakers in east Jerusalem 

Filmography
Tel Aviviot (mini-series; director, 2012)
Growing Pains (graduation film, Sam Spiegel; director and screenwriter, 2008)
Camping (debut film, Sam Spiegel; director and screenwriter, 2006)
Passage 2:
Ian Barry (director)
Ian Barry is an Australian director of film and TV 

Select credits
Waiting for Lucas (1973) (short)
Stone (1974) (editor only)
The Chain Reaction (1980)
Whose Baby? (1986) (mini-series)
Minnamurra (1989)
Bodysurfer (1989) (mini-series)
Ring of Scorpio (1990) (mini-series)
Crimebroker (1993)
Inferno (1998) (TV movie)
Miss Lettie and Me (2002) (TV movie)
Not Quite Hollywood: The Wild, Untold Story of Ozploitation! (2008) (documentary)
The Doctor Blake Mysteries (2013)
Passage 3:
John Donatich
John Donatich is the Director of Yale University Press 

Early life
He received a BA from New York University in 1982, graduating magna cum laude  He also got a master's degree from NYU in 1984, graduating summa cum laude 

Career
Donatich worked as director of National Accounts at Putnam Publishing Group from 1989 to 1992 His writing has appeared in various periodicals including Harper's, The Atlantic Monthly and The Village Voice 
He worked at HarperCollins from 1992 to 1996, serving as director of national accounts and then as vice president and director of product and marketing development From 1995 to 2003, Donatich served as publisher and vice president of Basic Books  While there, he started the Art of Mentoring series of books, which would run from 2001 to 2008   While at Basic Books, Donatich published such authors as Christopher Hitchens, Steven Pinker, Samantha Power, Alan Dershowitz, Sir Martin Rees and Richard Florida 
In 2003, Donatich became the director of the Yale University Press   At Yale, Donatich published such authors as Michael Walzer, Janet Malcolm, E  H  Gombrich, Michael Fried, Edmund Morgan and T  J   Clark   Donatich began the Margellos World Republic of Letters, a literature in translation series that published such authors as Adonis, Norman Manea and Claudio Magris  He also launched the digital archive platform, The Stalin Digital Archive and the Encounters Chinese Language multimedia platform 
In 2009, he briefly gained media attention when he was involved in the decision to expunge the Muhammad cartoons from the Yale University Press book The Cartoons that Shook the World, for fear of Muslim violence He is the author of a memoir, Ambivalence, a Love Story, and a novel, The Variations 

Books
Ambivalence, a Love Story: Portrait of a Marriage (memoir), St  Martin's Press, 2005 
The Variations (novel), Henry Holt, March, 2012

Articles
Why Books Still Matter, Journal of Scholarly Publishing, Volume 40, Number 4, July 2009, pp  329–342, E-ISSN 1710-1166 Print ISSN 1198-9742

Personal life
Donatich is married to Betsy Lerner, a literary agent and author; together they have a daughter, Raffaella 
Passage 4:
Michael Govan
Michael Govan (born 1963) is the director of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art  Prior to his current position, Govan worked as the director of the Dia Art Foundation in New York City 

Early life and education
Govan was born in 1963 in North Adams, Massachusetts, and was raised in the Washington D C  area, attending Sidwell Friends School He majored in art history and fine arts at Williams College, where he met Thomas Krens, who was then director of the Williams College Museum of Art  Govan became closely involved with the museum, serving as acting curator as an undergraduate  After receiving his B A  from Williams in 1985, Govan began an MFA in fine arts from the University of California, San Diego 

Career
As a twenty-five year old graduate student, Govan was recruited by his former mentor at Williams, Thomas Krens, who in 1988 had been appointed director of the Solomon R  Guggenheim Foundation  Govan served as deputy director of the Solomon R  Guggenheim Museum under Krens from 1988 to 1994, a period that culminated in the construction and opening of the Frank Gehry designed Guggenheim branch in Bilbao, Spain  Govan supervised the reinstallation of the museum's permanent collection galleries after its extensive renovation 

Dia Art Foundation
From 1994 to 2006, Govan was president and director of Dia Art Foundation in New York City  There, he spearheaded the conversion of a Nabisco box factory into the 300,000 square foot Dia:Beacon in New York's Hudson Valley, which houses Dia's collection of art from the 1960s to the present  Built in a former Nabisco box factory, the critically acclaimed museum has been credited with catalyzing a cultural and economic revival within the formerly factory-based city of Beacon  Dia's collection nearly doubled in size during Govan's tenure, but he also came under criticism for "needlessly and permanently" closing Dia's West 22nd Street building  During his time at Dia, Govan also worked closely with artists James Turrell and Michael Heizer, becoming an ardent supporter of Roden Crater and City, the artists' respective site-specific land art projects under construction in the American southwest  Govan successfully lobbied Washington to have the 704,000 acres in central Nevada surrounding City declared a national monument in 2015 

LACMA
In February 2006, a search committee composed of eleven LACMA trustees, led by the late Nancy M  Daly, recruited Govan to run the Los Angeles County Museum of Art  Govan has stated that he was drawn to the role not only because of LACMA's geographical distance from its European and east coast peers, but also because of the museum's relative youth, having been established in 1961  "I felt that because of this newness I had the opportunity to reconsider the museum," Govan has written, "[and] Los Angeles is a good place to do that "Govan has been widely regarded for transforming LACMA into both a local and international landmark  Since Govan's arrival, LACMA has acquired by donation or purchase over 27,000 works for the permanent collection, and the museum's gallery space has almost doubled thanks to the addition of two new buildings designed by Renzo Piano, the Broad Contemporary Art Museum (BCAM) and the Lynda and Stewart Resnick Pavilion  LACMA's annual attendance has grown from 600,000 to nearly 1 6 million in 2016 

Artist collaborations
Since his arrival, Govan has commissioned exhibition scenography and gallery designs in collaboration with artists  In 2006, for example, Govan invited LA artist John Baldessari to design an upcoming exhibition about the Belgian surrealist René Magritte, resulting in a theatrical show that reflected the twisted perspective of the latter's topsy-turvy world  Baldessari has also designed LACMA's logo  Since then, Govan has also commissioned Cuban-American artist Jorge Pardo to design LACMA's Art of the Ancient Americas gallery, described in the Los Angeles Times as a "gritty cavern deep inside the earth     crossed with a high-style urban lounge "Govan has also commissioned several large-scale public artworks for LACMA's campus from contemporary California artists  These include Chris Burden's Urban Light (2008), a series of 202 vintage street lamps from different neighborhoods in Los Angeles, arranged in front of the entrance pavilion, Barbara Kruger's Untitled (Shafted) (2008), Robert Irwin's Primal Palm Garden (2010), and Michael Heizer's Levitated Mass, a 340-ton boulder transported 100 miles from the Jurupa Valley to LACMA, a widely publicized journey that culminated with a large celebration on Wilshire Boulevard  Thanks in part to the popularity of these public artworks, LACMA was ranked the fourth most instagrammed museum in the world in 2016 In his first three full years, the museum raised $251 million—about $100 million more than it collected during the three years before he arrived  In 2010, it was announced that Govan will steer LACMA for at least six more years  In a letter dated February 24, 2013, Govan, along with the LACMA board's co-chairmen Terry Semel and Andrew Gordon, proposed a merger with the financially troubled Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles and a plan to raise $100 million for the combined museum 

Zumthor Project
Govan's latest project is an ambitious building project, the replacement of four of the campus's aging buildings with a single new state of the art gallery building designed by architect Peter Zumthor  As of January 2017, he has raised about $300 million in commitments  Construction is expected to begin in 2018, and the new building will open in 2023, to coincide with the opening of the new D Line metro stop on Wilshire Boulevard  The project also envisages dissolving all existing curatorial departments and departmental collections  Some commentators have been highly critical of Govan's plans  Joseph Giovannini, recalling Govan's technically unrealizable onetime plan to hang Jeff Koons' Train sculpture from the facade of the Ahmanson Gallery, has accused Govan of "driving the institution over a cliff into an equivalent mid-air wreck of its own"  Describing the collection merging proposal as the creation of a "giant raffle bowl of some 130,000 objects", Giovannini also points out that the Zumthor building will contain 33% less gallery space than the galleries it will replace, and that the linear footage of wall space available for displays will decrease by about 7,500 ft, or 1 5 miles  Faced with losing a building named in its honor, and anticipating that its acquisitions could no longer be displayed, the Ahmanson Foundation withdrew its support 
On the merging of the separate curatorial divisions to create a non-departmental art museum, Christopher Knight has pointed out that "no other museum of LACMA's size and complexity does it" that way, and characterized the museum's 2019 "To Rome and Back" exhibition, the first to take place under the new scheme, as "bland and ineffectual" and an "unsuccessful sample of what's to come" 

Personal life
Govan is married and has two daughters, one from a previous marriage  He and his family used to live in a $6 million mansion in Hancock Park that was provided by LACMA - a benefit worth $155,000 a year, according to most recent tax filings - until LACMA decided that it would sell the property to make up for the museum's of almost $900 million in debt [2]  That home is now worth nearly $8 million and Govan now lives in a trailer park in Malibu's Point Dume region 
Los Angeles CA 90020
United States  He has had a private pilot's license since 1995 and keeps a 1979 Beechcraft Bonanza at Santa Monica Airport 
Passage 5:
Martin Kunert
Martin Kunert (born Marcin Stanisław Kunert-Dziewanowski; 1974) is a feature film and television writer, director and producer; and since 2010, a photographer  In 2004, Kunert conceived and directed the documentary Voices of Iraq, made by sending 150 DV cameras to Iraqis to film their own lives  MovieMaker Magazine hailed the film as "truly a groundbreaking film…both in terms of its content and the process behind its production "Previously, Kunert created and executive produced MTV's Fear, the first reality show to have contestants film themselves  Kunert created the show's frightening ambiance, developed the oft-mimicked visual and musical style and streamlined the show's editing process, where on a weekly basis, over 250 hours of contestant generated video was edited into 45-minute episodes  MTV's Fear spawned TV specials, fan clubs, DVDs, and numerous copycat television shows, including NBC's Fear Factor and VH1's Celebrity Paranormal Project 
Kunert has also directed television and feature films, including the cult favorite Campfire Tales (starring Amy Smart, Jimmy Marsden, Ron Livingston, and Christine Taylor) for New Line Cinema and Rogue Force (starring Michael Rooker and Robert Patrick) for Miramax  His screenplays include Warner Bros ' Dodging Bullets for Will Smith and Halle Berry, Paramount's The Brazilian, and 20th Century Fox's Hindenburg for Jan de Bont  He created and executive produced "HRT" (starring Michael Rooker and Ernie Hudson) for CBS and Columbia TriStar and "Catch" for CBS  With Doug Liman, Kunert reinvented "CHiPs" for NBC and Warner Bros  He also created the reality show "Mayor" for Columbia TriStar  In 2002, NBC/StudiosUSA signed Kunert to an exclusive writing/directing/producing contract   He wrote and executive produced "Witch Doctor", a TV pilot for Beacon TV and ABC television studios in 2008 
In 2011, DirecTV, Technicolor, and Panasonic got together to finance an experimental 3D film for Kunert to direct and shoot on Panasonic's new 3D camera systems   As part of it, Technicolor trained Kunert extensively on how to make clean, non-headache inducing, 3D motion images   DirecTV will distribute the 3D film internationally Kunert is a graduate of New York University's film school  He is a member of the Directors Guild of America and Writers Guild of America 
He was born in Warsaw, Poland and grew up in Westfield, New Jersey before attending the New York Military Academy 

Filmography
Passage 6:
Brian Kennedy (gallery director)
Brian Patrick Kennedy (born 5 November 1961) is an Irish-born art museum director who has worked in Ireland and Australia, and now lives and works in the United States   He was the director of the Peabody Essex Museum in Salem for 17 months, resigning December 31, 2020  He was the director of the Toledo Museum of Art in Ohio from 2010 to 2019  He was the director of the Hood Museum of Art from 2005 to 2010, and the National Gallery of Australia (Canberra) from 1997 to 2004 

Career
Brian Kennedy currently lives and works in the United States after leaving Australia in 2005 to direct the Hood Museum of Art at Dartmouth College  In October 2010 he became the ninth Director of the Toledo Museum of Art  On 1 July 2019, he succeeded Dan Monroe as the executive director and CEO of the Peabody Essex Museum 

Early life and career in Ireland
Kennedy was born in Dublin and attended Clonkeen College  He received B A  (1982), M A  (1985) and PhD (1989) degrees from University College-Dublin, where he studied both art history and history 
He worked in the Irish Department of Education (1982), the European Commission, Brussels (1983), and in Ireland at the Chester Beatty Library (1983–85), Government Publications Office (1985–86), and Department of Finance (1986–89)  He married Mary Fiona Carlin in 1988 He was Assistant Director at the National Gallery of Ireland in Dublin from 1989 to 1997  He was Chair of the Irish Association of Art Historians from 1996 to 1997, and of the Council of Australian Art Museum Directors from 2001 to 2003  In September 1997 he became Director of the National Gallery of Australia 

National Gallery of Australia (NGA)
Kennedy expanded the traveling exhibitions and loans program throughout Australia, arranged for several major shows of Australian art abroad, increased the number of exhibitions at the museum itself and oversaw the development of an extensive multi-media site   Although he oversaw several years of the museum's highest ever annual visitation, he discontinued the emphasis of his predecessor, Betty Churcher, on showing "blockbuster" exhibitions 
During his directorship, the NGA gained government support for improving the building and significant private donations and corporate sponsorship  However, the initial design for the building proved controversial generating a public dispute with the original architect on moral rights grounds   As a result, the project was not delivered during Dr Kennedy's tenure, with a significantly altered design completed some years later   Private funding supported two acquisitions of British art, including David Hockney's A Bigger Grand Canyon in 1999, and Lucian Freud's After Cézanne in 2001  Kennedy built on the established collections at the museum by acquiring the Holmgren-Spertus collection of Indonesian textiles; the Kenneth Tyler collection of editioned prints, screens, multiples and unique proofs; and the Australian Print Workshop Archive  He was also notable for campaigning for the construction of a new "front" entrance to the Gallery, facing King Edward Terrace, which was completed in 2010 (see reference to the building project above) 
Kennedy's cancellation of the "Sensation exhibition" (scheduled at the NGA from 2 June 2000 to 13 August 2000) was controversial, and seen by some as censorship  He claimed that the decision was due to the exhibition being "too close to the market" implying that a national cultural institution cannot exhibit the private collection of a speculative art investor  However, there were other exhibitions at the NGA during his tenure, which could have raised similar concerns  The exhibition featured the privately owned Young British Artists works belonging to Charles Saatchi and attracted large attendances in London and Brooklyn  Its most controversial work was Chris Ofili's The Holy Virgin Mary, a painting which used elephant dung and was accused of being blasphemous  The then-mayor of New York, Rudolph Giuliani, campaigned against the exhibition, claiming it was "Catholic-bashing" and an "aggressive, vicious, disgusting attack on religion " In November 1999, Kennedy cancelled the exhibition and stated that the events in New York had "obscured discussion of the artistic merit of the works of art"  He has said that it "was the toughest decision of my professional life, so far "Kennedy was also repeatedly questioned on his management of a range of issues during the Australian Government's Senate Estimates process - particularly on the NGA's occupational health and safety record and concerns about the NGA's twenty-year-old air-conditioning system  The air-conditioning was finally renovated in 2003  Kennedy announced in 2002 that he would not seek extension of his contract beyond 2004, accepting a seven-year term as had his two predecessors He became a joint Irish-Australian citizen in 2003 

Toledo Museum of Art
The Toledo Museum of Art is known for its exceptional collections of European and American paintings and sculpture, glass, antiquities, artist books, Japanese prints and netsuke  The museum offers free admission and is recognized for its historical leadership in the field of art education   During his tenure, Kennedy has focused the museum's art education efforts on visual literacy, which he defines as "learning to read, understand and write visual language "   Initiatives have included baby and toddler tours, specialized training for all staff, docents, volunteers and the launch of a website, www vislit org  In November 2014, the museum hosted the International Visual Literacy Association (IVLA) conference, the first Museum to do so  Kennedy has been a frequent speaker on the topic, including 2010 and 2013 TEDx talks on visual and sensory literacy 
Kennedy has expressed an interest in expanding the museum's collection of contemporary art and art by indigenous peoples  Works by Frank Stella, Sean Scully, Jaume Plensa, Ravinder Reddy and Mary Sibande have been acquired   In addition, the museum has made major acquisitions of Old Master paintings by Frans Hals and Luca Giordano During his tenure the Toledo Museum of Art has announced the return of several objects from its collection due to claims the objects were stolen and/or illegally exported prior being sold to the museum   In 2011 a Meissen sweetmeat stand was returned to Germany followed by an Etruscan Kalpis or water jug to Italy (2013), an Indian sculpture of Ganesha (2014) and an astrological compendium to Germany in 2015 

Hood Museum of Art
Kennedy became Director of the Hood Museum of Art in July 2005  During his tenure, he implemented a series of large and small-scale exhibitions and oversaw the production of more than 20 publications to bring greater public attention to the museum's remarkable collections of the arts of America, Europe, Africa, Papua New Guinea and the Polar regions  At 70,000 objects, the Hood has one of the largest collections on any American college of university campus  The exhibition, Black Womanhood: Images, Icons, and Ideologies of the African Body, toured several US venues  Kennedy increased campus curricular use of works of art, with thousands of objects pulled from storage for classes annually  Numerous acquisitions were made with the museum's generous endowments, and he curated several exhibitions: including Wenda Gu: Forest of Stone Steles: Retranslation and Rewriting Tang Dynasty Poetry, Sean Scully: The Art of the Stripe, and Frank Stella: Irregular Polygons 

Publications
Kennedy has written or edited a number of books on art, including:

Alfred Chester Beatty and Ireland 1950-1968: A study in cultural politics, Glendale Press (1988), ISBN 978-0-907606-49-9
Dreams and responsibilities: The state and arts in independent Ireland, Arts Council of Ireland (1990), ISBN 978-0-906627-32-7
Jack B Yeats: Jack Butler Yeats, 1871-1957 (Lives of Irish Artists), Unipub (October 1991), ISBN 978-0-948524-24-0
The Anatomy Lesson: Art and Medicine (with Davis Coakley), National Gallery of Ireland (January 1992), ISBN 978-0-903162-65-4
Ireland: Art into History (with Raymond Gillespie), Roberts Rinehart Publishers (1994), ISBN 978-1-57098-005-3
Irish Painting, Roberts Rinehart Publishers (November 1997),  ISBN 978-1-86059-059-7
Sean Scully: The Art of the Stripe, Hood Museum of Art (October 2008), ISBN 978-0-944722-34-3
Frank Stella: Irregular Polygons, 1965-1966, Hood Museum of Art (October 2010), ISBN 978-0-944722-39-8

Honors and achievements
Kennedy was awarded the Australian Centenary Medal in 2001 for service to Australian Society and its art  He is a trustee and treasurer of the Association of Art Museum Directors, a peer reviewer for the American Association of Museums and a member of the International Association of Art Critics  In 2013 he was appointed inaugural eminent professor at the University of Toledo and received an honorary doctorate from Lourdes University  Most recently, Kennedy received the 2014 Northwest Region, Ohio Art Education Association award for distinguished educator for art education 


== Notes ==
Passage 7:
Renegade Force
Renegade Force (aka Counterforce and Rogue Force) is a 1998 action film, starring Michael Rooker, Robert Patrick, Diane DiLascio and Louis Mandylor  The movie was written by Rick Bloggs and Alan Schechter and directed by Martin Kunert 

Plot
Rooker plays an FBI agent who joins force with a cop (Diane DiLascio) to investigate some mysterious deaths of several mobsters 

Cast
Michael Rooker as Matt Cooper
Robert Patrick as Jake McInroy
Diane DiLascio as Helen Simms
Louis Mandylor as Peter Roth

Reception
Comeuppance Reviews called Renegade Force a "brainless action at its best", stating: "In the end: Rogue Force is 90 minutes of cool FBI\SWAT action  The plot is routine but who cares when you're having a good time?"  Movie Mavs gave the film 3,5 stars out of 4, praised several aspects of the movie and concluding: "Rogue Force is a better than average corrupt police themed adult thriller, with some solid acting "
Passage 8:
Peter Levin
Peter Levin is an American director of film, television and theatre 

Career
Since 1967, Levin has amassed a large number of credits directing episodic television and television films  Some of his television series credits include Love Is a Many Splendored Thing, James at 15, The Paper Chase, Family, Starsky & Hutch, Lou Grant, Fame, Cagney & Lacey, Law & Order and Judging Amy Some of his television film credits include Rape and Marriage: The Rideout Case (1980), A Reason to Live (1985), Popeye Doyle (1986), A Killer Among Us (1990), Queen Sized (2008) and among other films  He directed "Heart in Hiding", written by his wife Audrey Davis Levin, for which she received an Emmy for Best Day Time Special in the 1970s 
Prior to becoming a director, Levin worked as an actor in several Broadway productions  He costarred with Susan Strasberg in "[The Diary of Ann Frank]" but had to leave the production when he was drafted into the Army  He trained at the Carnegie Mellon University  Eventually becoming a theatre director, he directed productions at the Long Wharf Theatre and the Pacific Resident Theatre Company  He also co-founded the off-off-Broadway Theatre [the Hardware Poets Playhouse] with his wife Audrey Davis Levin and was also an associate artist of The Interact Theatre Company 
Passage 9:
Olav Aaraas
Olav Aaraas (born 10 July 1950) is a Norwegian historian and museum director 
He was born in Fredrikstad  From 1982 to 1993 he was the director of Sogn Folk Museum, from 1993 to 2010 he was the director of Maihaugen and from 2001 he has been the director of the Norwegian Museum of Cultural History  In 2010 he was decorated with the Royal Norwegian Order of St  Olav 
Passage 10:
John Farrell (businessman)
John Farrell is the director of YouTube in Latin America 

Education
Farrell holds a joint MBA degree from the University of Texas at Austin and Instituto Tecnologico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM) 

Career
His business career began at Skytel, and later at Iridium as head of Business Development, in Washington DC, where he supported the design and launched the first satellite location service in the world and established international distribution agreements He co-founded Adetel, the first company to provide internet access to residential communities and businesses in Mexico  After becoming General Manager of Adetel, he developed a partnership with TV Azteca in order to create the first internet access prepaid card in the country known as the ToditoCard   Later in his career, John Farrell worked for Televisa in Mexico City as Director of Business Development for Esmas com  There he established a strategic alliance with a leading telecommunications provider to launch co-branded Internet and telephone services  He also led initial efforts to launch social networking services, leveraging Televisa’s content and media channels 

Google
Farrel joined Google in 2004 as Director of Business Development for Asia and Latin America  On April 7, 2008, he was promoted to the position of General Manager for Google Mexico, replacing Alonso Gonzalo  He is now director of YouTube in Latin America, responsible for developing audiences, managing partnerships and growing Google’s video display business  John is also part of Google’s Latin America leadership management team and contributes to Google’s strategy in the region  He is Vice President of the IAB (Interactive Advertising Bureau), a member of the AMIPCI (Mexican Internet Association) Advisory Board, an active Endeavor mentor, and member of YPO 
Context 2: Passage 1:
Obata Toramori
Obata Toramori (小畠虎盛, 1491 – July 14, 1561) was Japanese samurai warrior of the Sengoku Period  He is known as one of the "Twenty-Four Generals of Takeda Shingen" 
He also recorded as having been wounded 41 times in 36 encounters  
He was the father of Obata Masamori 

See also
Isao Obata
Passage 2:
Inoue Masaru (bureaucrat)
Viscount Inoue Masaru (井上 勝, August 25, 1843 – August 2, 1910) was the first Director of Railways in Japan and is known as the "father of the Japanese railways" 

Biography
He was born into the Chōshū clan at Hagi, Yamaguchi, the son of Katsuyuki Inoue  He was briefly adopted into the Nomura family and became known as Nomura Yakichi, though he was later restored to the Inoue family 
Masaru Inoue was brought up as the son of a samurai belonging to the Chōshū fief  At 15, he entered the Nagasaki Naval Academy established by the Tokugawa shogunate under the direction of a Dutch naval officer  In 1863, Inoue and four friends from the Chōshū clan stowed away on a vessel to the United Kingdom  He studied civil engineering and mining at University College London and returned to Japan in 1868  After working for the government as a technical officer supervising the mining industry, he was appointed Director of the Railway Board in 1871  Inoue played a leading role in Japan's railway planning and construction, including the construction of the Nakasendo Railway, the selection of the alternative route (Tokaido), and the proposals for future mainline railway networks In 1891 Masaru Inoue founded Koiwai Farm with Yanosuke Iwasaki and Shin Onogi   After retirement from the government, Inoue founded Kisha Seizo Kaisha, the first locomotive manufacturer in Japan, becoming its first president in 1896  In 1909 he was appointed President of the Imperial Railway Association  He died of an illness in London in 1910, during an official visit on behalf of the Ministry of Railways 

Honors
Inoue and his friends later came to be known as the Chōshū Five  To commemorate their stay in London, two scholarships, known as the Inoue Masaru Scholarships, are available each session under the University College London 1863 Japan Scholarships scheme to enable University College students to study at a Japanese University  The value of the scholarships are £3000 each 

His tomb is in the triangular area of land where the Tōkaidō Main Line meets the Tōkaidō Shinkansen in Kita-Shinagawa 

Chōshū Five
These are the four other members of the "Chōshū Five":

Itō Shunsuke (later Itō Hirobumii)
Inoue Monta (later Inoue Kaoru)
Yamao Yōzō who later studied engineering at the Andersonian Institute, Glasgow, 1866-68 while working at the shipyards by day
Endō Kinsuke

See also
Japanese students in Britain
Statue of Inoue Masaru
Passage 3:
John Templeton (botanist)
John Templeton (1766–1825) was a pioneering Irish naturalist, sometimes referred to as the "Father of Irish Botany"  He was a leading figure in Belfast's late eighteenth century enlightenment, initially supported the  United Irishmen, and figured prominently in the town's scientific and literary societies 

Family
Templeton was born in Belfast in 1766, the son of James Templeton, a prosperous wholesale merchant, and his wife Mary Eleanor, daughter of Benjamin Legg, a sugar refiner  The family resided in a 17th century country house to the south of the town, which been named Orange Grove in honour of William of Orange who had stopped at the house en route to his victory over James II at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 Until the age of 16 Templeton attended a progressive, co-educational, school favoured by the town's liberal, largely Presbyterian, merchant class  Schoolmaster David Manson sought to exclude "drudgery and fear" by combining classroom instruction with play and experiential learning  Templeton counted among his schoolfellows brother and sister Henry Joy and Mary Ann McCracken, and maintained a warm friendship with them throughout his life In 1799, Templeton married Katherine Johnson of Seymour Hill  Her family had been touched by the United Irish rebellion the previous year: her brother-in-law, Henry Munro, commander of the United army at the Battle of Ballynahinch, had been hanged  The couple had five children: Ellen, born on 30 September 1800, Robert, born on 12 December 1802, Catherine, born on 19 July 1806, Mary, born on 9 December 1809 and Matilda on 2 November 1813 
The union between the two already prosperous merchant families provided more than ample means enabling Templeton to devote himself passionately to the study of natural history 

United Irishman
Like many of his liberal Presbyterian peers in Belfast, Templeton was sympathetic to the programme and aims of the Society United Irishmen:  Catholic Emancipation and democratic reform of the Irish Parliament  But it was several years before he was persuaded to take the United Irish "test" or pledge  In March 1797 his friend, Mary Ann McCracken, wrote to her brother: [A] certain Botanical friend of ours whose steady and inflexible mind is invulnerable to any other weapon but reason, and only to be moved by conviction has at last turned his attention from the vegetable kingdom to the human species and after pondering the matter for some months, is at last determined to become what he ought to have been months ago 
She hoped his sisters would "soon follow him " Having committed himself to the patriotic union of Catholic, Protestant and Dissenter, Templeton changed the name of the family home from loyalist Orange Grove to Irish "Cranmore" (crann mór, 'big tree') 
Templeton was disenchanted by the Rebellion of 1798, and mindful of events in France , repelled by the violence  He nonetheless withdrew from the Belfast Literary Society, of which he had been a founding member in 1801, rather than accept the continued presence of Dr  James MacDonnell  MacDonnell's offence had been to subscribe forty guineas in 1803 for the capture (leading to execution) of the unreformed rebel Thomas Russell who had been their mutual friend  (While unable to "forget the amiable Russell", time, he conceded,  "softened a little my feelings": in 1825, Templeton and MacDonnell met and shook hands) 

Garden
The garden at Cranmore spread over 13-acre garden was planted with exotic and native species acquired on botanical excursions, from fellow botanists, nurseries, botanical gardens and abroad: "Received yesterday a large chest of East Indian plants which I examined today " "Box from Mr  Taylor" Other plants arrived, often as seeds from North America, Australia, India, China and other parts of the British Empire  Cranmore also served as a small animal farm for experimental animal husbandry and a kitchen garden 

Botanist
John Templeton's interest in botany began with this experimental garden laid out according to a suggestion in Rousseau's 'Nouvelle Heloise' and following Rousseau's 'Letters on the Elements of Botany Here he cultivated many tender exotics out of doors (a list provided by Nelson and began botanical studies which lasted throughout his life and corresponded with the most eminent botanists in England Sir William Hooker, William Turner, James Sowerby and, especially Sir Joseph Banks, who had travelled on Captain James Cook's voyages, and in charge of Kew Gardens  Banks tried (unsuccessfully) to tempt him to New Holland (Australia) as a botanist on the Flinders's Expedition with the offer of a large tract of land and a substantial salary  An associate of the Linnean Society, Templeton visited London and saw the botanical work being achieved there  This led to his promotion of the Belfast Botanic Gardens as early as 1809, and to work on a Catalogue of Native Irish Plants, in manuscript form and now in the Royal Irish Academy, which was used as an accurate foundation for later work by succeeding Irish botanists  He also assembled text and executed many beautiful watercolour drawings for a Flora Hibernica, sadly never finished, and kept a detailed journal during the years 1806–1825 (both now in the Ulster Museum, Belfast) [1] Of the 12000 algal specimens in the Ulster Museum Herbarium about 148 are in the Templeton collection and were mostly collected by him, some were collected by others and passed to Templeton  The specimens in the Templeton collection in the Ulster Museum (BEL) have been catalogued  Those noted in 1967 were numbered: F1 – F48  Others were in The Queen's University Belfast  All of Templeton's specimens have now been numbered in the Ulster Museum as follows: F190 – F264; F290 – F314 and F333 – F334 
Templeton was the first finder of Rosa hibernicaThis rose, although collected by Templeton in 1795, remained undescribed until 1803 when he published a short diagnosis in the Transactions of the Dublin Society 

Early additions to the flora of Ireland include Sisymbrium Ligusticum seoticum (1793), Adoxa moschatellina (1820), Orobanche rubra and many other plants  His work on lichens was the basis of this secton of Flora Hiberica by James Townsend Mackay who wrote of him The foregoing account of the Lichens of Ireland would have been still more incomplete, but for the extensive collection of my lamented friend, the late Mr  John Templeton, of Cranmore, near Belfast, which his relict, Mrs  Templeton, most liberally placed at my disposal  I believe that thirty years ago his acquirements in the Natural History of organised beings rivalled that of any individual in Europe : these were by no means limited to diagnostic marks, but extended to all the laws and modifications of the living force  The frequent quotation of his authority in every preceding department of this Flora, is but a brief testimony of his diversified knowledge

Botanical Manuscripts
The MSS  left by Templeton consist of seven volumes  One of these is a small 8vo  half bound ; it is in the Library of the Royal Irish Academy, and contains 280 pp  of lists of Cryptogams, chiefly mosses, with their localities  In this book is inserted a letter from Miss F  M  More, sister of Alexander Goodman More, to Dr  Edward Perceval Wright, Secretary, Royal Irish Academy, dated March, 1897, in which she says—‘*‘ The Manuscript which accompanies this letter was drawn up between 1794 and 1810, by the eminent naturalist, John Templeton, in Belfast  It was lent by his son, Dr  R  Templeton, to my brother, Alex  G  More, when he was preparing the second edition of the ‘ Cybele Hibernica,’ on condition that it should be placed in the Library of the Royal Irish Academy afterwards " The other six volumes are quarto size, and contain 1,090 folios, with descriptions of many of the plants, and careful drawings in pen and pencil and colours of many species  They are now lent to the Belfast Museum  About ten years ago I [Lett]spent a week in examining these volumes, and as their contents have hitherto never been fully described, I would like to give an epitome of my investigation of them 

Vol  1 —Phanerogams, 186 folios, with 15 coloured figures, and 6 small drawings in the text 
Vol  Il —Fresh-water Algae, 246 folios, 71 of which are coloured 
Vol IIl —Marine Algae, 212 folios, of which 79 are coloured figures  At the end of this volume are 3 folios of Mosses, the pagination of which runs with the rest of this volume, but it is evident they had at some time been misplaced 
Vol  IV Fungi, 112 folios 
Vol  V —Mosses, 117 folios, of which 20 are coloured, and also 73 small drawings in the text  *Vol  VI —Mosses and Hepatics  117 folios are Hepatics, 40 of which are in colours ; 96 folios are Mosses, of which 39 are full-page coloured figures; and in addition there are 3 small coloured drawings in the text All these drawings were executed by Templeton himself, they are every one most accurately and beautifully drawn; and the colouring is true to nature and artistically finished; those of the mosses and hepatics being particularly good  Templeton is not mentioned in Tate’s ‘‘ Flora Belfastiensis,’ published in 1863, at Belfast  The earliest published reference to his MSS  is in the "* Flora of Ulster," by Dickie, published in 1864, where there is this indefinite allusion—‘* To the friends of the late Mr  Templeton I am indebted for permission to take notes of species recorded in his manuscript " The MS  was most likely the small volume now in the Royal Irish Academy Library  In the introduction to the "*‘ Flora of the North-east of Ireland"’ (1888), there is a brief biographical sketch of Templeton, but no mention of any MS  However, in a ‘‘ Supplement" to the Flora (1894), there is this note— ‘* Templeton, John, four volumes of his ‘ Flora Hibernica’ at present deposited with the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, contain much original matter, which could not be worked out in time for the present paper " This fixes the approximate date of the MSS  being loaned to the Belfast Museum  They were not known to the authors of the ‘‘ Cybele Hibernica’"’ in 1866, while in the second edition (1898) the small volume of the MSS  in R 1 A  Library is described in the Index of Authors under its full title—Catalogue of the Native Plants of Ireland, by John Templeton, A L S 

Notable plant finds
Antrim:Northern beech fern Glenaan River, Cushendall 1809: intermediate wintergreen Sixmilewater 1794: heath pearlwort :Muck Island Islandmagee  1804: dwarf willow Slievenanee Mountain 1809: thin-leaf brookweed beside River Lagan in its tidal reaches – gone now 1797: Dovedale moss Cave Hill 1797: Arctic root Slemish Mountain pre 1825: Cornish moneywort  formerly cultivated at Cranmore, Malone Road, Belfast1 pre-1825 J  persisted to 1947: rock whitebeam  basalt cliffs of the Little Deerpark, Glenarm 15 July 1808: yellow meadow rue Portmore Lough 1800:  Moschatel Mountcollyer Deerpark 2 May 1820 , Bearberry  Fair Head pre 1825, Sea Bindweed Bushfoot dunes pre 1825,  Flixweed , 'Among the ruins of Carrickfergus I found Sisymbrium Sophia in plenty' 2 Sept  1812 – Journal of J  Templeton J4187, Needle Spike-rush Broadwater pre 1825, Dwarf Spurge Lambeg gravel pit 1804, Large-flowered Hemp-nettle, Glenarm  pre 1825
Down:
Field Gentian Slieve Donard 1796: Lesser Twayblade Newtonards Park pre 1825:  Rough poppy 15 July 1797: Six-stamened Waterwort Castlewellan Lake 1808: Great Sundew going to the mountains from Kilkeel 19 August 1808: Hairy Rock-cress Dundrum Castle 1797: Intermediate Wintergree Moneygreer Bog 1797 Cowslip Holywood Warren pre 1825 long gone since: Water-violet Crossgar 7th July 1810 Scots Lovage Bangor Bay 1809, Mountain Everlasting  Newtownards 1793, Frogbit boghole near Portaferry, Parsley fern, Slieve Binnian, Mourne Mountains  19 August 1808, Bog-rosemary Wolf Island Bog 1794,  Marsh Pea Lough Neagh
Fermanagh: Marsh Helleborine

Natural History of Ireland
John Templeton had wide-ranging scientific interests including chemistry as it applied to agriculture and horticulture, meteorology and phenology following Robert Marsham  He published very little aside from monthly reports on natural history and meteorology in the 'Belfast Magazine' commenced in 1808  John Templeton studied birds extensively, collected shells, marine organisms (especially "Zoophytes") and insects, notably garden pest species  He planned a 'Hibernian Fauna' to accompany 'Hibernian Flora'  This was not published, even in part, but A catalogue of the species annulose animals and of rayed ones found in Ireland as selected from the papers of the late J Templeton Esq  of Cranmore with localities, descriptions, and illustrations Mag  Nat  Hist  9: 233- 240; 301 305; 417–421; 466 -472[2], 1836   Catalogue of Irish Crustacea, Myriapoda and Arachnoida, selected from the papers of the late John Templeton Esq  Mag  Nat  Hist  9: 9–14 [3] and 1837 Irish Vertebrate animals selected from the papers of the late  John Templeton Esq Mag  Nat  Hist   1: (n  s ): 403–413 403 -413 were (collated and edited By Robert Templeton)  Much of his work was used by later authors, especially by William Thompson whose 'The Natural History of Ireland' is its essential continuation 

Dublin
Templeton was a regular visitor to the elegant Georgian city of Dublin (by 1816 the journey was completed in one day in a wellington coach with 4 passengers) and he was a Member of the Royal Dublin Society By his death in 1825 the Society had established a Botanic at Glasnevin "with the following sections:
1 The Linnaean garden, which contains two divisions, - Herbaceous plants, and shrub-fruit; and forest-tree plants 
2  Garden arranged on the system of Jussieu  3  Garden of Indigenous plants (to Ireland), disposed according to the system of Linnaeus  4  Kitchen Garden, where six apprentices are constantly employed, who receive a complete knowledge of systematic botany  5  Medicinal plants  6  Plants eaten, or rejected, by cattle  7  Plants used in rural economy  8  Plants used in dyeing  9  Rock plants  10  Aquatic and marsh plants  - For which an artificial marsh has been formed  11  Cryptogamics  12  Flower garden, besides extensive hot-houses, and a conservatory for exotics" 
Other associations were with Leinster House housing the RDS Museum and Library 
"Second Room  Here the animal kingdom is displayed, arranged in six classes  1  Mammalia  2  Aves  3  Amphibia  4  Pisces  5  Insectae  6  Vermes  Here is a great variety of shells, butterflies and beetles, and of the most beautiful species" and the Leske collection 
The library at Leinster House held 12,000 books and was particularly rich in  works on botany; "amongst which is a very valuable work in four large folio volumes, "Gramitia Austriaca" [Austriacorum Icones et descriptions graminum]; by Nicholas Thomas Host" Templeton was also associated with theFarming Society funded 1800, the 
Kirwanian Society  founded 1812, Marsh's Library, Trinity College Botanic Garden  Four acres supplied with both exotic and indigenous plants,the Trinity Library (80,000 volumes) and Trinity Museum Also the Museum of the College of Surgeons 

Death and legacy
Never of strong constitution, he was not expected to survive, he was in failing health from 1815 and died in 1825 aged only 60, "leaving a sorrowing wife, youthful family and many friends and townsmen who greatly mourned his death"  The Australian leguminous genus Templetonia is named for him 
In 1810 Templeton had supported the veteran United Irishman, William Drennan, in the foundation of the Belfast Academical Institution  With the staff and scholars of the Institution's early Collegiate Department, he then helped form the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society (the origin of both the Botanical Gardens and what is now the Ulster Museum) 
Although always ready to communicate his own findings, Templeton did not publish much  Robert Lloyd Praeger (1865-1953), editor of the Irish Naturalist and President of the Royal Irish Academy, described him nonetheless as "the most eminent naturalist Ireland has produced" Templeton's son, Robert Templeton (1802-1892), educated at the Belfast Academical Institution (which was eventually to acquire Cranmore House), became an entomologist renowned for his work on Sri Lankan arthropods  Robert's fellow pupil James Emerson Tennent went on to write Ceylon, Physical, Historical and Topographical

Contacts
Thomas Martyn From 1794 supplied Martyn with many remarks on cultivation for Martyn's edition of Miller's Gardener's Dictionary 
George Shaw
James Edward Smith Contributions to English Botany and Flora Britannica
James Lee
Samuel Goodenough
Aylmer Bourke Lambert
James Sowerby
William Curtis
Joseph Banks
Robert Brown 
Lewis Weston Dillwyn's Contributions to British Confervæ (1802–07)
Dawson Turner Contributions to British Fuci (1802), and Muscologia Hibernica (1804) 
John Walker
Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings
John Foster, 1st Baron Oriel
Jonathan Stokes
Walter Wade

Other
John Templeton maintained a natural history cabinet containing specimens from Calobar, New Holland and The Carolinas as well as is Ireland cabinets  His library included Rees's Cyclopædia and works by Carl Linnaeus, Edward Donovan and William Swainson s:Zoological Illustrationsand he used a John Dollond microscope and lenses  He made a tour of Scotland with Henry MacKinnon  His diaries record the Comet of 1807 and the Great Comet of 1811 

Gallery
|

See also
Late Enlightenment
James Townsend Mackay
Passage 4:
Arthur Beauchamp
Arthur Beauchamp (1827 – 28 April 1910) was a Member of Parliament from New Zealand  He is remembered as the father of Harold Beauchamp, who rose to fame as chairman of the Bank of New Zealand and was the father of writer Katherine Mansfield 

Biography
Beauchamp came to Nelson from Australia on the Lalla Rookh, arriving on 23 February 1861 He lived much of his life in a number of locations around the top of the South Island, also Whanganui when Harold was 11 for seven years and then to the capital (Wellington)  Then south to Christchurch and finally Picton and the Sounds  He had business failures and was bankrupted twice, in 1879 and 1884  He married Mary Stanley on the Victorian goldfields in 1854; Arthur and Mary lived in 18 locations over half a century, and are buried in Picton  Six of their ten children born between 1855 and 1893 died, including the first two sons born before Harold Beauchamp represented the Picton electorate from 1866 to 1867, when he resigned   He had the energy and sociability required for politics, but not the private income then required to be a parliamentarian  He supported the working man and the subdivision of big estates, opposed the confiscation of Māori land and was later recognised as a founding Liberal, the party that Harold supported and was a "fixer" for  Yska calls their life an extended chronicle of rootlessness, business failure and almost ceaseless family tragedy and Harold called his father a rolling stone by instinct  Arthur also served on the council of Marlborough Province and is best-remembered for a 10-hour speech to that body when an attempt was made to relocate the capital from Picton to Blenheim In 1866 he attempted to sue the Speaker of the House, David Monro  At the time the extent of privilege held by Members of Parliament was unclear; a select committee ruled that the case could proceed, but with a stay until after the parliamentary session 

See also
Yska, Redmer (2017)  A Strange Beautiful Excitement: Katherine Mansfield's Wellington 1888-1903  Dunedin: Otago University Press  pp  91–99  ISBN 978-0-947522-54-4 
Passage 5:
Takayama Tomoteru
Takayama Tomoteru (高山友照) (1531–1596) was a Japanese samurai of the Azuchi–Momoyama period, who served Matsunaga Hisahide 
He was the father of Takayama Ukon, and was a Kirishitan 
Passage 6:
Eystein Glumra
Eystein Glumra ("Eystein the Noisy" or "Eystein the Clatterer"; Modern Norwegian Øystein Glumra), also known as Eystein Ivarsson, was reputedly a petty king on the west coast of Norway during the 9th century 
The Heimskringla saga states that Eystein Glumra was the father of Rognvald Eysteinsson and Sigurd Eysteinsson: "The first earl of the Orkney Islands was     Sigurd     a son of Eystein Glumra, and brother of Ragnvald earl of More  After Sigurd, his son Guthorm was earl for one year  After him Torf-Einar, a son of Ragnvald     was long earl, and was a man of great power" 
According to the Orkneyinga saga, Eystein Glumra was the son of Ivar Halfdansson and grandson of Halfdan the Old  The Orkneyinga Saga also named Eystein Glumra as the father of Rognvald Eysteinsson: "Heiti, Gorr's son, was father of Sveiði the sea-king, [who was] the father of Halfdan the old, [who was] the father of Ivar the Uplanders' earl, [who was] the father of Eystein the noisy, [who was] the father of earl Rognvald the mighty and wise in council" 
Two novels by Linnea Hartsuyker, The Half-Drowned King (2017) and The Sea Queen (2018), cover the lives of Eystein's children 
Passage 7:
Anacyndaraxes
Anacyndaraxes (Greek: Ἀνακυνδαράξης) was the father of Sardanapalus, king of Assyria 

Notes

 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed  (1870)  "Anacyndaraxes"  Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology  Vol  1  p  157-158 
Passage 8:
Giorgio Ordelaffi
Giorgio Ordelaffi (died 1423) was lord of Forlì and Papal vicar in Romagna (northern Italy)  He was a member of the Ordelaffi family 
The son of Teobaldo Ordelaffi, he married Lucrezia Alidosi of the Alidosi family  He kept the seigniory of Forlì from 1411 until his death, moving his residence in the current Palazzo Comunale 
Just before his death, when his son Teobaldo II Ordelaffi was still young, he offered to Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan the occasion to invade Romagna in 1423, initiating the 30-year long Wars in Lombardy 
Passage 9:
Cleomenes II
Cleomenes II (Greek: Κλεομένης; died 309 BC) was king of Sparta from 370 to 309 BC  He was the second son of Cleombrotus I, and grandfather of Areus I, who succeeded him  Although he reigned for more than 60 years, his life is completely unknown, apart from a victory at the Pythian Games in 336 BC  Several theories have been suggested by modern historians to explain such inactivity, but none has gained consensus 

Life and reign
Cleomenes was the second son of king Cleombrotus I (r  380–371), who belonged to the Agiad dynasty, one of the two royal families of Sparta (the other being the Eurypontids)  Cleombrotus died fighting Thebes at the famous Battle of Leuctra in 371  His eldest son Agesipolis II succeeded him, but he died soon after in 370  Cleomenes' reign was instead exceptionally long, lasting 60 years and 10 months according to Diodorus of Sicily, a historian of the 1st century BC  In a second statement, Diodorus nevertheless tells that Cleomenes II reigned 34 years, but he confused him with his namesake Cleomenes I (r  524–490) 

Despite the outstanding length of his reign, very little can be said about Cleomenes  He has been described by modern historians as a "nonentity"  Perhaps that the apparent weakness of Cleomenes inspired the negative opinion of the hereditary kingship at Sparta expressed by Aristotle in his Politics (written between 336 and 322)  However, Cleomenes may have focused on internal politics within Sparta, because military duties were apparently given to the Eurypontid Agesilaus II (r  400–c 360), Archidamus III (r  360–338), and Agis III (r  338–331)  As the Spartans notably kept their policies secret from foreign eyes, it would explain the silence of ancient sources on Cleomenes  Another explanation is that his duties were assumed by his elder son Acrotatus, described as a military leader by Diodorus, who mentions him in the aftermath of the Battle of Megalopolis in 331, and again in 315 Cleomenes' only known deed was his chariot race victory at the Pythian Games in Delphi in 336  In the following autumn, he gave the small sum of 510 drachmas for the reconstruction of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, which had been destroyed by an earthquake in 373  Cleomenes might have made this gift as a pretext to go to Delphi and engage in informal diplomacy with other Greek states, possibly to discuss the consequences of the recent assassination of the Macedonian king Philip II One short witticism of Cleomenes regarding cockfighting is preserved in the Moralia, written by the philosopher Plutarch in the early 2nd century AD:
Somebody promised to give to Cleomenes cocks that would die fighting, but he retorted, "No, don't, but give me those that kill fighting "
As Acrotatus died before Cleomenes, the latter's grandson Areus I succeeded him while still very young, so Cleomenes' second son Cleonymus acted as regent until Areus' majority  Some modern scholars also give Cleomenes a daughter named Archidamia, who played an important role during Pyrrhus' invasion of the Peloponnese, but the age difference makes it unlikely 
Passage 10:
Teobaldo II Ordelaffi
Teobaldo II Ordelaffi (also known as Tebaldo, 1413–1425) was briefly lord of Forlì from 1422 to 1424  He was the son of Giorgio Ordelaffi 
Giorgio has named Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan as his trustee, but Teobaldo's mother Lucrezia degli Alidosi, appointed herself as regent  Spurred by Visconti, the Forliveses rebelled and called in the Milanese condottiero Agnolo della Pergola  Florence reacted and, after some initial setbacks, it was joined by Venice in 1425 thanks to the efforts of the Count of Carmagnola  The war moved to Lombardy, and Visconti ceded Forlì and Imola to Pope Martin V  The Ordelaffi would return in Forlì in 1433 with Antonio I 

See also
Wars in Lombardy



ground_truth: America

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Where was the father of Teobaldo Ii Ordelaffi born?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: Passage 1:
Douglas Tait (illustrator)
Douglas Tait is a Canadian children's book illustrator  He won the Amelia Frances Howard-Gibbon Illustrator's Award in 1981 for illustrating The Trouble with Princesses, written by Christie Harris 
Passage 2:
The Trouble with Girls (film)
The Trouble with Girls (and How to Get into It), also known as simply The Trouble with Girls, is a 1969 film directed by  Peter Tewksbury and starring Elvis Presley  It was one of Presley's final acting roles, along with the same year's Change of Habit  It is based on the 1960 novel Chautauqua by Day Keene and Dwight Vincent Babcock 

Plot
In a small Iowa town in 1927, a traveling Chautauqua company arrives, with internal squabbles dividing the troupe  The new manager, Walter Hale (Elvis Presley), is trying to prevent Charlene, the troupe's "Story Lady" (Marlyn Mason), from recruiting the performers to form a union 
Meanwhile, the town has a scandal following the murder of the local pharmacist Wilby (Dabney Coleman)  Although a shady gambler is arrested, Walter realizes that the real killer is Nita (Sheree North), one of Wilby's employees 
Walter successfully gets Nita to confess during a Chautauqua performance, where she makes public the sexual harassment that Wilby directed at her  Nita's self-defense plea frees the wrongly jailed man, but Charlene is outraged that Walter used the crime to financially enrich the Chautauqua, and attempts to quit 
Walter attempts to reason with Charlene, but when she refuses to give in, he deceives her and uses the local police force to be sure that she must leave on the train with the rest of the troupe 

Cast
Elvis Presley as Walter Hale
Marlyn Mason as Charlene
Nicole Jaffe as Betty Smith
Sheree North as Nita Bix
Edward Andrews as Johnny
John Carradine as Mr  Drewcolt
Vincent Price as Mr  Morality
Dabney Coleman as Harrison Wilby
Duke Snider as The Cranker
Anissa Jones as Carol Bix
John Rubinstein as Princeton College kid
Frank Welker as Rutgers College kid
Joyce Van Patten as The Swimmer
Susan Olsen as Auditioning Singer
Pepe Brown as WillyCast notes

Anissa Jones, best known for playing Buffy on the television program Family Affair, made her only film appearance in The Trouble with Girls 
Nicole Jaffe and Frank Welker went on to become regular members of the voice cast for the Hanna-Barbera Saturday morning cartoon Scooby-Doo, which debuted on CBS ten days after the release of The Trouble with Girls 

Production and release
Development
In June 1959 it was announced that Don Mankiewicz would write a screenplay of an unpublished story by Mauri Grashin, Day Keene, and Dwight Babcock  By December 1960, with the project titled Chautauqua, MGM was ready to make the film with Glenn Ford  Rumours circulating in Hollywood at the time stated that Presley would co-star with Ford, Hope Lange, and Arthur O'Connell, but nothing came of it and the film was shelved 
In 1964, Dick Van Dyke had been signed up to star in a film titled Chautauqua based on a book called Morally We Roll Along by Gay MacLaren  After several years of failed screenplays and cast changes, MGM sold the rights to Columbia Pictures in May 1965  Columbia also struggled to get the project off the ground, and in April 1968 sold the rights back to MGM  This time MGM lined up Presley to star and production began in the fall of 1968  Chautauqua was the working title, but it was later changed to The Trouble with Girls when the producers worried that audiences would not understand the title or be able to pronounce it 

Filming
Elvis Presley was paid $850,000 plus 50% of the profits  Production ran from October 28 to December 18, 1968 Colonel Tom Parker, Presley's manager, originally wanted actress Jean Hale for the female lead, but Marlyn Mason was cast at the insistence of director Peter Tewksbury  Ironically, Jean Hale's husband, Dabney Coleman, would later be cast 
The Trouble with Girls was released as the bottom half of a double feature, sharing the screen with the Raquel Welch drama Flareup 

Reception
The Trouble with Girls (and How to Get into It) performed poorly in cinemas but strongly on the drive-in circuit 
Roger Greenspun of The New York Times called it "a charming though ineptly titled comedy" with Presley performing "a reasonably developed characterization as the chautauqua company manager, and he sings very well " Variety wrote, "Elvis Presley is lost in this one  Without star’s usual assortment of 10 to 12 songs, and numbers cut down to a bare three, picture has little to offer  Title suggests a gay comedy but it’s a mass of contrived melodramatics and uninteresting performances that do not jell into anything but program fare " Margaret Harford of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the film "never makes up its mind where to go and how to get there     The trouble with the picture is not girls; it's indecision by the writers, Arnold and Lois Peyser about whether we should laugh at the corny entertainment of 40-odd years ago, or cry over the troubles of a lonely widow who drinks too much " The Monthly Film Bulletin wrote, "The plot's rather curious blend of amateur theatricals, folksy humour and straight melodrama strains credulity even for a Presley film, and the few songs are instantly forgettable  Vincent Price makes an odd and quite appealing guest appearance as an itinerant lecturer known as Mr  Morality, but Presley himself seems uninterested in the whole affair "

Soundtrack
Entering the studio for The Trouble with Girls, Presley found himself in the position of knowing he had the goods in the can with his looming comeback television special but given that his last three singles – "You'll Never Walk Alone," "Your Time Hasn't Come Yet Baby," "A Little Less Conversation" – and the Speedway album all tanked, faced a practically dead recording career  The soundtrack contained some minor songs, its only distinctive track by Billy Strange, the producer of the session, and Mac Davis The recording session took place at United Artists Recorders in Hollywood, on October 23, 1968  "Clean Up Your Own Backyard" by Strange and Davis, their fourth successful submission to a Presley soundtrack in a row, was the only one released concurrently with the film's release, as the single RCA 47-9747 in 1969, peaking at #35 on the Billboard Hot 100  "Almost" would appear in 1970 on the budget album Let's Be Friends, the only other track from the film to be released during Presley's lifetime  His remake of the His Hand in Mine track "Swing Down Sweet Chariot" would not see release until 1983 on Elvis: A Legendary Performer Volume 4  The other songs would wait to be issued until RCA's soundtrack compilations of the 1990s combining released songs and outtakes from multiple films on one compact disc 
Tracks

"Clean Up Your Own Backyard" (Billy Strange and Mac Davis)
"Swing Down Sweet Chariot" (traditional, arranged by Elvis Presley)
"Signs of the Zodiac" (Buddy Kaye and Ben Weisman, Duet with Marlyn Mason)
"Almost" (Buddy Kaye and Ben Weisman)
"The Whiffenpoof Song" (Ted Galloway, Meade Minnigerode, George Pomeroy; not used in film)
"Violet (Flower of NYU)" (Steven Dueker and Peter Lohstroh) – The second adaptation in Presley's career of the American Civil War song "Aura Lee" from 1861, the first being the song "Love Me Tender" Notes

In some versions of the soundtrack, "Doodle Doo Doo" is included, performed by Linda Sue Risk, who plays Lily-Jeanne, the mayor's daughter  In the film, the song is performed by Anissa Jones, who plays Carol Bix Personnel

Elvis Presley – vocals
The Blossoms, The Mellomen – backing vocals
Jack Halloran, Ronald Hicklin, Marilyn Mason – backing vocals
Roy Caton – trumpet
Lew McCreary – trombone
Buddy Collette – clarinet
Gerry McGee, Joseph Gibbons, Morton Marker – electric guitar
Don Randi – piano
Max Bennett – bass
John Guerin, Frank Carlson – drums

Home media
The Trouble With Girls was released to DVD by Warner Home Video on August 7, 2007, as a Region 1 widescreen DVD 

See also
List of American films of 1969
Passage 3:
The Trouble with Men and Women
The Trouble with Men and Women is a 2005 film written and directed by Tony Fisher and starring Joseph McFadden and Kate Ashfield 

Plot
Serious and intense Matt is tired of mooning over a woman who has deserted him for a life in the United States  After enduring the bar room philosophising of his friends as they vainly try to cheer him up, he starts dating various women, desperate for an understanding of the opposite sex  Yet he may well harbour the notion that it is his best mate's girlfriend that he is destined to be with 

Cast
Joseph McFadden – Matt
Kate Ashfield – Susie
Matthew Delamere – Vinnie

Music
Matt Cattell Innovation of Sound - Sam Gibb  –

External links
The Trouble with Men and Women at IMDb
Passage 4:
Michael Sorvino
Michael Ernest Sorvino (born November 21, 1977) is an American actor and producer  He is best known as the voice of Tommy Angelo, the protagonist in Mafia  His other acting roles include parts in Summer of Sam, The Trouble with Cali, and Once Upon a Time in Queens  He is the son of actor Paul Sorvino (1939–2022) and Lorraine Ruth Davis and the brother of actress Mira Sorvino 

Career
Sorvino was born in Tenafly, New Jersey to actor Paul Sorvino and graduated from Tenafly High School in 1996  He went on to graduate from Rutgers University's Mason Gross School of the Arts in New Brunswick, New Jersey with a Bachelor's Degree in Theater in May 2001  Sorvino first started acting in 1993 with a part in the film Amongst Friends  He had a recurring role in 2005 on the television series Human Trafficking  He also voiced the lead character Tommy Angelo in the game Mafia Sorvino also produced the 2016 comedy-drama film Almost Paris, which was directed by Domenica Cameron-Scorsese 

Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
Passage 5:
The Trouble with Cali
The Trouble with Cali is an American drama film directed by Paul Sorvino and written by his daughter Amanda Sorvino  It stars Laurence Leboeuf, Glynnis O'Connor, Raviv Ullman and RZA 
The film will not be released in theaters as a distribution deal was not able to be successfully negotiated spurring contention with Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania, residents as $500,000 in tax payer funds was used to finance the film  Subsequently, the Scranton Cultural Center hosted a free premiere of the film on July 9, 2015, with additional showings on July 10, 2015 and July 11, 2015 

Plot
Cast
Laurence Leboeuf as Cali Bluejones
Paul Sorvino as Ivan Bluejones
Glynnis O'Connor as Avie Bluejones
Chris Meyer as Vail Bosenthall
Joanne Baron as Zelda Hirschorn
Frank Adonis as Uncle Vito
Annie Golden as Mrs  Katie Saperstein
Mira Sorvino as The Ballet Master
Raviv Ullman as Lois
Peyton List as Young Cali Bluejones
RZA as himself
Bill Sorvino as Jimmy Lamberchin
Michael Sorvino as Young Guido
Passage 6:
Paul Sorvino
Paul Anthony Sorvino (, Italian: [sorˈviːno]; April 13, 1939 – July 25, 2022) was an American actor  He often portrayed authority figures on both the criminal and the law enforcement sides of the law 
Sorvino was particularly known for his roles as Lucchese crime family caporegime Paulie Cicero (based on real life gangster Paul Vario) in Martin Scorsese's 1990 gangster film Goodfellas and as NYPD Sergeant Phil Cerreta on the second and third seasons of the TV series Law & Order  He also played a variety of father figures, including Juliet's father in Baz Luhrmann's 1996 film Romeo + Juliet, as well as guest appearances as the father of Bruce Willis' character on the TV series Moonlighting and the father of Jeff Garlin's character on The Goldbergs  He was in additional supporting roles in A Touch of Class (1973), Reds (1981), The Rocketeer (1991), Nixon (1995, as Henry Kissinger), and The Cooler (2003) 
Usually cast in dramatic supporting roles, he occasionally acted in lead roles in films including Bloodbrothers (1978), and also in comedic roles including his turn as a bombastic Southern evangelist in Carl Reiner's Oh, God! (1977)  Sorvino was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actor for the 1972 play That Championship Season, and later starred in film and television adaptations  He was the father of actors Mira Sorvino and Michael Sorvino 

Early life
Sorvino was born on April 13, 1939, and raised in the Bensonhurst section of Brooklyn  His mother, Angela Maria Mattea (née Renzi; 1906–1991), was a homemaker and piano teacher of Italian (Molisan) descent who was born in Connecticut  His father, Ford Sorvino, was an Italian (Neapolitan) immigrant who worked in a robe factory as a foreman Sorvino attended Lafayette High School (where he was a classmate of Peter Max, a painter and artist), graduated, and then went to the American Musical and Dramatic Academy 

Career
Sorvino began his career as a copywriter in an advertising agency  He took voice lessons for 18 years  While attending The American Musical and Dramatic Academy, he decided to go into the theatre  He made his Broadway debut in the 1964 musical Bajour, and six years later he appeared in his first film, Carl Reiner's Where's Poppa?, starring George Segal and Ruth Gordon  In 1971, he played a supporting role in Jerry Schatzberg's critically acclaimed The Panic in Needle Park, starring Al Pacino and Kitty Winn 
Sorvino received critical praise for his performance as Phil Romano in Jason Miller's 1972 Broadway play That Championship Season, a role he reprised in the 1982 film version  He acted in another George Segal-starring film with a prominent supporting role in the Academy Award-winning romantic comedy A Touch of Class (1973)  In It Couldn't Happen to a Nicer Guy (1974), he played Harry Walters, a real estate salesman randomly picked up by a beautiful woman (JoAnna Cameron) and raped at gunpoint as a prank  He appeared in the 1976 Elliott Gould/Diane Keaton vehicle I Will, I Will    for Now  He starred in the weekly series We'll Get By (1975, as George Platt), Bert D'Angelo/Superstar (1976, in the title role), and The Oldest Rookie (1987, as Detective Ike Porter)  He also directed Wheelbarrow Closers, a 1976 Broadway play by Louis La Russo II, which starred Danny Aiello In 1981, Sorvino played the role of Italian-American communist Louis C  Fraina in Warren Beatty's film Reds  He appeared in Larry Cohen's 1985 horror film The Stuff as a reclusive militia leader, alongside future Law & Order co-star Michael Moriarty  Sorvino also helped found the American Stage Company, a group that launched several successful Off-Broadway shows, in 1986 In 1991, Sorvino took on the role of Sergeant Phil Cerreta (replacing actor George Dzundza in a new role) on the popular series Law & Order  Sorvino initially was excited about the role but left after 29 episodes, citing the exhausting schedule demanded by the filming of the show, a need to broaden his horizons, and the desire to preserve his vocal cords for singing opera  Sorvino's exit from the series came in an episode in which Sgt  Cerreta is shot in the line of duty and transferred to an administrative position in another precinct



ground_truth: Italy

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who lived longer, Charles Wheatstone or Jean-Claude Lauzon?

The following are given passages.
Context 3: Passage 1:
Lyse Lafontaine
Lyse Lafontaine (born 1942) is a Canadian film producer known for working with directors Jean-Claude Lauzon and Xavier Dolan  She works at Lyla Films in Montreal, Quebec, Canada 

Early life
Born to La Presse reporter Gaston Lafontaine, Lyse studied literature at the Université de Montréal and earned her degree  She married Stéphane Venne and managed the rock band Offenbach in 1972  She became a stage manager on the 1974 film The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz, and married her second husband, moving to The Bahamas for two years before returning to Canada 

Career
In 1976, Lafontaine served as location manager for the film The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane, starring Jodie Foster  Lafontaine met Lauzon when he was pitching his screenplay for Léolo (1992), which other producers had rejected  It became the first film she produced, with Aimée Danis, for which they were nominated for the Genie Award for Best Motion Picture  While in Italy during filming, Lauzon gave Lafontaine a letter thanking her for her ineptitude in business, which he considered necessary to make a film with feeling  She kept it as a cherished keepsake Working with Dolan, she produced Laurence Anyways (2012) and served as an associate producer for Mommy (2014)  Dolan's Laurence Anyways was inspired by Lafontaine's ex-boyfriend Luc Baillairgé, the father of her son Mikaël, who had a small part in Léolo  With Dolan, she personally traveled to London in 2017 to work on his The Death and Life of John F  Donovan In 2015, Lafontaine produced La Passion d’Augustine with François Tremblay, winning the Québec Cinéma Award for Best Film  On 1 June 2017 at the 19th Quebec Cinema Awards, she was awarded the Iris Hommage for 30 years of contributions to Quebec cinema 

Filmography
Her films include:
Passage 2:
Jean-Claude Lutanie
Jean-Claude Lutanie is a French writer 

Biography
Jean-Claude Lutanie was born in Poitiers, France in 1951  In the 1970s and 80s, he entered into social protest and contestation, but early on, broke off from any movement in particular  In 1981, he publishes Protestation devant les libertaires du présent et du futur sur les capitulations de 1980 anonymously, followed by Une lecture paranoïaque-critique de La Maison Tellier (Guy de Maupassant) in 1993  Lutanie’s university research focused on the work of Jean-Pierre Brisset  He taught French in Tebessa, Algeria, from 1985 to 1987, before teaching as Professor of Literature and History in a pre-professional high school in La Rochelle until his death, in 2006 

Bibliography
Harangue des Ciompi à Florence  Rééditée à l'usage des prolétaires de Longwy, (poster, Toulouse, c  1979, anonymous, no publisher, 60 × 39 cm)
Protestation devant les libertaires du présent et du futur sur les capitulations de 1980, (poster, Toulouse, 1981, anonymous, no publisher, 65 × 45 cm)
Protestation devant les libertaires du présent et du futur sur les capitulations de 1980, (1981, anonymous, no publisher, re-published in 2011 by Editions Lutanie)
Une lecture paranoïaque-critique de La Maison Tellier (Guy de Maupassant), Le Veilleur Éditeur, 1993

Articles
"Introduction to Jean-Claude Lutanie" by Rachel Valinsky in The Third Rail #7


== Notes ==
Passage 3:
Johannes Crucius
Johannes Crucius, or Jean de la Croix (1560 – 1625), was a Dutch theologian 

Biography
He was born in Lille, France, as the son of Jacobus de la Croix, a Walloon preacher of Middelburg, among other cities  He was the brother of Jacobus Crucius  Crucius studied in Geneva and on 28 September 1586 he matriculated at the Heidelberg University a year after Franciscus Gomarus, along with the students Abrahamus Vandermylen of Dordrecht, Meinardus ab Idzaerda of Friesland, and Andreas ab Hiddema of Friesland  He then matriculated at Leiden in 1589 and the following year he was selected to succeed Jean Taffin as Walloon preacher at the Waalse Kerk, Haarlem, where he is buried He married Elisabeth Stoock and their first child was baptised 7 June 1591  Their son Jacobus became a doctor, and their sons Nicolaas (1595-1643) and Johannes (1598-1666) became preachers like their father  From 1592, Crucius was the representative of the Wallonian church at the Walloon Synod in Middelburg and in 1618 & 1619 he was their representative at the Synod of Dort  He is known for his translations of religious works From Latin and Dutch into French, most notably by Antonius Walaeus 
He died in Haarlem 
Passage 4:
Jean-Claude Bonnefond
Claude Bonnefond, or Jean-Claude Bonnefond (27 March 1796, Lyon - 27 June 1860, Lyon) was a French painter and lithographer; noted for his portrayals of peasant life  His work was heavily influenced by a visit to Italy 

Biography
His father was a baker who died shortly after Jean-Claude was born  His mother remarried in 1797, to another baker who was an associate of her first husband  An elder brother died in military service  In 1808, at the age of twelve, he entered the École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts de Lyon, where he studied with Pierre Revoil and Alexis Grognard (1752-1840) 
In 1816, he was exempted from military service for being his family's only surviving son  The following year, he had his first exhibit at the Salon, where one of his paintings was purchased by Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry 
At the age of 28, he and Victor Orsel went to Paris to work in the studios of Pierre-Narcisse Guérin  Shortly after, Guérin was named Director of the Villa Medici and Bonnefond accompanied him to Rome 
While in Italy, he also visited Campania and Tuscany and made the acquaintance of several German painters of the Nazarene movement, including Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Joseph Anton Koch and Johann Friedrich Overbeck 
In 1830, Victor Prunelle, the Mayor of Lyon, offered him the directorship of the École des Beaux-arts  He accepted, replacing Revoil, and held that position for thirty years  He created a school of engraving, operated by Victor Vibert (1799-1860), and the École produced seventeen laureates of the Prix de Rome between 1831 and 1860  In 1834, he was named a Knight in the Legion of Honor  His own work continued to be in the Italian style until 1840, when he turned to painting portraits of the local bourgeoisie 
He died of what was described as "blood congestion" after a long period of illness 

Selected paintings
Notes
Passage 5:
Jean Edelinck
Jan, or Jean Edelinck (c 1640 – 1680), was a Flemish engraver who worked in Paris 

Life
He was born in Antwerp, the brother of Gerard Edelinck  He was probably younger than Gerard, though his date of birth is unknown  He preceded his brother to Paris  Joseph Strutt, writing in the late 18th century, compared his work unfavourably to Gerard's, saying that, although he closely imitated his style, "he never equalled him, either in drawing or the execution of the mechanical part of his plates "He died in Paris in 1680 

Works
Edelinck made several engravings of the statues in the gardens at Versailles, of which Strutt said "they do him great credit, though the effect is cold, and the extremities rather heavy"  He also made plates after a portrait of the anatomist  Isbrandus de Diemerbroeck by Romeyn de Hooghe, and The Deluge by Alessandro Turchi  The latter was finished after his death by his youngest brother, Gaspard François Edelinck 
Passage 6:
Jean-Claude Dague
Jean-Claude Dague, born Jean-Claude Dagouassat in 1937, is a French film director 

Biography
After having directed four films, Jean-Claude Dague's production company was almost bankrupt  He then attempted a hold-up in Bry-sur-Marne in 1971, but was easily caught with his two partners, having used his own car to flee  The two partners were actor René Chapotot and stuntman Germain Roig  Dague then spent eight years in prison, and wrote about it in a book, Le Dénommé, of which he made a film in 1990 

Filmography
Director1968 : Le Bal des voyous
1969 : Poussez pas grand-père dans les cactus
1970 : Désirella
1971 : L'Homme qui vient de la nuit
1990 : Le Dénommé
1999 : La Paix pour les Enfants du MondeActor1966 : Espions à l'affûtScreenwriter1991 : La Dernière Saison
Passage 7:
Jean-Claude Lauzon
Jean-Claude Lauzon (September 29, 1953 – August 10, 1997) was a Canadian filmmaker and screenwriter  Born to a working class family in Montreal, Quebec, Lauzon dropped out of high school and worked various jobs before studying film at the Université du Québec à Montréal  His two feature-length films, Night Zoo (1987) and Léolo (1992), established him as one of the most important Canadian directors of his generation  American film critic Roger Ebert wrote that "Lauzon is so motivated by his resentments and desires that everything he creates is pressed into the cause and filled with passion "His film Léolo is widely considered to be one of the best Canadian films of all time  It was nominated for the Palme d'Or at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival, and was included on Time's list of the 100 greatest films that were released between March 3, 1923—when the first issue of Time was published—and early 2005, when the list was compiled Lauzon's career was cut short by his death in a plane crash in 1997 at the age of 43 

Early life
Born to a working class family in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, Lauzon worked a variety of odd jobs after dropping out of high school  He went on to study film at the Université du Québec à Montréal at the behest of Andre Petrowski, a member of the National Film Board of Canada 

Career
While studying at the Université du Québec à Montréal, Lauzon began experimenting with 16mm film stock  His first short film, titled Super Maire, won the Norman McLaren Grand Prize at the Canadian Student Film Festival in 1979  His second short film, titled Piwi, which he started working on while spending time at the American Film Institute in Los Angeles, won the Jury Prize at the Montreal World Film Festival in 1981 In 1983, Lauzon wrote the first draft for his debut feature, Night Zoo, but spent most of the 1980s directing television commercials in Quebec and earning his pilot's licence  He eventually directed the film, making his feature-length film debut, and the film premiered in the Director's Fortnight at the Cannes Film Festival, where it was warmly received by most critics  The Globe and Mail’s Jay Scott wrote that “more than anything, Zoo is a movie of extremes; few films in the history of the cinema have wandered so successfully all over so much of the emotional map ” The film went on to win a record-breaking 13 Genie Awards in 1988, and won the Golden Reel Award for being the highest-grossing Canadian film of that year Lauzon achieved further success and acclaim with his second feature-length film, Léolo, which was nominated for the Palme d'Or at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival  Léolo won three Genie Awards and was a box office success in Canada and across Europe, but failed to make much of an impact in the U S  upon release  Léolo has been called one of the best Canadian films of all time by various media outlets  It was included on Time's list of the 100 greatest films that were released between March 3, 1923—when the first issue of Time was published—and early 2005, when the list was compiled After the success of his first two films, Lauzon focused on directing commercials for television and spent most of his time in northern Quebec flying his Cessna 180 Skywagon, fishing, and hunting 

Artistry
Playback wrote that Lauzon's films were "substantially autobiographical in nature"  Collaborators described the director as "an extremely creative and intense personality for whom making films was painful " American film critic Roger Ebert wrote that "Lauzon is so motivated by his resentments and desires that everything he creates is pressed into the cause and filled with passion "

Death
Lauzon was preparing his third feature-length film when he died, along with his girlfriend, Canadian actress Marie-Soleil Tougas, in a plane crash  On August 10, 1997, the Cessna 180 Skywagon that Lauzon was piloting flew into a mountainside in strong winds and rain near Kuujjuaq, Quebec while returning from a fishing trip  Lauzon was 43 years old when he died  He was buried in a private ceremony 

Filmography
Super Maire (1979), short film
Piwi (1981), short film
Night Zoo also known as Un zoo la nuit (1987), feature film
Léolo (1992), feature film
Passage 8:
Silvi Jan
Silvi Jan (Hebrew: סילבי ז'אן; born 27 October 1973) an Israeli former footballer who played as a striker  With 29 goals, she is the all-time Israel national team top goalscorer 

Club career
Jan played school football in Netanya, and was part of the boys' football team of Shorashim school  As there was no women's league, Jan tried to find an active team in Europe, eventually signing with Kolbotn I L  in Norway  In 1999, with the establishment of the Israeli Women's League, Jan returned to Israel and signed with Hapoel Tel Aviv 
Jan played at Hapoel Tel Aviv for four seasons, until the team folded, winning the league and cup in 2000–01  After Hapoel Tel Aviv folded, Jan signed with Maccabi Holon, where she played until her retirement in 2007  With Maccabi Holon Jan won the league 4 times and the cup 5 times 
In January 2009, Jan returned to league action and joined ASA Tel Aviv University  On 21 February 2012, in a league match against her former club, Maccabi Holon, Jan scored her 1000th goal in all club and national team competitions  Jan played at ASA Tel Aviv until her retirement in May 2012  With ASA Tel Aviv Jan Jan won three championships and two cups  Jan scored a total of 1,010 goals in all competitions 

International career
Silvi Jan has been a striker for the Israel national team for many years, appearing in 23 matches and scoring 29 goals  Jan made her debut against Romania on 2 November 1997, and scored her debut goal against Bosnia and Herzegovina on 8 April 2008, one of four she scored on the day 
Her last international goal was also scored against Bosnia and Herzegovina, in a match played on 23 November 2006, in which Israel won 5–2  Jan made her last international appearance against Poland on 10 May 2007 

International goals
Personal life
Jan came out as a lesbian in December 2017  She got engaged to her partner in November the following year 
In September 2018  Jan was diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis 

Honours
Hapoel Tel Aviv

Ligat Nashim: 2000–01
Israeli Women's Cup: 2000–01Haccabi Holon

Ligat Nashim: 2002–03, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2006–07
Israeli Women's Cup: 2002–03, 2003–04, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2006–07ASA Tel Aviv University

Ligat Nashim: 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12
Israeli Women's Cup: 2010–11, 2011–12Individual

Ligat Nashim top goalscorer: 1999–2000, 2006–07, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12
Israeli Women's Cup top goalscorer: 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2006–07, 2011–12
Passage 9:
Jean-Claude Casadesus
Jean-Claude Probst (born 7 December 1935), known professional as Jean-Claude Casadesus, is a French conductor 

Biography
Casadesus was born in Paris on 7 December 1935, the son of actress Gisèle Casadesus and her husband Lucien Pascal   He began his career as a percussionist before studying composition and conducting with Pierre Dervaux and Pierre Boulez 
In 1969 he was hired as assistant conductor at the Paris Opéra and the Opéra-Comique   In 1971 he co-founded the Orchestre National des Pays de la Loire with Pierre Dervaux, and acted as Dervaux's deputy there until 1976   In 1976 he became principal conductor of the Orchestre national de Lille, performing concerts locally and internationally   He directed the French Youth Orchestra in 2007 

Personal life
Jean-Claude has been married twice and has three children, his only daughter Caroline (b  30 October 1962) is an opera singer and his first born son Sebastian Copeland (b  3 April 1964) is a film director whose mother is Pénélope Copeland, his second son Olivier (b  2 September 1970) is an actor whose mother is Anne Sevestre 

Distinctions
Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur
Commandeur de l'Ordre national du Mérite
Commandeur des Arts et Lettres
Commandeur de l'Ordre d'Orange-Nassau
Officier de l'Ordre de Léopold de Belgique
Chevalier des Palmes AcadémiquesIn 2004, the Victoires de la musique classique awarded him a victory of honour 

Discography with l'Orchestre National de Lille
Richard Wagner, Ouvertures et monologues célèbres, Le Vaisseau Fantôme, Tännhauser, Les Maîtres chanteurs de Nuremberg, La Walkyrie, avec José van Dam, Label Forlane
Darius Milhaud, La Création du monde, Le Bœuf sur le toit, Suite Provençale, L'Homme et son Désir, Label Naxos
Serge Prokofiev, Alexander Nevsky (Cantata), Lieutenant Kijé (Suite), Label Naxos
Hector Berlioz, La Damnation de Faust, Label Naxos
Hector Berlioz, Symphonie Fantastique, Label Harmonia Mundi
Joseph Canteloube, Chants d'Auvergne, Label Naxos
Gustav Mahler, Symphonies, Label Forlane
Georges Bizet, Clovis et Clotilde - Te Deum, Label Naxos - Abeille Musique, 2010

Bibliography
Le plus court chemin d'un cœur à l'autre, Jean-Claude Casadesus, Éditions Stock
Passage 10:
Charles Wheatstone
Sir Charles Wheatstone FRS FRSE (; 6 February 1802 – 19 October 1875), was an English scientist and inventor of many scientific breakthroughs of the Victorian era, including the English concertina, the stereoscope (a device for displaying three-dimensional images), and the Playfair cipher (an encryption technique)  However, Wheatstone is best known for his contributions in the development of the Wheatstone bridge, originally invented by Samuel Hunter Christie, which is used to measure an unknown electrical resistance, and as a major figure in the development of telegraphy 

Life
Charles Wheatstone was born in Barnwood, Gloucestershire  His father, W  Wheatstone, was a music-seller in the town, who moved to 128 Pall Mall, London, four years later, becoming a teacher of the flute  Charles, the second son, went to a village school, near Gloucester, and afterwards to several institutions in London  One of them was in Kennington, and kept by a Mrs  Castlemaine, who was astonished at his rapid progress  From another he ran away, but was captured at Windsor, not far from the theatre of his practical telegraph  As a boy he was very shy and sensitive, liking well to retire into an attic, without any other company than his own thoughts 

When he was about fourteen years old he was apprenticed to his uncle and namesake, a maker and seller of musical instruments at 436 Strand, London; but he showed little taste for handicraft or business, and loved better to study books  His father encouraged him in this, and finally took him out of the uncle's charge 
At the age of fifteen, Wheatstone translated French poetry, and wrote two songs, one of which was given to his uncle, who published it without knowing it as his nephew's composition  Some lines of his on the lyre became the motto of an engraving by Bartolozzi  He often visited an old book-stall in the vicinity of Pall Mall, which was then a dilapidated and unpaved thoroughfare  Most of his pocket-money was spent in purchasing the books which had taken his fancy, whether fairy tales, history, or science 
One day, to the surprise of the bookseller, he coveted a volume on the discoveries of Volta in electricity, but not having the price, he saved his pennies and secured the volume  It was written in French, and so he was obliged to save again, until he could buy a dictionary  Then he began to read the volume, and, with the help of his elder brother, William, to repeat the experiments described in it, with a home-made battery, in the scullery behind his father's house  In constructing the battery, the boy philosophers ran short of money to procure the requisite copper-plates  They had only a few copper coins left  A happy thought occurred to Charles, who was the leading spirit in these researches, 'We must use the pennies themselves,' said he, and the battery was soon complete 
At Christchurch, Marylebone, on 12 February 1847, Wheatstone was married to Emma West  She was the daughter of a Taunton tradesman, and of handsome appearance  She died in 1866, leaving a family of five young children to his care  His domestic life was quiet and uneventful 
Though silent and reserved in public, Wheatstone was a clear and voluble talker in private, if taken on his favourite studies, and his small but active person, his plain but intelligent countenance, was full of animation  Sir Henry Taylor tells us that he once observed Wheatstone at an evening party in Oxford earnestly holding forth to Lord Palmerston on the capabilities of his telegraph  'You don't say so!' exclaimed the statesman  'I must get you to tell that to the Lord Chancellor ' And so saying, he fastened the electrician on Lord Westbury, and effected his escape  A reminiscence of this interview may have prompted Palmerston to remark that a time was coming when a minister might be asked in Parliament if war had broken out in India, and would reply, 'Wait a minute; I'll just telegraph to the Governor-General, and let you know '

Wheatstone was knighted in 1868, after his completion of the automatic telegraph  He had previously been made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour  Some thirty-four distinctions and diplomas of home or foreign societies bore witness to his scientific reputation  Since 1836 he had been a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1859 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in 1873 a Foreign Associate of the French Academy of Sciences  The same year he was awarded the Ampere Medal by the French Society for the Encouragement of National Industry  In 1875 he was created an honorary member of the Institution of Civil Engineers  He was a D C L  of Oxford and an LL D  of Cambridge 
While on a visit to Paris during the autumn of 1875, and engaged in perfecting his receiving instrument for submarine cables, he caught a cold, which produced inflammation of the lungs, an illness from which he died in Paris, on 19 October 1875 aged 73  A memorial service was held in the Anglican Chapel, Paris, and attended by a deputation of the Academy  His remains were taken to his home in Park Crescent, London, (marked by a blue plaque today) and buried in Kensal Green Cemetery 

Music instruments and acoustics
In September 1821, Wheatstone brought himself into public notice by exhibiting the 'Enchanted Lyre,' or 'Acoucryptophone,' at a music shop at Pall Mall and in the Adelaide Gallery  It consisted of a mimic lyre hung from the ceiling by a cord, and emitting the strains of several instruments – the piano, harp, and dulcimer  In reality it was a mere sounding box, and the cord was a steel rod that conveyed the vibrations of the music from the several instruments which were played out of sight and ear-shot  At this period Wheatstone made numerous experiments on sound and its transmission  Some of his results are preserved in Thomson's Annals of Philosophy for 1823 
He recognised that sound is propagated by waves or oscillations of the atmosphere, as light was then believed to be by undulations of the luminiferous ether  Water, and solid bodies, such as glass, or metal, or sonorous wood, convey the modulations with high velocity, and he conceived the plan of transmitting sound-signals, music, or speech to long distances by this means  He estimated that sound would travel 200 miles per second (320 km/s) through solid rods, and proposed to telegraph from London to Edinburgh in this way  He even called his arrangement a 'telephone ' (Robert Hooke, in his Micrographia, published in 1667, writes: 'I can assure the reader that I have, by the help of a distended wire, propagated the sound to a very considerable distance in an instant, or with as seemingly quick a motion as that of light ' Nor was it essential the wire should be straight; it might be bent into angles  This property is the basis of the mechanical or lover's telephone, said to have been known to the Chinese many centuries ago  Hooke also considered the possibility of finding a way to quicken our powers of hearing )
A writer in the Repository of Arts for 1 September 1821, in referring to the 'Enchanted Lyre,' beholds the prospect of an opera being performed at the King's Theatre, and enjoyed at the Hanover Square Rooms, or even at the Horns Tavern, Kennington  The vibrations are to travel through underground conductors, like to gas in pipes 

And if music be capable of being thus conducted,' he observes, 'perhaps the words of speech may be susceptible of the same means of propagation  The eloquence of counsel, the debates of Parliament, instead of being read the next day only, – But we shall lose ourselves in the pursuit of this curious subject Besides transmitting sounds to a distance, Wheatstone devised a simple instrument for augmenting feeble sounds, to which he gave the name of 'Microphone ' It consisted of two slender rods, which conveyed the mechanical vibrations to both ears, and is quite different from the electrical microphone of Professor Hughes 
In 1823, his uncle, the musical instrument maker, died, and Wheatstone, with his elder brother, William, took over the business  Charles had no great liking for the commercial part, but his ingenuity found a vent in making improvements on the existing instruments, and in devising philosophical toys  He also invented instruments of his own  One of the most famous was the Wheatstone concertina  It was a six sided instrument with 64 keys  These keys provided for simple chromatic fingerings  The English Concertina became increasingly famous throughout his lifetime, however it didn't reach its peak of popularity until the early 20th century 
In 1827, Wheatstone introduced his 'kaleidophone', a device for rendering the vibrations of a sounding body apparent to the eye  It consists of a metal rod, carrying at its end a silvered bead, which reflects a 'spot' of light  As the rod vibrates the spot is seen to describe complicated figures in the air, like a spark whirled about in the darkness  His photometer was probably suggested by this appliance  It enables two lights to be compared by the relative brightness of their reflections in a silvered bead, which describes a narrow ellipse, so as to draw the spots into parallel lines 
In 1828, Wheatstone improved the German wind instrument, called the Mundharmonika, until it became the popular concertina, patented on 19 December 1829  The portable harmonium is another of his inventions, which gained a prize medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851  He also improved the speaking machine of De Kempelen, and endorsed the opinion of Sir David Brewster, that before the end of this century a singing and talking apparatus would be among the conquests of science 
In 1834, Wheatstone, who had won a name for himself, was appointed to the Chair of Experimental Physics in King's College London  His first course of lectures on sound were a complete failure, due to his abhorrence of public speaking  In the rostrum he was tongue-tied and incapable, sometimes turning his back on the audience and mumbling to the diagrams on the wall  In the laboratory he felt himself at home, and ever after confined his duties mostly to demonstration 

Velocity of electricity
He achieved renown by a great experiment made in 1834 – the measurement of the velocity of electricity in a wire  He cut the wire at the middle, to form a gap which a spark might leap across, and connected its ends to the poles of a Leyden jar filled with electricity  Three sparks were thus produced, one at each end of the wire, and another at the middle  He mounted a tiny mirror on the works of a watch, so that it revolved at a high velocity, and observed the reflections of his three sparks in it  The points of the wire were so arranged that if the sparks were instantaneous, their reflections would appear in one straight line; but the middle one was seen to lag behind the others, because it was an instant later  The electricity had taken a certain time to travel from the ends of the wire to the middle  This time was found by measuring the amount of lag, and comparing it with the known velocity of the mirror  Having got the time, he had only to compare that with the length of half the wire, and he could find the velocity of electricity  His results gave a calculated velocity of 288,000 miles per second, i e  faster than what we now know to be the speed of light (299,792 458 kilometres per second (186,000 mi/s)), but were nonetheless an interesting approximation It was already appreciated by some scientists that the "velocity" of electricity was dependent on the properties of the conductor and its surroundings  Francis Ronalds had observed signal retardation in his buried electric telegraph cable (but not his airborne line) in 1816 and outlined its cause to be induction  Wheatstone witnessed these experiments as a youth, which were apparently a stimulus for his own research in telegraphy  Decades later, after the telegraph had been commercialised, Michael Faraday described how the velocity of an electric field in a submarine wire, coated with insulator and surrounded with water, is only 144,000 miles per second (232,000 km/s), or still less 
Wheatstone's device of the revolving mirror was afterwards employed by Léon Foucault and Hippolyte Fizeau to measure the relative speeds of light in air versus water, and later to measure the speed of light 

Spectroscopy
Wheatstone and others also contributed to early spectroscopy through the discovery and exploitation of spectral emission lines As John Munro wrote in 1891, "In 1835, at the Dublin meeting of the British Association, Wheatstone showed that when metals were volatilised in the electric spark, their light, examined through a prism, revealed certain rays which were characteristic of them  Thus the kind of metals which formed the sparking points could be determined by analysing the light of the spark  This suggestion has been of great service in spectrum analysis, and as applied by Robert Bunsen, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, and others, has led to the discovery of several new elements, such as rubidium and thallium, as well as increasing our knowledge of the heavenly bodies "

Telegraph
Wheatstone abandoned his idea of transmitting intelligence by the mechanical vibration of rods, and took up the electric telegraph  In 1835 he lectured on the system of Baron Schilling, and declared that the means were already known by which an electric telegraph could be made of great service to the world  He made experiments with a plan of his own, and not only proposed to lay an experimental line across the Thames, but to establish it on the London and Birmingham Railway  Before these plans were carried out, however, he received a visit from William 
Cooke at his house in Conduit Street on 27 February 1837, which had an important influence on his future 

Cooperation with Cooke
Cooke was an officer in the Madras Army, who, being home on leave, was attending some lectures on anatomy at the University of Heidelberg, where, on 6 March 1836, he witnessed a demonstration with the telegraph of professor Georg Munke, and was so impressed with its importance, that he forsook his medical studies and devoted all his efforts to the work of introducing the telegraph  He returned to London soon after, and was able to exhibit a telegraph with three needles in January 1837  Feeling his want of scientific knowledge, he consulted Michael Faraday and Peter Roget (then secretary of the Royal Society): Roget sent him to Wheatstone 
At a second interview, Cooke told Wheatstone of his intention to bring out a working telegraph, and explained his method  Wheatstone, according to his own statement, remarked to Cooke that the method would not act, and produced his own experimental telegraph  Finally, Cooke proposed that they should enter into a partnership, but Wheatstone was at first reluctant to comply  He was a well-known man of science, and had meant to publish his results without seeking to make capital of them  Cooke, on the other hand, declared that his sole object was to make a fortune from the scheme  In May they agreed to join their forces, Wheatstone contributing the scientific, and Cooke the administrative talent  The deed of partnership was dated 19 November 1837  A joint patent was taken out for their inventions, including the five-needle telegraph of Wheatstone, and an alarm worked by a relay, in which the current, by dipping a needle into mercury, completed a local circuit, and released the detent of a clockwork 
The five-needle telegraph, which was mainly, if not entirely, due to Wheatstone, was similar to that of Schilling, and based on the principle enunciated by Ampère – that is to say, the current was sent into the line by completing the circuit of the battery with a make and break key, and at the other end it passed through a coil of wire surrounding a magnetic needle free to turn round its centre  According as one pole of the battery or the other was applied to the line by means of the key, the current deflected the needle to one side or the other  There were five separate circuits actuating five different needles  The latter were pivoted in rows across the middle of a dial shaped like a diamond, and having the letters of the alphabet arranged upon it in such a way that a letter was literally pointed out by the current deflecting two of the needles towards it 

Early installations
An experimental line, with a sixth return wire, was run between the Euston terminus and Camden Town station of the London and North Western Railway on 25 July 1837  The actual distance was only one and a half-miles (2 4 km), but spare wire had been inserted in the circuit to increase its length  It was late in the evening before the trial took place  Cooke was in charge at Camden Town, while Robert Stephenson and other gentlemen looked on; and Wheatstone sat at his instrument in a dingy little room, lit by a tallow candle, near the booking-office at Euston  Wheatstone sent the first message, to which Cooke replied: and "never" said Wheatstone, "did I feel such a tumultuous sensation before, as when, all alone in the still room, I heard the needles click, and as I spelled the words, I felt all the magnitude of the invention pronounced to be practicable beyond cavil or dispute "
In spite of this trial, however, the directors of the railway treated the 'new-fangled' invention with indifference, and requested its removal  In July 1839, however, it was favoured by the Great Western Railway, and a line erected from the Paddington station terminus to West Drayton railway station, a distance of thirteen miles (21 km)  Part of the wire was laid underground at first, but subsequently all of it was raised on posts along the line  Their circuit was eventually extended to Slough in 1841, and was publicly exhibited at Paddington as a marvel of science, which could transmit fifty signals a distance of 280,000 miles per minute (7,500 km/s)  The price of admission was a shilling (£0 05), and in 1844 one fascinated observer recorded the following:

"It is perfect from the terminus of the Great Western as far as Slough – that is, eighteen miles; the wires being in some places underground in tubes, and in others high up in the air, which last, he says, is by far the best plan  We asked if the weather did not affect the wires, but he said not; a violent thunderstorm might ring a bell, but no more  We were taken into a small room (we being Mrs Drummond, Miss Philips, Harry Codrington and myself – and afterwards the Milmans and Mr Rich) where were several wooden cases containing different sorts of telegraphs  In one sort every word was spelt, and as each letter was placed in turn in a particular position, the machinery caused the electric fluid to run down the line, where it made the letter show itself at Slough, by what machinery he could not undertake to explain  After each word came a  sign from Slough, signifying "I understand", coming certainly in less  than one second from the end of the word      Another prints the messages it brings, so that if no-one attended to the bell,    the message would not be lost  This is effected by the electrical fluid causing a little hammer to strike the letter which presents itself, the letter which is raised hits some manifold writing paper (a new invention, black paper which, if pressed, leaves an indelible black mark), by which means the impression is left on white paper beneath  This was the most ingenious of all, and apparently Mr  Wheatstone's favourite; he was very good-natured in explaining but understands it so well himself that he cannot feel how little we know about it, and goes too fast for such ignorant folk to follow him in everything  Mrs Drummond told me he is wonderful for the rapidity with which he thinks and his power of invention; he invents so many things that he cannot put half his ideas into execution, but leaves them to be picked up and used by others, who get the credit of them "

Public attention and success
The public took to the new invention after the capture of the murderer John Tawell, who in 1845, had become the first person to be arrested as the result of telecommunications technology  In the same year, Wheatstone introduced two improved forms of the apparatus, namely, the 'single' and the 'double' needle instruments, in which the signals were made by the successive deflections of the needles  Of these, the single-needle instrument, requiring only one wire, is still in use The development of the telegraph may be gathered from two facts  In 1855, the death of the Emperor Nicholas at St  Petersburg, about one o'clock in the afternoon, was announced in the House of Lords a few hours later  The result of The Oaks of 1890 was received in New York fifteen seconds after the horses passed the winning-post 

Differences with Cooke
In 1841 a difference arose between Cooke and Wheatstone as to the share of each in the honour of inventing the telegraph  The question was submitted to the arbitration of the famous engineer, Marc Isambard Brunel, on behalf of Cooke, and Professor Daniell, of King's College, the inventor of the Daniell cell, on the part of Wheatstone  They awarded to Cooke the credit of having introduced the telegraph as a useful undertaking which promised to be of national importance, and to Wheatstone that of having by his researches prepared the public to receive it  They concluded with the words: 'It is to the united labours of two gentlemen so well qualified for mutual assistance that we must attribute the rapid progress which this important invention has made during five years since they have been associated ' The decision, however vague, pronounces the needle telegraph a joint production  If it had mainly been invented by Wheatstone, it was chiefly introduced by Cooke  Their respective shares in the undertaking might be compared to that of an author and his publisher, but for the fact that Cooke himself had a share in the actual work of invention 

Further work on telegraphs
From 1836–7 Wheatstone had thought a good deal about submarine telegraphs, and in 1840 he gave evidence before the Railway Committee of the House of Commons on the feasibility of the proposed line from Dover to Calais  He had even designed the machinery for making and laying the cable  In the autumn of 1844, with the assistance of J  D  Llewellyn, he submerged a length of insulated wire in Swansea Bay, and signalled through it from a boat to the Mumbles Lighthouse  Next year he suggested the use of gutta-percha for the coating of the intended wire across the English Channel 
In 1840 Wheatstone had patented an alphabetical telegraph, or, 'Wheatstone A B C instrument,' which moved with a step-by-step motion, and showed the letters of the message upon a dial  The same principle was used in his type-printing telegraph, patented in 1841  This was the first apparatus which printed a telegram in type  It was worked by two circuits, and as the type revolved a hammer, actuated by the current, pressed the required letter on the paper 
The introduction of the telegraph had so far advanced that, on 2 September 1845, the Electric Telegraph Company was registered, and Wheatstone, by his deed of partnership with Cooke, received a sum of £33,000 for the use of their joint inventions 
In 1859 Wheatstone was appointed by the Board of Trade to report on the subject of the Atlantic cables, and in 1864 he was one of the experts who advised the Atlantic Telegraph Company on the construction of the successful lines of 1865 and 1866 
In 1870 the electric telegraph lines of the United Kingdom, worked by different companies, were transferred to the Post Office, and placed under Government control 
Wheatstone further invented the automatic transmitter, in which the signals of the message are first punched out on a strip of paper (punched tape), which is then passed through the sending-key, and controls the signal currents  By substituting a mechanism for the hand in sending the message, he was able to telegraph about 100 words a minute, or five times the ordinary rate  In the Postal Telegraph service this apparatus is employed for sending Press telegrams, and it has recently been so much improved, that messages are now sent from London to Bristol at a speed of 600 words a minute, and even of 400 words a minute between London and Aberdeen  On the night of 8 April 1886, when Gladstone introduced his Bill for Home Rule in Ireland, no fewer than 1,500,000 words were dispatched from the central station at St  Martin's-le-Grand by 100 Wheatstone transmitters  The plan of sending messages by a running strip of paper which actuates the key was originally patented by Alexander Bain in 1846; but Wheatstone, aided by Augustus Stroh, an accomplished mechanician, and an able experimenter, was the first to bring the idea into successful operation  This system is often referred to as the Wheatstone Perforator and is the forerunner of the stock market ticker tape 

Optics
Stereopsis was first described by Wheatstone in 1838  In 1840 he was awarded the Royal Medal of the Royal Society for his explanation of binocular vision, a research which led him to make stereoscopic drawings and construct the stereoscope  He showed that our impression of solidity is gained by the combination in the mind of two separate pictures of an object taken by both of our eyes from different points of view  Thus, in the stereoscope, an arrangement of lenses or mirrors, two photographs of the same object taken from different points are so combined as to make the object stand out with a solid aspect  Sir David Brewster improved the stereoscope by dispensing with the mirrors, and bringing it into its existing form with lenses 
The 'pseudoscope' (Wheatstone coined the term from the Greek ψευδίς σκοπειν) was introduced in 1852, and is in some sort the reverse of the stereoscope, since it causes a solid object to seem hollow, and a nearer one to be farther off; thus, a bust appears to be a mask, and a tree growing outside of a window looks as if it were growing inside the room  Its purpose was to test his theory of stereo vision and for investigations into what would now be called experimental psychology 

Measuring time
In 1840, Wheatstone introduced his chronoscope, for measuring minute intervals of time, which was used in determining the speed of a bullet or the passage of a star  In this apparatus an electric current actuated an electro-magnet, which noted the instant of an occurrence by means of a pencil on a moving paper  It is said to have been capable of distinguishing 1/7300 part of a second (137 microsecond), and the time a body took to fall from a height of one inch (25 mm) 
On 26 November 1840, he exhibited his electro-magnetic clock in the library of the Royal Society, and propounded a plan for distributing the correct time from a standard clock to a number of local timepieces  The circuits of these were to be electrified by a key or contact-maker actuated by the arbour of the standard, and their hands corrected by electro-magnetism  The following January Alexander Bain took out a patent for an electro-magnetic clock, and he subsequently charged Wheatstone with appropriating his ideas  It appears that Bain worked as a mechanist to Wheatstone from August to December 1840, and he asserted that he had communicated the idea of an electric clock to Wheatstone during that period; but Wheatstone maintained that he had experimented in that direction during May  Bain further accused Wheatstone of stealing his idea of the electro-magnetic printing telegraph; but Wheatstone showed that the instrument was only a modification of his own electro-magnetic telegraph 
In 1840, Alexander Bain mentioned to the Mechanics Magazine editor his financial problems  The editor introduced him to Sir Charles Wheatstone  Bain demonstrated his models to Wheatstone, who, when asked for his opinion, said "Oh, I shouldn't bother to develop these things any further! There's no future in them " Three months later Wheatstone demonstrated an electric clock to the Royal Society, claiming it was his own invention  However, Bain had already applied for a patent for it  Wheatstone tried to block Bain's patents, but failed  When Wheatstone organised an Act of Parliament to set up the Electric Telegraph Company, the House of Lords summoned Bain to give evidence, and eventually compelled the company to pay Bain £10,000 and give him a job as manager, causing Wheatstone to resign 

Polar clock
One of Wheatstone's most ingenious devices was the 'Polar clock,' exhibited at the meeting of the British Association in 1848  It is based on the fact discovered by Sir David Brewster, that the light of the sky is polarised in a plane at an angle of ninety degrees from the position of the sun  It follows that by discovering that plane of polarisation, and measuring its azimuth with respect to the north, the position of the sun, although beneath the horizon, could be determined, and the apparent solar time obtained 
The clock consisted of a spyglass, having a Nicol (double-image) prism for an eyepiece, and a thin plate of selenite for an object-glass  When the tube was directed to the North Pole—that is, parallel to the Earth's axis—and the prism of the eyepiece turned until no colour was seen, the angle of turning, as shown by an index moving with the prism over a graduated limb, gave the hour of day  The device is of little service in a country where watches are reliable; but it formed part of the equipment of the 1875–1876 North Polar expedition commanded by Captain Nares 

Wheatstone bridge
In 1843 Wheatstone communicated an important paper to the Royal Society, entitled 'An Account of Several New Processes for Determining the Constants of a Voltaic Circuit ' It contained an exposition of the well known balance for measuring the electrical resistance of a conductor, which still goes by the name of Wheatstone's Bridge or balance, although it was first devised by Samuel Hunter Christie, of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, who published it in the Philosophical Transactions for 1833  The method was neglected until Wheatstone brought it into notice His paper abounds with simple and practical formulae for the calculation of currents and resistances by the law of Ohm  He introduced a unit of resistance, namely, a foot of copper wire weighing one hundred grains (6 5 g), and showed how it might be applied to measure the length of wire by its resistance  He was awarded a medal for his paper by the Society  The same year he invented an apparatus which enabled the reading of a thermometer or a barometer to be registered at a distance by means of an electric contact made by the mercury  A sound telegraph, in which the signals were given by the strokes of a bell, was also patented by Cooke and Wheatstone in May of that year 

Cryptography
Wheatstone's remarkable ingenuity was also displayed in the invention of ciphers  He was responsible for the then unusual Playfair cipher, named after his friend Lord Playfair  It was used by the militaries of several nations through at least World War I, and is known to have been used during World War II by British intelligence services It was initially resistant to cryptanalysis, but methods were eventually developed to break it  He also became involved in the interpretation of cipher manuscripts in the British Museum  He devised a cryptograph or machine for turning a message into cipher which could only be interpreted by putting the cipher into a corresponding machine adjusted to decrypt it 
As an amateur mathematician, Wheatstone published a mathematical proof in 1854 (see Cube (algebra)) 

Electrical generators
In 1840, Wheatstone brought out his magneto-electric machine for generating continuous currents 
On 4 February 1867, he published the principle of reaction in the dynamo-electric machine by a paper to the Royal Society; but Mr  C  W  Siemens had communicated the identical discovery ten days earlier, and both papers were read on the same day 
It afterwards appeared that Werner von Siemens, Samuel Alfred Varley, and Wheatstone had independently arrived at the principle within a few months of each other  Varley patented it on 24 December 1866; Siemens called attention to it on 17 January 1867; and Wheatstone exhibited it in action at the Royal Society on the above date 

Disputes over invention
Wheatstone was involved in various disputes with other scientists throughout his life regarding his role in different technologies and appeared at times to take more credit than he was due  As well as William Fothergill Cooke, Alexander Bain and David Brewster, mentioned above, these also included Francis Ronalds at the Kew Observatory  Wheatstone was erroneously believed by many to have created the atmospheric electricity observing apparatus that Ronalds invented and developed at the observatory in the 1840s and also to have installed the first automatic recording meteorological instruments there (see for example, Howarth, p158) 

Personal life
Wheatstone married Emma West, spinster, a daughter of John Hooke West, deceased, at Christ Church, Marylebone, on 12 February 1847  The marriage was by licence 

See also
William Fothergill Cooke
Oliver Heaviside



ground_truth: Charles Wheatstone