prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which film has the director died later, Seven In The Sun or Daughter Of The Jungle?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Thulasi (1987 film)
Thulasi is a 1987 Indian Tamil-language romantic drama film directed by Ameerjan  The film stars Murali and Seetha  It was released on 27 November 1987 

Plot
Thirunavukarasu is considered as a God by his villagers  Nevertheless, his son Sammadham is an atheist and he doesn't believe in his father's power  Sammadham and Ponni, a low caste girl, fall in love with each other  Sammadham's best friend Siva, a low caste boy, passes the Master of Arts degree successfully  Thirunavukarasu's daughter Thulasi then develops a soft corner for Siva 
Thirunavukarasu cannot accept for his son Sammadham's marriage with Ponni due to caste difference  Sammadham then challenges him to marry her  Thirunavukarasu appoints henchmen to kill her and Ponni is found dead the next day in the water  In the meantime, Siva also falls in love with Thulasi  The rest of the story is what happens to Siva and Thulasi 

Cast
Murali as Sivalingam "Siva"
Seetha as Thulasi
Chandrasekhar as Sammadham
Major Sundarrajan as Thirunavukarasu
Senthil
Charle as Khan
Thara as Ponni
Mohanapriya as Sarasu
Vathiyar Raman
A  K  Veerasamy as Kaliyappan

Soundtrack
The music was composed by Sampath Selvam, with lyrics written by Vairamuthu 

Reception
The Indian Express gave a negative review calling it "thwarted love" 
Passage 2:
Querelle
Querelle is a 1982 West German-French English-language arthouse film directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder and starring Brad Davis, adapted from French author Jean Genet's 1947 novel Querelle of Brest  It was Fassbinder's last film, released shortly after his death at the age of 37 

Plot
The plot centers on the handsome Belgian sailor Georges Querelle, who is also a thief and murderer  When his ship, Le Vengeur, arrives in Brest, he visits the Feria, a bar and brothel for sailors run by the Madame Lysiane, whose lover, Robert, is Querelle's brother  Querelle has a love/hate relationship with his brother: when they meet at La Feria, they embrace, but also punch one another slowly and repeatedly in the belly  Lysiane's husband Nono works behind the bar and also manages La Feria's underhanded affairs with the assistance of his friend, the corrupt police captain Mario 
Querelle makes a deal to sell opium to Nono  During the execution of the deal, he murders his accomplice Vic by slitting his throat   After delivering the drugs, Querelle announces that he wants to sleep with Lysiane   He knows that this means he will have to throw dice with Nono, who has the privilege of playing a game of chance with all of her prospective lovers  If Nono loses, the suitor is allowed to proceed with his affair  If the suitor loses, however, he must submit to anal sex with Nono first, according to Nono's maxim that "That way, I can say my wife only sleeps with arseholes " Querelle deliberately loses the game, allowing himself to be sodomized by Nono  When Nono gloats about Querelle's "loss" to Robert, who won his dice game, the brothers end up in a violent fight   Later, Querelle becomes Lysiane's lover, and also has sex with Mario 
Luckily for Querelle, a builder, Gil, murders his work mate Theo, who had been harassing and sexually assaulting him   Gil hides from the police in an abandoned prison, and Roger, who is in love with Gil, establishes contact between Querelle and Gil in the hopes that Querelle can help Gil flee  Querelle falls in love with Gil, who closely resembles his brother   Gil returns his affections, but Querelle betrays Gil by tipping off the police  Querelle cleverly arranged it so that the murder of Vic is also blamed on Gil 
Querelle's superior, Lieutenant Seblon, is in love with Querelle, and constantly tries to prove his manliness to him  Seblon is aware that Querelle murdered Vic, but chooses to protect him   Later, Seblon reveals his love and concern to a drunken Querelle, and they kiss and embrace before returning to Le Vengeur 

Cast
Brad Davis as Querelle
Franco Nero as Lieutenant Seblon
Jeanne Moreau as Lysiane
Laurent Malet as Roger Bataille
Hanno Pöschl as Robert / Gil
Günther Kaufmann as Nono
Burkhard Driest as Mario
Roger Fritz as Marcellin
Dieter Schidor as Vic Rivette
Natja Brunckhorst as Paulette
Werner Asam as Worker
Axel Bauer as Worker
Neil Bell as Theo
Robert van Ackeren as Drunken legionnaire
Wolf Gremm as Drunken legionnaire
Frank Ripploh as Drunken legionnaire

Production
According to Genet's biographer Edmund White, Querelle was originally going to be made by Werner Schroeter, with a scenario by Burkhard Driest, and produced by Dieter Schidor  However, Schidor could not find the money to finance a film by Schroeter, and therefore turned to other directors, including John Schlesinger and Sam Peckinpah, before finally settling on Fassbinder  Driest wrote a radically different script for Fassbinder, who then "took the linear narrative and jumbled it up"  White quotes Schidor as saying "Fassbinder did something totally different, he took the words of Genet and tried to meditate on something other than the story  The story became totally unimportant for him  He also said publicly that the story was a sort of third-rate police story that wouldn't be worth making a movie about without putting a particular moral impact into it" Schroeter had wanted to make a black and white film with amateur actors and location shots, but Fassbinder instead shot it with professional actors in a lurid, expressionist color, and on sets in the studio  Edmund White comments that the result is a film in which, "Everything is bathed in an artificial light and the architectural elements are all symbolic "

Soundtrack
Jeanne Moreau – "Each Man Kills the Things He Loves" (music by Peer Raben, lyrics from Oscar Wilde's poem "The Ballad of Reading Gaol")
"Young and Joyful Bandit" (Music by Peer Raben, lyrics by Jeanne Moreau)Both songs were nominated to the 1984 Razzie Awards for "Worst Original Song" 

Release
Querelle sold more than 100,000 tickets in the first three weeks after its release in Paris, the first time that a film with a gay theme had achieved such success  On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, which categorizes reviews as positive or negative only, the film has an approval rating of 57% calculated based on 14 critics comments  By comparison, with the same opinions being calculated using a weighted arithmetic mean, the rating is 6 10/10  Writing for The New York Times critic Vincent Canby noted that Querelle was "a mess   a detour that leads to a dead end "
Penny Ashbrook calls Querelle Fassbinder's "perfect epitaph: an intensely personal statement that is the most uncompromising portrayal of gay male sensibility to come from a major filmmaker " Edmund White considers Querelle the only film based on Genet's book that works, calling it "visually as artificial and menacing as Genet's prose " Genet, in discussion with Schidor, said that he had not seen the film, commenting "You can't smoke at the movies "
Passage 3:
Daughter of the Jungle
Daughter of the Jungle may refer to:

Daughter of the Jungle (1949 film), an American adventure film
Daughter of the Jungle (1982 film), an Italian romantic adventure film
Passage 4:
Bomba, the Jungle Boy (film)
Bomba, the Jungle Boy is a 1949 American adventure film directed by Ford Beebe  It was the first in a 12-film series featuring Bomba, a sort of teenage Tarzan, played by Johnny Sheffield, who as a child had played "Boy" in several previous Tarzan films 

Plot
A photographer and his daughter arrive in Africa hoping to capture the local wildlife on film  Instead, they encounter (and never end up photographing) a killer leopard, a swarm of locusts, deadly lion worshippers, and Bomba the Jungle Boy 
Bomba was raised by an aged naturalist, Cody Casson (since deceased)  He now lives beyond the Great Rift  The photographer's daughter, wearing a well-tailored leopard skin, spends most of the film with Bomba, while her father, Commissioner Barnes, and Eli search for her 

Cast
Johnny Sheffield as Bomba
Peggy Ann Garner as Patricia Harlan
Onslow Stevens as George Harland
Charles Irwin as Andy Barnes
Smoki Whitfield as Eli
Martin Wilkins as Mufti

Production
Walter Mirisch had been general manager of Monogram Pictures since 1945  They specialised in low-budget movies, including series of regular characters such as Charlie Chan, Joe Palooka and the Bowery Boys  Mirisch looked at the success of the Tarzan films and remembered the Bomba novels; he thought they might offer material to do a similar type of movie 
In November 1947 Monogram announced they had bought the rights to twenty of the stories  They assigned Walter Mirisch to oversee their production and said they intended to make three Bomba films per year  They were going to be in colour  They were seeking a male actor aged 18 to 20 to star In September 1948 Monogram's president Steve Broidy announced that the studio would make two Bomba films over the following year  (Other series at the studio included Joe Palooka, Charlie Chan and Bowery Boys )Mirisch later claimed he was paid $2,500 a film, and the success of the series launched him as a producer 

Reception
The New York Times called it a "dull flavorless picture about a vest pocket Tarzan " However the movie was a large success relative to its budget 
Passage 5:
Le Masque de la Méduse
Le masque de la Méduse (English: The Mask of Medusa) is a 2009 fantasy horror film directed by Jean Rollin  The film is a modern-day telling of the Greek mythological tale of the Gorgon and was inspired by the 1964 classic Hammer Horror film of the same name and the 1981 cult classic Clash of the Titans  It was Rollin's final film, as the director died in 2010 

Cast
Simone Rollin as la Méduse
Sabine Lenoël as Euryale
Marlène Delcambre as Sthéno
Juliette Moreau as Juliette
Delphine Montoban as Cornelius
Jean-Pierre Bouyxou as le gardien
Bernard Charnacé as le collectionneur
Agnès Pierron as la colleuse d'affiche au Grand-Guignol
Gabrielle Rollin as la petite contrebassiste
Jean Rollin as l'homme qui enterre la tête
Thomas Smith as Thomas

Production
It was thought that Rollin's 2007 film La nuit des horloges was the final film of his career, as he had mentioned in the past  However, in 2009, Rollin began preparation foe Le masque de la Méduse  Rollin originally directed the film as a one-hour short, which was screened at the Cinémathèque de Toulouse, but after the release, Rollin decided to add 20 minutes of additional scenes and then cut the film into two distinct parts, as he did with his first feature, Le Viol du Vampire   The film was shot on location at the Golden Gate Aquarium and Père Lachaise Cemetery, as well as on stage at the Theatre du Grande Guignol, which is where the longest part of the film takes place  It was shot on HD video on a low budget of €150,000  Before the release, it was transferred to 35mm film 

Release
The film was not released theatrically, although it premiered on 19 November 2009 at the 11th edition of the Extreme Cinema Film Festival at the Cinémathèque de Toulouse  As part of "An Evening with Jean Rollin", it was shown as a double feature with Rollin's 2007 film La nuit des horloges 

Home media
No official DVD was released, although for a limited time, a DVD of La masque de la Méduse was included with the first 150 copies of Rollin's book Jean Rollin: Écrits complets Volume 1 
Passage 6:
Sergio Bergonzelli
Sergio Bergonzelli (25 August 1924 – 24 September 2002) was an Italian director, screenwriter, producer and actor 

Life and career
Born in Alba, Cuneo, Bergonzelli graduated in Philosophy, then he started working as an actor with the stage name Siro Carme  After being assistant and second unit director in a number of genre films, in 1960 he made his debut as director and screenwriter with Seven in the Sun  Also a film producer, Bergonzelli was the first to produce Spaghetti Western films entirely shot in Italy  In the 1970s he specialized in the erotic genre 

Selected filmography
Director
'*' denotes he wrote the screenplayActor
Passage 7:
Law of the Jungle (film)
Law of the Jungle is a 1942 American adventure film directed by Jean Yarbrough 

Plot
A singer, Nona Brooks, is stranded at a hotel in Africa because her passport is missing  It turns out enemy agents, in collaboration with hotel owner Simmons, have stolen her papers, then try to use her for their nefarious schemes 
Brooks flees and encounters paleontologist Larry Mason in the jungle  He and his assistant Jefferson Jones give her shelter, then fend off unfriendly natives while Simmons is murdered by the villainous agents  All looks hopeless until the tribal chief turns out to be a reasonable, Oxford-educated man who helps Larry and Nona out of their jam 

Cast
Arline Judge as Nona Brooks
John 'Dusty' King as Larry Mason
Mantan Moreland as Jefferson 'Jeff' Jones
Arthur O'Connell as Simmons
C  Montague Shaw as Sgt  Burke
Guy Kingsford as Constable Whiteside
Laurence Criner as Chief Mojobo - an Oxford Graduate
Victor Kendall as Grozman
Feodor Chaliapin, Jr  as Belts
Martin Wilkins as Bongo

Soundtrack
Arline Judge - "Jungle Moon" (Written by Edward J  Kay as Edward Kay)

External links
Law of the Jungle at IMDb
Law of the Jungle is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive
Passage 8:
Bomba and the Jungle Girl
Bomba and the Jungle Girl is a 1952 American adventure film directed by Ford Beebe and starring Johnny Sheffield  It is the eighth film (of 12) in the Bomba, the Jungle Boy film series 

Plot
Bomba decides to find out who his parents were  He starts with Cody Casson's diary and follows the trail to a native village  An ancient blind woman tells him his parents, along the village's true ruler, were murdered by the current chieftain and his daughter  With the aid of an inspector and his daughter, Bomba battles the usurpers in the cave where his parents were buried 

Cast
Johnny Sheffield as Bomba
Karen Sharpe as Linda Ward
Walter Sande as Mr  Ward
Suzette Harbin as Boru
Martin Wilkins as Chief Gamboso
Morris Buchanan as Kokoli
Leonard Mudie as Commissioner Barnes
Don Blackman as Boru's lieutenant
Passage 9:
George Blair (director)
George Blair  (December 6, 1905 – April 19, 1970) was an American film director who worked generally on supporting features including many B-Westerns  Two of his earliest films were British-set thriller films starring C  Aubrey Smith, made for Republic Pictures 

Selected filmography
Director

Secrets of Scotland Yard (1944)
A Sporting Chance (1945)
Scotland Yard Investigator (1945)
Gangs of the Waterfront (1945)
Affairs of Geraldine (1946)
That's My Gal (1947)
The Trespasser (1947)
Exposed (1947)
Madonna of the Desert (1948)
Lightnin' in the Forest (1948)
King of the Gamblers (1948)
Daredevils of the Clouds (1948)
Homicide for Three (1948)
Rose of the Yukon (1949)
Duke of Chicago (1949)
Streets of San Francisco (1949)
Under Mexicali Stars (1950)
Silver City Bonanza (1951)
Secrets of Monte Carlo (1951)
Desert Pursuit (1952)
Perils of the Jungle (1953)
Superman in Scotland Yard (1954)
Sabu and the Magic Ring (1957)
The Hypnotic Eye (1960)

TV series
Adventures of Superman (1953-1958, TV series, 27 episodes
Casey Jones (1957-1958, TV series, 23 episodes)
Highway Patrol (1957, TV series, 2 episodes)
Harbor Command (1958, TV series, 1 episode)
Tales of the Texas Rangers (1958, TV series, 7 episodes)
Death Valley Days (1959, TV series, 1 episode)
Lassie (1959–1960, TV series, 3 episodes)
Bonanza (1960, TV series, 1 episode)
Wanted: Dead or Alive (1960, TV series, 10 episodes)
Stagecoach West (1961, TV series, 2 episodes)
The Littlest Hobo (1963, TV series, 1 episode)
The Adventures of Superboy (1996, TV series)

TV shorts
Beach Patrol (1959, TV short)
The Adventures of Superboy (1961, TV short)

Bibliography
Richards, Jeffrey  Visions of Yesterday  Routledge, 1973 

External links
George Blair at IMDb
Passage 10:
Seven in the Sun
Seven in the Sun (Italian: Gli avventurieri dei Tropici) is a 1960 Italian adventure film written and directed  by Sergio Bergonzelli and starring Frank Latimore and Gianna Maria Canale 

Plot
Cast
Frank Latimore as Frank
Gianna Maria Canale as Libertà
Saro Urzì as  Fernand
John Kitzmiller as  Salvador
Marisa Belli as Jana
Marco Guglielmi
Eduardo Passarelli



ground_truth: Seven In The Sun

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which film has the director who died earlier, Il Gaucho or Bomgay?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Brian Kennedy (gallery director)
Brian Patrick Kennedy (born 5 November 1961) is an Irish-born art museum director who has worked in Ireland and Australia, and now lives and works in the United States   He was the director of the Peabody Essex Museum in Salem for 17 months, resigning December 31, 2020  He was the director of the Toledo Museum of Art in Ohio from 2010 to 2019  He was the director of the Hood Museum of Art from 2005 to 2010, and the National Gallery of Australia (Canberra) from 1997 to 2004 

Career
Brian Kennedy currently lives and works in the United States after leaving Australia in 2005 to direct the Hood Museum of Art at Dartmouth College  In October 2010 he became the ninth Director of the Toledo Museum of Art  On 1 July 2019, he succeeded Dan Monroe as the executive director and CEO of the Peabody Essex Museum 

Early life and career in Ireland
Kennedy was born in Dublin and attended Clonkeen College  He received B A  (1982), M A  (1985) and PhD (1989) degrees from University College-Dublin, where he studied both art history and history 
He worked in the Irish Department of Education (1982), the European Commission, Brussels (1983), and in Ireland at the Chester Beatty Library (1983–85), Government Publications Office (1985–86), and Department of Finance (1986–89)  He married Mary Fiona Carlin in 1988 He was Assistant Director at the National Gallery of Ireland in Dublin from 1989 to 1997  He was Chair of the Irish Association of Art Historians from 1996 to 1997, and of the Council of Australian Art Museum Directors from 2001 to 2003  In September 1997 he became Director of the National Gallery of Australia 

National Gallery of Australia (NGA)
Kennedy expanded the traveling exhibitions and loans program throughout Australia, arranged for several major shows of Australian art abroad, increased the number of exhibitions at the museum itself and oversaw the development of an extensive multi-media site   Although he oversaw several years of the museum's highest ever annual visitation, he discontinued the emphasis of his predecessor, Betty Churcher, on showing "blockbuster" exhibitions 
During his directorship, the NGA gained government support for improving the building and significant private donations and corporate sponsorship  However, the initial design for the building proved controversial generating a public dispute with the original architect on moral rights grounds   As a result, the project was not delivered during Dr Kennedy's tenure, with a significantly altered design completed some years later   Private funding supported two acquisitions of British art, including David Hockney's A Bigger Grand Canyon in 1999, and Lucian Freud's After Cézanne in 2001  Kennedy built on the established collections at the museum by acquiring the Holmgren-Spertus collection of Indonesian textiles; the Kenneth Tyler collection of editioned prints, screens, multiples and unique proofs; and the Australian Print Workshop Archive  He was also notable for campaigning for the construction of a new "front" entrance to the Gallery, facing King Edward Terrace, which was completed in 2010 (see reference to the building project above) 
Kennedy's cancellation of the "Sensation exhibition" (scheduled at the NGA from 2 June 2000 to 13 August 2000) was controversial, and seen by some as censorship  He claimed that the decision was due to the exhibition being "too close to the market" implying that a national cultural institution cannot exhibit the private collection of a speculative art investor  However, there were other exhibitions at the NGA during his tenure, which could have raised similar concerns  The exhibition featured the privately owned Young British Artists works belonging to Charles Saatchi and attracted large attendances in London and Brooklyn  Its most controversial work was Chris Ofili's The Holy Virgin Mary, a painting which used elephant dung and was accused of being blasphemous  The then-mayor of New York, Rudolph Giuliani, campaigned against the exhibition, claiming it was "Catholic-bashing" and an "aggressive, vicious, disgusting attack on religion " In November 1999, Kennedy cancelled the exhibition and stated that the events in New York had "obscured discussion of the artistic merit of the works of art"  He has said that it "was the toughest decision of my professional life, so far "Kennedy was also repeatedly questioned on his management of a range of issues during the Australian Government's Senate Estimates process - particularly on the NGA's occupational health and safety record and concerns about the NGA's twenty-year-old air-conditioning system  The air-conditioning was finally renovated in 2003  Kennedy announced in 2002 that he would not seek extension of his contract beyond 2004, accepting a seven-year term as had his two predecessors He became a joint Irish-Australian citizen in 2003 

Toledo Museum of Art
The Toledo Museum of Art is known for its exceptional collections of European and American paintings and sculpture, glass, antiquities, artist books, Japanese prints and netsuke  The museum offers free admission and is recognized for its historical leadership in the field of art education   During his tenure, Kennedy has focused the museum's art education efforts on visual literacy, which he defines as "learning to read, understand and write visual language "   Initiatives have included baby and toddler tours, specialized training for all staff, docents, volunteers and the launch of a website, www vislit org  In November 2014, the museum hosted the International Visual Literacy Association (IVLA) conference, the first Museum to do so  Kennedy has been a frequent speaker on the topic, including 2010 and 2013 TEDx talks on visual and sensory literacy 
Kennedy has expressed an interest in expanding the museum's collection of contemporary art and art by indigenous peoples  Works by Frank Stella, Sean Scully, Jaume Plensa, Ravinder Reddy and Mary Sibande have been acquired   In addition, the museum has made major acquisitions of Old Master paintings by Frans Hals and Luca Giordano During his tenure the Toledo Museum of Art has announced the return of several objects from its collection due to claims the objects were stolen and/or illegally exported prior being sold to the museum   In 2011 a Meissen sweetmeat stand was returned to Germany followed by an Etruscan Kalpis or water jug to Italy (2013), an Indian sculpture of Ganesha (2014) and an astrological compendium to Germany in 2015 

Hood Museum of Art
Kennedy became Director of the Hood Museum of Art in July 2005  During his tenure, he implemented a series of large and small-scale exhibitions and oversaw the production of more than 20 publications to bring greater public attention to the museum's remarkable collections of the arts of America, Europe, Africa, Papua New Guinea and the Polar regions  At 70,000 objects, the Hood has one of the largest collections on any American college of university campus  The exhibition, Black Womanhood: Images, Icons, and Ideologies of the African Body, toured several US venues  Kennedy increased campus curricular use of works of art, with thousands of objects pulled from storage for classes annually  Numerous acquisitions were made with the museum's generous endowments, and he curated several exhibitions: including Wenda Gu: Forest of Stone Steles: Retranslation and Rewriting Tang Dynasty Poetry, Sean Scully: The Art of the Stripe, and Frank Stella: Irregular Polygons 

Publications
Kennedy has written or edited a number of books on art, including:

Alfred Chester Beatty and Ireland 1950-1968: A study in cultural politics, Glendale Press (1988), ISBN 978-0-907606-49-9
Dreams and responsibilities: The state and arts in independent Ireland, Arts Council of Ireland (1990), ISBN 978-0-906627-32-7
Jack B Yeats: Jack Butler Yeats, 1871-1957 (Lives of Irish Artists), Unipub (October 1991), ISBN 978-0-948524-24-0
The Anatomy Lesson: Art and Medicine (with Davis Coakley), National Gallery of Ireland (January 1992), ISBN 978-0-903162-65-4
Ireland: Art into History (with Raymond Gillespie), Roberts Rinehart Publishers (1994), ISBN 978-1-57098-005-3
Irish Painting, Roberts Rinehart Publishers (November 1997),  ISBN 978-1-86059-059-7
Sean Scully: The Art of the Stripe, Hood Museum of Art (October 2008), ISBN 978-0-944722-34-3
Frank Stella: Irregular Polygons, 1965-1966, Hood Museum of Art (October 2010), ISBN 978-0-944722-39-8

Honors and achievements
Kennedy was awarded the Australian Centenary Medal in 2001 for service to Australian Society and its art  He is a trustee and treasurer of the Association of Art Museum Directors, a peer reviewer for the American Association of Museums and a member of the International Association of Art Critics  In 2013 he was appointed inaugural eminent professor at the University of Toledo and received an honorary doctorate from Lourdes University  Most recently, Kennedy received the 2014 Northwest Region, Ohio Art Education Association award for distinguished educator for art education 


== Notes ==
Passage 2:
G  Marthandan
G  Marthandan is an Indian film director who works in Malayalam cinema  His debut film is Daivathinte Swantham Cleetus

Early life
G  Marthandan was born to M  S  Gopalan Nair and P  Kamalamma at Changanassery in Kottayam district of Kerala  He did his schooling at NSS Boys School Changanassery and completed his bachelor's degree in Economics at NSS Hindu College, Changanassery 

Career
After completing his bachelor's degree, Marthandan entered films as an associate director with the unreleased film Swarnachamaram directed by Rajeevnath in 1995  His next work was British Market, directed by Nissar in 1998  He worked as an associate director for 18 years He made his directional debut with Daivathinte Swantham Cleetus in 2013, starring Mammooty in the lead role  His next movie was in 2015, Acha Dhin, with Mammooty and Mansi Sharma in the lead roles  Daivathinte Swantham Cleetus and Paavada were box office successes 

Filmography
As director
As associate director
As actor
TV serialKanyadanam (Malayalam TV series) - pilot episode

Awards
Ramu Kariat Film Award - Paavada (2016)
JCI Foundation Award - Daivathinte Swantham Cleetus (2013)
Passage 3:
Riyad Vinci Wadia
Riyad Vinci Wadia (19 September 1967 – 30 November 2003) was an Indian independent filmmaker from Bombay, known for his short film, BOMgAY (1996), possibly the very first gay themed movie from India  Born into the filmmaking Wadia family, he inherited the production company Wadia Movietone which is known for the Fearless Nadia movies which are one of their kind in the superwoman and stunt genre when other movies of their time usually portrayed women in submissive roles   Wadia is also known for his award-winning documentary on Nadia, Fearless: The Hunterwali Story (1993), which was written about in Time magazine and made a name for Riyad at the very outset of his brief but impactful career 

Personal life
Riyad was born in Bombay to Nargis and Vinci Wadia, son of the legendary filmmaker JBH Wadia who was one of the founding fathers of stunt films and mythological films in India  The latter's production firm, Wadia Movietone, which Riyad would later inherit, launched into the Indian film industry (later known as Bollywood) the Australian actress Mary Evans who was known popularly as 'Fearless Nadia'  Riyad did his schooling at Bombay International School, briefly attended St  Xavier's College, and later went to Australia to the Charles Sturt Film School in Wagga Wagga  Riyad was openly gay, and BOMgAY was India's first overtly gay-themed film 

Recognition
Nicknamed as 'The Turk' of the Indian Independent cinema, Riyad's films are still being referred to in many books about Bollywood, be it gay themes in Indian Cinema, or the ones about JBH Wadia and Fearless Nadia  His first documentary, Fearless : The Hunterwali Story, which is based on the life of Mary (aka Nadia) Wadia, got screened at over 50 international film festivals, such as The Berlin International Film Festival (1994) and The London Film Festival (1993)  The short film, BOMgAY, with shooting locations such as the gay cruising spots of the Victoria Terminus urinals and the Bombay local tracks along which people defecate, was described as "part Bollywood, part Genet"  The film, based on the gay-themed poetry of the Poona-based R  Raj Rao, explored the underground gay subculture of Bombay and marked the entry of queer themes into Indian Cinema  The film had a limited release in India, thanks to its explicit content  It got screened at a number of international film festivals and finds mention in the research works on the history of queer themes in Indian Cinema as the first queer themed film from India An award has been instituted in his memory by his mother and brother at the KASHISH Mumbai International Queer Film Festival and awarded every year since 2011  The Riyad Wadia Award for Best Emerging Indian Filmmaker is given to first or second time filmmaker whose LGBTQ+ short film is being screened at the festival 

Final years
Riyad tested positive for HIV in 1995  Though he was quite capable of affording the then expensive HIV medication, he refused to be on any kind of dosage  He left India shortly after the production of BOMgAY, supporting himself with petty jobs in New York and writing a regular column for The New Indian Express  Things got difficult post 9/11, with not many jobs available, forcing him to get back to Bombay  Riyad was lost to stomach tuberculosis on 30 November 2003, in Bombay  At the time of his death, he was in the process of generating funds for his supposed first full-length film (unfinished), Naked Rain, based on R  Raj Rao's novel, Boyfriend   "He made a very important contribution to the gay cause and was one of the central figures to begin the broad-basing of the gay movement in India," says gay activist Ashok Row Kavi  The Riyad Wadia Award for Best Emerging Indian Filmmaker was instituted with funding from Wadia Movietone (through Riyad's brother Roy) in 2011 by Kashish, the noted international queer film festival held annually in Bombay 

Works
Films
Fearless : The Hunterwali Story (1993)
Bomgay (1996)
A Mermaid called Aida (1996)
Writings
Long Life of a Short Film: The Making of BOMgAY
Wadia also wrote columns for The New Indian Express 
Passage 4:
Abhishek Saxena
Abhishek Saxena is an Indian Bollywood and Punjabi film director who directed the movie Phullu  The Phullu movie was released in theaters on 16 June 2017, in which film Sharib Hashmi is the lead role  Apart from these, he has also directed Patiala Dreamz, this is a Punjabi film  This film was screened in cinemas in 2014 

Life and background
Abhishek Saxena was born on 19 September 1988 in the capital of India, Delhi, whose father's name is Mukesh Kumar Saxena  Abhishek Saxena married Ambica Sharma Saxena on 18 December 2014  His mother's name is Gurpreet Kaur Saxena 
Saxena started his career with a Punjabi film Patiala Dreamz, after which he has also directed a Hindi film Phullu, which has appeared in Indian cinemas on 16 June 2017 

Career
Abhishek Saxena made his film debut in 2011 as an assistant director on Doordarshan with Ashok Gaikwad  He made his first directed film Patiala Dreamz, this is a Punjabi movie After this, he has also directed a Hindi film Phullu in 2017, which has been screened in cinemas on 16 June 2017  Saxena is now making his upcoming movie "India Gate" 
In 2018 Abhishek Saxena has come up with topic of body-shaming in his upcoming movie Saroj ka Rishta 
 Where Sanah Kapoor will play the role of Saroj and actors Randeep Rai and Gaurav Pandey will play the two men in Saroj's life Yeh Un Dinon ki Baat Hai lead Randeep Rai will make his Bollywood debut  Talking about the film, director Abhishek Saxena told Mumbai Mirror, "As a fat person, I have noticed that body-shaming doesn’t happen only with those who are on the heavier side, but also with thin people  The idea germinated from there "
Career as an Assistant DirectorApart from this, he has played the role of assistant director in many films and serials in the beginning of his career, in which he has a television serial in 2011, Doordarshan, as well as in 2011, he also assisted in a serial of Star Plus 
In addition to these serials, he played the role of assistant director in the movie "Girgit" which was made in Telugu language 

Filmography
As Director
Passage 5:
Dino Risi
Dino Risi (23 December 1916 – 7 June 2008) was an Italian film director  With Mario Monicelli, Luigi Comencini, Nanni Loy and Ettore Scola, he was one of the masters of commedia all'italiana 

Biography
Risi was born in Milan  He had an older brother, Fernando, a cinematographer, and a younger brother, Nelo (1920–2015), a director and writer  At the age of twelve, Risi became an orphan and was looked after by relatives and friends of his family  He studied medicine but refused to become a psychiatrist, as his parents wishedRisi started his career in cinema as an assistant director to cinema figures such as Mario Soldati and Alberto Lattuada  Later he began directing his own films and was credited with giving early opportunities to future acting stars such as Sophia Loren and Vittorio Gassman  His 1966 film Treasure of San Gennaro was entered into the 5th Moscow International Film Festival where it won a Silver Prize His biggest hits were Poor, But Handsome (Poveri ma belli), followed by two sequels, which he also directed; A Difficult Life (Una vita difficile); The Easy Life (Il sorpasso); Opiate '67 or, in a cut version, 15 From Rome (I Mostri); and Scent of a Woman (Profumo di Donna), which was remade by Martin Brest starring Al Pacino in 1992 In 2002, he was awarded the Golden Lion – Honorary Award (Leone d'oro alla carriera) at the Venice Film Festival for his life-time work  Two of his films, Il giovedì and Il commissario Lo Gatto, were shown in a retrospective section on Italian comedy at the 67th Venice International Film Festival He died on 7 June 2008 at his residence in Rome  He was 91 and was survived by two children, Claudio Risi (1948–2020) and Marco Risi (1951), both film directors 

Filmography
Passage 6:
Ben Palmer
Ben Palmer (born 1976) is a British film and television director 
His television credits include the Channel 4 sketch show Bo' Selecta! (2002–2006), the second and third series of the E4 sitcom The Inbetweeners (2009–2010) and the Sky Atlantic comedy-drama Breeders (2020)  Palmer has also directed films such as the Inbetweeners spin-off, The Inbetweeners Movie (2011) and the romantic comedy Man Up (2015) 

Biography
Palmer was born and raised in Penny Bridge, Barrow-in-Furness  He attended Chetwynde School His first directing job was the Channel 4 sketch show Bo' Selecta!, which he co-developed with its main star, Leigh Francis  Palmer directed the second and third series of the E4 sitcom The Inbetweeners in 2009 and 2010, respectively 

Filmography
Bo' Selecta! (2002–06)
Comedy Lab (2004–2010)
Bo! in the USA (2006)
The Inbetweeners (2009–2010)
The Inbetweeners Movie (2011)
Comedy Showcase (2012)
Milton Jones's House of Rooms (2012)
Them from That Thing (2012)
Bad Sugar (2012)
Chickens (2013)
London Irish (2013)
Man Up (2015)
SunTrap (2015)
BBC Comedy Feeds (2016)
Nigel Farage Gets His Life Back (2016)
Back (2017)
Comedy Playhouse (2017)
Urban Myths (2017–19)
Click & Collect (2018)
Semi-Detached (2019)
Breeders (2020)
Passage 7:
Bomgay
Bomgay is a 1996 Indian anthology of short films directed by Riyad Vinci Wadia and Jangu Sethna  The film stars Kushal Punjabi and Rahul Bose with music by Ashutosh Phatak  It is often regarded as India's first gay film and is known for its  gay sex scene in a library  Bomgay consists of six segments, each based on a poem by Indian writer R  Raj Rao 

Segments
"Opinions"
"Underground"
"Lefty"
"E unema no"
"Bomgay"
"Friends"

Cast
Rahul Bose as The Lefty
Kushal Punjabi as The Sodomiser
Tarun Shahani as Enema Boy
R  Raj Rao as The Opinionated
Farud Cambata as Bombay Dost
Freddy Firoze as Muthree Rani
Eric Rosenbaumm as Sex Tourist

Production
In 1995 Riyad Vinci Wadia, having released his debut film Fearless, decided to make a film based on gay culture in Bombay  He read R  Raj Rao's poetry collection One Day I Locked My Flat in Soul City and invited him to collaborate on a film script with him  It was difficult to find funding for the film in India, so the project was temporarily put on hold until Wadia read Rao's newest work, a collection of poems called "Bomgay"  He decided to make a low-budget short film based on the poems  As "Bomgay" had a limited budget of Rs  500,000, Wadia planned to use friends from the gay community to help keep costs down  He discovered that this was difficult as people were afraid of being outed if they worked on the film, so he enlisted the help of his friends from the Bombay advertising industry instead  Wadia secured Rahul Bose for the lead role  The film was shot in Bombay with scenes taking place in railroad cars shot guerrilla style  In order to shoot footage of a gay sex scene, the crew pretended that they were making a public service film on ragging  The film was not released commercially in India as Wadia did not submit it to the Censor Board, believing that they would refuse it a certificate 
Passage 8:
Drew Esocoff
Drew Esocoff (born c  1957) is an American television sports director, who as of 2006 has been the director of NBC Sunday Night Football 

Early life
Esocoff was born in Elizabeth, New Jersey, graduating from Thomas Jefferson High School in 1975, later attending Colgate University  While in college he worked as a substitute teacher at Elizabeth High School where one of his students was Todd Bowles 

Career
Esocoff has worked for ESPN and ABC, serving as director for Monday Night Football, SportsCenter, and the NBA Finals, as well as five Super Bowls  Since 2006, he has served as director for NBC Sunday Night Football 
As of 2015, Esocoff has won 11 Emmy Awards 
Passage 9:
Elliot Silverstein
Elliot Silverstein (born August 3, 1927) is a retired American film and television director  He directed the Academy Award-winning western comedy Cat Ballou (1965), and other films including The Happening (1967), A Man Called Horse (1970), Nightmare Honeymoon (1974), and The Car (1977)  His television work includes four episodes of The Twilight Zone (1961–1964) 

Career
Elliot Silverstein was the director of six feature films in the mid-twentieth century  The most famous of these by far is Cat Ballou, a comedy-western starring Jane Fonda and Lee Marvin 
The other Silverstein films, in chronological order, are The Happening, A Man Called Horse,  Nightmare Honeymoon, The Car, and Flashfire 
Other work included directing for the television shows The Twilight Zone, The Nurses, Picket Fences, and Tales from the Crypt 
While Silverstein was not a prolific director, his films were often decorated  Cat Ballou, for instance, earned one Oscar and was nominated for four more  His high quality work was rewarded in 1990 with a Lifetime Achievement Award by the Directors Guild of America 

Awards
In 1965, at the 15th Berlin International Film Festival, he won the Youth Film Award – Honorable Mention, in the category of Best Feature Film Suitable for Young People for Cat Ballou 
He was also nominated for the Golden Berlin Bear In 1966, he was nominated for the DGA Award in the category for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures (Cat Ballou) 
In 1971, he won the Bronze Wrangler award at the Western Heritage Awards in the category of Theatrical Motion Picture for A Man Called Horse, along with producer Sandy Howard, writer Jack DeWitt, and actors Judith Anderson, Jean Gascon, Corinna Tsopei and Richard Harris In 1985, he won the Robert B  Aldrich Achievement Award from the Directors Guild of America 
In 1990, he was awarded the DGA Honorary Life Member Award 

Personal life
Silverstein has been married three times, each ending in divorce  His first marriage was to Evelyn Ward in 1962; the couple divorced in 1968  His second marriage was to Alana King  During his first marriage, he was the step-father of David Cassidy 
He currently lives in North Hollywood, Los Angeles  Actively retired, Silverstein has taught film at USC and continues to work on screen plays and other projects 

Filmography
Tales from the Crypt (TV Series) (1991–94)
Picket Fences (TV Series) (1993)
Rich Men, Single Women (TV Movie) (1990)
Fight for Life (TV Movie) (1987)
Night of Courage (TV Movie) (1987)
Betrayed by Innocence (TV Movie) (1986)
The Firm (TV Series) (1982–1983)
The Car (1977)
Nightmare Honeymoon (1974)
A Man Called Horse (1970)
The Happening (1967)
Cat Ballou (1965)
Kraft Suspense Theatre (TV Series) (1963–64)
The Defenders (TV Series) (1962–64)
Arrest and Trial (TV Series) (1964)
The Doctors and the Nurses (TV Series) (1962–64)
Twilight Zone (TV Series) (1961–64)
Breaking Point (TV Series) (1963)
Dr  Kildare (TV Series) (1961–63)
The Dick Powell Theatre (TV Series) (1962)
Belle Sommers (TV Movie) (1962)
Naked City (TV Series) (1961–62)
Have Gun - Will Travel (TV Series) (1961)
Route 66 (TV Series) (1960–61)
Checkmate (TV Series) (1961)
The Westerner (TV Series) (1960)
Assignment: Underwater (TV Series) (1960)
Black Saddle (TV Series) (1960)
Suspicion (TV Series) (1958)
Omnibus (TV Series) (1954–56)
Passage 10:
Il Gaucho
Il Gaucho (internationally released as The Gaucho) is a  1964 Italian comedy film directed by Dino Risi  It was co-produced by Clemente Lococo, an Argentinian production company, and in Argentina it was released as Un italiano en la Argentina  For his role in this film Nino Manfredi won a Grolla d'oro for best actor 

Cast
Vittorio Gassman as Marco Ravicchio
Amedeo Nazzari as Ingegnere Marucchelli
Nelly Panizza as Ines Marucchelli
Jorgelina Aranda: Italia Marucchelli
Umberto D'Orsi as Gianni Pertini
Maria Grazia Buccella as Mara
Annie Gorassini as Lorella
Guido Gorgatti as Giulio
Norberto Sánchez Calleja as Cecilio
Maria Fiore as Maria
Francesco Mulè as Fiorini
Nora Cárpena as Lida
Nino Manfredi as Stefano
Silvana Pampanini as Luciana
Nando Angelini as Aldo
Nelly Tesolín as Prostitute
Aldo Vianello
Vicky Astori
Amparito Castro
Mario Mario
José Del Vecchio
Rafael Diserio
Carmen Pericolo
Context 3: Passage 1:
Elizabeth of Carinthia, Queen of Germany
Elisabeth of Carinthia (also known as Elisabeth of Tyrol; c  1262 – 28 October 1312), was a Duchess of Austria from 1282 and Queen of the Romans from 1298 until 1308, by marriage to King Albert I of Habsburg 

Life
Born in Munich, Bavaria, Elisabeth was the eldest daughter of Count Meinhard of Gorizia-Tyrol, and Elizabeth of Bavaria, Queen of Germany, widow of the late Hohenstaufen King Conrad IV of Germany  
Elizabeth thus was a half-sister of Conradin, King of Jerusalem and Duke of Swabia  Elizabeth was in fact better connected to powerful German rulers than her future husband: a descendant of earlier monarchs, for example Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, she was also a niece of the Bavarian dukes, Austria's important neighbors 

Duchess and Queen
Elisabeth was married in Vienna on 20 December 1274 to Count Albert I of Habsburg, eldest son and heir of the newly elected Rudolf I, King of the Romans, thus becoming daughter-in-law of the King of the Romans and Emperor-to-be  After Rudolf had defeated his rival King Ottokar II of Bohemia in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld, he invested his son Albert with the duchies of Austria and Styria at the Imperial Diet in Augsburg on 17 December 1282 Albert initially had to share the rule with his younger brother Rudolf II, who nevertheless had to waive his rights according to the Treaty of Rheinfelden the next year  Duke Albert and Elizabeth solidified their rule in what was to become the Habsburg "hereditary lands", also with the help of Elizabeth's father Meinhard, who in his turn was created Duke of Carinthia by King Rudolf I in 1286 Elizabeth was described as shrewd and enterprising, in possession of some commercial talents  The construction of the Saline plant in Salzkammergut goes back to her suggestion  
Upon the death of Albert's father in 1291, the princes elected Count Adolf of Nassau German king, while Duke Albert himself became entangled in internal struggles with the Austrian nobility  Not until Adolf's deposition in 1298, Elizabeth's husband was finally elected King of the Romans on 23 June 1298  Two weeks later, Adolf was defeated and killed in the Battle of Göllheim  In 1299, Elizabeth was crowned Queen of the Romans in Nuremberg 

Later life
On 1 May 1308 her husband was murdered by his nephew John "the Parricide" near Windisch, Swabia (in modern-day Switzerland)  After Albert's assassination, Elizabeth had the Poor Clare monastery of Königsfelden erected at the site, where she died on 28 October 1312 and was also buried  Today her mortal remains rest at Saint Paul's Abbey in Carinthia 

Issue
Elizabeth's and Albert's children were:

Anna (1275, Vienna – 19 March 1327, Breslau) 
married in Graz ca  1295 to Margrave Herman, Margrave of Brandenburg-Salzwedel (ca  1275 – 1308);
married in Breslau 1310 to Duke Heinrich VI of Breslau (1294-1335) 
Agnes (18 May 1281 – 10 June 1364, Königsfelden)
married in Vienna on 13 February 1296 to King Andrew III of Hungary (ca  1265-1301) 
Rudolf III (ca  1282 – 4 July 1307), married but line extinct  He predeceased his father 
married on 25 May 1300 to Duchess Blanche of France (ca  1282 – 1305);
married in Prague on 16 October 1306 to Elizabeth Richeza of Poland (1288 – 1335) 
Elisabeth (1285 – 19 May 1353) 
married in 1304 to Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (1282 – 1328) 
Frederick I (1289 – 13 January 1330) 
married on 11 May 1315 to Isabella of Aragon, Queen of Germany (1305 – 1330) but line extinct 
Leopold I (4 August 1290 – 28 February 1326, Strassburg) 
married in 1315 to Catherine of Savoy (1284 – 1336) 
Catherine (1295 – 18 January 1323, Naples) 
married in 1316 to Charles, Duke of Calabria (1328 – 1298) 
Albert II (12 December 1298, Vienna – 20 July 1358, Vienna) 
married in Vienna on 15 February 1324 to Joanna of Pfirt (ca  1300 – 1351) 
Henry the Gentle (1299 – 3 February 1327, Bruck an der Mur) 
married Countess Elizabeth of Virneburg but line extinct 
Meinhard (1300 – 1301) 
Otto (23 July 1301, Vienna – 26 February 1339, Vienna) 
married on 15 May 1325 to Elizabeth of Bavaria, Duchess of Austria (ca  1306 – 1330);
married on 16 February 1335 to Anne of Bohemia, Duchess of Austria (1323 – 1338) 
Jutta (1302 – 5 March 1329) 
married in Baden 26 March 1319 to Count Ludwig VI of Öttingen 
Passage 2:
John de Bohun, 5th Earl of Hereford
John de Bohun, 5th Earl of Hereford (23 November 1306 – 20 January 1336) was born in St Clement's, Oxford to Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford and Elizabeth of Rhuddlan, a daughter of Edward I of England 
After his father's death at the Battle of Boroughbridge, the family lands were forfeited  It was not until after the fall of the Despensers that John was permitted to succeed to his inherited position as Earl of Hereford and Essex, hereditary Constable of England, and Lord of Brecknock 

Marriages
He married firstly, in 1325, to Alice FitzAlan (died 1326), daughter of Edmund FitzAlan, 2nd Earl of Arundel, and secondly to Margaret Basset (died 1355)  After the marriage, it was discovered that the couple were related to the fourth degree of consanguinity and they were forced to live apart  An appeal to Pope John XXII resulted on 19 February 1331 in a papal commission to the bishops of Lichfield and London to hold an enquiry into the case  However, Roger Northburgh, the Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, failed to act and the case was still pending when the Pope issued a further demand for an enquiry in 1334 

Death
He did not play much of a public role, despite his high titles and offices, most likely because he had some sort of incapacity  His younger brothers were often deputed to fulfil his duties as Constable  He died at Kirkby Thore, Westmorland and was interred in Stratford Langthorne Abbey, London 


== Notes ==
Passage 3:
Edward I of England
Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307  Concurrently, he was Lord of Ireland, and from 1254 to 1306, he ruled Gascony as Duke of Aquitaine in his capacity as a vassal of the French king  Before his accession to the throne, he was commonly referred to as the Lord Edward  The eldest son of Henry III, Edward was involved from an early age in the political intrigues of his father's reign  In 1259, he briefly sided with a baronial reform movement, supporting the Provisions of Oxford  After reconciliation with his father, he remained loyal throughout the subsequent armed conflict, known as the Second Barons' War  After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was held hostage by the rebellious barons, but escaped after a few months and defeated the baronial leader Simon de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham in 1265  Within two years the rebellion was extinguished and, with England pacified, Edward left to join the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1270  He was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed of his father's death  Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster Abbey 
Edward spent much of his reign reforming royal administration and common law  Through an extensive legal inquiry, he investigated the tenure of several feudal liberties  The law was reformed through a series of statutes regulating criminal and property law, but the King's attention was increasingly drawn toward military affairs  After suppressing a minor conflict in Wales in 1276–77, Edward responded to a second one in 1282–83 by conquering Wales  He then established English rule, built castles and towns in the countryside and settled them with English people  After the death of the heir to the Scottish throne, Edward was invited to arbitrate a succession dispute  He claimed feudal suzerainty over Scotland and invaded the country, and the ensuing First Scottish War of Independence continued after his death  Simultaneously, Edward found himself at war with France (a Scottish ally) after King Philip IV confiscated the Duchy of Gascony  The duchy was eventually recovered but the conflict relieved English military pressure against Scotland  By the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation and this met with both lay and ecclesiastical opposition  When the King died in 1307, he left to his son Edward II a war with Scotland and other financial and political burdens 
Edward's temperamental nature and height made him an intimidating figure and he often instilled fear in his contemporaries, although he held the respect of his subjects for the way he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship as a soldier, an administrator and a man of faith  Modern historians are divided in their assessment of Edward; some have praised him for his contribution to the law and administration, but others have criticised his uncompromising attitude towards his nobility  Edward is credited with many accomplishments, including restoring royal authority after the reign of Henry III and establishing Parliament as a permanent institution, which allowed for a functional system for raising taxes and reforming the law through statutes  At the same time, he is also often condemned for his wars against Scotland and for expelling the Jews from England in 1290 

Early years, 1239–1263
Childhood and marriage
Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on the night of 17–18 June 1239, to King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence  Edward, an Anglo-Saxon name, was not commonly given among the aristocracy of England after the Norman conquest, but Henry was devoted to the veneration of Edward the Confessor and decided to name his firstborn son after the saint  Edward's birth was widely celebrated at the royal court and throughout England, and he was baptised three days later at Westminster Abbey  He was commonly referred to as the Lord Edward until his accession to the throne in 1272  Among his childhood friends was his cousin Henry of Almain, son of King Henry's brother Richard of Cornwall  Henry of Almain remained a close companion of the prince for the rest of his life  Edward was placed in the care of Hugh Giffard – father of the future Chancellor Godfrey Giffard – until Bartholomew Pecche took over at Giffard's death in 1246  Edward received an education typical of an aristocratic boy his age, including in military studies, although the details of his upbringing are unknown There were concerns about Edward's health as a child, and he fell ill in 1246, 1247, and 1251  Nonetheless, he grew up to become a strong, athletic, and imposing man  At 6 ft 2 in (188 cm) he towered over most of his contemporaries, hence his epithet "Longshanks", meaning "long legs" or "long shins"  The historian Michael Prestwich states that his "long arms gave him an advantage as a swordsman, long thighs one as a horseman  In youth, his curly hair was blond; in maturity it darkened, and in old age it turned white  The regularity of his features was marred by a drooping left eyelid     His speech, despite a lisp, was said to be persuasive "In 1254, English fears of a Castilian invasion of the English-held province of Gascony induced King Henry to arrange a politically expedient marriage between fifteen-year-old Edward and thirteen-year-old Eleanor, the half-sister of King Alfonso X of Castile  They were married on 1 November 1254 in the Abbey of Santa María la Real de Las Huelgas in Castile  As part of the marriage agreement, Alfonso X gave up his claims to Gascony, and Edward received grants of land worth 15,000 marks a year  The marriage eventually led to the English acquisition of Ponthieu in 1279 upon Eleanor's inheritance of the county  Henry made sizeable endowments to Edward in 1254, including Gascony; most of Ireland, which was granted to Edward with the stipulation that it would never be separated from the English crown; and much land in Wales and England, including the Earldom of Chester  They offered Edward little independence for Henry retained much control over the land in question, particularly in Ireland, and benefited from most of the income from those lands  Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester had been appointed as royal lieutenant of Gascony the year before and drew its income, so in practice Edward derived neither authority nor revenue from this province  Around the end of November, Edward and Eleanor left Castile and entered Gascony, where they were warmly received by the populace  Here, Edward styled himself as "ruling Gascony as prince and lord", a move that the historian J  S  Hamilton states was a show of his blooming political independence From 1254 to 1257, Edward was under the influence of his mother's relatives, known as the Savoyards, the most notable of whom was Peter II of Savoy, the Queen's uncle  After 1257, Edward became increasingly close to the Lusignan faction – the half-brothers of his father Henry III – led by such men as William de Valence  This association was significant because the two groups of privileged foreigners were resented by the established English aristocracy, who would be at the centre of the ensuing years' baronial reform movement  Edward's ties to his Lusignan kinsmen were viewed unfavourably by contemporaries, including the chronicler Matthew Paris, who circulated tales of unruly and violent conduct by Edward's inner circle, which raised questions about his personal qualities 

Early ambitions
Edward showed independence in political matters as early as 1255, when he sided with the Soler family in Gascony in their conflict with the Colomb family  This ran contrary to his father's policy of mediation between the local factions  In May 1258, a group of magnates drew up a document for reform of the King's government – the so-called Provisions of Oxford – largely directed against the Lusignans  Edward stood by his political allies and strongly opposed the Provisions  The reform movement succeeded in limiting the Lusignan influence, and Edward's attitude gradually changed  In March 1259, he entered into a formal alliance with one of the main reformers, Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Gloucester and on 15 October announced that he supported the barons' goals, and their leader, the Earl of Leicester The motive behind Edward's change of heart could have been purely pragmatic: the Earl of Leicester was in a good position to support his cause in Gascony  When the King left for France in November, Edward's behaviour turned into pure insubordination  He made several appointments to advance the cause of the reformers, and his father believed that Edward was considering a coup d'état  When Henry returned from France, he initially refused to see his son, but through the mediation of Richard of Cornwall and Boniface, Archbishop of Canterbury, the two were eventually reconciled  Edward was sent abroad to France, and in November 1260 he again united with the Lusignans, who had been exiled there Back in England, early in 1262, Edward fell out with some of his former Lusignan allies over financial matters  The next year, King Henry sent him on a campaign in Wales against the Welsh prince Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, but Edward's forces were besieged in northern Wales and achieved only limited results  Around the same time, Leicester, who had been out of the country since 1261, returned to England and reignited the baronial reform movement  As the King seemed ready to give in to the barons' demands, Edward began to take control of the situation  From his previously unpredictable and equivocating attitude, he changed to one of firm devotion to protection of his father's royal rights  He reunited with some of the men he had alienated the year before – including Henry of Almain and John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey – and retook Windsor Castle from the rebels  Through the arbitration of King Louis IX of France an agreement was made between the two parties  This Mise of Amiens was largely favourable to the royalist side and would cause further conflict 

Civil war and crusades, 1264–1273
Second Barons' War
The years 1264–1267 saw the conflict known as the Second Barons' War, in which baronial forces led by the Earl of Leicester fought against those who remained loyal to the King  Edward initiated the armed conflict by capturing the rebel-held city of Gloucester  When Robert de Ferrers, 6th Earl of Derby, came to the assistance of the baronial forces, Edward negotiated a truce with the Earl  Edward later broke the terms of the agreement  He then captured Northampton from Simon de Montfort the Younger before embarking on a retaliatory campaign against Derby's lands  The baronial and royalist forces met at the Battle of Lewes, on 14 May 1264  Edward, commanding the right wing, performed well, and soon defeated the London contingent of the Earl of Leicester's forces  Unwisely, he pursued the scattered enemy, and on his return found the rest of the royal army defeated  By the Mise of Lewes, Edward and his cousin Henry of Almain were given up as hostages to Leicester 
Edward remained in captivity until March 1265, and even after his release he was kept under strict surveillance  In Hereford, he escaped on 28 May while out riding and joined up with Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Gloucester, who had recently defected to the King's side  The Earl of Leicester's support was now dwindling, and Edward retook Worcester and Gloucester with little effort  Meanwhile, Leicester had made an alliance with Llywelyn and started moving east to join forces with his son Simon  Edward made a surprise attack at Kenilworth Castle, where the younger Montfort was quartered, before moving on to cut off the Earl of Leicester  The two forces then met at the Battle of Evesham, on 4 August 1265  The Earl of Leicester stood little chance against the superior royal forces, and after his defeat he was killed and mutilated on the field Through such episodes as the deception of Derby at Gloucester, Edward acquired a reputation as untrustworthy  During the summer campaign he began to learn from his mistakes and gained the respect and admiration of contemporaries through actions such as showing clemency towards his enemies  The war did not end with the Earl of Leicester's death, and Edward participated in the continued campaigning  At Christmas, he came to terms with Simon the Younger and his associates at the Isle of Axholme in Lincolnshire, and in March he led a successful assault on the Cinque Ports  A contingent of rebels held out in the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle and did not surrender until the drafting of the conciliatory Dictum of Kenilworth in October 1266  In April it seemed as if the Earl of Gloucester would take up the cause of the reform movement, and civil war would resume, but after a renegotiation of the terms of the Dictum of Kenilworth, the parties came to an agreement  Around this time, Edward was made steward of England and began to exercise influence in the government  He was also appointed Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports in 1265  Despite this, he was little involved in the settlement negotiations following the wars  His main focus was on planning his forthcoming crusade 

Crusade and accession
Edward pledged himself to undertake a crusade in an elaborate ceremony on 24 June 1268, with his brother Edmund Crouchback and cousin Henry of Almain  Some of Edward's former adversaries, such as John de Vescy and the 7th Earl of Gloucester, similarly committed themselves, although some, like Gloucester, did not ultimately participate  With the country pacified, the greatest impediment to the project was acquiring sufficient finances  King Louis IX of France, who was the leader of the crusade, provided a loan of about £17,500  This was not enough, and the rest had to be raised through a direct tax on the laity, which had not been levied since 1237  In May 1270, Parliament granted a tax of one-twentieth of all movable property; in exchange the King agreed to reconfirm the Magna Carta, and to impose restrictions on Jewish money lending  On 20 August Edward sailed from Dover for France  Historians have not determined the size of his accompanying force with any certainty, but it was probably fewer than 1000 men, including around 225 knights Originally, the Crusaders intended to relieve the beleaguered Christian stronghold of Acre in Palestine, but King Louis and his brother Charles of Anjou, the king of Sicily, decided to attack the emirate of Tunis to establish a stronghold in North Africa  The plans failed when the French forces were struck by an epidemic which, on 25 August, killed Louis himself  By the time Edward arrived at Tunis, Charles had already signed a treaty with the Emir, and there was little to do but return to Sicily  Further military action was postponed until the following spring, but a devastating storm off the coast of Sicily dissuaded both Charles and Philip III, Louis' successor, from any further campaigning  Edward decided to continue alone, and on 9 May 1271 he finally landed at Acre The Christian situation in the Holy Land was precarious  Jerusalem had been reconquered by the Muslims in 1244, and Acre was now the centre of the Kingdom of Jerusalem  The Muslim states were on the offensive under the Mamluk leadership of Baibars, and were threatening Acre  Though Edward's men were an important addition to the garrison, they stood little chance against Baibars' superior forces, and an initial raid at nearby St Georges-de-Lebeyne in June was largely futile  An embassy to the Ilkhan Abaqa of the Mongols helped bring about an attack on Aleppo in the north, which distracted Baibars' forces  The Mongol invasion ultimately failed  In November, Edward led a raid on Qaqun, which could have served as a bridgehead to Jerusalem, but this was unsuccessful  The situation in Acre grew desperate, and in May 1272 Hugh III of Cyprus, who was the nominal king of Jerusalem, signed a ten-year truce with Baibars  Edward was initially defiant, but in June 1272 he was the victim of an assassination attempt by a member of the Syrian Order of Assassins, supposedly ordered by Baibars  Although he managed to kill the assassin, he was struck in the arm by a dagger feared to be poisoned, and was severely weakened over the following months  This finally persuaded Edward to abandon the campaign It was not until 24 September 1272 that Edward left Acre  Shortly after arriving in Sicily, he was met with the news that his father had died on 16 November  Edward was deeply saddened by this news, but rather than hurrying home at once, he made a leisurely journey northwards  This was due partly to his still-poor health, but also to a lack of urgency  The political situation in England was stable after the mid-century upheavals, and Edward was proclaimed king after his father's death, rather than at his own coronation, as had until then been customary  In Edward's absence, the country was governed by a royal council, led by Robert Burnell  Edward passed through Italy and France, visiting Pope Gregory X and paying homage to Philip III in Paris for his French domains  Edward travelled by way of Savoy to receive homage from his uncle Count Philip I for castles in the Alps held by a treaty of 1246 Edward then journeyed to Gascony to order its affairs and put down a revolt headed by Gaston de Béarn  While there, he launched an investigation into his feudal possessions, which, as Hamilton puts it, reflects "Edward's keen interest in administrative efficiency     [and] reinforced Edward's position as lord in Aquitaine and strengthened the bonds of loyalty between the king-duke and his subjects"  Around the same time, the King organised political alliances with the kingdoms in Iberia  His four-year-old daughter Eleanor was promised in marriage to Alfonso, the heir to the Kingdom of Aragon, and Edward's heir Henry was betrothed to Joan, heiress to the Kingdom of Navarre  Neither union would come to fruition  Only on 2 August 1274 did Edward return to England, landing at Dover  The thirty-five-year-old king held his coronation on 19 August at Westminster Abbey, alongside Queen Eleanor  Immediately after being anointed and crowned by Robert Kilwardby, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Edward removed his crown, saying that he did not intend to wear it again until he had recovered all the crown lands that his father had surrendered during his reign 

Early reign, 1274–1296
Conquest of Wales
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd enjoyed an advantageous situation in the aftermath of the Barons' War  The 1267 Treaty of Montgomery recognised his ownership of land he had conquered in the Four Cantrefs of Perfeddwlad and his title of Prince of Wales  Armed conflicts nevertheless continued, in particular with certain dissatisfied Marcher Lords, such as the Earl of Gloucester, Roger Mortimer and Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford  Problems were exacerbated when Llywelyn's younger brother Dafydd and Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn of Powys, after failing in an assassination attempt against Llywelyn, defected to the English in 1274  Citing ongoing hostilities and Edward's harbouring of his enemies, Llywelyn refused to do homage to the King  For Edward, a further provocation came from Llywelyn's planned marriage to Eleanor, daughter of Simon de Montfort the Elder In November 1276, Edward declared war  Initial operations were launched under the captaincy of Mortimer, Edward's brother Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, and William de Beauchamp, 9th Earl of Warwick  Support for Llywelyn was weak among his own countrymen  In July 1277 Edward invaded with a force of 15,500, of whom 9,000 were Welshmen  The campaign never came to a major battle, and Llywelyn soon realised he had no choice but to surrender  By the Treaty of Aberconwy in November 1277, he was left only with the land of Gwynedd, though he was allowed to retain the title of Prince of Wales When war broke out again in 1282, it was an entirely different undertaking  For the Welsh, this war was over national identity, enjoying wide support, provoked particularly by attempts to impose English law on Welsh subjects  For Edward, it became a war of conquest rather than simply a punitive expedition, like the former campaign  The war started with a rebellion by Dafydd, who was discontented with the reward he had received from Edward in 1277  Llywelyn and other Welsh chieftains soon joined in, and initially the Welsh experienced military success  In June, Gloucester was defeated at the Battle of Llandeilo Fawr  On 6 November, while John Peckham, Archbishop of Canterbury, was conducting peace negotiations, Edward's commander of Anglesey, Luke de Tany, decided to carry out a surprise attack  A pontoon bridge had been built to the mainland, but shortly after Tany and his men crossed over, they were ambushed by the Welsh and suffered heavy losses at the Battle of Moel-y-don  The Welsh advances ended on 11 December, when Llywelyn was lured into a trap and killed at the Battle of Orewin Bridge  The conquest of Gwynedd was complete with the capture in June 1283 of Dafydd, who was taken to Shrewsbury and executed as a traitor the following autumn; Edward ordered Dafydd's head to be publicly exhibited on London Bridge  Further rebellions occurred in 1287–88 and, more seriously, in 1294, under the leadership of Madog ap Llywelyn, a distant relative of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd  This last conflict demanded the King's own attention, but in both cases the rebellions were put down 
By the 1284 Statute of Rhuddlan, the principality of Wales was incorporated into England and was given an administrative system like the English, with counties policed by sheriffs  English law was introduced in criminal cases, though the Welsh were allowed to maintain their own customary laws in some cases of property disputes  After 1277, and increasingly after 1283, Edward embarked on a project of English settlement of Wales, creating new towns like Flint, Aberystwyth and Rhuddlan  Their new residents were English migrants, the local Welsh being banned from living inside them, and many were protected by extensive walls An extensive project of castle-building was also initiated, under the direction of James of Saint George, a prestigious architect whom Edward had met in Savoy on his return from the crusade  These included the Beaumaris, Caernarfon, Conwy and Harlech castles, intended to act both as fortresses and royal palaces for the King  His programme of castle building in Wales heralded the introduction of the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern architectural influences  Also a product of the Crusades was the introduction of the concentric castle, and four of the eight castles Edward founded in Wales followed this design  The castles drew on imagery associated with the Byzantine Empire and King Arthur in an attempt to build legitimacy for his new regime, and they made a clear statement about Edward's intention to rule Wales permanently In 1284, King Edward had his son Edward (later Edward II) born at Caernarfon Castle, probably to make a deliberate statement about the new political order in Wales  David Powel, a 16th-century clergyman, suggested that the baby was offered to the Welsh as a prince "that was borne in Wales and could speake never a word of English", but there is no evidence to support this widely reported account  In 1301 at Lincoln, the young Edward became the first English prince to be invested with the title of Prince of Wales, when the King granted him the Earldom of Chester and lands across North Wales  The King seems to have hoped that this would help in the pacification of the region, and that it would give his son more financial independence 

Diplomacy and war on the Continent
Edward never again went on crusade after his return to England in 1274, but he maintained an intention to do so, and in 1287 took a vow to go on another Crusade  This intention guided much of his foreign policy, until at least 1291  To stage a European-wide crusade, it was essential to prevent conflict between the sovereigns on the Continent  A major obstacle to this was represented by the conflict between the French Capetian House of Anjou ruling southern Italy and the Kingdom of Aragon in Spain  In 1282, the citizens of Palermo rose up against Charles of Anjou and turned for help to Peter III of Aragon, in what has become known as the Sicilian Vespers  In the war that followed, Charles of Anjou's son, Charles of Salerno, was taken prisoner by the Aragonese  The French began planning an attack on Aragon, raising the prospect of a large-scale European war  To Edward, it was imperative that such a war be avoided, and in Paris in 1286 he brokered a truce between France and Aragon that helped secure Charles's release  As far as the crusades were concerned, Edward's efforts proved ineffective  A devastating blow to his plans came in 1291, when the Mamluks captured Acre, the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land Edward had long been deeply involved in the affairs of his own Duchy of Gascony  In 1278 he assigned an investigating commission to his trusted associates Otto de Grandson and the chancellor Robert Burnell, which caused the replacement of the seneschal Luke de Tany  In 1286, Edward visited the region himself and stayed for almost three years  The perennial problem was the status of Gascony within the Kingdom of France, and Edward's role as the French king's vassal  On his diplomatic mission in 1286, Edward had paid homage to the new king, Philip IV, but in 1294 Philip declared Gascony forfeit when Edward refused to appear before him in Paris to discuss the recent conflict between English, Gascon, and French sailors that had resulted in several French ships being captured, along with the sacking of the French port of La Rochelle Correspondence between Edward and the Mongol court of the east continued during this time  Diplomatic channels between the two had begun during Edward's time on crusade, regarding a possible alliance to retake the Holy Land for Europe  Edward received Mongol envoys at his court in Gascony while there in 1287, and one of their leaders, Rabban Bar Sauma, recorded an extant account of the interaction  Other embassies arrived in Europe in 1289 and 1290, the former relaying Ilkhan Abaqa's offer to join forces with the crusaders and supply them with horses  Edward responded favourably, declaring his intent to embark on a journey to the east once he obtained papal approval  Although this would not materialise, the King's decision to send Geoffrey of Langley as his ambassador to the Mongols revealed that he was seriously considering the prospective Mongol alliance Eleanor of Castile died on 28 November 1290  The couple loved each other, and like his father, Edward was very devoted to his wife and was faithful to her throughout their marriage  He was deeply affected by her death, and displayed his grief by erecting twelve so-called Eleanor crosses, one at each place where her funeral cortège stopped for the night  As part of the peace accord between England and France in 1294, it was agreed that Edward should marry Philip IV's half-sister Margaret, but the marriage was delayed by the outbreak of war  Edward made alliances with the German king, the counts of Flanders and Guelders, and the Burgundians, who would attack France from the north  The alliances proved volatile and Edward was facing trouble at home at the time, both in Wales and Scotland  It was not until August 1297 that he was finally able to sail for Flanders, at which time his allies there had already suffered defeat  The support from Germany never materialised, and Edward was forced to seek peace  His marriage to Margaret in 1299 ended the war, but the whole affair had proven both costly and fruitless for the English  French possession of Gascony would not end until 1303, at which point it was partially returned to the English crown 

Great Cause
The relationship between England and Scotland by the 1280s was one of relatively harmonious coexistence  The issue of homage did not reach the same level of controversy as it did in Wales; in 1278 King Alexander III of Scotland paid homage to Edward, who was his brother-in-law, but apparently only for the lands he held in England  Problems arose only with the Scottish succession crisis of the early 1290s  When Alexander died in 1286, he left as heir to the Scottish throne Margaret, his three-year-old granddaughter and sole surviving descendant  By the Treaty of Birgham, it was agreed that Margaret should marry King Edward's six-year-old son Edward of Carnarvon, though Scotland would remain free of English overlordship  Margaret, by now seven years of age, sailed from Norway for Scotland in the autumn of 1290, but fell ill on the way and died in Orkney  This left the country without an obvious heir, and led to the succession dispute known to history as the Great Cause Even though as many as fourteen claimants put forward their claims to the title, the foremost competitors were John Balliol and Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale  The Scottish magnates made a request to Edward to conduct the proceedings and administer the outcome, but not to arbitrate in the dispute  The actual decision would be made by 104 auditors – 40 appointed by Balliol, 40 by Brus and the remaining 24 selected by Edward from senior members of the Scottish political community  At Birgham, with the prospect of a personal union between the two realms, the question of suzerainty had not been of great importance to Edward  Now he insisted that, if he were to settle the contest, he had to be fully recognised as Scotland's feudal overlord  The Scots were reluctant to make such a concession, and replied that since the country had no king, no one had the authority to make this decision  This problem was circumvented when the competitors agreed that the realm would be handed over to Edward until a rightful heir had been found  After a lengthy hearing, a decision was made in favour of John Balliol on 17 November 1292 Even after Balliol's accession, Edward still continued to assert his authority over Scotland  Against the objections of the Scots, he agreed to hear appeals on cases ruled on by the court of guardians that had governed Scotland during the interregnum  A further provocation came in a case brought by Macduff, son of Malcolm II, Earl of Fife, in which Edward demanded that Balliol appear in person before the English Parliament to answer the charges  This the Scottish King did, but the final straw was Edward's demand that the Scottish magnates provide military service in the war against France  This was unacceptable; the Scots instead formed an alliance with France and launched an unsuccessful attack on Carlisle  Edward responded by invading Scotland in 1296 and taking the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed in a particularly bloody attack  At the Battle of Dunbar, Scottish resistance was effectively crushed  Edward confiscated the Stone of Destiny – the Scottish coronation stone – and brought it to Westminster, placing it in what became known as King Edward's Chair; he deposed Balliol and placed him in the Tower of London, and installed Englishmen to govern the country  The campaign had been very successful, but the English triumph would be only temporary 

Government and law
Character as king
Edward had a reputation for a fierce and sometimes unpredictable temper, and he could be intimidating; one story tells of how the Dean of St Paul's, wishing to confront Edward over the high level of taxation in 1295, fell down and died once he was in the King's presence, and one 14th-century chronicler attributed the death of Archbishop Thomas of York to the King's harsh conduct towards him  When Edward of Caernarfon demanded an earldom for his favourite Piers Gaveston, the King erupted in anger and supposedly tore out handfuls of his son's hair  Some of his contemporaries considered Edward frightening, particularly in his early days  The Song of Lewes in 1264 described him as a leopard, an animal regarded as particularly powerful and unpredictable  At times, Edward exhibited a gentler disposition, and was known to be devoted to his large family  He was close to his daughters, and frequently lavished expensive gifts on them whenever they visited court Despite his harsh disposition, Edward's contemporaries considered him an able, even an ideal, king  Though not loved by his subjects, he was feared and respected, as reflected in the fact that there were no armed rebellions in England during his reign  Edward met contemporary expectations of kingship in his role as an able, determined soldier and in his embodiment of shared chivalric ideals  In religious observance he also fulfilled the expectations of his age: he attended chapel regularly, gave alms generously and showed a fervent devotion to the Virgin Mary and Saint Thomas Becket  Like his father, Edward was a keen participant in the tradition of the royal touch, which had the supposed effect of curing those who were touched from scrofula  Contemporary records suggest that the King touched upwards of a thousand people each year  Despite his personal piety, Edward was frequently in conflict with the Archbishops of Canterbury who served during his reign  Relations with the Papacy were at times no better, Edward coming into conflict with Rome over the issue of ecclesiastical taxation Edward took a keen interest in the stories of King Arthur, which were highly popular in Europe during his reign  In 1278 he visited Glastonbury Abbey to open what was then believed to be the tomb of Arthur and Guinevere, recovering "Arthur's crown" from Llywelyn after the conquest of North Wales; his castle-building campaign in Wales drew upon the Arthurian myths in their design and location  He held "Round Table" events in 1284 and 1302, involving tournaments and feasting, and chroniclers compared him and the events at his court to Arthur  In some cases Edward appears to have used his interest in the Arthurian myths to serve his own political interests, including legitimising his rule in Wales and discrediting the Welsh belief that Arthur might return as their political saviour 

Administration and the law
Soon after assuming the throne, Edward set about restoring order and re-establishing royal authority after the troubled reign of his father  To accomplish this, he immediately ordered an extensive change of administrative personnel  The most important of these was the designation of Robert Burnell as chancellor in 1274, a man who would remain in the post until 1292 as one of the King's closest associates  The same year as Burnell's appointment, Edward replaced most local officials, such as the escheators and sheriffs  This last measure was taken in preparation for an extensive inquest covering all of England, that would hear complaints about abuse of power by royal officers  The second purpose of the inquest was to establish what land and rights the Crown had lost during the reign of Henry III The inquest produced a set of census documents called the Hundred Rolls  These have been likened to the 11th-century Domesday Book, and they formed the basis for the later legal inquiries called the Quo warranto proceedings  The purpose of these inquiries was to establish by what warrant (Latin: Quo warranto) liberties were held  If the defendant could not produce a royal licence to prove the grant of the liberty, then it was the Crown's opinion – based on the writings of the influential thirteenth-century legal scholar Henry de Bracton – that the liberty should revert to the King  Both the Statute of Westminster 1275 and Statute of Westminster 1285 codified the existing law in England  By enacting the Statute of Gloucester in 1278 the King challenged baronial rights through a revival of the system of general eyres (royal justices to go on tour throughout the land) and through a significant increase in the number of pleas of quo warranto to be heard by such eyres This caused great consternation among the aristocracy, who insisted that long use in itself constituted licence  A compromise was eventually reached in 1290, whereby a liberty was considered legitimate as long as it could be shown to have been exercised since the coronation of Richard the Lionheart in 1189  Royal gains from the Quo warranto proceedings were insignificant as few liberties were returned to the King, but he had nevertheless won a significant victory by establishing the principle that all liberties emanated from the Crown The 1290 statute of Quo warranto was only one part of a wider legislative reform, which was one of the most important contributions of Edward's reign  This era of legislative action had started already at the time of the baronial reform movement; the Statute of Marlborough (1267) contained elements both of the Provisions of Oxford and the Dictum of Kenilworth  The compilation of the Hundred Rolls was followed shortly after by the issue of Westminster I (1275), which asserted the royal prerogative and outlined restrictions on liberties  The Statutes of Mortmain (1279) addressed the issue of land grants to the Church  The first clause of Westminster II (1285), known as De donis conditionalibus, dealt with family settlement of land, and entails  The Statute of Merchants (1285) established firm rules for the recovery of debts, and the Statute of Winchester (1285) dealt with security and peacekeeping on a local level by bolstering the existing police system  Quia emptores (1290) – issued along with Quo warranto – set out to remedy land ownership disputes resulting from alienation of land by subinfeudation  The age of the great statutes largely ended with the death of Robert Burnell in 1292 

Finances, the expulsion of Jews, and Parliament
Edward's reign saw an overhaul of the coinage system, which was in a poor state by 1279  Compared to the coinage already circulating at the time of Edward's accession, the new coins issued proved to be of superior quality  In addition to minting pennies, halfpences and farthings, a new denomination called the groat (which proved to be unsuccessful) was introduced  The coinmaking process itself was also improved  The moneyer William Turnemire introduced a novel method of minting coins that involved cutting blank coins from a silver rod, in contrast with the old practice of stamping them out from sheets; this technique proved to be efficient  The practice of minting coins with the moneyer's name on them became obsolete under Edward's rule because England's mint administration became far more centralised under the Crown's authority  During this time, English coins were frequently counterfeited on the Continent, especially the Low Countries, and despite a ban in 1283, English coinage was secretly exported to the European continent  In August 1280, Edward forbade the usage of the old long cross coinage, which forced the populace to switch to the newly minted versions  Records indicate that the coinage overhaul successfully provided England with a stable currency 
Edward's frequent military campaigns put a great financial strain on the nation  There were several ways through which the King could raise money for war, including customs duties, money borrowing and lay subsidies, which were taxes collected at a certain fraction of the moveable property of all laymen who held such assets  In 1275, Edward negotiated an agreement with the domestic merchant community that secured a permanent duty on wool, England's primary export  In 1303, a similar agreement was reached with foreign merchants, in return for certain rights and privileges  The revenues from the customs duty were handled by the Riccardi, a group of bankers from Lucca in Italy  This was in return for their service as moneylenders to the crown, which helped finance the Welsh Wars  When the war with France broke out, the French king confiscated the Riccardi's assets, and the bank went bankrupt  After this, the Frescobaldi of Florence took over the role as money lenders to the English crown Another source of crown income was represented by the English Jews  The Jews were the King's personal property, and he was free to tax them at will  By 1280, the Jews had been exploited to a level at which they were no longer of much financial use to the crown, but they could still be used in political bargaining  Their loan-with-interest business – a practice forbidden to Christians – had made many people indebted to them and caused general popular resentment  In 1275, Edward had issued the Statute of the Jewry, which outlawed loan with interest and encouraged the Jews to take up other professions; in 1279, in the context of a crack-down on coin-clippers, he arrested all the heads of Jewish households in England and had around 300 of them executed  In 1280, he ordered all Jews to attend special sermons, preached by Dominican friars, with the hope of persuading them to convert, but these exhortations were not followed  The final attack on the Jews in England came in the Edict of Expulsion in 1290, whereby Edward formally expelled all Jews from England  This not only generated revenues through royal appropriation of Jewish loans and property, but it also gave Edward the political capital to negotiate a substantial lay subsidy in the 1290 Parliament  The expulsion, which was reversed in the 1650s, followed a precedent set by other European rulers, including Philip II of France, John I, Duke of Brittany and Louis IX of France Edward held Parliament on a regular basis throughout his reign  In 1295, a significant change occurred  For this Parliament, as well as the secular and ecclesiastical lords, two knights from each county and two representatives from each borough were summoned  The representation of commons in Parliament was nothing new; what was new was the authority under which these representatives were summoned  Whereas previously the commons had been expected simply to assent to decisions already made by the magnates, it was now proclaimed that they should meet with the full authority (plena potestas) of their communities, to give assent to decisions made in Parliament  The King now had full backing for collecting lay subsidies from the entire population  Whereas Henry III had only collected four of these in his reign, Edward collected nine  This format eventually became the standard for later Parliaments, and historians have named the assembly the "Model Parliament", a term first introduced by the English historian William Stubbs 

Later reign, 1297–1307
Constitutional crisis
The incessant warfare of the 1290s put a great financial demand on Edward's subjects  Whereas the King had levied only three lay subsidies until 1294, four such taxes were granted in the years 1294–1297, raising over £200,000  Along with this came the burden of prises, seizure of wool and hides, and the unpopular additional duty on wool, dubbed the maltolt ("unjustly taken")  The fiscal demands on the King's subjects caused resentment, which eventually led to serious political opposition  The initial resistance was caused not by the lay taxes, but by clerical subsidies  In 1294, Edward made a demand of a grant of one-half of all clerical revenues  There was some resistance, but the King responded by threatening opponents with outlawry, and the grant was eventually made  At the time, Robert Winchelsey, the designated Archbishop of Canterbury, was in Italy to receive consecration  Winchelsey returned in January 1295 and had to consent to another grant in November of that year  In 1296, his position changed when he received the papal bull Clericis laicos  This bull prohibited the clergy from paying taxes to lay authorities without explicit consent from the Pope  When the clergy, with reference to the bull, refused to pay, Edward responded with outlawry  Winchelsey was presented with a dilemma between loyalty to the King and upholding the papal bull, and he responded by leaving it to every individual clergyman to pay as he saw fit  By the end of the year, a solution was offered by the new papal bull Etsi de statu, which allowed clerical taxation in cases of pressing urgency  This allowed Edward to collect considerable sums by taxing the English clergy 

Opposition from the laity took longer to surface  This resistance focused on two things: the King's right to demand military service and his right to levy taxes  At the Salisbury Parliament of February 1297, the Earl Marshal Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk, objected to a royal summons of military service  Bigod argued that the military obligation only extended to service alongside the King; if the King intended to sail to Flanders, he could not send his subjects to Gascony  In July, Bigod and Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford and Constable of England, drew up a series of complaints known as the Remonstrances, in which objections to the extortionate level of taxation were voiced  Undeterred, Edward requested another lay subsidy  This one was particularly provocative, because the King had sought consent from only a small group of magnates, rather than from representatives of the communities in Parliament  While Edward was in Winchelsea, preparing for the campaign in Flanders, Bigod and de Bohun arrived at the Exchequer to prevent the collection of the tax  As the King left the country with a greatly reduced force, the kingdom seemed to be on the verge of civil war  The English defeat by the Scots at the Battle of Stirling Bridge resolved the situation  The renewed threat to the homeland gave king and magnates common cause  Edward signed the Confirmatio cartarum – a confirmation of the Magna Carta and its accompanying Charter of the Forest – and the nobility agreed to serve with the King on a campaign in Scotland Edward's problems with the opposition did not end with the Scottish campaign  Over the following years he would be held to the promises he had made, in particular that of upholding the Charter of the Forest  In the Parliament of 1301, the King was forced to order an assessment of the royal forests, but in 1305 he obtained a papal bull that freed him from this concession  Ultimately, it was a change in personnel that spelt the end of the opposition against Edward  De Bohun died late in 1298, after returning from the Scottish campaign  In 1302 Bigod arrived at an agreement with the King that was beneficial for both: Bigod, who had no children, made Edward his heir, in return for a generous annual grant  Edward finally got his revenge on Winchelsey, who had been opposed to the King's policy of clerical taxation, in 1305, when Clement V was elected pope  Clement was a Gascon sympathetic to the King, and on Edward's instigation had Winchelsey suspended from office 

Return to Scotland
Edward believed that he had completed the conquest of Scotland when he left the country in 1296, but resistance soon emerged under the leadership of Andrew de Moray in the north and William Wallace in the south  On 11 September 1297, a large English force under the leadership of John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey, and Hugh de Cressingham was routed by a much smaller Scottish army led by Wallace and Moray at the Battle of Stirling Bridge  The defeat sent shockwaves into England, and preparations for a retaliatory campaign started immediately  Soon after Edward returned from Flanders, he headed north  On 22 July 1298, in the only major battle he had fought since Evesham in 1265, Edward defeated Wallace's forces at the Battle of Falkirk  Edward underestimated the gravity of the ever-changing military condition in the north and was not able to take advantage of the momentum; the next year the Scots managed to recapture Stirling Castle  Even though Edward campaigned in Scotland both in 1300, when he successfully besieged Caerlaverock Castle and in 1301, the Scots refused to engage in open battle again, preferring instead to raid the English countryside in smaller groups The Scots appealed to Pope Boniface VIII to assert a papal claim of overlordship to Scotland in place of the English  His papal bull addressed to King Edward in these terms was firmly rejected on Edward's behalf by the Barons' Letter of 1301  The English managed to subdue the country by other means: in 1303, a peace agreement was reached between England and France, effectively breaking up the Franco-Scottish alliance  Robert the Bruce, the grandson of the claimant to the crown in 1291, had sided with the English in the winter of 1301–02  By 1304, most of the other nobles of the country had also pledged their allegiance to Edward, and this year the English also managed to re-take Stirling Castle  A great propaganda victory was achieved in 1305 when Wallace was betrayed by Sir John de Menteith and turned over to the English, who had him taken to London where he was publicly executed  With Scotland largely under English control, Edward installed Englishmen and collaborating Scots to govern the country The situation changed again on 10 February 1306, when Robert the Bruce murdered his rival John Comyn, and a few weeks later, on 25 March, was crowned King of Scotland  Bruce now embarked on a campaign to restore Scottish independence, and this campaign took the English by surprise  Edward was suffering ill health by this time, and instead of leading an expedition himself, he gave different military commands to Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, and Henry Percy, 1st Baron Percy, while the main royal army was led by the Prince of Wales  The English initially met with success; on 19 June, Aymer de Valence routed Bruce at the Battle of Methven  Bruce was forced into hiding, and the English forces recaptured their lost territory and castles Edward acted with unusual brutality against Bruce's family, allies, and supporters  His sister, Mary, was imprisoned in a cage at Roxburgh Castle for four years  Isabella MacDuff, Countess of Buchan, who had crowned Bruce, was held in a cage at Berwick Castle  His younger brother Neil was executed by being hanged, drawn, and quartered; he had been captured after he and his garrison held off Edward's forces who had been seeking his wife, daughter and sisters  Edward now regarded the struggle not as a war between two nations, but as the suppression of a rebellion of disloyal subjects  This brutality, though, rather than helping to subdue the Scots, had the opposite effect, and rallied growing support for Bruce 

Death and burial
In February 1307, Bruce resumed his efforts and started gathering men, and in May he defeated Valence at the Battle of Loudoun Hill  Edward, who had rallied somewhat, now moved north himself  He developed dysentery on the way, and his condition deteriorated  On 6 July he encamped at Burgh by Sands, just south of the Scottish border  When his servants came the next morning to lift him up so that he could eat, the King died in their arms Several stories emerged about Edward's deathbed wishes; according to one tradition, he requested that his heart be carried to the Holy Land, along with an army to fight the infidels  A more dubious story tells of how he wished for his bones to be carried along on future expeditions against the Scots  Another account of his deathbed scene is more credible; according to one chronicle, Edward gathered around him Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln; Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick; Aymer de Valence; and Robert de Clifford, 1st Baron de Clifford, and charged them with looking after his son Edward  In particular they should make sure that Piers Gaveston, whom he had banished earlier that year, was not allowed to return to the country  This wish the son ignored, and had his favourite recalled from exile almost immediately  The new king, Edward II, remained in the north until August, but then abandoned the campaign and headed south, partially due to financial limitations  He was crowned king on 25 February 1308 
Edward I's body was brought south, lying in state at Waltham Abbey, before being buried in Westminster Abbey on 27 October  There are few records of the funeral, which cost £473  Edward's tomb was an unusually plain sarcophagus of Purbeck marble, without the customary royal effigy, possibly the result of the shortage of royal funds  The Society of Antiquaries of London opened the tomb in 1774, finding that the body had been well preserved over the preceding 467 years, and took the opportunity to determine the King's original height  Traces of the Latin inscription Edwardus Primus Scottorum Malleus hic est, 1308  Pactum Serva ("Here is Edward I, Hammer of the Scots, 1308  Keep the Troth") can still be seen painted on the side of the tomb, referring to his vow to avenge the rebellion of Robert Bruce  This resulted in Edward being given the epithet the "Hammer of the Scots" by historians, but is not contemporary in origin, having been added by the Abbot John Feckenham in the 16th century 

Legacy
The first histories of Edward in the 16th and 17th centuries drew primarily on the works of the chroniclers, and made little use of the official records of the period  They limited themselves to general comments on Edward's significance as a monarch, and echoed the chroniclers' praise for his accomplishments  During the 17th century, the lawyer Edward Coke wrote extensively about Edward's legislation, terming the King the "English Justinian" after the renowned Byzantine lawmaker Justinian I  Later in the century, historians used the available record evidence to address the role of Parliament and kingship under Edward, drawing comparisons between his reign and the political strife of their own century  Eighteenth-century historians established a picture of Edward as an able, if ruthless, monarch, conditioned by the circumstances of his own time The influential Victorian historian William Stubbs instead suggested that Edward had actively shaped national history, forming English laws and institutions, and helping England to develop a parliamentary and constitutional monarchy  His strengths and weaknesses as a ruler were considered to be emblematic of the English people as a whole  Stubbs's student, Thomas Tout, initially adopted the same perspective, but after extensive research into Edward's royal household, and backed by the research of his contemporaries into the early Parliaments of the period, he changed his mind  Tout came to view Edward as a self-interested, conservative leader, using the parliamentary system as "the shrewd device of an autocrat, anxious to use the mass of the people as a check upon his hereditary foes among the greater baronage "Historians in the 20th and 21st centuries have conducted extensive research on Edward and his reign  Most have concluded this was a highly significant period in English medieval history, some going further and describing Edward as one of the great medieval kings, although most also agree that his final years were less successful than his early decades in power  G  Templeman argued in his 1950 historiographical essay that "it is generally recognized that Edward I deserves a high place in the history of medieval England"  More recently, Michael Prestwich argued that "Edward was a formidable king; his reign, with both its successes and its disappointments, a great one," and he was "without doubt one of the greatest rulers of his time", and John Gillingham suggests that "no king of England had a greater impact on the peoples of Britain than Edward I" and that "modern historians of the English state     have always recognized Edward I's reign as pivotal " Fred Cazel similarly comments that "no-one can doubt the greatness of the reign"  Most recently, Andrew Spencer has agreed with Prestwich, arguing that Edward's reign "was indeed     a great one", and Caroline Burt states that "Edward I was without a doubt one of the greatest kings to rule England" Three major academic narratives of Edward have been produced during this period  F  M  Powicke's volumes, published in 1947 and 1953, forming the standard works on Edward for several decades, were largely positive in praising the achievements of his reign, and in particular his focus on justice and the law  In 1988, Michael Prestwich produced an authoritative biography of the King, focusing on his political career, still portraying him in sympathetic terms, but highlighting some of the consequences of his failed policies  Marc Morris's biography followed in 2008, drawing out more of the detail of Edward's personality, and generally taking a harsher view of his weaknesses and less pleasant characteristics, pointing out that modern analysts of Edward's reign denounce the King for his policies against the Jewish community in England  Considerable academic debate has taken place around the character of Edward's kingship, his political skills, and in particular his management of his earls, and the degree to which this was collaborative or repressive in nature There is a great difference between English and Scottish historiography on King Edward  G  W  S  Barrow, in his biography of Robert the Bruce, accused Edward of ruthlessly exploiting the leaderless state of Scotland to obtain a feudal superiority over the kingdom followed by his determination to reduce it to nothing more than an English possession  Modern commentators have conflicting opinions on whether Edward's conquest of Wales was warranted  Contemporary English historians were firmly in favour of the King's campaigns there  Morris takes the position that the poor condition of Wales would have allowed England to dominate it at some point or another, whether by direct conquest or through natural deterioration 

Family
First marriage
By his first wife Eleanor of Castile, Edward had at least fourteen children, perhaps as many as sixteen  Of these, five daughters survived into adulthood, but only one son outlived his father, becoming King Edward II (r  1307–1327)  Edward's children with Eleanor were:
Katherine (1261 or 1263–1264)
Joan (1265–1265)
John (1266–1271)
Henry (1268–1274)
Eleanor (1269–1298)
Unnamed daughter (1271–1271 or 1272)
Joan (1272–1307)
Alphonso (1273–1284)
Margaret (1275–1333)
Berengaria (1276–1277 or 1278)
Unnamed child (1278–1278)
Mary (1278–1332)
Elizabeth (1282–1316)
Edward II (1284–1327)

Second marriage
By Margaret of France, Edward had two sons, both of whom lived to adulthood, and a daughter who died as a child  His progeny by Margaret of France were:
Thomas (1300–1338)
Edmund (1301–1330)
Eleanor (1306–1311)A genealogy in the Hailes Abbey chronicle indicates that John Botetourt may have been Edward's illegitimate son, but the claim is unsubstantiated 

Genealogical table
See also
List of earls in the reign of Edward I of England
Savoyard knights in the service of Edward I

Notes
Passage 4:
Elizabeth of Celje
Elizabeth of Celje  (1441 – 1455), also Elizabeth of Cilli, was the first wife of Matthias Corvinus, the future King of Hungary 

Family background
Elizabeth was born to Ulrich II, Count of Celje and his wife Catherine Branković, daughter of the Serb despot George Branković  Her father was a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, with extensive domains in both the Empire and in the Kingdom of Hungary, centered in Lower Styria, Carniola, and Slavonia  Her mother was the sister of Mara Branković, a favorite wife of the Ottoman sultan Murad II 
Elizabeth was most likely born in Celje, the family seat  She seems to have had a twin sister, called Catherine, who died as a child  Elizabeth was baptised in the Eastern Orthodox faith of her mother, an arrangement that aroused consternation in the Roman Catholic milieu of Celje 
Both of her brothers, Hermann IV and George, died by 1452  Thereafter she remained her parents' sole child, and the last offspring of the House of Celje 

Betrothal
Elizabeth was initially betrothed to John of Gorizia, son of count Henry IV of Gorizia, who was living in Celje under the tutelage of her father  However, it was later decided she would marry into the Hunyadi family 
Elizabeth's father and maternal grandfather were long-time opponents of John Hunyadi, as the houses of Celje and Hunyadi were competing for influence in the Kingdom of Hungary since the early 1440s  In June 1448, the two parties reached an agreement on the division of spheres of interest, sealed by Elizabeth's betrothal to Ladislaus, John Hunyadi's firstborn son In the autumn of the same year, Hunyadi was defeated by the Ottomans at Kosovo; captured by George Branković during his retreat, he was forced to return several estates to him  With the help of the pope, Hunyadi had the disvantageous agreement dissolved; as a consequence, the settlement with the Celjes was called off, as well  Under pressure from the estates, protracted negotiations ensued  In August 1451, a settlement was reached in Smederevo  This time, it was agreed that Elizabeth would marry John's second-born son, Matthias  The wedding was set to 6 December 1453, with the stipulation that should the marriage fail to materialize because any fault attributable to Branković, the latter’s castles and other estates in Hungary would be transferred to Hunyadi and his sons It was John Hunyadi himself, however, to call off the wedding few months before it was to take place  In the fall of 1453, in fact, Elizabeth's father fell out of favor with king Ladislaus, and Hunyadi took advantage of the situation to dissolve the alliance with the Celjes which limited his autonomy of action in Hungary  By February 1455, however, Ulrich was back in power, and George Branković was instrumental in renewing the alliance between his son-in-law and Hunyadi in order to secure a common front against the Ottoman threat 

Marriage and death
Following a renewal of the Celje-Hunyadi alliance, Elizabeth was married to Matthias in the spring of 1455, after having converted to Catholicism  By this time, Ulrich of Celje had remained without sons, with his wife approaching forty: Matthias thus became his most likely heir  He was sent to the royal court in Buda where Ulrich now resided as regent, while Elizabeth settled in the Hunyadis' estates; the two young spouses thus served mostly as hostages between their respective families In the winter of 1455, Elizabeth fell seriously ill  The famous preacher John Capistran organized public prayers for her recovery  However, she died before the end of the year at the Hunyadi court in Transylvania  With her death, Ulrich of Celje remained childless, and the last link between the Hunyadi and Celje families was cut 

Ancestry
Notes


== Sources ==
Passage 5:
Elizabeth of Rhuddlan
Elizabeth of Rhuddlan (7 August 1282 – 5 May 1316) was the eighth and youngest daughter of King Edward I of England and Queen Eleanor of Castile  Of all of her siblings, she was closest to her younger brother King Edward II, as they were only two years apart in age 

First marriage
In April 1285 there were negotiations with Floris V for Elizabeth's betrothal to his son John I, Count of Holland  The offer was accepted and John was sent to England to be educated  On 8 January 1297 Elizabeth was married to John at Ipswich  In attendance at the marriage were Elizabeth's sister Margaret, her father, Edward I of England, her brother Edward, and Humphrey de Bohun  After the wedding Elizabeth was expected to go to Holland with her husband, but did not wish to go, leaving her husband to go alone  It is recorded that while in Ipswich the King, in some outburst, threw his daughter's coronet into the fire  A great ruby and a great  emerald, stones supplied by Adam the Goldsmith, were lost as a result After some time travelling England, it was decided Elizabeth should follow her husband  Her father accompanied her, travelling through the Southern Netherlands between Antwerp, Mechelen, Leuven and Brussels, before ending up in Ghent  There they remained for a few months, spending Christmas with her two sisters Eleanor and Margaret  On 10 November 1299, John died of dysentery, though there were rumours of his murder  No children had been born from the marriage 

Second marriage
On her return trip to England, Elizabeth went through Brabant to see her sister Margaret  When she arrived in England, she met her stepmother Margaret, whom Edward had married while Elizabeth was in Holland  On 14 November 1302 Elizabeth was married to Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford, 3rd of Essex, also Constable of England, at Westminster Abbey In August 1304, she was pregnant and travelled from Linlithgow Palace in Scotland to Knaresborough Castle  She gave birth to her second son, Humphrey de Bohun, in September, assisted by a holy relic of the girdle of the Virgin, brought especially from Westminster Abbey  Humphrey died about six weeks later and was buried at Westminster Abbey with his sister Margaret 

Issue
The children of Elizabeth and Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford were:

Margaret de Bohun (born 1302 – died 7 Feb  1304) 
Humphrey de Bohun (born c  Oct  1303 – died c  Oct  1304) 
Lady Eleanor de Bohun (17 October 1304 – 1363)
John de Bohun, 5th Earl of Hereford (23 November 1306 – 20 January 1336)
Humphrey de Bohun, 6th Earl of Hereford (6 December c  1309 – 1361)
Margaret de Bohun, 2nd Countess of Devon (3 April 1311 – 1391)
William de Bohun, 1st Earl of Northampton (1312–1360) 
Edward de Bohun (1312–1334), twin of William
Agnes, Married Robert de Ferrers, 2nd Baron Ferrers of Chartley, son of John de Ferrers, 1st Baron Ferrers of Chartley
Eneas de Bohun, (1314 – after 1322); he is mentioned in his father's will
Isabel de Bohun (born and died 5 May 1316)

Later life
During Christmas 1315, Elizabeth, who was pregnant with her eleventh child, was visited by her sister-in-law, Queen Isabella of France  On 5 May 1316 she went into labour, giving birth to her daughter Isabella  Both Elizabeth and her daughter Isabella died shortly after the birth 
Elizabeth was interred at Waltham Abbey, Essex, together with her infant daughter & other members of the de Bohun family 

Ancestry
Passage 6:
Ali Rahuma
Ali Khalifa Rahuma (Arabic: علي ارحومه)  (born May 16, 1982) is a Libyan football midfielder, also a Libyan national  He currently plays for Al-Ittihad, and is a member of the Libya national football team 

External links
Ali Rahuma at National-Football-Teams com
SoccerPunter  “Ali Khalifa Rahuma Profile and Statistics ” SoccerPunter  SoccerPunter, n d  Web  6 Sept  2016



ground_truth: Bomgay

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What nationality is Elizabeth Of Rhuddlan's father?

The following are given passages.
Context 4: 

Year names
While various copies of the Sumerian king list and later Babylonian chronicles credit Sargon with a reign length ranging from 34 to 56 years, dated documents have been found for only four different year-names of his actual reign  The names of these four years describe his campaigns against Elam, Mari, Simurrum (a Hurrian region), and Uru'a (an Elamite city-state) 

Nippur inscription
Among the most important sources for Sargon's reign is a tablet of the Old Babylonian period recovered at Nippur in the University of Pennsylvania expedition in the 1890s  The tablet is a copy of the inscriptions on the pedestal of a statue erected by Sargon in the temple of Enlil  Its text was edited by Arno Poebel (1909) and Leon Legrain (1926) 

Conquest of Sumer
In the inscription, Sargon styles himself "Sargon, king of Akkad, overseer (mashkim) of Inanna, king of Kish, anointed (guda) of Anu, king of the land [Mesopotamia], governor (ensi) of Enlil"  

It celebrates the conquest of Uruk and the defeat of Lugalzagesi, whom Sargon brought "in a collar to the gate of Enlil":
Sargon, king of Akkad, overseer of Inanna, king of Kish, anointed of Anu, king of the land, governor of Enlil: he defeated the city of Uruk and tore down its walls, in the battle of Uruk he won, took Lugalzagesi king of Uruk in the course of the battle, and led him in a collar to the gate of Enlil 
Sargon then conquered Ur and E-Ninmar and "laid waste" the territory from Lagash to the sea, and from there went on to conquer and destroy Umma:
Sargon, king of Agade, was victorious over Ur in battle, conquered the city and destroyed its wall  He conquered Eninmar, destroyed its walls, and conquered its district and Lagash as far as the sea  He washed his weapons in the sea  He was victorious over Umma in battle, [conquered the city, and destroyed its walls]  [To Sargon], lo[rd] of the land the god Enlil [gave no] ri[val]  The god Enlil gave to him [the Upper Sea and] the [Lower (Sea) 
Sargon permitted the inhabitants of the territories he conquered to retain their native leaders and traditions  Yet, they were obligated to follow him and pay a tribute in exchange for safety  The people of Sargon's dominion were devoted to him because of his policies, which served to maintain peace  In addition, he proclaimed Akkadian the official language of the government and imposed regular weights and measurements 

Conquest of Upper Mesopotamia, as far as the Mediterranean Sea
Submitting himself to the (Levantine god) Dagan, Sargon conquered territories of Upper Mesopotamia and the Levant, including Mari, Yarmuti (Jarmuth?) and Ibla "up to the Cedar Forest (the Amanus) and up to the Silver Mountain (Aladagh?)", ruling from the "upper sea" (Mediterranean) to the "lower sea" (Persian Gulf) 
Sargon the King bowed down to Dagan in Tuttul  He (Dagan) gave to him (Sargon) the Upper Land: Mari, Iarmuti, and Ebla, as far as the Cedar Forest and the Silver Mountains

Conquests of Elam and Marhashi
Sargon also claims in his inscriptions that he is "Sargon, king of the world, conqueror of Elam and Parahshum", the two major polities to the east of Sumer  He also names various rulers of the east whom he vanquished, such as "Luh-uh-ish-an, son of Hishibrasini, king of Elam, king of Elam" or "Sidga'u, general of Parahshum", who later also appears in an inscription by Rimush Sargon triumphed over 34 cities in total  Ships from Meluhha, Magan and Dilmun, rode at anchor in his capital of Akkad He entertained a court or standing army of 5,400 men who "ate bread daily before him" 

Sargon Epos
A group of four Babylonian texts, summarized as "Sargon Epos" or Res Gestae Sargonis, shows Sargon as a military commander asking the advice of many subordinates before going on campaigns  
The narrative of Sargon, the Conquering Hero, is set at Sargon's court, in a situation of crisis  Sargon addresses his warriors, praising the virtue of heroism, and a lecture by a courtier on the glory achieved by a champion of the army, a narrative relating a campaign of Sargon's into the far land of Uta-raspashtim, including an account of a "darkening of the Sun" and the conquest of the land of Simurrum, 
and a concluding oration by Sargon listing his conquests 

The narrative of King of Battle relates Sargon's campaign against the Anatolian city of Purushanda in order to protect his merchants 
Versions of this narrative in both Hittite and Akkadian have been found  
The Hittite version is extant in six fragments, the Akkadian version is known from several manuscripts 
found at Amarna, Assur, and Nineveh 
The narrative is anachronistic, portraying Sargon in a 19th-century milieu  The same text mentions that Sargon crossed the Sea of the West (Mediterranean Sea) and ended up in Kuppara, which some authors have interpreted as the Akkadian word for Keftiu, an ancient locale usually associated with Crete or Cyprus Famine and war threatened Sargon's empire during the latter years of his reign  The Chronicle of Early Kings reports that revolts broke out throughout the area under the last years of his overlordship:

Afterward in his [Sargon's] old age all the lands revolted against him, and they besieged him in Akkad; and Sargon went onward to battle and defeated them; he accomplished their overthrow, and their widespreading host he destroyed  Afterward he attacked the land of Subartu in his might, and they submitted to his arms, and Sargon settled that revolt, and defeated them; he accomplished their overthrow, and their widespreading host he destroyed, and he brought their possessions into Akkad  The soil from the trenches of Babylon he removed, and the boundaries of Akkad he made like those of Babylon  But because of the evil which he had committed, the great lord Marduk was angry, and he destroyed his people by famine  From the rising of the sun unto the setting of the sun they opposed him and gave him no rest 
A  Leo Oppenheim translates the last sentence as "From the East to the West he [i e  Marduk] alienated (them) from him and inflicted upon (him as punishment) that he could not rest (in his grave) "

Chronicle of Early Kings
Shortly after securing Sumer, Sargon embarked on a series of campaigns to subjugate the entire Fertile Crescent  According to the Chronicle of Early Kings, a later Babylonian historiographical text:

[Sargon] had neither rival nor equal  His splendor, over the lands it diffused  He crossed the sea in the east  In the eleventh year he conquered the western land to its farthest point  He brought it under one authority  He set up his statues there and ferried the west's booty across on barges  He stationed his court officials at intervals of five double hours and ruled in unity the tribes of the lands  He marched to Kazallu and turned Kazallu into a ruin heap, so that there was not even a perch for a bird left 
In the east, Sargon defeated four leaders of Elam, led by the king of Awan  Their cities were sacked; the governors, viceroys, and kings of Susa, Waraḫše, and neighboring districts became vassals of Akkad 

Origin legends
Sargon became the subject of legendary narratives describing his rise to power from humble origins and his conquest of Mesopotamia in later Assyrian and Babylonian literature  Apart from these secondary, and partly legendary, accounts, there are many inscriptions due to Sargon himself, although the majority of these are known only from much later copies  The Louvre has fragments of two Sargonic victory steles recovered from Susa (where
they were presumably transported from Mesopotamia in the 12th century BC) 

Sumerian legend
The Sumerian-language Sargon legend contains a legendary account of Sargon's rise to power  It is an older version of the previously known Assyrian legend, discovered in 1974 in Nippur and first edited in 1983 The extant versions are incomplete, but the surviving fragments name Sargon's father as La'ibum  After a lacuna, the text skips to Ur-Zababa, king of Kish, who awakens after a dream, the contents of which are not revealed on the surviving portion of the tablet  For unknown reasons, Ur-Zababa appoints Sargon as his cup-bearer  Soon after this, Ur-Zababa invites Sargon to his chambers to discuss a dream of Sargon's, involving the favor of the goddess Inanna and the drowning of Ur-Zababa by the goddess in a river of blood  Deeply frightened, Ur-Zababa orders Sargon murdered by the hands of Beliš-tikal, the chief smith, but Inanna prevents it, demanding that Sargon stop at the gates because of his being "polluted with blood " When Sargon returns to Ur-Zababa, the king becomes frightened again and decides to send Sargon to king Lugal-zage-si of Uruk with a message on a clay tablet asking him to slay Sargon  The legend breaks off at this point; presumably, the missing sections described how Sargon becomes king 

The part of the interpretation of the king's dream has parallels to the biblical story of Joseph, the part about the letter with the carrier's death sentence has similarities to the Greek story of Bellerophon and the biblical story of Uriah 

Birth legend
A Neo-Assyrian text from the 7th century BC purporting to be Sargon's autobiography asserts that the great king was the illegitimate son of a priestess  
Only the beginning of the text (the first two columns) is known, from the fragments of three manuscripts  
The first fragments were discovered as early as 1850 
Sargon's birth and his early childhood are described thus: 

My mother was a high priestess, my father I knew not  The brothers of my father loved the hills  My city is Azupiranu, which is situated on the banks of the Euphrates  My high priestess mother conceived me, in secret she bore me  She set me in a basket of rushes, with bitumen she sealed my lid  She cast me into the river which rose over me  The river bore me up and carried me to Akki, the drawer of water  Akki, the drawer of water, took me as his son and reared me  Akki, the drawer of water, appointed me as his gardener  While I was a gardener, Ishtar granted me her love, and for four and     years I exercised kingship 
Similarities between the Sargon Birth Legend and other infant birth exposures in ancient literature, including Moses, Karna, and Oedipus, were noted by psychoanalyst Otto Rank in his 1909 book The Myth of the Birth of the Hero  The legend was also studied in detail by Brian Lewis, and compared with many different examples of the infant birth exposure motif found in European and Asian folktales  He discusses a possible archetype form, giving particular attention to the Sargon legend and the account of the birth of Moses  Joseph Campbell has also made such comparisons Sargon is also one of the many suggestions for the identity or inspiration for the biblical Nimrod  Ewing William (1910) suggested Sargon based on his unification of the Babylonians and the Neo-Assyrian birth legend  Yigal Levin (2002) suggested that Nimrod was a recollection of Sargon and his grandson Naram-Sin, with the name "Nimrod" derived from the latter 

Family
The name of Sargon's main wife, Queen Tashlultum, and those of a number of his children are known to us  His daughter Enheduanna was a high priestess of the moon God in Ur who composed ritual hymns  Many of her works, including her Exaltation of Inanna, were in use for centuries thereafter  Sargon was succeeded by his son Rimush; after Rimush's death another son, Manishtushu, became king  Manishtushu would be succeeded by his own son, Naram-Sin  Two other sons, Shu-Enlil (Ibarum) and Ilaba'is-takal (Abaish-Takal), are known 

Legacy
Sargon of Akkad is sometimes identified as the first person in recorded history to rule over an empire (in the sense of the central government of a multi-ethnic territory), although earlier Sumerian rulers such as Lugal-zage-si might have a similar claim  His rule also heralds the history of Semitic empires in the Ancient Near East, which, following the Neo-Sumerian interruption (21st/20th centuries BC), lasted for close to fifteen centuries until the Achaemenid conquest following the 539 BC Battle of Opis Sargon was regarded as a model by Mesopotamian kings for some two millennia after his death  The Assyrian and Babylonian kings who based their empires in Mesopotamia saw themselves as the heirs of Sargon's empire  
Sargon may indeed have introduced the notion of "empire" as understood in the later Assyrian period; the Neo-Assyrian Sargon Text, written in the first person, has Sargon challenging later rulers to "govern the black-headed people" (i e  the indigenous population of Mesopotamia) as he did  An important source for "Sargonic heroes" in oral tradition in the later Bronze Age is a Middle Hittite (15th century BC) record of a Hurro-Hittite song, which calls upon Sargon and his immediate successors as "deified kings" (dšarrena) Sargon shared his name with two later Mesopotamian kings  Sargon I was a king of the Old Assyrian period presumably named after Sargon of Akkad  Sargon II was a Neo-Assyrian king named after Sargon of Akkad; it is this king whose name was rendered Sargon (סַרְגוֹן) in the Hebrew Bible (Isaiah 20:1) 
Neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus showed great interest in the history of the Sargonid dynasty and even conducted excavations of Sargon's palaces and those of his successors 

In popular culture
The fanciful adventure film The Scorpion King: Rise of a Warrior (2008) imagines Sargon of Akkad as a murderous army commander wielding black magic  He is the film's main villain, portrayed by Randy Couture The twentieth episode of the second season of Star Trek: The Original Series, "Return to Tomorrow", features an ancient, telepathic alien named Sargon who once ruled a mighty empire 
American Rock Group They Might Be Giants refer to Sargon of Akkad in the track "The Mesopotamians" on their 2007 album The Else, along with Hammurabi, Ashurbanipal and Gilgamesh 
Carl Benjamin, British far-right YouTuber and political commentator, goes by the online pseudonym "Sargon of Akkad" on his YouTube channel 
The Return of Rome expansion pack for the video game Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition features a campaign called "Sargon of Akkad", which depicts his conquest of Sumer and the rise of the Akkadian Empire 

See also
Media related to Sargon of Akkad at Wikimedia Commons
History of Mesopotamia
List of kings of Akkad
List of Mesopotamian dynasties

Notes
Passage 7:
Sennedjem
Sennedjem was an Ancient Egyptian artisan who was active during the reigns of Seti I and Ramesses II  He lived in Set Maat (translated as "The Place of Truth"), contemporary Deir el-Medina, on the west bank of the Nile, opposite Thebes  Sennedjem had the title "Servant in the Place of Truth"  He was buried along with his wife, Iyneferti, and members of his family in a tomb in the village necropolis  His tomb was discovered January 31, 1886  When Sennedjem's tomb was found, it contained furniture from his home, including a stool and a bed, which he used when he was alive His titles included Servant in the Place of Truth, meaning that he worked on the excavation and decoration of the nearby royal tombs 

See also

TT1 – (Tomb of Sennedjem, family and wife)
Passage 8:
Place of origin
In Switzerland, the place of origin (German: Heimatort or Bürgerort, literally "home place" or "citizen place"; French: Lieu d'origine; Italian: Luogo di attinenza) denotes where a Swiss citizen has their municipal citizenship, usually inherited from previous generations  It is not to be confused with the place of birth or  place of residence, although two or all three of these locations may be identical depending on the person's circumstances 

Acquisition of municipal citizenship
Swiss citizenship has three tiers  For a person applying to naturalise as a Swiss citizen, these tiers are as follows:

Municipal citizenship, granted by the place of residence after fulfilling several preconditions, such as sufficient knowledge of the local language, integration into local society, and a minimum number of years lived in said municipality 
Cantonal (state) citizenship, for which a Swiss municipal citizenship is required  This requires a certain number of years lived in said canton 
Country citizenship, for which both of the above are required, also requires a certain number of years lived in Switzerland (except for people married to a Swiss citizen, who may obtain simplified naturalisation without having to reside in Switzerland), and involves a criminal background check The last two kinds of citizenship are a mere formality, while municipal citizenship is the most significant step in becoming a Swiss citizen  
Nowadays the place of residence determines the municipality where citizenship is acquired, for a new applicant, whereas previously there was a historical reason for preserving the municipal citizenship from earlier generations in the family line, namely to specify which municipality held the responsibility of providing social welfare  The law has now been changed, eliminating this form of allocating responsibility to a municipality other than that of the place of residence  Care needs to be taken when translating the term in Swiss documents which list the historical "Heimatort" instead of the usual place of birth and place of residence 
However, any Swiss citizen can apply for a second, a third or even more municipal citizenships for prestige reasons or to show their connection to the place they currently live – and thus have several places of origin  As the legal significance of the place of origin has waned (see below), Swiss citizens can often apply for municipal citizenship for no more than 100 Swiss francs after having lived in the same municipality for one or two years  In the past, it was common to have to pay between 2,000 and 4,000 Swiss francs as a citizenship fee, because of the financial obligations incumbent on the municipality to grant the citizenship 
A child born to two Swiss parents is automatically granted the citizenship of the parent whose last name they hold, so the child gets either the mother's or the father's place of origin  A child born to one Swiss parent and one foreign parent acquires the citizenship, and thus the place of origin, of the Swiss parent 

International confusion
Almost uniquely in the world (with the exception of Japan, which lists one's Registered Domicile; and Sweden, which lists the mother's place of domicile as place of birth), the Swiss identity card, passport and driving licence do not show the holder's birthplace, but only their place of origin  The vast majority of countries show the holder's actual birthplace on identity documents  This can lead to administrative issues for Swiss citizens abroad when asked to demonstrate their actual place of birth, as no such information exists on any official Swiss identification documents  Only a minority of Swiss citizens have a place of origin identical to their birthplace  More confusion comes into play through the fact that people can have more than one place of origin 

Significance and history
A citizen of a municipality does not enjoy a larger set of rights than a non-citizen of the same municipality  To vote in communal, cantonal or national matters, only the current place of residence matters – or in the case of citizens abroad, the last Swiss place of residence 
The law previously required that a citizen's place of origin continued to bear all their social welfare costs for two years after the citizen moved away  In 2012, the National Council voted by 151 to 9 votes to abolish this law  The place of domicile is now the sole payer of welfare costs In 1923, 1937, 1959 and 1967, more cantons signed treaties that assured that the place of domicile had to pay welfare costs instead of the place of origin, reflecting the fact that fewer and fewer people lived in their place of origin (1860: 59%, in 1910: 34%) In 1681, the Tagsatzung – the then Swiss parliament – decided that beggars should be deported to their place of origin, especially if they were insufficiently cared for by their residential community In the 19th century, Swiss municipalities even offered free emigration to the United States if the Swiss citizen agreed to renounce municipal citizenship, and with that the right to receive welfare 

See also
Ancestral home (Chinese)
Bon-gwan
Registered domicile


== Notes and references ==
Passage 9:
Place of birth
The place of birth (POB) or birthplace is the place where a person was born  This place is often used in legal documents, together with name and date of birth, to uniquely identify a person  Practice regarding whether this place should be a country, a territory or a city/town/locality differs in different countries, but often city or territory is used for native-born citizen passports and countries for foreign-born ones 
As a general rule with respect to passports, if the place of birth is to be a country, it's determined to be the country that currently has sovereignty over the actual place of birth, regardless of when the birth actually occurred  The place of birth is not necessarily the place where the parents of the new baby live  If the baby is born in a hospital in another place, that place is the place of birth  In many countries, this also means that the government requires that the birth of the new baby is registered in the place of birth 
Some countries place less or no importance on the place of birth, instead using alternative geographical characteristics for the purpose of identity documents  For example, Sweden has used the concept of födelsehemort ("domicile of birth") since 1947  This means that the domicile of the baby's mother is the registered place of birth  The location of the maternity ward or other physical birthplace is considered unimportant 
Similarly, Switzerland uses the concept of place of origin  A child born to Swiss parents is automatically assigned the place of origin of the parent with the same last name, so the child either gets their mother's or father's place of origin  A child born to one Swiss parent and one foreign parent acquires the place of origin of their Swiss parent  In a Swiss passport and identity card, the holder's place of origin is stated, not their place of birth  In Japan, the registered domicile is a similar concept 
In some countries (primarily in the Americas), the place of birth automatically determines the nationality of the baby, a practice often referred to by the Latin phrase jus soli  Almost all countries outside the Americas instead attribute nationality based on the nationality(-ies) of the baby's parents (referred to as jus sanguinis) 
There can be some confusion regarding the place of birth if the birth takes place in an unusual way: when babies are born on an airplane or at sea, difficulties can arise  The place of birth of such a person depends on the law of the countries involved, which include the nationality of the plane or ship, the nationality(-ies) of the parents and/or the location of the plane or ship (if the birth occurs in the territorial waters or airspace of a country) 
Some administrative forms may request the applicant's "country of birth"  It is important to determine from the requester whether the information requested refers to the applicant's "place of birth" or "nationality at birth"  For example, US citizens born abroad who acquire US citizenship at the time of birth, the nationality at birth will be USA (American), while the place of birth would be the country in which the actual birth takes place 

Reference list
8 FAM 403 4 Place of Birth
Passage 10:
Motherland (disambiguation)
Motherland is the place of one's birth, the place of one's ancestors, or the place of origin of an ethnic group 
Motherland may also refer to:

Music
"Motherland" (anthem), the national anthem of Mauritius
National Song (Montserrat), also called "Motherland"
Motherland (Natalie Merchant album), 2001
Motherland (Arsonists Get All the Girls album), 2011
Motherland (Daedalus album), 2011
"Motherland" (Crystal Kay song), 2004

Film and television
Motherland (1927 film), a 1927 British silent war film
Motherland (2010 film), a 2010 documentary film
Motherland (2015 film), a 2015 Turkish drama
Motherland (2022 film), a 2022 documentary film about the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War
Motherland (TV series), a 2016 British television series
Motherland: Fort Salem, a 2020 American science fiction drama series

Other uses
Motherland Party (disambiguation), the name of several political groups
Personifications of Russia, including a list of monuments called Motherland

See also
All pages with titles containing Motherland
Mother Country (disambiguation)



ground_truth: England