prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What is the place of birth of Frank Wartenberg's wife?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
Christiane Wartenberg
Christiane Wartenberg (née Stoll, born 27 October 1956 in Prenzlau) is a German athlete who competed mainly in the 1500 metres 
She competed for East Germany in the 1980 Summer Olympics held in Moscow, Russia in the 1500 metres where she won the Silver medal 
Passage 2:
Empress Shōken
Empress Dowager Shōken (昭憲皇太后, Shōken-kōtaigō, 9 May 1849 – 9 April 1914), born Masako Ichijō (一条勝子, Ichijō Masako), was the wife of Emperor Meiji of Japan  She is also known under the technically incorrect name Empress Shōken (昭憲皇后, Shōken-kōgō)  She was one of the founders of the Japanese Red Cross Society, whose charity work was known throughout the First Sino-Japanese War 

Early life
Lady Masako Ichijō was born on 9 May 1849, in Heian-kyō, Japan  She was the third daughter of Tadayoshi Ichijō, former Minister of the Left and head of the Fujiwara clan's Ichijō branch  Her adoptive mother was one of Prince Fushimi Kuniie's daughters, but her biological mother was Tamiko Niihata, the daughter of a doctor from the Ichijō family  Unusually for the time, she had been vaccinated against smallpox  As a child, Masako was somewhat of a prodigy: she was able to read poetry from the Kokin Wakashū by the age of 4 and had composed some waka verses of her own by the age of 5  By age seven, she was able to read some texts in classical Chinese with some assistance and was studying Japanese calligraphy  By the age of 12, she had studied the koto and was fond of Noh drama  She excelled in the studies of finances, ikebana and Japanese tea ceremony The major obstacle to Lady Masako's eligibility to become empress consort was the fact that she was 3 years older than Emperor Meiji, but this issue was resolved by changing her official birth date from 1849 to 1850  They became engaged on 2 September 1867, when she adopted the given name Haruko (美子), which was intended to reflect her 
serene beauty and diminutive size 
The Tokugawa Bakufu promised 15,000 ryō in gold for the wedding and assigned her an annual income of 500 koku, but as the Meiji Restoration occurred before the wedding could be completed, the promised amounts were never delivered  The wedding was delayed partly due to periods of mourning for Emperor Kōmei,  for her brother Saneyoshi, and the political disturbances around Kyoto between 1867 and 1868 

Empress of Japan
Lady Haruko and Emperor Meiji's wedding was finally officially celebrated on 11 January 1869  She was the first imperial consort to receive the title of both nyōgō and of kōgō (literally, the emperor's wife, translated as "empress consort"), in several hundred years  However, it soon became clear that she was unable to bear children  Emperor Meiji already had 12 children by 5 concubines, though: as custom in Japanese monarchy, Empress Haruko adopted Yoshihito, her husband's eldest son by Lady Yanagihara Naruko, who became Crown Prince  On 8 November 1869, the Imperial House departed from Kyoto for the new capital of Tokyo  In a break from tradition, Emperor Meiji insisted that the Empress and the senior ladies-in-waiting should attend the educational lectures given to the Emperor on a regular basis about national conditions and developments in foreign nations 

Influence
On 30 July 1886, Empress Haruko attended the Peeresses School's graduation ceremony in Western clothing  On 10 August, the imperial couple received foreign guests in Western clothing for the first time when hosting a Western Music concert From this point onward, the Empress' entourage wore only Western-style clothes in public, to the point that in January 1887 
Empress Haruko issued a memorandum on the subject: traditional Japanese dress was not only unsuited to modern life, but Western-style dress was closer than the kimono to clothes worn by Japanese women in ancient times In the diplomatic field, Empress Haruko hosted the wife of former US President Ulysses S  Grant during his visit to Japan  She was also present for her husband's meetings with Hawaiian King Kalākaua in 1881  Later that same year, she helped host the visit of the sons of future British King Edward VII: Princes Albert Victor and George (future George V), who presented her with a pair of pet wallabies from Australia On  26 November 1886, Empress Haruko accompanied her husband to Yokosuka, Kanagawa to observe the new Imperial Japanese Navy cruisers Naniwa and Takachiho firing torpedoes and performing other maneuvers  From 1887, the Empress was often at the Emperor's side in official visits to army maneuvers  When Emperor Meiji fell ill in 1888, Empress Haruko took his place in welcoming envoys from Siam, launching warships and visiting Tokyo Imperial University  In 1889, Empress Haruko accompanied Emperor Meiji on his official visit to Nagoya and Kyoto  While he continued on to visit naval bases at Kure and Sasebo, she went to Nara to worship at the principal Shinto shrines Known throughout her tenure for her support of charity work and women's education during the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), Empress Haruko worked for the establishment of the Japanese Red Cross Society  She participated in the organization's administration, especially in their peacetime activities in which she created a money fund for the International Red Cross  Renamed "The Empress Shōken Fund", it is presently used for international welfare activities  After Emperor Meiji moved his military headquarters from Tokyo to Hiroshima to be closer to the lines of communications with his troops, Empress Haruko joined her husband in March 1895  While in Hiroshima, she insisted on visiting hospitals full of wounded soldiers every other day of her stay 

Death
After Emperor Meiji's death in 1912, Empress Haruko was granted the title Empress Dowager (皇太后, Kōtaigō) by her adoptive son, Emperor Taishō  She died in 1914 at the Imperial Villa in Numazu, Shizuoka and was buried in the East Mound of the Fushimi Momoyama Ryo in Fushimi, Kyoto, next to her husband  Her soul was enshrined in Meiji Shrine in Tokyo  On 9 May 1914, she received the posthumous name Shōken Kōtaigō (昭憲皇太后)  Her railway-carriage can be seen today in the Meiji Mura Museum, in Inuyama, Aichi prefecture 

Honours
National
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Precious Crown, 1 November 1888

Foreign
She received the following orders and decorations:
 Russian Empire: Grand Cross of the Order of St  Catherine, 13 December 1887
 Spain: Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 29 November 1889
 Siam: Dame of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 12 October 1899
 German Empire: Dame of the Order of Louise, 1st Class, 19 May 1903
 Kingdom of Bavaria: Dame of Honour of the Order of Theresa, 29 February 1904
 Korean Empire: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Auspicious Phoenix, 27 July 1908

Ancestry
See also
Empress of Japan
Ōmiya Palace

Notes
Passage 3:
Agatha (wife of Samuel of Bulgaria)
Agatha (Bulgarian: Агата, Greek: Άγάθη; fl  late 10th century) was the wife of Emperor Samuel of Bulgaria 

Biography
According to a later addition to the history of the late-11th-century Byzantine historian John Skylitzes, Agatha was a captive from Larissa, and the daughter of the magnate of Dyrrhachium, John Chryselios  Skylitzes explicitly refers to her as the mother of Samuel's heir Gavril Radomir, which means that she was probably Samuel's wife  On the other hand, Skylitzes later mentions that Gavril Radomir himself also took a beautiful captive, named Irene, from Larissa as his wife  According to the editors of the Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit, this may have been a source of confusion for a later copyist, and Agatha's real origin was not Larissa, but Dyrrhachium  According to the same work, it is likely that she had died by ca  998, when her father surrendered Dyrrhachium to the Byzantine emperor Basil II Only two of Samuel's and Agatha's children are definitely known by name: Gavril Radomir and Miroslava  Two further, unnamed, daughters are mentioned in 1018, while Samuel is also recorded as having had a bastard son Agatha is one of the central characters in Dimitar Talev's novel Samuil 
Passage 4:
Frank Wartenberg
Frank Wartenberg (born 29 May 1955 in Bülzig) is a retired East German long jumper 
He won the bronze medal at the 1976 Summer Olympics held in Montreal  He also won the 1973 European Junior Championships, finished eighth at the 1974 European Indoor Championships and 
fifth at the 1977 European Indoor Championships  He became East German champion in 1976 representing the sports club SC Chemie Halle His personal best jump was 8 18 metres, achieved in July 1976 in East Berlin In 1977 he married Christiane Wartenberg, née Stoll 
Passage 5:
Alma Wartenberg
Wilhelmine Catharina Alma Wartenberg (born Stähr; * 22 December 1871 in Ottensen; died 25 December 1928 in Altona) was a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany und Women's Rights Activists 

Life
Alma Wartenberg was born into a social democratic working class family with twelve children  She worked as a housemaid until she married the locksmith Ferdinand Wartenberg  They had four children
In Hamburg-Ottensen was crucially engaged in forming the proletarian women's movement  1902 to 1906 she was elected every year on women's congresses as a social democratic delegate for the constituency Ottensen/Pinneberg  Asagitator amongst working women, Wartenberg toured through the North-German state of Schleswig-Holstein and participated in women's conferences and party conventions as a delegate  1905 she initiated with others a campaign against the judgement of the Altona court to release four young and middle class men after they had been found guilty of the rape of a housemaid  During and after the campaign, Wartenberg supported a collaboration with the so-called "Radicals" of the middle class women's movement  This contradicted the official party policy and brought her in conflict with the party leadership  A procedure to expel her from the party was stopped  However, she was nonetheless forced to put down her responsibilities as a delegate 
Being denied to continue working as a delegate for the party, Wartenberg took action especially for maternity protection, birth control and sexual education  High infant mortality rate, widespread „women's suffering“ due to many births, miscarriages and a large number of illegal abortions, lack of information to sexual issues and missing government support had alarmed her  Again, she toured the country, this time with pictured slide shows, to educate about female anatomy, contraception and mother protection  Her shows drew hundreds of listeners  After her show she publicly sold contraception, even though the "sale or transmission of hygienic rubber articles" was liable to prosecution in the  German Empire  With this she didn't only antagonize the Empire's judiciary but also the association of doctors and especially ecclesiastic circles  Repeatedly she was prosecuted for „offense of public nuisance“  However, she insisted on every woman's right to decide over her body and number of births alone 
Again in contradiction with official party policy, Wartenberg supported the idea of a „birthing strike“ that was controversially discussed within social democracy as a protest against the compulsion to give birth propagated by the state 
In 1919, Alma Wartenberg became the SPD's delegate in the Altona Stadtverordnetenkollegium  In 1925 she was elected as the sole female member of the Landtag Schleswig-Holstein gewählt 
After a stroke she stepped back from all her responsibilities in 1927 and died in the following year 

Honours
In 1997, a public place was named after Alma Wartenberg 

Further reading
Inge Döll-Krämer: "Alma Wartenberg – sozialdemokratische „Vertrauensperson“ in Ottensen", in:  Aufgeweckt  Frauenalltag in vier Jahrhunderten  Ein Lesebuch  ergebnisse Verlag, Hamburg 1988, S  182–194 
Heike Haarhoff: "Späte Straßen-(Um)Taufe  Der neue Alma-Wartenberg-Platz wird heute gefeiert", in: taz (8  März 1997), Hamburg Spezial 66, S  42 
Robert Jütte: Lust ohne Last  Geschichte der Empfängnisverhütung  Beck, München 2003, S  257 
Gisela Notz (Hrsg ): Kalender 2005  Wegbereiterinnen III (PDF; 952 kB)  Bonn: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung 2004, Kalenderblatt für Oktober 
Rita Bake: Wer steckt dahinter? Nach Frauen benannte Straßen, Plätze und Brücken in Hamburg  Landeszentrale für politische Bildung, Hamburg 2005 (4  Auflage), S  20f 
"Wer war eigentlich    ? Alma Wartenberg (1871–1928)", in: Ottenser – das unabhängige Stadtteilmagazin 01 (Mai/Juni 2006) (PDF; 4,0 MB), S  13 
Bodo Schümann: "Wartenberg, Wilhelmine Catharina Alma"  In: Franklin Kopitzsch, Dirk Brietzke  Hamburgische Biografie, Personen-Lexikon  Wallstein, Göttingen 2012, ISBN 978-3-8353-1025-4, S  359–361 

External links

Biografie Wartenbergs auf der Seite des Stadtteilarchivs Ottensen
Passage 6:
Eunoë (wife of Bogudes)
Eunoë Maura was the wife of Bogudes, King of Western Mauretania  Her name has also been spelled Euries or Euryes or Eunoa 

Biography
Early life
Eunoë Maura was thought to be descended from Berbers, but her name is Greek so it appears she might have been from there or had Greek ancestry  She was likely of very high status, as she is mentioned by historian Suetonius in the same context as Cleopatra 

Marriage
At an unspecified early date in her marriage to her husband Bogud he mounted an expedition along the Atlantic coast, seemingly venturing into the tropics  When he returned he presented his wife Eunoë with gigantic reeds and asparagus he had found on the journey She is believed to have been a mistress of Julius Caesar  She may have replaced Cleopatra in Caesar's affections, when he arrived in North Africa prior to the Battle of Thapsus on 6 April 46 BC, the two were among several queens courted by Caesar  It is also possible that they first met in Spain if she accompanied her husband there on a campaign  Only a brief romance for the Roman, both Eunoe and Bogudes profited through gifts bestowed on them by Caesar  Caesar departed from Africa in June 46 BC, five and a half months after he landed 

Cultural depictions
Eunoë and Caesar's affair is greatly exaggerated and expanded on in the Medieval French prose work Faits des Romains  Jeanette Beer in her book A Medieval Caesar states that the Roman general is "transformed into Caesar, the medieval chevalier" in the text, and that the author is more interested in Caesar's sexual dominance over the queen than the political dominance he held over her husband Bogud  The text describes her; "Eunoe was the most beautiful woman in four kingdoms — nevertheless, she was Moorish", which Beer further analysed as being indicative of the fact that it was unimaginable to audiences of the time to believe that a lover of Caesar could be ugly, but that Moors still represented everything that was ugly to them Eunoë has also been depicted in several novels about Caesar, as well as serialized stories in The Cornhill Magazine  In such fiction her character often serves as a foil for the relationship between Caesar and another woman, mostly Cleopatra, such as in The Memoirs of Cleopatra, The Bloodied Toga and When We Were Gods  In Song of the Nile she also plays a posthumous role as a person of interest for Cleopatra's daughter Selene II who became queen of Mauritania after her Eunoe has also been depicted in a numismatic drawing by Italian artist and polymath Jacopo Strada, who lived in the 16th century  There is however no archaeological evidence of a coin that bears her name or picture 

See also
Women in ancient Rome
Passage 7:
Hafsa Hatun
Hafsa Hatun (Ottoman Turkish: حفصه خاتون, "young lioness") was a Turkish princess, and a consort of Bayezid I, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire 

Life
Hafsa Hatun was the daughter of Isa Bey, the ruler of the Aydinids  She was married to Bayezid in 1390, upon his conquest of the Aydinids  Her father had surrendered without a fight, and a marriage was arranged between her and Bayezid  Thereafter, Isa was sent into exile in Iznik, shorn of his power, where he subsequently died  Her marriage strengthened the bonds between the two families 

Charities
Hafsa Hatun's public works are located within her father's territory and may have been built before she married Bayezid  She commissioned a fountain in Tire city and a Hermitage in Bademiye, and a mosque known as "Hafsa Hatun Mosque" between 1390 and 1392 from the money she received in her dowry 

See also
Ottoman dynasty
Ottoman Empire
Passage 8:
Artaynte
Artaynte (f  478 BC), was the wife of the Crown Prince Darius 

Life
Daughter of an unnamed woman and Prince Masistes, a marshall of the armies during the invasion of Greece in 480-479 BC, and the brother of King Xerxes I 
During the Greek campaign Xerxes developed a passionate desire for the wife of Masistes, but she would constantly resist and would not bend to his will  Upon his return to Sardis, the king endeavoured to bring about the marriage of his son Daris to Artaynte, the daughter of this woman the wife of Masistes, supposing that by doing so he could obtain her more easily 
After moving to Susa he brought Artaynte to the royal house with him for his son Daris, but fell in love with her himself, and after obtaining her they became lovers  
At the behest of Xerxes, Artaynte committed adultery with him (Xerxes)  When queen Amestris found out, she did not seek revenge against Artaynte, but against her mother, Masistes' wife, as Amestris thought that it was her connivance  On Xerxes' birthday, Amestris sent for his guards and mutilated Masistes' wife by cutting off her breasts and threw them to dogs, and her nose and ears and lips also, and cutting out her tongue as well  On seeing this, Masistes fled to Bactria to start a revolt, but was intercepted by Xerxes' army who killed him and his sons 
Passage 9:
Catherine Exley
Catherine Exley (1779–1857) was an English diarist  She was the wife of a soldier who accompanied her husband when he served in Portugal, Spain, and Ireland during the Napoleonic Wars  Exley is best known as the author of a diary that gives an account of military life in that era from the viewpoint of the wife of a common soldier 

Background
Catherine Whitaker was born at Leeds in 1779 and married Joshua Exley there in 1806  Between  1805 and 1815, Joshua served in the Second Battalion of the 34th Regiment of Foot, initially as a private and then for a little over two years, as a corporal  Exley accompanied her husband for a substantial portion of this time and in due course wrote an account that is probably unique in that it records and reflects on life in the British Army from the perspective of the wife of a soldier who did not reach the rank of an officer 

The diary
Catherine's diary was first published as a booklet issued shortly after her death  A single copy of the booklet is known to exist, it was also reprinted in The Dewsbury Reporter during August 1923  The text of the diary is included in full in a more recently issued book, edited by Professor Rebecca Probert, along with essays on its military and religious context, the treatment of prisoners of war and the role of women in the British, French and Spanish armed forces during the Peninsular War 
The diary unfolds the hardships that both Catherine and her husband suffered during his military service, including one period when they both wrongly thought that the other had died  There are detailed accounts of the births and deaths of children, the cold, hunger and filthy conditions of military life and the horror of the aftermaths of battles  Details of the author's religious experiences which led her to membership of the Methodist church also appear  Exley wrote the diary during the last 20 years before her death, which took place in 1857 at Batley, Yorkshire 
Passage 10:
Elke Büdenbender
Elke Büdenbender (born 14 January 1962) is a German jurist, and, since 1995, the wife of Frank-Walter Steinmeier, the current President of Germany 

Early life
Büdenbender attended intermediate secondary school in Siegen, after which she trained as an industrial clerk at a company in the machine building industry in Siegen  In 1982 she attended Siegerland College in Siegen and then worked as a clerk at a logistics company  In 1985, she began her degree in law at Justus Liebig University in Giessen, where she passed her first state law examination in 1991 

Career
From 1987, Büdenbender worked as a student assistant and later as a research assistant to Professor Brun-Otto Bryde at the Chair of Public Law  She completed her practical legal training at Hanover Regional Court in 1994, when she passed her second state law examination  
Thereafter, Büdenbender worked as a judge at Hanover Administrative Court  She has been a judge at Berlin Administrative Court since 2000  She is currently on long-term leave in order to devote her time to being the first lady 

Other activities
German-Israeli Future Forum, Member of the Board of Trustees

Personal life
In 1995 Büdenbender married Frank-Walter Steinmeier, who was elected as the twelfth President of the Federal Republic of Germany on 12 February 2017  They have one daughter  On 24 August 2010, she received a kidney transplant that was donated by her husband 

Honours
Foreign Honours
 Denmark: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog (19 November 2021)
 Finland: Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland (17 September 2018)
 Iceland: Grand Cross of the Order of the Falcon (16 June 2019)
 Italy: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (17 September 2019)
 Latvia: Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Three Stars (19 February 2019)
 Netherlands: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown (5 July 2021)
 Spain: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (11 October 2022)
 Sweden: Commander Grand Cross of the Royal Order of the Polar Star (7 September 2021)
Context 3: Passage 1:
Fernando Augusto de Castro Ribeiro
Fernando Augusto de Castro Ribeiro (born 30 March 1997), better known as Fernando Castro or just Fernando, is a Brazilian footballer who plays as a goalkeeper 

Club career
Born in Orlândia, São Paulo, Fernando Castro joined Santos' youth setup in 2010, from Botafogo-SP  On 1 March 2016, he renewed his contract with the club until the end of 2018 On 19 April 2018, Fernando Castro signed a two-year contract with fellow Série A club Bahia, after terminating his contract with Peixe  He made his professional debut on 2 September, coming on as a half-time substitute for injured Douglas Friedrich in a 2–0 away defeat to Atlético Paranaense On 13 June 2020, after being mainly a third-choice, Fernando Castro moved abroad and joined Liga Portugal 2 side Arouca on a three-year contract 

Personal life
Fernando Castro's mother Solange was a professional basketball player, and appeared in the 1983 Pan American Games  She died in 2017 due to a lymphoma 

Career statistics
As of 16 November 2020

Honours
BahiaCampeonato Baiano: 2018, 2019, 2020
Passage 2:
Jadson Viera
Jadson Viera Castro or simply Jadson (born 4 August 1981) is an Uruguayan retired football defender born in Brazil and current football coach  He is currently the assistant coach of Talleres 

Biography
Jadson was born in Santana do Livramento, a city located in the south of the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul, along the border with the Uruguayan city of Rivera 
Jadson started his professional career in 2001 with Danubio in Uruguay, during his time with the club he has helped them to win 2 Apertura, 3 Clausura and 2 overall Uruguayan league championships 
Jadson spent part of 2005 on loan to Atlante in Mexico before returning to Uruguay in 2006 
After helping Danubio to claim the overall league championship in 2007, Jadson moved to Argentina to join Club Atlético Lanús where he helped the club to win the Apertura 2007 tournament, their first ever top flight league title 
In July 2010, he signed with Vasco da Gama 

Coaching career
After retiring, Viera was appointed assistant coach at Nacional under manager Alexander Medina  The duo left the club at the end of the year 
Viera followed Alexander Medina to Argentina club Talleres de Córdoba in June 2019 

Minor titles
National titles
Passage 3:
Henry Moore (cricketer)
Henry Walter Moore (1849 – 20 August 1916) was an English-born first-class cricketer who spent most of his life in New Zealand 

Life and family
Henry Moore was born in Cranbrook, Kent, in 1849  He was the son of the Reverend Edward Moore and Lady Harriet Janet Sarah Montagu-Scott, who was one of the daughters of the 4th Duke of Buccleuch  One of his brothers, Arthur, became an admiral and was knighted  Their great 
grandfather was John Moore, Archbishop of Canterbury from 1783 to 1805  One of their sisters was a maid of honour to Queen Victoria Moore went to New Zealand in the 1870s and lived in Geraldine and Christchurch  He married Henrietta Lysaght of Hāwera in November 1879, and they had one son  In May 1884 she died a few days after giving birth to a daughter, who also died In 1886 Moore became a Justice of the Peace in Geraldine  In 1897 he married Alice Fish of Geraldine  They moved to England four years before his death in 1916 

Cricket career
Moore was a right-handed middle-order batsman  In consecutive seasons, 1876–77 and 1877–78, playing for Canterbury, he made the highest score in the short New Zealand first-class season: 76 and 75 respectively  His 76 came in his first match for Canterbury, against Otago  He went to the wicket early on the first day with the score at 7 for 2 and put on 99 for the third wicket with Charles Corfe before he was out with the score at 106 for 3 after a "very fine exhibition of free hitting, combined with good defence"  Canterbury were all out for 133, but went on to win the match  His 75 came in the next season's match against Otago, when he took the score from 22 for 2 to 136 for 6  The New Zealand cricket historian Tom Reese said, "Right from the beginning he smote the bowling hip and thigh, going out of his ground to indulge in some forceful driving " Canterbury won again Moore led the batting averages in the Canterbury Cricket Association in 1877–78 with 379 runs at an average of 34 4  Also in 1877–78, he was a member of the Canterbury team that inflicted the only defeat on the touring Australians  In 1896–97, at the age of 47, he top-scored in each innings for a South Canterbury XVIII against the touring Queensland cricket team 
Passage 4:
Damir Nikšić
Damir Nikšić (born 6 December 1970) is a Bosnian conceptual artist, standup comedian, blogger and politician  One of his best known art works is a seven-minute-long video entitled "If I wasn't muslim" (2005) Since 2022, Nikšić has been a member of Our Party, a social-liberal party that is a member of the ALDE group of European parties  Previously, from 2018 to 2019, he was a member of the Social Democratic Party 

Biography
General
Nikšić was born 6 December 1970 in Brezovo Polje, Brčko  He was a student at fine arts academies in Sarajevo, Milan and Bologna  In 2000 he graduated at Academy of Fine Arts Sarajevo, Painting department  He has lived in the USA 2000–2004; he has studied as a postgraduate at the University of Arizona (UA) until 2004  He magistered fine arts and art history in 2004 at UA; after that, he gave lectures at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois  He was a member of Maxumim art group  He exhibited at Venice Film Festival in 2003 international selection  He works and lives in Sarajevo 

Education
In 2000 he acquired a BFA degree from Academy of Fine Arts Sarajevo and moved as a graduate student to Indiana, Pennsylvania, USA  In 2001 he moved to Tucson, Arizona, where he graduated at the University of Arizona in May 2004  In 2004 he moved to Chicago, Illinois 

Sing Sing
Nikšić was a co-founder and member (vocal singer) of rhythm and blues band "Sing Sing"  The band played four concerts in CDA Mladost 

Maxumim
Damir Nikšić is also a co-founder of Maxumim art group, together with Anur Hadžiomerspahić, Anela Šabić, Ajna Zlatar, Eldina Begić, Dejan Vekić, Almir Kurt, Samir Plasto, Hamdija Pašić, Rachel Rossner, Nebojša Šerić, Suzana Cerić, Alma Fazlić, Zlatan Filipović  In 1997, the group has its first exhibition "Maxumim I," at Collegium Artisticum, Sarajevo, which would be followed up in 1998 with "Maxumim II," and in 1999/2000 with "Maxumim III," at Collegium Artisticum, Sarajevo; Pavarotti Music Center, Mostar; Bosnian Cultural Center, Tuzla; City Gallery, Zenica; City Gallery, Bihać 

Other activities
In 2011, he protested regarding the closing of the Art Gallery of Bosnia and Herzegovina, setting up daily video updates 

Work method – criticism
He mostly presents his art through YouTube and social networks, where he uploads short videos and comments of humorous character in which he seriously and symbolically refers to the reality of Bosnia and Herzegovina  He also commented on the attack on Serbian Prime Minister Aleksandar Vučić during his visit to the event marking the 20th anniversary of the Srebrenica crime, saying in his video Srebrni pir: Manipulacija razjedinjenih nacija ("Silver Feast: A Disunited Nations Manipulation") published on 13 July 2015 that "a corrida was made of Potočari"; this has received a notable media attention in his home and neighbouring countries 

Political engagement
In mid-2016, he decided to run for mayor of the Sarajevo Center Municipality, as a "libertarian, individualist and anarchist " In an interview with the BiH portal Klix ba, he said the following:
I am someone who is an individualist, someone who really believes in individualism, not collectivism  I became disappointed with the collective and became a great cynic and individualist  (   ) The state is giving more money to that kind of smeared folklore tradition where some imaginary people are celebrated, somewhere out there    some tribe in the forest or on the mountain or in a small village, but no one is really that people, so that's a good place to hunt in the murky and money laundering  For this reason, an individual is important, he can engage in dialogue, while the people cannot, because they cannot speak unison  (   ) We have very big fascist problems on our own soil and I have no intention of hiding, as some 'Bosniak', what 'my' [people is] are doing to me and insisting on what 'another' [one] is doing to us  No, it's all individual, and I want to set some parameters for you by my own example, on how to combat it both through art and through politics 
His goal, he said, was to make a more European city of Sarajevo and prevent the feudalisation of BiH, and that his office would always be covered by a camera whose footage would be broadcast online so that citizens could watch the "one municipality mayor's reality show" live  He did not win 2016 elections, but later became a member of the Sarajevo Canton Assembly  From 23 May 2018, until his expulsion on 16 March 2019, Nikšić was a member of the Social Democratic Party  He announced his candidacy for mayor of the same municipality in the 2020 elections 

Philosophy
Nikšić's political philosophy aims for others to understand that one is living in a crisis of civil society and thus the civil state, that is—ethnocracy is present instead of democracy  Instead of the idea of people and collectivism, he advocates individualism and the notion of citizens as individuals, calling the ideology he follows "liberal progressive individualist discourse" and "stratoseparatism "

Most notable works
If I wasn't muslim (2005)
Krunisanje Kralja Tvrtka (2007)
Totalitarni fatalizam (2015)

Songs
"Ta to ti" (2012)
"Gdje si" (2012)
"Sjedio sam u kafani sam" (2013)
"Na rubu plača" (2015)
"Stranac u svome plemenu" (2016) - izvedba pjesme grupe Major (autor: Masa Mor)
"Još jedna revolucionarna" (2018)
"Hastahana" [demo] (2020)
Passage 5:
Wale Adebanwi
Wale Adebanwi (born 1969) is a Nigerian-born first Black Rhodes Professor at St Antony's College, Oxford where he was, until June 2021, a Professor of Race Relations, and the Director of the African Studies Centre, School of Interdisciplinary Area Studies, and a Governing Board Fellow  He is currently a Presidential Penn Compact Professor of Africana Studies at the University of Pennsylvania  Adebanwi's research focuses on a range of topics in the areas of social change, nationalism and ethnicity, race relations, identity politics, elites and cultural politics, democratic process, newspaper press and spatial politics in Africa 

Education background
Wale Adebanwi graduated with a first degree in Mass Communication from the University of Lagos, and later earned his M



ground_truth: Prenzlau

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who is Gisela Of Hungary's father-in-law?

The following are given passages.
Context 2: Passage 1:
Ogawa Mataji
Viscount Ogawa Mataji (小川又次, 22 August 1848 – 20 October 1909) was a general in the early Imperial Japanese Army  He was also the father-in-law of Field Marshal Gen Sugiyama 

Life and military career
Ogawa was born to a samurai family; his father was a retainer to the daimyō of Kokura Domain, in what is now Kitakyushu, Fukuoka  He studied rangaku under Egawa Hidetatsu and fought as a Kokura samurai against the forces of Chōshū Domain during the Bakumatsu period 
After the Meiji Restoration, Ogawa attended the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in January 1871 and promoted to lieutenant in February 1874  He participated in the Taiwan Expedition of April 1874  Afterwards, he served with the IJA 1st Infantry Regiment under the Tokyo Garrison, and as a battalion commander with the IJA 13th Infantry Regiment from April 1876  From February 1877, he fought in the Satsuma Rebellion, but was wounded in combat in April and promoted to major the same month 
In March 1878, Ogawa was Deputy Chief-of-Staff to the Kumamoto Garrison  He was sent as a military attaché to Beijing from April to July 1880  In February 1881, he was promoted to lieutenant-colonel and chief of staff of the Osaka Garrison  In March 1882, he was chief of staff of the Hiroshima Garrison  Promoted to colonel in October 1884, he was assigned the IJA 8th Infantry Regiment  In May 1885, he joined the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office  German General Jakob Meckel, hired by the Japanese government as a foreign advisor and instructor in the Imperial Japanese Army Academy highly praised Ogawa and fellow colonel Kodama Gentarō as the two most outstanding officers in the Imperial Japanese Army  Ogawa was especially noted for his abilities as a military strategist and planner, and earned the sobriquet “the modern Kenshin") from General Kawakami Soroku 

First Sino-Japanese War
Ogawa was promoted to major general in June 1890, and given command of the IJA 4th Infantry Brigade, followed by command of the 1st Guards Brigade  At the start of the First Sino-Japanese War in August 1894, he was chief of staff of the Japanese First Army  In August 1895, he was elevated to the kazoku peerage with the title of danshaku (baron)  He commanded the 2nd Guards Brigade from January 1896 and was subsequently promoted to lieutenant general in April 1897, assuming command of the IJA 4th Infantry Division  In May 1903, he was awarded the Order of the Sacred Treasures, first class 

Russo-Japanese War
During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, Ogawa retained command of the IJA 4th Division under the Japanese Second Army of General Oku Yasukata   The division was in combat at the Battle of Nanshan, Battle of Telissu and Battle of Liaoyang  At the Battle of Liaoyang, Ogawa was injured in combat, and forced to relinquish his command and return to Tokyo  In January 1905, he was promoted to general, but took a medical leave from December 1905  He was awarded the Order of the Golden Kite, 2nd class in 1906   In September 1907 he was elevated to viscount (shishaku) He officially retired in November 
Ogawa died on 20 October 1909 due to peritonitis after being hospitalized for dysentery  His grave is located at Aoyama Cemetery in Tokyo, and he also has a grave in his hometown of Kokura 

Decorations
1885 –  Order of the Rising Sun, 3rd class  
1895 –  Order of the Sacred Treasure, 2nd class 
1895 –  Order of the Rising Sun, 2nd class 
1895 –  Order of the Golden Kite, 3rd class 
1903 –  Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure 
1906 –  Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun
1906 –  Order of the Golden Kite, 2nd class
Passage 2:
Ludwig von Westphalen
Johann Ludwig von Westphalen (11 July 1770 – 3 March 1842) was a liberal Prussian civil servant and the father-in-law of Karl Marx 

Biography
Early life
Johann Ludwig von Westphalen was born on 11 July 1770 in Bornum am Elm  He was the youngest son of Philipp von Westphalen (1724–92), who himself was the son of a Blankenburg postmaster  Philipp von Westphalen had been ennobled in 1764 with the predicate Edler von Westphalen by Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick for his military services  He had served as the duke's de facto "chief of staff" during the Seven Years' War  Through his mother, Jane Wishart of Pittarrow, he was the descendant of many Scottish and European noble families He received extensive education and spoke German and English, and read Latin, Greek, Italian, French and Spanish  He studied at the Collegium Carolinum, the forerunner of today's Braunschweig University of Technology, and at Göttingen 

Career
In 1794, he entered government's service in Brunswick  In 1797 he married Elisabeth von Veltheim, who bore him four children  In 1804 he entered the government service of the Duchy of Brunswick and Lunenburg (Wolfenbüttel) 
With the establishment of the Napoleonic state in Westphalia (the Kingdom of Westphalia) in 1807, he entered its service  He was likely motivated in this by a desire to see reforms carried out  He did, however, oppose the French dominance of the local government, and other policies, and for his critique he was eventually arrested by orders from Louis-Nicolas Davout and imprisoned in the fortress of Gifhorn  In the same year, he lost his first wife  In the summer of 1809 Louis was appointed sub-prefect of Salzwedel, where three years later in 1812 he married Karoline Heubel; they had three children  After Salzwedel was again under Prussian administration, in 1816 Ludwig von Westphalen was transferred to the newly established regional government in Trier 

Personal life
It was in Trier that he met and befriended Heinrich Marx, the father of Karl Marx  The children of the respective families, in particular Jenny and Edgar von Westphalen, and Sophie and Karl Marx, became close friends as well  In 1836, Jenny von Westphalen and Karl Marx became engaged; at first secretly but Ludwig approved the marriage in 1837, even though some saw Marx, who was both middle class and younger than her, as well as of Jewish descent, as an inappropriate partner for the noble daughter  In fact, Ludwig was seen as the mentor and role model of Karl Marx, who referred to him as a "dear fatherly friend"  Ludwig filled Marx with enthusiasm for the romantic school and read him Homer and Shakespeare, who remained Marx's favorite authors all his life  Marx also read Voltaire and Racine with Ludwig  Ludwig devoted much of his time to the young Marx and the two went for intellectual walks through "the hills and woods" of the neighbourhood  It was Ludwig who first introduced Marx to the personality and socialist teachings of Saint-Simon  Marx dedicated his doctoral thesis "The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature" written in 1841 to Ludwig in a most effusive manner in which Marx wrote "You, my fatherly friend, have always been for me the living proof that idealism is no illusion, but the true reality" In 1842, Marx was present at the deathbed of Ludwig von Westphalen  Jenny and Karl became married in 1843, a year after Ludwig's death 
He was the father of Ferdinand von Westphalen, a conservative and reactionary Prussian Minister of the Interior 

Death
He died on 3 March 1842 in Trier 
Passage 3:
Barthold A  Butenschøn Sr 
Hans Barthold Andresen Butenschøn (27 December 1877 – 28 November 1971) was a Norwegian businessperson 
He was born in Kristiania as a son of Nils August Andresen Butenschøn and Hanna Butenschøn, and grandson of Nicolay Andresen  Together with Mabel Anette Plahte (1877–1973, a daughter of Frithjof M  Plahte) he had the son Hans Barthold Andresen Butenschøn Jr  and was through him the father-in-law of Ragnhild Butenschøn and grandfather of Peter Butenschøn  Through his daughter Marie Claudine he was the father-in-law of Joakim Lehmkuhl, through his daughter Mabel Anette he was the father-in-law of Harald Astrup (a son of Sigurd Astrup) and through his daughter Nini Augusta he was the father-in-law of Ernst Torp He took commerce school and agricultural school  He was hired in the family company N  A  Andresen & Co, and became a co-owner in 1910  He eventually became chief executive officer  The bank changed its name to Andresens Bank in 1913 and merged with Bergens Kreditbank in 1920  The merger was dissolved later in the 1920s  He was also a landowner, owning Nedre Skøyen farm and a lot of land in Enebakk  He chaired the board of Nydalens Compagnie from 1926, having not been a board member before that He also chaired the supervisory council of Forsikringsselskapet Viking and Nedre Glommen salgsforening, and was a supervisory council member of Filharmonisk Selskap  He was a member of the gentlemen's club SK Fram since 1890, and was proclaimed a lifetime member in 1964 He was buried in Enebakk 
Passage 4:
James Armour (Master mason)
James Armour (15 January 1731 – 20 September 1798) was a master mason and father of Jean Armour, and therefore the father-in-law of the poet Robert Burns  His birth year was shown here as 1730  The Scotland's People database has no record of this year of birth for a James Armour  Wikitree and several other data sources have his birth date as 10th/24th January 1731  The Scotland's People database has this record but showing his baptism on 24 January 1731  His birth on the original Old Parish Record is shown as 15 January 1731 to John Armour and Margrat(sic) Picken in Kilmarnock  James named his first son John which would normally be after James's father i e  John  The chances of there being two James's born on exactly the same date exactly one year apart appear very remote and the naming of the first child seems to validate the conclusion that James Armour was born in 1731 and not 1730 

Life and background
At Mauchline on 7 December 1761 he married Mary Smith, the daughter of stonemason Adam Smith  James died on 30 September 1798 and was buried in the family lair in Mauchline churchyard  His wife died in 1805 and was buried with her husband 

Family
James' eleven offspring with Mary, were, in birth order, John, Jean, James, Robert, Adam, Helen, Mary, Robert (2nd), Mary (2nd), Janet and Robert (3rd)  Three siblings died in childhood  Dr John Armour was the eldest son who was born in Mauchline on 14 November 1762 and died in 1834  He had his practice in Kincardine-on-Forth where he died and was buried  He had two children, Janet and John, and married Janet Coventry on 10 March 1787  James and Mary's son James was born in Mauchline on 26 April 1767, married Betthaia Walker in 1794, Martha in 1818 and Janet in 1822  Their offspring were James and Betthaia  Adam Armour was named after Adam Smith, James Armour's father-in-law The Armours' single-storey house stood in Cowgate, separated from John Dove's Whitefoord Arms by a narrow lane  Jean's bedroom window looked on to a window of the inn, thereby allowing Burns to converse with her from the public house itself  The Whitefoord Inn was often frequented by Burns and was also the meeting place of the so-called Court of Equity and linked to a significant incident in the life of Jean's brother Adam regarding the mistreatment of Agnes Wilson 

Occupation and social standing
James was a master mason and contractor rather than an architect, regardless of Burns' attempts to describe him as one  He is known to have carried out contract work at Dumfries House near Cumnock and tradition links him to the building of Howford Bridge on the River Ayr, Greenan Bridge on the River Doon; Skeldon House, Dalrymple; and several other bridges in Ayrshire  Both the Armours and his wife's family had been stone-masons for several generations  William Burnes, Robert Burns' cousin, was apprenticed to James Armour James was an adherent of the 'Auld Licht' style of religion and rented at 10/8 per year one of the most expensive pews in Mauchline church  James was rigid and austere, apparently living an exemplary life  Robert Burns-Begg, Burns' great-nephew, states that in contrast to her husband, Mary Armour was "Partaken somewhat of the gay and frivolous " William 'Willie' Patrick, a source of many anecdotes about Robert and his family, stated about James that "he was only a bit mason body, wha used to snuff a guid deal and gae afen tak a bit dram!" He went on to say regarding James' attitude to Robert Burns that "The thing was, he hated him, and would raither hae seen the Deil himsel comin to the hoose to coort his dochter than him! He cu'dna bear the sicht o'm, and that was the way he did it!" 

Association with Robert Burns
James had disapproved of Burns's courtship of Jean, being aware of his affair with Elizabeth Paton, his 'New Licht' leanings and his poor financial situation  When informed in March 1786 by his distraught wife that Jean was pregnant he fainted and upon recovering consciousness and being given a strong cordial drink he enquired who the father was, fainting again when he was told that it was Robert Burns  The couple persuaded Jean to travel to Paisley and lodge with their relative Andrew Purdie, husband of her aunt Elizabeth Smith  Robert Wilson lived in Paisley, a possible suitor who had shown a romantic interest in Jean previously, appears to have been only part of the reason for this action, for on 8 April Mary Armour had vehemently denied to James Lamie, a member of the Kirk Session, that Jean was pregnant 

Robert Burns produced a paper, probably a record of their "Marriage by Declaration" possibly witnessed by James Smith  This document, no longer extant, was defaced under James Armour's direction, probably by the lawyer Robert Aitken, with the names of both Robert and Jean being cut out  This act did not in fact effect its legality   Robert wrote that James Armour's actions had "   cut my very veins", a feeling enhanced by Jean having handed over "the unlucky paper" and had agreed to go to Paisley 
James Armour in the meantime forced his daughter to sign a complaint and a warrant "in meditatione fugae" against Robert was issued to prevent his abandoning her  Burns fled to Old Rome Forest near Gatehead in South Ayrshire, where Jean Brown, Agnes Broun's half-sister and therefore an aunt of Burns, lived with her husband, James Allan 
Twins were born to Jean and Robert on 3 September 1786, named after their parents as was the kirk's protocol for children born out of wedlock  Robert, notified of the birth by Adam Armour, that Sunday went to the Armour's house with a gift of tea, sugar and a Guinea that proved most acceptable   Robert only returned from Edinburgh in the summer of 1787 to find that he was, thanks to his newly found fame as a published poet, actively welcomed into the family 
Jean however fell pregnant out of official wedlock once more, with the result that she felt forced to leave the Armour's home due to her father's anger  She was taken in by Willie Muir and his wife at Tarbolton Mill  It had previously been agreed that baby Jean would stay with her mother and baby Robert would join Bess at Mossgiel  The second set of twins did not live long and are buried, unnamed, in the Armour lair in Mauchline churchyard  Robert was in Edinburgh and did not arrive back until 23 February 1788; he then arranged accommodation for Jean Whilst at the Brow Well Robert Burns wrote two of his last letters to his father-in-law asking that Mary Armour, who was away visiting relatives in Fife, be sent to Dumfries to help care for Jean who was heavily pregnant  On 10 July 1796 his last letter was signed "Your most affectionate son  R  Burns "Upon the death of Robert Burnes his nephew Robert arranged for his cousin William to become a mason or building worker, working with James Armour, Burns' father-in-law 

The Inveraray marble Punch Bowl
Of the many surviving Robert Burns artefacts few have such distinguished provenance as the punch bowl that was a nuptial gift in 1788 from James Armour to his daughter Jean and her new husband Robert Burns  As a stone-mason James had carved it himself (22cm x 14cm ) from dark green Inveraray marble and after residing at their various homes, Jean in 1801 presented it to her husband's great friend and Burns family benefactor Alexander Cunningham whilst she was on a visit to Edinburgh and staying with George Thomson  He had it mounted with a silver base and a rim, engraved upon which are the words “Ye whom social pleasure charms    Come to my Bowl! Come to my arms, My FRIENDS, my BROTHERS!” taken from Burns’s “The Epistle to J  Lapraik ”Alexander died in 1812 and it was then sold at auction in 1815 for the impressive price of 80 Guineas to a London publican who, falling upon hard times,  sold it to Archibald Hastie Esq of London  A copy is held by the Robert Burns Birthplace Museum at Alloway, whilst the original is in the British Museum in London, presented to that institution by Archibald Hastie in 1858 

See also
Adam Armour
Jean Armour
Robert Burnes
William Burnes
Passage 5:
Stephen I of Hungary
Stephen I, also known as King Saint Stephen (Hungarian: Szent István király [ˌsɛnt ˈiʃtvaːn kiraːj]; Latin: Sanctus Stephanus; Slovak: Štefan I  or Štefan Veľký; c  975 – 15 August 1038), was the last Grand Prince of the Hungarians between 997 and 1000 or 1001, and the first King of Hungary from 1000 or 1001, until his death in 1038  The year of his birth is uncertain, but many details of his life suggest that he was born in, or after, 975, in Esztergom  He was given the pagan name Vajk at birth, but the date of his baptism is unknown  He was the only son of Grand Prince Géza and his wife, Sarolt, who was descended from a prominent family of gyulas  Although both of his parents were baptized, Stephen was the first member of his family to become a devout Christian  He married Gisela of Bavaria, a scion of the imperial Ottonian dynasty 
After succeeding his father in 997, Stephen had to fight for the throne against his relative, Koppány, who was supported by large numbers of pagan warriors  He defeated Koppány with the assistance of foreign knights including Vecelin, Hont and Pázmány, and native lords  He was crowned on 25 December 1000 or 1 January 1001 with a crown sent by Pope Sylvester II  In a series of wars against semi-independent tribes and chieftains—including the Black Hungarians and his uncle, Gyula the Younger—he unified the Carpathian Basin  He protected the independence of his kingdom by forcing the invading troops of Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor, to withdraw from Hungary in 1030 
Stephen established at least one archbishopric, six bishoprics and three Benedictine monasteries, leading the Church in Hungary to develop independently from the archbishops of the Holy Roman Empire  He encouraged the spread of Christianity by meting out severe punishments for ignoring Christian customs  His system of local administration was based on counties organized around fortresses and administered by royal officials  Hungary enjoyed a lasting period of peace during his reign, and became a preferred route for pilgrims and merchants traveling between Western Europe, the Holy Land and Constantinople 
He survived all of his children, dying on 15 August 1038 aged 62 or 63  He was buried in his new basilica, built in Székesfehérvár and dedicated to the Holy Virgin  His death was followed by civil wars which lasted for decades  He was canonized by Pope Gregory VII, together with his son, Emeric, and Bishop Gerard of Csanád, in 1083  Stephen is a popular saint in Hungary and neighboring territories  In Hungary, his feast day (celebrated on 20 August) is also a public holiday commemorating the foundation of the state, known as State Foundation Day 

Early years (c  975–997)
Stephen's birth date is uncertain as it was not recorded in contemporaneous documents  Hungarian and Polish chronicles written centuries later give three different years: 967, 969 and 975  The unanimous testimony of his three late 11th-century or early 12th-century hagiographies and other Hungarian sources, which state that Stephen was "still an adolescent" in 997, substantiate the reliability of the latest year (975)  Stephen's Lesser Legend adds that he was born in Esztergom, which implies that he was born after 972 because his father, Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians, chose Esztergom as royal residence around that year  Géza promoted the spread of Christianity among his subjects by force, but never ceased worshipping pagan gods  Both his son's Greater Legend and the nearly contemporaneous Thietmar of Merseburg described Géza as a cruel monarch, suggesting that he was a despot who mercilessly consolidated his authority over the rebellious Hungarian lords Hungarian chronicles agree that Stephen's mother was Sarolt, daughter of Gyula, a Hungarian chieftain with jurisdiction either in Transylvania or in the wider region of the confluence of the rivers Tisza and Maros  Many historians—including Pál Engel and Gyula Kristó—propose that her father was identical with "Gylas", who had been baptized in Constantinople around 952 and "remained faithful to Christianity", according to Byzantine chronicler John Skylitzes  However, this identification is not unanimously accepted; historian György Györffy states that it was not Sarolt's father, but his younger brother, who was baptized in the Byzantine capital  In contrast with all Hungarian sources, the Polish-Hungarian Chronicle and later Polish sources state that Stephen's mother was Adelhaid, an otherwise unknown sister of Duke Mieszko I of Poland, but the reliability of this report is not accepted by modern historians 

Stephen was born as Vajk, a name derived from the Turkic word baj, meaning "hero", "master", "prince" or "rich"  Stephen's Greater Legend narrates that he was baptized by the saintly Bishop Adalbert of Prague, who stayed in Géza's court several times between 983 and 994  However, Saint Adalbert's nearly contemporaneous Legend, written by Bruno of Querfurt, does not mention this event  Accordingly, the date of Stephen's baptism is unknown: Györffy argues that he was baptized soon after birth, while Kristó proposes that he only received baptism just before his father's death in 997 Stephen's official hagiography, written by Bishop Hartvic and sanctioned by Pope Innocent III, narrates that he "was fully instructed in the knowledge of the grammatical art" in his childhood  This implies that he studied Latin, though some scepticism is warranted as few kings of this era were able to write  His two other late 11th-century hagiographies do not mention any grammatical studies, stating only that he "was brought up by receiving an education appropriate for a little prince"  Kristó says that the latter remark only refers to Stephen's physical training, including his participation in hunts and military actions  According to the Illuminated Chronicle, one of his tutors was a Count Deodatus from Italy, who later founded a monastery in Tata According to Stephen's legends, Grand Prince Géza convoked an assembly of the Hungarian chieftains and warriors when Stephen "ascended to the first stage of adolescence", at the age of 14 or 15  Géza nominated Stephen as his successor and all those present took an oath of loyalty to the young prince  Györffy writes, without identifying his source, that Géza appointed his son to rule the "Nyitra ducate" around that time  Slovak historians, including Ján Steinhübel and Ján Lukačka, accept Györffy's view and propose that Stephen administered Nyitra (now Nitra, Slovakia) from around 995 Géza arranged Stephen's marriage, to Gisela, daughter of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria, in or after 995  This marriage established the first family link between a Hungarian ruler and a Western European ruling house, as Gisela was closely related to the Ottonian dynasty of Holy Roman Emperors  According to popular tradition preserved in the Scheyern Abbey in Bavaria, the ceremony took place at the Scheyern castle and was celebrated by Saint Adalbert  Gisela was accompanied to her new home by Bavarian knights, many of whom received land grants from her husband and settled in Hungary, helping to strengthen Stephen's military position  According to Györffy, Stephen and his wife "presumably" settled in Nyitra after their marriage 

Reign (997–1038)
Grand Prince (997–1000)
Grand Prince Géza died in 997  Stephen convoked an assembly at Esztergom where his supporters declared him grand prince  Initially, he only controlled the northwestern regions of the Carpathian Basin; the rest of the territory was still dominated by tribal chieftains  Stephen's ascension to the throne was in line with the principle of primogeniture, which prescribed that a father was succeeded by his son  On the other hand, it contradicted the traditional idea of seniority, according to which Géza should have been succeeded by the most senior member of the Árpád dynasty, which was Koppány at that time  Koppány, who held the title Duke of Somogy, had for many years administered the regions of Transdanubia south of Lake Balaton 

Koppány proposed to Géza's widow, Sarolt, in accordance with the pagan custom of levirate marriage  He also announced his claim to the throne  Although it is not impossible that Koppány had already been baptized, in 972, most of his supporters were pagans, opponents of the Christianity represented by Stephen and his predominantly German retinue  A charter of 1002 for the Pannonhalma Archabbey writes of a war between "the Germans and the Hungarians" when referring to the armed conflicts between Stephen and Koppány  Even so, Györffy says that Oszlar ("Alan"), Besenyő ("Pecheneg"), Kér and other place names, referring to ethnic groups or Hungarian tribes in Transdanubia around the supposed borders of Koppány's duchy, suggest that significant auxiliary units and groups of Hungarian warriors—who had been settled there by Grand Prince Géza—fought in Stephen's army Kristó states that the entire conflict between Stephen and Koppány was only a feud between two members of the Árpád dynasty, with no effect on other Hungarian tribal leaders  Koppány and his troops invaded the northern regions of Transdanubia, took many of Stephen's forts and plundered his lands  Stephen, who, according to the Illuminated Chronicle, "was for the first time girded with his sword", placed the brothers Hont and Pázmány at the head of his own guard and nominated Vecelin to lead the royal army  The last was a German knight who had come to Hungary in the reign of Géza  Hont and Pázmány were, according to Simon of Kéza's Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum and the Illuminated Chronicle, "knights of Swabian origin" who settled in Hungary either under Géza or in the first years of Stephen's reign  On the other hand, Lukačka and other Slovak historians say that Hont and Pázmány were "Slovak" noblemen who had joined Stephen during his rule in Nyitra Koppány was besieging Veszprém when he was informed of the arrival of Stephen's army  In the ensuing battle, Stephen won a decisive victory over his enemies  Koppány was killed on the battlefield  His body was quartered and its parts were displayed at the gates of the forts of Esztergom, Győr, Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia, Romania) and Veszprém in order to threaten all of those who were conspiring against the young monarch Stephen occupied Koppány's duchy and granted large estates to his own partisans  He also prescribed that Koppány's former subjects were to pay tithes to the Pannonhalma Archabbey, according to the deed of the foundation of this monastery which has been preserved in a manuscript containing interpolations  The same document declares that "there were no other bishoprics and monasteries in Hungary" at that time  On the other hand, the nearly contemporary Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg stated that Stephen "established bishoprics in his kingdom" before being crowned king  If the latter report is valid, the dioceses of Veszprém and Győr are the most probable candidates, according to historian Gábor Thoroczkay 

Coronation (1000–1001)
By ordering the display of one part of Koppány's quartered corpse in Gyulafehérvár, the seat of his maternal uncle, Gyula the Younger, Stephen asserted his claim to rule all lands dominated by Hungarian lords  He also decided to strengthen his international status by adopting the title of king  However, the exact circumstances of his coronation and its political consequences are subject to scholarly debate Thietmar of Merseburg writes that Stephen received the crown "with the favour and urging" of Emperor Otto III (r  996–1002), implying that Stephen accepted the Emperor's suzerainty before his coronation  On the other hand, all of Stephen's legends emphasize that he received his crown from Pope Sylvester II (r  999–1003)  Kristó and other historians point out that Pope Sylvester and Emperor Otto were close allies, which implies that both reports are valid: Stephen "received the crown and consecration" from the Pope, but not without the Emperor's consent  Around 75 years after the coronation, Pope Gregory VII (r  1075–1085), who claimed suzerainty over Hungary, declared that Stephen had "offered and devotedly surrendered" Hungary "to Saint Peter" (that is, to the Holy See)  In a contrasting report, Stephen's Greater Legend states that the King offered Hungary to the Virgin Mary  Modern historians—including Pál Engel, and Miklós Molnár—write that Stephen always asserted his sovereignty and never accepted papal or imperial suzerainty  For instance, none of his charters were dated according to the years of the reign of the contemporary emperors, which would have been the case if he had been their vassal  Furthermore, Stephen declared in the preamble to his First Book of Laws that he governed his realm "by the will of God" The exact date of Stephen's coronation is unknown  According to later Hungarian tradition, he was crowned on the first day of the second millennium, which may refer either to 25 December 1000 or to 1 January 1001  Details of Stephen's coronation preserved in his Greater Legend suggest that the ceremony, which took place in Esztergom or Székesfehérvár followed the rite of the coronation of the German kings  Accordingly, Stephen was anointed with consecrated oil during the ceremony  Stephen's portrait, preserved on his royal cloak from 1031, shows that his crown, like the Holy Roman Emperor's diadem, was a hoop crown decorated with gemstones Besides his crown, Stephen regarded a spear with a flag as an important symbol of his sovereignty  For instance, his first coins bear the inscription LANCEA REGIS ("the king's spear") and depict an arm holding a spear with flag  According to the contemporaneous Adémar de Chabannes, a spear had been given to Stephen's father by Emperor Otto III as a token of Géza's right to "enjoy the most freedom in the possession of his country"  Stephen is styled in various ways—Ungarorum rex ("king of the Hungarians"), Pannoniorum rex ("king of the Pannonians") or Hungarie rex ("king of Hungary")—in his charters 

Consolidation (1001–c  1009)
Although Stephen's power did not rely on his coronation, the ceremony granted him the internationally accepted legitimacy of a Christian monarch who ruled his realm "by the Grace of God"  All his legends testify that he established an archbishopric with its see in Esztergom shortly after his coronation  This act ensured that the Church in Hungary became independent of the prelates of the Holy Roman Empire  The earliest reference to an archbishop of Esztergom, named Domokos, has been preserved in the deed of foundation of the Pannonhalma Archabbey from 1002  According to historian Gábor Thoroczkay, Stephen also established the Diocese of Kalocsa in 1001  Stephen invited foreign priests to Hungary to evangelize his kingdom  Associates of the late Adalbert of Prague, including Radla and Astrik, arrived in Hungary in the first years of his reign  The presence of an unnamed "Archbishop of the Hungarians" at the synod of 1007 of Frankfurt and the consecration of an altar in Bamberg in 1012 by Archbishop Astrik show that Stephen's prelates maintained a good relationship with the clergy of the Holy Roman Empire The transformation of Hungary into a Christian state was one of Stephen's principal concerns throughout his reign  Although the Hungarians' conversion had already begun in his father's reign, it was only Stephen who systematically forced his subjects to give up their pagan rituals  His legislative activity was closely connected with Christianity  For example, his First Book of Laws from the first years of his reign includes several provisions prescribing the observance of feast days and the confession before death  His other laws protected property rights and the interests of widows and orphans, or regulated the status of serfs 
If someone has such a hardened heart—God forbid it to any Christian—that he does not want to confess his faults according to the counsel of a priest, he shall lie without any divine service and alms like an infidel  If his relatives and neighbors fail to summon the priest, and therefore he should die unconfessed, prayers and alms should be offered, but his relatives shall wash away their negligence by fasting in accordance with the judgement of the priests  Those who die a sudden death shall be buried with all ecclesiastical honor; for divine judgment is hidden from us and unknown 

Many Hungarian lords refused to accept Stephen's suzerainty even after his coronation  The new King first turned against his own uncle, Gyula the Younger, whose realm "was most wide and rich", according to the Illuminated Chronicle  Stephen invaded Transylvania and seized Gyula and his family around 1002 or in 1003  The contemporary Annals of Hildesheim adds that Stephen converted his uncle's "country to the Christian faith by force" after its conquest  Accordingly, historians date the establishment of the Diocese of Transylvania to this period  If the identification, proposed by Kristó, Györffy and other Hungarian historians, of Gyula with one Prokui—who was Stephen's uncle according to Thietmar of Merseburg—is valid, Gyula later escaped from captivity and fled to Bolesław I the Brave, Duke of Poland (r  992–1025) 
[Duke Boleslav the Brave's] territory included a certain burg, located near the border with the Hungarians  Its guardian was lord Prokui, an uncle of the Hungarian king  Both in the past and more recently, Prokui had been driven from his lands by the king and his wife had been taken captive  When he was unable to free her, his nephew arranged for her unconditional release, even though he was Prokui's enemy  I have never heard of anyone who showed such restraint towards a defeated foe  Because of this, God repeatedly granted him victory, not only in the burg mentioned above, but in others as well 
About a hundred years later, the chronicler Gallus Anonymus also made mention of armed conflicts between Stephen and Boleslav, stating that the latter "defeated the Hungarians in battle and made himself master of all their lands as far as the Danube"  Györffy says that the chronicler's report refers to the occupation of the valley of the river Morava—a tributary of the Danube—by the Poles in the 1010s  On the other hand, the Polish-Hungarian Chronicle states that the Polish duke occupied large territories north of the Danube and east of the Morava as far as Esztergom in the early 11th century  According to Steinhübel, the latter source proves that a significant part of the lands that now form Slovakia were under Polish rule between 1002 and 1030  In contrast with the Slovak historian, Györffy writes that this late chronicle "in which one absurdity follows another" contradicts all facts known from 11th-century sources 

The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that Stephen "led his army against Kean, Duke of the Bulgarians and Slavs whose lands are by their natural position most strongly fortified" following the occupation of Gyula's country  According to a number of historians, including Zoltán Lenkey and Gábor Thoroczkay, Kean was the head of a small state located in the southern parts of Transylvania and Stephen occupied his country around 1003  Other historians, including Györffy, say that the chronicle's report preserved the memory of Stephen's campaign against Bulgaria in the late 1010s Likewise, the identification of the "Black Hungarians"—who were mentioned by Bruno of Querfurt and Adémar de Chabannes among the opponents of Stephen's proselytizing policy—is uncertain  Györffy locates their lands to the east of the river Tisza; while Thoroczkay says they live in the southern parts of Transdanubia  Bruno of Querfurt's report of the Black Hungarians' conversion by force suggests that Stephen conquered their lands at the latest in 1009 when "the first mission of Saint Peter"—a papal legate, Cardinal Azo—arrived in Hungary  The latter attended the meeting in Győr where the royal charter determining the borders of the newly established Bishopric of Pécs was issued on 23 August 1009 The Diocese of Eger was also set up around 1009  According to Thoroczkay, "it is very probable" that the bishopric's establishment was connected with the conversion of the Kabars—an ethnic group of Khazar origin— and their chieftain  The head of the Kabars—who was either Samuel Aba or his father— married Stephen's unnamed younger sister on this occasion  The Aba clan was the most powerful among the native families who joined Stephen and supported him in his efforts to establish a Christian monarchy  The reports by Anonymus, Simon of Kéza and other Hungarian chroniclers of the Bár-Kalán, Csák and other 13th-century noble families descending from Hungarian chieftains suggest that other native families were also involved in the process Stephen set up a territory-based administrative system, establishing counties  Each county, headed by a royal official known as a count or ispán, was an administrative unit organized around a royal fortress  Most fortresses were earthworks in this period, but the castles at Esztergom, Székesfehérvár and Veszprém were built of stone  Forts serving as county seats also became the nuclei of Church organization  The settlements developing around them, where markets were held on each Sunday, were important local economic centers 

Wars with Poland and Bulgaria (c  1009–1018)
Stephen's brother-in-law, Henry II, became King of Germany in 1002 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1013  Their friendly relationship ensured that the western borders of Hungary experienced a period of peace in the first decades of the 11th century  Even when Henry II's discontented brother, Bruno, sought refuge in Hungary in 1004, Stephen preserved the peace with Germany and negotiated a settlement between his two brothers-in-law  Around 1009, he gave his younger sister in marriage to Otto Orseolo, Doge of Venice (r  1008–1026), a close ally of the Byzantine Emperor, Basil II (r  976–1025), which suggests that Hungary's relationship with the Byzantine Empire was also peaceful  On the other hand, the alliance between Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire brought her into a war with Poland lasting from around 1014 until 1018  The Poles occupied the Hungarian posts along the river Morava  Györffy and Kristó write that a Pecheneg incursion into Transylvania, the memory of which has been preserved in Stephen's legends, also took place in this period, because the Pechenegs were close allies of the Polish duke's brother-in-law, Grand Prince Sviatopolk I of Kiev (r  1015–1019) Poland and the Holy Roman Empire concluded the Peace of Bautzen in January 1018  Later in the same year, 500 Hungarian horsemen accompanied Boleslav of Poland to Kyiv, suggesting that Hungary had been included in the peace treaty  The historian Ferenc Makk says that the Peace of Bautzen obliged Boleslav to hand over all the territories he had occupied in the Morava valley to Stephen  According to Leodvin, the first known Bishop of Bihar (r  c  1050 – c  1060), Stephen allied with the Byzantines and led a military expedition to assist them against "barbarians" in the Balkan Peninsula  The Byzantine and Hungarian troops jointly took "Cesaries" which Györffy identifies as the present-day town of Ohrid  Leodvin's report suggests that Stephen joined the Byzantines in the war ending with their conquest of Bulgaria in 1018  However, the exact date of his expedition is uncertain  Györffy argues that it was only in the last year of the war that Stephen led his troops against the Bulgarians 

Domestic policies (1018–1024)
Bishop Leodvin wrote that Stephen collected relics of a number of saints in "Cesaries" during his campaign in the Balkans, including Saint George and Saint Nicholas  He donated them to his new triple-naved basilica dedicated to the Holy Virgin in Székesfehérvár, where he also set up a cathedral chapter and his new capital  His decision was influenced by the opening, in 1018 or 1019, of a new pilgrimage route that bypassed his old capital, Esztergom  The new route connected Western Europe and the Holy Land through Hungary  Stephen often met the pilgrims, contributing to the spread of his fame throughout Europe  Abbot Odilo of Cluny, for example, wrote in a letter to Stephen that "those who have returned from the shrine of our Lord" testify to the king's passion "towards the honour of our divine religion"  Stephen also established four hostels for pilgrims in Constantinople, Jerusalem, Ravenna and Rome 
[Almost] all those from Italy and Gaul who wished to go to the Sepulchre of the Lord at Jerusalem abandoned the usual route, which was by sea, making their way through the country of King Stephen  He made the road safe for everyone, welcomed as brothers all he saw and gave them enormous gifts  This action led many people, nobles and commoners, to go to Jerusalem 
In addition to pilgrims, merchants often used the safe route across Hungary when travelling between Constantinople and Western Europe  Stephen's legends refer to 60 wealthy Pechenegs who travelled to Hungary, but were attacked by Hungarian border guards  The king sentenced his soldiers to death in order to demonstrate his determination to preserve internal peace  Regular minting of coinage began in Hungary in the 1020s  His silver dinars bearing the inscriptions STEPHANUS REX ("King Stephen") and REGIA CIVITAS ("royal city") were popular in contemporary Europe, as demonstrated by counterfeited copies unearthed in Sweden Stephen convinced some pilgrims and merchants to settle in Hungary  Gerard, a Benedictine monk who arrived in Hungary from the Republic of Venice between 1020 and 1026, initially planned to continue his journey to the Holy Land, but decided to stay in the country after his meeting with the king  Stephen also established a number of Benedictine monasteries—including the abbeys at Pécsvárad, Zalavár and Bakonybél—in this period The Long Life of Saint Gerard mentions Stephen's conflict with Ajtony, a chieftain in the region of the river Maros  Many historians date their clash to the end of the 1020s, although Györffy and other scholars put it at least a decade earlier  The conflict arose when Ajtony, who "had taken his power from the Greeks", according to Saint Gerard's legend, levied tax on the salt transported to Stephen on the river  The king sent a large army led by Csanád against Ajtony, who was killed in battle  His lands were transformed into a Hungarian county and the king set up a new bishopric at Csanád (Cenad, Romania), Ajtony's former capital, which was renamed after the commander of the royal army  According to the Annales Posonienses, the Venetian Gerard was consecrated as the first bishop of the new diocese in 1030 

Conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire (1024–1031)
Stephen's brother-in-law, Emperor Henry, died on 13 July 1024  He was succeeded by a distant relative, Conrad II (r  1024–1039), who adopted an offensive foreign policy  Conrad II expelled Doge Otto Orseolo—the husband of Stephen's sister—from Venice in 1026  He also persuaded the Bavarians to proclaim his own son, Henry, as their duke in 1027, although Stephen's son Emeric had a strong claim to the Duchy of Bavaria through his mother  Emperor Conrad planned a marriage alliance with the Byzantine Empire and dispatched one of his advisors, Bishop Werner of Strasbourg, to Constantinople  In the autumn of 1027, the bishop seemingly travelled as a pilgrim, but Stephen, who had been informed of his actual purpose, refused to let him enter into his country  Conrad II's biographer Wipo of Burgundy narrated that the Bavarians incited skirmishes along the common borders of Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire in 1029, causing a rapid deterioration in relations between the two countries Emperor Conrad personally led his armies to Hungary in June 1030 and plundered the lands west of the River Rába  However, according to the Annals of Niederalteich, the emperor, suffering from consequences of the scorched earth tactics used by the Hungarian army, returned to Germany "without an army and without achieving anything, because the army was threatened by starvation and was captured by the Hungarians at Vienna"  Peace was restored after Conrad had ceded the lands between the rivers Lajta and Fischa to Hungary in the summer of 1031 
At this same time, dissensions arose between the Pannonian nation and the Bavarians, through the fault of the Bavarians  And, as a result, King [Stephen] of Hungary made many incursions and raids in the realm of the Norici (that is, of the Bavarians)  Disturbed on this account Emperor Conrad came upon the Hungarians with a great army  But King [Stephen], whose forces were entirely insufficient to meet the Emperor, relied solely on the guardianship of the Lord, which he sought with prayers and fasts proclaimed through his whole realm  Since the Emperor was not able to enter a kingdom so fortified with rivers and forests, he returned, after he had sufficiently avenged his injury with lootings and burnings on the borders of the kingdom; and it was his wish at a more opportune time to complete the things he had begun  His son, King Henry, however, still a young boy entrusted to the care of Eigilbert, bishop of Freising, received a legation of King [Stephen] which asked for peace; and solely with the counsel of the princes of the realm, and without his father's knowledge, he granted the favor of reconciliation 

Last years (1031–1038)
Stephen's biographer, Hartvic, narrates that the King, whose children died one by one in infancy, "restrained the grief over their death by the solace on account of the love of his surviving son", Emeric  However, Emeric was wounded in a hunting accident and died in 1031  After the death of his son, the elderly King could never "fully regain his former health", according to the Illuminated Chronicle  Kristó writes that the picture, which has been preserved in Stephen's legends, of the king keeping the vigils and washing the feet of paupers, is connected with Stephen's last years, following the death of his son Emeric's death jeopardized his father's achievements in establishing a Christian state, because Stephen's cousin, Vazul—who had the strongest claim to succeed him—was suspected of an inclination towards paganism  According to the Annals of Altaich Stephen disregarded his cousin's claim and nominated his sister's son, the Venetian Peter Orseolo, as his heir  The same source adds that Vazul was captured and blinded, and his three sons, Levente, Andrew and Béla, were expelled from Hungary  Stephen's legends refer to an unsuccessful attempt upon the elderly king's life by members of his court  According to Kristó, the legends refer to a plot in which Vazul participated and his mutilation was a punishment for this act  That Vazul's ears were filled with molten lead was only recorded in later sources, including the Illuminated Chronicle In the view of some historians, provisions in Stephen's Second Book of Laws on the "conspiracy against the king and the kingdom" imply that the book was promulgated after Vazul's unsuccessful plot against Stephen  However, this view has not been universally accepted  Györffy states that the law book was issued, not after 1031, but around 1009  Likewise, the authenticity of the decree on tithes is debated: according to Györffy, it was issued during Stephen's reign, but Berend, Laszlovszky and Szakács argue that it "might be a later addition" Stephen died on 15 August 1038  He was buried in the basilica of Székesfehérvár  His reign was followed by a long period of civil wars, pagan uprisings and foreign invasions  The instability ended in 1077 when Ladislaus, a grandson of Vazul, ascended the throne 

Family
Stephen married Gisela, a daughter of Duke Henry the Wrangler of Bavaria, who was a nephew of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor  Gisela's mother was Gisela of Burgundy, a member of the Welf dynasty  Born around 985, Gisela was younger than her husband, whom she survived  She left Hungary in 1045 and died as Abbess of the Niedernburg Abbey in Passau in Bavaria around 1060 Although the Illuminated Chronicle states that Stephen "begot many sons", only two of them, Otto and Emeric, are known by name  Otto, who was named after Otto III, seems to have been born before 1002  He died as a child Emeric, who received the name of his maternal uncle, Emperor Henry II, was born around 1007  His Legend from the early 12th century describes him as a saintly prince who preserved his chastity even during his marriage  According to Györffy, Emeric's wife was a kinswoman of the Byzantine Emperor Basil II  His premature death led to the series of conflicts leading to Vazul's blinding and civil wars 
Be obedient to me, my son  You are a child, descendant of rich parents, living among soft pillows, who has been caressed and brought up in all kinds of comforts; you have had a part neither in the troubles of the campaigns nor in the various attacks of the pagans in which almost my whole life has been worn away 
The following family tree presents Stephen's ancestors and his relatives who are mentioned in the article 
*A Khazar, Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian lady **Györffy writes that she may have been a member of the Bulgarian Cometopuli dynasty ***Samuel Aba might have been the son of Stephen's sister instead of her husband 

Legacy
Founder of Hungary
Stephen has always been considered one of the most important statesmen in the history of Hungary  His main achievement was the establishment of a Christian state that ensured that the Hungarians survived in the Carpathian Basin, in contrast to the Huns, Avars and other peoples who had previously controlled the same territory  As Bryan Cartledge emphasizes, Stephen also gave his kingdom "forty years of relative peace and sound but unspectacular rule" His successors, including those descended from Vazul, were eager to emphasize their devotion to Stephen's achievements  Although Vazul's son, Andrew I of Hungary, secured the throne due to a pagan uprising, he prohibited pagan rites and declared that his subjects should "live in all things according to the law which King St  Stephen had taught them", according to the 14th-century Illuminated Chronicle  In medieval Hungary, communities that claimed a privileged status or attempted to preserve their own "liberties" often declared that the origin of their special status was to be attributed to King Saint Stephen  An example is a 1347 letter from the people of Táp telling the king about their grievances against the Pannonhalma Archabbey and stating that the taxes levied upon them by the abbot contradicted "the liberty granted to them in the time of King Saint Stephen" 

Sainthood
Stephen's cult emerged after the long period of anarchy characterizing the rule of his immediate successors  However, there is no evidence that Stephen became an object of veneration before his canonization  For instance, the first member of the royal family to be named after him, Stephen II, was born in the early 12th century Stephen's canonization was initiated by Vazul's grandson, King Ladislaus I of Hungary, who had consolidated his authority by capturing and imprisoning his cousin, Solomon  According to Bishop Hartvic, the canonization was "decreed by apostolic letter, by order of the Roman see", suggesting that the ceremony was permitted by Pope Gregory VII  The ceremony started at Stephen's tomb, where on 15 August 1083 masses of believers began three days of fasting and praying  Legend tells that Stephen's coffin could not be opened until King Ladislaus held Solomon in captivity at Visegrád  The opening of Stephen's tomb was followed by the occurrence of healing miracles, according to Stephen's legends  Historian Kristó attributes the healings either to mass psychosis or deception  Stephen's legends also say that his "balsam-scented" remains were elevated from the coffin, which was filled with "rose-colored water", on 20 August  On the same day, Stephen's son, Emeric, and the bishop of Csanád, Gerard, were also canonized 
Having completed the office of Vespers the third day, everyone expected the favors of divine mercy through the merit of the blessed man; suddenly with Christ visiting his masses, the signs of miracles poured forth from heaven throughout the whole of the holy house  Their multitude, which that night were too many to count, brings to mind the answer from the Gospel which the Savior of the world confided to John, who asked through messengers whether he was the one who was to come: the blind see, the lame walk, the deaf hear, the lepers are cleansed, the crippled are set straight, the paralyzed are cured   
Stephen's first legend, the so-called Greater Legend, was written between 1077 and 1083  It provided an idealized portrait of the king, one who dedicated himself and his kingdom to the Virgin Mary  However, Stephen's Lesser Legend—composed around 1100, under King Coloman—emphasized Stephen's severity  A third legend, also composed during King Coloman's reign by Bishop Hartvic, was based on the two existing legends  Sanctioned in 1201 by Pope Innocent III, Hartvic's work served as Stephen's official legend  Gábor Klaniczay wrote that Stephen's legends "opened a new chapter in the legends of holy rulers as a genre", suggesting that a monarch can achieve sainthood through actively using his royal powers  Stephen was the first triumphant miles Christi ("Christ's soldier") among the canonized monarchs  He was also a "confessor king", one who had not suffered martyrdom, whose cult was sanctioned, in contrast with earlier holy monarchs Stephen's cult spread beyond the borders of Hungary  Initially, he was primarily venerated in Scheyern and Bamberg, in Bavaria, but his relics were also taken to Aachen, Cologne, Montecassino and Namur  Upon the liberation of Buda from the Ottoman Turks, Pope Innocent XI expanded King Saint Stephen's cult to the entire Roman Catholic Church in 1686, and declared 2 September his feast day  As the feast of Saint Joachim was moved, in 1969, from 16 August, the day immediately following the day of Stephen's death, Stephen's feast was moved to that date  Stephen is venerated as the patron saint of Hungary, and regarded as the protector of kings, masons, stonecutters, stonemasons and bricklayers, and also of children suffering from severe illnesses  His canonization was recognized by Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople in 2000  In the calendar of the Hungarian Catholic Church, Stephen's feast is observed on 20 August, the day on which his relics were translated  In addition, a separate feast day (30 May) is dedicated to his "Holy Dexter" 

Holy Dexter
Stephen's intact dexter, or right hand (Hungarian: Szent Jobb), became the subject of a cult  A cleric named Mercurius stole it, but it was discovered on 30 May 1084 in Bihar County  The theft of sacred relics, or furta sacra, had by that time become a popular topic of saints' biographies  Bishop Hartvic described the discovery of Stephen's right hand in accordance with this tradition, referring to adventures and visions  An abbey erected in Bihar County (now Sâniob, Romania) was named after and dedicated to the veneration of the Holy Dexter 
Why is it, brothers, that his other limbs having become disjointed and, his flesh having been reduced to dust, wholly separated, only the right hand, its skin and sinews adhering to the bones, preserved the beauty of wholeness? I surmise that the inscrutability of divine judgement sought to proclaim by the extraordinary nature of this fact nothing less than that the work of love and alms surpasses the measure of all other virtues      The right hand of the blessed man was deservedly exempt from putrefaction, because always reflourishing from the flower of kindness it was never empty from giving gifts to nourish the poor 
The Holy Dexter was kept for centuries in the Szentjobb Abbey, except during the Mongol invasion of 1241 and 1242, when it was transferred to Ragusa (now Dubrovnik, Croatia)  The relic was then taken to Székesfehérvár around 1420  Following the Ottoman occupation of the central territories of the Kingdom of Hungary in the mid-16th century, it was guarded in many places, including Bosnia, Ragusa and Vienna  It was returned to Hungary in 1771, when Queen Maria Theresa donated it to the cloister of the Sisters of Loreto in Buda  It was kept in Buda Castle's St  Sigismund Chapel between around 1900 and 1944, in a cave near Salzburg in 1944 and 1945, and again by the Sisters of Loreto in Buda, between 1945 and 1950  Finally, since 1950, the Holy Dexter has been in St  Stephen's Basilica in Budapest  An annual procession celebrating the relic was instituted in 1938, and continued until 1950, when the procession was forbidden by the Communist government  It was resumed in 1988 

Admonitions
According to Stephen's Greater Legend, the king "himself compiled a book for his son on moral education"  This work, now known as Admonitions or De institutione morum, was preserved in manuscripts written in the Late Middle Ages   Although scholars debate whether it can actually be attributed to the king or a cleric, most of them agree that it was composed in the first decades of the 11th century The Admonitions argues that kingship is inseparably connected with the Catholic faith  Its author emphasized that a monarch is required to make donations to the Church and regularly consult his prelates, but is entitled to punish clergymen who do wrong  One of its basic ideas was that a sovereign has to cooperate with the "pillars of his rule", meaning the prelates, aristocrats, ispáns and warriors 
My dearest son, if you desire to honor the royal crown, I advise, I counsel, I urge you above all things to maintain the Catholic and Apostolic faith with such diligence and care that you may be an example for all those placed under you by God, and that all the clergy may rightly call you a man of true Christian profession  Failing to do this, you may be sure that you will not be called a Christian or a son of the Church  Indeed, in the royal palace, after the faith itself, the Church holds second place, first constituted and spread through the whole world by His members, the apostles and holy fathers, And though she always produced fresh offspring, nevertheless in certain places she is regarded as ancient  However, dearest son, even now in our kingdom the Church is proclaimed as young and newly planted; and for that reason she needs more prudent and trustworthy guardians lest a benefit which the divine mercy bestowed on us undeservedly should be destroyed and annihilated through your idleness, indolence or neglect 

In arts
King St Stephen has been a popular theme in Hungarian poetry since the end of the 13th century  The earliest poems were religious hymns which portrayed the holy king as the apostle of the Hungarians  Secular poetry, especially poems written for his feast day, followed a similar pattern, emphasizing Stephen's role as the first king of Hungary  Poets described Stephen as the symbol of national identity and independence and of the ability of the Hungarian nation to survive historical cataclysms during the Communist regime between 1949 and 1989 A popular hymn, still sung in the churches, was first recorded in the late 18th century  It hails King St  Stephen as "radiant star of Hungarians"  Ludwig van Beethoven composed his King Stephen Overture for the inauguration of the Hungarian theatre in Pest in 1812  According to musician James M  Keller, "[t]he descending unisons that open the King Stephen Overture would seem to prefigure the opening of the Ninth Symphony;     [a]nd then a later theme, introduced by flutes and clarinets, seems almost to be a variation     of the famous Ode 'To Joy' melody of the Ninth Symphony's finale"  Hungarian composer Ferenc Erkel named his last complete opera from 1885, István király ("King Stephen"), after him  In 1938, Zoltán Kodály wrote a choral piece titled Ének Szent István Királyhoz ("Hymn to King Stephen")   In 1983, Levente Szörényi and János Bródy composed a rock opera—István, a király ("Stephen, the King")—about the early years of his reign  Seventeen years later, in 2000, Szörényi composed a sequel called Veled, Uram! ("You, Sir") 

See also
Catholic Church in Hungary
History of Christianity in Hungary
Isten, hazánkért térdelünk
SMS Szent István
St  Stephen's Mausoleum
Passage 6:
John Adams (merchant)
John Adams (1672 or 1673 – c  1745) was an American-born Canadian merchant and member of the Nova Scotia Council  He was the father-in-law of Henry Newton 

Biography
Adams was born in Boston in either 1672 or 1673 to John and Avis Adams  Growing up as a petty merchant, Adams joined Sir Charles Hobby's New England regiment, participating in the capture of Port-Royal in 1710  Shortly thereafter, Adams settled in Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia, returning to civilian life  There, he traded manufactured goods with the province's Acadian and Native Americans, and took up the role of a real estate agent and contractor  Adams joined the Executive Council of Nova Scotia on 28 April 1720, holding his position there for 20 years; the records show that few served as long as he did  He also held several other public positions in the province  Adams was appointed a notary public and deputy collector of customs for Annapolis Royal in 1725, and he was commissioned a justice of the peace in March 1727 Around the mid-1720s, Adams' poor eyesight began to fail, leading to his near-blindness in 1730  After this, he was less active in community activities and trade  Adams petitioned to the king for a pension several times, but failed  He blamed his disability on over-exposure to the sun during an Indian attack on Annapolis Royal in 1724  In December 1739, Lieutenant Governor Lawrence Armstrong died  With the absence of Major Mascarene to take Armstrong's place, Adams became the new president of the council and head of the civil government  (Alexander Cosby was also vying for the position ) In a meeting on 22 March 1740, with the return of Mascarene, the councilors declared that he was the council's rightful president  This turn of events led Adams to retire to Boston in late August or early September 1740, where he stayed for the rest of his life  He died some time after 1745 

Notes
Passage 7:
Peter Burroughs
Peter Burroughs (born 27 January 1947) is a British television and film actor and the director of Willow Management  He is the father-in-law of actor and TV presenter Warwick Davis 

Early career
Burroughs initially ran a shop in his village at Yaxley, Cambridgeshire 
His first dramatic role was that of the character "Branic" in the 1979 television series The Legend of King Arthur  He also acted in the television shows Dick Turpin, The Goodies, Doctor Who in the serial The King's Demons and One Foot in the Grave 

Film career
Burroughs played roles in Hollywood movies such as Flash Gordon, George Lucas' Star Wars: Episode VI – Return of the Jedi (a swinging ewok), Willow, The Dark Crystal, Labyrinth and The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy  In 1995, Burroughs set up Willow Management, an agency for short actors, along with co-actor Warwick Davis  He portrayed a bank goblin in the Harry Potter series (Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2) 

Personal life
His daughter Samantha (born 1971), is married to Star Wars: Episode VI – Return of the Jedi and Willow film star Warwick Davis  He has another daughter, Hayley Burroughs, who is also an actress  His granddaughter is Annabelle Davis 

Filmography
Passage 8:
Harry Smith (athlete)
Harry James Smith (July 30, 1888 – November 20, 1962) was an American long-distance runner  He was most notable for competing in the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm  He was also the father of Hart wrestling family matriarch Helen Hart and the father-in-law of Stu Hart 

Early life
He was born in the Bronx, New York, and was of Irish descent  Smith came from a relatively well off family and had a brother named Frank  Both of them suffered from bipolar disorder His athletic interest began when he was a child  At the age of 12 Smith was playing craps with some friends in an alley when a police officer spotted them and ran after them, attempting to arrest them for illegal gambling  The man caught all of them except Smith  Another day when the officer found Smith, the officer advised him to pursue competitive running 

Career
He competed in the marathon for the United States at the 1912 Summer Olympics  He finished in 17th place  He shared rooms with Jim Thorpe on the way to the Olympics  Smith also ran the Boston Marathon 10 years in a row  He finished 10th at the 1912 event with a time of 2:27:46  He finished in the top three at the 1913 event  Smith also participated in at least three Run for the Diamonds events  Harry came in at third place in both 1911 and 1913  He came first and won in 1912  Smith was USA Outdoor Track & Field Champion 10000 m in 1912, a victory he shared with Hannes Kolehmainen  Later in 1912 Smith won a race called the Union Settlement Road Race and was given a gold medal award, handed to him by congressman Amos Pinchot  He won the Coney Island Derby Race in 1913 Smith refrained from competing in the fall of 1914 due to sore feet  While in training Smith had a diet that had him consume little water and instead eat a lot of vegetables  He was of the belief that a marathon runner should never look behind themself, as this throws off one's timing while running  He made an exception to this however when he once encountered Tom Longboat while in a race and exchanged a glance with him  This later became a story he would tell his five daughters  Smith was a member and Captain of the Pastime Athletic Club  Supposedly Smith was an early underground sports agent  After his athletic career ended he became a sports columnist for The New York Tribune 

Personal life
He was married to a Greek woman named Elizabeth "Ellie" Poulis  Ellie's parents were from the town of Missolonghi, Aetolia-Acarnania  She was born on Ellis Island while her parents were in quarantine and waiting to be granted entry into the United States  Ellie was a dancer and artist in her younger years  Harry and Ellie were the parents of five girls, Helen, Diana, Patricia "Patsy", Elizabeth "Betty" and Joanie Some time during the 1930s he was the victim of a hit-and-run accident which left him with permanent injury on one of his legs, he was bedridden for a long time and walked with a limp for the rest of his life  This left the family in financial troubles  He and his wife helped raise their daughter, Helen Hart's oldest son Smith when she and her husband, Stu, suffered an automobile accident while she was pregnant with their second child, Bruce  His daughter Diana married Jock Osler descendant of Sir William Osler and his daughter Patsy married a man named Jack Forrest, who was the great great grandnephew of Nathan Bedford Forrest 

Legacy
His granddaughter Diana Hart dedicated the fourth chapter, "Roots", in her book Under the Mat to discussing Smith's life  She also named her son Harry  The younger Harry is a professional wrestler 

See also
List of people with bipolar disorder
Passage 9:
Gisela of Hungary
Gisela of Hungary (or Gisele, Gizella and of Bavaria; c  985 – 7 May 1065) was the first queen consort of Hungary by marriage to Stephen I of Hungary, and the sister of Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor  She has been beatified by the Catholic Church 

Biography
Gisela was a daughter of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria and Gisela of Burgundy  Gisela was raised very devout, most likely with bishop Wolfgang of Regensburg as her mentor and governor  She married King Stephen I of Hungary in 996 as a part of Hungary's policy of opening up to the West  The couple had a son, Saint Emeric, who died on 2 September 1031, while hunting boar  The wedding of Stephen and Gisela marked a turning point in Hungary's history 
Queen Gisela played a fundamental role in spreading the Christian faith and Western culture in Hungary When Edmund Ironside of England died, he was succeeded by Cnut  Edmund's infant sons were sent abroad and ended up under the protection of King Stephen of Hungary  One of the twins died young, but the other, Edward Atheling, was brought up as a protégé of Queen Gisela, and regarded in that foreign court as the heir to the Anglo-Saxon throne King Stephen died in 1038  In 1046 Gisela, her attendants, and a number of many Bavarian settlers left Hungary to return to Bavaria, where she joined Niedernburg convent in Passau and became the abbess She lived in the nunnery of Niedernburg in Passau, where she died 

Veneration
Gisela's canonisation was attempted in the 18th century but failed  She was beatified in 1975  Her memorial days are 7 May and 1 February 
Gisela and her husband were not buried together  On 4 May 1996, the remains of King Stephen's right hand was preserved, and it was brought back together with a bone taken from the arm of Gisela  Both are now safely protected in glass and gold cases, and are displayed in the basilica in the western Hungarian town of Veszprém, where Gisela once lived Her grave is well known, and regarded as a holy place  The cross was commissioned by Queen Gisela for the tomb of her mother, who died in 1006 and was buried in the Niedermünster in Regensburg 
Blessed Gisela is depicted on a white limestone panel by Hungarian artist Sandor Kiss on the wall of the Chapel of Our Lady – Queen of Hungary in St  Peter's Basilica, Rome 
Context 3: Sc  and Ph D  in Political Science from the University of Ibadan  He also has an MPhil  and a Ph D  in Social Anthropology from the University of Cambridge 

Career
Adebanwi worked as a freelance reporter, writer, journalist and editor for many newspapers and magazines before he joined the University of Ibadan's Department of Political Science as a lecturer and researcher  He was later appointed as an assistant professor in the African American and African Studies Department of the University of California, Davis, USA  He became a full professor at UC Davis in 2016 Adebanwi is the co-editor of Africa: Journal of the International African Institute and the Journal of Contemporary African Studies 

Works
His published works include:
Nation as Grand Narrative: The Nigerian Press and the Politics of Meaning (University of Rochester Press, 2016)
Yoruba Elites and Ethnic Politics in Nigeria: Obafemi Awolowo and Corporate Agency (Cambridge University Press, 2014)
Authority Stealing: Anti-corruption War and Democratic Politics in Post-Military Nigeria (Carolina Academic Press, 2012)In addition, he is the editor and co-editor of other books, including 

The Political Economy of Everyday Life in Africa: Beyond the Margins (James Currey Publishers, 2017)
Writers and Social Thought in Africa (Routledge, 2016)
(co-edited with Ebenezer Obadare) Governance and the Crisis of Rule in Contemporary Africa (Palgrave Macmillan, 2016)
(co-edited with Ebenezer Obadare) Democracy and Prebendalism in Nigeria: Critical Interpretations (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013) 
(co-edited with Ebenezer Obadare) Nigeria at Fifty: The Nation in Narration (Routledge, 2012)
(co-edited with Ebenezer Obadare) Encountering the Nigerian State (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010) 

Awards
Rhodes Professorship in Race Relations awarded by Oxford University to Faculty of African and Interdisciplinary Area Studies 
Passage 6:
John McMahon (Surrey and Somerset cricketer)
John William Joseph McMahon (28 December 1917 – 8 May 2001) was an Australian-born first-class cricketer who played for Surrey and Somerset County Cricket Clubs in England from 1947 to 1957 

Surrey cricketer
McMahon was an orthodox left-arm spin bowler with much variation in speed and flight who was spotted by Surrey playing in club cricket in North London and brought on to the county's staff for the 1947 season at the age of 29  In the first innings of his first match, against Lancashire at The Oval, he took five wickets for 81 runs In his first full season, 1948, he was Surrey's leading wicket-taker and in the last home game of the season he was awarded his county cap – he celebrated by taking eight Northamptonshire wickets for 46 runs at The Oval, six of them coming in the space of 6 3 overs for seven runs  This would remain the best bowling performance of his first-class career, not surpassed, but he did equal it seven years later  In the following game, the last away match of the season, he took 10 Hampshire wickets for 150 runs in the match at Bournemouth  In the 1948 season as a whole, he took 91 wickets at an average of 28 07  As a tail-end left-handed batsman, he managed just 93 runs in the season at an average of 4 22 The emergence of Tony Lock as a slow left-arm bowler in 1949 brought a stuttering end of McMahon's Surrey career  Though he played in 12 first-class matches in the 1949 season, McMahon took only 19 wickets; a similar number of matches in 1950 brought 34 wickets  In 1951, he played just seven times and in 1952 only three times  In 1953, Lock split the first finger of his left hand, and played in only 11 of Surrey's County Championship matches; McMahon played as his deputy in 14 Championship matches, though a measure of their comparative merits was that Lock's 11 games produced 67 wickets at 12 38 runs apiece, while McMahon's 14 games brought him 45 wickets at the, for him, low average of 21 53  At the end of the 1953 season, McMahon was allowed to leave Surrey to join Somerset, then languishing at the foot of the County Championship and recruiting widely from other counties and other countries 

Somerset cricketer
Somerset's slow bowling in 1954 was in the hands of leg-spinner Johnny Lawrence, with support from the off-spin of Jim Hilton while promising off-spinner Brian Langford was on national service  McMahon filled a vacancy for a left-arm orthodox spinner that had been there since the retirement of Horace Hazell at the end of the 1952 season; Hazell's apparent successor, Roy Smith, had failed to realise his promise as a bowler in 1953, though his batting had advanced significantly 
McMahon instantly became a first-team regular and played in almost every match during his four years with the county, not missing a single Championship game until he was controversially dropped from the side in August 1957, after which he did not play in the Championship again In the 1954 season, McMahon, alongside fellow newcomer Hilton, was something of a disappointment, according to Wisden: "The new spin bowlers, McMahon and Hilton, did not attain to the best standards of their craft in a wet summer, yet, like the rest of the attack, they would have fared better with reasonable support in the field and from their own batsmen," it said  McMahon took 85 wickets at an average of 27 47 (Hilton took only 42 at a higher average)  His best match was against Essex at Weston-super-Mare where he took six for 96 in the first innings and five for 45 in the second to finish with match figures of 11 for 141, which were the best of his career  He was awarded his county cap in the 1954 season, but Somerset remained at the bottom of the table 
The figures for the 1955 were similar: McMahon this time took 75 wickets at 28 77 apiece  There was a small improvement in his batting and the arrival of Bryan Lobb elevated McMahon to No 10 in the batting order for most of the season, and he responded with 262 runs and an average of 9 03  This included his highest-ever score, 24, made in the match against Sussex at Frome  A week later in Somerset's next match, he equalled his best-ever bowling performance, taking eight Kent wickets for 46 runs in the first innings of a match at Yeovil through what Wisden called "clever variation of flight and spin"  These matches brought two victories for Somerset, but there were only two others in the 1955 season and the side finished at the bottom of the Championship for the fourth season running At the end of the 1955 season, Lawrence retired and McMahon became Somerset's senior spin bowler for the 1956 season, with Langford returning from National Service as the main support  McMahon responded with his most successful season so far, taking 103 wickets at an average of 25 57, the only season in his career in which he exceeded 100 wickets  The bowling average improved still further in 1957 to 23 10 when McMahon took 86 wickets  But his season came to an abrupt end in mid-August 1957 when, after 108 consecutive Championship matches, he was dropped from the first team during the Weston-super-Mare festival  Though he played some games for the second eleven later in August, he regained his place in the first team for only a single end-of-season friendly match, and he was told that his services were not required for the future, a decision, said Wisden, that "proved highly controversial" 

Sacked by Somerset
The reason behind McMahon's sacking did not become public knowledge for many years  In its obituary of him in 2002, McMahon was described by Wisden as "a man who embraced the antipodean virtues of candour and conviviality"  It went on: "Legend tells of a night at the Flying Horse Inn in Nottingham when he beheaded the gladioli with an ornamental sword, crying: 'When Mac drinks, everybody drinks!'" The obituary recounts a further escapade in second eleven match at Midsomer Norton where a curfew imposed on the team was circumvented by "a POW-type loop" organised by McMahon, "with his team-mates escaping through a ground-storey window and then presenting themselves again"  As the only Somerset second eleven match that McMahon played in at Midsomer Norton was right at the end of the 1957 season, this may have been the final straw  But in any case there had been "an embarrassing episode at Swansea's Grand Hotel" earlier in the season, also involving Jim Hilton, who was also dismissed at the end of the season  Team-mates and club members petitioned for McMahon to be reinstated, but the county club was not to be moved 
After a period in Lancashire League cricket with Milnrow Cricket Club, McMahon moved back to London where he did office work, later contributing some articles to cricket magazines 


== Notes and references ==
Passage 7:
Cipriano Castro
José Cipriano Castro Ruiz (12 October 1858 – 4 December 1924) was a high-ranking officer of the Venezuelan military, politician and the president of Venezuela from 1899 to 1908  He was the first man from the Venezuelan Andes to rule the country, and was the first of four military strongmen from the Andean state of Táchira to rule the country over the next 46 years 

Early life
Cipriano Castro was the son of José Carmen Castro and Pelagia Ruiz  He was born on 12 October 1858 in Capacho Viejo, Táchira  Castro's father was a mid-level farmer and he received an education typical of the tachirense middle-class  His family had significant mercantile and family relations with Colombia, in particular with Cúcuta and Puerto Santander  After studying in his native town and the city of San Cristóbal, he continued his studies at a seminary school in Pamplona, Colombia (1872–1873)  He left those studies to return to San Cristóbal, where he began work as employee of a company called Van Dissel, Thies and Ci'a  He also worked as a cowboy in the Andean region  During his early life he grew up with 22 brothers and sisters and his mother died which then lead on to his father marrying somebody else then leading to more siblings  He was very close to his family and he then sent most of his little brothers to study in Caracas

Military experience and introduction to politics
In 1876 Castro opposed the candidacy of general Francisco Alvarado for the presidency of the Táchira state  In 1878 he was working as the manager of the newspaper El Álbum when he participated along with a group of independence advocates in the seizure of San Cristóbal when they refused to submit to the authority of the new president of the state 
In 1884, he got into a disagreement with a parish priest, Juan Ramón Cárdenas in Capacho, which led to his imprisonment in San Cristóbal  After six months, he escaped and took refuge in Cúcuta, where he ran an inn  There he met his future wife, Rosa Zoila Martínez, who would become known as Doña Zoila  In June 1886, he returned to the Táchira as a soldier, accompanying generals Segundo Prato, Buenaventura Macabeo Maldonado and Carlos Rangel Garbiras to again raise the flag of autonomy, much to the dismay of the governor of the Táchira region, General Espíritu Santo Morales   Castro defeated government forces in Capacho Viejo and in Rubio   Promoted to general, himself, Castro began to stand out in the internal politics of Táchira state   It was during the burial of a fellow fighter, Evaristo Jaimes, who had been killed in the earlier fighting that Castro met Juan Vicente Gómez, his future companion in his rise to power  He entered politics and became the governor of his province of Táchira but was exiled to Colombia when the government in Caracas was overthrown in 1892  Castro lived in Colombia for seven years, amassing a fortune in illegal cattle trading and recruiting a private army 

Presidency
Amassing considerable support from disaffected Venezuelans, Castro's once personal army developed into a strong national army, and he used it to march on Caracas in October 1899 in an event called the Restorative Liberal Revolution, and seize power, installing himself as the supreme military commander 
Once in charge, Castro inaugurated a period of plunder and political disorder having assumed the vacant presidency, after modifying the constitution (1904)  He remained president for the period 1899–1908, designating Juan Vicente Gómez his "compadre" as vice-president 
Castro's rule was marked by frequent rebellions, the murder or exile of his opponents, his own extravagant living, and trouble with other nations  Castro was characterized as "a crazy brute" by United States secretary of state Elihu Root and as "probably the worst of Venezuela's many dictators" by historian Edwin Lieuwen  His nine years of despotic and dissolute rule are best known for having provoked numerous foreign interventions, including blockades and bombardments by Dutch, British, German, and Italian naval units seeking to enforce the claims of their citizens against Castro's government 

Crisis of 1901–1903
In 1901 the banker Manuel Antonio Matos was the leader of the Liberating Revolution, a major military movement with the intention to overthrow Cipriano Castro's government



ground_truth: Géza

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Who was born first, Cipriano Castro or Damir Nikšić?

The following are given passages.
Context 3:  Severe disagreements between Castro and the foreign economic elite that support the revolution (as New York and Bermudez Company, Orinoco Shipping Company, Krupp, French Cable, and others) evolved into an open war that shook the country and brought the government to the brink of collapse 
On 2 April 1902, in response to rising political tension between the Netherlands and Venezuela to evacuate the Jews of Coro to Curaçao, the HNLMS Koningin Regentes and the HNLMS Utrecht arrived in the Venezuelan port of La Guaira  Prior to their arrival, the Venezuelan Navy had repeatedly checked Dutch and Antillean merchant ships and the presence of the Dutch warships acted as a deterrent against further actions 
In November 1902, the troops at command of Castro himself broke the Siege of La Victoria, weakened the vast network of revolutionaries armies and its extraordinary power 
Few weeks after that, Venezuela saw a naval blockade of several months imposed by Britain, Germany and Italy over Castro's refusal to pay foreign debts and damages suffered by European citizens in the recent Liberating Revolution  Castro assumed that the Monroe Doctrine would see the United States prevent European military intervention, but at the time the government of president Theodore Roosevelt saw the Doctrine as concerning European seizure of territory, rather than intervention per se  With prior promises that no such seizure would occur, the US allowed the action to go ahead without objection  The blockade saw Venezuela's small navy quickly disabled, but Castro refused to give in, and instead agreed in principle to submit some of the claims to international arbitration, which he had previously rejected  Germany initially objected to this, particularly as it felt some claims should be accepted by Venezuela without arbitration 

When the world press reacted negatively to incidents including the sinking of two Venezuelan ships and the bombardment of the coast, the U S pressured the parties to settle, and drew attention to its nearby naval fleet in Puerto Rico at command of Admiral George Dewey  With Castro failing to back down, Roosevelt pressure and increasingly negative British and American press reaction to the affair, the blockading nations agreed to a compromise, but maintained the blockade during negotiations over the details  This led to the signing in Washington of an agreement on 13 February 1903 which saw the blockade lifted, and Venezuela represented by U S  ambassador Herbert W  Bowen commit 30% of its customs duties to settling claims  When an arbitral tribunal subsequently awarded preferential treatment to the blockading powers against the claims of other nations, the U S feared this would encourage future European intervention  The episode contributed to the development of the Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine, asserting a right of the United States to intervene to "stabilize" the economic affairs of small states in the Caribbean and Central America if they were unable to pay their international debts, in order to preclude European intervention to do so   The revolutionaries, bearing a wound that could not be healed, succumbing finally in July 1903 in the Battle of Ciudad Bolivar after the siege of government army conducted by General Gomez, with which Matos decides to leave Venezuela, establishing itself in Paris 

Dutch–Venezuelan crisis
In 1908, a dispute broke out between the Netherlands and president Castro regime on the grounds of the harboring of refugees in Curaçao  Venezuela expelled the Dutch ambassador, prompting a Dutch dispatch of three warships – a coastal battleship, the HNLMS Jacob van Heemskerck, and two protected cruisers, the HNLMS Gelderland and the HNLMS Friesland  The Dutch warships had orders to intercept every ship that was sailing under the Venezuelan flag 
On 12 December 1908, the Gelderland captured the Venezuelan gunboat Alix off Puerto Cabello  She and another ship the 23 de Mayo were interned in the harbor of Willemstad  With their overwhelming naval superiority, the Dutch enforced a blockade on Venezuela's ports 

Castro's overthrow in 1908, exile and death in 1924
Few days later, Castro, who had been seriously ill for four years due to a kidney problem, left for Paris to seek medical treatment for syphilis, leaving the government in the hands of vice president Juan Vicente Gómez, the man who was instrumental in his victories of 1899 and 1903  However, on 19 December 1908, Gómez seized power himself and effectively ended the war with the Netherlands  A few days later, General Castro left for Berlin, nominally for a surgical operation  After that Castro suffered the harassment of the European powers resentful due to the policy that he had maintained towards them during his 8 years as president of Venezuela  Without resources to carry out an armed invasion, he went to Madrid and then recovered from his operation in Paris and in Santa Cruz de Tenerife  At the end of 1912 Castro intended to spend a season in the United States, but was captured and vexed by the immigration authorities of Ellis Island which forced him to leave in peremptory terms (February, 1913)  He finally settled with his wife in Puerto Rico (1916), under close surveillance by spies sent by Juan Vicente Gómez, who assumed the Venezuelan presidency  
Castro spent the rest of his life in exile in Puerto Rico, making several plots to return to power — none of which were successful  Castro died 4 December 1924, in Santurce, Puerto Rico 

Cipriano Castro cabinet (1899–1908)
Personal life
Castro was married to Zoila Rosa Martínez, who served as First Lady of Venezuela from 1899 to 1908  Castro's daughter was the actress of Hollywood silent movies Rosa Castro Martínez who adopted the name stage as Lucille Mendez She was married to the film director  Ralph Ince  She died in August 1982 in Hollywood, California, USA 

Trivia
During his presidency, northern Venezuela was struck by the powerful 1900 San Narciso earthquake, which caused widespread material damage in Miranda State and in the Venezuelan capital Caracas  Castro was woken in the middle of the night, and he leaped off from a window of the Yellow House, the then official residence of the President of Venezuela, and suffered a broken ankle  The earthquake lead him to consider changing the official residence to a building with anti-seismic structure, which occurred in 1904, when he transferred the Presidential House to Miraflores Palace, becoming its first occupant 

In popular culture
Cipriano Castro was portrayed by Roberto Moll in the 2017 film La planta insolente 

See also
Presidents of Venezuela
List of Venezuelans
Passage 8:
Wesley Barresi
Wesley Barresi (born 3 May 1984) is a South African born first-class and Netherlands international cricketer  He is a right-handed wicket keeper-batsman and also bowls right-arm offbreak  In February 2021, Barresi announced his retirement from all forms of cricket, but returned to the national team in August 2022 

Career
Wesley became the 100th victim to Indian cricketer Yuvraj Singh, when he was dismissed in the 2011 World Cup game against India In July 2018, he was named in the Netherlands' One Day International (ODI) squad, for their series against Nepal  Ahead of the ODI matches, the International Cricket Council (ICC) named him as the key player for the Netherlands In July 2019, he was selected to play for the Amsterdam Knights in the inaugural edition of the Euro T20 Slam cricket tournament  However, the following month, the tournament was cancelled 
Passage 9:
Hartley Lobban
Hartley W Lobban (9 May 1926 – 15 October 2004) was a Jamaican-born first-class cricketer who played 17 matches for Worcestershire in the early 1950s 

Life and career
Lobban played little cricket in Jamaica  He went to England at the end of World War II as a member of the Royal Air Force, and settled in Kidderminster in Worcestershire in 1947, where he worked as a civilian lorry driver for the RAF  He began playing for Kidderminster Cricket Club in the Birmingham League, and at the start of the 1952 season, opening the bowling for the club's senior team, he had figures of 7 for 9 and 7 for 37 Worcestershire invited him to play for them, and he made his first-class debut against Sussex in July 1952  He took five wickets in the match (his maiden victim being Ken Suttle) and then held on for 4 not out with Peter Richardson (20 not out) to add the 12 runs needed for a one-wicket victory after his county had collapsed from 192 for 2 to 238 for 9  A week later he claimed four wickets against Warwickshire, then a few days later still he managed 6 for 52 (five of his victims bowled) in what was otherwise a disastrous innings defeat to Derbyshire  In the last match of the season he took a career-best 6 for 51 against Glamorgan; he and Reg Perks (4 for 59) bowled unchanged throughout the first innings  Worcestershire won the game and Lobban finished the season with 23 wickets at 23 69 He took 23 wickets again in 1953, but at a considerably worse average of 34 43, and had only two really successful games: against Oxford University in June, when he took 5 for 70, and then against Sussex in July  On this occasion Lobban claimed eight wickets, his most in a match, including 6 for 103 in the first innings  He also made his highest score with the bat, 18, but Sussex won by five wickets In 1954 Lobban made only two first-class appearances, and managed only the single wicket of Gloucestershire tail-ender Bomber Wells  In his final game, against Warwickshire at Dudley, his nine first-innings overs cost 51  He bowled just two overs in the second innings as Warwickshire completed an easy ten-wicket win  Lobban played one more Second XI game, against Glamorgan II at Cardiff Arms Park; in this he picked up five wickets 
He was also a professional boxer and played rugby union for Kidderminster He later moved to Canada, where he worked as a teacher in Burnaby, British Columbia  He and his wife Celia had a son and two daughters 
Passage 10:
Sebastian Castro (painter)
Sebastiaen Castro or Sebastian a Castro, in English sources also referred to as Sebastian Castro or Sebastianus a Castro was a Flemish painter specialized in marine painting who was active in Antwerp between 1633 and 1656 

Life
Very few details about Sebastian Castro's life and training are known   It has been speculated that he was of Portuguese descent and a member of a family, which had escaped the persecution of Jews during the Portuguese Inquisition of the early 1600s  He may have trained under Andries van Eertvelt, the leading Flemish marine painter of the first half of the 17th century but there is no evidence of this 
Castro is first recorded as a master painter in the Antwerp Guild of Saint Luke in the guild year 1633–34   In 1656 he was still in Antwerp when he was registered as present at the distribution of the moveable assets of the father of the painters Gaspar van Eyck and Nicolaes van Eyck He married Anna van Beneden in Antwerp on 9 January 1636   After the death of his wife, he married Anna Wuijlens (died c  1660) in Antwerp on 20 October 1643  The couple is believed to be the parents of Laureys a Castro (also known as Laureys Castro, Laureys A  Castro or Lorenzo A  Castro) (1644-1700), a marine painter who became a master in the Antwerp Guild of Saint Luke in 1664-65 and was later active in England   If the speculation on the Jewish roots of the family is correct, the family must have converted to Catholicism as the newborn Laureys was baptized in the Saint George parish of Antwerp on 20 March 1644 

Work
Castro was active in Antwerp as a marine painter   The few works by his hand that are currently known cover the range of subjects typical for marine painters in the 17th century such as sailing ships, port scenes and naval battles   These works show an influence by the Dutch development towards tonal painting while retaining typically Flemish stylistic elements   This is demonstrated in the Spanish Ships at Anchor (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich) which through the tonality of its color scheme, low horizon and build-up of clouds in the background reveals a Dutch influence while its more theatrical lighting and schematic depiction of the ships reflect typically 'Flemish' stylistic traits His composition Spanish Ships Approaching a Jetty (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich) shows a similar tonality of colour and a low perspective   The painting testifies to Castro's skill in depicting figures and boats in a landscape setting without sacrificing an overall painterly effect  The brushwork of the work is open and fluid 



ground_truth: Cipriano Castro