prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which film was released earlier, August Underground'S Penance or Vasantha Raagam?

The following are given passages.
Context 1: Passage 1:
August Underground's Mordum
August Underground's Mordum is a 2003 direct-to-video horror exploitation film  created and distributed by Toetag Pictures  It is the sequel to 2001's August Underground, and was followed by August Underground's Penance in 2007  The film is purposely shot in an amateur way to pass off the film as a faux snuff film 

Plot
Mordum is a home movie shot by serial killers Peter Mountain, his sadomasochistic girlfriend, Crusty, and her depraved man-child brother, Maggot  After Peter walks in on Crusty and Maggot having sex, an argument erupts between him and Crusty  It is quelled when Crusty sexually arouses Peter and herself via self-mutilation with a piece of glass  The two then break into a crack house, where Peter beats the owner to death with a hammer 
Crusty films the filth-encrusted building and the decaying corpse of an overdosed addict  When Peter starts stripping the body of the house's owner, claiming it will be easier to dispose of without clothes, another fight breaks out between him and Crusty when she questions his motive for undressing the body, accusing him of being "a faggot "
Crusty demonstrates her love of self-harm to Maggot and a friend, cutting her scarred arm with a knife  Crusty and Maggot remove a bound and masked woman from a box they have been keeping her in for "a long time " Maggot rapes the woman while Crusty cheers him on and taunts the victim  When Maggot is finished, he then lets a male captive out of another box, and he and Crusty force him to perform a penectomy on himself with a pair of cuticle scissors, then seal him back up  Crusty mimics oral sex with it, then uses it to violate the female victim 
The trio of killers go to town, where they torment a shopkeeper, eat fast food, and wander around  Maggot and Peter then watch and masturbate to Crusty torturing two women, sexually abusing and repeatedly vomiting on them while a male corpse rots in the corner of the room   Eventually, the women are killed  Maggot disembowels one, chewing on her spilled innards and masturbating with them, while the other is beaten to death by Crusty and Peter, the latter dragging the body away to presumably have sex with it  They get drunk, and afterward, Maggot is found in the bathroom by Crusty, shaving and cutting himself to "look beautiful" for her 
The trio are next shown playing in the snow, attending a concert, meeting up with friends, raping a woman, and going to a piercing shop, where Maggot receives a nose ring and gets into a fight with Peter over his relationship with Crusty  The group then visit another serial killer, who shows them the contents of his shed; mutilated bodies, dying victims, and a headless and maggot-covered toddler, which Maggot eats a chunk of  Later, while the others are asleep, the new killer borrows their camera, and films himself taunting and slitting the throat of one of his female captives 
The trio attacks a family, killing the father first by hanging him  While Peter tortures the mother, Crusty watches Maggot have sex with the corpse of the young daughter in a bathtub  The three get into a fight, which escalates to Peter slitting the throat of the wife, while abusing Maggot with her blood, followed by the film cutting to static  Later, a cat is shown killing and eating a mouse 

Cast
Cristie Whiles as Crusty
Fred Vogel as Peter Mountain
Michael Todd Schneider as Maggot
Jerami Cruise as Man Shown Having Sex in Window
Killjoy as Fourth Killer
M  Kadath
Erika Schultz
E  Jay
Midian Crosby as Brunette Vomit Torture Victim
Elmo Painter as Blonde Vomit Torture Victim
Dave Brown as Dead Man in Vomit Torture Sequence
Art Ettinger as Male Friend
Rick Kundrach as Jonesy
Tim Grubjesik as Dead Junkie
Allana Sleeth as Female Friend
Shelby Vogel as Fourth Killer's Victim/Dead Mother
Shannon Thames
Chris Shaw as Dead Father
Daisy as Daisy
Superkollider

Release
Schneider left the crew shortly after the wrap of production on Mordum  He released his own cut of the film, subtitled "The Maggot Cut", through Maggot Films, and the official cut of the film was released on DVD in 2003 

Reception
The exploitation film database The Worldwide Celluloid Massacre has Mordum ranked as the fourth most "vile" film viewed by the website, below Salò, or the 120 Days of Sodom, The Angel's Melancholy and Carcinoma  The review of the film (which is categorized as "worthless") referred to it as "pointless hardcore depravity" 

Controversy
While traveling to Canada to attend the Rue Morgue Festival of Fear in Toronto, co-director and writer Fred Vogel was arrested, pending charges of transporting obscene materials into Canada, when copies of Mordum and its predecessor were found by customs officials among the merchandise he had intended to bring to the convention  The charges were dropped, after Vogel had spent roughly ten hours in customs prison, and his films were sent to Ottawa for further observation Copies of Mordum were confiscated by Australian customs officials in 2004, the reason given for the seizure of the DVDs being that "they offend against the standards of morality, decency and propriety generally accepted by reasonable adults to the extent that they should not be imported" 
Passage 2:
Coney Island Baby (film)
Coney Island Baby is a 2003 comedy-drama in which film producer Amy Hobby made her directorial debut  Karl Geary wrote the film and Tanya Ryno was the film's producer  The music was composed by Ryan Shore  The film was shot in Sligo, Ireland, which is known locally as "Coney Island" 
The film was screened at the Newport International Film Festival  Hobby won the Jury Award for "Best First Time Director" 
The film made its premiere television broadcast on the Sundance Channel 

Plot
After spending time in New York City, Billy Hayes returns to his hometown  He wants to get back together with his ex-girlfriend and take her back to America in hopes of opening up a gas station  But everything isn't going Billy's way - the townspeople aren't happy to see him, and his ex-girlfriend is engaged and pregnant  Then, Billy runs into his old friends who are planning a scam 

Cast
Karl Geary - Billy Hayes
Laura Fraser - Bridget
Hugh O'Conor - Satchmo
Andy Nyman - Franko
Patrick Fitzgerald - The Duke
Tom Hickey - Mr  Hayes
Conor McDermottroe - Gerry
David McEvoy - Joe
Thor McVeigh - Magician
Sinead Dolan - Julia

Music
The film's original score was composed by Ryan Shore 

External links
Coney Island Baby (2006) at IMDb
MSN - Movies: Coney Island Baby
Passage 3:
August Underground
August Underground is a 2001 American exploitation horror film directed by Fred Vogel, and written by Vogel and Allen Peters  The film stars Vogel as a serial killer named Peter, who kidnaps and kills several innocent people, while his unnamed accomplice, played by Peters, films and documents the murders 
Filmed in an intentionally amateurish found footage style, August Underground was met with mixed reviews  The film was followed by two sequels, August Underground's Mordum in 2003, and August Underground's Penance in 2007 

Plot
Peter, a serial killer, invites his camera-wielding friend into his basement, where he is holding a woman named Laura captive  Peter and his accomplice torture her at their leisure, committing sadistic acts such as slicing one of her nipples off and covering her in feces and urine 
Next, the two pick up a female hitchhiker  After Peter coerces her into performing oral sex, he beats and leaves her for dead on the side of the road  After the duo are kicked out of a concert for rowdy behavior, Peter and his accomplice return to the house to find that Laura has died 
Peter murders an old woman in her home, then terrorizes a convenience store with his accomplice  They abandon their plans to kidnap the clerk or a shopper when they hear police sirens approaching  The two then proceed to tour Roadside America, and visit a tattoo parlor  When the tattoo artist finishes giving Peter a tattoo, he and his twin brother are captured by Peter and the cameraman  They cut a leg off of the tattoo artist then bludgeon him and his brother to death 
The two hire prostitutes for a drug-fueled orgy  Peter sodomizes one prostitute while beating her with a hammer  The remaining prostitute tries to escape  In the chaotic chase that ensues, the accomplice drops the camera, leading to silence in the room 

Cast
Fred Vogel as Peter
Allen Peters as Man Behind the Camera
Kyle Dealman
Dan Friedman
Alexa Iris as Hitchhiker
Victoria Jones as Old Woman
Aaron LaBonte as Younger Twin
Ben LaBonte as Older Twin
Andrew Lauer
Peter Mountain
AnnMarie Reveruzzi as Laura (Girl in Cellar)
Erika Risovich as Erika (Blond Prostitute)
Russel A  Sagona
Randi Stubbs as Black Prostitute
Stephen Vogel as Boy in Supermarket
John A  Wisniewski as Michael (Dead Man in Bathtub)
Nick Yatso as Bouncer at Concert

Production
August Underground was produced, and directed by Fred Vogel in his directorial debut, with Vogel also co-writing, and starring in the film's lead role  Initially, Vogel had wanted to make a "big-budget zombie film", but felt that his inexperience at making a feature film would turn away any potential financiers  With this in mind, Vogel decided to make another film that would help him gain awareness of his work and potential financing for the film  The idea for the film came from Vogel's frustration with the serial killer genre, which he felt "didn't show you what was really going on"  Taking inspiration from John McNaughton's Henry: Portrait of a Serial Killer, Vogel wanted to make a film that was both "ugly" and realistic while also being unique and original  Principal photography began in August 2000, under the working title Peter Vogel initially hoped to conduct a guerrilla marketing campaign for the film, in which VHS tapes of the film would be placed in random locations around the United States, such as parks and playgrounds, for passersby to discover  However this plan was abandoned following the September 11 attacks and subsequent anthrax attacks 

Release
Critical response
Gregory S  Burkart of Bloody Disgusting included August Underground on his list "20 Landmarks of Found-Footage Horror!", writing: "I'm not a big fan of this series, but I admire Vogel's fearless audacity in serving up the ultimate in onscreen sadism"  Jay Alan from HorrorNews net gave the film a positive review, praising the film's performances, gore effects, and realistic quality  Chris Mayo of Severed Cinema offered similar praise: "August Underground is a true testament of what horror should be; nasty, nihilistic, raw and real"  Robert Firsching from Allmovie wrote in his review on the film: "A grueling but important antidote to the plethora of films glamorizing serial killers, August Underground is not likely to find a wide audience, but will not leave those who manage to find a copy unaffected" The film was later ranked at #14 in Complex's Most Disturbing Movies of All Time, with the entry on the film noting its realistic quality, and "sadistically natural vibe" 

Controversy
In 2005, while traveling to Canada to attend the Rue Morgue Festival of Fear in Toronto, director and co-writer Fred Vogel was arrested, pending charges of transporting obscene materials into Canada, when copies of August Underground and its sequel were found by customs officials among the merchandise he had intended to bring to the convention  The charges were eventually dropped, after Vogel had spent roughly ten hours in customs custody, and his films were sent to Ottawa for further observation 
Passage 4:
Vasantha Raagam
Vasantha Raagam (transl  Tune of spring) is a 1986 Indian Tamil-language romantic drama film, directed by S  A  Chandrasekhar and produced by his wife Shoba who wrote the story  The film stars Vijayakanth, Rahman and Sudha Chandran  It was released on 1 August 1986 

Plot
A young journalist Raghu falls in love with Vasantha  As advised by a senior journalist colleague Chandrasekhar, Raghu eventually confesses his feelings to his lady love  Vasantha is revealed to be a widow  Raghu and Vasantha eventually marry, with the approval of Vasantha's mother, who was initially hesitant  It is revealed through flashback that Vasantha was deeply in love and about to be married to Vijay but he dies in an accident  In sadness, and in attempting to move forward, Vasantha and Vasantha's mother (Vijay's older sister) shift base to Madras 
In a strange twist of fate, Vijay is shown to have mistakenly been declared deceased  He is alive and now a famous stage singer  Vasantha and Raghu meet Vijay as audience members at one of his shows 
Vasantha hides her shock not to make Raghu suspicious  Raghu remains clueless about his wife's past with Vijay  Raghu is only aware that Vasantha was a widow before him marrying her and asks nothing further  Raghu is impressed with Vijay's musical abilities and looks up to him as an elder brother figure 
Vijay's older sister is alerted to Vijay's presence by her daughter Vasantha and goes to Vijay's hotel room to meet him  She is emotional and shocked that Vijay is indeed alive  She is distraught that she got Vasantha married to Raghu, while Vijay was active  She apologises to her younger brother Vijay and says she got her daughter Vasantha married as everyone thought Vijay had died 
She requests her younger brother to leave Madras not to interfere or cause problems to her daughter Vasantha's marriage  Vijay is overwhelmed and begs his sister to let him remain in Madras  He promises never to be seen by them but that he will merely admire his beloved Vasantha from a distance 
Vasantha's mother is still not happy with this and feels that Vijay should leave Madras in everyone's best interests 
Vijay gets a cab to Madras Airport to leave the city, but the cab driver is intoxicated, and they both meet with a non-fatal car accident 
Vijay is taken to hospital, and Raghu is informed as he is listed as Vijay's contact person  Raghu brings Vijay back to his house to recuperate 
Raghu hosts a house party to commemorate his first wedding anniversary with Vasantha  Vijay is requested to sing a song and entertain the guests  After the guests leave, it is inadvertently revealed to Raghu that Vasantha was meant to be married to Vijay, but everyone assumed Vijay had died 
On discovering this hidden truth, Raghu feels he has come between the true love of Vijay and Vasantha and decides to leave town so they can unite 
Vasantha and Vasantha's mother assures Raghu that Vasantha is committed to her marriage to Raghu and that despite Vijay being alive, he has been considered long dead and they have moved on with their lives 
Vijay leaves Raghu's house and returns to his hotel room 
Vijay writes a heartfelt letter to Raghu and Vasantha wishing them all the best for their future and that they belong to each other as rightful husband and wife 
Raghu, Vasantha and Vasantha's mother arrive at Vijay's hotel room to read Vijay's letter 
Vijay, tragically, commits suicide by shooting himself in the head 
Unable to bear the pain of living a life without his Vasantha, he chooses to escape the problem forever 

Cast
Soundtrack
The music was composed by M  S  Viswanathan 

Reception
Jayamanmadhan (a duo) of Kalki appreciated the music but criticised the story, though they complemented Chandrasekhar for trying to deviate from his usual revenge-themed films 
Passage 5:
Rakka (film)
Rakka is a 2017 American-Canadian military science fiction short film made by Oats Studios and  directed by Neill Blomkamp  It was released on YouTube and Steam on 14 June 2017 

Plot
Chapter 1: World
In the near future, Earth will be attacked by technologically superior and highly aggressive reptilian aliens called the Klum (pronounced "klume")  Humanity is nearing extinction with millions dead or enslaved  The Klum transform the Earth in favor of their own ideal living conditions  They do this at first by burning forests and destroying cities  Then they build megastructures that alter the atmosphere by pumping out methane  The gas makes it progressively harder for terrestrial life to breathe  And it warms the climate, which leads to flooding of coastal cities 
The story begins in 2020, from the viewpoint of resistance fighters in Texas, a group of US Army soldiers and many others who have banded together  Most human survivors live underground or among ruins  They have barely enough provisions, weapons, and ammunition  The humans fight by using whatever they can against the primary Klum weapon: an omnipresent nanite in their weaponry, and telepathic control over any human that makes direct eye contact with them 
The resistance makes "brain-barriers" that block this
mind control  The Klum know, however, that a scarcity of materials means a scarcity of brain barriers  They hope, therefore, to win a war of attrition against the human survivors 
Some prisoners are living incubators for the Klum's young, which inevitably kills the victims  Others are dissected  Still other humans are converted into human loudspeakers that urge humans to surrender into "conservatories"  Very few humans ever escape 
After the Klum destroy a militia convoy with an airstrike, one of the surviving soldiers witnesses an angel-like being materialize from thin air  The narration describes ″them″ as mankind's saviours 

Chapter 2: Amir & Nosh
Nosh is a tech-savvy pyromaniac and bomb-maker, eking out a living in a scrapyard far from the resistance  The resistance despises Nosh for his murderous glee and demands - giving the sick or suicidal over as bait during his many IED ambushes  They must, however, give in to Nosh's demands to
secure the IEDs and the brain-barriers he makes 
The resistance stumble across Amir, a mute who has escaped from the Klum  He has extensive cybernetics across his head and shoulders  Amid opposition from her lieutenants, the resistance leader, Jasper, releases Amir from her custody into the care of a resistance fighter named Sarah 
Sarah, having lost her daughter to the Klum's experiments, takes a liking to him  She gives Amir food and drink while trying to persuade him to help the resistance fight the Klum by using the precognitive abilities he acquired via the aliens' experiments 

Chapter 3: Siege
Amir recovers physically and mentally  Then, because of his implant, he has a premonition involving a wounded Klum on the run from militia forces 
Sarah pleads with Amir to help the militia officers to stop the genocide  The more she talks to him, the more his eyes change, seeing the premonition of the impending attack more clearly  Amir, still mute, foresees the militia successfully shooting down an alien aircraft, and the pilot is the alien on the run 
Sarah asks Amir if they will be able to learn how to hunt the Klum and teach them how to fear  Unable to answer, he foresees the Klum telekinetically bashing one of the militia soldiers, disconnecting his brain barrier and causing him to be mind-controlled, turning on his comrades, who are forced to kill him 
Sarah tells Amir that he now has the abilities the aliens have and that he is to use them for humanity  Back in the vision, the militia surround the Klum; Jasper orders the militia to cut off its head  The film ends with Sarah urging Amir to use his abilities because he is humanity's last hope 

Cast
Sigourney Weaver as Jasper
Eugene Khumbanyiwa as Amir
Robert Hobbs as Carl
Carly Pope as Sarah
Brandon Auret as Nosh
Mike Huff as Policeman
Owen McCrae as Klum
Connor Page as Child
Jay Anstey as A suicide bomber
Justin Shaw as Man in medical device
Carla Marais as eight-year-old girl
Ryan Angilley as Martinez
Alec Gillis as Militia officer 1
Ruan Coetzee as Militia officer 2
Paul Davies as Militia officer 3
Pieter Jacobz as Militia officer 4
Passage 6:
Royal Tramp II
Royal Tramp II is a 1992 Hong Kong film based on Louis Cha's novel The Deer and the Cauldron  The film is a sequel to Royal Tramp, which was released earlier in the same year 

Plot
Having been revealed as the false Empress Dowager, Lung-er returns to the Dragon Sect camp  There, the sect leader reminds her of their mission to support Ng Sam-kwai's, a military general, campaign for the throne before abdicating her title to Lung-er 
Siu-bo lounges at the brothel where he once worked but is then attacked by disciples of the One Arm Nun, an anti-Qing revolutionary figure, before being quickly subdued  When Siu-bo tries to take advantage of them, Ng Ying-hung, Ng Sam-kwai's son, exposes his lies  Scorned and unaware of the stranger's title, Siu-bo sends his men after Ying-Hung, but Lung-er, now disguised as Ying-hung's male bodyguard, easily fends them off 
At the palace, The Emperor, wary of Ng Sam-kwai's intentions, marries off the Princess to Ying-hung and assigns Siu-bo to be the Imperial Inspector General of the wedding march, so that he can keep his eyes on the general's activities  This complicates Siu-bo's relationship with Princess when she tells Siu-bo she's pregnant with his child 
The One Arm Nun and her disciple, Ah Ko, later ambushes the procession  Fighting to a standstill with Lung-er, the assailants escape with Ying-hung and Siu-bo  However, Siu-bo garners some respect from her when he reveals his dual identity as a Heaven and Earth Society commander  Lung-er finally catches up to them with reinforcements at an inn but only manages to rescue Siu-bo  Having been saved by Ying-hung before, Ah Ko elopes with him amid the confusion 
At the Dragon Sect camp, Ying-hung and Fung Sek-fan secretly poisons Lung-er and turn the followers against her  She escapes with Siu-bo but must have sex with a man before dawn, otherwise she will die  However, this will transfer 4/5th of her martial arts' power to whomever she sleeps with  Despite Siu-bo's lecherous personality, Lung-er accepts his blunt honesty as a sign of virtue and chooses to sacrifice her virginity to Siu-bo and becomes his third wife 
When Siu-bo gets back to the Princess, they execute a plan to castrate Ying-hung  With her betrothed no longer able to produce heirs, the Princess is taken by Siu-bo as his fourth wife  Enraged by the end of his family line, Ng Ying-hung prematurely gathers his troops and sets out to wage war with the Emperor  He tasks Fung Sek-fan with killing the Princess and Siu-bo  Though Chan Kan-nam manages to intervene and lets his disciple escape 
Later, the One Arm Nun captures the elopers, Ying-hung and Ah Ko, and offers them to Siu-bo  Siu-bo pardons them and even takes Ah Ko as his fifth wife  Afterward, Fung Sek-fan is promoted when he surrenders Ng Sam-kwai's battle plans and Chan Kan-nam to the Emperor  Given Siu-bo's muddied history with the Heaven and Earth Society, the Emperor tasks him with Chan's execution  Siu-bo's newfound power is difficult for him to control, and Chan helps him master it in time for him to use it against Fung  Siu-bo also uncovers the secret of the 42 Chapters books after burning them in frustration, revealing hidden stones that are left unburned, revealing map coordinates to the location of the treasure all major parties have been attempting to locate 
In order to save his master, Siu-bo defeats Fung with his newly acquired martial arts power after both falling into a hidden cave wherein the treasure is found, and swaps Feng's body with Chan's before the execution to save his master  And just as he was about to escape with his wives and Chan, the Emperor arrives with his troops, having been sold out by Siu-bo's opportunistic friend To-lung who is now involved romantically with Siu-bo's sister  But seeing that they are friends, his sister is in love with Siu-bo, and with Siu-bo bluffing that he's strong enough to demolish the Emperor and his entire army if he wanted, the Emperor lets them go, declaring that Siu-bo has died and no longer exists as far as he's concerned  Siu-bo laughs afterward that the Emperor fell for his bluff 

Cast
Stephen Chow as Wai Siu-bo
Brigitte Lin as Lung-er
Chingmy Yau as Princess Kin-ning
Michelle Reis as Ah Ko/Li Ming-ko
Natalis Chan as To-lung
Damian Lau as Chan Kan-nam
Deric Wan as Hong-hei Emperor
Kent Tong as Ng Ying-hung, Sam-kwai's son
Paul Chun as Ng Sam-kwai
Sandra Ng as Wai Chun-fa
Fennie Yuen as Seung-yee twin
Vivian Chan as Seung-yee twin
Yen Shi-kwan as Fung Sek-fan
Helen Ma as Kau-nan/one-armed Divine nun
Sharla Cheung as Mo Tung-chu / Empress Dowager
Law Lan as founder of Divine Dragon Sect
Tam Suk-moi as Ah Nong
Hoh Choi-chow as Palace guard Wen Shan Lun
Yeung Jing-jing
Wan Seung-lam
Lee Fai
Cheng Ka-sang
Ho Wing-cheung
Kwan Yung
To Wai-wo
Passage 7:
The Redsin Tower
The Redsin Tower is a 2006 indie low-budget horror film directed by  Fred Vogel and written by Fred and Shelby Lyn Vogel  This is the third film produced and distributed by TOETAG INC, and the first film in their filmography to be a traditional three-act narrative  The Redsin Tower is noteworthy for its use of excessive gore, violence, and psychological horror  The plot centers around Kim, a girl trying to get over her ex-boyfriend by taking a trip with her friends to the Redsin tower, where the partying quickly becomes a fight for their lives  The film was distributed and released on DVD on October 10, 2007 by TOETAG INC 

Plot
Cast
Bethany Newell as Kim Abrahams
Perry Tiberio as Mitch Allen
Jessica Kennedy as Becky Adams
Meghan O'Halloran as Emily Dickson
Peter Schmidt as Phil Pepper
Billy D  Martin as Carl Hinze
A C  Earing as Steve Jacobs
Fred Vogel as Curtis Pepper
Shelby Jackson as Sandy
Kathie McDermitt as Smoking Woman
Nathaniel DeMarco as Big Ed
Cristie Whiles as Redsin's Wife
Jerami Cruise as Mateo Redsin

Release
The Redsin Tower  initially premiered at Pioneer Theater in Manhattan on October 29, 2006  The film went on to be played at Fantasia 2007 and Freak Show Horror Film Festival 2007 in Orlando 

Awards
Reception
Horror society says “The Redsin Tower is a surprisingly well-shot horror film” in comparison to TOETAG Inc's previous August Underground series, giving the film a rating of 3 5/5  Jay Alan from Horror News wrote that “There are guts pouring, heads rolling, maggots and blood squirting, grotesque vomiting and the absolute best ax murder I’ve ever seen  “
Johnny Butane of Dead Central writes, "The horrible things that happen to these kids [are] spaced out in such a way that the actions fit into the overall narrative quite nicely, which makes the film as a whole even more enjoyable "
Passage 8:
The Wonderful World of Captain Kuhio
The Wonderful World of Captain Kuhio (クヒオ大佐, Kuhio Taisa, lit  "Captain Kuhio") is a 2009 Japanese comedy-crime film, directed by Daihachi Yoshida, based on Kazumasa Yoshida's 2006 biographical novel, Kekkon Sagishi Kuhio Taisa (lit  "Marriage swindler Captain Kuhio"), that focuses on a real-life marriage swindler, who conned over 100 million yen (US$1 2 million) from a number of women between the 1970s and the 1990s The film was released in Japan on 10 October 2009 

Cast
Masato Sakai - Captain Kuhio
Yasuko Matsuyuki - Shinobu Nagano
Hikari Mitsushima - Haru Yasuoka
Yuko Nakamura - Michiko Sudo
Hirofumi Arai - Tatsuya Nagano
Kazuya Kojima - Koichi Takahashi
Sakura Ando - Rika Kinoshita
Masaaki Uchino - Chief Fujiwara
Kanji Furutachi - Shigeru Kuroda
Reila Aphrodite
Sei Ando

Awards
At the 31st Yokohama Film Festival
Best Actor – Masato Sakai
Best Supporting Actress – Sakura Ando
Passage 9:
August Underground's Penance
August Underground's Penance is a 2007 horror film written and directed by Fred Vogel, and co-written by Cristie Whiles  It is the sequel to 2003's August Underground's Mordum, and the final installment in the August Underground series, which began in 2001 

Plot
August Underground's Penance continues the series' narrative mode of showing the lives of serial killers (now just Peter, and his girlfriend Crusty) through their camera, though this installment abandons the "degraded footage" aspect employed by the first two films, being shot in high-definition 
After killing a man who breaks free of his restraints and tries to escape them, Peter and Crusty visit various locations in town and enjoy some fireworks at a celebration  Peter is then shown in his basement, taunting a semi-conscious man who has had nails hammered into various parts of his body  Next, Peter and Crusty go on a hike, assault a vagrant they find sleeping under a bridge, and cut a man open so they can pull his gurgling intestines out  The two then attend a party, where Peter does drugs, Crusty flirts with other women, and a live rat is fed to a pet alligator 
Around Christmas, Peter and Crusty break into a family's home  Peter bludgeons the father with a hammer and suffocates the mother, whom he is unsuccessful in trying to rape due to being unable to attain an erection  When the dead couple's young daughter stumbles onto the two intruders, Crusty strangles her  While Peter goes to shower, Crusty opens some of the family's presents, then falls asleep beside the corpses of the little girl and her mother  Later, while watching a band perform, Crusty goes to an empty room with a man, with whom she has rough anal sex  Back in the basement, Peter and Crusty torture and murder several people they have imprisoned  Afterward, they take apart a dead deer, and with a friend's help, feed pieces of it to a lion  The two then enjoy several recreational activities, like shooting on a makeshift firing range, and racing ATVs 
As Peter beats a man to death with a hammer, Crusty drinks some of the spilled blood, then helps Peter dismember a female body  When Peter wakes up from a nap, he and Crusty get into an argument  Peter is then shown cutting the fetus out of a pregnant woman, an act which causes Crusty to break down  When his attempts at comforting Crusty fail, Peter rapes her, then goes into hysterics himself  Peter gets drunk and proceeds to take his frustrations out on a woman in the cellar while screaming insults at Crusty, who is still sobbing hysterically upstairs  When Peter passes out, Crusty throws alcohol and other fluids onto his body, while ranting about how much she hates him 
After beating and tying up a woman, Peter masturbates and smears his semen on her  When Crusty walks in on this, she gets into a physical fight with Peter; he beats her while she screams insults and profanities at him  When Peter falls asleep, Crusty spits on him, and strangles his captive to death  With the woman dead, Crusty breaks down again, and begins begging for forgiveness and rambling about how she "wants out"  The film ends with Crusty going to the bathroom and committing suicide via self-asphyxiation 

Cast
Fred Vogel as Peter Mountain
Cristie Whiles as Crusty
Merle Allin as himself
J  B  Beverley as himself
Dino Sex as himself

Reception
A four out of five was awarded by Dread Central, which wrote: "I felt uncomfortable, disturbed and a little sick for watching it  I also can't help but feel like I had just watched art  Sick, fucked up art, but art nonetheless" and concluded that by viewing the film "you'll feel dirty, sickened and a little fucked up for watching it, and to me, that's what's great about it"  Digital Retribution gave Penance a three out of five, and found that the film was much more professional than its predecessors, and that it is "certainly not for everyone, not even for some who consider themselves lovers of hardcore horror, August Underground's Penance is a hard-hitting, faux-snuff fest  It is also a suitably fitting end to the series with actors Fred Vogel and Cristie Whiles delving into levels of intense paranoia, showcasing a decline in mental and psychical  [sic] stability while torturing and butchering nameless individuals  It strives to achieve a point of expressing the mind of a modern serial killer and although this may be lost or unappreciated by those expecting a Mordum 2, it awards the film a credibility that was certainly missing in August Underground's Mordum" The Worldwide Celluloid Massacre stated that while the leads "have to act in this installment" it was still "the same boring sickness" and "the same pointless realistic snuff trash" 
Passage 10:
Invasion of the Neptune Men
Invasion of the Neptune Men (宇宙快速船, Uchū Kaisokusen) is a 1961 superhero film produced by Toei Company Ltd  The film stars Sonny Chiba as Iron Sharp (called Space Chief in the U S  version) The film was released in 1961 in Japan and was later released in 1964 direct to television in the United States  In 1998, the film was featured on an episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000 

Plot
Astronomer Shinichi Tachibana has a secret identity as superhero "Iron Sharp" and has many children as friends  When they are attacked by a group of metallic aliens ("Neptune Men" in English), Iron Sharp drives the aliens away  The resourceful Tachibana helps develop an electric barrier to block the aliens from coming to the Earth   After several losses by the aliens, they announce that they will invade the Earth, throwing the world into a state of panic  The aliens destroy entire cities with their mothership and smaller fighters  After Iron Sharp destroys multiple enemy ships, Japan fires nuclear missiles at the mothership, destroying it 

Cast
Sonny Chiba as scientist Shinichi Tachibana / Iron Sharp
Kappei Matsumoto as Dr  Tanigawa
Ryuko Minakami as Yōko (Tanigawa's daughter)
Shinjirō Ehara as scientist Yanagida
Mitsue Komiya as scientist Saitō

Style
Invasion of the Neptune Men is part of Japan's tokusatsu genre, which involves science fiction and/or superhero films that feature heavy use of special effects 

Production
Invasion of the Neptune Men was an early film for Sonny Chiba  Chiba started working in Japanese television where he starred in superhero television series in 1960  Chiba continued working back and forth between television and film until the late 1960s when he became a more popular star 

Release
Uchū Kaisokusen was released in Japan on 19 July 1961  The film was not released theatrically in the United States, but it was released directly to American television by Walter Manley on March 20, 1964, dubbed in English and retitled Invasion of the Neptune Men The film was also released as Space Chief, Space Greyhound and Invasion from a Planet 

Reception and legacy
In later reviews of the film, Bruce Eder gave the film a one-star rating out of five, stating that the film was "the kind of movie that gave Japanese science fiction films a bad name  The low-quality special effects, the non-existent acting, the bad dubbing, and the chaotic plotting and pacing were all of a piece with what critics had been saying, erroneously, about the Godzilla movies for years " The review referred to the film's "cheesy special effects and ridiculous dialogue taking on a sort of so-bad-they're-good charm", and described the film as a "thoroughly memorable (if not necessarily enjoyable, outside of the MST3K continuum) specimen of bad cinema "On October 11, 1997 the film was shown on the movie-mocking television show Mystery Science Theater 3000  In his review of the film, Bruce Eder of AllMovie described the episode as a memorable one, specifically the cast watching the repetitive aerial dogfights between spaceships, and one of the hosts remarking that "Independence Day seems a richly nuanced movie"  Criticism of the film included excessive use of WWII stock footage in the action scenes (especially the obviously noticeable shot featuring a picture of Adolf Hitler in one building) In his book Japanese Science Fiction, Fantasy and Horror Films, Stuart Galbraith IV stated that the film "had a few surprises" despite a "woefully familiar script"  Galbraith noted that the film was not as over-the-top as Prince of Space and that the opticals in the film were as strong as anything Toho had produced at the time  Galbraith suggested the effects may have been lifted from Toei's The Final War (aka World War III Breaks Out) from 1961 

See also
List of Japanese films of 1961
List of Mystery Science Theater 3000 episodes
List of science fiction films of the 1960s

Notes
Context 2: Passage 1:
Elizabeth of Carinthia, Queen of Germany
Elisabeth of Carinthia (also known as Elisabeth of Tyrol; c  1262 – 28 October 1312), was a Duchess of Austria from 1282 and Queen of the Romans from 1298 until 1308, by marriage to King Albert I of Habsburg 

Life
Born in Munich, Bavaria, Elisabeth was the eldest daughter of Count Meinhard of Gorizia-Tyrol, and Elizabeth of Bavaria, Queen of Germany, widow of the late Hohenstaufen King Conrad IV of Germany  
Elizabeth thus was a half-sister of Conradin, King of Jerusalem and Duke of Swabia  Elizabeth was in fact better connected to powerful German rulers than her future husband: a descendant of earlier monarchs, for example Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, she was also a niece of the Bavarian dukes, Austria's important neighbors 

Duchess and Queen
Elisabeth was married in Vienna on 20 December 1274 to Count Albert I of Habsburg, eldest son and heir of the newly elected Rudolf I, King of the Romans, thus becoming daughter-in-law of the King of the Romans and Emperor-to-be  After Rudolf had defeated his rival King Ottokar II of Bohemia in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld, he invested his son Albert with the duchies of Austria and Styria at the Imperial Diet in Augsburg on 17 December 1282 Albert initially had to share the rule with his younger brother Rudolf II, who nevertheless had to waive his rights according to the Treaty of Rheinfelden the next year  Duke Albert and Elizabeth solidified their rule in what was to become the Habsburg "hereditary lands", also with the help of Elizabeth's father Meinhard, who in his turn was created Duke of Carinthia by King Rudolf I in 1286 Elizabeth was described as shrewd and enterprising, in possession of some commercial talents  The construction of the Saline plant in Salzkammergut goes back to her suggestion  
Upon the death of Albert's father in 1291, the princes elected Count Adolf of Nassau German king, while Duke Albert himself became entangled in internal struggles with the Austrian nobility  Not until Adolf's deposition in 1298, Elizabeth's husband was finally elected King of the Romans on 23 June 1298  Two weeks later, Adolf was defeated and killed in the Battle of Göllheim  In 1299, Elizabeth was crowned Queen of the Romans in Nuremberg 

Later life
On 1 May 1308 her husband was murdered by his nephew John "the Parricide" near Windisch, Swabia (in modern-day Switzerland)  After Albert's assassination, Elizabeth had the Poor Clare monastery of Königsfelden erected at the site, where she died on 28 October 1312 and was also buried  Today her mortal remains rest at Saint Paul's Abbey in Carinthia 

Issue
Elizabeth's and Albert's children were:

Anna (1275, Vienna – 19 March 1327, Breslau) 
married in Graz ca  1295 to Margrave Herman, Margrave of Brandenburg-Salzwedel (ca  1275 – 1308);
married in Breslau 1310 to Duke Heinrich VI of Breslau (1294-1335) 
Agnes (18 May 1281 – 10 June 1364, Königsfelden)
married in Vienna on 13 February 1296 to King Andrew III of Hungary (ca  1265-1301) 
Rudolf III (ca  1282 – 4 July 1307), married but line extinct  He predeceased his father 
married on 25 May 1300 to Duchess Blanche of France (ca  1282 – 1305);
married in Prague on 16 October 1306 to Elizabeth Richeza of Poland (1288 – 1335) 
Elisabeth (1285 – 19 May 1353) 
married in 1304 to Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (1282 – 1328) 
Frederick I (1289 – 13 January 1330) 
married on 11 May 1315 to Isabella of Aragon, Queen of Germany (1305 – 1330) but line extinct 
Leopold I (4 August 1290 – 28 February 1326, Strassburg) 
married in 1315 to Catherine of Savoy (1284 – 1336) 
Catherine (1295 – 18 January 1323, Naples) 
married in 1316 to Charles, Duke of Calabria (1328 – 1298) 
Albert II (12 December 1298, Vienna – 20 July 1358, Vienna) 
married in Vienna on 15 February 1324 to Joanna of Pfirt (ca  1300 – 1351) 
Henry the Gentle (1299 – 3 February 1327, Bruck an der Mur) 
married Countess Elizabeth of Virneburg but line extinct 
Meinhard (1300 – 1301) 
Otto (23 July 1301, Vienna – 26 February 1339, Vienna) 
married on 15 May 1325 to Elizabeth of Bavaria, Duchess of Austria (ca  1306 – 1330);
married on 16 February 1335 to Anne of Bohemia, Duchess of Austria (1323 – 1338) 
Jutta (1302 – 5 March 1329) 
married in Baden 26 March 1319 to Count Ludwig VI of Öttingen 
Passage 2:
John de Bohun, 5th Earl of Hereford
John de Bohun, 5th Earl of Hereford (23 November 1306 – 20 January 1336) was born in St Clement's, Oxford to Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford and Elizabeth of Rhuddlan, a daughter of Edward I of England 
After his father's death at the Battle of Boroughbridge, the family lands were forfeited  It was not until after the fall of the Despensers that John was permitted to succeed to his inherited position as Earl of Hereford and Essex, hereditary Constable of England, and Lord of Brecknock 

Marriages
He married firstly, in 1325, to Alice FitzAlan (died 1326), daughter of Edmund FitzAlan, 2nd Earl of Arundel, and secondly to Margaret Basset (died 1355)  After the marriage, it was discovered that the couple were related to the fourth degree of consanguinity and they were forced to live apart  An appeal to Pope John XXII resulted on 19 February 1331 in a papal commission to the bishops of Lichfield and London to hold an enquiry into the case  However, Roger Northburgh, the Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, failed to act and the case was still pending when the Pope issued a further demand for an enquiry in 1334 

Death
He did not play much of a public role, despite his high titles and offices, most likely because he had some sort of incapacity  His younger brothers were often deputed to fulfil his duties as Constable  He died at Kirkby Thore, Westmorland and was interred in Stratford Langthorne Abbey, London 


== Notes ==
Passage 3:
Edward I of England
Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307  Concurrently, he was Lord of Ireland, and from 1254 to 1306, he ruled Gascony as Duke of Aquitaine in his capacity as a vassal of the French king  Before his accession to the throne, he was commonly referred to as the Lord Edward  The eldest son of Henry III, Edward was involved from an early age in the political intrigues of his father's reign  In 1259, he briefly sided with a baronial reform movement, supporting the Provisions of Oxford  After reconciliation with his father, he remained loyal throughout the subsequent armed conflict, known as the Second Barons' War  After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was held hostage by the rebellious barons, but escaped after a few months and defeated the baronial leader Simon de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham in 1265  Within two years the rebellion was extinguished and, with England pacified, Edward left to join the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1270  He was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed of his father's death  Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster Abbey 
Edward spent much of his reign reforming royal administration and common law  Through an extensive legal inquiry, he investigated the tenure of several feudal liberties  The law was reformed through a series of statutes regulating criminal and property law, but the King's attention was increasingly drawn toward military affairs  After suppressing a minor conflict in Wales in 1276–77, Edward responded to a second one in 1282–83 by conquering Wales  He then established English rule, built castles and towns in the countryside and settled them with English people  After the death of the heir to the Scottish throne, Edward was invited to arbitrate a succession dispute  He claimed feudal suzerainty over Scotland and invaded the country, and the ensuing First Scottish War of Independence continued after his death  Simultaneously, Edward found himself at war with France (a Scottish ally) after King Philip IV confiscated the Duchy of Gascony  The duchy was eventually recovered but the conflict relieved English military pressure against Scotland  By the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation and this met with both lay and ecclesiastical opposition  When the King died in 1307, he left to his son Edward II a war with Scotland and other financial and political burdens 
Edward's temperamental nature and height made him an intimidating figure and he often instilled fear in his contemporaries, although he held the respect of his subjects for the way he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship as a soldier, an administrator and a man of faith  Modern historians are divided in their assessment of Edward; some have praised him for his contribution to the law and administration, but others have criticised his uncompromising attitude towards his nobility  Edward is credited with many accomplishments, including restoring royal authority after the reign of Henry III and establishing Parliament as a permanent institution, which allowed for a functional system for raising taxes and reforming the law through statutes  At the same time, he is also often condemned for his wars against Scotland and for expelling the Jews from England in 1290 

Early years, 1239–1263
Childhood and marriage
Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on the night of 17–18 June 1239, to King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence  Edward, an Anglo-Saxon name, was not commonly given among the aristocracy of England after the Norman conquest, but Henry was devoted to the veneration of Edward the Confessor and decided to name his firstborn son after the saint  Edward's birth was widely celebrated at the royal court and throughout England, and he was baptised three days later at Westminster Abbey  He was commonly referred to as the Lord Edward until his accession to the throne in 1272  Among his childhood friends was his cousin Henry of Almain, son of King Henry's brother Richard of Cornwall  Henry of Almain remained a close companion of the prince for the rest of his life  Edward was placed in the care of Hugh Giffard – father of the future Chancellor Godfrey Giffard – until Bartholomew Pecche took over at Giffard's death in 1246  Edward received an education typical of an aristocratic boy his age, including in military studies, although the details of his upbringing are unknown There were concerns about Edward's health as a child, and he fell ill in 1246, 1247, and 1251  Nonetheless, he grew up to become a strong, athletic, and imposing man  At 6 ft 2 in (188 cm) he towered over most of his contemporaries, hence his epithet "Longshanks", meaning "long legs" or "long shins"  The historian Michael Prestwich states that his "long arms gave him an advantage as a swordsman, long thighs one as a horseman  In youth, his curly hair was blond; in maturity it darkened, and in old age it turned white  The regularity of his features was marred by a drooping left eyelid     His speech, despite a lisp, was said to be persuasive "In 1254, English fears of a Castilian invasion of the English-held province of Gascony induced King Henry to arrange a politically expedient marriage between fifteen-year-old Edward and thirteen-year-old Eleanor, the half-sister of King Alfonso X of Castile  They were married on 1 November 1254 in the Abbey of Santa María la Real de Las Huelgas in Castile  As part of the marriage agreement, Alfonso X gave up his claims to Gascony, and Edward received grants of land worth 15,000 marks a year  The marriage eventually led to the English acquisition of Ponthieu in 1279 upon Eleanor's inheritance of the county  Henry made sizeable endowments to Edward in 1254, including Gascony; most of Ireland, which was granted to Edward with the stipulation that it would never be separated from the English crown; and much land in Wales and England, including the Earldom of Chester  They offered Edward little independence for Henry retained much control over the land in question, particularly in Ireland, and benefited from most of the income from those lands  Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester had been appointed as royal lieutenant of Gascony the year before and drew its income, so in practice Edward derived neither authority nor revenue from this province  Around the end of November, Edward and Eleanor left Castile and entered Gascony, where they were warmly received by the populace  Here, Edward styled himself as "ruling Gascony as prince and lord", a move that the historian J  S  Hamilton states was a show of his blooming political independence From 1254 to 1257, Edward was under the influence of his mother's relatives, known as the Savoyards, the most notable of whom was Peter II of Savoy, the Queen's uncle  After 1257, Edward became increasingly close to the Lusignan faction – the half-brothers of his father Henry III – led by such men as William de Valence  This association was significant because the two groups of privileged foreigners were resented by the established English aristocracy, who would be at the centre of the ensuing years' baronial reform movement  Edward's ties to his Lusignan kinsmen were viewed unfavourably by contemporaries, including the chronicler Matthew Paris, who circulated tales of unruly and violent conduct by Edward's inner circle, which raised questions about his personal qualities 

Early ambitions
Edward showed independence in political matters as early as 1255, when he sided with the Soler family in Gascony in their conflict with the Colomb family  This ran contrary to his father's policy of mediation between the local factions  In May 1258, a group of magnates drew up a document for reform of the King's government – the so-called Provisions of Oxford – largely directed against the Lusignans  Edward stood by his political allies and strongly opposed the Provisions  The reform movement succeeded in limiting the Lusignan influence, and Edward's attitude gradually changed  In March 1259, he entered into a formal alliance with one of the main reformers, Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Gloucester and on 15 October announced that he supported the barons' goals, and their leader, the Earl of Leicester The motive behind Edward's change of heart could have been purely pragmatic: the Earl of Leicester was in a good position to support his cause in Gascony  When the King left for France in November, Edward's behaviour turned into pure insubordination  He made several appointments to advance the cause of the reformers, and his father believed that Edward was considering a coup d'état  When Henry returned from France, he initially refused to see his son, but through the mediation of Richard of Cornwall and Boniface, Archbishop of Canterbury, the two were eventually reconciled  Edward was sent abroad to France, and in November 1260 he again united with the Lusignans, who had been exiled there Back in England, early in 1262, Edward fell out with some of his former Lusignan allies over financial matters  The next year, King Henry sent him on a campaign in Wales against the Welsh prince Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, but Edward's forces were besieged in northern Wales and achieved only limited results  Around the same time, Leicester, who had been out of the country since 1261, returned to England and reignited the baronial reform movement  As the King seemed ready to give in to the barons' demands, Edward began to take control of the situation  From his previously unpredictable and equivocating attitude, he changed to one of firm devotion to protection of his father's royal rights  He reunited with some of the men he had alienated the year before – including Henry of Almain and John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey – and retook Windsor Castle from the rebels  Through the arbitration of King Louis IX of France an agreement was made between the two parties  This Mise of Amiens was largely favourable to the royalist side and would cause further conflict 

Civil war and crusades, 1264–1273
Second Barons' War
The years 1264–1267 saw the conflict known as the Second Barons' War, in which baronial forces led by the Earl of Leicester fought against those who remained loyal to the King  Edward initiated the armed conflict by capturing the rebel-held city of Gloucester  When Robert de Ferrers, 6th Earl of Derby, came to the assistance of the baronial forces, Edward negotiated a truce with the Earl  Edward later broke the terms of the agreement  He then captured Northampton from Simon de Montfort the Younger before embarking on a retaliatory campaign against Derby's lands  The baronial and royalist forces met at the Battle of Lewes, on 14 May 1264  Edward, commanding the right wing, performed well, and soon defeated the London contingent of the Earl of Leicester's forces  Unwisely, he pursued the scattered enemy, and on his return found the rest of the royal army defeated  By the Mise of Lewes, Edward and his cousin Henry of Almain were given up as hostages to Leicester 
Edward remained in captivity until March 1265, and even after his release he was kept under strict surveillance  In Hereford, he escaped on 28 May while out riding and joined up with Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Gloucester, who had recently defected to the King's side  The Earl of Leicester's support was now dwindling, and Edward retook Worcester and Gloucester with little effort  Meanwhile, Leicester had made an alliance with Llywelyn and started moving east to join forces with his son Simon  Edward made a surprise attack at Kenilworth Castle, where the younger Montfort was quartered, before moving on to cut off the Earl of Leicester  The two forces then met at the Battle of Evesham, on 4 August 1265  The Earl of Leicester stood little chance against the superior royal forces, and after his defeat he was killed and mutilated on the field Through such episodes as the deception of Derby at Gloucester, Edward acquired a reputation as untrustworthy  During the summer campaign he began to learn from his mistakes and gained the respect and admiration of contemporaries through actions such as showing clemency towards his enemies  The war did not end with the Earl of Leicester's death, and Edward participated in the continued campaigning  At Christmas, he came to terms with Simon the Younger and his associates at the Isle of Axholme in Lincolnshire, and in March he led a successful assault on the Cinque Ports  A contingent of rebels held out in the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle and did not surrender until the drafting of the conciliatory Dictum of Kenilworth in October 1266  In April it seemed as if the Earl of Gloucester would take up the cause of the reform movement, and civil war would resume, but after a renegotiation of the terms of the Dictum of Kenilworth, the parties came to an agreement  Around this time, Edward was made steward of England and began to exercise influence in the government  He was also appointed Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports in 1265  Despite this, he was little involved in the settlement negotiations following the wars  His main focus was on planning his forthcoming crusade 

Crusade and accession
Edward pledged himself to undertake a crusade in an elaborate ceremony on 24 June 1268, with his brother Edmund Crouchback and cousin Henry of Almain  Some of Edward's former adversaries, such as John de Vescy and the 7th Earl of Gloucester, similarly committed themselves, although some, like Gloucester, did not ultimately participate  With the country pacified, the greatest impediment to the project was acquiring sufficient finances  King Louis IX of France, who was the leader of the crusade, provided a loan of about £17,500  This was not enough, and the rest had to be raised through a direct tax on the laity, which had not been levied since 1237  In May 1270, Parliament granted a tax of one-twentieth of all movable property; in exchange the King agreed to reconfirm the Magna Carta, and to impose restrictions on Jewish money lending  On 20 August Edward sailed from Dover for France  Historians have not determined the size of his accompanying force with any certainty, but it was probably fewer than 1000 men, including around 225 knights Originally, the Crusaders intended to relieve the beleaguered Christian stronghold of Acre in Palestine, but King Louis and his brother Charles of Anjou, the king of Sicily, decided to attack the emirate of Tunis to establish a stronghold in North Africa  The plans failed when the French forces were struck by an epidemic which, on 25 August, killed Louis himself  By the time Edward arrived at Tunis, Charles had already signed a treaty with the Emir, and there was little to do but return to Sicily  Further military action was postponed until the following spring, but a devastating storm off the coast of Sicily dissuaded both Charles and Philip III, Louis' successor, from any further campaigning  Edward decided to continue alone, and on 9 May 1271 he finally landed at Acre The Christian situation in the Holy Land was precarious  Jerusalem had been reconquered by the Muslims in 1244, and Acre was now the centre of the Kingdom of Jerusalem  The Muslim states were on the offensive under the Mamluk leadership of Baibars, and were threatening Acre  Though Edward's men were an important addition to the garrison, they stood little chance against Baibars' superior forces, and an initial raid at nearby St Georges-de-Lebeyne in June was largely futile  An embassy to the Ilkhan Abaqa of the Mongols helped bring about an attack on Aleppo in the north, which distracted Baibars' forces  The Mongol invasion ultimately failed  In November, Edward led a raid on Qaqun, which could have served as a bridgehead to Jerusalem, but this was unsuccessful  The situation in Acre grew desperate, and in May 1272 Hugh III of Cyprus, who was the nominal king of Jerusalem, signed a ten-year truce with Baibars  Edward was initially defiant, but in June 1272 he was the victim of an assassination attempt by a member of the Syrian Order of Assassins, supposedly ordered by Baibars  Although he managed to kill the assassin, he was struck in the arm by a dagger feared to be poisoned, and was severely weakened over the following months  This finally persuaded Edward to abandon the campaign It was not until 24 September 1272 that Edward left Acre  Shortly after arriving in Sicily, he was met with the news that his father had died on 16 November  Edward was deeply saddened by this news, but rather than hurrying home at once, he made a leisurely journey northwards  This was due partly to his still-poor health, but also to a lack of urgency  The political situation in England was stable after the mid-century upheavals, and Edward was proclaimed king after his father's death, rather than at his own coronation, as had until then been customary  In Edward's absence, the country was governed by a royal council, led by Robert Burnell  Edward passed through Italy and France, visiting Pope Gregory X and paying homage to Philip III in Paris for his French domains  Edward travelled by way of Savoy to receive homage from his uncle Count Philip I for castles in the Alps held by a treaty of 1246 Edward then journeyed to Gascony to order its affairs and put down a revolt headed by Gaston de Béarn  While there, he launched an investigation into his feudal possessions, which, as Hamilton puts it, reflects "Edward's keen interest in administrative efficiency     [and] reinforced Edward's position as lord in Aquitaine and strengthened the bonds of loyalty between the king-duke and his subjects"  Around the same time, the King organised political alliances with the kingdoms in Iberia  His four-year-old daughter Eleanor was promised in marriage to Alfonso, the heir to the Kingdom of Aragon, and Edward's heir Henry was betrothed to Joan, heiress to the Kingdom of Navarre  Neither union would come to fruition  Only on 2 August 1274 did Edward return to England, landing at Dover  The thirty-five-year-old king held his coronation on 19 August at Westminster Abbey, alongside Queen Eleanor  Immediately after being anointed and crowned by Robert Kilwardby, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Edward removed his crown, saying that he did not intend to wear it again until he had recovered all the crown lands that his father had surrendered during his reign 

Early reign, 1274–1296
Conquest of Wales
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd enjoyed an advantageous situation in the aftermath of the Barons' War  The 1267 Treaty of Montgomery recognised his ownership of land he had conquered in the Four Cantrefs of Perfeddwlad and his title of Prince of Wales  Armed conflicts nevertheless continued, in particular with certain dissatisfied Marcher Lords, such as the Earl of Gloucester, Roger Mortimer and Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford  Problems were exacerbated when Llywelyn's younger brother Dafydd and Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn of Powys, after failing in an assassination attempt against Llywelyn, defected to the English in 1274  Citing ongoing hostilities and Edward's harbouring of his enemies, Llywelyn refused to do homage to the King  For Edward, a further provocation came from Llywelyn's planned marriage to Eleanor, daughter of Simon de Montfort the Elder In November 1276, Edward declared war  Initial operations were launched under the captaincy of Mortimer, Edward's brother Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, and William de Beauchamp, 9th Earl of Warwick  Support for Llywelyn was weak among his own countrymen  In July 1277 Edward invaded with a force of 15,500, of whom 9,000 were Welshmen  The campaign never came to a major battle, and Llywelyn soon realised he had no choice but to surrender  By the Treaty of Aberconwy in November 1277, he was left only with the land of Gwynedd, though he was allowed to retain the title of Prince of Wales When war broke out again in 1282, it was an entirely different undertaking  For the Welsh, this war was over national identity, enjoying wide support, provoked particularly by attempts to impose English law on Welsh subjects  For Edward, it became a war of conquest rather than simply a punitive expedition, like the former campaign  The war started with a rebellion by Dafydd, who was discontented with the reward he had received from Edward in 1277  Llywelyn and other Welsh chieftains soon joined in, and initially the Welsh experienced military success  In June, Gloucester was defeated at the Battle of Llandeilo Fawr  On 6 November, while John Peckham, Archbishop of Canterbury, was conducting peace negotiations, Edward's commander of Anglesey, Luke de Tany, decided to carry out a surprise attack  A pontoon bridge had been built to the mainland, but shortly after Tany and his men crossed over, they were ambushed by the Welsh and suffered heavy losses at the Battle of Moel-y-don  The Welsh advances ended on 11 December, when Llywelyn was lured into a trap and killed at the Battle of Orewin Bridge  The conquest of Gwynedd was complete with the capture in June 1283 of Dafydd, who was taken to Shrewsbury and executed as a traitor the following autumn; Edward ordered Dafydd's head to be publicly exhibited on London Bridge  Further rebellions occurred in 1287–88 and, more seriously, in 1294, under the leadership of Madog ap Llywelyn, a distant relative of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd  This last conflict demanded the King's own attention, but in both cases the rebellions were put down 
By the 1284 Statute of Rhuddlan, the principality of Wales was incorporated into England and was given an administrative system like the English, with counties policed by sheriffs  English law was introduced in criminal cases, though the Welsh were allowed to maintain their own customary laws in some cases of property disputes  After 1277, and increasingly after 1283, Edward embarked on a project of English settlement of Wales, creating new towns like Flint, Aberystwyth and Rhuddlan  Their new residents were English migrants, the local Welsh being banned from living inside them, and many were protected by extensive walls An extensive project of castle-building was also initiated, under the direction of James of Saint George, a prestigious architect whom Edward had met in Savoy on his return from the crusade  These included the Beaumaris, Caernarfon, Conwy and Harlech castles, intended to act both as fortresses and royal palaces for the King  His programme of castle building in Wales heralded the introduction of the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern architectural influences  Also a product of the Crusades was the introduction of the concentric castle, and four of the eight castles Edward founded in Wales followed this design  The castles drew on imagery associated with the Byzantine Empire and King Arthur in an attempt to build legitimacy for his new regime, and they made a clear statement about Edward's intention to rule Wales permanently In 1284, King Edward had his son Edward (later Edward II) born at Caernarfon Castle, probably to make a deliberate statement about the new political order in Wales  David Powel, a 16th-century clergyman, suggested that the baby was offered to the Welsh as a prince "that was borne in Wales and could speake never a word of English", but there is no evidence to support this widely reported account  In 1301 at Lincoln, the young Edward became the first English prince to be invested with the title of Prince of Wales, when the King granted him the Earldom of Chester and lands across North Wales  The King seems to have hoped that this would help in the pacification of the region, and that it would give his son more financial independence 

Diplomacy and war on the Continent
Edward never again went on crusade after his return to England in 1274, but he maintained an intention to do so, and in 1287 took a vow to go on another Crusade  This intention guided much of his foreign policy, until at least 1291  To stage a European-wide crusade, it was essential to prevent conflict between the sovereigns on the Continent  A major obstacle to this was represented by the conflict between the French Capetian House of Anjou ruling southern Italy and the Kingdom of Aragon in Spain  In 1282, the citizens of Palermo rose up against Charles of Anjou and turned for help to Peter III of Aragon, in what has become known as the Sicilian Vespers  In the war that followed, Charles of Anjou's son, Charles of Salerno, was taken prisoner by the Aragonese  The French began planning an attack on Aragon, raising the prospect of a large-scale European war  To Edward, it was imperative that such a war be avoided, and in Paris in 1286 he brokered a truce between France and Aragon that helped secure Charles's release  As far as the crusades were concerned, Edward's efforts proved ineffective  A devastating blow to his plans came in 1291, when the Mamluks captured Acre, the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land Edward had long been deeply involved in the affairs of his own Duchy of Gascony  In 1278 he assigned an investigating commission to his trusted associates Otto de Grandson and the chancellor Robert Burnell, which caused the replacement of the seneschal Luke de Tany  In 1286, Edward visited the region himself and stayed for almost three years  The perennial problem was the status of Gascony within the Kingdom of France, and Edward's role as the French king's vassal  On his diplomatic mission in 1286, Edward had paid homage to the new king, Philip IV, but in 1294 Philip declared Gascony forfeit when Edward refused to appear before him in Paris to discuss the recent conflict between English, Gascon, and French sailors that had resulted in several French ships being captured, along with the sacking of the French port of La Rochelle Correspondence between Edward and the Mongol court of the east continued during this time  Diplomatic channels between the two had begun during Edward's time on crusade, regarding a possible alliance to retake the Holy Land for Europe  Edward received Mongol envoys at his court in Gascony while there in 1287, and one of their leaders, Rabban Bar Sauma, recorded an extant account of the interaction  Other embassies arrived in Europe in 1289 and 1290, the former relaying Ilkhan Abaqa's offer to join forces with the crusaders and supply them with horses  Edward responded favourably, declaring his intent to embark on a journey to the east once he obtained papal approval  Although this would not materialise, the King's decision to send Geoffrey of Langley as his ambassador to the Mongols revealed that he was seriously considering the prospective Mongol alliance Eleanor of Castile died on 28 November 1290  The couple loved each other, and like his father, Edward was very devoted to his wife and was faithful to her throughout their marriage  He was deeply affected by her death, and displayed his grief by erecting twelve so-called Eleanor crosses, one at each place where her funeral cortège stopped for the night  As part of the peace accord between England and France in 1294, it was agreed that Edward should marry Philip IV's half-sister Margaret, but the marriage was delayed by the outbreak of war  Edward made alliances with the German king, the counts of Flanders and Guelders, and the Burgundians, who would attack France from the north  The alliances proved volatile and Edward was facing trouble at home at the time, both in Wales and Scotland  It was not until August 1297 that he was finally able to sail for Flanders, at which time his allies there had already suffered defeat  The support from Germany never materialised, and Edward was forced to seek peace  His marriage to Margaret in 1299 ended the war, but the whole affair had proven both costly and fruitless for the English  French possession of Gascony would not end until 1303, at which point it was partially returned to the English crown 

Great Cause
The relationship between England and Scotland by the 1280s was one of relatively harmonious coexistence  The issue of homage did not reach the same level of controversy as it did in Wales; in 1278 King Alexander III of Scotland paid homage to Edward, who was his brother-in-law, but apparently only for the lands he held in England  Problems arose only with the Scottish succession crisis of the early 1290s  When Alexander died in 1286, he left as heir to the Scottish throne Margaret, his three-year-old granddaughter and sole surviving descendant  By the Treaty of Birgham, it was agreed that Margaret should marry King Edward's six-year-old son Edward of Carnarvon, though Scotland would remain free of English overlordship  Margaret, by now seven years of age, sailed from Norway for Scotland in the autumn of 1290, but fell ill on the way and died in Orkney  This left the country without an obvious heir, and led to the succession dispute known to history as the Great Cause Even though as many as fourteen claimants put forward their claims to the title, the foremost competitors were John Balliol and Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale  The Scottish magnates made a request to Edward to conduct the proceedings and administer the outcome, but not to arbitrate in the dispute  The actual decision would be made by 104 auditors – 40 appointed by Balliol, 40 by Brus and the remaining 24 selected by Edward from senior members of the Scottish political community  At Birgham, with the prospect of a personal union between the two realms, the question of suzerainty had not been of great importance to Edward



ground_truth: Vasantha Raagam

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: What nationality is Elizabeth Of Rhuddlan's father?

The following are given passages.
Context 2:  Now he insisted that, if he were to settle the contest, he had to be fully recognised as Scotland's feudal overlord  The Scots were reluctant to make such a concession, and replied that since the country had no king, no one had the authority to make this decision  This problem was circumvented when the competitors agreed that the realm would be handed over to Edward until a rightful heir had been found  After a lengthy hearing, a decision was made in favour of John Balliol on 17 November 1292 Even after Balliol's accession, Edward still continued to assert his authority over Scotland  Against the objections of the Scots, he agreed to hear appeals on cases ruled on by the court of guardians that had governed Scotland during the interregnum  A further provocation came in a case brought by Macduff, son of Malcolm II, Earl of Fife, in which Edward demanded that Balliol appear in person before the English Parliament to answer the charges  This the Scottish King did, but the final straw was Edward's demand that the Scottish magnates provide military service in the war against France  This was unacceptable; the Scots instead formed an alliance with France and launched an unsuccessful attack on Carlisle  Edward responded by invading Scotland in 1296 and taking the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed in a particularly bloody attack  At the Battle of Dunbar, Scottish resistance was effectively crushed  Edward confiscated the Stone of Destiny – the Scottish coronation stone – and brought it to Westminster, placing it in what became known as King Edward's Chair; he deposed Balliol and placed him in the Tower of London, and installed Englishmen to govern the country  The campaign had been very successful, but the English triumph would be only temporary 

Government and law
Character as king
Edward had a reputation for a fierce and sometimes unpredictable temper, and he could be intimidating; one story tells of how the Dean of St Paul's, wishing to confront Edward over the high level of taxation in 1295, fell down and died once he was in the King's presence, and one 14th-century chronicler attributed the death of Archbishop Thomas of York to the King's harsh conduct towards him  When Edward of Caernarfon demanded an earldom for his favourite Piers Gaveston, the King erupted in anger and supposedly tore out handfuls of his son's hair  Some of his contemporaries considered Edward frightening, particularly in his early days  The Song of Lewes in 1264 described him as a leopard, an animal regarded as particularly powerful and unpredictable  At times, Edward exhibited a gentler disposition, and was known to be devoted to his large family  He was close to his daughters, and frequently lavished expensive gifts on them whenever they visited court Despite his harsh disposition, Edward's contemporaries considered him an able, even an ideal, king  Though not loved by his subjects, he was feared and respected, as reflected in the fact that there were no armed rebellions in England during his reign  Edward met contemporary expectations of kingship in his role as an able, determined soldier and in his embodiment of shared chivalric ideals  In religious observance he also fulfilled the expectations of his age: he attended chapel regularly, gave alms generously and showed a fervent devotion to the Virgin Mary and Saint Thomas Becket  Like his father, Edward was a keen participant in the tradition of the royal touch, which had the supposed effect of curing those who were touched from scrofula  Contemporary records suggest that the King touched upwards of a thousand people each year  Despite his personal piety, Edward was frequently in conflict with the Archbishops of Canterbury who served during his reign  Relations with the Papacy were at times no better, Edward coming into conflict with Rome over the issue of ecclesiastical taxation Edward took a keen interest in the stories of King Arthur, which were highly popular in Europe during his reign  In 1278 he visited Glastonbury Abbey to open what was then believed to be the tomb of Arthur and Guinevere, recovering "Arthur's crown" from Llywelyn after the conquest of North Wales; his castle-building campaign in Wales drew upon the Arthurian myths in their design and location  He held "Round Table" events in 1284 and 1302, involving tournaments and feasting, and chroniclers compared him and the events at his court to Arthur  In some cases Edward appears to have used his interest in the Arthurian myths to serve his own political interests, including legitimising his rule in Wales and discrediting the Welsh belief that Arthur might return as their political saviour 

Administration and the law
Soon after assuming the throne, Edward set about restoring order and re-establishing royal authority after the troubled reign of his father  To accomplish this, he immediately ordered an extensive change of administrative personnel  The most important of these was the designation of Robert Burnell as chancellor in 1274, a man who would remain in the post until 1292 as one of the King's closest associates  The same year as Burnell's appointment, Edward replaced most local officials, such as the escheators and sheriffs  This last measure was taken in preparation for an extensive inquest covering all of England, that would hear complaints about abuse of power by royal officers  The second purpose of the inquest was to establish what land and rights the Crown had lost during the reign of Henry III The inquest produced a set of census documents called the Hundred Rolls  These have been likened to the 11th-century Domesday Book, and they formed the basis for the later legal inquiries called the Quo warranto proceedings  The purpose of these inquiries was to establish by what warrant (Latin: Quo warranto) liberties were held  If the defendant could not produce a royal licence to prove the grant of the liberty, then it was the Crown's opinion – based on the writings of the influential thirteenth-century legal scholar Henry de Bracton – that the liberty should revert to the King  Both the Statute of Westminster 1275 and Statute of Westminster 1285 codified the existing law in England  By enacting the Statute of Gloucester in 1278 the King challenged baronial rights through a revival of the system of general eyres (royal justices to go on tour throughout the land) and through a significant increase in the number of pleas of quo warranto to be heard by such eyres This caused great consternation among the aristocracy, who insisted that long use in itself constituted licence  A compromise was eventually reached in 1290, whereby a liberty was considered legitimate as long as it could be shown to have been exercised since the coronation of Richard the Lionheart in 1189  Royal gains from the Quo warranto proceedings were insignificant as few liberties were returned to the King, but he had nevertheless won a significant victory by establishing the principle that all liberties emanated from the Crown The 1290 statute of Quo warranto was only one part of a wider legislative reform, which was one of the most important contributions of Edward's reign  This era of legislative action had started already at the time of the baronial reform movement; the Statute of Marlborough (1267) contained elements both of the Provisions of Oxford and the Dictum of Kenilworth  The compilation of the Hundred Rolls was followed shortly after by the issue of Westminster I (1275), which asserted the royal prerogative and outlined restrictions on liberties  The Statutes of Mortmain (1279) addressed the issue of land grants to the Church  The first clause of Westminster II (1285), known as De donis conditionalibus, dealt with family settlement of land, and entails  The Statute of Merchants (1285) established firm rules for the recovery of debts, and the Statute of Winchester (1285) dealt with security and peacekeeping on a local level by bolstering the existing police system  Quia emptores (1290) – issued along with Quo warranto – set out to remedy land ownership disputes resulting from alienation of land by subinfeudation  The age of the great statutes largely ended with the death of Robert Burnell in 1292 

Finances, the expulsion of Jews, and Parliament
Edward's reign saw an overhaul of the coinage system, which was in a poor state by 1279  Compared to the coinage already circulating at the time of Edward's accession, the new coins issued proved to be of superior quality  In addition to minting pennies, halfpences and farthings, a new denomination called the groat (which proved to be unsuccessful) was introduced  The coinmaking process itself was also improved  The moneyer William Turnemire introduced a novel method of minting coins that involved cutting blank coins from a silver rod, in contrast with the old practice of stamping them out from sheets; this technique proved to be efficient  The practice of minting coins with the moneyer's name on them became obsolete under Edward's rule because England's mint administration became far more centralised under the Crown's authority  During this time, English coins were frequently counterfeited on the Continent, especially the Low Countries, and despite a ban in 1283, English coinage was secretly exported to the European continent  In August 1280, Edward forbade the usage of the old long cross coinage, which forced the populace to switch to the newly minted versions  Records indicate that the coinage overhaul successfully provided England with a stable currency 
Edward's frequent military campaigns put a great financial strain on the nation  There were several ways through which the King could raise money for war, including customs duties, money borrowing and lay subsidies, which were taxes collected at a certain fraction of the moveable property of all laymen who held such assets  In 1275, Edward negotiated an agreement with the domestic merchant community that secured a permanent duty on wool, England's primary export  In 1303, a similar agreement was reached with foreign merchants, in return for certain rights and privileges  The revenues from the customs duty were handled by the Riccardi, a group of bankers from Lucca in Italy  This was in return for their service as moneylenders to the crown, which helped finance the Welsh Wars  When the war with France broke out, the French king confiscated the Riccardi's assets, and the bank went bankrupt  After this, the Frescobaldi of Florence took over the role as money lenders to the English crown Another source of crown income was represented by the English Jews  The Jews were the King's personal property, and he was free to tax them at will  By 1280, the Jews had been exploited to a level at which they were no longer of much financial use to the crown, but they could still be used in political bargaining  Their loan-with-interest business – a practice forbidden to Christians – had made many people indebted to them and caused general popular resentment  In 1275, Edward had issued the Statute of the Jewry, which outlawed loan with interest and encouraged the Jews to take up other professions; in 1279, in the context of a crack-down on coin-clippers, he arrested all the heads of Jewish households in England and had around 300 of them executed  In 1280, he ordered all Jews to attend special sermons, preached by Dominican friars, with the hope of persuading them to convert, but these exhortations were not followed  The final attack on the Jews in England came in the Edict of Expulsion in 1290, whereby Edward formally expelled all Jews from England  This not only generated revenues through royal appropriation of Jewish loans and property, but it also gave Edward the political capital to negotiate a substantial lay subsidy in the 1290 Parliament  The expulsion, which was reversed in the 1650s, followed a precedent set by other European rulers, including Philip II of France, John I, Duke of Brittany and Louis IX of France Edward held Parliament on a regular basis throughout his reign  In 1295, a significant change occurred  For this Parliament, as well as the secular and ecclesiastical lords, two knights from each county and two representatives from each borough were summoned  The representation of commons in Parliament was nothing new; what was new was the authority under which these representatives were summoned  Whereas previously the commons had been expected simply to assent to decisions already made by the magnates, it was now proclaimed that they should meet with the full authority (plena potestas) of their communities, to give assent to decisions made in Parliament  The King now had full backing for collecting lay subsidies from the entire population  Whereas Henry III had only collected four of these in his reign, Edward collected nine  This format eventually became the standard for later Parliaments, and historians have named the assembly the "Model Parliament", a term first introduced by the English historian William Stubbs 

Later reign, 1297–1307
Constitutional crisis
The incessant warfare of the 1290s put a great financial demand on Edward's subjects  Whereas the King had levied only three lay subsidies until 1294, four such taxes were granted in the years 1294–1297, raising over £200,000  Along with this came the burden of prises, seizure of wool and hides, and the unpopular additional duty on wool, dubbed the maltolt ("unjustly taken")  The fiscal demands on the King's subjects caused resentment, which eventually led to serious political opposition  The initial resistance was caused not by the lay taxes, but by clerical subsidies  In 1294, Edward made a demand of a grant of one-half of all clerical revenues  There was some resistance, but the King responded by threatening opponents with outlawry, and the grant was eventually made  At the time, Robert Winchelsey, the designated Archbishop of Canterbury, was in Italy to receive consecration  Winchelsey returned in January 1295 and had to consent to another grant in November of that year  In 1296, his position changed when he received the papal bull Clericis laicos  This bull prohibited the clergy from paying taxes to lay authorities without explicit consent from the Pope  When the clergy, with reference to the bull, refused to pay, Edward responded with outlawry  Winchelsey was presented with a dilemma between loyalty to the King and upholding the papal bull, and he responded by leaving it to every individual clergyman to pay as he saw fit  By the end of the year, a solution was offered by the new papal bull Etsi de statu, which allowed clerical taxation in cases of pressing urgency  This allowed Edward to collect considerable sums by taxing the English clergy 

Opposition from the laity took longer to surface  This resistance focused on two things: the King's right to demand military service and his right to levy taxes  At the Salisbury Parliament of February 1297, the Earl Marshal Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk, objected to a royal summons of military service  Bigod argued that the military obligation only extended to service alongside the King; if the King intended to sail to Flanders, he could not send his subjects to Gascony  In July, Bigod and Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford and Constable of England, drew up a series of complaints known as the Remonstrances, in which objections to the extortionate level of taxation were voiced  Undeterred, Edward requested another lay subsidy  This one was particularly provocative, because the King had sought consent from only a small group of magnates, rather than from representatives of the communities in Parliament  While Edward was in Winchelsea, preparing for the campaign in Flanders, Bigod and de Bohun arrived at the Exchequer to prevent the collection of the tax  As the King left the country with a greatly reduced force, the kingdom seemed to be on the verge of civil war  The English defeat by the Scots at the Battle of Stirling Bridge resolved the situation  The renewed threat to the homeland gave king and magnates common cause  Edward signed the Confirmatio cartarum – a confirmation of the Magna Carta and its accompanying Charter of the Forest – and the nobility agreed to serve with the King on a campaign in Scotland Edward's problems with the opposition did not end with the Scottish campaign  Over the following years he would be held to the promises he had made, in particular that of upholding the Charter of the Forest  In the Parliament of 1301, the King was forced to order an assessment of the royal forests, but in 1305 he obtained a papal bull that freed him from this concession  Ultimately, it was a change in personnel that spelt the end of the opposition against Edward  De Bohun died late in 1298, after returning from the Scottish campaign  In 1302 Bigod arrived at an agreement with the King that was beneficial for both: Bigod, who had no children, made Edward his heir, in return for a generous annual grant  Edward finally got his revenge on Winchelsey, who had been opposed to the King's policy of clerical taxation, in 1305, when Clement V was elected pope  Clement was a Gascon sympathetic to the King, and on Edward's instigation had Winchelsey suspended from office 

Return to Scotland
Edward believed that he had completed the conquest of Scotland when he left the country in 1296, but resistance soon emerged under the leadership of Andrew de Moray in the north and William Wallace in the south  On 11 September 1297, a large English force under the leadership of John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey, and Hugh de Cressingham was routed by a much smaller Scottish army led by Wallace and Moray at the Battle of Stirling Bridge  The defeat sent shockwaves into England, and preparations for a retaliatory campaign started immediately  Soon after Edward returned from Flanders, he headed north  On 22 July 1298, in the only major battle he had fought since Evesham in 1265, Edward defeated Wallace's forces at the Battle of Falkirk  Edward underestimated the gravity of the ever-changing military condition in the north and was not able to take advantage of the momentum; the next year the Scots managed to recapture Stirling Castle  Even though Edward campaigned in Scotland both in 1300, when he successfully besieged Caerlaverock Castle and in 1301, the Scots refused to engage in open battle again, preferring instead to raid the English countryside in smaller groups The Scots appealed to Pope Boniface VIII to assert a papal claim of overlordship to Scotland in place of the English  His papal bull addressed to King Edward in these terms was firmly rejected on Edward's behalf by the Barons' Letter of 1301  The English managed to subdue the country by other means: in 1303, a peace agreement was reached between England and France, effectively breaking up the Franco-Scottish alliance  Robert the Bruce, the grandson of the claimant to the crown in 1291, had sided with the English in the winter of 1301–02  By 1304, most of the other nobles of the country had also pledged their allegiance to Edward, and this year the English also managed to re-take Stirling Castle  A great propaganda victory was achieved in 1305 when Wallace was betrayed by Sir John de Menteith and turned over to the English, who had him taken to London where he was publicly executed  With Scotland largely under English control, Edward installed Englishmen and collaborating Scots to govern the country The situation changed again on 10 February 1306, when Robert the Bruce murdered his rival John Comyn, and a few weeks later, on 25 March, was crowned King of Scotland  Bruce now embarked on a campaign to restore Scottish independence, and this campaign took the English by surprise  Edward was suffering ill health by this time, and instead of leading an expedition himself, he gave different military commands to Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, and Henry Percy, 1st Baron Percy, while the main royal army was led by the Prince of Wales  The English initially met with success; on 19 June, Aymer de Valence routed Bruce at the Battle of Methven  Bruce was forced into hiding, and the English forces recaptured their lost territory and castles Edward acted with unusual brutality against Bruce's family, allies, and supporters  His sister, Mary, was imprisoned in a cage at Roxburgh Castle for four years  Isabella MacDuff, Countess of Buchan, who had crowned Bruce, was held in a cage at Berwick Castle  His younger brother Neil was executed by being hanged, drawn, and quartered; he had been captured after he and his garrison held off Edward's forces who had been seeking his wife, daughter and sisters  Edward now regarded the struggle not as a war between two nations, but as the suppression of a rebellion of disloyal subjects  This brutality, though, rather than helping to subdue the Scots, had the opposite effect, and rallied growing support for Bruce 

Death and burial
In February 1307, Bruce resumed his efforts and started gathering men, and in May he defeated Valence at the Battle of Loudoun Hill  Edward, who had rallied somewhat, now moved north himself  He developed dysentery on the way, and his condition deteriorated  On 6 July he encamped at Burgh by Sands, just south of the Scottish border  When his servants came the next morning to lift him up so that he could eat, the King died in their arms Several stories emerged about Edward's deathbed wishes; according to one tradition, he requested that his heart be carried to the Holy Land, along with an army to fight the infidels  A more dubious story tells of how he wished for his bones to be carried along on future expeditions against the Scots  Another account of his deathbed scene is more credible; according to one chronicle, Edward gathered around him Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln; Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick; Aymer de Valence; and Robert de Clifford, 1st Baron de Clifford, and charged them with looking after his son Edward  In particular they should make sure that Piers Gaveston, whom he had banished earlier that year, was not allowed to return to the country  This wish the son ignored, and had his favourite recalled from exile almost immediately  The new king, Edward II, remained in the north until August, but then abandoned the campaign and headed south, partially due to financial limitations  He was crowned king on 25 February 1308 
Edward I's body was brought south, lying in state at Waltham Abbey, before being buried in Westminster Abbey on 27 October  There are few records of the funeral, which cost £473  Edward's tomb was an unusually plain sarcophagus of Purbeck marble, without the customary royal effigy, possibly the result of the shortage of royal funds  The Society of Antiquaries of London opened the tomb in 1774, finding that the body had been well preserved over the preceding 467 years, and took the opportunity to determine the King's original height  Traces of the Latin inscription Edwardus Primus Scottorum Malleus hic est, 1308  Pactum Serva ("Here is Edward I, Hammer of the Scots, 1308  Keep the Troth") can still be seen painted on the side of the tomb, referring to his vow to avenge the rebellion of Robert Bruce  This resulted in Edward being given the epithet the "Hammer of the Scots" by historians, but is not contemporary in origin, having been added by the Abbot John Feckenham in the 16th century 

Legacy
The first histories of Edward in the 16th and 17th centuries drew primarily on the works of the chroniclers, and made little use of the official records of the period  They limited themselves to general comments on Edward's significance as a monarch, and echoed the chroniclers' praise for his accomplishments  During the 17th century, the lawyer Edward Coke wrote extensively about Edward's legislation, terming the King the "English Justinian" after the renowned Byzantine lawmaker Justinian I  Later in the century, historians used the available record evidence to address the role of Parliament and kingship under Edward, drawing comparisons between his reign and the political strife of their own century  Eighteenth-century historians established a picture of Edward as an able, if ruthless, monarch, conditioned by the circumstances of his own time The influential Victorian historian William Stubbs instead suggested that Edward had actively shaped national history, forming English laws and institutions, and helping England to develop a parliamentary and constitutional monarchy  His strengths and weaknesses as a ruler were considered to be emblematic of the English people as a whole  Stubbs's student, Thomas Tout, initially adopted the same perspective, but after extensive research into Edward's royal household, and backed by the research of his contemporaries into the early Parliaments of the period, he changed his mind  Tout came to view Edward as a self-interested, conservative leader, using the parliamentary system as "the shrewd device of an autocrat, anxious to use the mass of the people as a check upon his hereditary foes among the greater baronage "Historians in the 20th and 21st centuries have conducted extensive research on Edward and his reign  Most have concluded this was a highly significant period in English medieval history, some going further and describing Edward as one of the great medieval kings, although most also agree that his final years were less successful than his early decades in power  G  Templeman argued in his 1950 historiographical essay that "it is generally recognized that Edward I deserves a high place in the history of medieval England"  More recently, Michael Prestwich argued that "Edward was a formidable king; his reign, with both its successes and its disappointments, a great one," and he was "without doubt one of the greatest rulers of his time", and John Gillingham suggests that "no king of England had a greater impact on the peoples of Britain than Edward I" and that "modern historians of the English state     have always recognized Edward I's reign as pivotal " Fred Cazel similarly comments that "no-one can doubt the greatness of the reign"  Most recently, Andrew Spencer has agreed with Prestwich, arguing that Edward's reign "was indeed     a great one", and Caroline Burt states that "Edward I was without a doubt one of the greatest kings to rule England" Three major academic narratives of Edward have been produced during this period  F  M  Powicke's volumes, published in 1947 and 1953, forming the standard works on Edward for several decades, were largely positive in praising the achievements of his reign, and in particular his focus on justice and the law  In 1988, Michael Prestwich produced an authoritative biography of the King, focusing on his political career, still portraying him in sympathetic terms, but highlighting some of the consequences of his failed policies  Marc Morris's biography followed in 2008, drawing out more of the detail of Edward's personality, and generally taking a harsher view of his weaknesses and less pleasant characteristics, pointing out that modern analysts of Edward's reign denounce the King for his policies against the Jewish community in England  Considerable academic debate has taken place around the character of Edward's kingship, his political skills, and in particular his management of his earls, and the degree to which this was collaborative or repressive in nature There is a great difference between English and Scottish historiography on King Edward  G  W  S  Barrow, in his biography of Robert the Bruce, accused Edward of ruthlessly exploiting the leaderless state of Scotland to obtain a feudal superiority over the kingdom followed by his determination to reduce it to nothing more than an English possession  Modern commentators have conflicting opinions on whether Edward's conquest of Wales was warranted  Contemporary English historians were firmly in favour of the King's campaigns there  Morris takes the position that the poor condition of Wales would have allowed England to dominate it at some point or another, whether by direct conquest or through natural deterioration 

Family
First marriage
By his first wife Eleanor of Castile, Edward had at least fourteen children, perhaps as many as sixteen  Of these, five daughters survived into adulthood, but only one son outlived his father, becoming King Edward II (r  1307–1327)  Edward's children with Eleanor were:
Katherine (1261 or 1263–1264)
Joan (1265–1265)
John (1266–1271)
Henry (1268–1274)
Eleanor (1269–1298)
Unnamed daughter (1271–1271 or 1272)
Joan (1272–1307)
Alphonso (1273–1284)
Margaret (1275–1333)
Berengaria (1276–1277 or 1278)
Unnamed child (1278–1278)
Mary (1278–1332)
Elizabeth (1282–1316)
Edward II (1284–1327)

Second marriage
By Margaret of France, Edward had two sons, both of whom lived to adulthood, and a daughter who died as a child  His progeny by Margaret of France were:
Thomas (1300–1338)
Edmund (1301–1330)
Eleanor (1306–1311)A genealogy in the Hailes Abbey chronicle indicates that John Botetourt may have been Edward's illegitimate son, but the claim is unsubstantiated 

Genealogical table
See also
List of earls in the reign of Edward I of England
Savoyard knights in the service of Edward I

Notes
Passage 4:
Elizabeth of Celje
Elizabeth of Celje  (1441 – 1455), also Elizabeth of Cilli, was the first wife of Matthias Corvinus, the future King of Hungary 

Family background
Elizabeth was born to Ulrich II, Count of Celje and his wife Catherine Branković, daughter of the Serb despot George Branković  Her father was a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, with extensive domains in both the Empire and in the Kingdom of Hungary, centered in Lower Styria, Carniola, and Slavonia  Her mother was the sister of Mara Branković, a favorite wife of the Ottoman sultan Murad II 
Elizabeth was most likely born in Celje, the family seat  She seems to have had a twin sister, called Catherine, who died as a child  Elizabeth was baptised in the Eastern Orthodox faith of her mother, an arrangement that aroused consternation in the Roman Catholic milieu of Celje 
Both of her brothers, Hermann IV and George, died by 1452  Thereafter she remained her parents' sole child, and the last offspring of the House of Celje 

Betrothal
Elizabeth was initially betrothed to John of Gorizia, son of count Henry IV of Gorizia, who was living in Celje under the tutelage of her father  However, it was later decided she would marry into the Hunyadi family 
Elizabeth's father and maternal grandfather were long-time opponents of John Hunyadi, as the houses of Celje and Hunyadi were competing for influence in the Kingdom of Hungary since the early 1440s  In June 1448, the two parties reached an agreement on the division of spheres of interest, sealed by Elizabeth's betrothal to Ladislaus, John Hunyadi's firstborn son In the autumn of the same year, Hunyadi was defeated by the Ottomans at Kosovo; captured by George Branković during his retreat, he was forced to return several estates to him  With the help of the pope, Hunyadi had the disvantageous agreement dissolved; as a consequence, the settlement with the Celjes was called off, as well  Under pressure from the estates, protracted negotiations ensued  In August 1451, a settlement was reached in Smederevo  This time, it was agreed that Elizabeth would marry John's second-born son, Matthias  The wedding was set to 6 December 1453, with the stipulation that should the marriage fail to materialize because any fault attributable to Branković, the latter’s castles and other estates in Hungary would be transferred to Hunyadi and his sons It was John Hunyadi himself, however, to call off the wedding few months before it was to take place  In the fall of 1453, in fact, Elizabeth's father fell out of favor with king Ladislaus, and Hunyadi took advantage of the situation to dissolve the alliance with the Celjes which limited his autonomy of action in Hungary  By February 1455, however, Ulrich was back in power, and George Branković was instrumental in renewing the alliance between his son-in-law and Hunyadi in order to secure a common front against the Ottoman threat 

Marriage and death
Following a renewal of the Celje-Hunyadi alliance, Elizabeth was married to Matthias in the spring of 1455, after having converted to Catholicism  By this time, Ulrich of Celje had remained without sons, with his wife approaching forty: Matthias thus became his most likely heir  He was sent to the royal court in Buda where Ulrich now resided as regent, while Elizabeth settled in the Hunyadis' estates; the two young spouses thus served mostly as hostages between their respective families In the winter of 1455, Elizabeth fell seriously ill  The famous preacher John Capistran organized public prayers for her recovery  However, she died before the end of the year at the Hunyadi court in Transylvania  With her death, Ulrich of Celje remained childless, and the last link between the Hunyadi and Celje families was cut 

Ancestry
Notes


== Sources ==
Passage 5:
Elizabeth of Rhuddlan
Elizabeth of Rhuddlan (7 August 1282 – 5 May 1316) was the eighth and youngest daughter of King Edward I of England and Queen Eleanor of Castile  Of all of her siblings, she was closest to her younger brother King Edward II, as they were only two years apart in age 

First marriage
In April 1285 there were negotiations with Floris V for Elizabeth's betrothal to his son John I, Count of Holland  The offer was accepted and John was sent to England to be educated  On 8 January 1297 Elizabeth was married to John at Ipswich  In attendance at the marriage were Elizabeth's sister Margaret, her father, Edward I of England, her brother Edward, and Humphrey de Bohun  After the wedding Elizabeth was expected to go to Holland with her husband, but did not wish to go, leaving her husband to go alone  It is recorded that while in Ipswich the King, in some outburst, threw his daughter's coronet into the fire  A great ruby and a great  emerald, stones supplied by Adam the Goldsmith, were lost as a result After some time travelling England, it was decided Elizabeth should follow her husband  Her father accompanied her, travelling through the Southern Netherlands between Antwerp, Mechelen, Leuven and Brussels, before ending up in Ghent  There they remained for a few months, spending Christmas with her two sisters Eleanor and Margaret  On 10 November 1299, John died of dysentery, though there were rumours of his murder  No children had been born from the marriage 

Second marriage
On her return trip to England, Elizabeth went through Brabant to see her sister Margaret  When she arrived in England, she met her stepmother Margaret, whom Edward had married while Elizabeth was in Holland  On 14 November 1302 Elizabeth was married to Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford, 3rd of Essex, also Constable of England, at Westminster Abbey In August 1304, she was pregnant and travelled from Linlithgow Palace in Scotland to Knaresborough Castle  She gave birth to her second son, Humphrey de Bohun, in September, assisted by a holy relic of the girdle of the Virgin, brought especially from Westminster Abbey  Humphrey died about six weeks later and was buried at Westminster Abbey with his sister Margaret 

Issue
The children of Elizabeth and Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford were:

Margaret de Bohun (born 1302 – died 7 Feb  1304) 
Humphrey de Bohun (born c  Oct  1303 – died c  Oct  1304) 
Lady Eleanor de Bohun (17 October 1304 – 1363)
John de Bohun, 5th Earl of Hereford (23 November 1306 – 20 January 1336)
Humphrey de Bohun, 6th Earl of Hereford (6 December c  1309 – 1361)
Margaret de Bohun, 2nd Countess of Devon (3 April 1311 – 1391)
William de Bohun, 1st Earl of Northampton (1312–1360) 
Edward de Bohun (1312–1334), twin of William
Agnes, Married Robert de Ferrers, 2nd Baron Ferrers of Chartley, son of John de Ferrers, 1st Baron Ferrers of Chartley
Eneas de Bohun, (1314 – after 1322); he is mentioned in his father's will
Isabel de Bohun (born and died 5 May 1316)

Later life
During Christmas 1315, Elizabeth, who was pregnant with her eleventh child, was visited by her sister-in-law, Queen Isabella of France  On 5 May 1316 she went into labour, giving birth to her daughter Isabella  Both Elizabeth and her daughter Isabella died shortly after the birth 
Elizabeth was interred at Waltham Abbey, Essex, together with her infant daughter & other members of the de Bohun family 

Ancestry
Passage 6:
Ali Rahuma
Ali Khalifa Rahuma (Arabic: علي ارحومه)  (born May 16, 1982) is a Libyan football midfielder, also a Libyan national  He currently plays for Al-Ittihad, and is a member of the Libya national football team 

External links
Ali Rahuma at National-Football-Teams com
SoccerPunter  “Ali Khalifa Rahuma Profile and Statistics ” SoccerPunter  SoccerPunter, n d  Web  6 Sept  2016
Context 3: Passage 1:
Pontifical Academy of Arcadia
The Accademia degli Arcadi or Accademia dell'Arcadia, "Academy of Arcadia" or "Academy of the Arcadians", was an Italian literary academy founded in Rome in 1690  The full Italian official name was Pontificia Accademia degli Arcadi 

History
Foundation
The beginnings of the Accademia degli Arcadi date to February 1656, when a literary circle formed under the patronage of Queen Christina of Sweden, who had abdicated the Swedish crown in 1654, converted to Catholicism, and taken up her residence in Rome, where she spent much of the rest of her life  There she became a significant patron of music and opera, with composers including Alessandro Scarlatti, Alessandro Stradella and Arcangelo Corelli dedicating works to her  After her death in 1689, the academy was established in her memory and elected her as its symbolic head (basilissa, the Greek term for 'Queen')  The Academy lasted for the next two hundred years, remaining a leading cultural institution into the 20th century 
The Accademia degli Arcadi was so-called because its principal intention was to reform the diction of Italian poetry, which the founders believed had become corrupt through over-indulgence in the ornamentation of the baroque style, under the inspiration of pastoral literature, the conventions of which imagined the life of shepherds, originally supposed to have lived in Arcadia in the golden age, divinely inspired in poetry by the Muses, Apollo, Hermes and Pan  The Academy chose as its emblem the pipe of Pan with its seven unequal reeds 
The fourteen founders selected as the first Custode di Arcadia or president of the academy, Giovanni Mario Crescimbeni who was the author of a history of Italian poetry and of various literary works  The Arcadians resolved to return to the fields of truth, always singing of subjects of pastoral simplicity and drawing their inspiration from Greco-Roman bucolic poetry  The ideal parameters for the artistic work were simplicity and a sense of measure and beauty  Common to all the poets was the desire to oppose the poetry of the Marinists, and return to classic poetry, embracing also the recent rationalist influence of Descartes  Norms and rituals of the academy took their cue from classic and pastoral mythology, as in the custom of assuming 'pastoral' names (Crescimbeni, for example, chose that of 'Alfesibeo Cario')  The fourteen founder members included the librettist Silvio Stampiglia and the poet Vincenzo Leonio 
The first solemn gathering of the Arcadians was held on the Janiculum hill, in a wood belonging to the Reformed Minorites, on 5 October 1690 

Orsini Gardens & Beyond
In 1692, the meetings were transferred to the gardens of Duke Orsini on the Esquiline hill; in 1696, to the Farnese Gardens on the Palatine  Finally, the generosity of John V of Portugal, one of its members under the name of Arete Melleo, enabled the society to secure (1723) on the Janiculum a site known as the Bosco Parrasio or (Parrasian Grove)  Here they held their meetings on summer days, in winter moving to the Teatro degli Arcadi in the Palazzo Salviati  In 1696 the Accademia admitted seven musicians including Giovanni Bononcini 
While the academy was still on the Palatine, its Statuto or Constitution was drawn up  This constitution (the work of co-founder Gian Vincenzo Gravina) was modelled on the ancient Roman laws of the 'Twelve Tables', and was engraved on marble  Differing tendencies soon asserted themselves, following the ideas of the two founders: that of Gravina stood in the tradition of Homer and Dante, while that of Crescimbeni was more influenced by Petrarch  Because of these differences, Gravina left to found the Accademia dei Quirini in 1711  Despite this loss, Arcadia retained its vigour in the following years, and created colonies in many cities of Italy  Many noblemen, ecclesiastics, and artists held membership in it to be an honour, and very soon it numbered 1,300  Much of what they produced, however, was either mediocre or pretentious (an example is Saverio Bettinelli's disparagement of Dante), although the Academy did receive some endorsement for its attack on the redundant Rococo style, then dominant in art and literature 
The celebrated opera librettist Pietro Metastasio (1698–1782) although he had his own differences with Arcadia, was a student of Gravina's, and a leading light of the academy's second generation  His works, of which the best remembered might be Il Re Pastore because of its setting by Mozart, may represent the closest thing to a justification of the program that Arcadia achieved 
In 1795, the academy admitted the Italian Diodata Saluzzo Roero, as one of its first female members, but some evidence does exist for earlier female members  In the 17th century, the poet Maria Antonia Scalera Stellini was elected a member, and the 1721 edition of the Academy's publication included work by Caterina Imperiale Lercari Pallavicini 

Anti-Arcadian Reaction
A violent anti-Arcadian reaction soon developed, and, starting from the early 19th century, Arcadianism began to be regarded as a late and unconvincing expression of the ancien régime  After the end of the French Revolution, the Academy strove to renew itself in accord with the spirit of the times, without sacrificing its traditional system of sylvan associations and pastoral names  The Academy no longer represented a literary school, but a general interest in the classics and figures like Dante came to be greatly honoured by its members  Furthermore, the Academy's field of endeavour was enlarged to include many branches of study, including history and archaeology  The new Arcadian revival was marked by the foundation (1819) of the Giornale Arcadico  In 1925 the Academy was renamed to become the Arcadia – Accademia Letteraria Italiana, a historical institute 

Legacy
The Accademia degli Arcadi counted among its members some of the principal literary men and women of the time, including Carlo Alessandro Guidi, Petronilla Paolini Massimi, Benedetto Menzini, librettist Pietro Metastasio, Francesco Redi Paolo Rolli, and linguist Clotilde Tambroni, among others  The famous composer George Frideric Handel is known to have often attended the meetings and symposia of the Arcadians when studying in Italy, under the patronage of Ruspoli, a leading member of the Academy  There is an interesting account of the Academy's history and program in Goethe's 'Italian Journey' 
The archives of the academy are currently housed in the Biblioteca Angelica, next to the church of Sant'Agostino in Rome  The paintings are housed in the Palazzo Braschi 
Atti e memorie dell'Accademia letteraria italiana was published by the academy 

Notes
Passage 2:
Arcadia Aegypti
Arcadia or Arcadia Aegypti was a Late Roman province in northern Egypt  It was named for one of the reigning Augusti of the Roman Empire, Arcadius (r  383–408) of the Theodosian dynasty when it was created in the late 4th century  Its capital was Oxyrhynchus and its territory encompassed the Arsinoite nome and the  "Heptanomia" ("seven nomes") region 

History
It was created between 386 and ca  395 out of the province of Augustamnica and most of the historical region known as "Heptanomis" ("seven nomes"), except for Hermopolis, which belonged to the Thebaid In the Notitia Dignitatum, Arcadia forms one of six provinces of the Diocese of Egypt, under a governor with the low rank of praeses By 636, the praeses governor had been replaced by a governor with the rank of dux 

Episcopal sees
Ancient episcopal sees in the Roman province of Arcadia Aegypti, listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees:
Passage 3:
The Wonderful World of Captain Kuhio
The Wonderful World of Captain Kuhio (クヒオ大佐, Kuhio Taisa, lit  "Captain Kuhio") is a 2009 Japanese comedy-crime film, directed by Daihachi Yoshida, based on Kazumasa Yoshida's 2006 biographical novel, Kekkon Sagishi Kuhio Taisa (lit  "Marriage swindler Captain Kuhio"), that focuses on a real-life marriage swindler, who conned over 100 million yen (US$1 2 million) from a number of women between the 1970s and the 1990s The film was released in Japan on 10 October 2009 

Cast
Masato Sakai - Captain Kuhio
Yasuko Matsuyuki - Shinobu Nagano
Hikari Mitsushima - Haru Yasuoka
Yuko Nakamura - Michiko Sudo
Hirofumi Arai - Tatsuya Nagano
Kazuya Kojima - Koichi Takahashi
Sakura Ando - Rika Kinoshita
Masaaki Uchino - Chief Fujiwara
Kanji Furutachi - Shigeru Kuroda
Reila Aphrodite
Sei Ando

Awards
At the 31st Yokohama Film Festival
Best Actor – Masato Sakai
Best Supporting Actress – Sakura Ando
Passage 4:
Arcadia–Bienville Parish Airport
Arcadia–Bienville Parish Airport (FAA LID: 5F0) is a public-use airport located two nautical miles (2 3 mi, 3 7 km) southwest of the central business district of Arcadia, in Bienville Parish, Louisiana, United States  It is owned by the City of Arcadia 

Facilities and aircraft
Arcadia–Bienville Parish Airport covers an area of 20 acres (8 1 ha) at an elevation of 440 feet (134 m) above mean sea level  It has one runway designated 14/32 with an asphalt surface measuring 3,000 by 75 feet (914 x 23 m) For the 12-month period ending June 10, 2010, the airport had 9,300 general aviation aircraft operations, an average of 25 per day  At that time there were five single-engine aircraft based at this airport 
Passage 5:
Italia-Germania 4-3
Italia-Germania 4-3 is a 1990 Italian comedy film directed by Andrea Barzini  The title is inspired by the semi-finals of the 1970 FIFA World Cup 

Cast
Massimo Ghini as Federico
Giuseppe Cederna as  Antonio
Fabrizio Bentivoglio as  Francesco
Nancy Brilli as  Giulia
Emanuela Pacotto as  Martina
Passage 6:
Barony of Arcadia
The Barony of Arcadia was a medieval Frankish fiefdom of the Principality of Achaea, located on the western coast of the Peloponnese peninsula in Greece, and centred on the town of Arcadia (Greek: Ὰρκαδία; French: l'Arcadie; Italian: Arc[h]adia), ancient and modern Kyparissia 

History
The Barony of Arcadia was not one of the original twelve secular baronies of the Principality  Initially, Arcadia—the medieval name of Kyparissia on the western coast of Messenia—formed part of the princely domain of the Villehardouin family  It was created as a separate barony by Prince William II of Villehardouin shortly after the Byzantine reconquest of Constantinople in 1261, to recompense Vilain of Aulnay, one of the Frankish lords of the Latin Empire of Constantinople who sought refuge in Achaea After Vilain's death in 1269 it was divided between his sons, Erard and Geoffrey  Erard disappears after 1279, when he was captured by the Byzantines, but Geoffrey did not manage to reclaim his brother's portion until 1293, due to the obstructions of the Angevin baillis, who sequestered the domain  He was succeeded sometime after 1297 by Vilain II, who was in turn succeeded by his two children, Erard II and Agnes  Erard II died some time before 1338, but Peter dalle Carceri, Triarch of Negroponte, is already attested as lord of half the barony in 1324, and it is usually assumed that Erard II left his half of the barony to his widow, Balzana Gozzadini, who took Peter as a second husband  Balzana died soon after  Agnes married in 1324 Stephen Le Maure ("The Moor"), Lord of Saint-Sauveur and Aetos, and had a son, Erard III, who by 1344 managed to reunite the barony, and was named marshal of Achaea in 1345  In 1348, a Burgundian knight, Louis of Chafor, with some companions, managed to take over the castle of Arcadia and hold Erard's wife and children captive until Erard paid a large ransom  Erard was succeeded in 1388 by one of his daughters, who married Andronikos Asanes Zaccaria, and the barony became part of the Zaccaria domain  The Zaccaria claim was disputed by Erard Laskaris, a grandson or nephew of Erard III, but without success; Laskaris died childless in 1409 Arcadia was the last holdout of the Principality  After the conquest of Patras and Chalandritsa by the Byzantines of the Despotate of the Morea in 1429–30, which signalled the de facto end of the Principality, the last Prince, Centurione II Zaccaria, retained Arcadia as his personal fief, but after his death in 1432, his son-in-law, Despot Thomas Palaiologos, annexed it and imprisoned Centurione's widow, who died in prison 

Barons
After A  Bon:
Vilain I of Aulnay, 1262–1269
Erard I of Aulnay, 1269–1279, and his brother
Geoffrey of Aulnay, 1269–1297
Vilain II of Aulnay, 1297–unknown
Erard II of Aulnay, unknown–before 1338 (1324?), and his sister
Agnes of Aulnay with her husband Stephen Le Maure (married 1324), unknown–after 1330
Balzana Gozzadini, widow of Erard II, with Peter dalle Carceri, ca  1338 (1324?)
Erard III Le Maure, after 1330–1388
Daughter of Erard III with her husband Andronikos Asanes Zaccaria, 1388–1401
Erard IV Zaccaria, 1401
Centurione II Zaccaria, 1401–1432
Passage 7:
Berlin Sonnenallee station
Sonnenallee is a railway station in the Neukölln district of Berlin  It is served by the S-Bahn lines S41 and S42 and is located at the southeastern end of the major street of the same name, about which a film was produced in 1999 

Notable places nearby
Estrel Hotel
Passage 8:
Prince of Arcadia
Prince of Arcadia is a 1933 British musical comedy film directed by Hanns Schwarz and starring Carl Brisson, Margot Grahame, Ida Lupino and Peter Gawthorne  The screenplay concerns a Ruritanian Prince who is due to marry a princess with acting ambitions, but has fallen in love with another woman  It is a remake of the 1932 German film The Prince of Arcadia 
It was shot at Walton Studios, with sets designed by the art director Andrew Mazzei 

Cast
Carl Brisson as Prince Peter
Margot Grahame as Mirana
Ida Lupino as The Princess
Annie Esmond as The Queen
Peter Gawthorne as Equerry
C  Denier Warren as Detective

See also
The Prince of Arcadia (1932)
Passage 9:
3Below: Tales of Arcadia
3Below: Tales of Arcadia (or simply 3Below) is an American computer-animated science fantasy television series produced by DreamWorks Animation, and is the second installment of Guillermo del Toro's Tales of Arcadia trilogy The series was announced on December 12, 2017 by Netflix and DreamWorks  On October 5, 2018, the premiere date was announced and the first teaser was released  The 13-episode first season was released on December 21, 2018 on Netflix  The series concluded with the release of the second season on July 12, 2019 A third and final installment of Tales of Arcadia, titled Wizards, was released on August 7, 2020  The full-length feature film, Trollhunters: Rise of the Titans was released on Netflix on July 21, 2021 

Plot
Two royal extraterrestrial siblings, Crown Princess Aja and Crown Prince Krel of House Tarron, their doglike pet named Luug, and their bodyguard, Varvatos Vex, escape from their home planet of Akiridion-5 after a coup and crash-land on Earth, specifically in the city of Arcadia Oaks, California  There, the aliens adjust to human culture and try to fix their spaceship (as well as to restore their nearly-dead parents King Fialkov and Queen Coranda) to return and take back Akiridion-5, which is being taken over by an evil dictator known as General Val Morando, who has already sent out a team of intergalactic bounty hunters, called the Zeron Brotherhood, to find and catch the alien prince and princess After investigating a way to stop Val Morando and find the hiding place of Aja and Krel, Zadra, one of the noble protectors of the royals from Akiridion-5, arrives on Earth  Meanwhile, after learning of his involvement in Morando's coup, Aja and Krel decide to exile Vex  During his exile, Vex is captured by the Zeron Brotherhood and imprisoned at a bounty hunter outpost located on Earth's moon  In Season 2, Aja and Krel learn of his capture and launch a rescue mission  Soon after the rescue, however the gang discovers that Morando is heading for Earth  After successfully defeating him, Aja (now Queen), Vex, Zadra, Luug and the rest finally return home, joined by Eli, who has volunteered to be Earth's ambassador on Akiridion 5  Crown Prince Krel decides that Earth has become his home, and decides to stay with his new human best friends 

Voice cast
Princess Aja and Crown Prince Krel also appeared in the Trollhunters episodes "In Good Hands", and "The Eternal Knight Pt  1" in their borrowed human forms 

Episodes
Season 1 (2018)
Season 2 (2019)
Reception
Critical response
The series currently holds a 100% on Rotten Tomatoes  It has been praised for its depiction of immigration through a sci-fi lens, with Dave Trumbore of Collider writing, "    the subtext here, which is hard to miss even for younger viewers, is that Aja, Krel, and Vex are stand-ins for immigrants, refugees, and "illegal aliens"     the show is re-examining the actions of the anti-immigrant government agents and the aliens' allies alike "

Accolades
Passage 10:
Tamarack, Wisconsin
Arcadia is a town in Trempealeau County, Wisconsin, United States  The population was 3,737 at the 2020 census  The unincorporated communities of Dewey Corners, North Creek, and Tamarack are located in the town  The ghost towns of Cortland and Williamsburg were also located in the town 

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 119 0 square miles (308 3 km2), of which, 118 8 square miles (307 8 km2) of it is land and 0 2 square miles (0 5 km2) of it (0 17%) is water 

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,555 people, 569 households, and 433 families residing in the town  The population density was 13 1 people per square mile (5 1/km2)  There were 610 housing units at an average density of 5 1 per square mile (2 0/km2)  The racial makeup of the town was 98 65% White, 0 19% Asian, 0 51% from other races, and 0 64% from two or more races  1 29% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race 
There were 569 households, out of which 39 0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63 6% were married couples living together, 6 2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23 9% were non-families  19 2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older  The average household size was 2 73 and the average family size was 3 16 
In the town, the population was spread out, with 28 2% under the age of 18, 6 8% from 18 to 24, 29 1% from 25 to 44, 24 4% from 45 to 64, and 11 6% who were 65 years of age or older  The median age was 38 years  For every 100 females, there were 112 4 males  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 112 0 males 
The median income for a household in the town was $45,588, and the median income for a family was $50,511  Males had a median income of $30,208 versus $22,614 for females  The per capita income for the town was $20,421  About 6 4% of families and 8 6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12 2% of those under age 18 and 13 9% of those age 65 or over 

Notable people
John C  Gaveney, Wisconsin State Senator and jurist, was born in the town
Anne Pellowski, the writer, educator and Kashubian-American activist, was born and raised on a farm in the Town of Arcadia



ground_truth: England

prompt_front: Answer the question based on the given passages. Only give me the answer and do not output any other words.

Question: Which film was released earlier, Prince Of Arcadia or Italia-Germania 4-3?

The following are given passages.
Context 4:  Nelson also worked on a variety of other conservation projects throughout the Los Angeles region in the 1980s and 1990s, including areas such as Malibu Creek State Park, Point Mugu, Hollywood, Temescal Canyon, and Topanga Canyon  She also voiced her vocal opposition, through newspaper opinion pieces and town hall meetings, to development projects such as the Malibu Canyon Freeway, the Pacific Coast Freeway, and the Mulholland Highway  In addition, Nelson sounded a warning bell against the privatization of public parklands  Her persistence led some to call her ruthless, but also warmhearted and feisty 

Personal life
Nelson married Earl Nelson in 1948   Together they had four children, but the marriage ended in divorce   Nelson's son-in-law was the composer James Horner   She died on May 4, 2003, after she was hit by a car near her home in Echo Park, Los Angeles 

Legacy
Nelson's archives are held in Special Collections and Archives at the University Library of California State University, Northridge 
Passage 7:
Fatima bint Mubarak Al Ketbi
Sheikha Fatima bint Mubarak Al Ketbi (Arabic: فاطمة بنت مبارك الكتبي) is the third wife of Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, the founder and inaugural president of United Arab Emirates  She is referred to as the mother of sheikhs, the mother of the UAE and as The mother of Nation 

Early life
Sheikha Fatima was born in Al-Hayer, Al Ain Region, as the only daughter to her parents  Her family is Bedouin and religious 

Achievements
Sheikha Fatima is a supporter of women's rights in the UAE  She is the supreme chairperson of the Family Development Foundation (FDF) and significantly contributed to the foundation of the first women's organization in 1976, the Abu Dhabi Society for the Awakening of Women  She was also instrumental in a nationwide campaign advocating for girls' education and heads the UAE's General Women Union (GWU), which she founded in 1975  She is also the President of the Motherhood and Childhood Supreme Council  At the end of the 1990s, she publicly announced that women should be members of the Federal National Council of the Emirates Sheikha Fatima also supports efforts concerning adult literacy and provision of free public education for girls  An award named the Sheikha Fatima Award for Excellence has been presented in her honor since 2005 for the outstanding academic performance and commitment to the environment and world citizenship of the female recipients  The reward includes a full-tuition scholarship that extends to schools across the Middle East and in 2010 expanded to India  She has consistently supported women in sport and initiated an award called the Sheikha Fatima bint Mubarak Award for Woman Athletes  Sheikha Fatima bint Mubarak also created a women's sports academy called Fatima Bint Mubarak Ladies Academy in Abu Dhabi  The Sheikha Fatima Institute of Nursing and Health Sciences in Lahore, Pakistan, is named after her On 30 March 2021, Sheikha Fatima launched a National Action Plan on women, peace and security - the first National Action Plan developed in a Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) country  The plan aims to empower and support women globally by promoting the UN Security Council Resolution 1325 

Awards
In 1997, five different organizations of the United Nations had awarded Sheikha Fatima for her significant efforts for women's rights  The UNIFEM stated, "she is the champion of women's rights " She was also awarded the Grand Cordon of the Order of November 7th by the Tunisian president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali on 26 June 2009 for her contributions to raise the status of Arab women  She was also given the UNESCO Marie Curie Medal for her efforts in education, literacy and women's rights, being the third international and the first Arab recipient of the award On March 16, 2005, she received the Athir Class of the National Order of Merit of Algeria 

Marriage and children
Fatima bint Mubarak Al Ketbi married Sheikh Zayed Al Nahyan when he was the ruler of the Eastern region in 1960  Sheikh Zayed met her in a mosque  They moved to Abu Dhabi when Sheikh Zayed became the ruler in August 1966  She was his most influential and favorite spouse because of her influential personality  She is the mother of Sheikh Mohamed, the current President of the United Arab Emirates and the ruler of Abu Dhabi; Sheikh Hamdan, Sheikh Hazza, Sheikh Tahnoun, Sheikh Mansour, Sheikh Abdullah, Sheikha Shamma and Sheikha Alyazia  They are the most powerful block in the ruling family of Abu Dhabi, the Al Nahyans 
Passage 8:
Kekuʻiapoiwa II
Kekuʻiapoiwa II was a Hawaiian chiefess and the mother of the king Kamehameha I 

Biography
She was named after her aunt Kekuʻiapoiwa Nui (also known as Kekuʻiapoiwa I), the wife of King Kekaulike of Maui 
Her father was High Chief Haʻae, the son of Chiefess Kalanikauleleiaiwi and High Chief Kauaua-a-Mahi of the Mahi family of the Kohala district of Hawaiʻi island, and brother of Alapainui  Her mother was Princess Kekelakekeokalani-a-Keawe (also known as Kekelaokalani), daughter of the same Kalanikauleleiaiwi and Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku, king of Hawaii  Her mother had been sought after by many who wished to marry into the Keawe line  She was the niece of Alapainui through both her father and mother 
She married the High Chief Keōua to whom she had been betrothed since childhood  Through her double grandmother Kalanikauleleiaiwi, Keōua's own paternal grandmother, she was the double cousin of Keōua  When her uncle was staying at Kohala superintending the collection of his fleet and warriors from the different districts of the island preparatory to the invasion of Maui, in the month of Ikuwa (probably winter) Kamehameha was born probably in November 1758 : 135–136   
He had his birth ceremony at the Moʻokini Heiau, an ancient temple which is preserved in Kohala Historical Sites State Monument Many stories are told about the birth of Kamehameha 
One says that when Kekuʻiapoiwa was pregnant with Kamehameha, she had a craving for the eyeball of a chief  She was given the eyeball of a man-eating shark and the priests prophesied that this meant the child would be a rebel and a killer of chiefs  Alapainui, the old ruler of the island of Hawaiʻi, secretly made plans to have the newborn infant killed Kekuʻiapoiwa's time came on a stormy night in the Kohala district, when a strange star with a tail of white fire appeared in the western sky  This could have been Halley's Comet which appeared near the end of 1758  According to one legend, the baby was passed through a hole in the side of Kekuiapoiwa's thatched hut to a local Kohala chief named Naeʻole, who carried the child to safety at Awini  on the island's north coast  By the time the infant in Naeʻole's care was five, Alapainui had accepted him back into his household After Kamehameha, Kekuʻiapoiwa bore a second son, Keliimaikai  A few years later, Keōua died in Hilo, and the family moved with Alapainui to an area near Kawaihae, where she married a chief of the Kona district (and her uncle) Kamanawa 
She had one daughter, Piʻipiʻi Kalanikaulihiwakama, from this second husband, who would later become an important military ally of Kamehameha, who was both step son and cousin through several relationships  Piʻipiʻi became first the wife of Keholoikalani, the father of her son Kanihonui, and later she married Kaikioewa, who she had a daughter Kuwahine with : 18

Kamehameha dynasty
Passage 9:
Minamoto no Chikako
Minamoto no Chikako (源 親子) was the daughter of Kitabatake Morochika, and Imperial consort to Emperor Go-Daigo  She had earlier been Imperial consort to Go-Daigo's father, Emperor Go-Uda 
She was the mother of Prince Morinaga 
Passage 10:
Trinidad Tecson
Trinidad Perez Tecson (November 18, 1848 – January 28, 1928), known as the "Mother of Biak-na-Bato" and "Mother of Mercy", fought to gain Philippines independence 
She was given the title "Mother of Biak-na-Bato" by Gen  Emilio Aguinaldo  She was also cited as the "Mother of the Philippine National Red Cross" for her service to her fellow Katipuneros 

Early life
Tecson was born in San Miguel de Mayumo, Bulacan, one of sixteen children of Rafael Tecson and Monica Perez  She learned to read and write from schoolmaster Quinto  She practiced fencing with Juan Zeto and was feared throughout the province, called "Tangkad" (tall) by her peers  Orphaned at a very young age, she stopped school and went with her siblings to live with relatives  She married at 19 and had two children, Sinforoso and Desiderio, who both died  Tecson and her husband were engaged in the purchase and sale of cattle, fish, oysters, and lobsters to be sold in Manila 

Revolutionary
Philippine-American War
She joined the revolutionary forces led by Gen  Gregorio del Pilar and participated in the assault on the province of Bulacan and Calumpit  She also served in the Malolos Republic and was designated as the Commissary of War  During the American drive northward, she was in Cabanatuan  Bringing with her sick and wounded revolutionaries, Tecson crossed the Zambales mountains to Santa Cruz then to Iba 

Life after the war
After the war, her second husband died and she continued in business in Nueva Ecija, concentrating on selling meat in the towns of San Antonio and Talavera  She married her third husband, Doroteo Santiago, and after his death, married Francisco Empainado  On January 28, 1928, she died in Philippine General Hospital at age 79  Her remains lie in the Plot of the Veterans of the Revolution in Cementerio del Norte 



ground_truth: Prince Of Arcadia