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The report that follows is a condensation of a study by training exerts of the important classified and unclassilied information available on this aubject.

BACKCROUND

Brainmshing. as a tochnique, has been usəd for centuriea and is no rystery to psychologists. In this sense, braimvashing means involuntary re-education of basic beliefs and values. All people are being re-educated continuously. Hew information changes one's beliefs. Everyone has experienoed to some degrea the conflict that. ensues when new information is not consistent with prior belief. The exerience of the braimashad individual differs in that the inconsiatent information is forced upon the individual unier controlled conditions aftor the posaibility of critical judgnent has been removod by a variety of nethode.

Thers is no question that an individual can be broken psychologically by captors with knovledge and willingness to persist in techniques aimed at deliberately destroying the integration of a personality. Although it is probable that averyone reiuced to such a confusad, diaoriented state will respond to the introduction of new beliofs, this cannot be stated doguatically. i

PRIÑCIPLES OF HUMAN CONTROL AND REACTION TO CONTROL

There are progressive ateps in exercising control over an individual and changing his behaviour and personality integration. The following five steps are typical of behaviour changes in any controlled individual:

1. Making the individual aware of control is the first staga in changing his behaviour. A small child is made aware of the physical and psychological control of his parenta and quickly recogaizes that an overwbelming force must be reckoned with. So, a controlled adult comes to recognise the overwhelning povers of the state and the impersonal, "incarcerative" machinery in which he is enmeshed. Tho indiridual recognises that definite linits have been put upon the ways be can respond.

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2. Realisation of bis completadependence upón the controllinp aystea is a majorfactor in.controlling his behaviour.The con trolled adolt is forced to-acceptthe fact that food, tobacco, praise, and theonly social contact that he will get come from the very interrogator who exercises control over him.

3. The avareness of co-trol and recognition of depondence result in causing internal conflict and breakdown of previous patterns of behaviour. Although this trarsition can be relativeiy mild in the case of a chilid, it is zlmost invariably severe for the adult undergoing braimvashing. Only an individual who holds his values lightiy czn change thea easily. Since tha brainwasher-interrogators ais to have the individuals undergo profound emotional change, they force their victins to seek out painfully what is desired by the controllirg individual. During this pariod the victia is likely to have a mental breakdowm characterised by delusiors and hallucinations.

h.. Discovery that there is an acceptable soluticn to hie problem is the first stage of reducing the individual's conflict. It is characteristically reported by viotims of braimwashing that this discovery led to an overwhelming feelidg of relief that the horror or internal conflict would cease and that perhaps they would not, after all, be driven insane. It is at this point that they are prepared to make major changes in their valca-aystems. This is an automstic rather than a voluntary choice. They have lost their ability to be critical.

5.. Reintagration of vlaues and identification with the controlliing, systam is the final atage in changing the behaviour of the controlled individual.A child who bas leerned a new, socielly desirabie behaviour demonstrates its importance by attempt'ng to adapt the ney behaviour to a variety of other situations. Similar states in the brainwashed adult are

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giving meaning to events, is virtually independent of his former valuesysten.Re is no longer capabie of thinking or speaking in concepts other than those he haa adopted. He tends to identify by expressing thanks to his captors for helping hia see the light. Brainwashing can be achieved without using illegal means. Anyone villing to use known principles of control and resctions to control and capable of demonstrsting the patience needed in raising a child can probably achieve successful brainvashing.

COMMUNIST CONTROL TECHNIQUES AND THEIR PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

description of usual comunist control tecniques follovs.

l."Interrogation. There are at least two vays in vhich "interrogation" is used:

a.Elicitation, vhich is designed to get the individual to surrender protected information, is a form of interrogation. One major dirrerence between elicitation and the interrogation used to achieve brainwashing is that the mind of the individual must be kept clear to permit coherent, undistorted disclosure of protected inforwation.

b. Rlicitation for the purpose of' brainwashing consists of questioning, argument, indoctrination, threats, cajolery, praise, hostility, and a variety of other pressures. The aim of this interrogation is to hasten the breakdown of the individual'e value-systen and. to encourage the substitution of a different value-system. The procurement of protected information is secondary, and is used as a device to increase pressure upon the individualThe ter "interrogation" in this paper will refer in general, to this type. The "interrogator" 1s the individual who conducts this type of interrogation and vho controls the administretion of the other pressures. He is the protsgonist egainst whom the victim develops his conflict, and upon whom the victim develops a state of dependency as he seeks some solution to his conflict.

2. Physical Torture and Threats of Torture. Two types of phyaical torture are distinguishable more by their psychological affect in inducing conflict than by the degree of painfulness:

a. The first type is one in which the victim has a passive role in the pain inflicted on hin (e.g., beatings). His conflict involves the decision of whether or not to give in to demands in order to avoid further pain. Generelly, brutality of this type vas not found to achieve the desired resuita. Threats of torture were foud more effective, as fear of pain causes greater conflict within the individual than does pain itself.

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Ab.t The second type of torture is represented by requiring the gindividual to stand in one spot for several bours or assume some other pain-inducing, position Süch arequirepent often engenders in the indipaing sountsy bovever, the individual becomes avare that it is his own original determination to resist that is causing the continuance of pain. Aconflict develops vithin the individual betveen his moral determination and his desire to collapse and discontimue the pain. It is this extra internal conflict, in addition to the conflict over whether or not to give in to the demands made of hiu, that tends to make this method of torture more effective in the breakdown of the individual personality.

3. Isolation. Individual differences in reaction to isolation are probably greater than to any other method. Some individuals appear to be able to vithstand prolonged periods of isolation without deleterious effect, while a relatively short period of isolation reduces others to the verge of peychosis. Reaction varies with the conditions of the isolation cell. Some sources have indicated a strong reaction to filth and vermin, although they had negligible reactions to the isolation. Others reacted violently to iaolation in relatively clean cells. The predominant cause of breakdovn in such situations is a lack of sensory stimulation (i.e., grayness of valls, lack of sound, absence of social contact, etc.). Experimental subjects exposed to thiscondition have reported vivid hallucinations and overvhelming fears of losing their sanity. AX

4. Control of Communication. This is one of the most effective methods for creating a sense of hopelessness and despair. This measure might vell be considered the corneratone of the communist system of control. It consists of strict regulation of the mail, reading materials, broadcast materials, and social contact available to the individual. The need to comumicate is so great that when the uaual channels are blocked, the individual vill resort to any open channel, almost regardless of the ixplications of using that particular channel. Many POWs in Korea, whose only act of "collaboration"-vas to sign petitions and "peace appeals," defended their actions on the ground that this was the only method of letting the outside world know they vere still alive. Many stated that their corale and fortitude vould have been increased immeasurably had leafiets of encouragement been dropped to. thes. When the only contact vith the outeide world ie via the interrogator, the prisoner comes to develop extreme dependency on his interrogator and hence loses another prop to his morale.

Another wrinkle in'cowmunication control is the informer system. The recruitment of informers in POw camps discouraged communication

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at every act or thought of resistance municateotothe camp administration, lost faith in their ellov man and were-forced to"untruating individualism." Informers are also used at several stages of breinwashing and elicitation to develop and maintain control over the victime.

5, Induction of Fatigue. This is a vell-known device for breaking will power and critical povers of judgpent. Deprivation of sleep results in more intense psychological debilitatfon than does any other method of engendering fatigue., The communists vary their rethods. "Conveyor belt" interrogationathat last 50-60 hours wili make almcst any individual comprouise, but there is danger that thia will kill the victim. It is safer to conduct interropations of 8-l0 hours at night while forcing the prisoner toremain awakeduring the day. Additional interruptions in the remaining 2-3-hours.ofallottedsleep quickly reduce the moat r&silient individual. Alternate administration of drug stimulants and depressants hastens the process of fatigue and sharpens the psychological reactions of excitement and depreseion.

Fatigue. in addition to reducing the vill to cesist, also produces irritation and fear that arise from increased "slips of the tongue," forgetfulness,and decrensed ability to maintain orderly thought processes.

6. Control of Food, Water and Tobacco. The coutrolled individual is made intensely aware of his depenlence upon his interrogator fpr the quality and quantity of his food and tobacco. The exercise of thia control usually followa a pattern.No food and little or no wuter is permitted thesindividual for several days prior to interrogation. When the prisoner first complains of this to the interrogator, the latter expresses surprise at such inhmane treatment. Be makes a demand of the prisoner. If the latter complies, he receives a good meal. If he does not, he gets a diet of umappetizing food containing limited vitamins, minerals, and calories. This diet is supplemented occasionally by the interrogstor if the prisoner "cooperates." Studies of controlled starvation indicate that the whole value-system of the subjects undervent a change. Their irritation increasedas their ability to think clearly decreased. The control of tobacco presented an even greater source of conflict for heavy smokere. Because tobacco is not necessary to life, being manipulated by his craving for it can create in the individual a etrong sense of guilt.

7. Criticism and Self-Criticiem. These are mechanisme of coumunist thought control. Self-criticism gains its effectiveness from the fact that although it is not s crime for a man to be wrong, it is a major crime to be stubborn andto refuseto learn. Hany individuals feel intensely relieved in being able to share their sense of guilt. Thoae individuals,

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8. Hypnosis and Drugs as Controls. There is no reliable evidence that the communists are making videspread use of drugs or hypnosis in braimwashing or elicitation. The exception to this 1s the use of common stimulants or depressants in inducing fatigue and "mood svings."

9. Other methods ofcontrol, which when used in conjumction with the basic processes, hasten the deterioration of prisoners' sense of values and résistance are:

p a. Requiring a case history or autobiography of the prisoner provides a aine' of information for the interrogator in establishing and "documenting": accusationa.

b. Friendliness of the interrogator, when least expected, upsets the prisoner's ebility to maintain  critical attitude. Petty demands, such as severely limiting the allotted time or use of toilet facilities or requiring the Pow to kill humdreds of flies, are hurrassment metbods.

d. Prisoners are often humiliated by refusing them the use of toilet facilities during interrogation until they soil themselves. Often prisoners were not pers'tted to bathe for veeks until they felt contempti-Ule.

e. Conviction as a var criminal appears to be a potent factor gin creating despair.in an individual. One ofricial analysis of the pressures exerted by the ChiComs on "confessors" and "non-confessors" to participation in bacteriological warfare in Korea stoved that actual trial and"conviction of "war crimes" vas overwhelmingly associated with breakdown and confession.

f. Attempted elicitation of protected information at various times during the brainvashing process diverted the individual from awarcness of the deterioration of his value-syatem.  The fact that, in most cases, the ChiComs did not want or need such intelligence was not known to the prisoner. His attewpts to protect such information was made at the expense of hastening bis own breakdown.

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THE EXERCISE OF CONTROL: A "SCHEDULE" FOR BRAINWASHING

ragmentary accounts revieved, the folloving appenrs likely description of vhat occurs during brainwashing.

s In the periodsimediately folloving capture, the captors are faced Friththe problen of deciding os best ways of exploitation of the prisoners. through elicitationand those vho are to undergo brainvashing. Concurrently vith being interrogated and required to write a detailed personal history, the prisoner undergoes. a physical and psychological "softening-up" which includes: limited wpalatable food rations, withbolding of tobacco, possible work details, severely inadequate use of toilet facilities, no use of facilities for personal cleanliness, limitation of sleep such as requiring a mubject to sleep with a bright light in his eyes. Apparently the interrogation and autobiographicál material, the reports of the prisoner's behaviour in confinement, and tentative "personality typing" by the interrogatorsprovidethe basis upon which exploitation plans are made.

There.is a major difference betveen preparation for elicitation and for brainvashing. Frisoners exploited through elicitation must retain aufficient clarity of thought to be able to give coherent, factual accounts. In brainwashing, on the other hand, the first thing attacked is clarity of thonght. To develop a strategy of defense, the controlled individual must deteraine vhat plans have been made for his exploitation. Perheps the best cues he. can get are his internal reactions to the pressures he undergoes.

The most important capect of the braimwashing process is the interrogation. The other pressures are designed prisarily tohelp the interrogator achieve his goals. The follcvirg states are created systemetically within the individual. These may vary in order, but ell are necesasry to the brainwashing process:

1. A feeling of helplessness in attempting to deal with the impersonal machinery of control.

2. An initial reaction of "surprise."

3. A feeling of uncertainty about what is required of him.

4. A developing feeling of dependence upon the interrogator.

5. A senso of doubt and a loss of objectivity.

6. Feelings of guilt.

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A questioning sttitude tovard his own value-syster:

8. A.feeling of potential "breakdown,, 1.e., that he might go crazy.

9. A need to defend his acquired principles.

10.A finsl sense of "belonging"(identirication).

A feeling of helplessnessin the face of the iupersonal zachinery or control iscarefully engendered vithin the prisoner. The individual who receives the preliminary treataent desoribed above not only begins tofeel like an "animal" but also feels that pothing can be done about it.No one pays any peraonal attention to hie. His complainta fall on deaf ears.His loss of comumication, if he has been isolated, creates a feeling that he has been "forgotten." Bverything that happens to him occurs according to an impersonal tine schedule that has nothing to do kvith his needa. The voices andifootsteps of thelguards are muted.He snotes many contrasts, e.g., his greasy, umpalatable food may be served on battered tin dishes by guards immaculately dressed in vhite. The first steps in "deporsonslization" of the prisoner have begun. He has no idea vhat to expect. Ample opportunity is allotted for him to ruminate upon all the umpleasant or painful things that could happen to him. He approaches the cain.iutcrrogation with mixed feelings of relief and Tright..

Suprise is comsonly used in the braimwashing process. The prisoner is rarely prepared for the fact that interrogators are usually friendly and considerate at firot. They make every effort to demonstrate that thev are reesonable humen beings.. Often they apologize for bad treatment received by the prisoner and promise to improve his lot if he, too, is reasonable. This behaviour is not what he has steeled himself for. He lets down some of his defenses and tries to take a reasonable attitude. The first occasion he balks at satisfying a request of the interrogator, however, he is in for another surprise. The formerly reasonable interrogator unexpectedly turas ipto a furious meniac. Ths interrogator is likely to slap the prisoner or drav his pistol and threaten to shoot him. Usually this storm of emotion ceases as suddenly as it began and the interrogator stalks from the room. These surpriaing changes create doubt in the prisoner as to his very ability to perceive another person's motivations correctly. Bis next interrogation probably will be marked by impassivity in the interrogator's mlen.

A feeling of uncertainty about vhat is required of him is likevise carefully engendered vithin the individual. Pleas of the prisoner to learn specifically of what he is accused and by whom are side-stepped by

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the interrogator. Instead, the prisoner is asked to tell why be thinks he is held and vhat he feels he is guilty of. If the prisoner fails to come up vith anything, he is accused in terms of broad generalities (e.g., espionage, sabotage, acts of treason against the "people"). This usually provokes the prisoner to make some statement about his activities. If this takes the fora of a denial, he is usually sent to isolation on further decreased food rations to "think over" his crimes. This process can be repeated again and again. As soon as the prisoner can think or something that aight be considered self-incriminating, the interrogator appesrs wosentarily satisfied.The prisoner is asked to vrite down his atatement in his owm worde and sign it.

Heamvhile a strong sense of dependence upon the interrogator is developed.. It dces not take long for the prisoner to realize that the interrogator is the source of all pumishment, all gratification, and all ability. Eeis perceived by the prisoner as a creature of vhis. At times, the interrogator can be pleased very easily and at other times no efforton the part of the prisoner vill placate him. The prisoner zaybegin to channel so much energy into trying to predict the behaviour of the umpredictable interrogator thát he loses track of what is happening inside himself.

Afterthe prisoner has developed the above psychological and emotional reactions to a sufficient degree, the brainwashing begins in earnest. First, the prisoner's. remaining critical faculties must be destroyed. He undergoes long, fatiguing interrogations while looking at a bright light. He is called back again and again for interrogations after winimal sleep. He may undergo torture that tends to create internal con-. flict. Drugs may be used to accentuate his "mood svings."\* He develops depression when the interrogator is being kind and becomes euphoric when the interrogator is threatening the direst penalties. Then the cycle is reversed. The prisoner finds himself in a constant state of anxiety which prevents hia from relaxing even when he is permitted to sleep. Short periods of isolation now bring on visual and auditory hallucinations. The priaoner feels himself losing his objectivity. It is in this state that the prisoner must keep.up an endless argument vith his interrogator. He may be faced with the confessions of other individuals who "collaborated" vith his in his erimes. The prisoner seriously begins to doubt his owm memory. This feeling is heightened by his inability to recall little things like the names of the people he.knows very well or the date of hia birth. The interrogator patiently sharpené this feeling of doubt by more questioning. This tends to create a serious state of uncertainty vhen the individual has lost mout of his critical faculties.

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The prisoner sust undergo additional internal conflict when strong feelings of guilt are aroused vithin his.As any clinical psychiatrist Iavareitiiatnotatfaltdirictoreateuchreelingatary servicegen are particularly vulnerables No one can morally justify kill m
orself-defense.éThe interrogator is careful"to circuvent such Ejustification.. He keeps the interrogation directed towarõs the prisoner's moral code. Every moral vulnerability is exploited by incessant questioning along this line until the prisoner begins to question the very fundamentals ofhis own value-system. The prisoner must constantly fight a potential breàkdown. He finds that his mind is "going blank" for longer and longer periods of time. He cannot think constructively. If he is tomaintain any semblance of psychological integrity, he must bring to anend this state of interminable internal conflict. He signifies a willingness to vrite a confession.
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dIf this vere truly the end, no braimvashing would have occurred. The individual vould simply have given in to intolerable pressure. Actually, thefinal etage of the brainveshing process has just begun. No matter vhat the prisoner writes in his confession the interrogator is not satisfied. The interrogator questions every sentence of the confeasion.He begins to edit it vith the prisoner. The prisoner is forced to argue against every change. This is the essenee of brainvashing. Erery,time that he gives in on a point to the interrogator, he wust rewrite his whole confession. Still the interrogator is pot patisfied. In a desperate attempt to maintain some semblance of integrity and to avoid further brainvashing, the prisoner wust begin to argue that what he has already confessed is true. Ee begins to accept as his own the statements he has written. He uses many of the interrogator's earlier arguments to buttress his position. By this process, identification vith the interrogator's value-system beccmes complete. It is extremely iuportant to recognize that a qualitative change has taken place within the prisoner. The brainwashed victimdoes not consciously change his value-syutem; rather the change occurs despite his efforts. Re is no more reaponsible for this change than is an individual vho "snaps" and becomes paychotic. And like the psychotic, the prisoner ia not even avare of the transition.

DEFENSIVE MEASURES OTHER TRAN ON THE POLICY AND PLANNING LEVEL

1. Training of individuals potentially subject to coumunist control.

Training should provide for the trainee a realistic eppraisal of vhat control pressures the communists are likely to exert and what the usual human reactions are to such pressures. The trainee must learn

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the wost effective ways of combatting his own reactions to such pressures ani he muat learn reasonable expectations as to what his behaviour should be. Training has two decidedly positive effects: first, it provides tho triinee with vays of combatting control; second, it provides the basis for developing an imeasurable boost in morale. Any positive action that the individual can take, even ir it is only slightly efrective, gives him a sense of control over a situation that is otherwise controlling him:

Training must provide the individual vith the means of recognizing realistic goals for himself.

a. Delay in yielding may be the only achievement that can be hoped for. In any particular operation, the agent needs the support of knowing specifically how long he must hold out to save an operation, protect hie cohorts, or gain some other goal.

The individual should be taught how to achieve the most favorable treatment and how to behave and make the necessary concessions to obtain minimua penalties.

c. Individual behavioural responsea to the various commumist control pressures differ markedly. Therefore, each trainee should know hie own particular assets and limitations in resisting specific pressures. Ho can learn. these only uzder laboratory conditions simulating the actual pressures he may have to fsce.

d. Training must provide kowledge of the gouls and the restrictions placed upon his comaunist interrogator. The trainee should know vtat controls are on his interrogator and to what extent he can manipulate the interrogator. For example, the interrogator is not permitted to fail to gain "something" from the controlled individual. The knowledge that, after the victim has proved that he is a "tough nut to crack" he can sodetimes indicate that be might compromise on some little point to belp the interrogator in return for more favorable treatment, may be useful indeed. Above all, the poteutial victim of communist control can gain a great deal of psychological support from the knovledge that the communist interrogator is not a cowpletely free agent who can do whatever he wills vith his victin.

e. The trainee must learn what practical cues uight aid him in recognizing the specific goals of his interrogator. The strategy of defense egsinst elicitation may differ markedly from the strategy to prevent braimwashing. To prevent elicitation, the individual may hasten his own state of mental confusion; whereas, to prevent brainwashing, maintaining clarity of thought processes is imperative.

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f.t, The trainee should obtain knowledge.about comunist "carrots" thiezperticulargevil.Won the other hand, certain meaningless concessions vill often get a prisoner a good weal.

g. In particular, it should be emphasized to the trainee that, although little can be done to control the pressures exerted upon him, he can learn something about controlling his personal reactions to specific pressures. The trainee can gain much from learning something about internal conflict an& conflict-producing mechanisms. He should learn to recognize vhen someone is trying to arouse guilt feelirgs and what behavioural reactions can occur asa response to guilt.

h. Finally, training must teach some methods that can be utilized in thvarting particular commumist control technique

Mlicitation.In general, individuals who are the hardest to interrogate for information are those who have experienced previous interrogations. Practice in being the victim of interrogation is a sound training device

Torture. The trainee should learz something about the principles of pain and shock. There is a maximm to the amount of pain that can actually be felt. Any amount of pain can be tolerated for a limited period of time. In addition, the trainee can be fortified by the knowledge that there are legal limitations upon the amoumt of torture that can be inflicted by communist jailors.

Isolation. The psychological effects of isolation can probably be thvarted best by mental gymnastics and systematic efforts on the part of the icolate to obtain stimulation for his neural end organs.

Controls on Food and Tobacco. Food given by the communists will always be enough to maintain survival. Sometimes the victim gets unexpected opportunities to supplement his diet vith special minerals, vitamins and other nutrients (e.g., "iron" from the rust of prison bars). In some instances, experience has shown that individuals could exploit refuzàl to eat. Such refusal usually resulted in the transfer of the individual to a hospital where he received vitamin injections and nutritious food. Evidently attempts of this kind to commit suicide arouse the greatest concern in communist officiala. If deprivation of tobacco is the control being exerted, the victim can gain poral satisfaction fron "giving up" tohacco. He can't lose aince be is not likely to get any anyway.

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hould learn reactions to fatigue and how to rcome thea insofar as possible. For example, mildpbysical exercise clears the head" in a fatigue state.

Writing Personal Accoumts and Self-Criticisz. Experience has indicated that one of the most effective ways of cowbatting these pressures is to enter into the spirit with an overabundance of enthusiasm. Endless vritten accounts of inconsequential material has virtually "smothered" soue eager interrogators. In the same spirit, sober, detailed selfcriticisms or the most minute "sins" has sometimes brought good results.

Guidanceas to,thepriority of positions he should defend. Perfectly compatible responsibilities in the normal execution of an individualfs duties may become wutally incompatible in this situation. Take the example of a senior grade military officer. He has knovledge of sensitive strategic intelligence which it is his duty to protect. Ee has the responsibility of maintaining the physical fitness of his men and serving as modelexeple for their behaviour.i The officer may go to the camp sures him that treatment could be improved if he vill svap something for it. Thus to satisfy one responsibility he wust cowprouise another. The officer, in short, is in a constant state of internal conflict. But if the officer is given the relative priority of his different responsibilities, he is supportèd by the knowledge that he von't be held as pccountable for any other behaviour if he does-his utmost to carry out his highest priority responsibility.There is considerable evidence that many individuals. tried to evaluate the priority of their responsibilities on their owm, but vere in conflict over whether others vould subsequently accept their evaluations.» More'than one individual vas probably brainvashed vhile be was trying to protect himstlf against elicitation.

CONCLUSIONS

The application of known psychological principles can lead to an understanding of brainvashing.

1. There is nothing mysterdous about personality changes resulting from the brainwashing process.

2. Braimvashing is a complex process. Principles of motivation, perception, learning, and physiological deprivation 'are needéatoacconnt for the results achieved in brainwashing.

3. Braimvashing is an involutary re-education of the fundamental beliefs of the individual. To attack the problem successfully, the brainvashing process must be differentiated clearly from general education methods for thought-control or wass indoctrination, and elicitation.

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