query: what type of political system is iran?

title: Judicial system of Iran

text: Judicial system of Iran A nationwide judicial system in Iran was first implemented and established by Abdolhossein Teymourtash under Reza Shah, with further changes during the second Pahlavi era. After the 1979 overthrow of the Pahlavi dynasty by the Islamic Revolution, the system was greatly altered. The legal code is now based on Islamic law or sharia, although many aspects of civil law have been retained, and it is integrated into a civil law legal system. According to the constitution of the Islamic Republic, the judiciary in Iran "is an independent power". The entire legal system—"from the Supreme Court to

title: Judicial system of Iran

text: of the Judiciary.” Although Article 2 of the constitution the Islamic Republic states that the Republic "is a system based on belief in ... the One God ... His exclusive sovereignty and the right to legislate", according to one source, the new laws of the Islamic Republic "modify the sharia" (i.e. what Muslims believe is God's legislation) "in three significant ways." see Islamic banking After the 1979 Islamic Revolution, all banks had to follow Sharia banking procedures, including the forbidding of interest (riba) and the forbidding of usury. The Supreme Audit Court of Iran regulates banking and financial operations. In

title: Legitimacy (political)

text: political scientist Mattei Dogan's contemporary interpretation of Weber's types of political legitimacy (traditional, charismatic, legal-rational) proposes that they are conceptually insufficient to comprehend the complex relationships that constitute a legitimate political system in the twenty-first century. Moreover, Dogan proposed that traditional authority and charismatic authority are obsolete as forms of contemporary government (e.g., the Islamic Republic of Iran (est. 1979) rule by means of the priestly Koranic interpretations by the Ayatollah Khomeini). That traditional authority has disappeared in the Middle East; that the rule-proving exceptions are Islamic Iran and Saudi Arabia. Furthermore, the third Weber type of political legitimacy, rational-legal

title: Supreme Leader of Iran

text: Supreme Leader of Iran The Supreme Leader of Iran (), also called the Supreme Leader of the Islamic Revolution (, '), officially in Iran called the Supreme Leadership Authority (, ') is the head of state, highest ranking political and religious authority of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The armed forces, judicial system, state television, and other key governmental organizations are under the control of the Supreme Leader of Iran. The current longtime Supreme Leader of Iran, Ali Khamenei, has been issuing decrees and making the final decisions on economy, environment, foreign policy, education, national planning, and everything else in

title: Iran Revival

text: Iran Revival Iran Revival () also known by its native name Farashgard, is an Iranian political group. This organization was founded in September 2018, ten months after the beginning of the 2017–18 Iranian protests. The organization was founded by 40 Iranian activists. It advocates for a secular democracy in Iran either through a Republic or a Constitutional monarchy, but states that the exact form of a future political system will be determined by the people of Iran after the overthrow of the Islamic Republic. The group's slogan is: "We Will Reclaim Iran and Rebuild It". Its original name Farashgard was

title: Judicial system of Iran

text: years of the Islamic Republic, a great number of political prisoners were executed. In 1979, more than 800 people were executed. Between 1981 and 1985, 7,900 people were executed. In 1988, a mass execution of political prisoners was carried out, with estimates that between 4,500 and 5,000 prisoners were executed. The overwhelming majority of those executed (90%) were political prisoners, although many executions were carried out under the auspices of crimes such as "drug trafficking", "terrorism", or "sodomy". Like 74 other countries in the world, Iran carries out capital punishment. As a State party to the International Convention on Civil

title: Judicial system of Iran

text: Shariati was banned. At least in Evin prison the Persian Nowruz celebration was banned. In the prison literature of the Pahlavi era, the recurring words had been 'boredom' and 'monotony.' In that of the Islamic Republic, they were 'fear', 'death', 'terror', 'horror,' and most frequent of all 'nightmare' ("kabos")". By the 2000s prison life was considerably better, although torture was still carried out on political inmates (even allegedly criminals). But after the controversial 2009 elections, the situation for political prisoners has reportedly deteriorated. Although classical Sharia law does not mention imprisonment, prisons are widely used in Iran. Typically, it would

title: Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran

text: Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran The Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran (, known simply as Neẓām () among its supporters, and Režim () among its dissidents) is the ruling state and current political system in Iran, in power since the revolution and fall of Pahlavi dynasty in 1979. Its constitution, adopted by a referendum, uses separation of powers model with Executive, Legislative, and Judicial systems, while the Supreme Leader is the country's head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. It is currently one of the four governments using the title Islamic republic in the

title: Politics of Iran

text: reformist movement and opposed by hard-liners. This led to incorporation and official activity of many other groups, including hard-liners. After the war ended in 1988, reformist and progressive candidates won four out of six presidential elections in Iran and Right-wing nationalist party of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad won twice. The Iranian Government is opposed by several Militias, including the Mojahedin-e-Khalq, the People's Fedayeen, and the Kurdish Democratic Party. "For other political parties see List of political parties in Iran." The Supreme Leader of Iran is the head of state and highest ranking political and religious authority in the Islamic Republic of Iran

title: Judicial system of Iran

text: consensual sexual crimes. They are: This crime is for somebody who used a weapon to strike fear and spread disorder, for example through armed robbery, kidnapping, terrorism/violent armed crimes, rape, and gang violence. This charge has been used in Iran as a political charge/treason/disrupting stability of Islamic Republic, and belonging to anti-regime opposition groups. Mitigating factors are repentance and lack of success of the crime. People are generally only convicted of moharebeh and executed if they had murdered somebody (at any point in their lives), or they committed serious acts against the state and society (such as repeatedly attempting the

title: Human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran

text: ranging somewhere between 8,000 and 30,000. Since the death of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini there have been fewer government sanctioned killings in Iran. In the 1990s there were a number of unsolved murders and disappearances of intellectuals and political activists who had been critical of the Islamic Republic system in some way. In 1998 these complaints came to a head with the killing of three dissident writers (Mohammad Jafar Pouyandeh, Mohammad Mokhtari, Majid Sharif), a political leader (Dariush Forouhar) and his wife in the span of two months, in what became known as the Chain murders or 1998 Serial Murders of

title: Chain murders of Iran

text: her book "Assassins of the Turquoise Palace". The event of the 21 writers in the bus and the murder of writers in 1998 formed the basis of Mohammad Rasoulof's 2013 film Manuscripts Don't Burn (, translit. Dast-Neveshtehaa Nemisoozand). Chain murders of Iran The Chain murders of Iran (Persian:قتل‌های زنجیره‌ای), or Serial murders of Iran, were a series of 1988–98 murders and disappearances of certain Iranian dissident intellectuals who had been critical of the Islamic Republic system. The murders and disappearances were carried out by Iranian government internal operatives. The victims included more than 80 writers, translators, poets, political activists, and

title: Chain murders of Iran

text: Chain murders of Iran The Chain murders of Iran (Persian:قتل‌های زنجیره‌ای), or Serial murders of Iran, were a series of 1988–98 murders and disappearances of certain Iranian dissident intellectuals who had been critical of the Islamic Republic system. The murders and disappearances were carried out by Iranian government internal operatives. The victims included more than 80 writers, translators, poets, political activists, and ordinary citizens, and were killed by a variety of means such as car crashes, stabbings, shootings in staged robberies, and injections with potassium to simulate heart attack. The pattern of murders did not come to light until late

title: Type system

text: or an "effect system", which enables even more program specifications to be verified by a type checker. Beyond simple value-type pairs, a virtual "region" of code is associated with an "effect" component describing "what" is being done "with what", and enabling for example to "throw" an error report. Thus the symbolic system may be a "type and effect system", which endows it with more safety checking than type checking alone. Whether automated by the compiler or specified by a programmer, a type system makes program behavior illegal if outside the type-system rules. Advantages provided by programmer-specified type systems include: Advantages

title: Judicial system of Iran

text: religious minorities in Iran". Many Iranians argue for necessary reform in the judicial system, primarily in the prison system (such as beatings and torture) and political prisoners. Reformist politicians have made attempts in the past to challenge the death penalty, as well as to enforce the rule of law concerning the illegal use of torture in prisons. Journalists and human rights advocates in Iran who attempt to raise awareness of these issues often risk imprisonment and the death sentence themselves, such as in the case of Akbar Ganji. On 18 December 2003, President Mohammad Khatami stated, "I don't like the

title: Type system

text: consistent way. This checking can happen statically (at compile time), dynamically (at run time), or as a combination of static and dynamic checking. Type systems have other purposes as well, such as expressing business rules, enabling certain compiler optimizations, allowing for multiple dispatch, providing a form of documentation, etc. A type system associates a type with each computed value and, by examining the flow of these values, attempts to ensure or prove that no type errors can occur. The given type system in question determines exactly what constitutes a type error, but in general the aim is to prevent operations

title: Political system

text: and its people and how the government’s power is used. There are three types of political systems that sociologists consider: Political system A political system is a system of politics and government. It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems. However, this is a very simplified view of a much more complex system of categories involving the questions of who should have authority and what the government's influence on its people and economy should be. Anthropologists generally recognize four kinds of political systems, two of which are uncentralized and two of which

title: Political system

text: Political system A political system is a system of politics and government. It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems. However, this is a very simplified view of a much more complex system of categories involving the questions of who should have authority and what the government's influence on its people and economy should be. Anthropologists generally recognize four kinds of political systems, two of which are uncentralized and two of which are centralized. The sociological interest in political systems is figuring out who holds power within the relationship of the government

title: Type system

text: accessed as if it were valid memory of any type. For more information, see memory safety. Some languages allow different levels of checking to apply to different regions of code. Examples include: Additional tools such as lint and IBM Rational Purify can also be used to achieve a higher level of strictness. It has been proposed, chiefly by Gilad Bracha, that the choice of type system be made independent of choice of language; that a type system should be a module that can be "plugged" into a language as needed. He believes this is advantageous, because what he calls mandatory

title: Iran System encoding

text: distinct visual forms separately. Iran System encoding Iran System encoding was an 8-bit character encoding scheme and was created by Iran System corporation for Persian language support. This encoding was in use in Iran in DOS-based programs and after the introduction of Microsoft code page 1256 this encoding became obsolete. However, some Windows and DOS programs using this encoding are still in use and some Windows fonts with this encoding exist. Now most programs use code page 1256, code page 1259, or Unicode. Only the upper half (128–255) of the table is shown, the lower half (0–127) being plain ASCII.

title: Iran System encoding

text: Iran System encoding Iran System encoding was an 8-bit character encoding scheme and was created by Iran System corporation for Persian language support. This encoding was in use in Iran in DOS-based programs and after the introduction of Microsoft code page 1256 this encoding became obsolete. However, some Windows and DOS programs using this encoding are still in use and some Windows fonts with this encoding exist. Now most programs use code page 1256, code page 1259, or Unicode. Only the upper half (128–255) of the table is shown, the lower half (0–127) being plain ASCII. This character set encodes

title: Iran route numbering system

text: Iran route numbering system Iran route numbering system is a network of highways and roads in Iran that is managed by Iran Road Maintenance & Transportation Organization . The network comprises main highways and several major and minor country roads. Probably in the late 1990s, all road numbers were changed. The old system was also a grid, but with only 5 east-west routes (even numbers 2-10) and only 7 north-south routes (odd numbers 1-13). Therefore, the new system is a lot more dense, though there are a few sections that used to have a number which are not numbered anymore.

title: Political factions in Iran

text: second faction is "the movement shaped around some top Grand Ayatollahs" who opposed the theory of "Velayat Faqih", such as Ahmad Azari Qomi. With an article entitled "The political tendencies within Iran today", Behzad Nabavi of the Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution of Iran Organization (MIRIO) started a series of pieces, published between November 1994 and May 1995 in the bi-weekly "Asr-e Maa", to distinguish four political factions in Iran which he characterizes as "Traditional Right", "Modern Right", "New Left" and "Left". These factions are characterised as follows: The first conceptualization of its kind after the Iranian revolution, it turned

title: Judicial system of Iran

text: death penalty, although if there is one case where there should be an execution, the fairest case would be for Saddam. But I would never wish for that." Due to the power and scope of the institutions of "velayat-e-faqih" (Guardianship of the Clergy), which includes the Council of Guardians and the Office of the Supreme Leader, as well as the Judiciary, elected institutions such as the Majlis and the Office of the President are often unable to challenge laws because they are constitutional. Judicial system of Iran A nationwide judicial system in Iran was first implemented and established by Abdolhossein

title: The purpose of a system is what it does

text: be balanced by a more straightforwardly descriptive view. The term is used in many fields including biology and management. The purpose of a system is what it does The purpose of a system is what it does (POSIWID) is a systems thinking heuristic coined by Stafford Beer. Stafford Beer coined the term POSIWID and used it many times in public addresses. In his address to the University of Valladolid, Spain, in October 2001, he said "According to the cybernetician, the purpose of a system is what it does. This is a basic dictum. It stands for bald fact, which makes

title: The purpose of a system is what it does

text: The purpose of a system is what it does The purpose of a system is what it does (POSIWID) is a systems thinking heuristic coined by Stafford Beer. Stafford Beer coined the term POSIWID and used it many times in public addresses. In his address to the University of Valladolid, Spain, in October 2001, he said "According to the cybernetician, the purpose of a system is what it does. This is a basic dictum. It stands for bald fact, which makes a better starting point in seeking understanding than the familiar attributions of good intention, prejudices about expectations, moral judgment,

title: Type system

text: be used e.g. to generate new types and behaviors on the fly, based on run-time data. Such advanced constructs are often provided by dynamic programming languages; many of these are dynamically typed, although "dynamic typing" need not be related to "dynamic programming languages". Languages are often colloquially referred to as "strongly typed" or "weakly typed". In fact, there is no universally accepted definition of what these terms mean. In general, there are more precise terms to represent the differences between type systems that lead people to call them "strong" or "weak". A third way of categorizing the type system of

title: Type system

text: Haskell's type system, a version of Hindley–Milner, is a restriction of System Fω to so-called rank-1 polymorphic types, in which type inference is decidable. Most Haskell compilers allow arbitrary-rank polymorphism as an extension, but this makes type inference undecidable. (Type checking is decidable, however, and rank-1 programs still have type inference; higher rank polymorphic programs are rejected unless given explicit type annotations.) Some languages like Perl 6 or C# have a unified type system. This means that all C# types including primitive types inherit from a single root object. Every type in C# inherits from the Object class. Java has

title: Type system

text: when called, at run-time. Duck typing differs from structural typing in that, if the "part" (of the whole module structure) needed for a given local computation is present "at runtime", the duck type system is satisfied in its type identity analysis. On the other hand, a structural type system would require the analysis of the whole module structure at compile time to determine type identity or type dependence. Duck typing differs from a nominative type system in a number of aspects. The most prominent ones are that for duck typing, type information is determined at runtime (as contrasted to compile

title: Judicial system of Iran

text: in Iran, in some cases people can be prosecuted for apostasy. Punishment is death for men and life imprisonment for women. It has been used for political crimes as well. In November 2002, Hashem Aghajari, a university professor and veteran of the Iran–Iraq War, was convicted of apostasy and sentenced to death after making a speech telling Iranians not to "blindly follow" clerics. But after a storm of protests from the general populace, reformist politicians, and human rights advocates, the sentence was later commuted to three years imprisonment, and Aghajari was paroled within months. Apostasy convictions are sometimes meted out

title: Culture of Iran

text: creativity with art and offered the world numerous contributions. What follows is a list of just a few examples of the cultural contributions of Greater Iran. Videos Culture of Iran The culture of Iran (), also known as culture of Persia, is one of the oldest in the world. Owing to its dominant geo-political position and culture in the world, Iran has directly influenced cultures and peoples as far away as Italy, Macedonia, and Greece to the West, Russia to the North, the Arabian Peninsula to the South, and South and East Asia to the East. Thus an eclectic cultural

title: Judicial system of Iran

text: Shah many changes were made in Iran's judicial system, and the establishment of a fixed written law with appeals courts was one of them. In March 1926, Minister of Judicial Affairs Ali-Akbar Davar dissolved Iran's entire judiciary, with the approval of the parliament, and initiating a wave of fundamental restructuring and overhauling reforms with the aid of French judicial experts. By April 1927 Iran had 600 newly appointed judges in Tehran. Davar subsequently attempted to expand the new system into other cities of Iran through a programme involving training of 250 judges. Reza Shah represented his legal reforms as "tentative

title: Type system

text: "type of a type", or metatype). These are the abstractions that typing can go through, on a hierarchy of levels contained in a system. When a programming language evolves a more elaborate type system, it gains a more finely grained rule set than basic type checking, but this comes at a price when the type inferences (and other properties) become undecidable, and when more attention must be paid by the programmer to annotate code or to consider computer-related operations and functioning. It is challenging to find a sufficiently expressive type system that satisfies all programming practices in a type safe

title: Type system

text: provided by compiler-specified type systems include: A type error is an unintended condition which might manifest in multiple stages of a program's development. Thus a facility for detection of the error is needed in the type system. In some languages, such as Haskell, for which type inference is automated, lint might be available to its compiler to aid in the detection of error. Type safety contributes to program correctness, but might only guarantee correctness at the cost of making the type checking itself an undecidable problem. In a "type system" with automated type checking a program may prove to run

title: Type system

text: a language may also have implications for type compatibility. Type system In programming languages, a type system is a set of rules that assigns a property called type to the various constructs of a computer program, such as variables, expressions, functions or modules. These types formalize and enforce the otherwise implicit categories the programmer uses for algebraic data types, data structures, or other components (e.g. "string", "array of float", "function returning boolean"). The main purpose of a type system is to reduce possibilities for bugs in computer programs by defining interfaces between different parts of a computer program, and then

title: Iran route numbering system

text: blue on motorways, green on other roads. 3-digit numbers appear in black on a white rectangle Numbers roughly increase from west to east . odd numbers (11-99) generally denote north-south routes, while even numbers (12-98) denote east-west routes. Numbers increase in eastbound and southbound direction respectively. There are some A roads without a national number. Motorways do not have national numbers. 3-digit numbers are derived from 2-digit numbers by adding a digit at the end. Iran route numbering system Iran route numbering system is a network of highways and roads in Iran that is managed by Iran Road Maintenance &

title: Type system

text: bits with a type conveys that meaning to the programmable hardware to form a "symbolic system" composed of that hardware and some program. A program associates each value with at least one specific type, but it also can occur that one value is associated with many subtypes. Other entities, such as objects, modules, communication channels, and dependencies can become associated with a type. Even a type can become associated with a type. An implementation of a "type system" could in theory associate identifications called "data type" (a type of a value), "class" (a type of an object), and "kind" (a

title: Type system

text: Type system In programming languages, a type system is a set of rules that assigns a property called type to the various constructs of a computer program, such as variables, expressions, functions or modules. These types formalize and enforce the otherwise implicit categories the programmer uses for algebraic data types, data structures, or other components (e.g. "string", "array of float", "function returning boolean"). The main purpose of a type system is to reduce possibilities for bugs in computer programs by defining interfaces between different parts of a computer program, and then checking that the parts have been connected in a

title: The purpose of a system is what it does

text: or sheer ignorance of circumstances." The term is widely used by systems theorists. It is generally invoked to counter the notion that the purpose of a system can be read from the intentions of those who design, operate, or promote it. From a cybernetic perspective complex systems are not controllable by simple notions of management, and interventions in a system can best be understood by looking at how they affect observed system behavior. When "side effects" or "unintended consequences" reveal that system behavior is poorly understood, then taking the POSIWID perspective allows the more political understandings of system behavior to

title: Structural type system

text: Structural type system A structural type system (or "property-based" type system) is a major class of type system, in which type compatibility and equivalence are determined by the type's actual structure or definition, and not by other characteristics such as its name or place of declaration. Structural systems are used to determine if types are equivalent and whether a type is a subtype of another. It contrasts with nominative systems, where comparisons are based on the names of the types or explicit declarations, and duck typing, in which only the part of the structure accessed at runtime is checked for

title: Nominal type system

text: Nominal type system In computer science, a nominal or nominative type system (or name-based type system) is a major class of type system, in which compatibility and equivalence of data types is determined by explicit declarations and/or the name of the types. Nominal systems are used to determine if types are equivalent, as well as if a type is a subtype of another. It contrasts with structural systems, where comparisons are based on the structure of the types in question and do not require explicit declarations. Nominal typing means that two variables are type-compatible if and only if their declarations

title: Nominal type system

text: all primarily use both nominal typing and nominal subtyping. Some nominally-subtyped languages, such as Java and C#, allow classes to be declared "final" (or "sealed" in C# terminology), indicating that no further subtyping is permitted. Nominal typing is useful at preventing accidental type equivalence, which allows better type-safety than structural typing. The cost is a reduced flexibility, as, for example, nominal typing does not allow new super-types to be created without modification of the existing subtypes. Nominal type system In computer science, a nominal or nominative type system (or name-based type system) is a major class of type system, in

title: Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution of Iran Organization

text: Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution of Iran Organization Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution of Iran Organization (MIRO; ) is a reformist political organization in Iran. It is a small yet influential organization, and participates in political activities similar to a political party. Historian Ervand Abrahamian referred to the group as "a circle of intellectuals and technocrats radical in economic policies but relatively liberal in cultural matters." The organization's platform has socialist tendencies. Its charter explicitly states that those who are in politics must be pious and the Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist is the best system of governance during the

title: Type II secretion system

text: Type II secretion system The type 2 secretion system (often referred to as the type II secretion system or the T2SS) is protein secretion machinery found in various species of Gram-negative bacteria, including various human pathogens such as "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" and "Vibrio cholerae". The type II secretion system is one of six protein secretory systems that are commonly found in gram negative bacteria along with the type I secretion system, the type III secretion system, The type IV secretion system, the chaperone/usher pathway, the autotransporter pathway/type V secretion system and the type VI secretion system (some bacteria also utilize the

title: Type system

text: Gordon Plotkin established the formal theory under the slogan: "Abstract [data] types have existential type". The theory is a second-order typed lambda calculus similar to System F, but with existential instead of universal quantification. Gradual typing is a type system in which variables may be typed either at compile-time (which is static typing) or at run-time (which is dynamic typing), allowing software developers to choose either type paradigm as appropriate, from within a single language. In particular, gradual typing uses a special type named "dynamic" to represent statically-unknown types, and gradual typing replaces the notion of type equality with a

title: Political factions in Iran

text: refer to themselves as the 'Principlists', are members the alliance of theocrats (left and right) and the 'Reformists' are the republicans (left and right). Marc Champion, wrote an op-ed published in the "Bloomberg News" in 2016, suggesting that instead of two "neat camps" there are four "messy camps" in Iran: 'principlists', 'pragmatic principlists', 'radical republicans' and 'pragmatic reformers'. Political factions in Iran Politics in Iran are dictated by factionalism. Maziar Behrooz wrote in 1991 that by 1989, there are three identical factions in Iran, namely the Conservatives, the Reformists (radical-reformists) and the Pragmatists (pragmatic-reformists). Behrooz states that the reformists were

title: Type system of the Royal Navy

text: Type system of the Royal Navy The Type system is a classification system used by the British Royal Navy to classify surface escorts by function. The system evolved in the early 1950s, when the Royal Navy was experimenting with building single-purpose escort vessels with specific roles in light of experience gained in World War II. The original (July 1950) numbering scheme was: Type 1X were Anti-Submarine (ASW) Frigates (when the numbers ran out in the 1960s, ASW Frigates continued as the Type 2X series). Type 4X were Anti-Aircraft (AAW) Frigates (this later evolved into the "Destroyer" Type series). Type 6X

title: Type system

text: expecting a certain kind of value from being used with values for which that operation does not make sense (logic errors). Type systems are often specified as part of programming languages, and built into the interpreters and compilers for them; although the type system of a language can be extended by optional tools that perform added kinds of checks using the language's original type syntax and grammar. An example of a simple type system is that of the C language. The portions of a C program are the function definitions. One function is invoked by another function. The interface of

title: Iran Revival

text: metaphorically named after the Middle Persian concept Frashokereti. Iran Revival, in an open letter, stated the following: Iran Revival Iran Revival () also known by its native name Farashgard, is an Iranian political group. This organization was founded in September 2018, ten months after the beginning of the 2017–18 Iranian protests. The organization was founded by 40 Iranian activists. It advocates for a secular democracy in Iran either through a Republic or a Constitutional monarchy, but states that the exact form of a future political system will be determined by the people of Iran after the overthrow of the Islamic

title: Judicial system of Iran

text: Europeans insisted on this legal veto right—"called the regime of capitulations"—on the grounds that Iran had no written legal code so that "no one knew what laws foreigners would be judged by." Iran followed traditional Islamic practice of each judge giving his own interpretation of Islamic law for a given litigation, with no right of appeal. Iranians in general opposed these capitulations, and secular Iranians such as Mohammed Mossadeq, wanted to establish a fixed written law they believed would not only end the capitulations but facilitate the building of a strong and unified state. Under the secularist reign of Reza

title: Tudeh Party of Iran

text: repression, the party has managed to survive. Though since the Iranian Revolution the party is officially banned in Iran and individuals found to be affiliated with communist or socialist groups risk imprisonment, active members have remained and it continues to operate as an underground political organization there. This was mentioned in an Amnesty International report on political prisoners in Iran. Today, the party leadership is mainly based in exile, as is the new Central Committee, elected in 1992. The party has taken positions against privatization, criticizes the electoral system in the country, and "anti-labor" legislation. In 2017, the party supported

title: Iran–United States relations

text: to change "the political system" in Iran, abolishing "all sanctions," taking action against the People's Mujahedin of Iran (MKO), recognizing "Iran's legitimate security interests in the region," and granting Iran "access to peaceful nuclear technology, biotechnology and chemical technology." In the cover letter, Guldimann claimed that he developed the "Roadmap" with Sadeq Kharrazi, "the Iranian ambassador in Paris," and that Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei "agreed with 85-90% of the paper," although he could not obtain "a precise answer on what exactly the Leader explicitly has agreed." The Bush administration did not respond to the proposal, although in March 2004 President

title: Judicial system of Iran

text: the prestige of the presiding mullah judge as much or more than on the government's sanction Since the sixteenth century AD Iran has been the only country in the world having Shi'ah Islam as its official religion, consequently the general principles of its legal system differed somewhat from those of other countries which followed Islamic law. Among the ways law in Iran and the rest of the Muslim world differed from European law was in its lack of a single law code. "Thirteen centuries of Islamic—more particularly Shiah—tradition" called for jurists to base decisions on their legal training as it

title: Type system

text: interface that has a data member named "a" of type "X" and a function named "f" that takes a parameter of the "same" type "X" and returns an integer. This could be implemented in different ways; for example: These types are both subtypes of the more general existential type T and correspond to concrete implementation types, so any value of one of these types is a value of type T. Given a value "t" of type "T", we know that "t.f(t.a)" is well-typed, regardless of what the abstract type "X" is. This gives flexibility for choosing types suited to a

title: Structural type system

text: are irrelevant: The "set_to_10" function also works on it: This shows that compatibility for things like method invocation is determined by structure. Let us define a type synonym for objects with only a "get_x" method and no other methods: The object codice_4 is not of this type; but structurally, codice_4 is of a subtype of this type, since codice_4 contains a superset of its methods. So codice_4 can be coerced to this type: But not object codice_9, because it is not a structural subtype: This shows that compatibility for widening coercions are structural. Structural type system A structural type system

title: Security type system

text: satisfies non-interference. Security type system In computer science, a type system can be described as a syntactic framework which contains a set of rules that are used to assign a type property (int, boolean, char etc.) to various components of a computer program, such as variables or functions. A security type system works in a similar way, only with a main focus on the security of the computer program, through information flow control. Thus, the various components of the program are assigned security types, or labels. The aim of a such system is to ultimately be able to verify that

title: Security type system

text: Security type system In computer science, a type system can be described as a syntactic framework which contains a set of rules that are used to assign a type property (int, boolean, char etc.) to various components of a computer program, such as variables or functions. A security type system works in a similar way, only with a main focus on the security of the computer program, through information flow control. Thus, the various components of the program are assigned security types, or labels. The aim of a such system is to ultimately be able to verify that a given

title: Pure type system

text: Pure type system In the branches of mathematical logic known as proof theory and type theory, a pure type system (PTS), previously known as a generalized type system (GTS), is a form of typed lambda calculus that allows an arbitrary number of sorts and dependencies between any of these. The framework can be seen as a generalisation of Barendregt's lambda cube, in the sense that all corners of the cube can be represented as instances of a PTS with just two sorts. In fact Barendregt (1991) framed his cube in this setting. Pure type systems may obscure the distinction between

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: free type variables on the right hand side of formula_34 that prohibits their substitution in the specialisation rule is again that a replacement has to be consistent and would need to include the whole typing. The syntax of HM is carried forward to the syntax of the inference rules that form the body of the formal system, by using the typings as judgments. Each of the rules define what conclusion could be drawn from what premises. Additionally to the judgments, some extra conditions introduced above might be used as premises, too. A proof using the rules is a sequence of

title: Common Type System

text: be seen in the example below, it is not necessary to tell the compiler an Int32 is boxed to an object, because it takes care of this itself. However, an Int32 can always be explicitly boxed like this: The following example intends to show how to unbox a reference type back to a value type. First an Int32 is boxed to an object, and then it is unboxed again. Note that unboxing requires explicit cast. Common Type System In Microsoft's .NET Framework, the Common Type System (CTS) is a standard that specifies how type definitions and specific values of types

title: Type system of the Royal Navy

text: were Aircraft-Direction (ADW) Frigates. Type 8X were Multi-Role ships. An Admiralty Fleet Order defined these ships as "Destroyers" if they could achieve "fleet speed" or as "Sloops" if they could not. The following Type numbers are known to have been used, or proposed; Type system of the Royal Navy The Type system is a classification system used by the British Royal Navy to classify surface escorts by function. The system evolved in the early 1950s, when the Royal Navy was experimenting with building single-purpose escort vessels with specific roles in light of experience gained in World War II. The original

title: Political factions in Iran

text: Political factions in Iran Politics in Iran are dictated by factionalism. Maziar Behrooz wrote in 1991 that by 1989, there are three identical factions in Iran, namely the Conservatives, the Reformists (radical-reformists) and the Pragmatists (pragmatic-reformists). Behrooz states that the reformists were statist, while the conservatives were pro-private sector. Behrooz states that the two reformist factions (radicals and pragmatists) were united in opposition to the conservatives and over domestic issues. In this classification, the pragmatists were headed by figures such as Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, and differed with the radicals (represented by Mir-Hossein Mousavi among others) mainly over foreign relations. While

title: Substructural type system

text: Substructural type system Substructural type systems are a family of type systems analogous to substructural logics where one or more of the structural rules are absent or only allowed under controlled circumstances. Such systems are useful for constraining access to system resources such as files, locks and memory by keeping track of changes of state that occur and preventing invalid states. Several type systems have emerged by discarding some of the structural rules of exchange, weakening, and contraction: The explanation for affine type systems is best understood if rephrased as “every "occurrence" of a variable is used at most once”.

title: Security type system

text: the program is decomposed into trivial judgements, where we easily can determine the type, we can work our way down again to obtain the types for the less trivial parts of the program. We consider each "numerator" in isolation, looking at the types of each statement to see if we are able to derive an allowed type to the "denominator", based on the defined type system "rules". The main part of the security type system is the rules. They say how we should decompose our program, and how type verification should be performed. Our toy program consists of a conditional

title: Judicial system of Iran

text: and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), Iran has undertaken not to execute anyone for an offence committed when they were under the age of 18, but continues to carry such executions out, and is one of only six nations in the world to do so. According to Article 6 of the ICCPR, "Sentence of death shall not be imposed for crimes committed by persons below eighteen years of age." The legal methods of execution are hanging, firing squad, stoning, beheading, and throwing from a height. However, in practice only hanging is approved

title: Iran Zendan

text: Iran Zendan Iran Zendan ("Iran Prison") is a feature film by Daryush Shokof about the situations of political prisoners currently in Iran. The film is a semi-documentary picture with images taken from the actual events during the mass protests of the 2009 Iranian presidential election and what happens to some of protesters after they are incarcerated. "Iran Zendan" was first screened in Babylon theatres in Berlin, Germany on May 9, 2010. Scriptwriter/producer/star Daryush Shokof was kidnapped by 4 terrorists in the city of Cologne in May 2010 and was kept for over 12 days. He was kidnapped for having made

title: Type II secretion system

text: type VII secretion system). Like these other systems, the type II secretion system enables the transport of cytoplasmic proteins across the lipid bilayers that make up the cell membranes in gram negative bacteria. The type II secretion system is a membrane bound protein complex found in Gram-negative bacteria that is used to secrete proteins found in the cytoplasm of the bacteria into the extracellular space outside of the cell. The type II secretion system is just one of many secretory systems found in Gram-negative bacteria and is used to secrete a variety of different proteins, including bacterial toxins and degradative

title: Saffron Type System

text: and thicker versions of the same typeface can be rendered by using different CSM parameters. Saffron Type System The Saffron Type System is a system for rendering high-quality scalable type on digital displays. It was developed by Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories, and is built on a core of adaptively-sampled distance field (ADF) technology. Saffron has been licensed to Adobe and Monotype and is shipping in numerous products such as the Adobe Flash Player and Amazon Kindle. Saffron has been implemented in both software and hardware. Saffron performs anti-aliasing by first computing an explicit or implicit adaptively-sampled distance field (ADF) and

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: object oriented programming. Hindley–Milner type system A Hindley–Milner (HM) type system is a classical type system for the lambda calculus with parametric polymorphism. It is also known as Damas–Milner or Damas–Hindley–Milner. It was first described by J. Roger Hindley and later rediscovered by Robin Milner. Luis Damas contributed a close formal analysis and proof of the method in his PhD thesis. Among HM's more notable properties are its completeness and its ability to infer the most general type of a given program without programmer-supplied type annotations or other hints. Algorithm W is an efficient type inference method that performs in

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: Hindley–Milner type system A Hindley–Milner (HM) type system is a classical type system for the lambda calculus with parametric polymorphism. It is also known as Damas–Milner or Damas–Hindley–Milner. It was first described by J. Roger Hindley and later rediscovered by Robin Milner. Luis Damas contributed a close formal analysis and proof of the method in his PhD thesis. Among HM's more notable properties are its completeness and its ability to infer the most general type of a given program without programmer-supplied type annotations or other hints. Algorithm W is an efficient type inference method that performs in almost linear time

title: Saffron Type System

text: Saffron Type System The Saffron Type System is a system for rendering high-quality scalable type on digital displays. It was developed by Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories, and is built on a core of adaptively-sampled distance field (ADF) technology. Saffron has been licensed to Adobe and Monotype and is shipping in numerous products such as the Adobe Flash Player and Amazon Kindle. Saffron has been implemented in both software and hardware. Saffron performs anti-aliasing by first computing an explicit or implicit adaptively-sampled distance field (ADF) and then mapping distance values to densities. This renders beautiful curves, captures small details, and preserves

title: Common Type System

text: Common Type System In Microsoft's .NET Framework, the Common Type System (CTS) is a standard that specifies how type definitions and specific values of types are represented in computer memory. It is intended to allow programs written in different programming languages to easily share information. As used in programming languages, a type can be described as a definition of a set of values (for example, "all integers between 0 and 10"), and the allowable operations on those values (for example, addition and subtraction). The specification for the CTS is contained in Ecma standard 335, "Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) Partitions I

title: Type system

text: verifies what it can, and dynamic checks verify the rest. Many languages with static type checking provide a way to bypass the type checker. Some languages allow programmers to choose between static and dynamic type safety. For example, C# distinguishes between "statically-typed" and "dynamically-typed" variables. Uses of the former are checked statically, whereas uses of the latter are checked dynamically. Other languages allow writing code that is not type-safe; for example, in C, programmers can freely cast a value between any two types that have the same size, effectively subverting the type concept. For a list of languages with static

title: Political positions of Bernie Sanders

text: Women Act. He has indicated he has a problem with what is referred to as "Mass Incarceration". Sanders has strongly opposed the death penalty throughout his political career. In October 2015, he said, "I would rather have our country stand side-by-side with European democracies rather than with countries like China, Iran, Saudi Arabia and others who maintain the death penalty." After the Washington Supreme Court found the death penalty unconstitutional, Sanders praised the decision and stated: "We can't properly reform our broken criminal justice system without ending the death penalty." In a letter that he published in the early 1970s,

title: House of Parties of Iran

text: of Iran to join in 2004. House of Parties of Iran Parties' House or House of Parties of Iran () is a non-governmental organization in Iran, consisting of legal and registered political parties. It aims to minimize differences between the members and is a member of International Conference of Asian Political Parties (ICAPP). The association is backed by the Iranian government and annually funds its member parties (about $2.5 million in 2004). It was founded in 1997 with the growing emergence of political parties in Iran and reopened in 2015. As of 2008, 168 parties were member of the association.

title: Type system

text: manner. The more type restrictions that are imposed by the compiler, the more "strongly typed" a programming language is. Strongly typed languages often require the programmer to make explicit conversions in contexts where an implicit conversion would cause no harm. Pascal's type system has been described as "too strong" because, for example, the size of an array or string is part of its type, making some programming tasks difficult. Haskell is also strongly typed but its types are automatically inferred so that explicit conversions are often (but not always) unnecessary. A programming language compiler can also implement a "dependent type"

title: Type II secretion system

text: steps: It is believed that quorum sensing plays a key role in controlling the activation of the type II secretion system and the initiation of exoprotein release. Specifically quorum sensing helps regulate the transcription of the genes encoding these exoproteins and ensures that they are only produced when other like bacteria are nearby and environmental conditions are conducive to survival and infection. Type II secretion system The type 2 secretion system (often referred to as the type II secretion system or the T2SS) is protein secretion machinery found in various species of Gram-negative bacteria, including various human pathogens such as

title: Judicial system of Iran

text: a modern legal system was established in Iran. The IBA was founded in 1915 and organised under the supervision of the judicial system until 1953, when it was granted legal personality. It operated as an independent civil society organisation for the next twenty-seven years, until it was closed in 1980 by the revolutionary government and its ranks and files were purged. It was reopened in 1991 under the control of the Head of the Judiciary and regained some of its independence in 1997 when President Khatami […] won the general election. Since then, the numbers of lawyers have grown steadily

title: Type three secretion system

text: Type three secretion system Type three secretion system (often written Type III secretion system and abbreviated TTSS or T3SS, also called Injectisome) is a protein appendage found in several Gram-negative bacteria. In pathogenic bacteria, the needle-like structure is used as a sensory probe to detect the presence of eukaryotic organisms and secrete proteins that help the bacteria infect them. The secreted effector proteins are secreted directly from the bacterial cell into the eukaryotic (host) cell, where they exert a number of effects that help the pathogen to survive and to escape an immune response. The term Type III secretion system

title: Type system

text: typing rules such as the following rule for matrix multiplication: formula_3 where formula_4, formula_5, formula_6 are arbitrary positive integer values. A variant of ML called Dependent ML has been created based on this type system, but because type checking for conventional dependent types is undecidable, not all programs using them can be type-checked without some kind of limits. Dependent ML limits the sort of equality it can decide to Presburger arithmetic. Other languages such as Epigram make the value of all expressions in the language decidable so that type checking can be decidable. However, in general proof of decidability is

title: Type system

text: with both types. Intersection types are useful for describing overloaded function types: For example, if " → " is the type of functions taking an integer argument and returning an integer, and " → " is the type of functions taking a float argument and returning a float, then the intersection of these two types can be used to describe functions that do one or the other, based on what type of input they are given. Such a function could be passed into another function expecting an " → " function safely; it simply would not use the " →

title: Education in Iran

text: the oldest (in the modern system) and biggest university in Iran. It has been the birthplace of several social and political movements. Tarbiat Modares University (means: professor training university) also located in Tehran is the only exclusively post-graduate institute in Iran. It only offers Master's, PhD, and Postdoc programs. It is also the most comprehensive Iranian university in the sense that it is the only university under the Iranian Ministry of Science System that has a Medical School. All other Medical Schools in Iran are a separate university and governed under the Ministry of Health; for example Tehran University of

title: House of Parties of Iran

text: House of Parties of Iran Parties' House or House of Parties of Iran () is a non-governmental organization in Iran, consisting of legal and registered political parties. It aims to minimize differences between the members and is a member of International Conference of Asian Political Parties (ICAPP). The association is backed by the Iranian government and annually funds its member parties (about $2.5 million in 2004). It was founded in 1997 with the growing emergence of political parties in Iran and reopened in 2015. As of 2008, 168 parties were member of the association. It refused to allow Freedom Movement

title: Security type system

text: program conforms to the type system rules and satisfies non-interference. Security type systems is one of many security techniques used in the field of language-based security, and is tightly connected to information flow and information flow policies. In simple terms, by using a security type system, you want to detect if there exists any kind of violation of "confidentiality" or "integrity" in your program, i.e. you want to detect if the program is in line with the information flow policy or not. Suppose you have two users, A and B. In your program, you introduce the following "security classes" (SC):

title: Type system

text: program of a language that is both type-safe and memory-safe: In this example, the variable will have the value 42. Although this may not be what the programmer anticipated, it is a well-defined result. If were a different string, one that could not be converted to a number (e.g. "Hello World"), the result would be well-defined as well. Note that a program can be type-safe or memory-safe and still crash on an invalid operation; in fact, if a program encounters an operation that is not type-safe, terminating the program is often the only option. Now consider a similar example in

title: Society for the National Heritage of Iran

text: Islam, has always suffered from a dichotomy in its loyalties between what is essentially a desire for heritage and one that is a desire for religion. The political systems in Iran seem not to be immune to this dichotomy as well. The SNH and indeed the Pahlavi dynasty seem to embrace the Iranian identity but ignore the Islamic identity of Iran, whilst the current regime in Iran, headed by Muslim clerics, seems to ignore or downplay Iranian identity in favor of an Islamic identity. The following table denotes the list of mausoleums erected or repaired/updated by the SNH in Iran:

title: Type three secretion system

text: species. Type three secretion system Type three secretion system (often written Type III secretion system and abbreviated TTSS or T3SS, also called Injectisome) is a protein appendage found in several Gram-negative bacteria. In pathogenic bacteria, the needle-like structure is used as a sensory probe to detect the presence of eukaryotic organisms and secrete proteins that help the bacteria infect them. The secreted effector proteins are secreted directly from the bacterial cell into the eukaryotic (host) cell, where they exert a number of effects that help the pathogen to survive and to escape an immune response. The term Type III secretion

title: Judicial system of Iran

text: ... resistance to a single written code was even stronger; the jurisconsult's right to describe the law in his own way was the very essence of the doctrine that had revived the jurisconsult school at the end of the 18th century." As far as the judicial system is concerned, the changes were quite minor until the end of the nineteenth century. Major events marking the judicial history of Iran during the modern era include the Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which gave the country its first Constitution and Bill of Rights, the fall of the Qajars and the rise of the

title: Security type system

text: This leak should be detected by the security type system. In order to design a security type system, we need to formalize a couple of things. First of all, we need a function (also known as a security environment) that creates a mapping from variables to security types, or classes. We denote this function Γ, such that Γ(x) = τ, where x is a variable and τ is the security class, or type. We assign security classes (also called "judgement") to program components, using the following notation: We will use the following bottom-up notation to decompose our program: . Once

title: Type II secretion system

text: single C-terminal domain termed the CTD. The CTD in turn is made up of 3 subdomains, one of which is a nucleotide binding domain. It is this nucleotide binding domain, which is present in of each of the 6 subunits of the hexamer, that is responsible for binding ATP. The other 2 domains that make up the CTD, a four helical domain and a metal binding domain, then help catalyze the hydrolysis of bound ATP. This ATP hydrolysis is used to power the assembly and disassembly of the pseudopillus which is what drives secretion via the type II secretion system.

title: Tudeh Party of Iran

text: rapid growth of industry and the subsequent transformation of the country's economy from a feudalistic system into a capitalistic one. Being close to Russia and the Caucasus, northern Iran became the primary center of underground Marxist and social democrat political activity, and many such groups came into being over the years. The Communist Party of Iran was founded in June 1920 in Bandar-e Anzali, in the province of Gilan, as a result of the first congress of Iranian social democrats. Heidar Amou Oghly, who was one of the leaders of the Constitutional Revolution of Iran, became the secretary-general of the

title: Type system

text: incorrectly yet be safely typed, and produce no compiler errors. Division by zero is an unsafe and incorrect operation, but a type checker running at compile time only does not scan for division by zero in most languages, and then it is left as a runtime error. To prove the absence of these more-general-than-types defects, other kinds of formal methods, collectively known as program analyses, are in common use. Alternatively, a sufficiently expressive type system, such as in dependently typed languages, can prevent these kinds of errors (for example, expressing "the type of non-zero numbers"). In addition software testing is

title: Substructural type system

text: object may only be used when at the top of the modelled stack, after which it is popped off resulting in every variable being used exactly once in the order it was introduced. The following programming languages support linear or affine types: Substructural type system Substructural type systems are a family of type systems analogous to substructural logics where one or more of the structural rules are absent or only allowed under controlled circumstances. Such systems are useful for constraining access to system resources such as files, locks and memory by keeping track of changes of state that occur and

title: People's Party (Iran)

text: People's Party (Iran) People's Party () was a liberal political party in Pahlavi era Iran. It was one of two major parties in the apparent attempt to decree a two-party system by Mohammad Reza Shah, apparently opposition to the ruling New Iran Party and previously Party of Nationalists. The party was often criticized for its "lethargic, belated and disorganized" election campaigns, as well as being incapable of prepararing a viable alternative to the New Iran Party's platform, thus blamed for the latter's continuing domination of the political scene. American diplomat Andrew Killgore, described the party "made up of cliques of

title: People's Party (Iran)

text: by Shah and with the help of SAVAK. People's Party (Iran) People's Party () was a liberal political party in Pahlavi era Iran. It was one of two major parties in the apparent attempt to decree a two-party system by Mohammad Reza Shah, apparently opposition to the ruling New Iran Party and previously Party of Nationalists. The party was often criticized for its "lethargic, belated and disorganized" election campaigns, as well as being incapable of prepararing a viable alternative to the New Iran Party's platform, thus blamed for the latter's continuing domination of the political scene. American diplomat Andrew Killgore,

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: same reason as in functional languages, methods like HM cannot be made going for this purpose. It is not difficult to setup a type system with subtyping enabling object-oriented style, as e.g. Cardelli Such objects would be immutual in a functional language context, but the type system would enable object-oriented programming style and the type inference method could be reused in imperative languages. The subtyping rule for the record types is: Syntatically, record expressions would have form and have a type rule leading to the above type. Such record values could then be used the same way as objects in

title: Type system

text: Haskell-like language) uses this type system in order to gain a lot of speed (compared to performing a deep copy) while remaining safe. Intersection types are types describing values that belong to "both" of two other given types with overlapping value sets. For example, in most implementations of C the signed char has range -128 to 127 and the unsigned char has range 0 to 255, so the intersection type of these two types would have range 0 to 127. Such an intersection type could be safely passed into functions expecting "either" signed or unsigned chars, because it is compatible

title: Type system

text: that are coded that would be caught by appropriately representing the designed types in code. Static typing advocates believe programs are more reliable when they have been well type-checked, whereas dynamic-typing advocates point to distributed code that has proven reliable and to small bug databases. The value of static typing, then, presumably increases as the strength of the type system is increased. Advocates of dependent typing, implemented in languages such as Dependent ML and Epigram, have suggested that almost all bugs can be considered type errors, if the types used in a program are properly declared by the programmer or

title: Languages of Iran

text: also acknowledges and permits the use of minority languages in the mass media as well as within the schools, in order to teach their literature. The minority languages of Iran do not receive a formal status and are not officially regulated by the authorities. The first legislation which granted the Persian language its status was initiated back in 1906, as part of an electoral law that positioned it as the official language of the state of Iran, its government, its political institutions and its legal system. In the course of time this enactment followed by others, which eventually lead to

title: Economy of Iran

text: cities of Persia. Reza Shah Pahlavi (r. 1925–41) improved the country’s overall infrastructure, implemented educational reform, campaigned against foreign influence, reformed the legal system, and introduced modern industries. During this time, Iran experienced a period of social change, economic development, and relative political stability. Reza Shah Pahlavi, who abdicated in 1941, was succeeded by his son, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi (r. 1941–79). No fundamental change occurred in the economy of Iran during World War II (1939–45) and the years immediately following. However, between 1954 and 1960 a rapid increase in oil revenues and sustained foreign aid led to greater investment