query: what type of political system is spain?

title: Republicanism in Spain

text: Republicanism in Spain Republicanism in Spain is a political position that holds that Spain's system of government should be changed from a constitutional monarchy to a republic. There has existed in the Kingdom of Spain a persistent trend of republican thought, especially throughout the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, that has manifested itself in diverse political parties and movements over the entire course of the history of Spain. While these movements have shared the objective of establishing a republic in Spain, during these three centuries there have surged distinct schools of thought on the form republicans would want to give

title: The purpose of a system is what it does

text: be balanced by a more straightforwardly descriptive view. The term is used in many fields including biology and management. The purpose of a system is what it does The purpose of a system is what it does (POSIWID) is a systems thinking heuristic coined by Stafford Beer. Stafford Beer coined the term POSIWID and used it many times in public addresses. In his address to the University of Valladolid, Spain, in October 2001, he said "According to the cybernetician, the purpose of a system is what it does. This is a basic dictum. It stands for bald fact, which makes

title: The purpose of a system is what it does

text: The purpose of a system is what it does The purpose of a system is what it does (POSIWID) is a systems thinking heuristic coined by Stafford Beer. Stafford Beer coined the term POSIWID and used it many times in public addresses. In his address to the University of Valladolid, Spain, in October 2001, he said "According to the cybernetician, the purpose of a system is what it does. This is a basic dictum. It stands for bald fact, which makes a better starting point in seeking understanding than the familiar attributions of good intention, prejudices about expectations, moral judgment,

title: Type system

text: or an "effect system", which enables even more program specifications to be verified by a type checker. Beyond simple value-type pairs, a virtual "region" of code is associated with an "effect" component describing "what" is being done "with what", and enabling for example to "throw" an error report. Thus the symbolic system may be a "type and effect system", which endows it with more safety checking than type checking alone. Whether automated by the compiler or specified by a programmer, a type system makes program behavior illegal if outside the type-system rules. Advantages provided by programmer-specified type systems include: Advantages

title: Type system

text: consistent way. This checking can happen statically (at compile time), dynamically (at run time), or as a combination of static and dynamic checking. Type systems have other purposes as well, such as expressing business rules, enabling certain compiler optimizations, allowing for multiple dispatch, providing a form of documentation, etc. A type system associates a type with each computed value and, by examining the flow of these values, attempts to ensure or prove that no type errors can occur. The given type system in question determines exactly what constitutes a type error, but in general the aim is to prevent operations

title: Political system

text: and its people and how the government’s power is used. There are three types of political systems that sociologists consider: Political system A political system is a system of politics and government. It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems. However, this is a very simplified view of a much more complex system of categories involving the questions of who should have authority and what the government's influence on its people and economy should be. Anthropologists generally recognize four kinds of political systems, two of which are uncentralized and two of which

title: Political system

text: Political system A political system is a system of politics and government. It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems. However, this is a very simplified view of a much more complex system of categories involving the questions of who should have authority and what the government's influence on its people and economy should be. Anthropologists generally recognize four kinds of political systems, two of which are uncentralized and two of which are centralized. The sociological interest in political systems is figuring out who holds power within the relationship of the government

title: Type system

text: accessed as if it were valid memory of any type. For more information, see memory safety. Some languages allow different levels of checking to apply to different regions of code. Examples include: Additional tools such as lint and IBM Rational Purify can also be used to achieve a higher level of strictness. It has been proposed, chiefly by Gilad Bracha, that the choice of type system be made independent of choice of language; that a type system should be a module that can be "plugged" into a language as needed. He believes this is advantageous, because what he calls mandatory

title: Political divisions of Spain

text: administrating state of the whole territory, under the Non-Self-Governing Territories awaiting the outcome of the ongoing Manhasset negotiations and resulting election to be overseen by the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara. Political divisions of Spain The political division of the Kingdom of Spain is defined in Part VIII of the Spanish constitution of 1978, which establishes three levels of territorial organization: municipalities, provinces and autonomous communities, the first group constituting the subdivisions of the second, and the second group constituting the subdivisions of the last. The State guarantees the realization of the principle of solidarity by

title: Political divisions of Spain

text: Political divisions of Spain The political division of the Kingdom of Spain is defined in Part VIII of the Spanish constitution of 1978, which establishes three levels of territorial organization: municipalities, provinces and autonomous communities, the first group constituting the subdivisions of the second, and the second group constituting the subdivisions of the last. The State guarantees the realization of the principle of solidarity by endeavouring to establish an economic balance between the different areas of the Spanish territory. The autonomous communities were constituted by exercising the right to autonomy or self-government that the constitution guarantees to the nationalities and

title: Type system

text: be used e.g. to generate new types and behaviors on the fly, based on run-time data. Such advanced constructs are often provided by dynamic programming languages; many of these are dynamically typed, although "dynamic typing" need not be related to "dynamic programming languages". Languages are often colloquially referred to as "strongly typed" or "weakly typed". In fact, there is no universally accepted definition of what these terms mean. In general, there are more precise terms to represent the differences between type systems that lead people to call them "strong" or "weak". A third way of categorizing the type system of

title: Type system

text: Haskell's type system, a version of Hindley–Milner, is a restriction of System Fω to so-called rank-1 polymorphic types, in which type inference is decidable. Most Haskell compilers allow arbitrary-rank polymorphism as an extension, but this makes type inference undecidable. (Type checking is decidable, however, and rank-1 programs still have type inference; higher rank polymorphic programs are rejected unless given explicit type annotations.) Some languages like Perl 6 or C# have a unified type system. This means that all C# types including primitive types inherit from a single root object. Every type in C# inherits from the Object class. Java has

title: Type system

text: when called, at run-time. Duck typing differs from structural typing in that, if the "part" (of the whole module structure) needed for a given local computation is present "at runtime", the duck type system is satisfied in its type identity analysis. On the other hand, a structural type system would require the analysis of the whole module structure at compile time to determine type identity or type dependence. Duck typing differs from a nominative type system in a number of aspects. The most prominent ones are that for duck typing, type information is determined at runtime (as contrasted to compile

title: Type system

text: "type of a type", or metatype). These are the abstractions that typing can go through, on a hierarchy of levels contained in a system. When a programming language evolves a more elaborate type system, it gains a more finely grained rule set than basic type checking, but this comes at a price when the type inferences (and other properties) become undecidable, and when more attention must be paid by the programmer to annotate code or to consider computer-related operations and functioning. It is challenging to find a sufficiently expressive type system that satisfies all programming practices in a type safe

title: Type system

text: provided by compiler-specified type systems include: A type error is an unintended condition which might manifest in multiple stages of a program's development. Thus a facility for detection of the error is needed in the type system. In some languages, such as Haskell, for which type inference is automated, lint might be available to its compiler to aid in the detection of error. Type safety contributes to program correctness, but might only guarantee correctness at the cost of making the type checking itself an undecidable problem. In a "type system" with automated type checking a program may prove to run

title: Type system

text: a language may also have implications for type compatibility. Type system In programming languages, a type system is a set of rules that assigns a property called type to the various constructs of a computer program, such as variables, expressions, functions or modules. These types formalize and enforce the otherwise implicit categories the programmer uses for algebraic data types, data structures, or other components (e.g. "string", "array of float", "function returning boolean"). The main purpose of a type system is to reduce possibilities for bugs in computer programs by defining interfaces between different parts of a computer program, and then

title: Type system

text: bits with a type conveys that meaning to the programmable hardware to form a "symbolic system" composed of that hardware and some program. A program associates each value with at least one specific type, but it also can occur that one value is associated with many subtypes. Other entities, such as objects, modules, communication channels, and dependencies can become associated with a type. Even a type can become associated with a type. An implementation of a "type system" could in theory associate identifications called "data type" (a type of a value), "class" (a type of an object), and "kind" (a

title: Type system

text: Type system In programming languages, a type system is a set of rules that assigns a property called type to the various constructs of a computer program, such as variables, expressions, functions or modules. These types formalize and enforce the otherwise implicit categories the programmer uses for algebraic data types, data structures, or other components (e.g. "string", "array of float", "function returning boolean"). The main purpose of a type system is to reduce possibilities for bugs in computer programs by defining interfaces between different parts of a computer program, and then checking that the parts have been connected in a

title: The purpose of a system is what it does

text: or sheer ignorance of circumstances." The term is widely used by systems theorists. It is generally invoked to counter the notion that the purpose of a system can be read from the intentions of those who design, operate, or promote it. From a cybernetic perspective complex systems are not controllable by simple notions of management, and interventions in a system can best be understood by looking at how they affect observed system behavior. When "side effects" or "unintended consequences" reveal that system behavior is poorly understood, then taking the POSIWID perspective allows the more political understandings of system behavior to

title: Structural type system

text: Structural type system A structural type system (or "property-based" type system) is a major class of type system, in which type compatibility and equivalence are determined by the type's actual structure or definition, and not by other characteristics such as its name or place of declaration. Structural systems are used to determine if types are equivalent and whether a type is a subtype of another. It contrasts with nominative systems, where comparisons are based on the names of the types or explicit declarations, and duck typing, in which only the part of the structure accessed at runtime is checked for

title: Nominal type system

text: Nominal type system In computer science, a nominal or nominative type system (or name-based type system) is a major class of type system, in which compatibility and equivalence of data types is determined by explicit declarations and/or the name of the types. Nominal systems are used to determine if types are equivalent, as well as if a type is a subtype of another. It contrasts with structural systems, where comparisons are based on the structure of the types in question and do not require explicit declarations. Nominal typing means that two variables are type-compatible if and only if their declarations

title: Nominal type system

text: all primarily use both nominal typing and nominal subtyping. Some nominally-subtyped languages, such as Java and C#, allow classes to be declared "final" (or "sealed" in C# terminology), indicating that no further subtyping is permitted. Nominal typing is useful at preventing accidental type equivalence, which allows better type-safety than structural typing. The cost is a reduced flexibility, as, for example, nominal typing does not allow new super-types to be created without modification of the existing subtypes. Nominal type system In computer science, a nominal or nominative type system (or name-based type system) is a major class of type system, in

title: Type II secretion system

text: Type II secretion system The type 2 secretion system (often referred to as the type II secretion system or the T2SS) is protein secretion machinery found in various species of Gram-negative bacteria, including various human pathogens such as "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" and "Vibrio cholerae". The type II secretion system is one of six protein secretory systems that are commonly found in gram negative bacteria along with the type I secretion system, the type III secretion system, The type IV secretion system, the chaperone/usher pathway, the autotransporter pathway/type V secretion system and the type VI secretion system (some bacteria also utilize the

title: Type system

text: Gordon Plotkin established the formal theory under the slogan: "Abstract [data] types have existential type". The theory is a second-order typed lambda calculus similar to System F, but with existential instead of universal quantification. Gradual typing is a type system in which variables may be typed either at compile-time (which is static typing) or at run-time (which is dynamic typing), allowing software developers to choose either type paradigm as appropriate, from within a single language. In particular, gradual typing uses a special type named "dynamic" to represent statically-unknown types, and gradual typing replaces the notion of type equality with a

title: Type system of the Royal Navy

text: Type system of the Royal Navy The Type system is a classification system used by the British Royal Navy to classify surface escorts by function. The system evolved in the early 1950s, when the Royal Navy was experimenting with building single-purpose escort vessels with specific roles in light of experience gained in World War II. The original (July 1950) numbering scheme was: Type 1X were Anti-Submarine (ASW) Frigates (when the numbers ran out in the 1960s, ASW Frigates continued as the Type 2X series). Type 4X were Anti-Aircraft (AAW) Frigates (this later evolved into the "Destroyer" Type series). Type 6X

title: Type system

text: expecting a certain kind of value from being used with values for which that operation does not make sense (logic errors). Type systems are often specified as part of programming languages, and built into the interpreters and compilers for them; although the type system of a language can be extended by optional tools that perform added kinds of checks using the language's original type syntax and grammar. An example of a simple type system is that of the C language. The portions of a C program are the function definitions. One function is invoked by another function. The interface of

title: Type system

text: interface that has a data member named "a" of type "X" and a function named "f" that takes a parameter of the "same" type "X" and returns an integer. This could be implemented in different ways; for example: These types are both subtypes of the more general existential type T and correspond to concrete implementation types, so any value of one of these types is a value of type T. Given a value "t" of type "T", we know that "t.f(t.a)" is well-typed, regardless of what the abstract type "X" is. This gives flexibility for choosing types suited to a

title: Structural type system

text: are irrelevant: The "set_to_10" function also works on it: This shows that compatibility for things like method invocation is determined by structure. Let us define a type synonym for objects with only a "get_x" method and no other methods: The object codice_4 is not of this type; but structurally, codice_4 is of a subtype of this type, since codice_4 contains a superset of its methods. So codice_4 can be coerced to this type: But not object codice_9, because it is not a structural subtype: This shows that compatibility for widening coercions are structural. Structural type system A structural type system

title: Security type system

text: satisfies non-interference. Security type system In computer science, a type system can be described as a syntactic framework which contains a set of rules that are used to assign a type property (int, boolean, char etc.) to various components of a computer program, such as variables or functions. A security type system works in a similar way, only with a main focus on the security of the computer program, through information flow control. Thus, the various components of the program are assigned security types, or labels. The aim of a such system is to ultimately be able to verify that

title: Security type system

text: Security type system In computer science, a type system can be described as a syntactic framework which contains a set of rules that are used to assign a type property (int, boolean, char etc.) to various components of a computer program, such as variables or functions. A security type system works in a similar way, only with a main focus on the security of the computer program, through information flow control. Thus, the various components of the program are assigned security types, or labels. The aim of a such system is to ultimately be able to verify that a given

title: Pure type system

text: Pure type system In the branches of mathematical logic known as proof theory and type theory, a pure type system (PTS), previously known as a generalized type system (GTS), is a form of typed lambda calculus that allows an arbitrary number of sorts and dependencies between any of these. The framework can be seen as a generalisation of Barendregt's lambda cube, in the sense that all corners of the cube can be represented as instances of a PTS with just two sorts. In fact Barendregt (1991) framed his cube in this setting. Pure type systems may obscure the distinction between

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: free type variables on the right hand side of formula_34 that prohibits their substitution in the specialisation rule is again that a replacement has to be consistent and would need to include the whole typing. The syntax of HM is carried forward to the syntax of the inference rules that form the body of the formal system, by using the typings as judgments. Each of the rules define what conclusion could be drawn from what premises. Additionally to the judgments, some extra conditions introduced above might be used as premises, too. A proof using the rules is a sequence of

title: Common Type System

text: be seen in the example below, it is not necessary to tell the compiler an Int32 is boxed to an object, because it takes care of this itself. However, an Int32 can always be explicitly boxed like this: The following example intends to show how to unbox a reference type back to a value type. First an Int32 is boxed to an object, and then it is unboxed again. Note that unboxing requires explicit cast. Common Type System In Microsoft's .NET Framework, the Common Type System (CTS) is a standard that specifies how type definitions and specific values of types

title: Type system of the Royal Navy

text: were Aircraft-Direction (ADW) Frigates. Type 8X were Multi-Role ships. An Admiralty Fleet Order defined these ships as "Destroyers" if they could achieve "fleet speed" or as "Sloops" if they could not. The following Type numbers are known to have been used, or proposed; Type system of the Royal Navy The Type system is a classification system used by the British Royal Navy to classify surface escorts by function. The system evolved in the early 1950s, when the Royal Navy was experimenting with building single-purpose escort vessels with specific roles in light of experience gained in World War II. The original

title: Political prisoners in Francoist Spain

text: Political prisoners in Francoist Spain There were a large number of political prisoners in Francoist Spain. At the end of the Spanish Civil War, according to the Francoist State's figures, there were more than 270,000 men and women held in prisons, and some 500,000 had fled into exile. In the Second World War, large numbers of refugees from Spain were returned or interned in Nazi concentration camps as "stateless enemies". Releasing all political prisoners was a part of the transition to democracy after the death of the caudillo Francisco Franco in 1975. The freeing of political prisoners was part of

title: Substructural type system

text: Substructural type system Substructural type systems are a family of type systems analogous to substructural logics where one or more of the structural rules are absent or only allowed under controlled circumstances. Such systems are useful for constraining access to system resources such as files, locks and memory by keeping track of changes of state that occur and preventing invalid states. Several type systems have emerged by discarding some of the structural rules of exchange, weakening, and contraction: The explanation for affine type systems is best understood if rephrased as “every "occurrence" of a variable is used at most once”.

title: Security type system

text: the program is decomposed into trivial judgements, where we easily can determine the type, we can work our way down again to obtain the types for the less trivial parts of the program. We consider each "numerator" in isolation, looking at the types of each statement to see if we are able to derive an allowed type to the "denominator", based on the defined type system "rules". The main part of the security type system is the rules. They say how we should decompose our program, and how type verification should be performed. Our toy program consists of a conditional

title: Type II secretion system

text: type VII secretion system). Like these other systems, the type II secretion system enables the transport of cytoplasmic proteins across the lipid bilayers that make up the cell membranes in gram negative bacteria. The type II secretion system is a membrane bound protein complex found in Gram-negative bacteria that is used to secrete proteins found in the cytoplasm of the bacteria into the extracellular space outside of the cell. The type II secretion system is just one of many secretory systems found in Gram-negative bacteria and is used to secrete a variety of different proteins, including bacterial toxins and degradative

title: Saffron Type System

text: and thicker versions of the same typeface can be rendered by using different CSM parameters. Saffron Type System The Saffron Type System is a system for rendering high-quality scalable type on digital displays. It was developed by Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories, and is built on a core of adaptively-sampled distance field (ADF) technology. Saffron has been licensed to Adobe and Monotype and is shipping in numerous products such as the Adobe Flash Player and Amazon Kindle. Saffron has been implemented in both software and hardware. Saffron performs anti-aliasing by first computing an explicit or implicit adaptively-sampled distance field (ADF) and

title: Politics of Spain

text: sparsely populated provinces are overrepresented because more seats of representatives are allocated to the sparsely populated provinces than they would have if number of seats are allocated strictly according to the population proportion. Not only provinces with small population are over-represented in Spain's election system, the system also tends to favors major political parties. Despite the use of proportional representation voting system, which in general encourages the development of a larger number of small political parties rather than a few larger ones, Spain has effectively a two-party system in which smaller and regional parties tend to be underrepresented. This is

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: object oriented programming. Hindley–Milner type system A Hindley–Milner (HM) type system is a classical type system for the lambda calculus with parametric polymorphism. It is also known as Damas–Milner or Damas–Hindley–Milner. It was first described by J. Roger Hindley and later rediscovered by Robin Milner. Luis Damas contributed a close formal analysis and proof of the method in his PhD thesis. Among HM's more notable properties are its completeness and its ability to infer the most general type of a given program without programmer-supplied type annotations or other hints. Algorithm W is an efficient type inference method that performs in

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: Hindley–Milner type system A Hindley–Milner (HM) type system is a classical type system for the lambda calculus with parametric polymorphism. It is also known as Damas–Milner or Damas–Hindley–Milner. It was first described by J. Roger Hindley and later rediscovered by Robin Milner. Luis Damas contributed a close formal analysis and proof of the method in his PhD thesis. Among HM's more notable properties are its completeness and its ability to infer the most general type of a given program without programmer-supplied type annotations or other hints. Algorithm W is an efficient type inference method that performs in almost linear time

title: Saffron Type System

text: Saffron Type System The Saffron Type System is a system for rendering high-quality scalable type on digital displays. It was developed by Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories, and is built on a core of adaptively-sampled distance field (ADF) technology. Saffron has been licensed to Adobe and Monotype and is shipping in numerous products such as the Adobe Flash Player and Amazon Kindle. Saffron has been implemented in both software and hardware. Saffron performs anti-aliasing by first computing an explicit or implicit adaptively-sampled distance field (ADF) and then mapping distance values to densities. This renders beautiful curves, captures small details, and preserves

title: Common Type System

text: Common Type System In Microsoft's .NET Framework, the Common Type System (CTS) is a standard that specifies how type definitions and specific values of types are represented in computer memory. It is intended to allow programs written in different programming languages to easily share information. As used in programming languages, a type can be described as a definition of a set of values (for example, "all integers between 0 and 10"), and the allowable operations on those values (for example, addition and subtraction). The specification for the CTS is contained in Ecma standard 335, "Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) Partitions I

title: Type system

text: verifies what it can, and dynamic checks verify the rest. Many languages with static type checking provide a way to bypass the type checker. Some languages allow programmers to choose between static and dynamic type safety. For example, C# distinguishes between "statically-typed" and "dynamically-typed" variables. Uses of the former are checked statically, whereas uses of the latter are checked dynamically. Other languages allow writing code that is not type-safe; for example, in C, programmers can freely cast a value between any two types that have the same size, effectively subverting the type concept. For a list of languages with static

title: Type system

text: manner. The more type restrictions that are imposed by the compiler, the more "strongly typed" a programming language is. Strongly typed languages often require the programmer to make explicit conversions in contexts where an implicit conversion would cause no harm. Pascal's type system has been described as "too strong" because, for example, the size of an array or string is part of its type, making some programming tasks difficult. Haskell is also strongly typed but its types are automatically inferred so that explicit conversions are often (but not always) unnecessary. A programming language compiler can also implement a "dependent type"

title: Type II secretion system

text: steps: It is believed that quorum sensing plays a key role in controlling the activation of the type II secretion system and the initiation of exoprotein release. Specifically quorum sensing helps regulate the transcription of the genes encoding these exoproteins and ensures that they are only produced when other like bacteria are nearby and environmental conditions are conducive to survival and infection. Type II secretion system The type 2 secretion system (often referred to as the type II secretion system or the T2SS) is protein secretion machinery found in various species of Gram-negative bacteria, including various human pathogens such as

title: Type three secretion system

text: Type three secretion system Type three secretion system (often written Type III secretion system and abbreviated TTSS or T3SS, also called Injectisome) is a protein appendage found in several Gram-negative bacteria. In pathogenic bacteria, the needle-like structure is used as a sensory probe to detect the presence of eukaryotic organisms and secrete proteins that help the bacteria infect them. The secreted effector proteins are secreted directly from the bacterial cell into the eukaryotic (host) cell, where they exert a number of effects that help the pathogen to survive and to escape an immune response. The term Type III secretion system

title: Type system

text: typing rules such as the following rule for matrix multiplication: formula_3 where formula_4, formula_5, formula_6 are arbitrary positive integer values. A variant of ML called Dependent ML has been created based on this type system, but because type checking for conventional dependent types is undecidable, not all programs using them can be type-checked without some kind of limits. Dependent ML limits the sort of equality it can decide to Presburger arithmetic. Other languages such as Epigram make the value of all expressions in the language decidable so that type checking can be decidable. However, in general proof of decidability is

title: Type system

text: with both types. Intersection types are useful for describing overloaded function types: For example, if " → " is the type of functions taking an integer argument and returning an integer, and " → " is the type of functions taking a float argument and returning a float, then the intersection of these two types can be used to describe functions that do one or the other, based on what type of input they are given. Such a function could be passed into another function expecting an " → " function safely; it simply would not use the " →

title: Security type system

text: program conforms to the type system rules and satisfies non-interference. Security type systems is one of many security techniques used in the field of language-based security, and is tightly connected to information flow and information flow policies. In simple terms, by using a security type system, you want to detect if there exists any kind of violation of "confidentiality" or "integrity" in your program, i.e. you want to detect if the program is in line with the information flow policy or not. Suppose you have two users, A and B. In your program, you introduce the following "security classes" (SC):

title: Type system

text: program of a language that is both type-safe and memory-safe: In this example, the variable will have the value 42. Although this may not be what the programmer anticipated, it is a well-defined result. If were a different string, one that could not be converted to a number (e.g. "Hello World"), the result would be well-defined as well. Note that a program can be type-safe or memory-safe and still crash on an invalid operation; in fact, if a program encounters an operation that is not type-safe, terminating the program is often the only option. Now consider a similar example in

title: Type three secretion system

text: species. Type three secretion system Type three secretion system (often written Type III secretion system and abbreviated TTSS or T3SS, also called Injectisome) is a protein appendage found in several Gram-negative bacteria. In pathogenic bacteria, the needle-like structure is used as a sensory probe to detect the presence of eukaryotic organisms and secrete proteins that help the bacteria infect them. The secreted effector proteins are secreted directly from the bacterial cell into the eukaryotic (host) cell, where they exert a number of effects that help the pathogen to survive and to escape an immune response. The term Type III secretion

title: Security type system

text: This leak should be detected by the security type system. In order to design a security type system, we need to formalize a couple of things. First of all, we need a function (also known as a security environment) that creates a mapping from variables to security types, or classes. We denote this function Γ, such that Γ(x) = τ, where x is a variable and τ is the security class, or type. We assign security classes (also called "judgement") to program components, using the following notation: We will use the following bottom-up notation to decompose our program: . Once

title: Type II secretion system

text: single C-terminal domain termed the CTD. The CTD in turn is made up of 3 subdomains, one of which is a nucleotide binding domain. It is this nucleotide binding domain, which is present in of each of the 6 subunits of the hexamer, that is responsible for binding ATP. The other 2 domains that make up the CTD, a four helical domain and a metal binding domain, then help catalyze the hydrolysis of bound ATP. This ATP hydrolysis is used to power the assembly and disassembly of the pseudopillus which is what drives secretion via the type II secretion system.

title: Type system

text: incorrectly yet be safely typed, and produce no compiler errors. Division by zero is an unsafe and incorrect operation, but a type checker running at compile time only does not scan for division by zero in most languages, and then it is left as a runtime error. To prove the absence of these more-general-than-types defects, other kinds of formal methods, collectively known as program analyses, are in common use. Alternatively, a sufficiently expressive type system, such as in dependently typed languages, can prevent these kinds of errors (for example, expressing "the type of non-zero numbers"). In addition software testing is

title: What Is Love

text: at number two in the United Kingdom and Germany and hit number one in 13 other countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland and Zimbabwe. Debuting at number 87 on 28 August 1993, the song reached number 11 on the Hot 100 in the United States. The song also peaked at number 12 in Australia. By March 1994, worldwide sales of "What Is Love" had already reached 2.6 million. When asked about the meaning of "What Is Love" in a 2015 interview, Haddaway said: "Billboard" wrote about the song: "Glorious pop/house ditty recently topped

title: Substructural type system

text: object may only be used when at the top of the modelled stack, after which it is popped off resulting in every variable being used exactly once in the order it was introduced. The following programming languages support linear or affine types: Substructural type system Substructural type systems are a family of type systems analogous to substructural logics where one or more of the structural rules are absent or only allowed under controlled circumstances. Such systems are useful for constraining access to system resources such as files, locks and memory by keeping track of changes of state that occur and

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: same reason as in functional languages, methods like HM cannot be made going for this purpose. It is not difficult to setup a type system with subtyping enabling object-oriented style, as e.g. Cardelli Such objects would be immutual in a functional language context, but the type system would enable object-oriented programming style and the type inference method could be reused in imperative languages. The subtyping rule for the record types is: Syntatically, record expressions would have form and have a type rule leading to the above type. Such record values could then be used the same way as objects in

title: Type system

text: Haskell-like language) uses this type system in order to gain a lot of speed (compared to performing a deep copy) while remaining safe. Intersection types are types describing values that belong to "both" of two other given types with overlapping value sets. For example, in most implementations of C the signed char has range -128 to 127 and the unsigned char has range 0 to 255, so the intersection type of these two types would have range 0 to 127. Such an intersection type could be safely passed into functions expecting "either" signed or unsigned chars, because it is compatible

title: Type system

text: that are coded that would be caught by appropriately representing the designed types in code. Static typing advocates believe programs are more reliable when they have been well type-checked, whereas dynamic-typing advocates point to distributed code that has proven reliable and to small bug databases. The value of static typing, then, presumably increases as the strength of the type system is increased. Advocates of dependent typing, implemented in languages such as Dependent ML and Epigram, have suggested that almost all bugs can be considered type errors, if the types used in a program are properly declared by the programmer or

title: Type II secretion system

text: proteins across the inner membrane into the periplasm. For instance, the Sec pathway is used to transport structural components of the type II secretion system into the periplasm where they can then assemble, while both the Sec and Tat pathways are used to transport secretory proteins into the periplasm. Once these secretory proteins are in the periplasm the second step can then take place and they are secreted out of the cell through the type II secretion system. Overall the type II secretion system is a large multiprotein machinery, made up of a number of distinct protein subunits known as

title: Spain

text: Spain includes different phytogeographic regions, each with its own floristic characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, biotic factors. According to the Democracy Index of the EIU, Spain is one of the 19 full democracies in the world. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 is the culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy. The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. Impatient with the slow pace of democratic political reforms in 1976 and 1977, Spain's new King Juan Carlos, known for his formidable personality, dismissed Carlos Arias Navarro and appointed the

title: Security type system

text: test, and two possible variable assignments. Rules for these two events are defined as follows: Applying this to the simple program we introduced above, we get: The type system detects the policy violation in line 2, where a read operation of security class {A} is performed, followed by two write operations of "a less strict" security class {A,B}. In more formalized terms, {A} ⋢ {A,B}, {A,B} (from the rule of the conditional test). Thus, the program is classified as "not typeable". The soundness of a security type system can be informally defined as: If program P is well typed, P

title: Pure type system

text: express the sentence "the types form a type".) Furthermore, all known examples of pure type systems that are not strongly normalizing are not even (weakly) normalizing: they contain expressions that do not have normal forms, just like the untyped lambda calculus. It is a major open problem in the field whether this is always the case, i.e. whether a (weakly) normalizing PTS always has the strong normalization property. This is known as the Barendregt–Geuvers–Klop conjecture (named after Henk Barendregt, Herman Geuvers, and Jan Willem Klop). The following programming languages have pure type systems: Pure type system In the branches of

title: What Work Is

text: What Work Is What Work Is is a collection of poetry by Philip Levine. The collection has many themes that are representative of Levine's writing including physical labor, class identity, family relationships and personal loss. Its primary focus on work and the working class led to it being studied with emphasis on Marxist literary criticism. The focus on work is expressed in thematically different ways throughout the collection. Furthermore, much of the collection was shaped by concerns for blue collar workers as well as nationwide political events. "What Work Is" was first published in 1991 by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.

title: Conservative Party (Spain)

text: Conservative Party (Spain) The Liberal Conservative Party (, PLC), simply called Conservative Party (, PC), was a Spanish political party founded in 1876 by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo. The Conservative tag was for the type of ideas which, when thinking of questions of state, then dominated in Spain. The political formation of Spain by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo at the request of Alfonso XII of Spain, who assumed the crown after the failure of the First Spanish Republic. The Conservative Party brought together a varied group of people, from the supporters of Isabel II of Spain prior to the Republic

title: Pure type system

text: correspondence to this setting. Based on these ideas, Barthe and others defined classical pure type systems (CPTS) by adding a double negation operator. Similarly, in 1998, Tijn Borghuis introduced modal pure type systems (MPTS). Roorda has discussed the application of pure type systems to functional programming; and Roorda and Jeuring have proposed a programming language based on pure type systems. The systems from the lambda cube are all known to be strongly normalizing. Pure type systems in general need not be, for example System U from Girard's paradox is not. (Roughly speaking, Girard found pure systems in which one can

title: Type system

text: type system is both "sound" (meaning that it rejects all incorrect programs) and "decidable" (meaning that it is possible to write an algorithm that determines whether a program is well-typed), then it must be "incomplete" (meaning there are correct programs, which are also rejected, even though they do not encounter runtime errors). For example, consider a program containing the code: codice_2 Even if the expression codice_3 always evaluates to codice_4 at run-time, most type checkers will reject the program as ill-typed, because it is difficult (if not impossible) for a static analyzer to determine that the codice_5 branch will not

title: Type rule

text: Type rule In type theory, a type rule is an inference rule that describes how a type system assigns a type to a syntactic construction. These rules may be applied by the type system to determine if a program is well typed and what type expressions have. A prototypical example of the use of type rules is in defining type inference in the simply typed lambda calculus, which is the internal language of Cartesian closed categories. An expression formula_1 of type formula_2 is written as formula_3. The typing environment is written as formula_4. The notation for inference is the usual

title: Monarchy of Spain

text: political spectrum, and by regional separatists. As many as 22% of Spanish citizens feel that a republic would be the better form of government for Spain, while separatists and independence supporters in the Basque Country and Catalonia routinely protest the monarchy as the living symbol of a "united" Spain. Part of the left criticize the institution of monarchy as anachronistic, while the far right criticize King Juan Carlos personally because he has given his royal assent and tacit approval to what they perceive to be a liberal agenda in Spain and a secularism of Spanish life. The monarchy became subject

title: Political prisoners in Francoist Spain

text: it makes available information regarding victims of the Civil War and the Francoist State. As some of the victims were refugees, the portal not only draws on Spanish archival material, but also foreign sources, including information about Spanish people held in Nazi concentration camps. Political prisoners in Francoist Spain There were a large number of political prisoners in Francoist Spain. At the end of the Spanish Civil War, according to the Francoist State's figures, there were more than 270,000 men and women held in prisons, and some 500,000 had fled into exile. In the Second World War, large numbers of

title: Structural type system

text: not be desirable where the programmer wishes to create closed abstractions. A pitfall of structural typing versus nominative typing is that two separately defined types intended for different purposes, but accidentally holding the same properties (e.g. both composed of a pair of integers), could be considered the same type by the type system, simply because they happen to have identical structure. One way this can be avoided is by creating one algebraic data type for each use. In 1990, Cook, et al., proved that "inheritance is not subtyping" in structurally-typed OO languages. Objects in OCaml are structurally typed by the

title: What Is a Nation?

text: What Is a Nation? "What is a Nation?" ("Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?") is an 1882 lecture by French historian Ernest Renan (1823–1892), known for the statements that a nation is "a daily referendum", and that nations are based as much on what the people jointly forget, as what they remember. It is frequently quoted or anthologized in works of history or political science pertaining to nationalism and national identity. Renan wrote "What is a Nation" in order to symbolize the nationalism which was born in France as a result of the French Revolution of 1789. Renan begins his essay by noting

title: Type system

text: the "type system" whether at compile time or runtime, manually annotated or automatically inferred. As Mark Manasse concisely put it: Assigning a data type, termed "typing", gives meaning to a sequence of bits such as a value in memory or some object such as a variable. The hardware of a general purpose computer is unable to discriminate between for example a memory address and an instruction code, or between a character, an integer, or a floating-point number, because it makes no intrinsic distinction between any of the possible values that a sequence of bits might "mean". Associating a sequence of

title: Military-Political System of Samos

text: Military-Political System of Samos The Military-Political System of Samos () was a provisional regime that existed in the island of Samos during the Greek War of Independence. Samos rose up against Ottoman rule on 18 April 1821, under the leadership of Konstantinos Lachanas. In May 1821, the Samiot leader Lykourgos Logothetis formalized the provisional administrative regime of the island, with the promulgation of the "Military-Political Organization of the Island of Samos" (Στρατοπολιτικός Διοργανισμός της Νήσου Σάμου). This constitutional document organized both the executive-legislative and military administration of the island. At the apex of the system was a Governor-General (Γενικός Διοικητής),

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: itself as type leads into a paradox, as in the set of all sets, so one must proceed in steps of levels of abstraction. Research in second order lambda calculus, one step upwards, showed, that type inference is undecidable in this generality. Parts of one extra level has been introduced into Haskell named kind, where it is used helping to type monads. Kinds are left implicit, working behind scene in the inner mechanics of the extended type system. Attempts to combine subtyping and type inference have caused quite some frustration. While type inference is needed in object-oriented programming for the

title: Political divisions of Spain

text: regions of Spain, while declaring the indissoluble unity of the Spanish nation. The autonomous communities enjoy a highly decentralized form of territorial organization, but based on devolution, and thus Spain is not a federation, since the State is superior to the communities and retains full sovereignty. In the absence of an explicit definition in the constitution the Constitutional Court of Spain has labeled this model of territorial organization the "State of Autonomous Communities", to avoid implying any particular model. The autonomous communities ("comunidades autónomas" in Spanish and Galician, "comunitats autònomes" in Catalan, "autonomia erkidego" in Basque) constitute the first order

title: Effect system

text: Effect system In computing, an effect system is a formal system which describes the computational effects of computer programs, such as side effects. An effect system can be used to provide a compile-time check of the possible effects of the program. The effect system extends the notion of type to have an "effect" component, which comprises an effect kind and a region. The effect kind describes "what" is being done, and the region describes "with what" it is being done. An effect system is typically an extension of a type system. The term "type and effect system" is sometimes used

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: expresses that a type is more or less special, but also with the all-quantification which allows the substitution to be applied. Formally, in HM, a type formula_25 is more general than formula_47, formally formula_48 if some quantified variable in formula_25 is consistently substituted such that one gains formula_47 as shown in the side bar. This order is part of the type definition of the type system. While substituting a monomorphic (ground) type for a quantified variable is straight forward, substituting a polytype has some pitfalls caused by the presence of free variables. Most particularly, unbound variables must not be replaced.

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: are passed as parameters as if they were proper values. Passed as arguments into a proper functions as in the introduction, but also into "type functions" as in the "parametric" type constants, leads to the question how to more properly type types themselves. A meta type, the "type of types" would be useful to create an even more expressive type system. Though this would be a straight forward extension, unfortunately, only unification is not longer decidable in the presence of meta types, rendering type inference impossible in this extend of generality. Additionally, assuming a type of all types that includes

title: Type VI secretion system

text: Type VI secretion system The type VI secretion system (T6SS) is molecular machine used by a wide range of Gram-negative bacterial species to transport proteins from the interior (cytoplasm or cytosol) of a bacterial cell across the cellular envelope into an adjacent target cell. While often reported that the T6SS was discovered in 2006 by researchers studying the causative agent of cholera, "Vibrio cholerae", the first study demonstrating that T6SS genes encode a protein export apparatus was actually published in 2004, in a study of protein secretion by the fish pathogen "Edwardsiella tarda". Since then, Type VI secretion systems have

title: Type II secretion system

text: enzymes such as proteases and lipases. These secreted proteins are generally associated with the breakdown of host tissues and therefore are often important in causing the symptoms associated with certain bacterial infections. Each bacterial cell will contain a number of type II secretion systems and these are found embedded in the inner and outer membranes of the cell. Along with other secretory systems such as the chaperone/usher pathway and the type IV secretion system, secretion via the type II secretion system is a two-step process. The first step involves the Sec and Tat secretory pathways which are responsible for transporting

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: functional languages. As a consequence, these languages obtained support for some type inference techniques, for instance "auto" in C++11 (2014). Unfortunately, the stronger type inference methods developed for functional programming cannot simply be integrated in the imperative languages, as their type systems' features are in part incompatible, and a programming language must be designed from the ground up when continuous type inference is wanted. Before presenting the HM type system and related algorithms, the following sections make some features of HM more formal and precise. In a typing, an expression E is opposed to a type T, formally written as

title: Joint Electronics Type Designation System

text: and space), recognition and identification, communications, aids to navigation, weapons control and evaluation, flight control, and electronics countermeasures. Nomenclature is assigned to: In the JETDS system, complete equipment sets or systems are designated with a sequence of letters and digits prefixed by AN/, then three letters, a hyphen, a number, and (occasionally) some optional letters (AN/AAA-nnn suffixed by (Vn){hardware/software version} or (T){training equipment} . The three letters tell where the equipment is used, what it does and its purpose. For example, the AN/PRC-77 is a Portable Radio used for two way Communications. The model numbers for any given type of

title: What Is to Be Done?

text: What Is to Be Done? What Is To Be Done? Burning Questions of Our Movement () is a political pamphlet written by the Russian revolutionary Vladimir Lenin (credited as N. Lenin) in 1901 and published in 1902. Lenin said that the article represented "a skeleton plan to be developed in greater detail in a pamphlet now in preparation for print". Its title is inspired by the novel of the same name by the 19th century Russian revolutionary Nikolai Chernyshevsky. In "What Is to Be Done?", Lenin argues that the working class will not spontaneously become political simply by fighting economic

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: in the type system. Type inference with polymorphism faces the challenge of summarizing all possible types an expression may have. The order guarantees that such a summary exists as the most general type of the expression. The type order defined above can be extended to typings because the implied all-quantification of typings enables consistent replacement: Contrary to the specialisation rule, this is not part of the definition, but like the implicit all-quantification rather a consequence of the type rules defined next. Free type variables in a typing serve as placeholders for possible refinement. The binding effect of the environment to

title: Type II secretion system

text: is thought that this constant extension and retraction of the pseudopilus causes it to act like a piston and push secretory proteins out through the outer membrane secretin. When the pseudopilus then retracts new secretory proteins can then enter the system and the process will repeat. This movement of the pseudopilus is similar to the movement displayed by type IV pili which is known to enable twitching motility. Secretion of proteins via the type II secretion system occurs in a very specific way and is largely uniform among different species of bacteria. This mechanism can be broken down into several

title: Data type

text: built from primitive types. A type system associates types with computed values. By examining the flow of these values, a type system attempts to prove that no "type errors" can occur. The type system in question determines what constitutes a type error, but a type system generally seeks to guarantee that operations expecting a certain kind of value are not used with values for which that operation does not make sense. A compiler may use the static type of a value to optimize the storage it needs and the choice of algorithms for operations on the value. In many C

title: Savings bank (Spain)

text: in turn, thrived in what has been defined as "a culture of greed, cronyism and political meddling". This system was exposed in the aftermath of the global financial crisis. As a result, out of the 45 cajas in existence at the start of the crisis in 2007, only two have survived in their initial form. The rest were absorbed by banks, dismantling in effect the cajas model in Spain. Their trade association is the Spanish Confederation of Savings Banks (Confederación Española de Cajas de Ahorro or CECA). European countries that adopted the Scottish savings bank model early on were those

title: Anarchy Is What States Make of It

text: Anarchy Is What States Make of It "Anarchy Is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics" is a journal article by Alexander Wendt published in "International Organization" in 1992 that outlines a constructivist approach to international relations theory. Wendt argues that anarchy is not inherent in the international system in the way in which other schools of international relations theory envision it, but rather it is a construct of the nation-states in the system. At the core of constructivist thought is the idea that many core aspects of international relations are socially constructed (they are given

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: implicitly all-quantified. The presence of both bound and unbound type variables is a bit uncommon in programming languages. Often, all type variables are implicitly treated all-quantified. For instance, one does not have clauses with free variables in Prolog. Likely in Haskell, in the absence of the ScopedTypeVariables language extension, all type variables implicitly occur quantified, i.e. a Haskell type codice_4 means formula_12 here. Polymorphism means that one and the same expression can have (perhaps infinitely) many types. But in this type system, these types are not completely unrelated, but rather orchestrated by the parametric polymorphism. As an example, the identity

title: Type II secretion system

text: an appendage that is also commonly found in gram negative bacteria. Overall the type II secretion system can be broken down into four main components. These are the outer membrane complex, the inner membrane complex, the secretion ATPase and the pseudopilus. The outer membrane complex is made up largely by the secretin GspD. Secretins are β-barrels that are found in membrane where they form channels that allow substances to move in or out of cells. In the type II secretion system GspD creates a pore in the outer membrane of the bacterial cell through which proteins can be secreted. As

title: Type VI secretion system

text: in quorum-sensing levels. In "Vibrio cholerae", autoinducer-1 (AI-1) signals are detected by LuxQ, a sensor kinase. LuxQ activates LuxU, which then acts on LuxO, a DNA-binding protein which represses HapR gene expression. HapR is thought to LuxO deletions resulted in strong induction of "vas" gene expression, and hence T6SS expression, demonstrating that T6SS is regulated in some form by quorum sensing. However, O1 strains with LuxO deletions still had relatively quiescent T6SS compared to the O37 strain, suggesting that additional factors are also involved. Type VI secretion system The type VI secretion system (T6SS) is molecular machine used by a

text: dropped and others (e.g. computers and cryptographic equipment) added. The latest version, MIL-STD-196F, was issued in 2013. Joint Electronics Type Designation System The Joint Electronics Type Designation System (JETDS), which was previously known as the Joint Army-Navy Nomenclature System (AN System. JAN) and the Joint Communications-Electronics Nomenclature System, is a method developed by the U.S. War Department during World War II for assigning an unclassified designator to electronic equipment. In 1957, the JETDS was formalized in MIL-STD-196. Computer software and commercial unmodified electronics for which the manufacturer maintains design control are not covered. Electronic materiel, from a military point of

text: Joint Electronics Type Designation System The Joint Electronics Type Designation System (JETDS), which was previously known as the Joint Army-Navy Nomenclature System (AN System. JAN) and the Joint Communications-Electronics Nomenclature System, is a method developed by the U.S. War Department during World War II for assigning an unclassified designator to electronic equipment. In 1957, the JETDS was formalized in MIL-STD-196. Computer software and commercial unmodified electronics for which the manufacturer maintains design control are not covered. Electronic materiel, from a military point of view, generally includes those electronic devices employed in data processing, detection and tracking (underwater, sea, land-based, air

title: Type three secretion system

text: However, the term "type III secretion" is used mainly in relation to the infection apparatus. The bacterial flagellum shares a common ancestor with the type III secretion system. T3SSs are essential for the pathogenicity (the ability to infect) of many pathogenic bacteria. Defects in the T3SS may render a bacterium non-pathogenic. It has been suggested that some non-invasive strains of gram-negative bacteria have lost the T3SS because the energetically costly system is no longer of use. Although traditional antibiotics were effective against these bacteria in the past, antibiotic-resistant strains constantly emerge. Understanding the way the T3SS works and developing drugs

title: History of Spain

text: into an uneasy alliance with its northern neighbor, only to be blockaded by the British. Charles IV's vacillation, culminating in his failure to honour the alliance by neglecting to enforce the Continental System, led to the invasion of Spain in 1808 under Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, thereby triggering the Peninsular War, with enormous human and property losses, and loss of control over most of the overseas empire. During most of the 18th century Spain had arrested its relative decline of the latter part of the 17th century. But despite the progress, it continued to lag in the political

title: Politics of Spain

text: the Francoist movement. In 1969, Franco finally designated Juan Carlos as his successor, with the title "Prince of Spain", bypassing his father Juan of Bourbon. Francisco Franco died on 20 November 1975, and Juan Carlos was crowned King of Spain by the Spanish Cortes, the non-elected Assembly that operated during Franco's regime. Even though Juan Carlos I had sworn allegiance to "National Movement", the sole legal party of the regime, he expressed his support for a transformation of the Spanish political system as soon as he took office. Such an endeavor was not meant to be easy or simple, as

title: Hindley–Milner type system

text: instance of some type class codice_9, that provides the order predicates codice_10 and codice_11 used in the functions body. The proper implementations of these predicates are then passed to quicksorts as additional parameters, as soon as quicksort is used on more concrete types providing a single implementation of the overloaded function quickSort. Because the "classes" only allow a single type as their argument, the resulting type system can still provide inference. Additionally, the type classes can then be equipped with some kind of overloading order allowing one to arrange the classes as a lattice. Parametric polymorphism implies that types themselves