query: what's the egyptian currency?

title: British currency in the Middle East

text: gold and silver. With this the Egyptian pound, known as the "geneih", was introduced, replacing the Egyptian piastre ("ersh") as the chief unit of currency. The piastre continued to circulate as of a pound, with the piastre subdivided into 40 para. In 1885, the para ceased to be issued, and the piastre was divided into tenths ( " 'oshr el-ersh"). These tenths were renamed milliemes ("malleem") in 1916. The Egyptian pound was also used in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan between 1899 and 1956, and Cyrenaica when it was under British occupation and later an independent emirate between 1942 and 1951. The National

title: Egyptian pound

text: currency based on a bimetallic standard (gold and silver) on the basis of the Maria Theresa thaler, a popular trade coin in the region. The Egyptian pound, known as the "geneih", was introduced, replacing the Egyptian piastre ("ersh") as the chief unit of currency. The piastre continued to circulate as of a pound, with the piastre subdivided into 40 para. In 1885, the para ceased to be issued, and the piastre was divided into tenths ( " 'oshr el-ersh"). These tenths were renamed milliemes ("malleem") in 1916. The legal exchange rates were fixed by force of law for important foreign

title: Egyptian pound

text: Egyptian pound The Egyptian pound ( ' ; sign: E£, L.E. ; code: EGP"') is the currency of Egypt. It is divided into 100 piastres, or ersh ( ; "plural" ), or 1,000 milliemes ( ; ). The Egyptian pound is frequently abbreviated as LE or L.E., which stands for "livre égyptienne" (French for Egyptian pound). E£ and £E are commonly used on the internet. The name "" is derived from the Guinea coin, which had almost the same value of 100 piastres at the end of the 19th century. In 1834, a khedival decree was issued, adopting an Egyptian

title: British currency in the Middle East

text: Bank of Egypt issued banknotes for the first time on 3 April 1899. The Central Bank of Egypt and the National Bank of Egypt were unified into the Central Bank of Egypt in 1961. A year later, in 1962, the Egyptian pound ceased to be pegged to the British pound and was tied to the United States dollar instead. Following the institution of the British Mandate for Palestine in 1918, the Egyptian pound was introduced into the area that became known as Palestine, and circulated alongside the "Ottoman lira" until 1927. With the establishment of the Currency Board for Palestine

title: British currency in the Middle East

text: British colonies, including Hong Kong from 1863 to 1866; and the British Palestine Mandate from 1926 until 1948. The Palestinian example may in fact have been the impetus to use a pound-mil system in Cyprus as the Palestinian pound was for a brief period accepted as legal tender in Cyprus. Although Cyprus gained independence from Britain in 1960, the Cyprus pound remained pegged to the pound sterling until 1972. The origins of the Egyptian pound date from 1834, when a Khedival Decree was issued providing for the issuing of an Egyptian currency based on a bimetallic base, i.e.: based on

title: Siege of Khartoum currency

text: printed. Outside of the Standard Catalog of World Paper Money for specialized issues, images of the last two types could not be found. The known population of remaining siege of Khartoum notes varies by denomination from the first type 100 piastre note (roughly 1,250 known) to the 50 Egyptian pound note (roughly 12 known). Presumably there are fewer still of the one piaster, second type 100 piastre, and 20 British pound notes. Siege of Khartoum currency Siege of Khartoum currency, an emergency paper money, was issued by Governor-General of the Sudan, British Major-General Charles George Gordon during the Siege of

title: Siege of Khartoum currency

text: Siege of Khartoum currency Siege of Khartoum currency, an emergency paper money, was issued by Governor-General of the Sudan, British Major-General Charles George Gordon during the Siege of Khartoum. Denominated in piastre (and a 50 Egyptian pound bill), the first issue notes were dated 25 April 1884 and produced as late as November 1884. Gordon began his military career with the Royal Engineers (1852) and fought in the Crimean War and in China, playing a significant role in stopping the Taiping Rebellion (1863–64). He was appointed Governor of Equatoria (1872–76), and then Governor-general of the Sudan (1877–80). Gordon was re-appointed

title: Egyptian piastre

text: Egyptian piastre The piastre (Egyptian: ersh, قرش) was the currency of Egypt until 1834. It was subdivided into 40 "para", each of 3 "akçe". The piastre was based on the Turkish kuruş, introduced while Egypt was part of the Ottoman Empire. As in Turkey, debasement lead to the piastre falling significantly in value. In 1834, the pound, or gineih (Arabic) was introduced as the chief unit of currency, worth 100 piastre. The piastre continues in use to the present day as a subdivision of the pound. In the early 19th century, billon coins in denominations of 1 akçe, 1, 5,

title: Egyptian piastre

text: 10 and 20 para, and 1 qirsh were in circulation, along with gold coins denominated as ¼, ½, 1, 2 and 3 "mahbub". Egyptian piastre The piastre (Egyptian: ersh, قرش) was the currency of Egypt until 1834. It was subdivided into 40 "para", each of 3 "akçe". The piastre was based on the Turkish kuruş, introduced while Egypt was part of the Ottoman Empire. As in Turkey, debasement lead to the piastre falling significantly in value. In 1834, the pound, or gineih (Arabic) was introduced as the chief unit of currency, worth 100 piastre. The piastre continues in use to

title: British currency in the Middle East

text: is said that the British Empire had three currency zones, and that the three currencies were the pound sterling, the dollar, and the rupee. The situation in the British territories of the Middle East was however somewhat complicated, because it involved a situation in which Indian rupees, Turkish piastres, and Egyptian piastres gradually gave way to systems based on units of the sterling system, but without ever involving the introduction of the full sterling coinage. The situation as regards currency in the British territories in the Middle East was quite different from the situation as regards the currencies of the

title: British currency in the Middle East

text: Indian Rupee in Aden by 1951. Meanwhile, in 1927 a new Palestine pound at par with the pound sterling was introduced in the mandated territories of Palestine and Transjordan to replace the Turkish and Egyptian currencies. The East African Shilling in Aden was replaced in 1965 with the South Arabian Dinar at par with the pound sterling. For nearly four hundred years, silver Spanish dollars (pieces of eight) had served as the international currency, and most of these coins were minted in Mexico City, Lima, and Potosi in the New World. The policy of introducing the sterling currency into all

title: Currency board

text: Helena continue to operate currency boards, backing their locally printed currency notes with pound sterling reserves. A gold standard is a special case of a currency board where the value of the national currency is linked to the value of gold instead of a foreign currency. For a precise definition of what constitutes a currency board, including past examples, see: Currency board A currency board is a monetary authority which is required to maintain a fixed exchange rate with a foreign currency. This policy objective requires the conventional objectives of a central bank to be subordinated to the exchange rate

title: Complementary currency

text: Time Banking inventor Edgar S. Cahn, Complementary Currency Resource Center coordinator Stephen DeMeulenaere and many others. Lietaer has argued that the world's national currencies are inadequate for the world's business needs, citing how 87 countries have experienced major currency crashes over a 20-year period, and arguing for complementary currencies as a way to protect against these problems. Lietaer has also spoken at an International Reciprocal Trade Association (IRTA) conference about barter. Others include: Complementary currency A complementary currency is a currency or medium of exchange which is not a national currency, but which is thought of as supplementing or complementing

title: Currency union

text: Currency union A currency union (also known as monetary union) involves two or more states sharing the same currency without them necessarily having any further integration (such as an economic and monetary union, which would have, in addition, a customs union and a single market). Three types of currency unions exist: The theory of the optimal currency area addresses the question of how to determine what geographical regions should share a currency in order to maximize economic efficiency. Note: Every customs and monetary union and economic and monetary union also has a currency union. Additionally the autonomous and dependent territories,

title: Egyptian cigarette industry

text: for cigarettes in the closing decades of the nineteenth century. Egyptian cigarettes made by Gianaclis and others became so popular in Europe and the United States that they inspired a large number of what were, in effect, locally produced counterfeits. Among these was the American Camel brand, established in 1913, which used on its packet three Egyptian motifs: the camel, the pyramids, and a palm tree. Fellow Greeks in the United States also imported or produced such cigarettes. For example, S. Anargyros first imported "Egyptian Deities" and then produced "Murad", "Helmar" and "Mogul", and the Stephano Brothers produced "Ramses II".

title: Currency intervention

text: freely, pegging it to another currency or a basket of currencies, adopting the currency of another country, participating in a currency bloc, or forming part of a monetary union. The end of the traditional Bretton Woods system in the early 1970s and the move to managed currencies led to a large scale increase in currency intervention throughout the 1970s and 80's. From 2008 through 2013, central banks in emerging market economies (EMEs) had to "re-examine their foreign exchange market intervention strategies" because of "huge swings in capital flows to and from EMEs. Direct currency intervention is generally defined as foreign

title: Currency analytics

text: to forecasted cash flows and don’t allow hedging economic risk. Currency analytics allow companies to mitigate cash flow risk by uncovering accounting exposures to match the economic exposures so the company can hedge the accounting exposure as a proxy. Currency analytics enable what/if scenario analysis so companies can model how volatility in particular currencies could impact their revenue and expenses in the future. Currency analytics Companies that do business in more than one currency are exposed to exchange rate risk – that is, changes in the value of one currency versus another. Exchange rate risk (also known as foreign exchange

title: International Convention for the Suppression of Counterfeiting Currency

text: International Convention for the Suppression of Counterfeiting Currency The International Convention for the Suppression of Counterfeiting Currency () is a 1929 League of Nations treaty whereby states agree to criminalise acts of currency counterfeiting. It remains the principal international agreement on currency counterfeiting. States that ratify the Convention agree to criminalise the creation, use, and exportation or importation of counterfeit currency. Under the agreement, no distinction is to be made as to what currency is the subject of the crime. Under the treaty, currency counterfeiting is an extraditable offence. States also agree to establish a central office that will forward

title: Currency Act

text: the debt from King William’s War. Other colonies quickly followed suit, and by 1715 ten of the thirteen had resorted to the issuance of paper currency. Economist Stanley Finkelstein highlights the advantage of paper currency, “that unless it is backed by specie it is cost free currency.” The paper currency depreciated quickly because the colonies printed more than what was taxed out of circulation. By 1740, Rhode Island bills of exchange were only four percent of face value and those of Massachusetts were eleven percent. The money supply was growing at a much faster rate than that of the overall

title: Fractional currency

text: Bureau). Both Spinner and Clark decided to have their portrait depicted on currency, which created controversy. Republican Representative Martin R. Thayer of Pennsylvania was an outspoken critic, suggesting that the Treasury's privilege of portrait selection for currency was being abused. On 7 April 1866, led by Thayer, Congress enacted legislation specifically stating "that no portrait or likeness of any living person hereafter engraved, shall be placed upon any of the bonds, securities, notes, fractional or postal currency of the United States." On the date of passage, the plates for the 15-cent note depicting William Tecumseh Sherman and Ulysses S. Grant

title: Digital currency

text: addition, over 90 central banks are engaged in DLT discussions, including implications of a central bank issued digital currency. In March 2018, the Marshall Islands became the first country to issue their own cryptocurrency and certify it as legal tender; the currency is called the "sovereign". Canada The Bank of Canada have explored the possibility of creating a version of its currency on the blockchain. The Bank of Canada teamed up with the nation’s five largest banks — and the blockchain consulting firm R3 — for what was known as Project Jasper. In a simulation run in 2016, the central

title: Currency Act

text: than what was taxed out of circulation, the currency depreciated in relation to the British pound sterling. The resultant inflation was harmful to merchants in Great Britain, who were forced to accept the depreciated currency from colonists for payment of debts. The Act limited the future issue of bills of credit to certain circumstances. It allowed the existing bills to be used as legal tender for public debts (i.e. paying taxes), but disallowed their use for private debts (e.g. for paying merchants). The Currency Act 1764 (4 Geo. III c. 34) extended the 1751 Act to all of the British

title: Currency swap

text: who will pass it on to the American company so it can pay its U.S. bondholders. At maturity, the American company will pay £100 million to the swap bank who will pass it on to the British company so it can pay its British bondholders. It is well recognized that traditional "textbook" theory does not price cross currency (basis) swaps correctly, because it assumes the funding cost in each currency to be equal to its floating rate, thus always giving a zero cross currency spread. This is clearly contrary to what is observed in the market. In reality, market participants

title: Currency-counting machine

text: Currency-counting machine A currency-counting machine is a machine that counts money—either stacks of banknotes or loose collections of coins. Counters may be purely mechanical or use electronic components. The machines typically provide a total count of all money, or count off specific batch sizes for wrapping and storage. Currency counters are commonly used in vending machines to determine what amount of money has been deposited by customers. In some modern automated teller machines, currency counters allow for cash deposits without envelopes, since they can identify which bills have been inserted instead of just how many. The user is given the

title: Egyptian Building

text: College. The MCV Campus has a strong sentimental attachment to the Egyptian Building. At Founders' Day exercises held at the Egyptian Building, 5 December 1940, historian Dr. Wyndham Blanton commented to alumni and guests: "What old Nassau Hall is to Princeton, what the Wren Building is to William and Mary, what the Rotunda is to the University of Virginia, the Egyptian Building is to the Medical College of Virginia. It is a shrine, a sanctuary of tradition, the physical embodiment of our genius. It is a spiritual heritage. In a world often accused of cold materialism, with an ideology of

title: British currency in the Middle East

text: Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan, the Jordanian-ruled West Bank and the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip. With the creation of the State of Israel, there was a transitional period of four years between the end of the British Mandate and the adoption of a fully independent currency system. Between 1948 and 1952, the Palestine pound continued to be a legal tender. In August 1948, new banknotes were issued by the Anglo Palestine Company, owned by the Jewish Agency and based in London. In Jordan, the Palestine pound was replaced by the Jordanian dinar in 1949. In 1950, Jordan annexed the West Bank, and

title: Currency

text: relative values of the different currencies. Currencies in this sense are defined by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance. Other definitions of the term "currency" are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. The latter definition, pertaining to the currency systems of nations, is the topic of this article. Currencies can be classified into two monetary systems: fiat money and commodity money, depending on what guarantees the value (the economy at large vs. the government's physical metal reserves). Some currencies are legal tender in certain political jurisdictions. Others are simply traded for their economic

title: Currency

text: a circulating medium could only be as sound as the forces that defended that store. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military. By the late Bronze Age, however, a series of treaties had established safe passage for merchants around the Eastern Mediterranean, spreading from Minoan Crete and Mycenae in the northwest to Elam and Bahrain in the southeast. It is not known what was used as a currency for these exchanges, but it is thought that ox-hide shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus, may have functioned as a currency. It is thought that the

title: Egyptian hieroglyphs

text: and for that reason has been labelled by some an "abjad" alphabet, i.e., an alphabet without vowels. Thus, hieroglyphic writing representing a pintail duck is read in Egyptian as "sꜣ", derived from the main consonants of the Egyptian word for this duck: 's', 'ꜣ' and 't'. (Note that ꜣ (, two half-rings opening to the left), sometimes replaced by the digit '3', is the Egyptian "alef"). It is also possible to use the hieroglyph of the pintail duck without a link to its meaning in order to represent the two phonemes "s" and "ꜣ", independently of any vowels that could

title: Egyptian language

text: adverb. Here are some other common Egyptian adverbs: Old Egyptian, Classical Egyptian and Middle Egyptian have verb-subject-object as the basic word order. However, that changed in the later stages of the language, including Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic. The equivalent to "the man opens the door" would be a sentence that would correspond, in the language's earlier stages, to "opens the man the door" ("wn s ꜥꜣ"). The so-called status constructus combines two or more nouns to express the genitive, like in Semitic and Berber languages. The early stages of Egyptian have no articles, but the later forms use "pꜣ",

title: The Daily Egyptian

text: publication was suspended because of the First World War. In 1921, the Student Council began publishing a weekly, four column newspaper that was priced at one dollar a year. A couple months later, the Southern Illinois Normal board of directors elected representatives that included the editor, associate editor, departmental editors, business manager, and faculty advisers. In 1963, "The Egyptian" became known as the "Daily Egyptian" (or "DE" for short), publishing five days a week. It is a student-run newspaper and they have the ability to determine what stories will appear in the paper. The students also work as editors, photographers,

title: Currency lads and lasses

text: of illegality, inferior quality, and subordination. By analogy, native-born colonials came to be known as "currency", in contrast to the British-born "sterling". The first reference in print to the native-born being called "currency" was in the "Sydney Gazette" of 13 September 1822, in a letter signed by "Lydia Languish" calling for more social events to be organised for "currency lasses". As applied to people rather money, the term originally had derogatory connotations – by the early 1820s, "currency had stuck for male and female native-born and everyone knew what it implied". However, it was soon reclaimed by the native-born as

title: Private currency

text: for private currencies. Now, s. 44(1) of the Australian "Reserve Bank Act 1959", prohibits this practice. In 1976, Wickrema Weerasooria published an article which suggested that the issuing of bank cheques violated this section, though some banks responded that since bank cheques were printed with the words "not negotiable" on them, the cheques were not intended for circulation and thus did not violate the statute. In Hong Kong, although the government issues currency, bank-issued private currency is the dominant medium of exchange. Most automated teller machines dispense private Hong Kong bank notes. In Scotland, the Bank of Scotland, Clydesdale Bank,

title: Economy of the Egyptian Armed Forces

text: controlled and regulated economy are widespread and impact currency value, international investment and the standard of living. As a result of the competitive advantage experienced by the military over private enterprise, non-military affiliated companies experience an economic handicap. As military affiliated corporations are not required to pay taxes, the VAT and import taxes experienced by civilian organisations further increases the difficulty of operating commercially independent of the Armed Forces. Since the "Arab Spring" in 2011 hundreds of large infrastructure projects have been channelled through the Egyptian Armed Forces Engineering Authority, providing large revenues to the military. While official documentation of

title: Khaleeji (currency)

text: union in 2001 and 2003. The terms of what would be called the "GCC Monetary Agreement" followed shortly after that, with the convergence criteria of the single currency being decided in 2005. Oman became the first state to pull out of the union, in 2006, and the UAE, in 2009, the second and so far last state to withdraw from this tentative agreement to create a single Gulf currency. Originally slated for adoption in 2010, Nasser al-Kaud, deputy assistant general for economic affairs at the GCC, admitted on March 24, 2009, that this deadline for establishment of the monetary union

title: Khaleeji (currency)

text: on November 23, 2009, statements by the UAE Central Bank Governor Sultan bin Nasser al-Suweidi stated that the greatest obstacle was the lack of a precursor unit of account. The currency, if adopted, would be the sole legal tender in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar. Oman and the UAE have announced that they will not adopt the new currency until further notice. It would be seen as a further step in the expanding remit of what was originally intended as an organization for security cooperation between the GCC states, which then grew into an economic agreement and a customs

title: Egyptian hieroglyphs

text: end of words, making it possible to readily distinguish words. The Egyptian hieroglyphic script contained 24 uniliterals (symbols that stood for single consonants, much like letters in English). It would have been possible to write all Egyptian words in the manner of these signs, but the Egyptians never did so and never simplified their complex writing into a true alphabet. Each uniliteral glyph once had a unique reading, but several of these fell together as Old Egyptian developed into Middle Egyptian. For example, the folded-cloth glyph seems to have been originally an /s/ and the door-bolt glyph a /θ/ sound,

title: Egyptian diaspora

text: concerns of the Egyptian diaspora involved access to consular services for 51% of respondents, assimilation of second generation into the host country’s culture (46%), need for more cultural cooperation with Egypt (24%), inability to vote abroad (20%) and military service obligations (6%). The Egyptians for their part object to what they call the "Saudization" of their culture due to Saudi Arabian petrodollar-flush investment in the Egyptian entertainment industry. Twice Libya was on the brink of war with Egypt due to mistreatment of Egyptian workers and after the signing of the peace treaty with Israel. When the Gulf War ended, Egyptian

title: Egyptian language

text: but it often bears little resemblance to what is known of how Egyptian was pronounced. The following consonants are reconstructed for Archaic (before 2600 BC) and Old Egyptian (2686–2181 BC), with IPA equivalents in square brackets if they differ from the usual transcription scheme: In Middle Egyptian (2055–1650 BC), a number of consonantal shifts take place. By the beginning of the Middle Kingdom period, and had merged, and the graphemes and are used interchangeably. In addition, had become word-initially in an unstressed syllable ( > "colour") and after a stressed vowel ( > '[the god] Apis'). In Late Egyptian (1069–700

title: Egyptian Judges' Club

text: It has over 9,000 members, including over 90% of Egyptian judges. In the late 1960s, the Judges' Club criticized what it viewed as the disregard by the government of Egyptian President Gamel Abdel Nasser for the law. In August 1969, the Nasser government dissolved the board of the Judges' Club, announced that the president would appoint its officers, and dismissed over 200 judges in what the judiciary called the "Massacre of the Judges". Subsequently, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat re-appointed the dismissed judges in 1973, and two years later the Judges' Club re-attained its autonomy. In the late 1970s, the Judges

title: Egyptian cigarette industry

text: Tastes in Europe and the United States shifted away from Turkish tobacco and Egyptian cigarettes towards Virginia tobacco, during and after the First World War. What remained of the Greek-run tobacco industry in Egypt was nationalized after the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. Egyptian-made cigarettes were thereafter sold only domestically, and became known for their poor quality (and low price). Cigarettes containing Turkish tobacco (which includes those varieties grown in what is now Greece) exclusively continued to be manufactured and sold as "Turkish cigarettes" in the US (brands Murad, Helmar and others), the UK (Sullivan & Powell, Benson & Hedges, Fribourg

title: Currency pair

text: Currency pair A currency pair is the quotation of the relative value of a currency unit against the unit of another currency in the foreign exchange market. The currency that is used as the reference is called the counter currency, quote currency or currency and the currency that is quoted in relation is called the base currency or transaction currency. Currency pairs are generally written by concatenating the ISO currency codes (ISO 4217) of the base currency and the counter currency, and then separating the two codes with a slash. Alternatively the slash may be omitted, or replaced by either

title: Egyptian pound

text: Cyrenaica when it was under British occupation and later an independent emirate between 1942 and 1951. The National Bank of Egypt issued banknotes for the first time on 3 April 1899. The Central Bank of Egypt and the National Bank of Egypt were unified into the Central Bank of Egypt in 1961. Several unofficial popular names are used to refer to different values of Egyptian currency. These include (from the word "nickel") "nekla" () for 2 milliemes, "ta'rifa" () for 5 milliemes, "shelen" () (i.e. a shilling) for 5 piastres, "bariza" () for 10 piastres, and "reyal" (ريال) (""real"") for

title: Currency substitution

text: currency substitution by adopting the US dollar as legal tender in 1904. This type of currency substitution is also known as de jure currency substitution. Currency substitution can be used semiofficially (or officially bimonetary systems), where the foreign currency is legal tender alongside the domestic currency. In literature, there is a set of related definitions of currency substitution such as external liability currency substitution, domestic liability currency substitution, banking sector's liability currency substitution or deposit currency substitution, and credit dollarlization. External liability currency substitution measures total external debt (private and public) denominated in foreign currencies of the economy. Deposit currency

title: Currency

text: mostly paper, but Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation developed the world's first polymer currency in the 1980s that went into circulation on the nation's bicentenary in 1988. Now used in some 22 countries (over 40 if counting commemorative issues), polymer currency dramatically improves the life span of banknotes and prevents counterfeiting. Currency use is based on the concept of lex monetae; that a sovereign state decides which currency it shall use. Currently, the International Organization for Standardization has introduced a three-letter system of codes (ISO 4217) to define currency (as opposed to simple names or currency signs), in

title: The Egyptian

text: reiteration of an idea. On the first page Sinuhe states: "Everything returns to what it was, and there is noting new under the Sun, and man never changes". Shortly afterwards, the opposite of this idea is denied: "There are also those, who say that which has happened has never before happened, but this is useless talk." This thesis is repeated by multiple other characters as well. The main thesis is borrowed from Ecclesiastes: Like "The Egyptian", Ecclesiastes strengthens the idea by denying its opposite: Other shared themes are the futility of everything, and the suffering brought by knowledge. Conversely however,

title: Currency substitution

text: the share of all foreign currency deposits held by domestic residents at home and abroad in their total monetary assets. Unofficial currency substitution or de facto currency substitution is the most common type of currency substitution. Unofficial currency substitution occurs when residents of a country choose to hold a significant share of their financial assets in foreign currency, even though the foreign currency is not legal tender there. They hold deposits in the foreign currency because of a bad track record of the local currency, or as a hedge against inflation of the domestic currency. Official currency substitution or full

title: Currency analytics

text: Currency analytics Companies that do business in more than one currency are exposed to exchange rate risk – that is, changes in the value of one currency versus another. Exchange rate risk (also known as foreign exchange risk, FX risk, or currency risk) is especially high in periods of high currency volatility. Currency analytics are technology tools that enable global companies to manage the risk associated with currency volatility. Currency analytics often involve automation that helps companies access and validate currency exposure data and make decisions that mitigate currency risk. Currency volatility can impact a company’s balance sheet and/or cash

title: Egyptian Lover

text: were 12" singles. He eventually released some of the earliest rap LPs, but they were less popular than his singles. On the strength of an alternate mix of his most popular single "Egypt, Egypt", 1984's "On the Nile" was moderately successful. After a break in the early 1990s, Egyptian Lover returned in 1994 with "Back from the Tomb", his first full-length album in over ten years. The Egyptian Lover also established his own record company, Egyptian Empire Records, which included artists such as Rodney O & Joe Cooley. His 2015 release, "1984", continues his tradition of using all analog equipment,

title: Egyptian Revival architecture in the British Isles

text: chapel; and an "Egyptian" library. The Library became the Odd Fellows Hall, and today is a public House. Of these, all but the chapel and the houses survive, and are Grade I listed. 1835–37: Egyptian House, Penzance was built by local bookseller John Lavin as a museum. There is some dispute over the architect and the date of build. In his "Guide to Penzance", published in 1845, J S Courtney describes the building as "... the astonishing gaudy and eccentric Egyptian House recently built by John Lavin, mineralogist and Egyptologist". On this basis the design has been attributed to John

title: Local currency

text: Local currency In economics, a local currency is a currency that can be spent in a particular geographical locality at participating organisations. A regional currency is a form of local currency encompassing a larger geographical area. A local currency acts as a complementary currency to a national currency, rather than replacing it, and aims to encourage spending within a local community, especially with locally owned businesses. The currency may not be backed by a national government or be legal tender. About 300 complementary currencies, including local currencies, are listed in the Complementary Currency Resource Center worldwide database. Some definitions: The

title: Currency overlay

text: is generally increased by adding currency exposure, yet there is no risk premium earned for that added volatility in the long term. Thus investors with international portfolios often hedge their currency risk, normally using forward currency contracts, currency swaps, currency futures contracts, or currency options. Currency hedging can be done passively or actively. The stream of returns from passive currency overlay is negatively correlated with international equities, has an expected return of zero, and does not employ any capital. The overlay manager uses forward contracts to match the portfolio’s currency exposures in such a way as to insure against exchange

title: Hard currency

text: Hard currency Hard currency, safe-haven currency or strong currency is any globally traded currency that serves as a reliable and stable store of value. Factors contributing to a currency's "hard" status might include the long-term stability of its purchasing power, the associated country's political and fiscal condition and outlook, and the policy posture of the issuing central bank. Safe haven currency is defined as a currency which behaves like a hedge for a reference portfolio of risky assets conditional on movements in global risk aversion. Conversely, a soft currency indicates a currency which is expected to fluctuate erratically or depreciate

title: Reserve currency

text: Reserve currency A reserve currency (or anchor currency) is a currency that is held in significant quantities by governments and institutions as part of their foreign exchange reserves. The reserve currency is commonly used in international transactions, international investments and all aspects of the global economy. It is often considered a hard currency or safe-haven currency. People who live in a country that issues a reserve currency can purchase imports and borrow across borders more cheaply than people in other nations because they do not need to exchange their currency to do so. By the end of the 20th century,

title: The Egyptian

text: The Egyptian The Egyptian ("Sinuhe egyptiläinen", Sinuhe the Egyptian) is a historical novel by Mika Waltari. It was first published in Finnish in 1945, and in an abridged English translation by Naomi Walford in 1949, from Swedish rather than Finnish. So far, it is the only Finnish novel to be adapted into a Hollywood film, which happened in 1954. It's regarded as "one of the greatest books in Finnish literary history". "The Egyptian" is the first and the most successful, of Waltari's great historical novels, and which gained him international fame. It is set in Ancient Egypt, mostly during the

title: The Egyptian

text: as purely as possible, had learned Finnish in four months to translate directly from the original, and after 9 years of work and being imprisoned for Western thinking, was finished. A reader wrote in "Lidové noviny": "I can say that it ["The Egyptian"] helped me survive through the darkness of the communist era sane! I am immensely grateful to Mr. Waltari." When Markéta Hejkalova's Waltari biography was released in 2007, a review in "Hospodářské noviny" likened it to the Czechs' own 200-page version of a monument to Waltari. The Egyptian The Egyptian ("Sinuhe egyptiläinen", Sinuhe the Egyptian) is a historical

title: Egyptian pyramids

text: monumental structures constructed of dressed masonry. The most famous Egyptian pyramids are those found at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Several of the Giza pyramids are counted among the largest structures ever built. The Pyramid of Khufu at Giza is the largest Egyptian pyramid. It is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence. By the time of the Early Dynastic Period, those with sufficient means were buried in bench-like structures known as mastabas. The second historically-documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed to the architect Imhotep, who planned what Egyptologists believe to be a

title: Egyptian mythology

text: basis for the ritual. Information from religious sources is limited by a system of traditional restrictions on what they could describe and depict. The murder of the god Osiris, for instance, is never explicitly described in Egyptian writings. The Egyptians believed that words and images could affect reality, so they avoided the risk of making such negative events real. The conventions of Egyptian art were also poorly suited for portraying whole narratives, so most myth-related artwork consists of sparse individual scenes. References to myth also appear in non-religious Egyptian literature, beginning in the Middle Kingdom. Many of these references are

title: Egyptian geometry

text: measurements to compute the seqed. In Problem 59 part 1 computes the seqed, while the second part may be a computation to check the answer: "If you construct a pyramid with base side 12 [cubits] and with a seqed of 5 palms 1 finger; what is its altitude?" Egyptian geometry Egyptian geometry refers to geometry as it was developed and used in Ancient Egypt. Ancient Egyptian mathematics as discussed here spans a time period ranging from ca. 3000 BC to ca 300 BC. We only have a limited number of problems from ancient Egypt that concern geometry. Geometric problems appear

title: Currency substitution

text: displaced by a stable currency. At the beginning of this process, the store-of-value function of the domestic currency is replaced by the foreign currency. Then, the unit-of-account function of the domestic currency is displaced when many prices are quoted in a foreign currency. A prolonged period of high inflation will induce the domestic currency to lose its function as medium of exchange when the public carries out many transactions in foreign currency. Ize and Levy-Yeyati (1998) examine the determinants of deposit and credit currency substitution, concluding that currency substitution is driven by the volatility of inflation and the real exchange

title: Domestic responses to the Egyptian revolution of 2011

text: currency fell 1.6% to a six-year low against the US dollar. "We saw excessive speculative activity so we intervened to stabilise the market." Though the pound gained most of its losses forwards contracts reflected a 4.9% weakening in three months. On 10 February, amid rumours of Mubarak stepping down dollar-denominated bonds strengthened, as did Egyptian global depository receipts. On 29 January, Saudi Arabia's Tadawul stock market index fell 6.4 percent, the most since 25 May 2010, on concern over Egypt's instability. On 30 January, the Dubai Financial Market's General Index also fell 6.2 percent (the most since December 2009) during

title: Currency board

text: Currency board A currency board is a monetary authority which is required to maintain a fixed exchange rate with a foreign currency. This policy objective requires the conventional objectives of a central bank to be subordinated to the exchange rate target. The main qualities of an orthodox currency board are: The currency board in question will no longer issue fiat money but instead will only issue one unit of local currency for each unit (or decided amount) of foreign currency it has in its vault (often a hard currency such as the U.S. dollar or the euro). The surplus on

title: Currency converter

text: software internalization (i18n) and how the Forex (foreign exchange) market works, where most conversions have 4 decimal places, although some currency pairs also have 5. Most currency converters use up to 4. Some currency conversion software converts currency alongside information regarding the currencies. This information can be very helpful for travelers and those looking to make money by trading currency. These currency conversion programs seek to arm the user with knowledge that can lead the user to an educated guess about the future fluctuations of a country’s currency. A trader would seek to buy the currency at a low rate

title: Currency substitution

text: effect of this regulation on the pattern of currency substitution depends on the public's expectations of macroeconomic stability and the sustainability of the foreign exchange regime. Currency substitution Currency substitution or dollarization is the use of a foreign currency in parallel to or instead of the domestic currency. Currency substitution can be full or partial. Most, if not all, full currency substitution has taken place after a major economic crisis, for example, Ecuador and El Salvador in Latin America and Zimbabwe in Africa. Some small economies, for whom it is impractical to maintain an independent currency, use those of their

title: Currency strength

text: on moves in correlated instruments (for example CAD/OIL or AUD/GOLD); look for a strong trend in one currency; and observe most of the forex market in one chart. Typical examples of indicators based on currency strength are relative currency strength and absolute currency strength (percentage). Their combination is called the "Forex Flow indicator", because you are able to see the whole currency flow across the forex market. Currency strength Currency strength expresses the value of currency. For economists, it is often calculated as purchasing power, while for financial traders, it can be described as an indicator, reflecting many factors related

title: Currency strength

text: Currency strength Currency strength expresses the value of currency. For economists, it is often calculated as purchasing power, while for financial traders, it can be described as an indicator, reflecting many factors related to the currency; for example, fundamental data, overall economic performance or interest rates. It can also be calculated from currency in relation to other currencies, usually using a pre-defined currency basket. A typical example of this method is the U.S. Dollar Index. The current trend in currency strength indicators is to combine more currency indexes in order to make forex movements easily visible. For the calculation of

title: Currency substitution

text: Currency substitution Currency substitution or dollarization is the use of a foreign currency in parallel to or instead of the domestic currency. Currency substitution can be full or partial. Most, if not all, full currency substitution has taken place after a major economic crisis, for example, Ecuador and El Salvador in Latin America and Zimbabwe in Africa. Some small economies, for whom it is impractical to maintain an independent currency, use those of their larger neighbours; for example Liechtenstein uses the Swiss Franc. Partial currency substitution occurs when residents of a country choose to hold a significant share of their

title: Peery's Egyptian Theater

text: Ogden City, then Weber County were given ownership of the building. A complete restoration was accomplished with the partnership of Weber County, Ogden City, Weber State University, the Egyptian Theater Foundation, and the Ogden/Weber Chamber of Commerce. Major donations and contributions from Dr. Louis S. and Jan Peery, the George S. and Delores Dore Eccles Foundation, and the Utah State Legislature were received among hundreds of other smaller gifts. The adjoining David Eccles Conference Center and the Weber County government office, located in a renovated department store, were built and completed during this period. The rescued Egyptian Theater reopened on

title: Ancient Egyptian cuisine

text: the wear it produced on the enamel. For those who could afford there was also fine dessert bread and cakes baked from high-grade flour. In Egypt beer was a primary source of nutrition, and consumed daily. Beer was such an important part of the Egyptian diet that it was even used as currency. Like most modern African beers, but unlike European beer, it was very cloudy with plenty of solids and highly nutritious, quite reminiscent of gruel. It was an important source of protein, minerals and vitamins and was so valuable that beer jars were often used as a measurement

title: Ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs

text: previously lost. Ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs Ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs were centered around a variety of complex rituals, that were influenced by many aspects of Egyptian culture. Religion was a major contributor, since it was an important social practice that bound all Egyptians together. For instance, many of the Egyptian gods played roles in guiding the souls of the dead through the afterlife. With the evolution of writing, religious ideals were recorded and quickly spread throughout the Egyptian community. The solidification and commencement of these doctrines were formed in the creation of afterlife texts which illustrated and explained what the

title: Ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs

text: Ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs Ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs were centered around a variety of complex rituals, that were influenced by many aspects of Egyptian culture. Religion was a major contributor, since it was an important social practice that bound all Egyptians together. For instance, many of the Egyptian gods played roles in guiding the souls of the dead through the afterlife. With the evolution of writing, religious ideals were recorded and quickly spread throughout the Egyptian community. The solidification and commencement of these doctrines were formed in the creation of afterlife texts which illustrated and explained what the dead would

title: Currency Commission

text: Currency Commission The Currency Commission ("Coimisiún Airgid Reatha"), was created by the Currency Act, 1927 (Section 14) as part of the policy of the Irish Free State to create the 'Saorstát pound'. The Currency Commission commissioned the Series A Banknotes, through the advice of an advisory commission. It also issued the "Ploughman series" of banknotes for Irish banks, which were legal tender until 1953. The Chairman of the Currency Commission was Joseph Brennan. On the adoption of the Constitution of Ireland in 1937 the "Currency Commission of the Irish Free State" became the "Currency Commission of Ireland". In 1942 the

title: Currency Commission

text: Currency Commission was superseded by the Central Bank of Ireland. Currency Commission The Currency Commission ("Coimisiún Airgid Reatha"), was created by the Currency Act, 1927 (Section 14) as part of the policy of the Irish Free State to create the 'Saorstát pound'. The Currency Commission commissioned the Series A Banknotes, through the advice of an advisory commission. It also issued the "Ploughman series" of banknotes for Irish banks, which were legal tender until 1953. The Chairman of the Currency Commission was Joseph Brennan. On the adoption of the Constitution of Ireland in 1937 the "Currency Commission of the Irish Free

title: Currency converter

text: is useful when: Currency converters are often used as a means of checking the relative value of a currency before exchanging it into another currency. This is useful for the traveler because the traveler can check the value of a foreign county’s currency before exchanging money. These programs list the value of a foreign country’s currency relative to the traveler’s own currency. The currency conversion software calculates the rates as decimal point numbers with typically 4 decimals after the comma. Some may calculate the conversion rates with more decimals internally but only 4 are displayed. This is related to precision,

title: Functional currency

text: Functional currency Functional currency refers to the main currency used by a business or unit of a business. It is the monetary unit of account of the principal economic environment in which an economic entity operates. International Accounting Standards (IAS) and U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) provide rules for translation of foreign currency transactions and financial statements. SFAS 52 introduced the concept of functional currency, defined as "the currency of the primary economic environment in which the entity operates; normally, that is, the currency of the environment in which an entity primarily generates and expends cash." Businesses may enter

title: Fractional currency

text: $5 lots and were receivable in payment of all dues to the United States, up to $5. Subsequent issues would no longer include images of stamps and were referred to as Fractional Currency. Despite the July 1862 legislation, postage stamps remained a form of currency until postage currency gained momentum in the spring of 1863. In 1863, Secretary Chase asked for a new fractional currency that was harder to counterfeit than the postage currency. The new fractional currency notes were different from the 1862 postage currency issues. They were more colorful with printing on the reverse, and several anti-counterfeiting measures

title: Circulation (currency)

text: Circulation (currency) In monetary economics, circulation is the continuing use of individual units of a currency for transactions. Thus currency in circulation is the total value of currency (coins and paper currency) that has ever been issued minus the amount that has been removed from the economy by the central bank. More broadly, money in circulation is the total money supply of a country, which can be defined in various ways always including currency and also including some types of bank deposits. Standard money is the basic currency circulating within a monetary system. It has legal recognition for prices and

title: Mutilated currency

text: Mutilated currency Mutilated currency is a term used by the United States Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) to describe currency which is damaged to the point where it is difficult to determine the value of the currency, or where it is not clear that at least half of the note is present. Common causes of damage are fire, water, chemicals, explosives, animals or damage from extended burying of the currency. Replacement of mutilated currency is a free public service provided by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. In general, mutilated U.S. paper currency can be submitted for evaluation. If

title: World currency

text: a single world currency is unnecessary, because the U.S. dollar is providing many of the benefits of a world currency while avoiding some of the costs. If the world does not form an optimum currency area, then it would be economically inefficient for the world to share one currency. In the present world, nations are not able to work together closely enough to be able to produce and support a common currency. There has to be a high level of trust between different countries before a true world currency could be created. A world currency might even undermine national sovereignty

title: Currency substitution

text: currency substitution happens when a country adopts a foreign currency as its sole legal tender, and ceases to issue the domestic currency. Another effect of a country adopting a foreign currency as its own is that the country gives up all power to vary its exchange rate. There are a small number of countries adopting a foreign currency as legal tender. Full currency substitution has mostly occurred in Latin America, the Caribbean and the Pacific, as many countries in those regions see the United States Dollar as a stable currency compared to the national one. For example, Panama underwent full

title: Currency packaging

text: number of coins. Trays used to handle currency, often sorting by denomination. Currency packaging Currency packaging includes several forms of packing money for easy handling and counting. Many systems use standard color-coding or are marked to indicate the amount in the package. Currency straps, also known as currency bands or bill straps, are a type of fastener used to secure discrete numbers of bills. Typically, currency bands have attached ends so bills are "curled" and slipped into the band whereas currency straps contain adhesive on the ends to secure them around the bills after wrapping. Generated bundles are packed together

title: Currency swap

text: have different levels of access to funds in different currencies and therefore their funding costs are not always equal to LIBOR. An approach to work around this is to select one currency as the funding currency (e.g. USD), and select one curve in this currency as the discount curve (e.g. USD interest rate swap curve against 3M LIBOR). Cashflows in the funding currency are discounted on this curve. Cashflows in any other currency are first swapped into the funding currency via a cross currency swap and then discounted. XCSs expose users to many different types of financial risk. Predominantly they

title: Currency substitution

text: regimes to promote global economic stability, and hence their own prosperity. Countries usually peg their currency to a major convertible currency. "Hard pegs" are exchange rate regimes that demonstrate a stronger commitment to a fixed parity (i.e. currency boards) or relinquish control over their own currency (such as currency unions) while "soft pegs" are more flexible and floating exchange rate regimes. The collapse of "soft" pegs in Southeast Asia and Latin America in the late 1990s led to currency substitution becoming a serious policy issue. A few cases of full currency substitution prior to 1999 had been the consequence of

title: Currency manipulator

text: Currency manipulator Currency manipulator is a popular term used to indicate countries that manipulate the rate of exchange for purposes of preventing effective balance of payments adjustment or gaining unfair competitive advantage in international trade or simply a country that intervenes in its foreign exchange market. Currency manipulation or currency intervention is a monetary policy operation which occurs when a government or central bank buys or sells foreign currency in exchange for their own domestic currency, generally with the intention of influencing the exchange rate and trade policy. Policymakers may have different reasons for currency manipulation, such as controlling inflation,

title: Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian

text: value corresponding to each of these phonemes. The table below gives a list of such "uniliteral signs" along with their conventional transcription and their conventional "Egyptological pronunciation" and probably phonetic value. It is possible that two phonemes /s/ and /z/ in Old Egyptian were merged in the Middle Egyptian stage. Similarly, there are a number of hieroglyphs that may have been biliteral in Old Egyptian which were reduced to "uniliteral" phonetic value in Middle Egyptian. Many hieroglyphs are coloured, though the paint has worn off most stone inscriptions. Colors vary, but many glyphs are predominantly one colour or another, or

title: Ancient Egyptian literature

text: of Egyptian civilization. By the Early Dynastic Period in the late 4th millennium BC, Egyptian hieroglyphs and their cursive form hieratic were well-established written scripts. Egyptian hieroglyphs are small artistic pictures of natural objects. For example, the hieroglyph for door-bolt, pronounced "se", produced the "s" sound; when this hieroglyph was combined with another or multiple hieroglyphs, it produced a combination of sounds that could represent abstract concepts like sorrow, happiness, beauty, and evil. The Narmer Palette, dated "c". 3100 BC during the last phase of Predynastic Egypt, combines the hieroglyphs for catfish and chisel to produce the name of King

title: The Egyptian Gazette

text: newspaper's offices were moved to the Egyptian capital on 20 February 1938. Shortly before World War II, ownership of "The Egyptian Gazette" passed to the "Société Orientale de Publicité" (SOP) (), in which Oswald J. Finney, a wealthy British businessman, was the major shareholder. "The Egyptian Gazette" found itself associated with "The Egyptian Mail", another English-language Egyptian newspaper, founded in 1914, and also owned by the SOP. The market was split between the two dailies, with the "Mail" appearing in the morning, and the "Gazette" in the evening. At the end of the war and with the departure of most

title: Currency

text: of tax evasion. Local currencies can also come into being when there is economic turmoil involving the national currency. An example of this is the Argentinian economic crisis of 2002 in which IOUs issued by local governments quickly took on some of the characteristics of local currencies. One of the best examples of a local currency is the original LETS currency, founded on Vancouver Island in the early 1980s. In 1982, the Canadian Central Bank’s lending rates ran up to 14% which drove chartered bank lending rates as high as 19%. The resulting currency and credit scarcity left island residents

title: Currency

text: Several countries can use the same name for their own separate currencies (for example, "dollar" in Australia, Canada and the United States). By contrast, several countries can also use the same currency (for example, the euro or the CFA franc), or one country can declare the currency of another country to be legal tender. For example, Panama and El Salvador have declared US currency to be legal tender, and from 1791 to 1857, Spanish silver coins were legal tender in the United States. At various times countries have either re-stamped foreign coins, or used currency board issuing one note of

title: Currency

text: with few options other than to create a local currency. The following table are estimates of the 15 most frequently used currencies in world payments from 2012 to 2018 by SWIFT. Related concepts Accounting units Lists Currency A currency (from , "in circulation", from ), in the most specific use of the word, refers to money in any form when in actual use or circulation as a medium of exchange, especially circulating banknotes and coins. A more general definition is that a currency is a "system of money" (monetary units) in common use, especially in a nation. Under this definition,

title: Currency

text: 5 khoums, while the Malagasy ariary is theoretically divided into 5 iraimbilanja. In these countries, words like "dollar" or "pound" "were simply names for given weights of gold." Due to inflation khoums and iraimbilanja have in practice fallen into disuse. (See non-decimal currencies for other historic currencies with non-decimal divisions.) Convertibility of a currency determines the ability of an individual, corporate or government to convert its local currency to another currency or vice versa with or without central bank/government intervention. Based on the above restrictions or free and readily conversion features, currencies are classified as: In economics, a local currency

title: Currency

text: Currency A currency (from , "in circulation", from ), in the most specific use of the word, refers to money in any form when in actual use or circulation as a medium of exchange, especially circulating banknotes and coins. A more general definition is that a currency is a "system of money" (monetary units) in common use, especially in a nation. Under this definition, US dollars, British pounds, Australian dollars, European euros and Russian ruble are examples of currency. These various currencies are recognized as stores of value and are traded between nations in foreign exchange markets, which determine the

title: Black Egyptian hypothesis

text: frequently criticized "Journal of African Civilizations" has continually advocated that Egypt should be viewed as a Black civilization. The debate was popularized throughout the 20th century by the aforementioned scholars, with many of them using the terms "Black", "African", and "Egyptian" interchangeably, despite what Frank Snowden calls "copious ancient evidence to the contrary". In the mid 20th century, the proponents of the Black African theory presented what G. Mokhtar referred to as "extensive" and "painstakingly researched" evidence to support their views, which contrasted sharply with prevailing views on Ancient Egyptian society. Diop and others believed the prevailing views were fueled

title: Currency pair

text: a dot or a dash. A widely traded currency pair is the relation of the euro against the US dollar, designated as EUR/USD. The quotation "EUR/USD 1.2500" means that one euro is exchanged for 1.2500 US dollars. Here, EUR is the base currency and USD is the quote currency(counter currency). This means that 1 Euro can be exchangeable to 1.25 US Dollars. The most traded currency pairs in the world are called the "Majors". They involve the currencies euro, US dollar, Japanese yen, pound sterling, Australian dollar, Canadian dollar, and the Swiss franc. Currency quotations use the abbreviations for currencies

title: World currency

text: World currency In the foreign exchange market and international finance, a world currency, supranational currency, or global currency is a currency that is transacted internationally, with no set borders. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the use of silver Spanish dollars or "pieces of eight" spread from the Spanish territories in the Americas westwards to Asia and eastwards to Europe, forming the first worldwide currency. Spain's political supremacy on the world stage, the importance of Spanish commercial routes across the Atlantic and the Pacific, and the coin's quality and purity of silver helped it become internationally accepted for over two

title: Currency substitution

text: currency will be satisfied in the holding of foreign currency assets abroad and outside the domestic banking system. This demand often puts pressure on the parallel market of foreign currency and on the country's international reserves. Evidence for this pattern is given in the absence of currency substitution during the pre-reform period in most transition economies, because of constricted controls on foreign exchange and the banking system. In contrary, by facilitating the domestic holding of foreign currency, a country might mitigate the shift of assets abroad and strengthen its external reserves in exchange for a currency substitution process. However, the

title: Reserve currency

text: and long-term international objectives when a national currency also serves as a world reserve currency. The IMF regularly publishes the aggregated "Currency Composition of Foreign Exchange Reserves" (COFER). The reserves of the individual reporting countries and institutions are confidential. Thus the following table is a limited view about the global currency reserves that only deals with allocated reserves: Economists debate whether a single reserve currency will always dominate the global economy. Many have recently argued that one currency will almost always dominate due to network externalities (sometimes called "the network effect"), especially in the field of invoicing trade and denominating

title: Currency substitution

text: in a context of stable macroeconomic fundamentals and long-standing unofficial currency substitution. The eurozone adopted the euro (€) as its common currency and sole legal tender in 1999, which might be considered a variety of full-commitment regime similar to full currency substitution despite some evident differences from other currency substitutions. For more on dollarisation, cf. Fields, David, and Matías Vernengo. "Dollarization." The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization (2013). There are two common indicators of currency substitution. The first measure is the share of foreign currency deposits (FCD) in the domestic banking system in the broad money including FCD. The second is

title: Currency overlay

text: Currency overlay Currency overlay is a financial trading strategy or method conducted by specialist firms who manage the currency exposures of large clients, typically institutions such as pension funds, endowments and corporate entities. Typically the institution will have a pre-existing exposure to foreign currencies, and will be seeking to: The currency overlay manager will conduct foreign-exchange hedging on their behalf, selectively placing and removing hedges to achieve the objectives of the client. Many types of currency overlay accounts are more focused on the speculative aspect, i.e. profiting from currency movements. These so-called 'pure alpha mandates' are set up to allow

title: Fictional currency

text: form of electronic money. In science fiction set in the near future, modern currency names are often used. The selection of familiar currencies such as the dollar or yen, particularly in the far future, may be used to make suggestions about the way history unfolded; however, it would seem strange for aliens to use a recognizable currency. Fictional currency A fictional currency is some form of currency defined, or alluded to, in works of fiction. The names of units of such currency are sometimes based on extant or historic currencies (e.g. "Altairian dollars" or "Earth yen") while other names, such