query: what is the currency of spain called?

title: History of the Spain national football team

text: Liechtenstein. In the final tournament, Spain won its three matches in group B, against Slovenia, Paraguay (both by a score of 3–1) and South Africa (3–2). Spain beat the Republic of Ireland on penalties in the second round, and faced co-hosts South Korea in the quarter-finals. In what is considered a highly controversial match, Spain eventually lost in a penalty shootout after having two goals called back for alleged infractions during regular and extra time. At Euro 2004, Spain was drawn into group A with hosts Portugal, Russia and Greece, behind whom they had finished second in qualifying. Spain defeated

title: Currency pair

text: a dot or a dash. A widely traded currency pair is the relation of the euro against the US dollar, designated as EUR/USD. The quotation "EUR/USD 1.2500" means that one euro is exchanged for 1.2500 US dollars. Here, EUR is the base currency and USD is the quote currency(counter currency). This means that 1 Euro can be exchangeable to 1.25 US Dollars. The most traded currency pairs in the world are called the "Majors". They involve the currencies euro, US dollar, Japanese yen, pound sterling, Australian dollar, Canadian dollar, and the Swiss franc. Currency quotations use the abbreviations for currencies

title: Economic history of Spain

text: the European community ever since. The country was a leading proponent of the EU single currency, the euro, long before it had been put into circulation. Together with the other founding euro members, it adopted the new physical currency on January 1, 2002. On that date Spain terminated its historic peseta currency and replaced it with the euro, which has become its national currency shared the rest of the Eurozone. This culminated a fast process of economic modernization even though the strength of the euro since its adoption has raised concerns regarding the fact that Spanish exports outside the European

title: Yuan (currency)

text: code for renminbi is CNY, an abbreviation of "Chinese yuan". (A similar case is the use of the terms "sterling" to designate British currency and "pound" for the unit of account.) The symbol for the yuan (元) is also used in Chinese to refer to the currency units of Japan "(yen)" and Korea "(won)", and is used to translate the currency unit "dollar" as well as some other currencies; for example, the United States dollar is called "Meiyuan" () in Chinese, and the euro is called "Ouyuan" (). When used in English in the context of the modern foreign exchange

title: Currency pair

text: = Cable = GBP/USD. The currency pairs that do not involve USD are called "cross currency pairs", such as GBP/JPY. Pairs that involve the euro are often called "euro crosses", such as EUR/GBP. Currencies are traded in fixed contract sizes, specifically called lot sizes, or multiples thereof. The standard lot size is 100,000 units. Many retail trading firms also offer 10,000-unit (mini lot) trading accounts and a few even 1,000-unit (micro lot). The officially quoted rate is a spot price. In a trading market however, currencies are offered for sale at an offering price (the "ask price"), and traders looking

title: Reserve currency

text: became a world reserve currency on November 30, 2015. It represents 10.92% of the IMF's Special Drawing Rights currency basket. This makes Chinese yuan the third reserve currency after the US dollar and Euro. A report released by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development in 2010, called for abandoning the U.S. dollar as the single major reserve currency. The report states that the new reserve system should not be based on a single currency or even multiple national currencies but instead permit the emission of international liquidity to create a more stable global financial system. Countries such as

title: History of Spain

text: social mores. From 1982 until 1996, the social democratic PSOE governed the country, with Felipe González as prime minister. In 1986, Spain joined the European Economic Community (EEC, now European Union), and the country hosted the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona and Seville Expo '92. In 1996, the centre-right "Partido Popular" government came to power, led by José María Aznar. On 1 January 1999, Spain exchanged the "peseta" for the new Euro currency. The peseta continued to be used for cash transactions until January 1, 2002. On 11 March 2004 a number of terrorist bombs exploded on busy commuter trains

title: Gulden (digital currency)

text: this currency came from Rijk Plasman with the first working implementation released on the 4th April 2014. Initially called the “Guldencoin”, this was subsequently abbreviated in October 2015 to “Gulden”. The name Gulden comes from the German and Dutch term for “gold coin” and is the Dutch name of the Dutch guilder, the pre-euro currency of the Netherlands. The Gulden currency can be mined which is a means of creating new Gulden by using software, quite often on specially designed computers. It can also be traded on a financial market or exchange in the same way as common commodities and

title: What Is This Thing Called Love?

text: What Is This Thing Called Love? "What Is This Thing Called Love?" is a 1929 popular song written by Cole Porter, for the musical "Wake Up and Dream". It was first performed by Elsie Carlisle in March 1929. The song has become a popular jazz standard and one of Porter's most often played compositions. "Wake Up and Dream" ran for 263 shows in London. The show was also noticed in New York, and the critics praised Tilly Losch's performance of the song. The show was produced on Broadway in December 1929; in the American rendition, "What Is This Thing Called

title: What Is This Thing Called Love?

text: forms the basis of several jazz compositions (contrafact), such as "Hot House" by Tadd Dameron What Is This Thing Called Love? "What Is This Thing Called Love?" is a 1929 popular song written by Cole Porter, for the musical "Wake Up and Dream". It was first performed by Elsie Carlisle in March 1929. The song has become a popular jazz standard and one of Porter's most often played compositions. "Wake Up and Dream" ran for 263 shows in London. The show was also noticed in New York, and the critics praised Tilly Losch's performance of the song. The show was

title: What Is This Thing Called Love? (short story)

text: other, and wind up engaging in reproductive activities after all. What Is This Thing Called Love? (short story) "What Is This Thing Called Love?" is a science fiction short story by Isaac Asimov. The story was requested by Cele Goldsmith Lalli, editor of "Amazing Stories", as a satire of an article in "Playboy" called "Girls of the Slime God" which had suggested that pulp science fiction stories were concerned with aliens and sex. The story appeared in the March 1961 issue of "Amazing" as "Playboy and the Slime God", but Asimov later retitled it "What Is This Thing Called Love?"

text: What Is This Thing Called Love? (short story) "What Is This Thing Called Love?" is a science fiction short story by Isaac Asimov. The story was requested by Cele Goldsmith Lalli, editor of "Amazing Stories", as a satire of an article in "Playboy" called "Girls of the Slime God" which had suggested that pulp science fiction stories were concerned with aliens and sex. The story appeared in the March 1961 issue of "Amazing" as "Playboy and the Slime God", but Asimov later retitled it "What Is This Thing Called Love?" According to Asimov, in "1938-39 ... for some half a

title: What Is This Thing Called Love? (Alexander O'Neal song)

text: the United States, the single reached #21 on Billboard's Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks. Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes. What Is This Thing Called Love? (Alexander O'Neal song) "What Is This Thing Called Love?" is a song written by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis and recorded by American recording artist Alexander O'Neal. It is the second single from the singer's fourth solo album, "All True Man" (1991). The song's distinctive backing vocals were performed by Lisa Keith. Following the successful chart performances of the "All True Man" single "All True Man", "What Is This Thing Called Love?"

text: What Is This Thing Called Love? (Alexander O'Neal song) "What Is This Thing Called Love?" is a song written by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis and recorded by American recording artist Alexander O'Neal. It is the second single from the singer's fourth solo album, "All True Man" (1991). The song's distinctive backing vocals were performed by Lisa Keith. Following the successful chart performances of the "All True Man" single "All True Man", "What Is This Thing Called Love?" was released as the album's second single. Alexander O'Neal's 19th hit single and it reached #53 in the UK Singles Chart. In

title: Currency of Uruguay

text: Currency of Uruguay This is an outline of Uruguay's monetary history. For the present currency of Uruguay, see Uruguayan peso. Uruguay's currency was initially that common to all of Spanish America. During the struggle over this region, initially between Spain and Portugal, then between Argentina and Brazil, the coinage of both contestants circulated. When the area was annexed to Brazil in 1821 as Provincia Cisplatina, the Portuguese (Brazilian) administration put notes of Banco do Brazil into circulation. This was the first paper money to circulate in Uruguay. Then, in 1826–1828, Argentine troops fighting against Brazil were paid in one-peso notes

title: International Convention for the Suppression of Counterfeiting Currency

text: International Convention for the Suppression of Counterfeiting Currency The International Convention for the Suppression of Counterfeiting Currency () is a 1929 League of Nations treaty whereby states agree to criminalise acts of currency counterfeiting. It remains the principal international agreement on currency counterfeiting. States that ratify the Convention agree to criminalise the creation, use, and exportation or importation of counterfeit currency. Under the agreement, no distinction is to be made as to what currency is the subject of the crime. Under the treaty, currency counterfeiting is an extraditable offence. States also agree to establish a central office that will forward

title: Digital currency

text: addition, over 90 central banks are engaged in DLT discussions, including implications of a central bank issued digital currency. In March 2018, the Marshall Islands became the first country to issue their own cryptocurrency and certify it as legal tender; the currency is called the "sovereign". Canada The Bank of Canada have explored the possibility of creating a version of its currency on the blockchain. The Bank of Canada teamed up with the nation’s five largest banks — and the blockchain consulting firm R3 — for what was known as Project Jasper. In a simulation run in 2016, the central

title: Currency pair

text: Currency pair A currency pair is the quotation of the relative value of a currency unit against the unit of another currency in the foreign exchange market. The currency that is used as the reference is called the counter currency, quote currency or currency and the currency that is quoted in relation is called the base currency or transaction currency. Currency pairs are generally written by concatenating the ISO currency codes (ISO 4217) of the base currency and the counter currency, and then separating the two codes with a slash. Alternatively the slash may be omitted, or replaced by either

title: Currency of Colombia

text: Currency of Colombia Currency in Colombia has been used since 1622. It was in that year, under a licence purchased from King Philip III of Spain, that Turrillo de Yebra established a mint at Santa Fe de Bogotá and a branch mint at Cartagena de las Indias, where gold cobs were produced as part of Colombia's first currency. Silver milled coins date from 1627. In 1831, Gran Colombia dissolved into Venezuela and New Granada. In 1836, in New Granada, new monetary laws were passed, to standardise the money produced in the country. From 1861-1862, due to financial instability, the United

title: Currency of Ecuador

text: INDUSTRIA" around the circumference, making the coin more difficult to counterfeit. Poor quality and counterfeit coin from Colombia and Bolivia entered circulation in Ecuador, and the coins produced by the Quito mint had many flaws, so that currency standards were difficult to maintain. The use of merchant tokens became widespread. In an attempt to end the use of tokens, the government introduced a cuartillo (1/4 real) in 1842. The cuartillo was 333 fine and was called a "calé" (the name given in Spain to the 4-maravedí coin and which in Ecuador came to be applied to any small coin of

title: Currency of Spanish America

text: Currency of Spanish America This article provides an outline of the currency of Spanish America ("las Indias", the Indies) from Spanish colonization in the 15th century until Spanish American independencies in the 19th. This great realm was divided into the Viceroyalty of New Spain (capital: Mexico City), which came to include all Spanish territory north of Panama, the West Indies, Venezuela, and the Philippines, and the Viceroyalty of Peru (capital: Lima), which included Panama and all Spanish territory in South America except Venezuela. The monetary system of Spanish America, originally identical to that of Spain, soon diverged and took on

title: Currency of Spanish America

title: Currency board

text: Helena continue to operate currency boards, backing their locally printed currency notes with pound sterling reserves. A gold standard is a special case of a currency board where the value of the national currency is linked to the value of gold instead of a foreign currency. For a precise definition of what constitutes a currency board, including past examples, see: Currency board A currency board is a monetary authority which is required to maintain a fixed exchange rate with a foreign currency. This policy objective requires the conventional objectives of a central bank to be subordinated to the exchange rate

text: with aliens and sex. According to Asimov the article was mostly based on "Marvel" since its contents had been the raciest. Cele Goldsmith Lalli, editor of "Amazing Stories", requested a satire of the "Playboy" article. Asimov set out to write a story telling how a sex-interested alien and humans might "really" interact. The story appeared in the March 1961 issue of "Amazing" as "Playboy and the Slime God", but when Asimov included it in his 1969 collection "Nightfall and Other Stories" he retitled it "What Is This Thing Called Love?" Goldsmith Lalli rewrote the story's last three paragraphs, a change

title: The purpose of a system is what it does

text: be balanced by a more straightforwardly descriptive view. The term is used in many fields including biology and management. The purpose of a system is what it does The purpose of a system is what it does (POSIWID) is a systems thinking heuristic coined by Stafford Beer. Stafford Beer coined the term POSIWID and used it many times in public addresses. In his address to the University of Valladolid, Spain, in October 2001, he said "According to the cybernetician, the purpose of a system is what it does. This is a basic dictum. It stands for bald fact, which makes

title: The purpose of a system is what it does

text: The purpose of a system is what it does The purpose of a system is what it does (POSIWID) is a systems thinking heuristic coined by Stafford Beer. Stafford Beer coined the term POSIWID and used it many times in public addresses. In his address to the University of Valladolid, Spain, in October 2001, he said "According to the cybernetician, the purpose of a system is what it does. This is a basic dictum. It stands for bald fact, which makes a better starting point in seeking understanding than the familiar attributions of good intention, prejudices about expectations, moral judgment,

title: What Is the What

text: What Is the What What Is the What: The Autobiography of Valentino Achak Deng is a 2006 novel written by Dave Eggers. It is based on the life of Valentino Achak Deng, a Sudanese child refugee who immigrated to the United States under the Lost Boys of Sudan program. It was a finalist for the National Book Award. As a boy, Achak is separated from his family during the Second Sudanese Civil War when the Arab militia, referred to as "murahaleen" (which is Arabic for the deported), wipes out his Dinka village, Marial Bai. During the assault, he loses sight

title: What Is the What

text: That Happens Will Happen Today". Tom Tykwer plans to adapt the novel into a film. In 2009, the novel received the Prix Médicis étranger in France. What Is the What What Is the What: The Autobiography of Valentino Achak Deng is a 2006 novel written by Dave Eggers. It is based on the life of Valentino Achak Deng, a Sudanese child refugee who immigrated to the United States under the Lost Boys of Sudan program. It was a finalist for the National Book Award. As a boy, Achak is separated from his family during the Second Sudanese Civil War when

title: Currency of Colombia

text: fixed IMF parity and introduced a fluctuating free market rate on 13 May 1955, set initially at 4.17 per US dollar. There was steady deterioration of the exchange rate; an attempt to hold it at 13.50 per US dollar in 1966 failed. The annual average fell to 31.20 per dollar in 1975, 47.28 per in 1980, 142.31 per in 1985, 502.26 per in 1990, and 988 per in 1995. Currency of Colombia Currency in Colombia has been used since 1622. It was in that year, under a licence purchased from King Philip III of Spain, that Turrillo de Yebra established

title: Currency lads and lasses

text: of illegality, inferior quality, and subordination. By analogy, native-born colonials came to be known as "currency", in contrast to the British-born "sterling". The first reference in print to the native-born being called "currency" was in the "Sydney Gazette" of 13 September 1822, in a letter signed by "Lydia Languish" calling for more social events to be organised for "currency lasses". As applied to people rather money, the term originally had derogatory connotations – by the early 1820s, "currency had stuck for male and female native-born and everyone knew what it implied". However, it was soon reclaimed by the native-born as

title: Local currency

text: in Canada and over 400 in the United Kingdom. Australia, France, New Zealand, and Switzerland have similar systems. Kenya: Senegal: South Africa: Japan: Hong Kong: Indonesia: Malaysia: Bangladesh [Chandpur Chittagonj Dhaka] Australia: Canada: "See List of Canadian community currencies"<br> Mexico: United States: "See List of community currencies in the United States" Argentina: Brazil: Venezuela: Austria: Belgium: Czech Republic: Denmark: France: Germany: Hungary: Greece: Italy: Latvia: Malta: Netherlands: Russia: Slovakia: Spain: Switzerland: Ukraine: United Kingdom: [[Category:Local currencies| ]] [[Category:Freiwirtschaft]] [[Category:Localism (politics)]] [[Category:Monetary reform]] [[Category:Community building]] Local currency In economics, a local currency is a currency that can be spent in a

title: What Is Love

text: at number two in the United Kingdom and Germany and hit number one in 13 other countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland and Zimbabwe. Debuting at number 87 on 28 August 1993, the song reached number 11 on the Hot 100 in the United States. The song also peaked at number 12 in Australia. By March 1994, worldwide sales of "What Is Love" had already reached 2.6 million. When asked about the meaning of "What Is Love" in a 2015 interview, Haddaway said: "Billboard" wrote about the song: "Glorious pop/house ditty recently topped

title: Khaleeji (currency)

text: union in 2001 and 2003. The terms of what would be called the "GCC Monetary Agreement" followed shortly after that, with the convergence criteria of the single currency being decided in 2005. Oman became the first state to pull out of the union, in 2006, and the UAE, in 2009, the second and so far last state to withdraw from this tentative agreement to create a single Gulf currency. Originally slated for adoption in 2010, Nasser al-Kaud, deputy assistant general for economic affairs at the GCC, admitted on March 24, 2009, that this deadline for establishment of the monetary union

title: Currency strength

text: on moves in correlated instruments (for example CAD/OIL or AUD/GOLD); look for a strong trend in one currency; and observe most of the forex market in one chart. Typical examples of indicators based on currency strength are relative currency strength and absolute currency strength (percentage). Their combination is called the "Forex Flow indicator", because you are able to see the whole currency flow across the forex market. Currency strength Currency strength expresses the value of currency. For economists, it is often calculated as purchasing power, while for financial traders, it can be described as an indicator, reflecting many factors related

title: Currency War of 2009–11

text: seen substantial appreciation of their currencies in 2010. However both Australia and Canada have strong economies and are rich in natural resources. According to Moody's, negative effects from New Zealand's appreciation is offset by the fact that her currency has depreciated with respect to Australia, her biggest customer. The Eurozone is a special case where some members, principally Germany, enjoy a large current account surplus and so could accept or even benefit from currency appreciation. Other countries though such as Greece, Spain, Portugal and Ireland have twin deficits and so to a large extent would benefit from a depreciation. While

title: Currency crisis

text: Currency crisis A currency crisis is a situation in which serious doubt exists as to whether a country's central bank has sufficient foreign exchange reserves to maintain the country's fixed exchange rate. The crisis is often accompanied by a speculative attack in the foreign exchange market. A currency crisis results from chronic balance of payments deficits, and thus is also called a balance of payments crisis. Often such a crisis culminates in a devaluation of the currency. A currency crisis is a type of financial crisis, and is often associated with a real economic crisis. A currency crisis raises the

title: Currency of Spanish America

text: difference was that coins minted in America were inscribed REX HISPANIARVM ET INDIARVM (king of the Spains and the Indies), while those minted in Spain had only REX HISPANIARVM. The major difference was that vellón or copper coins were not minted for circulation in the Spanish American colonies, while after 1602 the currency of Spain itself consisted chiefly of copper coin. Although Mexico and Peru were the chief source of the world's silver, after 1620 silver was always at a premium in Spain and vellón constituted the accounting unit and the chief medium of exchange (the cuarto also became a

title: Currency of Spanish America

text: of vellón coin in Spain had driven gold and silver from circulation. After the failure of numerous attempts to correct this situation, the currency finally underwent a major reform on October 14, 1686, when Spain devalued silver by ≈20% and adopted a dual coinage standard. The old silver standard ("plata vieja") was maintained in the American colonies, but a new devalued silver ("plata nueva") was adopted for circulation in Spain itself. The old piece of eight was valued at 10 reales of the new silver coin. The new 8-real coin was known as "peso sencillo", the old piece of eight

title: Currency analytics

text: to forecasted cash flows and don’t allow hedging economic risk. Currency analytics allow companies to mitigate cash flow risk by uncovering accounting exposures to match the economic exposures so the company can hedge the accounting exposure as a proxy. Currency analytics enable what/if scenario analysis so companies can model how volatility in particular currencies could impact their revenue and expenses in the future. Currency analytics Companies that do business in more than one currency are exposed to exchange rate risk – that is, changes in the value of one currency versus another. Exchange rate risk (also known as foreign exchange

title: Languages of Spain

text: area sometimes called "Valley of Jálama/Xálima", which includes the towns of San Martín de Trevejo ("Sa Martin de Trevellu"), Eljas ("As Elhas") and Valverde del Fresno ("Valverdi du Fresnu"), in the northwestern corner of Cáceres province, Extremadura. Portuguese proper is still spoken by local people in three border areas: In addition to the languages which continue to be spoken in Spain to the present day, other languages which have been spoken within what are now the borders of Spain include: Languages that are now chiefly spoken outside Spain but which have roots in Spain are: There are also variants of

title: Virtual currency

text: to its regulations defining currency as "the coin and paper money of the United States or of any other country that [i] is designated as legal tender and that [ii] circulates and [iii] is customarily used and accepted as a medium of exchange in the country of issuance", also called "real currency" by FinCEN, defined virtual currency as "a medium of exchange that operates like a currency in some environments, but does not have all the attributes of real currency". In particular, virtual currency does not have legal tender status in any jurisdiction. In 2014, the European Banking Authority defined

title: Currency Act

text: the debt from King William’s War. Other colonies quickly followed suit, and by 1715 ten of the thirteen had resorted to the issuance of paper currency. Economist Stanley Finkelstein highlights the advantage of paper currency, “that unless it is backed by specie it is cost free currency.” The paper currency depreciated quickly because the colonies printed more than what was taxed out of circulation. By 1740, Rhode Island bills of exchange were only four percent of face value and those of Massachusetts were eleven percent. The money supply was growing at a much faster rate than that of the overall

title: Currency crisis

text: crisis as a 'balance of payments crisis' are changing the meaning of the term. Currency crisis A currency crisis is a situation in which serious doubt exists as to whether a country's central bank has sufficient foreign exchange reserves to maintain the country's fixed exchange rate. The crisis is often accompanied by a speculative attack in the foreign exchange market. A currency crisis results from chronic balance of payments deficits, and thus is also called a balance of payments crisis. Often such a crisis culminates in a devaluation of the currency. A currency crisis is a type of financial crisis,

title: Currency union

text: Currency union A currency union (also known as monetary union) involves two or more states sharing the same currency without them necessarily having any further integration (such as an economic and monetary union, which would have, in addition, a customs union and a single market). Three types of currency unions exist: The theory of the optimal currency area addresses the question of how to determine what geographical regions should share a currency in order to maximize economic efficiency. Note: Every customs and monetary union and economic and monetary union also has a currency union. Additionally the autonomous and dependent territories,

title: Office of the Comptroller of the Currency

text: Office of the Comptroller of the Currency The Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) is an independent bureau within the United States Department of the Treasury that was established by the National Currency Act of 1863 and serves to charter, regulate, and supervise all national banks and thrift institutions and the federally licensed branches and agencies of foreign banks in the United States. The Comptroller of the Currency is Joseph Otting. Headquartered in Washington, D.C., it has four district offices located in New York City, Chicago, Dallas and Denver. It has an additional 48 field offices throughout the

title: Reserve currency

text: and long-term international objectives when a national currency also serves as a world reserve currency. The IMF regularly publishes the aggregated "Currency Composition of Foreign Exchange Reserves" (COFER). The reserves of the individual reporting countries and institutions are confidential. Thus the following table is a limited view about the global currency reserves that only deals with allocated reserves: Economists debate whether a single reserve currency will always dominate the global economy. Many have recently argued that one currency will almost always dominate due to network externalities (sometimes called "the network effect"), especially in the field of invoicing trade and denominating

title: Currency overlay

text: Currency overlay Currency overlay is a financial trading strategy or method conducted by specialist firms who manage the currency exposures of large clients, typically institutions such as pension funds, endowments and corporate entities. Typically the institution will have a pre-existing exposure to foreign currencies, and will be seeking to: The currency overlay manager will conduct foreign-exchange hedging on their behalf, selectively placing and removing hedges to achieve the objectives of the client. Many types of currency overlay accounts are more focused on the speculative aspect, i.e. profiting from currency movements. These so-called 'pure alpha mandates' are set up to allow

title: Currency manipulator

text: shows that “an increase of one percentage in the share of congressional district labour force in manufacturing is associated with a 19.6% increase in the likelihood that the district legislator will label China a ‘currency manipulator’” One of the countries that most called out as a currency manipulator is China. A decade ago, most economists agreed that China’s currency was undervalued, but whether it can be labelled as a currency manipulator depends on the used criteria. For example, conclude that China’s currency intervention policies are not in international law, i.e. Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and

title: Currency strength index

text: currency strength. Their combination is called the "Forex Flow indicator", because you are able to see the whole currency flow across the forex market. Indicator JSGIC [ https://www.facebook.com/javiersantiago.gastondeiriartecabrera ] Currency strength index Currency strength index expresses the index value of currency. For economists, it is often calculated as purchasing power, while for financial traders, it can be described as an indicator, reflecting many factors related to the currency; for example, fundamental data, overall economic performance or interest rates. It can also be calculated from currency in relation to other currencies, usually using a pre-defined currency basket. A typical example of

title: Virtual currency

text: The virtual currency is akin to a coupon. Examples are frequent flyer programs by various airlines, Microsoft Points, Nintendo Points, Facebook Credits and Amazon Coin. A virtual currency that can be bought with and sold back for legal tender is called a convertible currency. It can be decentralized, as for example bitcoin. FinCEN defined centralized virtual currencies in 2013 as virtual currencies that have a "centralized repository", similar to a central bank, and a "central administrator". A decentralized currency was defined by the US Department of Treasury as a "currency (1) that has no central repository and no single administrator,

title: Port of Spain

text: of Port of Spain, at what is still called Invaders Bay, and marched towards the town. Realising his military resources were inadequate to defend the colony and wishing to avoid unnecessary destruction, Governor Chacón capitulated and was able to negotiate generous terms with Abercromby. Port of Spain remained the capital; the new British colonial government renamed most of the streets after British royalty or military figures, but allowed Chacón Street (which followed the old course of the St. Ann's River) to retain its name, in tribute to the former governor. In 1803, Port of Spain began growing southwards, with the

title: What Is the What

text: writes: "Over the course of many years, Dave and I have collaborated to tell my story... I told [him] what I knew and what I could remember, and from that material he created this work of art." The book is typical of Eggers' style: blending non-fictional and fictional elements into a non-fiction novel or memoir. By classifying the book a novel, Eggers says, he freed himself to re-create conversations, streamline complex relationships, add relevant detail and manipulate time and space in helpful ways—all while maintaining the essential truthfulness of the storytelling. However, not all critics were impressed. Lee Siegel sees

title: Currency substitution

text: may reduce the possibility of systematic liquidity shortages and the optimal reserves in the banking system. Research has shown that official currency substitution has played a significant role in improving bank liquidity and asset quality in Ecuador and El Salvador. High and unanticipated inflation rates decrease the demand for domestic money and raise the demand for alternative assets, including foreign currency and assets dominated by foreign currency. This phenomenon is called the "flight from domestic money". It results in a rapid and sizable process of currency substitution. In countries with high inflation rates, the domestic currency tends to be gradually

title: Pound (currency)

text: formerly belonging to the Ottoman Empire, are called "pound" in English, while in the local languages their official name is "lira". The pound sterling is also the currency of the British Overseas Territories of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, British Antarctic Territory and British Indian Ocean Territory. All of the following currencies have been replaced by the US dollar. Pound (currency) The pound is a unit of currency in some nations. The term originated in the Frankish Empire as a result of Charlemagne's currency reform ("pound" from Latin "pondus", a unity of weight) and was subsequently taken to

title: Digital currency

text: bitcoin is a digital currency but also a type of virtual currency. Bitcoin and its alternatives are based on cryptographic algorithms, so these kinds of virtual currencies are also called cryptocurrencies. Most of the traditional money supply is bank money held on computers. This is also considered digital currency. One could argue that our increasingly cashless society means that all currencies are becoming digital, but they are not presented to us as such. Currency can be exchanged electronically using debit cards and credit cards using electronic funds transfer at point of sale. A number of electronic money systems use contactless

title: Currency

text: order to remove the confusion that there are dozens of currencies called the dollar and many called the franc. Even the pound is used in nearly a dozen different countries; most of these are tied to the Pound Sterling, while the remainder have varying values. In general, the three-letter code uses the ISO 3166-1 country code for the first two letters and the first letter of the name of the currency (D for dollar, for instance) as the third letter. United States currency, for instance is globally referred to as USD. The International Monetary Fund uses a variant system when

title: Currency swap

text: who will pass it on to the American company so it can pay its U.S. bondholders. At maturity, the American company will pay £100 million to the swap bank who will pass it on to the British company so it can pay its British bondholders. It is well recognized that traditional "textbook" theory does not price cross currency (basis) swaps correctly, because it assumes the funding cost in each currency to be equal to its floating rate, thus always giving a zero cross currency spread. This is clearly contrary to what is observed in the market. In reality, market participants

title: Currency-counting machine

text: Currency-counting machine A currency-counting machine is a machine that counts money—either stacks of banknotes or loose collections of coins. Counters may be purely mechanical or use electronic components. The machines typically provide a total count of all money, or count off specific batch sizes for wrapping and storage. Currency counters are commonly used in vending machines to determine what amount of money has been deposited by customers. In some modern automated teller machines, currency counters allow for cash deposits without envelopes, since they can identify which bills have been inserted instead of just how many. The user is given the

title: What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?

text: What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July? "What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?" is the title now given to a speech by Frederick Douglass delivered on July 5, 1852, in Corinthian Hall, Rochester, New York, addressing the Rochester Ladies' Anti-Slavery Society. The speech is perhaps the most widely known of all of Frederick Douglass' writings save his autobiographies. Many copies of one section of it, beginning in para. 32, have been circulated online. Due to this and the variant titles given to it in various places, and the fact that it is called a July

title: Currency

text: tender, and accepted by governments for taxes. However, the instability in the ratio between the two grew over the course of the 19th century, with the increases both in supply of these metals, particularly silver, and in trade. The parallel use of both metals is called bimetallism, and the attempt to create a bimetallic standard where both gold and silver backed currency remained in circulation occupied the efforts of inflationists. Governments at this point could use currency as an instrument of policy, printing paper currency such as the United States Greenback, to pay for military expenditures. They could also set

title: Currency sign (typography)

text: as a kind of "universal sign" to denote "currency" or "money". Somehow, the neutral currency sign (¤) was to be used as a printable symbol in itself, and this usage was sufficiently extended in the years of the first drafts of ISO 8859 to include it. Currency sign (typography) The currency sign (¤) is a character used to denote an unspecified currency. It is sometimes called "scarab". It is often used in place of a symbol that is not present in the font in use; for example, in place of the colón (₡). It can be described as a circle

title: What The Fuck France?

text: What The Fuck France? What The Fuck France (aka What's Up France) is a Franglais YouTube channel created by Paul Taylor, in which he comments on French culture and language. Paul Taylor has Anglo-Irish ancestry, and spends his time between England, France, Quebec and Spain. Prior to creating the series, Taylor worked at Apple. In 2016, Taylor started a standup called Franglais, where he spoke about his experiences as an expatriate in France. Then, he wrote a YouTube skit called La Bise, about the French kiss, which racked up 3 million hits. Subsequently, he was contacted by Canal+ who together

title: Currency

text: a circulating medium could only be as sound as the forces that defended that store. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military. By the late Bronze Age, however, a series of treaties had established safe passage for merchants around the Eastern Mediterranean, spreading from Minoan Crete and Mycenae in the northwest to Elam and Bahrain in the southeast. It is not known what was used as a currency for these exchanges, but it is thought that ox-hide shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus, may have functioned as a currency. It is thought that the

title: Complementary currency

text: The 2006 Annual Report of the Worldwide Database of Complementary Currency Systems presented a survey of 150 complementary currency systems in which 94 respondents said that "all reasons" were selected, among cooperation, micro/small/medium enterprise development, activating the local market, reducing the need for national currency, and community development. Aims may include: Some alternative currencies devalue rapidly (they are called Schwundgeld); this increases monetary circulation. The Miracle of Wörgl is an event that showed the potential of this increased spending through the introduction of a local currency known as Freigeld. Local currencies also have the benefit that they cannot be spent

title: World currency

text: regional central banks. On 26 March 2009, a UN panel of expert economists called for a new global currency reserve scheme to replace the current US dollar-based system. The panel's report pointed out that the "greatly expanded SDR (special drawing rights), with regular or cyclically adjusted emissions calibrated to the size of reserve accumulations, could contribute to global stability, economic strength and global equity." Another world currency was proposed to use conceptual currency to aid the transaction between countries. The basic idea is to utilize the balance of trade to cancel out the currency actually needed to trade. In addition

title: Central Bank Digital Currency

text: Central Bank Digital Currency Central bank digital currency (CBDC, also called "Digital Fiat Currency" or "digital base money") is the digital form of fiat money which is a currency established as money by government regulation or law. Central bank digital currency is different from "digital currency" (or virtual currency and cryptocurrency), which are not issued by the state and lack the legal tender status declared by the government. As such, public digital currencies could compete with commercial bank deposits and challenge the status quo of the current fractional reserve banking system. The Bank of England was one of the first

title: Cash (currency)

text: sub unit of the piastre usually known as a "sapèque". Cash was a currency unit of Madras Province during the period of British rule in India. Specifically, it was a subunit of the fanam, rupee, and pagoda. Copper coins of 20 cash were called pice, 10 cash were called dodees, and 5 cash were called half dodees. Travancore cash was similar to the Madras cash yet differed in the value compared to the rupee. thus, 1 rupee = 448 cash. Cash (currency) Cash is a name for several historical currencies used in Asia. It is applied to units used in

title: Spain in the 17th century

text: reign. Signs that Habsburg Spain was declining became visible during the reign of Philip III. Throughout Philip III's reign the main currency was a copper-based coin called vellon, which was minted in response to the fall in imports of silver. Ironically, the copper needed to make vellon was purchased in Amsterdam with silver. Imports of silver bullion from the Americans fell by half during Philip III's reign. In 1599, a year after Philip took the throne, a bubonic plague killed about half a million people (1/10 of the Spanish population at the time). Philip IV's father passed on a kingdom

title: Economic history of Spain

text: Economic history of Spain This article covers the development of Spain's economy over the course of its history. Iberians, roughly located in the South and East, and Celts in the North and West of the Iberian Peninsula were the major earliest groups in what is now Spain (a third, so-called Celtiberian culture seems to have developed in the inner part of the Peninsula, where both groups were in contact). Carthaginians and Greeks also traded with Spain and established their own colonies on the coast. Spain's mineral wealth and access to metals made it an important source of raw material during

title: Japanese currency

text: the old currency (旧円券) and introduced the "New Yen" (新円券). Meanwhile, American occupation forces used a parallel system, called B yen, from 1945 to 1958. Since then, together with the economic expansion of Japan, the yen has become one of the major currencies of the world. Early Japanese Coins. David Hartill. Japanese currency Japanese currency has a history covering the period from the 8th century to the present. After the traditional usage of rice as currency medium, Japan's currency was characterized by an early adoption of currency systems and designs from China before developing a separate system of its own.

title: History of Chinese currency

text: the dominant form of coinage. Song merchants rapidly adopted forms of paper currency starting with promissory notes in Sichuan called "flying money" ("feiqian"). These proved so useful the state took over production of this form of paper money with the first state-backed printing in 1024. By the 12th century, various forms of paper money had become the dominant forms of currency in China and were known by a variety of names such as "jiaozi", "huizi", "kuaizi", or "guanzi". The Mongol-founded Yuan dynasty (Chinese: , 1271–1368) also attempted to use paper currency. Unlike the Song dynasty, they created a unified, national

title: The Blue Moods of Spain

text: Spain" "made up in style what it lacked in musical variation." Retrospectively, Kitty Empire of "The Observer" described the album as "a gem of opiated heartbreak". Credits adapted from liner notes for "The Blue Moods of Spain". Spain Additional musicians Production Artwork and design The Blue Moods of Spain The Blue Moods of Spain is the debut studio album by American rock band Spain, released on September 8, 1995 on Restless Records. "Spiritual" was later recorded by Johnny Cash for his album "American II: Unchained". The tracks "I Lied" and "Dreaming of Love" were released as 7-inch singles. Additionally, a

title: What Love Is Made Of

text: extremely positive about "What Love Is Made Of", describing it as "darker than anything" from "On a Mission", while calling it "slinky". The reviewer went on to commend the "irresistibly pouty" chorus. Pitchfork Media's Katherine St. Asaph commented that, in the song, the singer "sound[ed] completely enthralled, by either her lover or the music" and complimented her voice, noting that it seemed "ten times bigger than before". Jordan Sargent of "Spin" magazine called the track "exuberant" and highlighted Katy's vocal performance, which he deemed "typically fantastic", while the team from pop music website Popjustice gave "What Love Is Made Of"

title: Currency

text: relative values of the different currencies. Currencies in this sense are defined by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance. Other definitions of the term "currency" are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. The latter definition, pertaining to the currency systems of nations, is the topic of this article. Currencies can be classified into two monetary systems: fiat money and commodity money, depending on what guarantees the value (the economy at large vs. the government's physical metal reserves). Some currencies are legal tender in certain political jurisdictions. Others are simply traded for their economic

title: Currency sign (typography)

text: used, for example ¤12.50 can be interpreted as 12.5 units of "some currency", but the currency itself is unknown, and can be determined only by information outside the use of the character in itself. Such dependence on context is called deixis. Widely used other words (for example I, here, now) also have a meaning depending on context. In international text-based discourse, such as international trading or listing exchange rates, it is not uncommon to refer to a given currency with its three-letter ISO 4217 code instead of or in conjunction with a currency symbol, to avoid ambiguity as using the

title: Virtual currency

text: on average cost basis would restore fungibility to the currency. Virtual currencies have been called "closed" or "fictional currency" when they have no official connection to the real economy, for example, currencies in massively multiplayer online role-playing games such as World of Warcraft. While there may be a grey market for exchanging such currencies or other virtual assets for real-world assets, this is usually forbidden by the games' terms of service. This type of currency has been known for a long time in the form of customer incentive programs or loyalty programs. The first known coupon in history is probably

title: Central Bank Digital Currency

text: the central banks for all citizens. Digital fiat currency is currently being studied and tested by governments and central banks in order to realize the many positive implications it contributes to financial inclusion, economic growth, technology innovation and increased transaction efficiencies. Here is a list of potential advantages: A general concern is that the introduction of a CBDC would precipitate potential bank runs and thus make banks' funding position weaker. Central Bank Digital Currency Central bank digital currency (CBDC, also called "Digital Fiat Currency" or "digital base money") is the digital form of fiat money which is a currency established

title: Currency lads and lasses

text: the colony which specifically set out to protect the interests of the native-born". "The currency" as a whole were usually separated according to gender as "currency lads" and "currency lasses." In 1849, J. P. Townsend wrote: "whites born in the colony...are...called 'the currency;' and thus the 'Currency Lass' is a favourite name for colonial vessels," and, according to Edward E. Morris, also for hotels. In 1852, the term was still being used: "A singular disinclination to finish any work completely, is a striking characteristic of colonial craftsmen, at least of the 'currency' or native-born portion." However, when Morris published his

title: What Is History?

text: to suit their facts, and takes part in a dialogue between past and present. Summing up his argument, Carr puts forward his own answer to the question of "what is history?", remarking that "it is a continuous process of interaction between the historian and his facts, an unending dialogue between the past and the present." it is precisely for matters of this kind that the historian is entitled to rely on what have been called the auxiliary sciences of history In his second chapter, Carr focuses on the influence that society plays on forming the approach of the historian and

title: Habsburg Spain

text: the Castilian economy collapsed. The Spanish had been debasing their currency to pay for the war and prices exploded in Spain just as they had in previous years in Austria. Until 1631, parts of Castile operated on a barter economy as a result of the currency crisis, and the government was unable to collect any meaningful taxes from the peasantry, depending instead on its colonies (Spanish treasure fleet). The Spanish armies in Germany resorted to "paying themselves" on the land. Olivares, who had backed certain tax measures in Spain pending the completion of the war, was further blamed for a

title: World currency

text: President of the People's Bank of China, called for "creative reform of the existing international monetary system towards an international reserve currency," believing it would "significantly reduce the risks of a future crisis and enhance crisis management capability." Zhou suggested that the IMF's special drawing rights (a currency basket comprising dollars, euros, renminbi, yen, and sterling) could serve as a super-sovereign reserve currency, not easily influenced by the policies of individual countries. US President Obama, however, rejected the suggestion stating that "the dollar is extraordinarily strong right now." At the G8 summit in July 2009, the Russian president expressed Russia's

title: The World Is What It Is

text: The World Is What It Is The World Is What It Is: The Authorized Biography of V. S. Naipaul is a biography of the Nobel Prize-winning author V. S. Naipaul by Patrick French. It was published in 2008 (by Picador in the UK and Knopf in the USA). The title is a quotation from Naipaul's book "A Bend in the River". "The world is what it is; men who are nothing, who allow themselves to become nothing, have no place in it." French deals with Naipaul's family background and his life from his birth in 1932 until his second marriage

title: Currency strength index

text: valuable pair to trade; see the reactions of each currency on moves in correlated instruments (for example CAD/OIL or AUD/GOLD); look for a strong trend in one currency; and observe most of the forex market in one chart. A good indicator of the money flow of the market, should be the sum of all the graphs, by groups (example: forex, raw materials, companies ... and the sum of all together) to know if the market is growing or decreasing. [this indicator should be called JSGIC]: https://www.facebook.com/javiersantiago.gastondeiriartecabrera] Typical examples of indicators based on currency strength are relative currency strength and percentage

title: Currency Act

text: than what was taxed out of circulation, the currency depreciated in relation to the British pound sterling. The resultant inflation was harmful to merchants in Great Britain, who were forced to accept the depreciated currency from colonists for payment of debts. The Act limited the future issue of bills of credit to certain circumstances. It allowed the existing bills to be used as legal tender for public debts (i.e. paying taxes), but disallowed their use for private debts (e.g. for paying merchants). The Currency Act 1764 (4 Geo. III c. 34) extended the 1751 Act to all of the British

title: Som (currency)

text: Som (currency) The som, sum, or soum is a unit of currency used in Turkic-speaking countries in Central Asia. Its name comes from words in the respective languages (including Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Uyghur and Uzbek) for "pure", referring to historical coins of pure gold. It may refer to: Speakers of Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Uzbek in the then Soviet Union called the ruble by these names, and were accommodated by the word appearing on the backs of banknotes. The som of Kyrgyzstan and som of Uzbekistan are post-Soviet examples. In the 14th century the Golden Horde som called silver bullion navicular shape,

title: Som (currency)

text: weighing 204.8 g (in Russian numismatic literature, they are also called Tatar hryvnya). In treasures, archeologists find them together with silver dirhams. Florentine Francesco Pegalotti wrote that the mint in Azak could stamp a bar in the "walking" coin. Som (currency) The som, sum, or soum is a unit of currency used in Turkic-speaking countries in Central Asia. Its name comes from words in the respective languages (including Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Uyghur and Uzbek) for "pure", referring to historical coins of pure gold. It may refer to: Speakers of Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Uzbek in the then Soviet Union called the ruble

title: (What Is) Love?

text: play the jilted lover. "Us Weekly" noted the song's lyrics to be pointing "a few fingers" at Lopez's previous relationships, seen in the line dissing "blind dates" and the declaration of: "Musicians are the worst." During the first album listening party for "Love?" in 2009, "Rap-Up" magazine revealed that Jean-Baptiste had produced a second version of the song called "What Is Love? (Part II)". It was considered for included on the album but ultimately did not make the final track listing. It samples the "club-friendly" riff of Edwin Starr's 1970 single "War". "What Is Love? Part II" was leaked onto

title: Currency sign (typography)

text: Currency sign (typography) The currency sign (¤) is a character used to denote an unspecified currency. It is sometimes called "scarab". It is often used in place of a symbol that is not present in the font in use; for example, in place of the colón (₡). It can be described as a circle the size of a lowercase character with four short radiating arms at 45° (NE), 135° (SE), 225°, (SW) and 315° (NW). It is raised slightly above the baseline. It is represented in Unicode as , \textcurrency in LaTeX. The symbol was first encoded for computers in

title: What Is History?

text: of change. If you are allergic to these processes, you abandon history and take cover in the social sciences. Today anthropology, sociology, etc, flourish. History is sick. But then our society too is sick". Carr deplored the rise of Structuralism. Carr wrote there was the structuralist approach, which Carr called a "horizontal" way of understanding history "which analyses a society in terms of the functional or structural inter-relation of its parts". Against it, there was what Carr called the "vertical" approach "which analyses it [society] in terms of where it has come from and where it is going". Through Carr

title: This Is What the Truth Feels Like

text: 10. Similarly in Spain, the album peaked at number 42, lasting a total of two weeks on the chart. Stefani's 2006 release, "The Sweet Escape", did not chart. On Belgium's Ultratop Wallonia chart, it became her highest peaking album, where it debuted at number 21 and charted for four consecutive weeks. On Belgium's Flanders chart, it peaked at number 32 and lasted six consecutive weeks. In Scotland and Ireland, the album debuted at numbers 13 and 17 respectively. Elsewhere, "This Is What the Truth Feels Like" peaked in the lower regions of the charts. In Italy, the album peaked at

title: Abeille (local currency)

text: reverse. To maintain an individual bill's validity, a "scrip" corresponding to 2% of the banknote value must be paid every six months. (This system, called demurrage, is a form of currency circulation tax and was invented by Silvio Gesell.) Abeille (local currency) Abeille is the name of a community currency started in 2010 in Villeneuve-sur-Lot, France. It is named after the French word for bee. The Abeille program is intended to promote local commerce. The Abeille operates with a fixed exchange rate: = An initiative of a local NGO, "Agir pour le vivant" (Act for the living), the Abeille is

title: Occitan (local currency)

text: started his career in Pézenas. To maintain an individual bill's validity, a "scrip" corresponding to 2% of the banknote value must be paid every six months. (This system, called demurrage, is a form of currency circulation tax and was invented by Silvio Gesell.) Occitan (local currency) Occitan is the name of a community currency started in 2010 in Pézenas, Languedoc-Roussillon, France. It is named after the Occitan language. The Occitan program is intended to promote local commerce. The Occitan operates with a fixed exchange rate: = There is a fixed commission of 4% for members (shops) and 6% for individuals.

title: What Is History?

text: that events could not have happened differently unless there was a different cause. He called “these so called accounts in history represent a sequence of cause and effect interrupting and so to speak clashing with the Sequence of which the historian is primarily concerned to investigate.” He feels that the main job of a historian is to investigate the reasons/causes as to why events occurred and not to create the events or justify them. He was not a fan of "what if" history and he found it pointless because it did not happen. Carr saw accidents in history as impossible

text: activity, contract termination ability, clear risk management roles, documenting and reporting, and independent reviews. Banks often engage tens-of-thousands of third parties and are unable to effectively manage the associated risk of all their relationships through traditional means. As a result, many banks have adopted external IT solutions to assist their needs. This has rapidly expanded the market for third-party management software solutions. In July 2007, the OCC launched HelpWithMyBank.gov to assist customers of national banks and provide answers to national banking questions. Office of the Comptroller of the Currency The Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) is an

title: Currency substitution

text: currency substitution by adopting the US dollar as legal tender in 1904. This type of currency substitution is also known as de jure currency substitution. Currency substitution can be used semiofficially (or officially bimonetary systems), where the foreign currency is legal tender alongside the domestic currency. In literature, there is a set of related definitions of currency substitution such as external liability currency substitution, domestic liability currency substitution, banking sector's liability currency substitution or deposit currency substitution, and credit dollarlization. External liability currency substitution measures total external debt (private and public) denominated in foreign currencies of the economy. Deposit currency

title: History of Chinese currency

text: at 1 silver yuan = NT$3. An amendment was passed in 2000 to make the New Taiwan dollar the official legal currency of the Republic of China. The Bank of Taiwan was originally established by the Japanese in 1899 whilst Taiwan was under Japanese administration. The bank issued Taiwanese yen which were pegged to the Japanese yen. After the retrocession of Taiwan to the Republic of China, the new Bank of Taiwan was allowed to continue issuing its own currency. Called the "Taiwan dollar", it replaced the Taiwanese yen at par. This was an attempt by the Kuomintang to prevent

title: British currency in the Middle East

text: and called δεκάρα in Greek and the -piastre coin was equal to 20 para and called εικοσάρα. The introduction of the British currency into Cyprus was controversial from its inception in 1879 as technically the island remained a province of the Ottoman Empire and the right to issue currency within the Ottoman Empire rested solely with the Ottoman Sultan. A question on the legality of introducing the pound in Cyprus was raised by the British Member of Parliament, Mr. Thomson Hankey, in the United Kingdom parliament in 1879, but concerns were dismissed by the British government, and they ceased to

title: The World Is What It Is

text: in 1996. The biography has been extensively reviewed: the reviewers include Paul Theroux, who wrote an earlier book about Naipaul. The biography was selected by the editors of the "New York Times Book Review" as one of the "Times"' "10 Best Books of 2008". It won the 2008 National Book Critics Circle Award in Biography, and the British literary award the Hawthornden Prize. The World Is What It Is The World Is What It Is: The Authorized Biography of V. S. Naipaul is a biography of the Nobel Prize-winning author V. S. Naipaul by Patrick French. It was published in

title: Currency of Spanish America

text: than the 4s:2d sterling that was considered their intrinsic value. Chinese merchants gradually became accustomed to the dependable weight and fineness of Spanish milled silver and, instead of melting the coins down, they began to use them as currency, often with a "chop" (seal, countermark) to guarantee its acceptability. Charles adopted new coin designs with the royal profile, more difficult to counterfeit, and his Pragmatic of May 29, 1772 ordered all money in circulation in Spain and the Indies to be recoined at the same weight and fineness, but he secretly instructed the mints to lower the fineness of national

title: Currency of Spanish America

text: reales. (At least 2,500 specimens of this series survive.) Vellón (copper) coins of 2 and 4 maravedíes were minted at Mexico City (and evidently at Santo Domingo 1542–1556), authorized June 28, 1542 by Viceroy Mendoza. They had K obverse and I reverse, each flanked by a lion and castle with the value under the I. They were rejected by the public, and they were withdrawn from circulation in 1556. Copper coins, which dominated currency circulation in Spain during the 17th century, were not minted again in Spanish America until the end of the 18th century. (The reason why copper coinage