query: How much gravity exists on Mars?

title: Gravity of Mars

text: of LIDAR on site in determining the exact landing position and other protective measures. Gravity of Mars The gravity of Mars is a natural phenomenon, due to the law of gravity, or gravitation, by which all things with mass around the planet Mars are brought towards it. It is weaker than Earth's gravity due to the planet's smaller mass. The average gravitational acceleration on Mars is 3.72076 ms (about 38% of that of Earth) and it varies laterally. In general, topography-controlled isostasy drives the short wavelength free-air gravity anomalies. At the same time, convective flow and finite strength of the

title: Gravity of Mars

text: Gravity of Mars The gravity of Mars is a natural phenomenon, due to the law of gravity, or gravitation, by which all things with mass around the planet Mars are brought towards it. It is weaker than Earth's gravity due to the planet's smaller mass. The average gravitational acceleration on Mars is 3.72076 ms (about 38% of that of Earth) and it varies laterally. In general, topography-controlled isostasy drives the short wavelength free-air gravity anomalies. At the same time, convective flow and finite strength of the mantle lead to long-wavelength planetary-scale free-air gravity anomalies over the entire planet. Variation in

title: Mars Gravity Biosatellite

text: two universities agreed to continue development together. Later University of Queensland – Australia (UQ) joined the team as well. The program ended in 2009. The Mars Gravity Biosatellite program began in 2001 as a Mars Society initiative called Translife that grew out of a discussion between Robert Zubrin and Elon Musk. It was intended to study the effects of the gravity of Mars (about one-third that of Earth) on mammals, for which no data was available. Over the next few years, the program grew both scope and vision, with staff and students from MIT (Payload), UW (Spacecraft Bus) and UQ

title: Gravity of Mars

text: modifications of gravity model include taking other non-conservative forces acting on spacecraft into account, including atmospheric drag, solar radiation pressure, Mars reflected solar radiation pressure, Mars thermal emission, and spacecraft thrusting which despins or desaturates the angular moment wheels. In addition, Martian precession and third body attraction due to the Sun, Moon and planets, which could affect the spacecraft orbit, as well as relavistic effects on the measurements should also be corrected. These factors could lead to offset of the true gravity field. Accurate modeling is thus required to eliminate the offset. Such work is still ongoing. Many researchers have

title: Mars Gravity Biosatellite

text: and corporations the opportunity to fly images of their choice into orbit. By the program's end in 2009, the project had engaged over 600 undergraduate, graduate, and high school students in aerospace engineering, space life sciences, and program management. Over 20 conference presentations and papers were published, earning multiple student awards. On 24 June 2009, a status report was released declaring the end of this program, due to lack of funding and shifting priorities at NASA. Gravity on Mars is only about 38% as strong as it is on Earth, and the long-term effects of such reduced gravity are unknown.

title: Mars to Stay

text: vitality is presumed by all Mars to Stay mission plans once settlers are on the Martian surface. Several experiments, such as the Mars Gravity Biosatellite, have been proposed to test this hypothetical assumption, but until humans have lived in Martian gravity conditions (38% of Earth's), human long-term viability in such low gravity will remain only a working assumption. Back-contamination—humans acquiring and spreading hypothetical Martian viruses—is described as "just plain nuts", because there are no host organisms on Mars for disease organisms to have evolved. In the same chapter, Zubrin rejects suggestions the Moon should be used as waypoint to Mars

title: How Much Love (Leo Sayer song)

text: How Much Love (Leo Sayer song) "How Much Love" is a popular song from 1977 by the British singer Leo Sayer. It was the third of three single releases from Sayer's 1976 album, "Endless Flight". The song was co-written by Sayer with Barry Mann. The song became an international Top 10 hit. Although it reached only number 17 on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100, it hit number 9 on the U.S. "Cashbox" Top 100, and number 10 in the UK. "How Much Love" was a much bigger hit in Canada, where it peaked at number 4 and was the 57th

title: Gravity of Mars

text: gravity. This reveals how stiff the interior is, and shows that the core is partially liquid. The study of surface gravity of Mars can therefore yield information about different features and provide beneficial information for future landing projects. To understand the gravity of Mars, its gravitational field strength g and gravitational potential U are often measured. Simply, if Mars is assumed to be a static perfectly spherical body of radius R, provided that there is only one satellite revolving around Mars in a circular orbit and such gravitation interaction is the only force acting in the system, the equation would

title: Mars Gravity Biosatellite

text: Astronauts who are weightless for long periods of time lose significant amounts of bone and muscle mass. It is unclear if the gravity on Mars is strong enough to avoid or minimize these health problems. The Mars Gravity Biosatellite was meant to provide data on how mammalian health is affected by long-term exposure to lower levels of gravity, focusing on bone loss, changes in bone structure, muscle atrophy, and changes in the inner ear. The results from the five-week mission experiment would have been compared against a variety of Earth-based controls, including vivarium, hindlimb suspension, partial weight suspension, flight habitat

title: Mars Gravity Biosatellite

text: effects, and short-radius centrifuge testing. Mars Gravity Biosatellite The Mars Gravity Biosatellite was a project initiated as a competition between universities in 2001 by the Mars Society. The aim was to build a spacecraft concept to study the effects of Mars-level gravity (~0.38g) on mammals. Presentations were given to Robert Zubrin (Mars Society), and the award for best design was given to The University of Washington (UW). The UW team continued to develop the concept until the end of the school year (June 2002), after which funding became an issue. The team from UW contacted members of the team that

title: Mars Gravity Biosatellite

text: Mars Gravity Biosatellite The Mars Gravity Biosatellite was a project initiated as a competition between universities in 2001 by the Mars Society. The aim was to build a spacecraft concept to study the effects of Mars-level gravity (~0.38g) on mammals. Presentations were given to Robert Zubrin (Mars Society), and the award for best design was given to The University of Washington (UW). The UW team continued to develop the concept until the end of the school year (June 2002), after which funding became an issue. The team from UW contacted members of the team that presented from MIT, and the

title: Water on Mars

text: the readings indicated a sub-surface lake bearing water about wide. The top of the lake is located under the planet's surface; how much deeper the liquid water extends remains unknown. Water on Mars Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice, though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere, and occasionally as low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil. The only place where water ice is visible at the surface is at the north polar ice cap. Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent carbon dioxide ice cap at the Martian south pole

title: Gravity of Mars

text: up to 120 for the latest GMM-3. Therefore, gravity models nowadays are not directly produced through transfer of the measured gravity data to any spatial information system because there is difficulty in producing model with sufficiently high resolution. Topography data obtained from the MOLA instrument aboard the Mars Global Surveyor thus becomes a useful tool in producing a more detailed short-scale gravity model, utilizing the gravity-topography correlation in short-wavelength. However, not all regions on Mars show such correlation, notably the northern lowland and the poles. Misleading results could be easily produced, which could lead to wrong geophysics interpretation. The later

title: Gravity of Mars

text: which allow calculation of the ratio of solar mass to the mass of Mars, moment of inertia and coefficient of the gravitational potential of Mars, and give initial estimates of the gravity field of Mars. Precise tracking of spacecrafts is of prime importance for accurate gravity modeling, as gravity models are developed from observing tiny perturbation of spacecraft, i.e. small variation in velocity and altitude. The tracking is done basically by the antennae of the Deep Space Network (DSN), with one-way, two-way and three-way Doppler and range tracking applied. One-way tracking means the data is transmitted in one way to

title: Gravity of Mars

text: crustal thickness, magmatic and volcanic activities, impact-induced Moho-uplift, seasonal variation of polar ice caps, atmospheric mass variation and variation of porosity of the crust could also correlate to the lateral variations. Over the years models consisting of an increasing but limited number of spherical harmonics have been produced. Maps produced have included free-air gravity anomaly, Bouguer gravity anomaly, and crustal thickness. In some areas of Mars there is a correlation between gravity anomalies and topography. Given the known topography, higher resolution gravity field can be inferred. Tidal deformation of Mars by the Sun or Phobos can be measured by its

title: Mars Gravity Biosatellite

text: its cargo of mice would be retrieved. In 2007, a tentative launch date for the Mars Gravity Biosatellite had been set for 2010 or 2011, as the primary payload on a Falcon 1E or a Minotaur IV launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida. In 2005, the involved universities received a $200,000 NASA advanced projects development grant to support the development of a full payload engineering model. In 2006, the students of Mars Gravity developed a novel microfinancing platform called Your Name Into Space. This was meant to help finance the development of their spacecraft. This initiative is designed to give individuals

title: Gravity of Mars

text: command to the lander is almost impossible and the landing relies highly on its autonomous system. It has been recognized that to avoid failure, precise understanding of the gravity field of Mars is essential for the landing projects, so that offsetting factors and uncertainties of gravitational effects could be minimized, allowing smooth landing progress. The first ever man-made object landing on Mars, the Mars 2 lander, crashed for an unknown reason. Since the surface environment of Mars is complex, composed of laterally varying morphological patterns, in order to avoid rock hazard the landing progress should be further assisted by employment

title: Gravity of Mars

text: further elimination of the effects due to affect of solid tide, various relativistic effects due to the Sun, Jupiter and Saturn, non-conservative forces (e.g. angular momentum desaturations (AMD), atmospheric drag and solar radiation pressure) have to be done, otherwise, considerable errors result. The latest gravity model for Mars is the Goddard Mars Model 3 (GMM-3), produced in 2016, with spherical harmonics solution up to degree and order 120. This model is developed from 16 years of radio tracking data from Mars Global Surveyor (MGS), Mars Odyssey and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), as well as the MOLA topography model and provides

title: Gravity of Mars

text: radio tracking data. Before the arrival of the Mariner 9 and Viking orbiter spacecraft at Mars, only an estimate of the Mars gravitational constant GM, i.e. the universal constant of gravitation times the mass of Mars, was available for deducing the properties of the Martian gravity field. GM could be obtained through observations of the motions of the natural satellites of Mars (Phobos and Deimos) and spacecraft flybys of Mars (Mariner 4 and Mariner 6). Long term Earth-based observations of the motions of Phobos and Deimos provide physical parameters including semi-major axis, eccentricity, inclination angle to the Laplacian plane etc.,

title: Water on Mars

text: put forward as the most likely causes. In March 2015, scientists stated that evidence exists for an ancient Martian ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean, or approximately 19% of the Martian surface. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth. Eight times as much deuterium was found at Mars than exists on Earth, suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the "Curiosity" rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium

title: Gravity of Mars

text: and Elysium, which are believed to be underlain by the northern lowland plain. In addition, certain portions of Coprates, Eos Chasma and Kasei Valles are also found to have positive Bouguer anomalies, though they are topographic depressions. This may suggest that these depressions are underlain by shallow dense intrusion body. Global gravity anomalies, also termed as long-wavelength gravity anomalies, are the low-degree harmonics of the gravity field, which cannot be attributed to local isostasy, but rather finite strength of the mantle and density differences in the convection current. For Mars, the largest component of Bouguer anomaly is the degree one

title: Gravity of Mars

text: the variations of density of the deep mantle could be the result of chemical inhomogeneities associated with continent separations, and scars left on Earth after the torn away of the moon. These are the cases suggested to work when slow flow is allowed to happen under certain circumstances. However, it has been argued that the theory may not be physically feasible. The sublimation-condensation cycle of carbon dioxide on Mars between the atmosphere and cryosphere (polar ice cap) operates seasonally. This cycle contributes as almost the only variable accounting for changes in gravity field on Mars. The measured gravitational potential of

title: Gravity of Mars

text: of Mars, analogous to the concept of "sea level" on Earth. This has been set as the reference frame for developing the MOLA Mission Experiment Gridded Data Records (MEGDRs), which is a global topography model. The topography model is important in mapping the geomorphological features and understanding different kinds of processes on Mars. To derive the areoid, two parts of works are required. First, as gravity data is essential for identifying the position of the centre of mass of the planet, which is largely affected by the distribution of the mass of the interior, radio tracking data of spacecraft is

title: Gravity of Mars

text: noted that older regions on Mars are isostatically compensated when the younger region are usually only partially compensated. Different volcanic constructs could behave differently in terms of gravity anomalies. Large volcanoes Olympus Mons and the Tharsis Montes produce the largest positive free-air gravity anomalies in the solar system. Alba Patera, also a volcanic rise, north of the Tharsis Montes, however, produces negative Bouguer anomaly, though its extension is similar to that of Olympus Mons. And for the Elysium Mons, its center is found to have slight increase in Bouguer anomalies in an overall broad negative anomaly context in the Elysium

title: Gravity of Mars

text: Few exception includes the 63E, 71N anomaly, which may represent an extensive buried structure as large as over 600 km, predated the early-Noachian buried surface. Strong correlation between topography and short-wavelength free-air gravity anomalies has been shown for both study of the gravity field of the Earth and the Moon, and it can be explained by the wide occurrence of isostasy. High correlation is expected for degree over 50 (short-wavelength anomaly) on Mars. And it could be as high as 0.9 for degrees between 70 and 85. Such correlation could be explained by flexural compensation of topographic loads. It is

title: Gravity of Mars

text: Mars from orbiters could be generalized as the equation below, formula_19 In turn, when there is more mass in the seasonal caps due to the more condensation of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, the mass of the atmosphere would drop. They have inverse relationship with each other. And the change in mass has direct effect towards the measured gravitational potential. The seasonal mass exchange between the northern polar cap and southern polar cap exhibits long-wavelength gravity variation with time. Long years of continuous observation has found that the determination of even zonal, normalized gravity coefficient C, and odd zonal, normalized

title: Gravity of Mars

text: generic, non-spherical planetary body and influenced by complex geological processes, more accurately, the gravitational potential has to be described by the spherical harmonic functions formula_5, where formula_6 are spherical coordinates of the test point. formula_7 and formula_8 are dimensionless harmonic coefficients of degree formula_9 and order formula_10. formula_11 is the Legendre polynomial of degree formula_12 and order formula_13, which comes up as the solution of Laplace's equation. formula_14 is the radius of the planet. The oldest technique in determining the gravity of Mars is through Earth-based observation. Later with the arrival of unmanned spacecraft, subsequent gravity models were developed from

title: Robinson Crusoe on Mars

text: Lundin) based on his being an experienced unknown, and to director Byron Haskin, because he resembled Alan Shepard, the first American in space. The film was originally to be titled "Gravity Probe One: Mars", but Paramount's sales manager Charles Boasberg thought that title sounded too much like a documentary. According to Mantee, because Barney the monkey was a male playing Mona, a female, he had to wear a fur-covered diaper. Two songs were inspired by and named after the film. One was sung by Johnny Cymbal, the other by Victor Lundin. Lundin wrote the song "Robinson Crusoe on Mars" to

title: Lakes on Mars

text: Ocean. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth and derived from telescopic observations. Eight times as much deuterium was inferred at the polar deposits of Mars than exists on Earth (VSMOW), suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. The representative atmospheric value obtained from the maps (7 VSMOW) is not affected by climatological effects as those measured by localized rovers, although the telescopic measurements are within range to the enrichment measured by the "Curiosity" rover in Gale Crater of 5-7 VSMOW.

title: Volcanology of Mars

text: most commonly associated with silica-rich andesitic or rhyolitic magmas (e.g., Mount St. Helens). Because the lower gravity of Mars generates less buoyancy forces on magma rising through the crust, the magma chambers that feed volcanoes on Mars are thought to be deeper and much larger than those on Earth. If a magma body on Mars is to reach close enough to the surface to erupt before solidifying, it must be big. Consequently, eruptions on Mars are less frequent than on Earth, but are of enormous scale and eruptive rate when they do occur. Somewhat paradoxically, the lower gravity of Mars

title: Water on Mars

text: Water on Mars Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice, though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere, and occasionally as low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil. The only place where water ice is visible at the surface is at the north polar ice cap. Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent carbon dioxide ice cap at the Martian south pole and in the shallow subsurface at more temperate conditions. More than five million cubic kilometers of ice have been identified at or near the surface of modern Mars, enough to

title: Mars Gravity Biosatellite

text: (Reentry) collaboratively designing various parts of the mission concept. With ongoing funding challenges, UW and UQ withdrew after several years and Georgia Institute of Technology stepped in to build on their design work. The effort represented the most ambitious and complex student satellite project to date. The mission concept was envisioned to carry 15 mice in low Earth orbit for five weeks. The satellite was designed to spin at approximately 32 rpm to generate centrifugal force that they would experience as gravity on the surface of Mars. At the end of its mission, the satellite would reenter Earth's atmosphere and

title: Life on Mars

text: objective. The findings of organic compounds inside sedimentary rocks and of boron on Mars are of interest as they are precursors for prebiotic chemistry. Such findings, along with previous discoveries that liquid water was clearly present on ancient Mars, further supports the possible early habitability of Gale Crater on Mars. Currently, the surface of Mars is bathed with radiation, and when reacting with the perchlorates on the surface, it may be more toxic to microorganisms than thought earlier. Therefore, the consensus is that if life exists —or existed— on Mars, it could be found or is best preserved in the

title: Evidence of water on Mars from Mars Odyssey

text: Evidence of water on Mars from Mars Odyssey Evidence of water on Mars from Mars Odyssey is about observations by a Mars orbiter, named 2001 Mars Odyssey, supporting evidence for water on that planet. Mars Odyssey found much evidence for water on Mars in the form of pictures and with a spectrometer it proved that much of the ground is loaded with ice. In July 2003, at a conference in California, it was announced that the Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GRS) on board the Mars Odyssey had discovered huge amounts of water over vast areas of Mars. Mars has enough ice

title: Robinson Crusoe on Mars

text: Robinson Crusoe on Mars Robinson Crusoe on Mars is a 1964 independently made American science fiction film in Technicolor and Techniscope, produced by Aubrey Schenck, directed by Byron Haskin, that stars Paul Mantee, Victor Lundin, and Adam West. The film was distributed by Paramount Pictures. As the title indicates, it is a science fiction retelling of the classic novel "Robinson Crusoe" by Daniel Defoe. Commander Christopher "Kit" Draper, USN (Paul Mantee) and Colonel Dan McReady, USAF (Adam West) reach the Red Planet in their spaceship, Mars Gravity Probe 1. They are forced to use up their remaining fuel in order

title: Colonization of Mars

text: 3.4%) for men to die of cancer because of the radiation during the journey to Mars and back to Earth. For women the probability is higher due to generally larger glandular tissues. Mars has a surface gravity 0.38 times that of Earth, and the density of its atmosphere is about 0.6% of that on Earth. The relatively strong gravity and the presence of aerodynamic effects make it difficult to land heavy, crewed spacecraft with thrusters only, as was done with the Apollo Moon landings, yet the atmosphere is too thin for aerodynamic effects to be of much help in aerobraking

title: How Much for Happy

text: How Much for Happy How Much for Happy is Canadian actress and singer-songwriter Cassie Steele's debut album. "How Much for Happy" was released in Canada on March 15, 2005 and in the US on April 26, 2005. The album was sold on iTunes in the US for a few months, but after having an argument with Rob'N'Steal Productions about the distribution of "How Much for Happy", the album was removed from iTunes, yet was still available on Amazon.com. Physically, the album is now out of print in the US, but it was put back on iTunes. Steele wrote 12 out

title: Life on Mars

text: or on sediments, either free-living or as biofilms, respectively. Impactite, shown to preserve signs of life on Earth, was discovered on Mars and could contain signs of ancient life, if life ever existed on the planet. On June 7, 2018, NASA announced that the "Curiosity" rover had discovered organic molecules in sedimentary rocks dating to three billion years old. The detection of organic molecules in rocks indicate that some of the building blocks for life were present. Conceivably, if life exists (or existed) on Mars, evidence of that life could be found, or is best preserved, in the subsurface, away

title: Mars Exploration Rover

text: designations MER-A ("Spirit") and MER-B ("Opportunity") based on the order of landing on Mars ("Spirit" first then "Opportunity"). The Jet Propulsion Laboratory maintains a pair of rovers, the "Surface System Test-Beds" (SSTB) at its location in Pasadena for testing and modeling of situations on Mars. One test rover, SSTB1, weighing approximately , is fully instrumented and nearly identical to "Spirit" and "Opportunity". Another test version, "SSTB-Lite", is identical in size and drive characteristics but does not include all instruments. It weighs in at , much closer to the weight of "Spirit" and "Opportunity" in the reduced gravity of Mars. These

title: Gravity spreading

text: Gravity spreading Gravity spreading is the phenomenon in which a geological body laterally extends and vertically contracts, in order to reduce its gravitational potential energy. It has been observed on many different scales, and at numerous locations on Earth, from rhyolite lava flows to passive margins. Additionally, gravity spreading is likely to have occurred on both Mars and Venus. Historically, the terms "gravity spreading" and "gravity gliding" have been used with little distinction between the two, or even interchangeably. This page follows the convention of "Excursus on gravity gliding and gravity spreading" by D.D. Schultz-Ela, where gravity spreading is defined

title: Life on Mars

text: is a function of a multitude of environmental parameters. Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars except at the lowest elevations for minutes or hours. Liquid water does not appear at the surface itself, but it could form in minuscule amounts around dust particles in snow heated by the Sun. Also, the ancient equatorial ice sheets beneath the ground may slowly sublimate or melt, accessible from the surface via caves. Water on Mars exists almost exclusively as water ice, located in the Martian polar ice caps and under the shallow Martian surface even at more temperate latitudes. A

title: Water on Mars

text: but the sum of measurements can help predict locations with greater or lesser habitability potential. Habitable environments need not be inhabited, and for purposes of planetary protection, scientists are trying to identify potential habitats where stowaway bacteria from Earth on spacecraft could contaminate Mars. If life exists —or existed— on Mars, evidence or biosignatures could be found in the subsurface, away from present-day harsh surface conditions such as perchlorates, ionizing radiation, desiccation and freezing. Habitable locations could occur kilometers below the surface in a hypothetical hydrosphere, or it could occur near the sub-surface in contact with permafrost. The "Opportunity" and

title: Artificial gravity

text: to Mars could be transported to Mars in and retain approximately 55 percent of the LEO vehicle mass upon arrival into a Mars orbit, providing a low-gravity gradient to the spacecraft during the entire journey. A propulsion system with a very high specific impulse (that is, good efficiency in the use of reaction mass that must be carried along and used for propulsion on the journey) could accelerate more slowly producing useful levels of artificial gravity for long periods of time. A variety of electric propulsion systems provide examples. Two examples of this long-duration, low-thrust, high-impulse propulsion that have either

title: Astronomy on Mars

text: equal and then exceed the length of a day on Mars. As on Earth, Mars experiences Milankovitch cycles that cause its axial tilt (obliquity) and orbital eccentricity to vary over long periods of time, which has long-term effects on its climate. The variation of Mars's axial tilt is much larger than for Earth because it lacks the stabilizing influence of a large moon like Earth's moon. Mars has a 124,000-year obliquity cycle compared to 41,000 years for Earth. Astronomy on Mars In many cases astronomical phenomena viewed from the planet Mars are the same or similar to those seen from

text: of the channel in the image above suggests that groundwater sapping also contributed water. In some areas large river valleys begin with a landscape feature called "Chaos" or Chaotic Terrain." It is thought that the ground collapsed, as huge amounts of water were suddenly released. Examples of Chaotic terrain, as imaged by THEMIS, are shown below. Evidence of water on Mars from Mars Odyssey Evidence of water on Mars from Mars Odyssey is about observations by a Mars orbiter, named 2001 Mars Odyssey, supporting evidence for water on that planet. Mars Odyssey found much evidence for water on Mars in

title: Carbonates on Mars

text: for Mars (CRISM) instrument on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Earlier, the instrument had detected clay minerals. The carbonates were found near the clay minerals. Both of these minerals form in wet environments. It is supposed that billions of years age Mars was much warmer and wetter. At that time, carbonates would have formed from water and the carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere. Later the deposits of carbonate would have been buried. The double impact has now exposed the minerals. Earth has vast carbonate deposits in the form of limestone. Carbonates on Mars Head (vessel) Evidence for carbonates on Mars was first discovered

title: Present day Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth

text: analogues. Some Earth cave and deep subsurface analogues may be more exact analogues of Mars surface conditions (apart from the levels of gravity), if similar conditions occur on Mars. Here are some of the most significant differences between Earth and Mars surface conditions, with remarks on Mars' closest analogues on Earth: These partial analogues are still very useful, for instance for: The Atacama desert plateau lies at an altitude of 3,000 meters and lies between the Pacific and the Andes mountains. Its Mars like features include The Yungay area at the core of the Atacama desert used to be considered

title: Glaciers on Mars

text: instruments. Much better data has been received from Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Glaciers on Mars Glaciers, loosely defined as patches of currently or recently flowing ice, are thought to be present across large but restricted areas of the modern Martian surface, and are inferred to have been more widely distributed at times in the past. Lobate convex features on the surface known as viscous flow features and lobate debris aprons, which show the characteristics of non-Newtonian flow, are now almost unanimously regarded as true glaciers. Some of the glacial-like features were revealed by

title: Water on Mars

text: waters in the past pushed the rocks around until they faced away from the flow. Some pebbles were rounded, perhaps from being tumbled in a stream. Parts of the ground are crusty, maybe due to cementing by a fluid containing minerals. There was evidence of clouds and maybe fog. The 2001 Mars Odyssey found much evidence for water on Mars in the form of images, and with its neutron spectrometer, it proved that much of the ground is loaded with water ice. Mars has enough ice just beneath the surface to fill Lake Michigan twice. In both hemispheres, from 55°

title: How Much for Happy

text: of the 13 tracks on her debut album. The thirteenth was a remake of the popular song by Jimi Hendrix, "Hey Joe". The album was certified gold in Canada, selling more than 25,000 copies. Two singles, "Blue Bird" and "Famous", were released off of the album. A music video for "Blue Bird" was released as well, which featured Cassie recording the single along with photos of her. How Much for Happy How Much for Happy is Canadian actress and singer-songwriter Cassie Steele's debut album. "How Much for Happy" was released in Canada on March 15, 2005 and in the US

title: Timekeeping on Mars

text: is small, but on Mars it is much larger. The northward equinox year is 668.5907 sols, the northern solstice year is 668.5880 sols, the southward equinox year is 668.5940 sols, and the southern solstice year is 668.5958 sols. Averaging over an entire orbital period gives a tropical year of 668.5921 sols. (Since, like Earth, the northern and southern hemispheres of Mars have opposite seasons, equinoxes and solstices must be labelled by hemisphere to remove ambiguity.) For purposes of enumerating Mars years and facilitating data comparisons, one system used in the scientific literature counts Mars years relative to a Mars Year

title: Astronomy on Mars

text: visible with the naked eye from the surface of Mars. Since Mars has an atmosphere that is relatively transparent at optical wavelengths (just like Earth, albeit much thinner), meteors will occasionally be seen. Meteor showers on Earth occur when the Earth intersects the orbit of a comet, and likewise, Mars also has meteor showers, although these are different from the ones on Earth. The first meteor photographed on Mars (on March 7, 2004 by the "Spirit" rover) is now believed to have been part of a meteor shower whose parent body was comet 114P/Wiseman-Skiff. Because the radiant was in the

title: Surface gravity

text: "g" is the surface gravity of an object, expressed as a multiple of the Earth's, "m" is its mass, expressed as a multiple of the Earth's mass (5.976·10 kg) and "r" its radius, expressed as a multiple of the Earth's (mean) radius (6,371 km). For instance, Mars has a mass of 6.4185·10 kg = 0.107 Earth masses and a mean radius of 3,390 km = 0.532 Earth radii. The surface gravity of Mars is therefore approximately times that of Earth. Without using the Earth as a reference body, the surface gravity may also be calculated directly from Newton's law of

title: Gravity of Mars

text: a global resolution of 115 km. A separate free-air gravity anomaly map, Bouguer gravity anomaly map and a map of crustal thickness were produced along with this model. Compared with MRO110C and other previous models, major improvement of the estimation of the gravity field comes from more careful modeling of the non-conservative forces applied to the spacecraft. The techniques in tracking the spacecrafts and geophysical interpretation of surface features can affect the resolution of the strength of gravity field. The better technique favors spherical harmonic solutions to higher degrees and orders. Independent analysis on Mariner 9 and Viking Orbiter tracking

title: Gravity of Mars

text: outlined the correlation between short-wavelength (locally varying) free-air gravity anomalies and topography. For regions with higher correlation, free-air gravity anomalies could be expanded to higher degree strength through geophysical interpretation of surface features, so that the gravity map could offer higher resolution. It has been found that the southern highland has high gravity/topography correlation but not for the northern lowland. Therefore, the resolution of free-air gravity anomaly model typically has higher resolution for the southern hemisphere, as high as over 100 km. Free-air gravity anomalies are relatively easier to measure than the Bouguer anomalies as long as topography data is

title: Terraforming of Mars

text: Martian summers, and small amounts of water residue are left behind, which fast winds sweep off the poles at speeds approaching . This seasonal occurrence transports large amounts of dust and water ice into the atmosphere, forming Earth-like ice clouds. Most of the oxygen in the Martian atmosphere is present as carbon dioxide (), the main atmospheric component. Molecular oxygen (O) only exists in trace amounts as Mars doesn't have enough gravity to hold on to it. Large amounts of elemental oxygen can be also found in metal oxides on the Martian surface, and in the soil, in the form

title: Sol (day on Mars)

text: by the press. Other neologisms include "tosol" (for "today" on Mars), as well as one of three Mars versions of "tomorrow": "nextersol", "morrowsol", or "solmorrow". NASA planners coined the term "soliday" at least as far back as 2012 to refer to days off due to time phasing or the synching of planetary schedules. Considering a possible colonization of Mars, one question that arose was "how does one convert a Sol to standard Earth time?" In the science fiction series "Mars trilogy" by Kim Stanley Robinson, the Mars settlers use traditional Earth watches that stop ticking at midnight for 39 minutes

title: Gravity of Mars

text: correlation between certain topography anomalies and long-wavelength gravity anomalies, for example, the mid-Atlantic ridge and Carlsberg ridge, which are topography high and gravity high on the ocean floor, thus became the argument for the convection current idea on Earth in the 1970s, though such correlations are weak in the global picture. Another possible explanation for the global scale anomalies is the finite strength of the mantle (in contrast to zero stress), which makes the gravity deviated from hydrostatic equilibrium. For this theory, because of the finite strength, flow may not exist for most of the region that are understressed. And

title: Gravity (alcoholic beverage)

text: for example, common descriptions are "10 degree beers", "12 degree beers" which refers to the gravity in Plato of the wort before the fermentation. The difference between the original gravity of the wort and the final gravity of the beer is an indication of how much sugar has been turned into alcohol. The bigger the difference, the greater the amount of alcohol present and hence the stronger the beer. This is why strong beers are sometimes referred to as high gravity beers, and "session" or "small" beers are called low gravity beers, even though in theory the final gravity of

title: Gravity of Mars

text: two major tidal forces acting on Mars are the solar tide and Phobos tide. Love number k is an important proportional dimensionless constant relating the tidal field acting to the body with the multipolar moment resulting from the mass distribution of the body. Usually k can tell quadrupolar deformation. Finding k is helpful in understanding the interior structure on Mars. The most updated k obtained by Genova's team is 0.1697 + 0.0009. As if k is smaller than 0.10 a solid core would be indicated, this tells that at least the outer core is liquid on Mars, and the predicted

title: Astronomy on Mars

text: on distance and the phases of the Earth and Moon. From one day to the next, the view of the Moon would change very differently for an observer on Mars than for an observer on Earth. The phase of the Moon as seen from Mars would not change much from day to day; it would match the phase of the Earth, and would only gradually change as both Earth and Moon move in their orbits around the Sun. On the other hand, an observer on Mars would see the Moon rotate, with the same period as its orbital period, and

title: Gravity of Mars

text: in the northern lowland. While for Hellas, Argyre and Isidis basins, they have great Moho uplifted relief and exhibit annuli of diffuse thickened crust beyond the crustal rim. But on the contrary, almost all the Martian basins with diameter of 275 km < D < 1000 km are associated with low amplitude surface and low amplitude Moho relief. Many are even found to have negative free air gravity anomaly, though evidence has shown that all of them should have experienced gravity high (positive free air gravity anomaly). These have been suggested not caused by erosion and burial alone, as the

title: Timekeeping on Mars

text: Timekeeping on Mars Various schemes have been used or proposed for timekeeping on the planet Mars independently of Earth time and calendars. Mars has an axial tilt and a rotation period similar to those of Earth. Thus it experiences seasons of spring, summer, autumn and winter much like Earth, and its day is about the same length. Its year is almost twice as long as Earth's, and its orbital eccentricity is considerably larger, which means among other things that the lengths of various Martian seasons differ considerably, and sundial time can diverge from clock time more than on Earth. The

title: Timekeeping on Mars

text: watchmaker for the Hamilton Watch Company, built several clocks designed by Levitt to keep time on both Earth and Mars. They could also be set to display the date on both planets according to Levitt's calendar and epoch (the Julian day epoch of 4713 BCE). Charles F. Capen included references to Mars dates in a 1966 Jet Propulsion Laboratory technical report associated with the Mariner 4 flyby of Mars. This system stretches the Gregorian calendar to fit the longer Martian year, much as Lowell had done in 1895, the difference being that 20 March, 21 June, 22 September, and 21

title: Water on Mars

text: Ice ages on Mars are very different from the ones that the Earth experiences. Ice ages are driven by changes in Mars's orbit and tilt —also known as obliquity. Orbital calculations show that Mars wobbles on its axis far more than Earth does. The Earth is stabilized by its proportionally large moon, so it only wobbles a few degrees. Mars may change its tilt by many tens of degrees. When this obliquity is high, its poles get much more direct sunlight and heat; this causes the ice caps to warm and become smaller as ice sublimes. Adding to the variability

title: Robinson Crusoe on Mars

text: de force, that there was nobody to interfere and tell me how to shoot ... I can’t think of any other film I’ve made, unless it was "The War of the Worlds", where I had such complete autonomy ... that I had as much genuine pleasure and fulfillment from as "Robinson Crusoe on Mars". It was as fulfilling as cinematography had ever been. Everything I set out to do, I accomplished as well as one possibly could ... We made exploratory trips into Death Valley, and I conceived a key to credible verisimilitude ... I would abandon shots from the

title: Mars landing

text: gave information on the Martian gravity and magnetosphere. In 1973, the Soviet Union sent four more probes to Mars: the Mars 4 and Mars 5 orbiters and the Mars 6 and Mars 7 fly-by/lander combinations. All missions except Mars 7 sent back data, with Mars 5 being most successful. Mars 5 transmitted 60 images before a loss of pressurization in the transmitter housing ended the mission. The Mars 6 lander transmitted data during descent, but failed upon impact. Mars 4 flew by the planet at a range of 2200 km, returning one swath of pictures and radio occultation data, which

title: How Much Is the Fish?

text: the 1986 mini-album "Quirk Out". The background music sample comes from the album version of the song Paradoxx from the German band 666. In May 2016, in response to increased popularity from a mention on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon", Scooter answered the question about "How much is the fish?" on their Facebook page, revealing that "the fish" was actually the one they bought for their studio aquarium, and it cost 3.80 (probably DEM). How Much Is the Fish? "How Much Is The Fish?" is a hard-dance song by German group Scooter. It was released in June 1998 as

title: Solar eclipses on Mars

text: around Mars, the shadow of Phobos was seen in pictures transmitted to Earth. One of these photos was from the NASA rover "Opportunity". Solar eclipses on Mars The two moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos, are much smaller than the Moon, greatly reducing the frequency of solar eclipses on that planet. Neither moon's apparent diameter is large enough to cover the disk of the sun, and therefore they are annular solar eclipses and can also be considered transits. Due to the small size of Phobos (about ) and its rapid orbital motion, an observer on the surface of Mars would

title: Solar eclipses on Mars

text: Solar eclipses on Mars The two moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos, are much smaller than the Moon, greatly reducing the frequency of solar eclipses on that planet. Neither moon's apparent diameter is large enough to cover the disk of the sun, and therefore they are annular solar eclipses and can also be considered transits. Due to the small size of Phobos (about ) and its rapid orbital motion, an observer on the surface of Mars would never experience a solar eclipse for longer than about thirty seconds. Phobos also takes only 7 hours 39 minutes to orbit Mars, while

title: How Much Is Enough?

text: series premiered on January 8, 2008, An online mini game based on the show was released earlier that week. airing in the 9:00 PM time slot. On March 28, 2008, GSN aired the series' final episode. How Much Is Enough? How Much Is Enough? is a game show that aired on Game Show Network from January 8, 2008 to March 28, 2008. The show was hosted by Corbin Bernsen with four contestants competing with a "money clock" to avoid being the "greediest" contestant. Despite high expectations among production staff, with one member calling it a potentially "network-defining" show that would

title: Mars cycler

text: Mars cycler A Mars cycler (or Earth–Mars cycler) is a special kind of spacecraft trajectory that encounters Earth and Mars on a regular basis. The term Mars cycler may also refer to a spacecraft on a Mars cycler trajectory. The Aldrin cycler is an example of a Mars cycler. Cyclers are potentially useful for transporting people or materials between those bodies using minimal propellant (relying on gravity-assist flybys for most trajectory changes), and can carry heavy radiation shielding to protect people in transit from cosmic rays and solar storms. A cycler is a trajectory that encounters two or more bodies

title: Mars habitat

text: addition to the reactants. Mars habitat A Mars habitat is a place that humans can live in on Mars. Mars habitats must contend with surface conditions that include almost no oxygen in the air, extreme cold, low pressure, and high radiation. Alternatively, the habitat may be placed underground, which helps solve some problems but creates new difficulties. One challenge is the extreme cost of building materials for Mars, which by the 2010s was estimated be about $2 million USD per brick to the surface of Mars. While the gravity on Mars is lower than that on Earth, there is increased

title: Mars habitat

text: Mars habitat A Mars habitat is a place that humans can live in on Mars. Mars habitats must contend with surface conditions that include almost no oxygen in the air, extreme cold, low pressure, and high radiation. Alternatively, the habitat may be placed underground, which helps solve some problems but creates new difficulties. One challenge is the extreme cost of building materials for Mars, which by the 2010s was estimated be about $2 million USD per brick to the surface of Mars. While the gravity on Mars is lower than that on Earth, there is increased solar radiation, temperature cycles,

title: Gravity of Mars

text: be, formula_1, where G is the universal constant of gravitation (commonly taken as G = 6.674 x 10 m kg s), M is the mass of Mars (most updated value: 6.41693 x 10 kg), m is the mass of the satellite, r is the distance between Mars and the satellite, and formula_2 is the angular velocity of the satellite, which is also equivalent to formula_3 (T is the orbiting period of the satellite). Therefore, formula_4, where R is the radius of Mars. With proper measurement, r, T and R are easily obtainable parameters from Earth. However, as Mars is a

title: Astronomy on Mars

text: and northern hemispheres have summer and winter at opposing times. However, the orbit of Mars has significantly greater eccentricity than that of Earth. Therefore, the seasons are of unequal length, much more so than on Earth: In practical terms, this means that summers and winters have different lengths and intensities in the northern and southern hemispheres. Winters in the north are warm and short (because Mars is moving fast near its perihelion), while winters in the south are long and cold (Mars is moving slowly near aphelion). Similarly, summers in the north are long and cool, while summers in the

title: Life on Mars

text: If the surface life has been reanimated as recently as 450,000 years ago, then rovers on Mars could find dormant but still viable life at a depth of one meter below the surface, according to an estimate. In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe discovered that Mars had no global magnetic field that would protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic radiation and solar radiation; observations made in the late 1990s by the Mars Global Surveyor confirmed this discovery. Scientists speculate that the lack of magnetic shielding helped the solar wind blow away much of Mars's atmosphere over the course of

title: Water on Mars

text: many different places. Layers form by various ways, including volcanoes, wind, or water. Light-toned rocks on Mars have been associated with hydrated minerals like sulfates and clay. The orbiter helped scientists determine that much of the surface of Mars is covered by a thick smooth mantle that is thought to be a mixture of ice and dust. The ice mantle under the shallow subsurface is thought to result from frequent, major climate changes. Changes in Mars' orbit and tilt cause significant changes in the distribution of water ice from polar regions down to latitudes equivalent to Texas. During certain climate

title: Mars Direct

text: based on space station experience, that spin gravity will not be required. The Mars Society has argued the viability of the Mars Habitat Unit concept through their Mars Analogue Research Station program. These are two or three decked vertical cylinders ~8 m in diameter and 8 m high. Mars Society Australia plans to build its own station based on the Mars Oz design. The Mars Oz design features a horizontal cylinder 4.7 m in diameter and 18 m long, with a tapered nose. A second similar module will function as a garage and power and logistics module. Mars Direct was

title: Mars suit

text: Mars suit Mars suit or Mars space suit is a space suit for EVAs on the planet Mars. Compared to space-walking in the near vacuum of low Earth orbit, Mars suits have a greater focus on actual walking and a need for abrasion resistance. Mars' surface gravity is 37.8% of Earth's, approximately 2.3 times that of the Moon, so weight is a significant concern, but there are fewer thermal demands compared to open space. At the surface the suits would contend with the atmosphere of Mars which has a pressure of about 0.6 to 1 kPa (6 to 10 millibars).

title: Mars suit

text: of the space suit which can be docked with a suitable vehicle or structure. "Visions of Mars EVA" The AX-5 was part of line of Hard-suits developed at NASA Ames. Current suits use a lower-pressure pure oxygen atmosphere, which means people going on EVA must pre-breathe oxygen to avoid getting decompression sickness. Mars suit Mars suit or Mars space suit is a space suit for EVAs on the planet Mars. Compared to space-walking in the near vacuum of low Earth orbit, Mars suits have a greater focus on actual walking and a need for abrasion resistance. Mars' surface gravity is

title: How Much Is the Fish?

text: How Much Is the Fish? "How Much Is The Fish?" is a hard-dance song by German group Scooter. It was released in June 1998 as the lead single from their fifth studio album "No Time to Chill". It is the first song to feature Axel Coon. "How Much Is The Fish?" samples the song "Zeven Dagen Lang" (Seven days long) by the Dutch band Bots. The melody originates from the traditional Breton song "Son ar Chistr" played on Alan Stivell's 1970 album "Reflets". The title is derived from lyrics in the song "Buffalo" by Anglo-Irish indie group Stump, taken from

title: Evidence of water on Mars found by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

text: Evidence of water on Mars found by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter's HiRISE instrument has taken many images that strongly suggest that Mars has had a rich history of water-related processes. Many features of Mars appear to be created by large amounts of water. That Mars once possessed large amounts of water was confirmed by isotope studies in a study published in March 2015, by a team of scientists showing that the ice caps were highly enriched with deuterium, heavy hydrogen, by seven times as much as the Earth. This means that Mars has lost a volume of

title: Gravity assist

text: reason why many spacecraft frequently combine Earth and Venus (or Mars) gravity assists or also perform large deep space maneuvers. The gravity assist maneuver was first used in 1959 when Luna 3 photographed the far side of Earth's Moon. The Mariner 10 probe was the first spacecraft to use the gravitational slingshot effect to reach another planet, passing by Venus on 5 February 1974 on its way to becoming the first spacecraft to explore Mercury. , Voyager 1 is over from the Sun, and is in interstellar space. It gained the energy to escape the Sun's gravity completely by performing

title: Tectonics of Mars

text: southern highlands, and the Tharsis plateau. Much tectonic study of Mars seeks to explain the processes that led to the planet's division into these three provinces, and how their differing characteristics arose. Hypotheses proposed to explain how the two primary tectonic events may have occurred are usually divided into endogenic (arising from the planet itself) and exogenic (foreign to the planet, e.g., meteorite impact) processes. This distinction occurs throughout the study of tectonics on Mars. In general, Mars lacks unambiguous evidence that terrestrial-style plate tectonics has shaped its surface. However, in some places magnetic anomalies in the Martian crust that

title: How Much Is Enough?

text: How Much Is Enough? How Much Is Enough? is a game show that aired on Game Show Network from January 8, 2008 to March 28, 2008. The show was hosted by Corbin Bernsen with four contestants competing with a "money clock" to avoid being the "greediest" contestant. Despite high expectations among production staff, with one member calling it a potentially "network-defining" show that would "quickly become an audience favorite", the series did not meet those expectations and was canceled after its first season. The general objective of the game is to avoid being the greediest contestant. For each money clock

title: Mars habitat

text: 2 deaths. Another infamous space related accident is the Apollo 1 incident, when a pure oxygen atmosphere ignited in the interior of space capsule during tests on the ground, three died. A 1997 study of about 280 space travelers between 1988 and 1995, found that only 3 did not have some sort of medical issue on their spaceflight. A medical risk for a Mars surface mission is how, after several months in zero gravity, they astronauts will handle operations on the surface. On Earth, astronauts must often be carted from the spacecraft and take a long time to recover. See

title: Artificial gravity in fiction

text: and centrifugal forces tear the ring apart. In "The Martian" and the film of the same title, the "Hermes" spacecraft achieves artificial gravity by design; it employs a ringed structure, at whose periphery forces around 40% of Earth's gravity are experienced. Such artificial gravity is similar in strength to the gravity on mars. At the center of the ringed structure, lack of gravity makes the astronauts practically weightless. In the "Expanse" series by James S. A. Corey, space stations generate artificial gravity by rotating, as do spun-up, hollowed-out asteroids, usually at around 0.3 g. Moving ships under constant thrust also

title: Exploration of Mars

text: and a total of 60 pictures, Mars 2 and 3 concluded their missions. The images and data enabled creation of surface relief maps, and gave information on the Martian gravity and magnetic fields. In 1973, the Soviet Union sent four more probes to Mars: the Mars 4 and Mars 5 orbiters and the Mars 6 and Mars 7 fly-by/lander combinations. All missions except Mars 7 sent back data, with Mars 5 being most successful. Mars 5 transmitted just 60 images before a loss of pressurization in the transmitter housing ended the mission. Mars 6 lander transmitted data during descent, but

title: Timekeeping on Mars

text: "The Sirens of Titan" (1959) describes a Martian calendar divided into twenty-one months: "twelve with thirty sols, and nine with thirty-one sols", for a total of only 639 sols. D. G. Compton states in his novel "Farewell, Earth's Bliss" (1966), during the prison ship's journey to Mars: "Nobody on board had any real idea how the people in the settlement would have organised their six-hundred-and-eighty-seven-day year." In Ian McDonald's "Desolation Road" (1988), set on a terraformed Mars (referred to by the book's characters as "Ares"), characters follow an implied 24-month calendar whose months are portmanteaus of Gregorian months, such as

title: Mars ocean hypothesis

text: for an ancient volume of water that could comprise an ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth and derived from telescopic observations. Eight times as much deuterium was inferred at the polar deposits of Mars than exists on Earth (VSMOW), suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. The representative atmospheric value obtained from the maps (7 VSMOW) is not affected by climatological effects as those measured

title: Marooned on Mars

text: the ship’s electronic controls and damages them. Now Chuck and Lewis will spend the rest of the trip to Mars repairing them. The repair job is complicated by the discovery of an unknown component in the wreckage of the control system. It had been inserted by an engineer who died in an auto accident before he could provide proper documentation for the device. Chuck and Lewis have to figure out how it works, repair it, and then calibrate it before they can land on Mars. After making two attempts, in which he nearly loses control of the ship, Rothman brings

title: Artificial gravity

text: never have to experience weightlessness or the associated side effects. Especially in a modern-day six-month journey to Mars, exposure to artificial gravity is suggested in either a continuous or intermittent form to prevent extreme debilitation to the astronauts during travel. A number of proposals have incorporated artificial gravity into their design: Some of the reasons that artificial gravity remains unused today in spaceflight trace back to the problems inherent in implementation. One of the realistic methods of creating artificial gravity is a centripetal force pulling a person towards a relative floor. In that model, however, issues arise in the size

title: Mars program

text: 3 had completed their missions by August 22, 1972, after 362 orbits completed by Mars 2 and 20 orbits by Mars 3. The probes sent back a total of 60 pictures. The images and data enabled creation of surface relief maps, and gave information on the Martian gravity and magnetic fields. Kosmos 419 was launched on May 5, 1971. It consisted of only an orbiter, and was intended to become the first spacecraft to orbit Mars (areocentric orbit), thereby beating the American Mariner 8 and Mariner 9 spacecraft. The Mars 4 and Mars 5 orbiters, launched in 1973, were designed

title: Astronomy on Mars

text: precessions are in opposite directions, and therefore add, to make the precession cycle between the tropical and anomalistic years 21,000 years on Earth and 56,600 years on Mars. As on Earth, the period of rotation of Mars (the length of its day) is slowing down. However, this effect is three orders of magnitude smaller than on Earth because the gravitational effect of Phobos is negligible and the effect is mainly due to the Sun. On Earth, the gravitational influence of the Moon has a much greater effect. Eventually, in the far future, the length of a day on Earth will

title: Ore resources on Mars

text: gathered them together, they do not even have to be mined, merely scooped up. These minerals could supply future colonists with chromium, iron, and titanium. Theoretically, ore resources exist on Mars. Moreover, sensitive equipment can predict where to look for them, such as around craters and near volcanic regions. As more images are gathered, more information will be gathered which will help to better map the locations of smaller structures, such as dikes, that indicate intrusive (under the surface) igneous activity. Later, flying unmanned craft with gravity and magnetic measuring devices will be able to determine the exact locations of

title: Gravity of Mars

text: core radius is 1520–1840 km. However, current radio tracking data from MGS, ODY and MRO does not allow the effect of phase lag on the tides to be detected because it is too weak and needs more precise measurement on the perturbation of spacecraft in the future. No direct measurement of crustal thickness on Mars is currently available. Geochemical implications from SNC meteorites and orthopyroxenite meteorite ALH84001 suggested that mean crustal thickness of Mars is 100–250 km. Viscous relaxation analysis suggested that the maximum thickness is 50–100 km. Such thickness is critical in maintaining hemispheric crustal variations and preventing channel

title: Quantum gravity

text: energy particle accelerators. Therefore physicists lack experimental data which could distinguish between the competing theories which have been proposed. Much of the difficulty in meshing these theories at all energy scales comes from the different assumptions that these theories make on how the universe works. General relativity models gravity as curvature of spacetime: in the slogan of John Archibald Wheeler, "Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve." On the other hand, quantum field theory is typically formulated in the "flat" spacetime used in special relativity. No theory has yet proven successful in describing the general

title: Neuroscience in space

text: effective countermeasure, or combination of countermeasures, exists against the negative effects of long-duration exposure to weightlessness. If a crew of astronauts were to embark on a six-month journey to Mars today, the countermeasures currently employed would presumably leave them less operational after landing. Many believe that physiological adaptation to Mars gravity (0.38 G) and re-adaptation to Earth gravity (1 G) would be enhanced by frequent exposure to artificial gravity on board the spacecraft en route to and from Mars. This would require an on-board human-rated centrifuge or spacecraft rotation to produce a centrifugal force similar to gravity. This solution, while

title: Gravity of Mars

text: towards the Sinai Planum and Lunae Planum, the more thickened the crust is. Among all regions, the Thaumasia and Claritis contain the thickest portion of crust on Mars that account for the histogram > 70 km. The Hellas and Argyre basins are observed to have crust thinner than 30 km, which are the exceptionally thin area in the southern hemisphere. Isidis and Utopia are also observed to have significant crustal thinning, with the center of Isidis basins believed to have the thinnest crust on Mars. Crustal thinning is believed to have taken place underneath almost all the major impact craters.