query: What is a thermometer?

title: Thermometer

text: Thermometer A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or a temperature gradient. A thermometer has two important elements: (1) a temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb of a mercury-in-glass thermometer or the digital sensor in an infrared thermometer) in which some change occurs with a change in temperature; and (2) some means of converting this change into a numerical value (e.g. the visible scale that is marked on a mercury-in-glass thermometer or the digital readout on an infrared model). Thermometers are widely used in technology and industry to monitor processes, in meteorology, in medicine, and in scientific research. Some of

title: Candy thermometer

text: models have markers for the various stages of sugar cooking. A candy thermometer is similar to a meat thermometer except that it can read higher temperatures (usually 400 °F/200 °C or more). The first candy thermometers were created in 1272 by Bennet Muzilla of Frankfurt, Germany. He used it to measure the temperatures of sugar solutions while making hard candies. Candy thermometer A candy thermometer, also known as a sugar thermometer, or jam thermometer is a cooking thermometer used to measure the temperature and therefore the "stage" of a cooking sugar solution. (See Candy making for a description of sugar

title: Thermometer

text: atmospheric icing conditions exist along their flight path. These measurements are used to initialize weather forecast models. Thermometers are used in roadways in cold weather climates to help determine if icing conditions exist and indoors in climate control systems. Thermometer A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or a temperature gradient. A thermometer has two important elements: (1) a temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb of a mercury-in-glass thermometer or the digital sensor in an infrared thermometer) in which some change occurs with a change in temperature; and (2) some means of converting this change into a numerical value (e.g.

title: Meat thermometer

text: Meat thermometer A meat thermometer or cooking thermometer is a thermometer used to measure the internal temperature of meat, especially roasts and steaks, and other cooked foods. The degree of "doneness" of meat or bread correlates closely with the internal temperature, so that a thermometer reading indicates when it is cooked as desired. When cooking, food should always be cooked so that the interior reaches a temperature sufficient, that in the case of meat is enough to kill pathogens that may cause foodborne illness or, in the case of bread, that is done baking; the thermometer helps to ensure this.

title: Six's thermometer

text: thermometer: instead of mercury two immiscible liquids are used supporting an index. The thermometer operates in the same way as the mercury version. Electronic thermometers often include a maximum–minimum registering feature. Six's Maximum and Minimum Thermometer Six's thermometer Six's thermometer is a registering thermometer which can record the maximum and minimum temperatures reached over a period of time, for example 24 hours. It is used to record the extremes of temperature at a location, for instance in meteorology and horticulture. It was invented by a British scientist James Six, born in Canterbury, in 1780; the same basic design remains in

title: Indoor–outdoor thermometer

text: Indoor–outdoor thermometer An indoor–outdoor thermometer is a thermometer that simultaneously provides a measurement of the indoor and outdoor temperatures. The outdoor part of the thermometer requires some kind of remote temperature sensing device. Conventionally, this was done by extending the bulb of the thermometer to the remote site. Modern instruments are more likely to use some form of electronic transducer. In an indoor–outdoor thermometer based on a conventional liquid-in-glass thermometer, the stem of the outdoor thermometer is connected to the bulb by a long, flexible or semi-rigid capillary. The temperature scale is marked on the stem as usual. However, the

title: Candy thermometer

text: Candy thermometer A candy thermometer, also known as a sugar thermometer, or jam thermometer is a cooking thermometer used to measure the temperature and therefore the "stage" of a cooking sugar solution. (See Candy making for a description of sugar stages.) These thermometers can also be used to measure hot oil for deep frying. There are several kinds of candy thermometers available. These include traditional liquid thermometers, coil spring "dial" thermometers and digital thermometers. The digital thermometers tend to read the temperature more quickly and accurately, and some models have an alarm when the thermometer hits a certain temperature. Many

title: Meat thermometer

text: the temperature should be at 74 °C (165 °F). For shellfish that are difficult to open, discard any that did not open during cooking. Meat thermometer A meat thermometer or cooking thermometer is a thermometer used to measure the internal temperature of meat, especially roasts and steaks, and other cooked foods. The degree of "doneness" of meat or bread correlates closely with the internal temperature, so that a thermometer reading indicates when it is cooked as desired. When cooking, food should always be cooked so that the interior reaches a temperature sufficient, that in the case of meat is enough

title: Medical thermometer

text: Medical thermometer A medical thermometer (also called clinical thermometer) is used for measuring human or animal body temperature. The tip of the thermometer is inserted into the mouth under the tongue ("oral" or "sub-lingual temperature"), under the armpit ("axillary temperature"), or into the rectum via the anus ("rectal temperature"). The medical thermometer began as an instrument more appropriately called a water thermoscope, constructed by Galileo Galilei circa 1592–1593. It lacked an accurate scale with which to measure temperature and could be affected by changes in atmospheric pressure. Italian physician Santorio Santorio is the first known individual to have put a

title: Six's thermometer

text: Six's thermometer Six's thermometer is a registering thermometer which can record the maximum and minimum temperatures reached over a period of time, for example 24 hours. It is used to record the extremes of temperature at a location, for instance in meteorology and horticulture. It was invented by a British scientist James Six, born in Canterbury, in 1780; the same basic design remains in use. It is also commonly known as a maximum–minimum, minimum–maximum, maxima–minima or minima–maxima thermometer, of which it is the earliest practical design. The thermometer indicates the current temperature, and the highest and lowest temperatures since last

title: Medical thermometer

text: is placed properly. Allbutt, T.C., “Medical Thermometry”, "British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review", Vol.45, No.90, (April 1870), pp.429-441; Vo.46, No.91, (July 1870), pp.144-156. Medical thermometer A medical thermometer (also called clinical thermometer) is used for measuring human or animal body temperature. The tip of the thermometer is inserted into the mouth under the tongue ("oral" or "sub-lingual temperature"), under the armpit ("axillary temperature"), or into the rectum via the anus ("rectal temperature"). The medical thermometer began as an instrument more appropriately called a water thermoscope, constructed by Galileo Galilei circa 1592–1593. It lacked an accurate scale with which to measure temperature

title: Thermometer

text: required the user to leave the thermometer in the hot liquid until after reading it. If the non-registering thermometer was removed from the hot liquid, then the temperature indicated on the thermometer would immediately begin changing to reflect the temperature of its new conditions (in this case, the air temperature). Registering thermometers are designed to hold the temperature indefinitely, so that the thermometer can be removed and read at a later time or in a more convenient place. Mechanical registering thermometers hold either the highest or lowest temperature recorded, until manually re-set, e.g., by shaking down a mercury-in-glass thermometer, or

title: Frog thermometer

text: the spheres' sluggish motion, this thermometer was also called infingardo [slothful, slow]. The invention of this model is attributed to Ferdinand II de' Medici. Frog thermometer The frog thermometer or - as the Cimento academicians defined it, the "botticino" [small-toad] thermometer - contained small glass spheres of different density, which were immersed in alcohol. The device was used as a clinical thermometer, tied to the wrist or the arm of the patient with the head of the frog facing upward. The variations in body temperature were registered by the movement of the spheres. The rise in temperature causes an increase

title: Infrared thermometer

text: monitoring for safety and efficiency maintenance purposes. A photographic camera using infrared film and suitable lens, etc., is also called an "infrared camera". This only captures the near infrared and is not sensitive to the thermal radiation from room temperature objects. Infrared thermometer An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called black-body radiation emitted by the object being measured. They are sometimes called laser thermometers as a laser is used to help aim the thermometer, or non-contact thermometers or temperature guns, to describe the device's ability to measure temperature from

title: Thermometer

text: the principles of the thermometer were known to Greek philosophers of two thousand years ago. The modern thermometer gradually evolved from the thermoscope with the addition of a scale in the early 17th century and standardisation through the 17th and 18th centuries. While an individual thermometer is able to measure degrees of hotness, the readings on two thermometers cannot be compared unless they conform to an agreed scale. Today there is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale. Internationally agreed temperature scales are designed to approximate this closely, based on fixed points and interpolating thermometers. The most recent official temperature scale is

title: Infrared thermometer

text: Infrared thermometer An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called black-body radiation emitted by the object being measured. They are sometimes called laser thermometers as a laser is used to help aim the thermometer, or non-contact thermometers or temperature guns, to describe the device's ability to measure temperature from a distance. By knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted by the object and its emissivity, the object's temperature can often be determined within a certain range of its actual temperature. Infrared thermometers are a subset of devices known as "thermal

title: Thermometer

text: practice was Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738). In 1866, Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt (1836–1925) invented a clinical thermometer that produced a body temperature reading in five minutes as opposed to twenty. In 1999, Dr. Francesco Pompei of the Exergen Corporation introduced the world's first temporal artery thermometer, a non-invasive temperature sensor which scans the forehead in about two seconds and provides a medically accurate body temperature. Old thermometers were all non-registering thermometers. That is, the thermometer did not hold the temperature reading after it was moved to a place with a different temperature. Determining the temperature of a pot of hot liquid

title: Beckmann thermometer

text: Beckmann thermometer A Beckmann thermometer is a device used to measure small differences of temperature, but not absolute temperature values. It was invented by Ernst Otto Beckmann (1853 – 1923), a German chemist, for his measurements of colligative properties in 1905. Today its use has largely been superseded by electronic thermometers. A Beckmann thermometer's length is usually 40 – 50 cm. The temperature scale typically covers about 5 °C and it is divided into hundredths of a degree. With a magnifier it is possible to estimate temperature changes to 0.001 °C. The peculiarity of Beckmann's thermometer design is a reservoir

title: Gas thermometer

text: Gas thermometer A gas thermometer measures temperature by the variation in volume or pressure of a gas. This thermometer functions by Charles's Law. Charles's Law states that when the temperature of a gas increases, so does the volume. Using Charles's Law, the temperature can be measured by knowing the volume of gas at a certain temperature by using the formula, written below. Translating it to the correct levels of the device that is holding the gas. This works on the same principle as mercury thermometers. or T is the temperature. V is the volume. k is the constant for the

title: Medical thermometer

text: °F to 110 °F. The armpit (axilla) temperature is measured by holding the thermometer tightly under the armpit. One needs to hold the thermometer for several minutes to get an accurate measurement. The axillary temperature plus 1 °C is a good guide to the rectal temperature in patients older than 1 month. The accuracy from the axilla is known to be inferior to the rectal temperature. Rectal Thermometer temperature-taking, especially if performed by a person other than the patient, should be facilitated with the use of a water-based personal lubricant. Although rectal temperature is the most accurate, this method may

title: Indoor–outdoor thermometer

text: in snow and ice clearance. Building maintenance engineers can use an indoor-outdoor thermometer that has not been installed to get a quick reading of air temperature in a location inside a building. This is done by swinging the bulb of the outdoor sensor in the air while still attached to the instrument. This will get a faster reading because the bulb will come up to temperature much more quickly than the indoor sensor built into the instrument. Indoor–outdoor thermometer An indoor–outdoor thermometer is a thermometer that simultaneously provides a measurement of the indoor and outdoor temperatures. The outdoor part of

title: Alcohol thermometer

text: to give a background for reading the scale. The range of usefulness of the thermometer is set by the boiling point of the liquid used. In the case of the ethanol-filled thermometer, the upper limit for measurement is 78 °C (172.4 °F), which makes it useful for measuring daytime, nighttime and body temperatures, although not for anything much hotter than these. Ethanol-filled thermometers are used in preference to mercury for meteorological measurements of minimum temperatures and can be used down to −70 °C (-94 °F). The physical limitation of the ability of a thermometer to measure low temperature is the

title: Mercury-in-glass thermometer

text: to the bulb. As the temperature rises, the mercury is pushed up through the constriction by the force of expansion. When the temperature falls, the column of mercury breaks at the constriction and cannot return to the bulb, thus remaining stationary in the tube. The observer can then read the maximum temperature over the set period of time. To reset the thermometer it must be swung sharply. This design is used in the traditional type of medical thermometer. A maximum minimum thermometer, also known as Six's thermometer, is a thermometer which registers the maximum and minimum temperatures reached over a

title: Beckmann thermometer

text: (R on diagram) at the upper end of the tube, by means of which the quantity of mercury in the bulb can be increased or diminished so that the instrument can be set to measure temperature differences at either high or low temperature values. In contrast, the range of a typical mercury-in-glass thermometer is fixed, being set by the calibration marks etched on the glass or the marks on the printed scale. In setting the thermometer, a sufficient amount of mercury must be left in the bulb and stem to give readings between the required temperatures. First, the thermometer is

title: Quartz thermometer

text: by Hewlett-Packard in 1965, the successor company, Agilent, has discontinued the Model 2804A Quartz Thermometer. Other manufacturers make nearly linear-in-temperature quartz crystals that may be used to construct thermometers of similar performance. Quartz thermometer The quartz thermometer is a high-precision, high accuracy temperature sensor. It measures temperature by measuring the frequency of a quartz crystal oscillator. The oscillator contains a specially cut crystal that results in a linear temperature coefficient of frequency, so the measurement of the temperature is essentially reduced to measurement of the oscillator frequency. Resolutions of .0001 °C, and accuracy of .02 °C from 0-100 °C are

title: Frog thermometer

text: Frog thermometer The frog thermometer or - as the Cimento academicians defined it, the "botticino" [small-toad] thermometer - contained small glass spheres of different density, which were immersed in alcohol. The device was used as a clinical thermometer, tied to the wrist or the arm of the patient with the head of the frog facing upward. The variations in body temperature were registered by the movement of the spheres. The rise in temperature causes an increase in the volume of the alcohol, reflected in the movement of the small spheres (first the less dense, then the more dense). Because of

title: Miller-Casella thermometer

text: the ocean was always warmer than that below. Scientists aboard the HMS Challenger later questioned this assumption and made temperature measurements with reversing thermometers instead which wouldn't require the coldest water to be at the ocean's bottom. Nature article - Miller Casella thermometer Miller-Casella thermometer The Miller-Casella thermometer was a Six's thermometer with a double bulb used extensively by the "Challenger" expedition during the late nineteenth century. The thermomemeter was used for water temperature readings along 360 different research stations around the world's oceans. The thermometer, about 9 inches in length, was enclosed in a copper case and filled with

title: Thermometer

text: in a body made of material that is completely opaque and poorly reflective, when it has reached thermodynamic equilibrium, as a function of absolute thermodynamic temperature alone. A small enough hole in the wall of the cavity emits near enough blackbody radiation of which the spectral radiance can be precisely measured. The walls of the cavity, provided they are completely opaque and poorly reflective, can be of any material indifferently. This provides a well-reproducible absolute thermometer over a very wide range of temperatures, able to measure the absolute temperature of a body inside the cavity. A thermometer is called primary

title: Gas thermometer

text: absolute zero. Note that data could have been collected with three different amounts of the same gas, which would have rendered this experiment easy to do in the eighteenth century. Gas thermometer A gas thermometer measures temperature by the variation in volume or pressure of a gas. This thermometer functions by Charles's Law. Charles's Law states that when the temperature of a gas increases, so does the volume. Using Charles's Law, the temperature can be measured by knowing the volume of gas at a certain temperature by using the formula, written below. Translating it to the correct levels of the

title: Beckmann thermometer

text: then be set for readings between the required temperatures. Beckmann thermometer A Beckmann thermometer is a device used to measure small differences of temperature, but not absolute temperature values. It was invented by Ernst Otto Beckmann (1853 – 1923), a German chemist, for his measurements of colligative properties in 1905. Today its use has largely been superseded by electronic thermometers. A Beckmann thermometer's length is usually 40 – 50 cm. The temperature scale typically covers about 5 °C and it is divided into hundredths of a degree. With a magnifier it is possible to estimate temperature changes to 0.001 °C.

title: Six's thermometer

text: of mercury, a metal which is liquid at normal temperatures. This is pushed around the tube by the thermal expansion and contraction of the alcohol in the first bulb as it responds to the external temperature. The vacuum in other bulb allows free movement of the alcohol and mercury. It is the alcohol which measures the temperature; the mercury indicates the temperature reading on both scales. This is unlike a normal mercury thermometer, in which the expansion and contraction of mercury itself indicates temperature. The thermometer shows a reading at the top of the mercury section on both the maximum

title: Reversing thermometer

text: a smaller bulb at the other end of the capillary, which is graduated to read temperature. A 360° turn in a locally widened portion of the capillary serves as a trap to prevent further addition of mercury if the thermometer is warmed and the mercury expands past the break-off point. The remote-reading potentialities of reversing thermometers make them particularly suitable for use in measuring subsea temperature as a function of pressure. In this application, both protected thermometers and unprotected thermometers are used, each of which is provided with an auxiliary thermometer. They are generally used in pairs in Nansen bottles.

title: Medical thermometer

text: body. To use the thermometer, the bulb is placed in the location where the temperature is to be measured and left long enough to be certain to reach thermal equilibrium—typically three minutes. Maximum-reading is achieved by means of a constriction in the neck close to the bulb. As the temperature of the bulb rises, the liquid expands up the tube through the constriction. When the temperature falls, the column of liquid breaks at the constriction and cannot return to the bulb, thus remaining stationary in the tube. After reading the value, the thermometer must be reset by repeatedly swinging it

title: Meat thermometer

text: A meat thermometer is a unit which will measure core temperature of meats while cooking. It will have a metal probe with a sharp point which is pushed into the meat, and a dial or digital display. Some show the temperature only; others also have markings to indicate when different kinds of meat are done to a specified degree (e.g., "beef medium rare"). Meat thermometers are usually designed to have the probe in the meat during cooking. Some use a bimetallic strip which rotates a needle which shows the temperature on a dial; the whole thermometer can be left inside

title: Quartz thermometer

text: Quartz thermometer The quartz thermometer is a high-precision, high accuracy temperature sensor. It measures temperature by measuring the frequency of a quartz crystal oscillator. The oscillator contains a specially cut crystal that results in a linear temperature coefficient of frequency, so the measurement of the temperature is essentially reduced to measurement of the oscillator frequency. Resolutions of .0001 °C, and accuracy of .02 °C from 0-100 °C are achievable. The high linearity makes it possible to achieve high accuracy over an important temperature range that contains only one convenient temperature reference point for calibration, the triple point of water. Introduced

title: Alcohol thermometer

text: freezing point of the liquid used. Ethanol freezes at −114.9 °C (−174.82 °F). If an alcohol thermometer utilizes a combination of ethyl alcohol, toluene, and pentane, its lower temperature range may be extended to measure temperatures down to as low as −200 °C (-328 °F). However, the measurement temperature range c. −200 °C to 78 °C, is highly dependent upon the type of alcohol used. The alcohol thermometer was the earliest efficient, modern-style instrument of temperature measurement. As is the case with many early, important inventions, several people are credited with the invention. These include Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand

title: Medical thermometer

text: (1836–1925) designed a medical thermometer that was much more portable, measuring only six inches long and taking only five minutes to record a patient's temperature. In 1868, German physician, pioneer psychiatrist, and medical professor Carl Reinhold August Wunderlich published his studies that consisted of over one million readings from twenty-five thousand patients' temperatures, taken in the underarm. With his findings, he was able to conclude a healthy human's temperature fell within the range of 36.3 to 37.5 °C (97.34 to 99.5 °F). Dr. Theodor H. Benzinger (13 April 1905 - 26 Oct 1999) invented the ear thermometer in 1964. Born

title: Mercury-in-glass thermometer

text: with fused quartz allows the upper temperature range to be extended to . Mercury cannot be used below the temperature at which it becomes solid, . If the thermometer contains nitrogen, the gas may flow down into the column when the mercury solidifies and be trapped there when the temperature rises, making the thermometer unusable until returned to the factory for reconditioning. To avoid this, some weather services require that all mercury-in-glass thermometers be brought indoors when the temperature falls to . To measure lower meteorological temperatures, a thermometer containing a mercury-thallium alloy which does not solidify until the temperature

title: Thermometer

text: of the thermometer, what he produced were thermoscopes. The first clear diagram of a thermoscope was published in 1617 by Giuseppe Biancani (1566 – 1624): the first showing a scale and thus constituting a thermometer was by Robert Fludd in 1638. This was a vertical tube, closed by a bulb of air at the top, with the lower end opening into a vessel of water. The water level in the tube is controlled by the expansion and contraction of the air, so it is what we would now call an air thermometer. The first person to put a scale on

title: Alcohol thermometer

text: Duke of Tuscany, who in 1654 made sealed tubes partly filled with alcohol or urine, with a bulb and stem, depending on the expansion of a liquid, and independent of air pressure. Other sources, including the Encyclopædia Britannica, credit German scientist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit with inventing the alcohol thermometer in 1709. Fahrenheit was a skilled glassblower and his alcohol thermometer was the world's first reliable thermometer. Alcohol thermometer The alcohol thermometer or spirit thermometer is an alternative to the mercury-in-glass thermometer and has similar functions. Unlike the mercury-in-glass thermometer, the contents of an alcohol thermometer are less toxic and will

title: Alcohol thermometer

text: Alcohol thermometer The alcohol thermometer or spirit thermometer is an alternative to the mercury-in-glass thermometer and has similar functions. Unlike the mercury-in-glass thermometer, the contents of an alcohol thermometer are less toxic and will evaporate quickly. The ethanol version is the most widely used due to the low cost and relatively low hazard posed by the liquid in case of breakage. An organic liquid is contained in a glass bulb which is connected to a capillary of the same glass and the end is sealed with an expansion bulb. The space above the liquid is a mixture of nitrogen and

title: Galileo thermometer

text: Galileo thermometer A Galileo thermometer (or Galilean thermometer) is a thermometer made of a sealed glass cylinder containing a clear liquid and several glass vessels of varying density. As the temperature changes, the individual floats rise or fall in proportion to their respective density and the density of the surrounding liquid. It is named after Galileo Galilei because he discovered the principle on which this thermometer is based—that the density of a liquid changes in proportion to its temperature. Although named after the 16th–17th-century physicist Galileo, the thermometer described in this article was not invented by him. Galileo did invent

title: Thermometer

text: instruments can give readings to one thousandth of a degree. However, this precision does not mean the reading is true or accurate, it only means that very small changes can be observed. A thermometer calibrated to a known fixed point is accurate (i.e. gives a true reading) at that point. Most thermometers are originally calibrated to a constant-volume gas thermometer. In between fixed calibration points, interpolation is used, usually linear. This may give significant differences between different types of thermometer at points far away from the fixed points. For example, the expansion of mercury in a glass thermometer is slightly

title: Thermometer

text: different from the change in resistance of a platinum resistance thermometer, so these two will disagree slightly at around 50 °C. There may be other causes due to imperfections in the instrument, e.g. in a liquid-in-glass thermometer if the capillary tube varies in diameter. For many purposes reproducibility is important. That is, does the same thermometer give the same reading for the same temperature (or do replacement or multiple thermometers give the same reading)? Reproducible temperature measurement means that comparisons are valid in scientific experiments and industrial processes are consistent. Thus if the same type of thermometer is calibrated in

title: Galileo thermometer

text: retain their stacking order or, as an alternative, less than half the tube diameter to freely pass each other in the tubes. Galileo thermometer A Galileo thermometer (or Galilean thermometer) is a thermometer made of a sealed glass cylinder containing a clear liquid and several glass vessels of varying density. As the temperature changes, the individual floats rise or fall in proportion to their respective density and the density of the surrounding liquid. It is named after Galileo Galilei because he discovered the principle on which this thermometer is based—that the density of a liquid changes in proportion to its

title: Thermometer

text: thermometer. It is described as having a bulb at the bottom of a sealed tube partially filled with brandy. The tube has a numbered scale. Delmedigo does not claim to have invented this instrument, nor does he name anyone else as its inventor. In about 1654 Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1610–1670), actually produced such an instrument, the first modern-style thermometer, dependent on the expansion of a liquid, and independent of air pressure. Many other scientists experimented with various liquids and designs of thermometer. However, each inventor and each thermometer was unique—there was no standard scale. In

title: Breguet's thermometer

text: connected to an index, which projects over a graduated circle (b). The expansion of silver with temperature is almost twice as great as platinum, with gold being in somewhere in between. The result is that a temperature rise or fall will cause a corresponding twist in the spiral, moving the index. The slip of gold in between is to prevent "sudden starts". Breguet's thermometer Breguet's thermometer, also called a spiral thermometer, is a type of thermometer which uses the expansion of metal under heat to produce a measurement more sensitive, and with a higher range, than both mercury and air

title: Breguet's thermometer

text: Breguet's thermometer Breguet's thermometer, also called a spiral thermometer, is a type of thermometer which uses the expansion of metal under heat to produce a measurement more sensitive, and with a higher range, than both mercury and air thermometers. Working on the principle of a bimetallic strip, it consists of a very slender strip of platinum soldered to a similar strip of silver, with a slip of gold soldered in between. The strips of soldered metals are curved into a helix (a). The upper extremity of the helix is fastened to a metallic support (c) and the lower extremity is

title: IbpB thermometer

text: IbpB thermometer The IbpB thermometer is an RNA thermometer element found in the "ibpAB" operon. The operon contains two heat-shock genes, encoding inclusion body binding proteins A and B (IbpA/B), and is the most drastically upregulated operon under heat-shock in "Escherichia coli". "IbpA" is regulated by a ROSE element found in its 5' UTR, while "IbpB" has its own heat-sensitive cis-regulatory element. The activity of this thermoregulator was confirmed "in vitro" but was not found "in vivo", suggesting more complicated operon regulation exists in bacterial cells. The IbpB protein, whose expression is regulated by the IbpB thermometer, is 48% identical

title: IbpB thermometer

text: has been removed. IbpB thermometer The IbpB thermometer is an RNA thermometer element found in the "ibpAB" operon. The operon contains two heat-shock genes, encoding inclusion body binding proteins A and B (IbpA/B), and is the most drastically upregulated operon under heat-shock in "Escherichia coli". "IbpA" is regulated by a ROSE element found in its 5' UTR, while "IbpB" has its own heat-sensitive cis-regulatory element. The activity of this thermoregulator was confirmed "in vitro" but was not found "in vivo", suggesting more complicated operon regulation exists in bacterial cells. The IbpB protein, whose expression is regulated by the IbpB thermometer,

title: Medical thermometer

text: There are factors that make readings of this thermometer to some extent unreliable, for example faulty placement in the external ear canal by the operator, and wax blocking the canal. Such error-producing factors usually cause readings to be below the true value, so that a fever can fail to be detected. A temporal artery thermometer, which uses the infrared principle report temperature, were not very accurate and therefore caution should be used. The band thermometer is applied to the patient's brow. It is typically a band coated with different temperature-sensitive markings using plastic strip thermometer or similar technology; at a

title: Liquid crystal thermometer

text: except for the analytic liquid crystal thermometer which shows the exact temperature between 35.5 to 40.5 Celsius. Liquid crystal thermometers are also commonly used in aquariums in homebrewing, and in mood rings. The Liquid crystal thermometer was invented by Bob Parker in California, one of many of the inventor's thermochromic applications patented in the 1970s. Liquid crystal thermometer A liquid crystal thermometer, temperature strip or plastic strip thermometer is a type of thermometer that contains heat-sensitive (thermochromic) liquid crystals in a plastic strip that change colour to indicate different temperatures. Liquid crystals possess the mechanical properties of a liquid, but

title: Liquid crystal thermometer

text: Liquid crystal thermometer A liquid crystal thermometer, temperature strip or plastic strip thermometer is a type of thermometer that contains heat-sensitive (thermochromic) liquid crystals in a plastic strip that change colour to indicate different temperatures. Liquid crystals possess the mechanical properties of a liquid, but have the optical properties of a single crystal. Temperature changes can affect the colour of a liquid crystal, which makes them useful for temperature measurement. The resolution of liquid crystal sensors is in the 0.1°C range. Disposable liquid crystal thermometers have been developed for home and medical use. For example if the thermometer is black

title: Galileo thermometer

text: a thermometer, called Galileo's air thermometer (more accurately termed a thermoscope), in or before 1603. The so-called 'Galileo thermometer' was invented by a group of academics and technicians known as the Accademia del Cimento of Florence, who included Galileo's pupil, Torricelli and Torricelli's pupil Viviani. Details of the thermometer were published in the "Saggi di naturali esperienze fatte nell'Academia del Cimento sotto la protezione del Serenissimo Principe Leopoldo di Toscana e descritte dal segretario di essa Accademia" (1666), the Academy's main publication. The English translation of this work (1684) describes the device ('The Fifth Thermometer') as 'slow and lazy', a

title: World's tallest thermometer

text: after summer 2017. The world's tallest thermometer is located at 72157 Baker Boulevard in Baker, California. It is visible from three different angles along Interstate 15 in Southern California's Mojave Desert. A gift shop at the base of the thermometer stands near a commemorative plaque that describes the history of the site. World's tallest thermometer The World's Tallest Thermometer is a landmark located in Baker, California, USA. It is an electric sign that commemorates the record 134 degrees Fahrenheit (57 degrees Celsius) recorded in nearby Death Valley on July 10, 1913. The sign weighs and is held together by of

title: Recording thermometer

text: temperature changes for a whole week. There are normally two types of metal on the bimetallic strip. Mostly one is steel and one is copper. Because these metals expand and contract at different rates. When one of these metals expand it curls tighter, when one contracts it uncurl slightly. When it curls or uncurls, the data is converted into electric signals, which record the temperature change. Recording thermometer A recording thermometer is a type of thermometer that records temperature changes over a period of time. One end of the strip is attached to a long, light metal lever that holds

title: Reversing thermometer

text: Reversing thermometer Unlike most conventional mercury thermometers, a reversing thermometer is able to record a given temperature to be viewed at a later time. If the thermometer is flipped upside down, the current temperature will be shown until it is turned upright again. This was the primary device used by oceanographers to determine water temperatures below the surface of the ocean from around 1900 to 1970. It consists of a conventional bulb connected to a capillary in which a constriction is placed so that upon reversal the mercury column breaks off in a reproducible manner. The mercury runs down into

title: Reversing thermometer

text: They are usually read to 0.01°C, and after the proper corrections have been applied, their readings are considered reliable to 0.02°C. Reversing thermometer Unlike most conventional mercury thermometers, a reversing thermometer is able to record a given temperature to be viewed at a later time. If the thermometer is flipped upside down, the current temperature will be shown until it is turned upright again. This was the primary device used by oceanographers to determine water temperatures below the surface of the ocean from around 1900 to 1970. It consists of a conventional bulb connected to a capillary in which a

title: Six's thermometer

text: the mercury, and returning it to the horizontal. The Six's thermometer is known for separations in the mercury column, in particular after shipment, though accidental knocks have been known causes as well. Separations can usually be corrected by swinging the thermometer as is done to reset a mercury clinical thermometer; the centrifugal force forces the mercury together again. Should a marker become partly buried in the mercury, it can either be pulled up again with the magnet or exposed to an extreme temperature that leaves the marker uncovered. If a strong external magnet is used to pull up the markers

title: Recording thermometer

text: Recording thermometer A recording thermometer is a type of thermometer that records temperature changes over a period of time. One end of the strip is attached to a long, light metal lever that holds a special pen. Tiny movement of the bimetallic strip causes much larger movement of the free end of the lever and the pen. The pen traces a rising and falling line on a strip of paper attached to a slowly turning drum. The drum usually makes one turn every seven or so days, so afterwards each strip of paper contains a complete and accurate record of

title: Medical thermometer

text: the body (a thermometer which senses the temperature of the eardrum without touching it is inserted into the ear canal). To eliminate the risk of patient cross-infection, disposable probe covers and single-use clinical thermometers of all types are used in clinics and hospitals. According to a 2001 research, electronic thermometers on the market significantly underestimate higher temperatures and overestimate lower temperatures. The researchers conclude that "the current generation of electronic, digital clinical thermometers, in general, may not be sufficiently accurate or reliable to replace the traditional glass/mercury thermometers" A basal thermometer is a thermometer used to take the basal (base)

title: RNA thermometer

text: machinery. The start codon, typically found 8 nucleotides downstream of the Shine-Dalgarno sequence, signals the beginning of a protein-coding gene which is then translated to a peptide product by the ribosome. In addition to this "cis"-acting mechanism, a lone example of a "trans"-acting RNA thermometer has been found in RpoS mRNA where it is thought to be involved in the starvation response. A specific example of an RNA thermometer motif is the FourU thermometer found in "Salmonella enterica". When exposed to temperatures above 45 °C, the stem-loop that base-pairs opposite the Shine-Dalgarno sequence becomes unpaired and allows the mRNA to

title: Thermometer

text: high coefficient of expansion) for the first time and the quality of his production could provide a finer scale and greater reproducibility, leading to its general adoption. In 1742, Anders Celsius (1701–1744) proposed a scale with zero at the boiling point and 100 degrees at the freezing point of water, though the scale which now bears his name has them the other way around. French entomologist René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur invented an alcohol thermometer and temperature scale in 1730 that ultimately proved to be less reliable than Fahrenheit's mercury thermometer. The first physician that put thermometer measurements to clinical

title: Thermometer

text: the same bath or block and allowed to come to equilibrium, then the scale marked, or any deviation from the instrument scale recorded. For many modern devices calibration will be stating some value to be used in processing an electronic signal to convert it to a temperature. The precision or resolution of a thermometer is simply to what fraction of a degree it is possible to make a reading. For high temperature work it may only be possible to measure to the nearest 10 °C or more. Clinical thermometers and many electronic thermometers are usually readable to 0.1 °C. Special

title: Thermometer

text: a thermoscope is variously said to be Francesco Sagredo (1571–1620) or Santorio Santorio in about 1611 to 1613. The word thermometer (in its French form) first appeared in 1624 in "La Récréation Mathématique" by J. Leurechon, who describes one with a scale of 8 degrees. The word comes from the Greek words θερμός, "thermos", meaning "hot" and μέτρον, "metron", meaning "measure". The above instruments suffered from the disadvantage that they were also barometers, i.e. sensitive to air pressure. In 1629, Joseph Solomon Delmedigo, a student of Galileo, published what is apparently the first description and illustration of a sealed liquid-in-glass

title: Mercury-in-glass thermometer

text: Nowadays, the triple point of water is used instead of the freezing point (the triple point occurs at 273.16 kelvins (K), 0.01 °C). Before the discovery of the true thermodynamic temperature, the thermometer "defined" the temperature; thermometers made with different materials would define different temperature scales (a coloured alcohol thermometer would give a slightly different reading than a mercury thermometer at, say half-scale). In practice, several materials gave very similar temperatures to each other and, when discovered, to the thermodynamic temperature. One special kind of mercury-in-glass thermometer, called a maximum thermometer, works by having a constriction in the neck close

title: Miller-Casella thermometer

text: Miller-Casella thermometer The Miller-Casella thermometer was a Six's thermometer with a double bulb used extensively by the "Challenger" expedition during the late nineteenth century. The thermomemeter was used for water temperature readings along 360 different research stations around the world's oceans. The thermometer, about 9 inches in length, was enclosed in a copper case and filled with a solution of creosote in spirit. A U-shaped mercury tube recorded maximum and minimum temperature as the thermometer was lowered and raised into the ocean. This design assumed accurate measurements could be taken as long as the water closer to the surface of

title: Thermometer

text: the same way its readings will be valid even if it is slightly inaccurate compared to the absolute scale. An example of a reference thermometer used to check others to industrial standards would be a platinum resistance thermometer with a digital display to 0.1 °C (its precision) which has been calibrated at 5 points against national standards (−18, 0, 40, 70, 100 °C) and which is certified to an accuracy of ±0.2 °C. According to British Standards, correctly calibrated, used and maintained liquid-in-glass thermometers can achieve a measurement uncertainty of ±0.01 °C in the range 0 to 100 °C, and

title: Mercury-in-glass thermometer

text: the cost of disposal. The pharmaceutical distributor covered the logistical costs for the distribution of the thermometers. The pharmacies accepted a refund of only 0.50 Euro per thermometer for handling (which is far below their normal margin). The supplier provided the thermometers at a reduced price. The Federal Ministry supported each sold thermometer (covering about 30% of the direct costs) and advertised the project. During the collection period, consumers could bring in a mercury thermometer and buy an electronic thermometer for a subsidised price of 1 Euro. Between October 2007 and January 2008, about 465,000 electronic thermometers were sold and

title: Medical thermometer

text: medicine with the thermometer. By observing the correlation in a patient's change in temperature and the physical symptoms of the illness, he concluded that a record of one's temperature could inform the doctor of a patient's health. However, his proposals were not met with enthusiasm by his peers and the medical thermometer remained a scarcely used instrument in medicine. Thermometers remained cumbersome to transport and use. By the mid 19th century, the medical thermometer was still a foot long (30.28 cm) and took as long as twenty minutes to take an accurate temperature reading. Between 1866-1867, Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt

title: Infrared thermometer

text: usually project a visible red dot onto the center of the area being measured that identifies the spot being measured, but plays no part in the measurement. The actual angular area being measured varies among instruments and is not restricted to the visible spot. Related equipment, although not strictly thermometers, include infrared scanning systems and infrared thermal imaging cameras. Infrared scanning systems scan a larger area, typically by using what is essentially a spot thermometer pointed at a rotating mirror. These devices are widely used in manufacturing involving conveyors or "web" processes, such as large sheets of glass or metal

title: Meat thermometer

text: the temperature in the center of the stuffing should be about 74 °C (165 °F). For beef, lamb, or veal insert the meat thermometer away from bone, fat, or cartilage. The meat should reach a temperature of between 63 °C (145 °F) for medium-rare, and 77 °C (170 °F) for well done. Pork needs to reach the same temperature 71 °C (160 °F) as beef, lamb, or veal and the same rules for use of the thermometer apply. For ground meat, you should insert the digital food thermometer into the thickest part of the piece. For hamburgers you should insert

title: Medical thermometer

text: the "Académie des sciences, belles-lettres et arts de Lyon", developed a similar scale in which "0" represented the freezing point of water and "100" represented boiling. On 19 May 1743 he published the design of a mercury thermometer, the "Thermometer of Lyon" built by the craftsman Pierre Casati that used this scale. The medical thermometer was used by Dutch chemist and physician Hermann Boerhaave (1668–1738), as well as his notable students Gerard van Swieten (1700–72) and Anton de Haen (1704–76). It was also utilized around the same time by Scottish physician George Martine (1700–1741). De Haen made particular strides in

title: Medical thermometer

text: given temperature the markings (numerals indicating the temperature) in one region are at the right temperature to become visible. This type may give an indication of fever, but is not considered accurate. The traditional thermometer is a glass tube with a bulb at one end containing a liquid which expands in a uniform manner with temperature. The tube itself is narrow (capillary) and has calibration markings along it. The liquid is often mercury, but alcohol thermometers use a colored alcohol. Medically, a maximum thermometer is often used, which indicates the maximum temperature reached even after it is removed from the

title: Medical thermometer

text: who is capable of holding the thermometer securely under the tongue, which generally excludes small children or people who are unconscious or overcome by coughing, weakness, or vomiting. (This is less of a problem with fast-reacting digital thermometers, but is certainly an issue with mercury thermometers, which take several minutes to stabilise their reading.) If the patient has drunk a hot or cold liquid beforehand time must be allowed for the mouth temperature to return to its normal value. The typical range of a sub-lingual thermometer for use in humans is from about 35 °C to 42 °C or 90

title: Beckmann thermometer

text: inverted and gently tapped so that the mercury in the reservoir lodges in the bend (B) at the end of the stem. Next, the bulb is heated until the mercury in the stem joins the mercury in the reservoir. The thermometer is then placed in a bath one or two degrees above the upper limit of temperatures to be measured. The upper end of the tube is gently tapped with the finger, and the mercury suspended in the upper part of the reservoir will be jarred down, thus separating it from the thread at the bend (B). The thermometer will

title: Thermometer

text: the International Temperature Scale of 1990. It extends from to approximately . Various authors have credited the invention of the thermometer to Hero of Alexandria. The thermometer was not a single invention, however, but a development. Hero of Alexandria (10–70 AD) knew of the principle that certain substances, notably air, expand and contract and described a demonstration in which a closed tube partially filled with air had its end in a container of water. The expansion and contraction of the air caused the position of the water/air interface to move along the tube. Such a mechanism was later used to

title: Medical thermometer

text: to ensure absolute accuracy, and thermometers (like most digital instruments) should be calibrated at specified intervals. If only the variation of basal temperature is required, absolute accuracy is not so important so long as the readings do not have large variability (e.g., if real temperature varies from 37.00 °C to 37.28 °C, a thermometer which inaccurately but consistently reads a change from 37.17 °C to 37.45 °C will indicate the magnitude of the change). Some digital thermometers are marketed as "basal thermometers" and have extra features such as a larger display, expanded memory functions, or beeping to confirm the thermometer

title: FourU thermometer

text: other genes. Sigma factor-RNA thermometer combinations have been found to regulate other heat-shock genes (such as ibpA in "E. coli") which has led to speculation of undiscovered RNA thermometers operating alongside sigma factor modules to regulate other related genes as an additional level of control. Further speculation suggests the simpler RNA thermometer method of gene regulation may have evolved prior to the more complex sigma factor transcription control. The agsA gene, which is regulated by FourU thermometers, was first discovered in "Salmonella enterica". The protein coded for by this gene is a small heat shock protein (sHSP) which protects bacteria

title: Six's thermometer

text: in the push-button type with the magnetic plate in place, there is a risk of damaging the weak magnet behind the scale, or magnetising the steel in the markers either weakening or enhancing the pulling force against the capillary tube on all or part of the scale so that the thermometer no longer works properly. The original Six's thermometer design contains mercury, which has been banned for most uses in the European Union and some other parts of the world. In 2006, S.Brannan & Sons Ltd, a UK company, was granted a patent for a mercury-free version of Six's maximum–minimum

title: Galileo thermometer

text: description that is reflected in an alternative Italian name for the invention, the "termometro lento" (slow thermometer). The outer vessel was filled with 'rectified spirits of wine' (a concentrated solution of ethanol in water); the weights of the glass bubbles were adjusted by grinding a small amount of glass from the sealed end; and a small air space was left at the top of the main vessel to allow 'for the Liquor to rarefie' [i.e. expand]. The device now called the Galileo thermometer was revived in the modern era by the Natural History Museum, London, which started selling a version

title: RNA thermometer

text: RNA thermometer An RNA thermometer (or RNA thermosensor) is a temperature-sensitive non-coding RNA molecule which regulates gene expression. RNA thermometers often regulate genes required during either a heat shock or cold shock response, but have been implicated in other regulatory roles such as in pathogenicity and starvation. In general, RNA thermometers operate by changing their secondary structure in response to temperature fluctuations. This structural transition can then expose or occlude important regions of RNA such as a ribosome binding site, which then affects the translation rate of a nearby protein-coding gene. RNA thermometers, along with riboswitches, are used as examples

title: Mercury-in-glass thermometer

text: was to use the condition of melting and not that of freezing. The experiments for reaching a good calibration of his thermometer lasted for 2 winters. By performing the same experiment over and over again, he discovered that ice always melted at the same calibration mark on the thermometer. He found a similar fixed point in the calibration of boiling water to water vapour (when this is done to high precision, a variation will be seen with atmospheric pressure; Celsius noted this). At the moment that he removed the thermometer from the vapour, the mercury level climbed slightly. This was

title: Galileo thermometer

text: temperature change of the coloured liquid and air gap inside the bulbs does not affect the operation of the thermometer, as these materials are sealed inside a glass bulb of fixed size. The clear liquid in which the bulbs are submerged is not water, but some organic compound (such as ethanol) the density of which varies with temperature more than water does. Temperature changes affect the density of the outer clear liquid and this causes the bulbs to rise or sink. Figure 4 shows a schematic representation of a Galileo thermometer at two different temperatures. In some models, if there

title: RNA thermometer

text: either a lytic or lysogenic life cycle in λ phage, with high concentrations of cIII promoting lysogeny. Further study of this upstream RNA region identified two alternative secondary structures; experimental study found the structures to be interchangeable, and dependent on both magnesium ion concentration and temperature. This RNA thermometer is now thought to encourage entry to a lytic cycle under heat stress in order for the bacteriophage to rapidly replicate and escape the host cell. The term "RNA thermometer" was not coined until 1999, when it was applied to the "rpoH" RNA element identified in "Escherichia coli". More recently, bioinformatics

title: RNA thermometer

text: in support of the RNA world hypothesis. This theory proposes that RNA was once the sole nucleic acid present in cells, and was replaced by the current DNA → RNA → protein system. Examples of RNA thermometers include FourU, the Hsp90 "cis"-regulatory element, the ROSE element, the Lig RNA thermometer, and the Hsp17 thermometer. The first temperature-sensitive RNA element was reported in 1989. Prior to this research, mutations upstream from the transcription start site in a lambda (λ) phage cIII mRNA were found to affect the level of translation of the cIII protein. This protein is involved in selection of

title: RNA thermometer

text: DNA, RNA and protein-based life evolved and selection replaced the majority of RNA's roles with other biomolecules. RNA thermometers and riboswitches are thought to be evolutionarily ancient due to their wide-scale distribution in distantly-related organisms. It has been proposed that, in the RNA world, RNA thermosensors would have been responsible for temperature-dependent regulation of other RNA molecules. RNA thermometers in modern organisms may be molecular fossils which could hint at a previously more widespread importance in an RNA world. RNA thermometer An RNA thermometer (or RNA thermosensor) is a temperature-sensitive non-coding RNA molecule which regulates gene expression. RNA thermometers often

title: RNA thermometer

text: enter the ribosome for translation to occur. Mg ion concentration has also been shown to affect the stability of FourU. The most well-studied RNA thermometer is found in the "rpoH" gene in "Escherichia coli". This thermosensor upregulates heat shock proteins under high temperatures through σ, a specialised heat-shock sigma factor. Though typically associated with heat-induced protein expression, RNA thermometers can also regulate cold-shock proteins. For example, the expression of two 7kDa proteins are regulated by an RNA thermometer in the thermophilic bacterium "Thermus thermophilus" and a similar mechanism has been identified in Enterobacteriales. RNA thermometers sensitive to temperatures of 37

title: Galileo thermometer

text: weighs more than the mass of the water it displaces, it sinks. This shows that very small changes in the density of the liquid can easily cause an almost-floating object to sink. In the Galileo thermometer, the small glass bulbs are partly filled with different-coloured liquids. The composition of these liquids is not important for the functioning of the thermometer; they merely function as fixed weights and their colours are only for decoration. Once the hand-blown bulbs have been sealed, their effective densities are adjusted by means of the metal tags hanging from beneath them. Any expansion due to the

title: World's tallest thermometer

text: the thermometer next to his Bun Boy restaurant. Its height -- 134 feet -- was in honor of the 134-degree record temperature set in nearby Death Valley on July 10, 1913. Soon after its construction, 70-mph winds snapped the thermometer in half, and it was rebuilt. Two years later, severe gusts made the thermometer sway so much that its light bulbs popped out. Concrete was then poured inside the steel core to reinforce the monument. Herron sold the attraction and restaurant to another local businessman, Larry Dabour, who sold it in 2005. In September 2012, the owner at that time,

title: World's tallest thermometer

text: World's tallest thermometer The World's Tallest Thermometer is a landmark located in Baker, California, USA. It is an electric sign that commemorates the record 134 degrees Fahrenheit (57 degrees Celsius) recorded in nearby Death Valley on July 10, 1913. The sign weighs and is held together by of concrete. It stands tall and is capable of displaying a maximum temperature of , both of which are a reference to the temperature record. It was built in 1991 by the Young Electric Sign Company of Salt Lake City, Utah for Willis Herron, a local Baker businessman who spent $700,000 to build

title: Medical thermometer

text: and displaying temperature became available, electronic thermometers (often called "digital", because they display numeric values) have been used. Many display readings to great precision (0.1 °C or 0.2 °F, sometimes half that), but this should not be taken as a guarantee of accuracy: specified accuracy must be checked in documentation and maintained by periodical recalibration. A typical inexpensive electronic ear thermometer for home use has a displayed resolution of 0.1 °C, but a stated accuracy within ±0.2 °C (±0.35 °F) when new. The first electronic clinical thermometer, invented in 1954, used a flexible probe that contained a Carboloy thermistor. Types

title: What Is a Nation?

text: What Is a Nation? "What is a Nation?" ("Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?") is an 1882 lecture by French historian Ernest Renan (1823–1892), known for the statements that a nation is "a daily referendum", and that nations are based as much on what the people jointly forget, as what they remember. It is frequently quoted or anthologized in works of history or political science pertaining to nationalism and national identity. Renan wrote "What is a Nation" in order to symbolize the nationalism which was born in France as a result of the French Revolution of 1789. Renan begins his essay by noting

title: FourU thermometer

text: gene's mRNA. This prevents ribosomes from binding the gene's start codon. They are also found in the 5'UTR of "htrA" (high temperature requirement) genes in "Salmonella" and "E.coli." In "V. cholerae" fourU thermometer in the 5' of "toxT" controls its temperature-dependant translation. At human body temperature, the thermometer structure opens and to allow transcriptional activator protein ToxT translation, facilitating "V. cholerae" virulance. Other known RNA thermometers include the ROSE element and Hsp90 cis-reg element. Hairpin II appears to be a dynamic feature of FourU's secondary structure. It undergoes a conformational shift when exposed to temperatures above 45 °C, becoming increasingly

title: Cyanobacterial RNA thermometer

text: to the ROSE element. Cyanobacterial RNA thermometer The first cyanobacterial RNA thermometer (RNAT) Hsp17 was found in the 5'UTR of "Synechocystis" heat shock "hsp17" mRNA. Further study demonstrated that cyanobacteria commonly use RNATs to control the translation of their heat shock genes. HspA is a homolog of Hsp17 in thermophilic "Thermosynechococcus elongatus". Two more thermometers were found in the 5'UTRs of mesophilic cyanobacteria "A. variabilis" and "Nostoc" "sp". The first RNAT called avashort was shown to regulate translation by masking the AUG translation start site. The second RNAT called avalong, as it has an extended initial hairpin, might involve tertiary

title: Cyanobacterial RNA thermometer

text: Cyanobacterial RNA thermometer The first cyanobacterial RNA thermometer (RNAT) Hsp17 was found in the 5'UTR of "Synechocystis" heat shock "hsp17" mRNA. Further study demonstrated that cyanobacteria commonly use RNATs to control the translation of their heat shock genes. HspA is a homolog of Hsp17 in thermophilic "Thermosynechococcus elongatus". Two more thermometers were found in the 5'UTRs of mesophilic cyanobacteria "A. variabilis" and "Nostoc" "sp". The first RNAT called avashort was shown to regulate translation by masking the AUG translation start site. The second RNAT called avalong, as it has an extended initial hairpin, might involve tertiary interactions and has similarities

title: Meat thermometer

text: the thermometer probe through the side of the patty, all the way to the middle. Make sure to check each piece of meat or patty because heat can be uneven. Temperature should be 71 °C (160 °F) for beef, lamb, veal, or pork and 74 °C (165 °F) for poultry. For casseroles, and eggs insert the thermometer into the thickest area. The temperature for casseroles should be 71 °C (160 °F) and for eggs 74 °C (165 °F). For fish the temperature should be 70 °C (158 °F). For shellfish (for example, shrimp, lobster, crab, scallops, clams, mussels and oysters)

title: What is a Masterpiece?

text: confluence of memories and emotions forming a single idea", that it has "a power of recreating traditional forms so that they become expressive of an artist's own epoch and yet keep a relationship to the past". The highest masterpieces are said to be "illustrations of great themes." Clark also implicitly excluded the erotic from considerations of what constituted a masterpiece, based on his perspective that a necessary condition is the balance between sense and form (works that are too sensual are, therefore, unbalanced and not to be categorised at masterpiece level). What is a Masterpiece? What is a Masterpiece? is

title: What Is a Nation?

text: to the reasons based on race, geography, history and so on. They argue that Renan maintains his intellectual background but subtly, i.e. the arguments he explicitly used in "What is a Nation?" are not consistent with his thinking. The concept of "daily plebiscite" would be ambiguous. They argue that the definition is an opportunist idealization and it should be interpreted within the Franco-Prussian War and in the midst of the dispute concerning the Alsace-Lorraine region. What Is a Nation? "What is a Nation?" ("Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?") is an 1882 lecture by French historian Ernest Renan (1823–1892), known for the statements

title: Mercury-in-glass thermometer

text: Mercury-in-glass thermometer The mercury-in-glass or mercury thermometer was invented by physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit in Amsterdam (1714). It consists of a bulb containing mercury attached to a glass tube of narrow diameter; the volume of mercury in the tube is much less than the volume in the bulb. The volume of mercury changes slightly with temperature; the small change in volume drives the narrow mercury column a relatively long way up the tube. The space above the mercury may be filled with nitrogen gas or it may be at less than atmospheric pressure, a partial vacuum. In order to calibrate