query: When was the first submarine not using human-powered propulsion invented?

title: Submarine

text: the Spanish navy during the Chincha Islands War. The first submarine not relying on human power for propulsion was the French ("Diver"), launched in 1863, which used compressed air at 180 psi (1241 kPa). Narcís Monturiol designed the first air–independent and combustion–powered submarine, "Ictineo II', which was launched in Barcelona, Spain in 1864. The submarine became a potentially viable weapon with the development of the Whitehead torpedo, designed in 1866 by British engineer Robert Whitehead, the first practical self-propelled or 'locomotive' torpedo. The spar torpedo that had been developed earlier by the Confederate navy was considered to be impracticable, as

title: Nuclear propulsion

text: Nuclear propulsion Nuclear propulsion includes a wide variety of propulsion methods that fulfill the promise of the Atomic Age by using some form of nuclear reaction as their primary power source. The idea of using nuclear material for propulsion dates back to the beginning of the 20th century. In 1903 it was hypothesised that radioactive material, radium, might be a suitable fuel for engines to propel cars, boats, and planes. H. G. Wells picked up this idea in his 1914 fiction work "The World Set Free". Nuclear-powered vessels are mainly military submarines, and aircraft carriers. Russia and America are the

title: Submarine forces (France)

text: The first submarine which avoided human propulsion was "Plongeur" of the French Imperial Navy (), launched in 1863, and equipped with a compressed-air motor of 23 reservoirs of pressure at 180 PSI. In 1888, "Gymnote" was the first submarine to be equipped with specific metal batteries. "Gymnote" would be followed by "Morse" in 1899, then the "Farfadet" series in 1901. Their range was recorded at 100 miles. In June 1900, French submarine "Narval", introduced a double hull, with an internal composition inside the pressure hull. During this époque, France was without a doubt the first navy to have a formidable

title: Beam-powered propulsion

text: developed the first high power cooperative target millimeter-wave beam director and used it to attempt the first millimeter-wave thermal rocket launch. Several launches were attempted but problems with the beam director could not be resolved before funding ran out in March 2014. Motivation to develop beam-powered propulsion systems comes from the economic advantages that would be gained as a result of improved propulsion performance. In the case of beam-powered launch vehicles, better propulsion performance enables some combination of increased payload fraction, increased structural margins and fewer stages. JASON's 1977 study of laser propulsion, authored by Freeman Dyson, succinctly articulates the

title: Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion

text: differs from the typical chemical-powered spacecraft, where the engines run only in short intervals of time, while the spacecraft mostly follows an inertial trajectory. When near a planet, low-thrust propulsion may not offset the gravitational attraction of the planet. An electric rocket engine cannot provide enough thrust to lift the vehicle from a planet's surface, but a low thrust applied for a long interval can allow a spacecraft to maneuver near a planet. Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion An electrically-powered spacecraft propulsion system uses electrical energy to change the velocity of a spacecraft. Most of these kinds of spacecraft propulsion systems

title: Submarine

text: accommodate a single person. It was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion. In 1800, France built a human-powered submarine designed by American Robert Fulton, the . The French eventually gave up on the experiment in 1804, as did the British when they later considered Fulton's submarine design. In 1864, late in the American Civil War, the Confederate navy's became the first military submarine to sink an enemy vessel, the Union sloop-of-war . In the aftermath of its successful attack against the ship, the "Hunley" also sank, possibly

title: Beam-powered propulsion

text: a propeller powered with solar panels illuminated by a laser. It is possible that such beam-powered propulsion could be useful for long-duration high altitude unmanned aircraft or balloons, perhaps designed to serve – like satellites do today – as communication relays, science platforms, or surveillance platforms. A "laser broom" has been proposed to sweep space debris from Earth orbit. This is another proposed use of beam-powered propulsion, used on objects that were not designed to be propelled by it, for example small pieces of scrap knocked off ("spalled") satellites. The technique works since the laser power ablates one side of

title: Beam-powered propulsion

text: the object, giving an impulse that changes the eccentricity of the object's orbit. The orbit would then intersect the atmosphere and burn up. Beam-powered propulsion Beam-powered propulsion, also known as directed energy propulsion, is a class of aircraft or spacecraft propulsion that uses energy beamed to the spacecraft from a remote power plant to provide energy. The beam is typically either a microwave or a laser beam and it is either pulsed or continuous. A continuous beam lends itself to thermal rockets, photonic thrusters and light sails, whereas a pulsed beam lends itself to ablative thrusters and pulse detonation engines.

title: Beam-powered propulsion

text: Beam-powered propulsion Beam-powered propulsion, also known as directed energy propulsion, is a class of aircraft or spacecraft propulsion that uses energy beamed to the spacecraft from a remote power plant to provide energy. The beam is typically either a microwave or a laser beam and it is either pulsed or continuous. A continuous beam lends itself to thermal rockets, photonic thrusters and light sails, whereas a pulsed beam lends itself to ablative thrusters and pulse detonation engines. The rule of thumb that is usually quoted is that it takes a megawatt of power beamed to a vehicle per kg of

title: Air-independent propulsion

text: the only countries to have successfully built and operated nuclear-powered submarines. As of 2017, some 10 nations are building AIP submarines with almost 20 nations operating AIP based submarines: Air-independent propulsion Air-independent propulsion (AIP) is any marine propulsion technology that allows a non-nuclear submarine to operate without access to atmospheric oxygen (by surfacing or using a snorkel). AIP can augment or replace the diesel-electric propulsion system of non-nuclear vessels. The United States Navy uses the hull classification symbol "SSP" to designate boats powered by AIP, while retaining "SSK" for classic diesel-electric attack submarines. Modern non-nuclear submarines are potentially stealthier than

title: Air-independent propulsion

text: propulsion. AIP can be retrofitted into existing submarine hulls by inserting an additional hull section. AIP does not normally provide the endurance or power to replace atmospheric dependent propulsion, but allows longer submergence than a conventionally propelled submarine. A typical conventional power plant provides 3 megawatts maximum, and an AIP source around 10% of that. A nuclear submarine's propulsion plant is usually much greater than 20 megawatts. In the development of the submarine, the problem of finding satisfactory forms of propulsion underwater has been persistent. The earliest submarines were man-powered with hand-cranked propellers, which quickly used up the air inside;

text: Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion An electrically-powered spacecraft propulsion system uses electrical energy to change the velocity of a spacecraft. Most of these kinds of spacecraft propulsion systems work by electrically expelling propellant (reaction mass) at high speed, but electrodynamic tethers work by interacting with a planet's magnetic field. Electric thrusters typically use much less propellant than chemical rockets because they have a higher exhaust speed (operate at a higher specific impulse) than chemical rockets. Due to limited electric power the thrust is much weaker compared to chemical rockets, but electric propulsion can provide a small thrust for a long time.

title: Human-powered transport

text: displacement boats on short courses. The world speed record on water was set 27 October 1991 by MIT professor Mark Drela who pedalled a human-powered hydrofoil, "Decavitator", to 18.5 knots (21.3 mph)(9.53 meters/second) over a 100-meter course in Boston, Massachusetts, US. In 1989, the first human-powered International Submarine Race (ISR) was held in Florida with 17 craft. Since then nine more races have been held. The races themselves have been moved from the waters of Florida to the David Taylor Model Basin at the Carderock Division of the Naval Surface Warfare Center in Bethesda, Maryland, and are held biennially. At

title: Human-powered hydrofoil

text: Human-powered hydrofoil A human-powered hydrofoil is a small hydrofoil watercraft propelled entirely by the muscle power of its operator(s). Hydrofoils are the fastest water-based vehicles propelled solely by human power. They can reach speeds of up to , easily exceeding the world records set by competitive rowing which stand at about . This speed advantage is achieved since hydrofoils lack a submerged body to provide buoyancy, greatly reducing the drag force. Means of propulsion include screw propellers, as in hydrocycles; aircraft propellers, as in the Decavitator; paddles, as in a Flyak; oars, as in the Yale hydrofoil sculling project; and

text: to take a spacecraft to the outer planets of the Solar System (with nuclear power), but is insufficient for interstellar travel. An electric rocket with an external power source (transmissible through laser on the photovoltaic panels) has a theoretical possibility for interstellar flight. However, electric propulsion is not a method suitable for launches from the Earth's surface, as the thrust for such systems is too weak. The idea of electric propulsion for spacecraft dates back to 1911, introduced in a publication by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky. Earlier, Robert Goddard had noted such a possibility in his personal notebook. Electrically-powered propulsion with a

title: November-class submarine

text: detected submarine targets during active service (for example, there were 42 detections in 1965 when regular cruises of Soviet nuclear-powered submarines began). The Soviet hydroacoustic equipment on the Novembers was not intended for submarine hunting, and had relatively limited capabilities. The reliability of the first Soviet nuclear-powered submarines was relatively low because of the short service life of the steam generators in the main propulsion machinery, which caused an increase of the radioactivity level in the second loop of the reactor after several hundred hours of reactor operation. Machinery problems were the main reason why Project 627/627A submarines were not

title: Air-independent propulsion

text: Air-independent propulsion Air-independent propulsion (AIP) is any marine propulsion technology that allows a non-nuclear submarine to operate without access to atmospheric oxygen (by surfacing or using a snorkel). AIP can augment or replace the diesel-electric propulsion system of non-nuclear vessels. The United States Navy uses the hull classification symbol "SSP" to designate boats powered by AIP, while retaining "SSK" for classic diesel-electric attack submarines. Modern non-nuclear submarines are potentially stealthier than nuclear submarines; a nuclear ship's reactor must constantly pump coolant, generating some amount of detectable noise (see acoustic signature). Non-nuclear submarines running on battery power or AIP, on the

title: Marine propulsion

text: all but completely submerged. Finally, in 1952, the USS "Nautilus" was launched, the world's first nuclear powered submarine, which eliminated the restrictions of both diesel fuel and limited duration battery propulsion. On November 12, 2017 Guangzhou Shipyard International (GSI) launched what may be the world's first all-electric, battery-powered inland coal carrier. The 2,000 dwt vessel will carry bulk cargo for up to 40 nautical miles per charge. The ship carries lithium ion batteries rated at 2,400 kilowatt-hours, about the same amount as 30 Tesla Model S electric sedans. Numerous types of propulsion have been developed over time. These include: Marine

title: Not invented here

text: series of projects to update the GNOME desktop in the early 2000s. The similar term "Invented Here, But Let's Reinvent It Anyway" (IHBLRIA) was coined by Alex Papadimoulis in an article for The Daily WTF in 2004. Not invented here Not invented here (NIH) is a stance adopted by social, corporate, or institutional cultures that avoid using or buying already existing products, research, standards, or knowledge because of their external origins and costs, such as royalties. Research illustrates a strong bias against ideas from the outside. The reasons for not wanting to use the work of others are varied, but

title: Human-powered transport

text: Human-powered transport Human-powered transport is the transport of person(s) and/or goods using human muscle power. Like animal-powered transport, human-powered transport has existed since time immemorial in the form of walking, running and swimming. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human-power. Although motorization has increased speed and load capacity, many forms of human-powered transport remain popular for reasons of lower cost, leisure, physical exercise and environmentalism. Human-powered transport is sometimes the only type available, especially in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions. In the 1989 Race Across America, one team (Team Strawberry) used an experimental device comprising a rear wheel hub, a

text: for a prescribed duration) or unsteady (pulsed firings accumulating to a desired impulse). However, these classifications are not unique to electric propulsion systems and can be applied to all types of propulsion engines. Electrically-powered rocket engines provide lower thrust compared to chemical rockets by several orders of magnitude because of the limited electrical power possible to provide in a spacecraft. A chemical rocket imparts energy to the combustion products directly, whereas an electrical system requires several steps. However, the high velocity and lower reaction mass expended for the same thrust allows electric rockets to run for a long time. This

title: Nuclear submarine

text: nuclear-powered submarine was first proposed in the United States Navy by the Naval Research Laboratory's Ross Gunn in 1939. Construction of the world's first nuclear powered submarine was made possible by the successful development of a nuclear propulsion plant by a group of scientists and engineers at the Naval Reactors Branch of the Bureau of Ships and the Atomic Energy Commission. In July 1951 the U.S. Congress authorized construction of the first nuclear-powered submarine, "Nautilus", under the leadership of Captain Hyman G. Rickover, USN (sharing names with Captain Nemo's fictional submarine in Jules Verne's "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea",

title: Beam-powered propulsion

text: promise of beam-powered launch: ""Laser propulsion as an idea that may produce a revolution in space technology. A single laser facility on the ground can in theory launch single-stage vehicles into low or high earth orbit. The payload can be 20% or 30% of the vehicle take-off weight. It is far more economical in the use of mass and energy than chemical propulsion, and it is far more flexible in putting identical vehicles into a variety of orbits.""This promise was quantified in a 1978 Lockheed Study conducted for NASA:""The results of the study showed that, with advanced technology, laser rocket

title: Tridente-class submarine

text: not be named after marine animals, thus breaking a tradition retracing back to 1913, when the first submarine entered service with the Portuguese Navy. The "Tridente"-class submarines are wrongly classed in the "diesel-electric" class. Their propulsion is exclusively electric, with electric motors powered by batteries. These batteries may be charged while submerged by "fuel-cells" (inverse electrolysis) for which, this submarine carries a huge supply of liquid oxygen and hydrogen. Also, and solely as a second solution for recharging the batteries, this submarine carries two powerful diesel-electric generators (1.000 KVA) for use only when surfaced, or at snorkel depth . Submerged,

title: Type 091 submarine

text: Type 091 submarine The Type 091 (Chinese designation: 09-I; NATO reporting name: Han class) is a first generation nuclear attack submarine produced by the People's Republic of China. They were the first nuclear-powered submarine employed by the People's Liberation Army Navy Submarine Force, and the first indigenously produced nuclear attack submarines in Asia. The Chinese naval nuclear power program started in July 1958 when Mao Zedong and the Central Military Commission gave approval to start the 091 submarine project. The first Chief Designer of the submarine was an engineer and scientist of nuclear propulsion engineering, Peng Shilu (), then in

title: Human-powered transport

text: the 9th ISR in 2007 (in which 23 submarines participated) several new records were set: A single-person craft, Omer5 achieved a record speed of 8.035 knots breaking the Omer team's previous record of 7.19 knots set by Omer 4 in 2004. Also Omer 6 snatched up a record for non-propeller driven craft with a speed of 4.642 knots. Human-powered transport Human-powered transport is the transport of person(s) and/or goods using human muscle power. Like animal-powered transport, human-powered transport has existed since time immemorial in the form of walking, running and swimming. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human-power. Although

title: History of submarines

text: the French Navy built a human-powered submarine designed by Robert Fulton, the "Nautilus". It also had a sail for use on the surface and so was the first known use of dual propulsion on a submarine. It proved capable of using mines to destroy two warships during demonstrations. The French eventually gave up with the experiment in 1804, as did the British, when Fulton later offered them the submarine design. The "Submarino Hipopótamo" was the first submarine in South America built and tested in Ecuador on September 18, 1837. It was designed by Jose Rodriguez Lavandera, who successfully crossed the

title: Beam-powered propulsion

text: system with either a space- or ground-based laser transmitter could reduce the national budget allocated to space transportation by 10 to 345 billion dollars over a 10-year life cycle when compared to advanced chemical propulsion systems (LO-LH) of equal capability."" The 1970s-era studies and others since have cited beam director cost as a possible impediment to beam-powered launch systems. A recent cost-benefit analysis estimates that microwave (or laser) thermal rockets would be economical once beam director cost falls below 20 $/Watt. The current cost of suitable lasers is <100 $/Watt and the current cost of suitable microwave sources is <$5/Watt.

title: Not invented here

text: Not invented here Not invented here (NIH) is a stance adopted by social, corporate, or institutional cultures that avoid using or buying already existing products, research, standards, or knowledge because of their external origins and costs, such as royalties. Research illustrates a strong bias against ideas from the outside. The reasons for not wanting to use the work of others are varied, but some can include a desire to support a local economy instead of paying royalties to a foreign license-holder, fear of patent infringement, lack of understanding of the foreign work, an unwillingness to acknowledge or value the work

title: People's Liberation Army Navy Submarine Force

text: attack submarines in service: Nuclear submarines have been envisaged in the PLAN since the 1950s. Despite ambition and a long history of development, the acquisition of nuclear submarines has been a difficult and time consuming process. The Cultural Revolution greatly disrupted nuclear submarine development. The Sino-Soviet split prevented any Soviet assistance in nuclear propulsion, and these propulsion problems have been troublesome to this day. The first Chinese nuclear-powered submarine was laid down in 1967 but not completed until 1974, the Type 091 submarine (Han-class). The Han-class experienced more than 20 years of development, with the last of the class not

title: Human Powered Aircraft Group

text: Human Powered Aircraft Group The Royal Aeronautical Society's Human Powered Aircraft Group is the governing body responsible for the administration of the Kremer Prizes founded by the late British industrialist Henry Kremer. It was founded in 1959 when the "Man Powered Group" at the College of Aeronautics at Cranfield University became members of the Royal Aeronautical Society. The original title for the group was "Man Powered Group," a moniker that persisted until 1988, when it was revised to "Human Powered Aircraft Group.". Currently, there are three outstanding competitions the Human Powered Aircraft Group governs: a 26 mile Marathon course in

title: Nuclear propulsion

text: of General Motors' acquisition of Cadillac, Loren Kulesus created concept art depicting a car powered by thorium. The Chrysler TV-8 was an experimental concept tank designed by Chrysler in the 1950s. The tank was intended to be a nuclear-powered medium tank capable of land and amphibious warfare. The design was never mass-produced. The Mars rover Curiosity is powered by a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), like the successful Viking 1 and Viking 2 Mars landers in 1976. Nuclear propulsion Nuclear propulsion includes a wide variety of propulsion methods that fulfill the promise of the Atomic Age by using some form of

title: Human-powered land vehicle

text: a foot, opposite to the direction of travel, or by pushing against the air with a propeller. Human-powered land vehicle Human-powered land vehicles are land vehicles propelled over ground by human power. The main ways to support the weight of a human-powered land vehicle and its contents above the ground are rolling contact; sliding contact; intermittent contact; no contact at all as with anything carried; or some combination of the above. The main methods of using human power to propel a land vehicle are some kind of drivetrain; pushing laterally against the ground with a wheel, skate, or ski that

title: Human-powered land vehicle

text: Human-powered land vehicle Human-powered land vehicles are land vehicles propelled over ground by human power. The main ways to support the weight of a human-powered land vehicle and its contents above the ground are rolling contact; sliding contact; intermittent contact; no contact at all as with anything carried; or some combination of the above. The main methods of using human power to propel a land vehicle are some kind of drivetrain; pushing laterally against the ground with a wheel, skate, or ski that simultaneously moves forward; by pushing against the ground directly with an appendage opposite to the direction of

title: Human-powered helicopter

text: Human-powered helicopter A human-powered helicopter (HPH) is a helicopter powered solely by one or more humans carried on board. As in other human-powered aircraft, the power is usually generated by pedalling. It remains a considerable engineering challenge to obtain both the power-to-weight ratio and rotor efficiency required to sustain a helicopter in flight. On 13 June 2013, the AeroVelo Atlas was the first to complete a flight that lasted 64 seconds and reached an altitude of 3.3 metres, thus winning the American Helicopter Society (AHS) International's Igor I. Sikorsky Human Powered Helicopter Competition. The American Helicopter Society (AHS) International's Igor

title: Omer (submarine)

text: Omer (submarine) Omer is the name of a series of human-powered submarines. The submarines were built by students of the "École de technologie supérieure" (School of Higher Technology) in Montreal, Quebec, for the International Submarine Races. , "Omer" teams hold the human-powered submarine world speed records for two-seater and non-propeller categories. Those records are : "Omer 11" is the latest generation of "Omer" submarine. Since 1992, a group of students from the É.T.S. in electrical, mechanical, software and automated automation engineering have taken part in the completion of "Omer", a human-powered submarine. The first generation of "Omer" was a two-seater

title: Marine propulsion

text: greater than that of diesel engines alone; however, the grade of fuel needed for these gas turbines is far more costly than that needed for the diesel engines, so the running costs are still higher. Since the late 1980s, Swedish shipbuilder Kockums has built a number of successful Stirling engine powered submarines. The submarines store compressed oxygen to allow more efficient and cleaner external fuel combustion when submerged, providing heat for the Stirling engine's operation. The engines are currently used on submarines of the and classes. and the Japanese submarine. These are the first submarines to feature Stirling air-independent propulsion

title: Protei-5 Russian diver propulsion vehicle

text: Protei-5 Russian diver propulsion vehicle The Protei-5 (Протей-5) is a small Russian one-man diver propulsion vehicle often used by Russian commando frogmen. It is battery electric powered, using six non-sealed lead–acid batteries. It clips on under the diver with a clip over each shoulder and one up between his legs. Its casing is aluminium. It was intended to be clipped onto the outside of a submarine; near the operation site the frogmen would airlock out underwater and unhitch their Protei 5's and ride them to the operation site. It seems to have been intended to be ridden fast and far

title: Beam-powered propulsion

text: in a heat exchanger that the laser beam shines on before leaving the vehicle via a conventional nozzle. This concept can use continuous beam lasers, and the semiconductor lasers are now cost effective for this application. In 2002, Kevin L.G. Parkin proposed a similar system using microwaves. In May 2012, the DARPA/NASA Millimeter-wave Thermal Launch System (MTLS) Project began the first steps toward implementing this idea. The MTLS Project was the first to demonstrate a millimeter-wave absorbent refractory heat exchanger, subsequently integrating it into the propulsion system of a small rocket to produce the first millimeter-wave thermal rocket. Simultaneously, it

title: Human Powered Aircraft Group

text: less than an hour, a sporting aircraft challenge stressing maneuverability, and a challenge that is limited to those aged under 18 in the UK. The Human Powered Aircraft Group has spawned several other groups, including the Human Powered Aircraft Group at Virginia Tech, founded by Chris Emory and unmanned aerial vehicle designer Imraan Faruque. Human Powered Aircraft Group The Royal Aeronautical Society's Human Powered Aircraft Group is the governing body responsible for the administration of the Kremer Prizes founded by the late British industrialist Henry Kremer. It was founded in 1959 when the "Man Powered Group" at the College of

title: Laser propulsion

text: laser electric propulsion, using magnetohydrodynamics to convert laser energy to electricity and to electrically accelerate air around a vehicle for thrust. Laser propulsion Laser propulsion is a form of beam-powered propulsion where the energy source is a remote (usually ground-based) laser system and separate from the reaction mass. This form of propulsion differs from a conventional chemical rocket where both energy and reaction mass come from the solid or liquid propellants carried on board the vehicle. The basic concepts underlying a photon-propelled "sail" propulsion system were developed by Eugene Sanger and the Hungarian physicist György Marx. Propulsion concepts using laser-energized

title: History of human-powered aircraft

text: 20 meters on the Berlin Tempelhof Airport; the HPA took off without assisted takeoff. A craft called "HV-1 Mufli" () ("Muskelkraft-Flugzeug") built by Helmut Hässler and Franz Villinger () first flew on 30 August 1935: a distance of 235 metres at Halle an der Saale. 120 flights were made, the longest being 712 metres in 1937. However, it was launched using a tensioned cable and so was not strictly human-powered. In March 1937, a team of Enea Bossi (designer), Vittorio Bonomi (builder), and Emilio Casco (pilot) met a challenge by the Italian government for a flight of one kilometre using

title: Marine propulsion

text: the Peloponnesian War used triremes, as did the Romans at the Battle of Actium. The development of naval gunnery from the 16th century onward vaulted broadside weight ahead of manoeuvrability; this led to the dominance of the sail-powered warship over the following three centuries. In modern times, human propulsion is found mainly on small boats or as auxiliary propulsion on sailboats. Human propulsion includes the push pole, rowing, and pedals. Propulsion by sail generally consists of a sail hoisted on an erect mast, supported by stays, and controlled by lines made of rope. Sails were the dominant form of commercial

title: History of human-powered aircraft

text: History of human-powered aircraft The history of human-powered aircraft (HPA) started in the early twentieth century. HPAs are aircraft belonging to the class of vehicles known as human-powered vehicles. Early attempts at human-powered flight were unsuccessful because of the difficulty of achieving the high power-to-weight ratio. Prototypes often used ornithopter principles which were not only too heavy to meet this requirement but aerodynamically unsatisfactory. Human-powered aircraft have been successfully flown over considerable distances. However, they are still primarily constructed as engineering challenges rather than for any kind of recreational or utilitarian purpose. An early human-powered aircraft was the Gerhardt Cycleplane,

title: History of human-powered aircraft

text: Japanese aircraft "Stork" completed three-quarters of the figure eight course before grounding a wingtip. The Royal Aeronautical Society's "Man Powered Aircraft Group" was formed in 1959 by the members of the Man Powered Group of the College of Aeronautics at Cranfield when they were invited to join the Society. Its title was changed from "Man" to "Human" in 1988 because of the many successful flights made by female pilots. Under the auspices of the Society, in 1959 the industrialist Henry Kremer offered the first Kremer Prizes of £5,000 for the first human-powered aircraft to fly a figure-of-eight course round two

title: History of submarines

text: a reciprocating engine using compressed air from 23 tanks at 180 psi. In practice, the submarine was virtually unmanageable underwater, with very poor speed and maneouverability. The first air independent and combustion powered submarine was the "Ictineo II", designed by Narcís Monturiol. Originally launched in 1864 as a human-powered vessel, propelled by 16 men, it was converted to peroxide propulsion and steam in 1867. The craft was designed for a crew of two, could dive to , and demonstrated dives of two hours. On the surface, it ran on a steam engine, but underwater such an engine would quickly consume

title: Human-powered transport

text: 19.46 seconds and reached an altitude of . On 13 June 2013, the AeroVelo Atlas was the first to complete a flight that lasted 64 seconds and reached an altitude of 3.3 meters, thus winning the Sikorsky Prize. French inventors have built man-powered airships and balloons. Solar balloons and solar airships are new types of balloons and airships. Because lift is supplied through buoyancy, human power can be devoted to thrust. Human-powered watercraft include prehistoric, historic and well-known traditional and sporting craft such as canoes, rowing boats and galleys. The term "human-powered boat" is often used for more modern craft

title: History of human-powered aircraft

text: by a typical human. As with the "HV-1 Mufli", additional attempts were therefore made using a catapult system. By being catapulted to a height of 9 metres (30 ft), the aircraft met the distance requirement of but was declined the prize due to the launch method. The first officially authenticated take-off and landing of a man-powered aircraft (one capable of powered take-offs, unlike a glider) was made on 9 November 1961 by Derek Piggott in Southampton University's Man Powered Aircraft (SUMPAC) at Lasham Airfield. The best flight out of 40 attempts was 650 metres. The SUMPAC was substantially rebuilt by

title: Laser propulsion

text: Laser propulsion Laser propulsion is a form of beam-powered propulsion where the energy source is a remote (usually ground-based) laser system and separate from the reaction mass. This form of propulsion differs from a conventional chemical rocket where both energy and reaction mass come from the solid or liquid propellants carried on board the vehicle. The basic concepts underlying a photon-propelled "sail" propulsion system were developed by Eugene Sanger and the Hungarian physicist György Marx. Propulsion concepts using laser-energized rockets were developed by Arthur Kantrowitz and Wolfgang Moekel in the 1970s. An exposition of Kantrowitz's laser propulsion ideas was published

title: Human-powered transport

text: to the takeoff method. The first officially authenticated regularly feasible take-off and landing of a human-powered aircraft (one capable of powered takeoffs, unlike a glider) was made on 9 November 1961 by Derek Piggott in Southampton University's Man Powered Aircraft (SUMPAC). Perhaps the best-known human-powered plane is the Gossamer Albatross, which flew across the English Channel in 1979. The current distance and duration record recognised by the FAI, a straight distance of in 3 hours and 54 minutes, was achieved on 23 April 1988 from Heraklion on Crete to Santorini in a MIT Daedalus 88 piloted by Kanellos Kanellopoulos. The

title: Human-powered helicopter

text: director Mike Hirschberg remarked "Several studies 'proved' that [the challenge] was in fact scientifically impossible ... Well, it took a third of a century to prove those skeptics wrong." Reichert said the most difficult part of the flight was not the ascent, but rather controlling the descent without crashing. He said the prize money was nice, but the real satisfaction came from the achievement itself. Subsequent to that prize-winning flight, the Atlas flew many more times, including record setting flights in September 2013 for: Human-powered helicopter A human-powered helicopter (HPH) is a helicopter powered solely by one or more humans

title: Solar electric propulsion

text: types of electrically powered spacecraft propulsion such as arcjet rockets. It may not employ an ion drive, of which there is a variety of types also. It is also possible to generate electricity from the Sun without using photovoltaic panels, such as with solar concentrators and a Stirling engine. A 50 kilowatt SEP system was studied in the 2010s for a mission to an asteroid. In February 2012 NASA awarded a contract for a Solar Electric Propulsion Flight System . An example of work on this type of technology is Advanced Electric Propulsion System. The NASA Solar Technology Application Readiness

title: Attack-class submarine

text: resurface to snorkel and recharge batteries. Previously, this design brief led to the construction of a relatively large conventionally powered submarine, the Collins-class, possessing a large diesel electric engine, fuel load and sufficient batteries capable of transporting the submarines from their remote location at HMAS Stirling to their operational areas, without having to resurface for extended periods. A further innovation in diesel electric propulsion which might be considered for the Collins-class replacement is Air Independent Propulsion, which is not operated in the existing Collins-class, but is operated in a number of more recent submarine designs including the German Type 214,

title: Skate-class submarine

text: Skate-class submarine The "Skate"-class submarines were the United States Navy's first production run of nuclear-powered submarines. They were an evolution of the in everything except their propulsion plants, which were based on the operational prototype . The four "Skate" class boats re-introduced stern torpedo tubes. Although among the smallest nuclear-powered attack submarines ever built, the "Skate" class served for many years, with the last being decommissioned in 1989. USS "Skate" was the first submarine to surface at the North Pole, on 17 March 1959. "Skate" and "Sargo" were built with the S3W reactor, "Swordfish" and "Seadragon" also had the S3W

title: Nuclear submarine

text: reactor pump (used to circulate reactor coolant), also creates noise, as opposed to a conventional submarine, which can move about on almost silent electric motors. Some of the most serious nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll in the world have involved nuclear submarine mishaps. To date, all of these were units of the former Soviet Union. Reactor accidents that resulted in core damage and release of radioactivity from nuclear-powered submarines include: Nuclear submarine A nuclear submarine is a submarine powered by a nuclear reactor. The performance advantages of nuclear submarines over "conventional" (typically diesel-electric) submarines are considerable. Nuclear propulsion,

title: Human-powered watercraft

text: Human-powered watercraft Human-powered watercraft are watercraft propelled by human power. The three main methods of collecting human power are directly from the hands or feet, through the hands with oars, paddles, or poles, or through the feet with pedals and a crank or treadle. While most human-powered watercraft use buoyancy to maintain their position relative to the surface of the water, a few, such as human-powered hydrofoils and human-powered submarines, use hydrofoils, either alone or in addition to buoyancy. Oars are held at one end, have a blade on the other end, and pivot in between in oarlocks. Oared craft

text: by Aerojet (MR-510) are currently used on Lockheed Martin A2100 satellites using hydrazine as a propellant. If ions are accelerated either by the Lorentz force or by the effect of electromagnetic fields where the electric field is not in the direction of the acceleration, the device is considered electromagnetic. Photonic drive does not expel matter for reaction thrust, only photons. See Laser propulsion, Photonic Laser Thruster, Photon rocket. Electrodynamic tethers are long conducting wires, such as one deployed from a tether satellite, which can operate on electromagnetic principles as generators, by converting their kinetic energy to electric energy, or as

title: Human-powered land vehicle

text: travel; or by propeller. Human-powered land vehicles can be propelled by persons riding in the vehicle or by persons walking or running and not supported by the vehicle. Many human-powered land vehicles can also be gravity-powered land vehicles, and vice versa, although some of the latter are quite awkward to use as the former. For example: street luges, gravity racers, and snow boards. There are four main ways to support the weight of a human-powered land vehicle and its contents: rolling contact as with wheels; sliding contact as with skates, skis, or runners; intermittent contact as with stilts; and no

title: Human-powered hydrofoil

text: is started and landed from the shore, or preferably from a dock, and requires a bit of experience. When moving too slowly, it will sink, and the range of possible speeds is . Several variations on the design have been developed: Human-powered hydrofoil A human-powered hydrofoil is a small hydrofoil watercraft propelled entirely by the muscle power of its operator(s). Hydrofoils are the fastest water-based vehicles propelled solely by human power. They can reach speeds of up to , easily exceeding the world records set by competitive rowing which stand at about . This speed advantage is achieved since hydrofoils

title: Distributed propulsion

text: Distributed propulsion Distributed propulsion (DP) is a type of powered flight propulsion system for fixed-wing aircraft in which engines are distributed about a vessel. Its goal is to increase performance in fuel efficiency, emissions, noise, landing field length and handling performance. DP is typically accomplished by spanwise distribution of partially or fully embedded multiple small engines or fans along the wing. Alternatively, it may involve ducting exhaust gases along the wing's entire trailing edge. Distributed propulsion spreads thrust around the aircraft, either by using three or more smaller propulsion units (engines, propulsors, thrusters or others) or by ducting exhaust gases

title: Skate-class submarine

text: vertically, entered service beginning in 1967. After 25–30 years each of successful service, mostly out of Pearl Harbor, the class was retired in the 1980s and disposed of through the Navy's nuclear Ship-Submarine Recycling Program. Skate-class submarine The "Skate"-class submarines were the United States Navy's first production run of nuclear-powered submarines. They were an evolution of the in everything except their propulsion plants, which were based on the operational prototype . The four "Skate" class boats re-introduced stern torpedo tubes. Although among the smallest nuclear-powered attack submarines ever built, the "Skate" class served for many years, with the last being

title: Igor I. Sikorsky Human Powered Helicopter Competition

text: Igor I. Sikorsky Human Powered Helicopter Competition The Igor I. Sikorsky Human Powered Helicopter Competition was established in 1980 by the American Helicopter Society (AHS) International. The award, the AHS Sikorsky Prize, was given for the first human powered helicopter (HPH) to meet a set of extremely challenging flight requirements. In summary, the requirements to win the AHS Sikorsky Prize included a flight duration of 60 seconds and reaching an altitude of , with the center point of the aircraft hovering over a square. In 2013, 33 years after the competition was established, the award was officially declared won when

title: History of human-powered aircraft

text: making human powered flying into a popular sport. Therefore, the competition includes challenges such as a slalom course, an unaided starting task and a landing accuracy test. The Icarus Cup is held annually at Lasham Airfield, Great Britain, the site of the first human-powered flight. Inventors have built human-powered airships. By gaining lift through buoyancy instead of air flowing past an airfoil, much less effort is required to power the aircraft. On August 2, 2010, Todd Reichert of the University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies piloted a human-powered ornithopter named Snowbird. The aircraft with wingspan and mass of was

title: Dolfijn-class submarine

text: . The designer was Max F. Gunning, who came upon this idea when he though of a way to make sure Malta was properly provisioned during the Second World War. The Royal Netherlands Navy considered using nuclear propulsion for the second batch of "Dolfijn"-class submarines (so-called "Potvis"-class) and therefore postponed in the late 1950s their construction to study the feasibility of building nuclear powered submarines, but in the end it was decided not to use nuclear propulsion for the "Potvis"-class submarines. This meant that both "Potvis"-class submarines were built with diesel-electric propulsion like her earlier sister ships. "Zeehond" was converted

title: Submarine

text: was originally powered by a hydrogen peroxide/diesel engine and battery system until an explosion of her hydrogen peroxide supply on 20 May 1957. X-1 was later converted to use diesel-electric drive. Today several navies use air-independent propulsion. Notably Sweden uses Stirling technology on the and s. The Stirling engine is heated by burning diesel fuel with liquid oxygen from cryogenic tanks. A newer development in air-independent propulsion is hydrogen fuel cells, first used on the German Type 212 submarine, with nine 34 kW or two 120 kW cells and soon to be used in the new Spanish s. Steam power

title: Human-powered helicopter

text: I. Sikorsky Human Powered Helicopter Competition was a competition to achieve the first human-powered helicopter flight to reach an altitude of 3 m (10 ft) during a flight lasting at least 60 seconds, while remaining within a 10 m (32.8 ft) x 10 m (32.8 ft) square, and complying with other competition requirements. Founded in 1980, the prize was originally US$10,000, but was raised to $250,000 in 2009. After the increase, two teams – AeroVelo from Canada and Team Gamera from Maryland – raced to win the competition. It was won by the AeroVelo Atlas for a flight that took

title: Air-independent propulsion

text: designing variants of their Type XVII U-boat and their Type XXVIIB "Seehund" midget submarine, the Type XVIIK and Type XXVIIK respectively, though neither was completed before the war's end. After the war the USSR developed the small 650-ton submarine of which thirty were built between 1953 and 1956. These had three diesel engines—two were conventional and one was closed cycle using liquid oxygen. In the Soviet system, called a "single propulsion system", oxygen was added after the exhaust gases had been filtered through a lime-based chemical absorbent. The submarine could also run its diesel using a snorkel. The Quebec had

title: Laser propulsion

text: laser beam power is converted to electricity, which then powers some type of electric propulsion thruster. A small quadcopter has flown for 12 hours and 26 minutes charged by a 2.25 kW laser (powered at less than half of its normal operating current), using 170 watt photovoltaic arrays as the power receiver, and a laser has been demonstrated to charge the batteries of an unmanned aerial vehicle in flight for 48 hours. For spacecraft, laser electric propulsion is considered as a competitor to solar electric or nuclear electric propulsion for low-thrust propulsion in space. However, Leik Myrabo has proposed high-thrust

title: Columbia-class submarine

text: , only the French Navy uses turboelectric drive on its nuclear-powered s. Conceptually, electric drive is only a segment of the propulsion system (it does not replace the nuclear reactor or the steam turbines). Instead, it replaces reduction gearing (mechanical drive) used on earlier nuclear-powered submarines. In 1998, the Defence Science Board envisaged a nuclear-powered submarine that would use an advanced electric drive, eliminating the need for both reduction gearing as well as steam turbines. In 2014, Northrop Grumman was chosen as the prime designer and manufacturer of the turbine generator units. Turbine generators convert mechanical energy from the steam

title: Kalvari-class submarine

text: is capable of offensive operations across the entire spectrum of naval warfare including anti-surface warfare, anti-submarine warfare, intelligence gathering, mine laying and area surveillance. It has a length of , height of , overall beam of and a draught of . It can reach a top speed of when submerged and a maximum speed of when surfaced. The submarine has a range of at when surfaced. Each ship is powered by four MTU 12V 396 SE84 diesel engines, has 360 battery cells (750 kg each), for power and has a silent Permanently Magnetised Propulsion Motor. The hull, fin and hydroplanes

title: Type 214 submarine

text: Type 214 submarine The Type 214 is a diesel-electric submarine developed by Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft GmbH (HDW). It features diesel propulsion with an air-independent propulsion (AIP) system using Siemens polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) hydrogen fuel cells. The Type 214 submarine is derived from the Type 212, but as an export variant it lacks some of the classified technologies of its smaller predecessor, the most important of which is probably the non-magnetic steel hull, which makes the Type 212 submarine difficult to detect using a magnetic anomaly detector. A contract to build three boats for the Hellenic Navy was signed 15 February

title: Troy (submarine)

text: of flexible plastic. Scars and epoxy teeth were added for realism. "Troy" was designed to move in a shark-like manner using a series of joysticks to control speed, direction, and pitch. The eyes could roll, the gills puffed, and the mouth opened and closed to enable shark-like communication. Its tail functioned as a rudder and was powered by compressed air. A propulsion system designed by the United States Navy kept noise to a minimum. The submarine could move forward at up to 5 knots, but was unable to react quickly. Depth was controlled by three inflatable buoyancy bags. Unlike real

title: Ground propulsion

text: as they once were, but they still exist. Examples of human-powered vehicles are rickshaws and cycle rickshaws. The development of the steam engine and internal combustion engine allowed for the development of rail vehicles and motor vehicles, all of which have some form of a powertrain. The electric motor allowed for quieter vehicles with lower emissions, and frequently higher engine efficiency. Some less commonly used or experimental engines are: Ground propulsion Ground propulsion is any mechanism for propelling solid bodies along the ground, usually for the purposes of transportation. The propulsion system often consists of a combination of an engine

title: Human-powered watercraft

text: on one or both ends, is held with both hands. Paddled craft include: Pedals are attached to a crank and propelled in circles, or to a treadle and reciprocated, with the feet. The collected power is then transferred to the water with a paddle wheel, flippers, or to the air or water with a propeller. Pedaled craft include: A pole is held with both hands and used to push against the bottom. Poled craft include: Other types of human-powered watercraft include: Human-powered watercraft Human-powered watercraft are watercraft propelled by human power. The three main methods of collecting human power are

title: Diver propulsion vehicle

text: ensure safe exit before the breathing gas runs out. Human torpedoes or manned torpedoes are a type of diver propulsion vehicle used as secret naval weapons in World War II. The name was commonly used to refer to the weapons that Italy, and later Britain, deployed in the Mediterranean and used to attack ships in enemy harbours. The first human torpedo was the Italian "Maiale" ("Pig"). In operation, it was carried by another vessel (usually a normal submarine), and launched near the target. It was electrically propelled, with two crewmen in diving suits and rebreathers riding astride. They steered the

title: United States Navy Nuclear Propulsion

text: was Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, who is known as the "Father of the Nuclear Navy.” The first nuclear-powered submarine, the , was launched and commissioned in 1954. The development of the nuclear-powered submarine greatly increased capabilities; the duration a sub could remain underwater was now limited only by food supply. By using power generated from the reactor, air was able to be continually recycled and water was able to be distilled from seawater. The nuclear-powered sub could also reach and maintain much higher speeds than its predecessors. Shortly after the USS "Nautilus", the was commissioned. The reactor engine in the

title: Tang-class submarine

text: Tang-class submarine The "Tang"-class submarines were an American class of submarines developed from the Greater Underwater Propulsion Power Program (GUPPY) conversion program for World War II submarines, which incorporated German Type XXI U-boat technology into the United States Navy's submarine design. They comprised the state of the art in post-World War II conventionally powered submarine design; some of their features were incorporated into the nuclear-powered submarines that replaced them in the 1950s and beyond. Probably the most important innovation of the "Tang"s, and their primary advantage over contemporary GUPPY conversions, was an increase in test depth from to , achieved

title: Type 039A submarine

text: became the first customer. Although the official Chinese source had not mentioned the exact class of the submarine, it is generally accepted that the class is no other than Type 039A Yuan class, since it is the newest conventional powered submarine in the Chinese navy. The engine is built by Shanghai Qiyao Propulsion Technology Ltd. (上海齐耀动力技术有限公司), a wholly owned subsidiary of the 711th Institute. The Yuan-class SSK is integrated with advanced noise reduction techniques including anechoic tiles, passive/active noise reduction, asymmetrical seven-blade skewed propeller, the 039A is expected to be as quiet as other modern diesel-electric submarines, which are very

title: Nuclear submarine

text: and another that served with distinction in World War II). The Westinghouse Corporation was assigned to build its reactor. After the submarine was completed at the Electric Boat Company, First Lady Mamie Eisenhower broke the traditional bottle of champagne on "Nautilus" bow, and she was commissioned , on 30 September 1954. On 17 January 1955, she departed Groton, Connecticut to begin sea trials. The submarine was long, and cost about $55 million. The Soviet Union soon followed the United States in developing nuclear-powered submarines in the 1950s. Stimulated by the U.S. development of "Nautilus", Soviet work on nuclear propulsion reactors

title: Submarine

text: technology. The first electrically powered boats were built by Isaac Peral y Caballero in Spain, Dupuy de Lôme and Gustave Zédé in France, and James Franklin Waddington in England. Peral's design featured torpedoes and other systems that later became standard in submarines. Submarines were not put into service for any widespread or routine use by navies until the early 1900s. This era marked a pivotal time in submarine development, and several important technologies appeared. A number of nations built and used submarines. Diesel electric propulsion became the dominant power system and equipment such as the periscope became standardized. Countries conducted

text: Electric propulsion can achieve high speeds over long periods and thus can work better than chemical rockets for some deep space missions. Electric propulsion is now a mature and widely used technology on spacecraft. Russian satellites have used electric propulsion for decades and it is predicted that by 2020, half of all new satellites will carry full electric propulsion. , over 200 spacecraft operated throughout the Solar System use electric propulsion for station keeping, orbit raising, or primary propulsion. In the future, the most advanced electric thrusters may be able to impart a Delta-v of 100 km/s, which is enough

title: French submarine Y

text: French submarine Y The French submarine "Y" was a single-hull experimental submarine designed by Louis-Émile Bertin for the French Navy. She was launched in July 1905 but was never commissioned and remained in experimental status. A planned refit, which included adding an electric motor for underwater propulsion in 1907 was cancelled. "Y" was disarmed and stricken on 1 March 1909. "Y" was long, with a beam of and a draught of . The submarine had a surfaced displacement of and a submerged displacement of . The submarine was powered by a diesel engine for both surface and submerged running. She

title: Type 214 submarine

text: complete transfer of technology. Type 214 submarine The Type 214 is a diesel-electric submarine developed by Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft GmbH (HDW). It features diesel propulsion with an air-independent propulsion (AIP) system using Siemens polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) hydrogen fuel cells. The Type 214 submarine is derived from the Type 212, but as an export variant it lacks some of the classified technologies of its smaller predecessor, the most important of which is probably the non-magnetic steel hull, which makes the Type 212 submarine difficult to detect using a magnetic anomaly detector. A contract to build three boats for the Hellenic Navy

title: Human-powered transport

text: the human-powered speed record of with a velomobile at Battle Mountain, Nevada. Dutch cyclist Fred Rompelberg set a speed record at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah on October 3, 1995 while cycling in the wake of a motor dragster pace-car. The wake of the pace-car reduced the aerodynamic drag against which Rompelberg pedalled to almost zero. Greg Kolodziejzyk set two world records recognized by both the International Human Powered Vehicle Association and Guinness (TM) World Records on July 17, 2006 on a race track in Eureka, California. The first record is for the most distance traveled in 24 hours

title: Human-powered transport

text: using propellers and water wheels for propulsion. These can be more efficient than paddles or oars and especially allow the use of the leg muscles which are generally stronger than arm muscles, even for non-athletes. Competitive rowing boats use sliding seats to engage the legs for propulsion with an oar for this reason, but require considerable skill to use efficiently. In addition, there is little skill required for forward propulsion while looking forwards and craft such as pedalos are popular at resorts. Hydrofoils have less water resistance at the highest speeds attainable by humans and are thus usually faster than

title: World Human Powered Vehicle Association

text: World Human Powered Vehicle Association The World Human Powered Vehicle Association is dedicated to promoting the design and development of human-powered vehicles. Its main focus is coordinating between national HPV clubs with regard to competitions and records. The WHPVA also supports the Human Power eJournal, with a broader focus including stationary uses of human power. The WHPVA was originally called the IHPVA (International Human Powered Vehicle Association), which was founded in 1976 in the USA and was for many years an association of individual members. In 1997 the IHPVA was reorganized into an international association with national organizations as members

text: five months and the other for almost three months. By the early 2010s, many satellite manufacturers were offering electric propulsion options on their satellites—mostly for on-orbit attitude control—while some commercial communication satellite operators were beginning to use them for geosynchronous orbit insertion in place of traditional chemical rocket engines. This type of rocket-like reaction engine uses electric energy to obtain thrust from propellant carried with the vehicle. Unlike rocket engines, these kinds of engines do not necessarily have rocket nozzles, and thus many types are not considered true rockets. Electric propulsion thrusters for spacecraft may be grouped into three families

title: Propulsion

text: systems use an animal's muscles as the power source, and limbs such as wings, fins or legs as the propulsors. A technological/biological system may use human, or trained animal, muscular work to power a mechanical device. An aircraft propulsion system generally consists of an aircraft engine and some means to generate thrust, such as a propeller or a propulsive nozzle. An aircraft propulsion system must achieve two things. First, the thrust from the propulsion system must balance the drag of the airplane when the airplane is cruising. And second, the thrust from the propulsion system must exceed the drag of

title: Electromagnetic propulsion

text: using magnets for propulsion continues to this day and has been dreamed of since at least 1897 when John Munro published his fictional story "A Trip to Venus". Current applications can be seen in maglev trains and military railguns. Other applications that remain not widely used or still in development include ion thruster for low orbiting satellites and magnetohydrodynamic drive for ships and submarines. One of the first recorded discoveries regarding electromagnetic propulsion was in 1889 when Professor Elihu Thomson made public his work with electromagnetic waves and alternating currents. A few years later Emile Bachelet proposed the idea of

title: Beam-powered propulsion

text: this potentially greatly improves the efficiency of a rocket, as exhaust velocity is proportional to the square root of the temperature. Normal chemical rockets have an exhaust speed limited by the fixed amount of energy in the propellants, but beamed propulsion systems have no particular theoretical limit (although in practice there are temperature limits). In microwave thermal propulsion, an external microwave beam is used to heat a refractory heat exchanger to >1,500 K, in turn heating a propellant such as hydrogen, methane or ammonia. This improves the specific impulse and thrust/weight ratio of the propulsion system relative to conventional rocket

title: Beam-powered propulsion

text: propulsion. For example, hydrogen can provide a specific impulse of 700–900 seconds and a thrust/weight ratio of 50-150. A variation, developed by brothers James Benford and Gregory Benford, is to use thermal desorption of propellant trapped in the material of a very large microwave sail. This produces a very high acceleration compared to microwave pushed sails alone. Some proposed spacecraft propulsion mechanisms use power in the form of electricity. Usually these schemes assume either solar panels, or an on-board reactor. However, both power sources are heavy. Beamed propulsion in the form of laser can be used to send power to

title: International Human Powered Vehicle Association

text: International Human Powered Vehicle Association The International Human Powered Vehicle Association (IHPVA) is an US-based organization dedicated to promoting the design and development of human powered vehicles (HPVs, also known as recumbent bikes) and the keeping of speed and distance records for these vehicles and bikes. The IHPVA was founded in 1976 in the USA and was for many years an association of individual members with the publications Human Power and HPV News. In 1997, the IHPVA was reorganised into an international association with national organisations as members and an American association which adopted the name Human Powered Vehicle Association

title: Gotland-class submarine

text: Gotland-class submarine The "Gotland"-class submarines of the Swedish Navy are modern diesel-electric submarines, which were designed and built by the Kockums shipyard in Sweden. They are the first submarines in the world to feature a Stirling engine air-independent propulsion (AIP) system, which extends their underwater endurance from a few days to weeks. This capability had previously only been available with nuclear-powered submarines. As of 2008, the "Gotland"-class attack submarine is one of the most modern submarines of the Swedish Navy in service, mainly designed for submarine missions such as antiship/antisubmarine warfare, collecting of intelligence (communications intelligence (COMINT), electronic signals intelligence

title: Powered aircraft

text: resulting from motion due to forward thrust. A few other types, such as the rotary-winged autogyro, obtain lift through similar methods. Some types use a separate power system to create lift. These include the rotary-winged helicopter and craft that use lift jets (e.g. the flying bedstead). A hot air balloon requires a power source (normally a gas burner) for lift, but is not normally considered a "powered aircraft". Powered aircraft A powered aircraft is an aircraft that uses onboard propulsion with mechanical power generated by an aircraft engine of some kind. Aircraft propulsion nearly always uses either a type of

title: Omer (submarine)

text: reaching a speed of 8.035 knots. Omer 6 a submarine using non-propeller reach 4.642 knots, with its driver Nicolas Tardif, setting also a world record for non-propeller submarine. Carderock, Maryland, June 28, 2007 – Speed results by division in the 9th International Submarine Races held June 25–29 at the Naval Surface Warfare Center's Carderock Division David Taylor Model Basin in Bethesda, Maryland: Two Person Propeller: One Person Propeller: One-Person, Non-Propeller: Omer (submarine) Omer is the name of a series of human-powered submarines. The submarines were built by students of the "École de technologie supérieure" (School of Higher Technology) in Montreal,

title: Submarine

text: it was believed to have sunk both its intended target, and probably "H. L. Hunley", the submarine that deployed it. Discussions between the English clergyman and inventor George Garrett and the Swedish industrialist Thorsten Nordenfelt led to the first practical steam-powered submarines, armed with torpedoes and ready for military use. The first was "Nordenfelt I", a 56-tonne, vessel similar to Garrett's ill-fated "Resurgam" (1879), with a range of , armed with a single torpedo, in 1885. A reliable means of propulsion for the submerged vessel was only made possible in the 1880s with the advent of the necessary electric battery

title: Nuclear submarine

text: Nuclear submarine A nuclear submarine is a submarine powered by a nuclear reactor. The performance advantages of nuclear submarines over "conventional" (typically diesel-electric) submarines are considerable. Nuclear propulsion, being completely independent of air, frees the submarine from the need to surface frequently, as is necessary for conventional submarines. The large amount of power generated by a nuclear reactor allows nuclear submarines to operate at high speed for long periods of time; and the long interval between refuelings grants a range virtually unlimited, making the only limits on voyage times being imposed by such factors as the need to restock food

title: Human-powered land vehicle

text: contact at all as with anything carried. Additionally, these four methods may be combined as in wheelbarrows. The most common wheeled human-powered land vehicle is the bicycle in all its forms. Other notable examples include: There are three main methods of using human power to propel a land vehicle: some kind of drivetrain that turns one or more drive wheels; pushing laterally against the ground, to the side relative to the forward motion of the vehicle, with a wheel, skate, or ski that simultaneously moves forward; by pushing against the ground directly with an appendage, such as a hand or

title: Human-powered transport

text: five-hour-long road race. Skateboards have the advantage of being so small and light that users can easily carry them when not skating. The most efficient human-powered land vehicle is the bicycle. Compared to the much more common upright bicycle, the recumbent bicycle may be faster on level ground or down hills due to better aerodynamics while having similar power transfer efficiency. Velomobiles are increasingly popular in colder and/or wetter countries due to the protection they offer against the environment. Freight bicycles are used to transport cargo. Cycle rickshaws can be used as taxicabs. In 2016, AeroVelo cyclist Todd Reichert achieved

title: Submarine

text: Falklands War, the Argentine cruiser was sunk by the British submarine , the first sinking by a nuclear-powered submarine in war. Before and during World War II, the primary role of the submarine was anti-surface ship warfare. Submarines would attack either on the surface, using deck guns or submerged, using torpedoes. They were particularly effective in sinking Allied transatlantic shipping in both World Wars, and in disrupting Japanese supply routes and naval operations in the Pacific in World War II. Mine-laying submarines were developed in the early part of the 20th century. The facility was used in both World Wars.