query: What is a nematode?

title: Nematode

text: of roundworm systematics and phylogeny as of 2002 is summarised below: Phylum Nematoda Later work has suggested the presence of 12 clades. The Secernentea—a group that includes virtually all major animal and plant 'nematode' parasites—apparently arose from within the Adenophorea. A major effort to improve the systematics of this phylum is in progress and being organised by the 959 Nematode Genomes. A complete checklist of the world's nematode species can be found in the World Species Index: Nematoda. An analysis of the mitochondrial DNA suggests that the following groupings are valid The Ascaridomorpha, Rhabditomorpha, and Diplogasteromorpha appear to be related.

title: Nematode

text: nematodes before planting a crop, but indiscriminately eliminates both harmful and beneficial soil fauna. The golden nematode "Globodera rostochiensis" is a particularly harmful variety of nematode pest that has resulted in quarantines and crop failures worldwide. CSIRO has found a 13- to 14-fold reduction of nematode population densities in plots having Indian mustard "Brassica juncea" green manure or seed meal in the soil. A number of intestinal nematodes cause diseases affecting human beings, including ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm disease. Filarial nematodes cause filariasis. About 90% of nematodes reside in the top 15 cm of soil. Nematodes do not decompose organic

title: Soybean cyst nematode

text: Soybean cyst nematode The soybean cyst nematode (SCN), Heterodera glycines, is a plant-parasitic nematode and a devastating pest of the soybean ("Glycine max") worldwide. The nematode infects the roots of soybean, and the female nematode eventually becomes a cyst. Infection causes various symptoms that may include chlorosis of the leaves and stems, root necrosis, loss in seed yield and suppression of root and shoot growth. SCN has threatened the U.S. crop since the 1950s, reducing returns to soybean producers by $500 million each year and reducing yields by as much as 75 percent. It is also a significant problem in

title: Soybean cyst nematode

text: not normally used because the economic and environmental costs are prohibitive. Soybean cyst nematode The soybean cyst nematode (SCN), Heterodera glycines, is a plant-parasitic nematode and a devastating pest of the soybean ("Glycine max") worldwide. The nematode infects the roots of soybean, and the female nematode eventually becomes a cyst. Infection causes various symptoms that may include chlorosis of the leaves and stems, root necrosis, loss in seed yield and suppression of root and shoot growth. SCN has threatened the U.S. crop since the 1950s, reducing returns to soybean producers by $500 million each year and reducing yields by as

title: Nematode

text: to be the first known life form to survive a virtually unprotected atmospheric descent to Earth's surface. Nematode The nematodes (, ) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called "Nemathelminthes"). They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments. Taxonomically, they are classified along with insects and other moulting animals in the clade Ecdysozoa, and unlike flatworms, have tubular digestive systems with openings at both ends. Nematode species can be difficult to distinguish from one another. Consequently, estimates of the number of nematode species described to date vary by author and may change rapidly over time.

title: Nematode

text: "Bursaphelenchus xylophilus", the pine wood nematode, present in Asia and America and recently discovered in Europe. Depending on the species, a nematode may be beneficial or detrimental to plant health. From agricultural and horticulture perspectives, the two categories of nematodes are the predatory ones, which kill garden pests such as cutworms and corn earworm moths, and the pest nematodes, such as the root-knot nematode, which attack plants, and those that act as vectors spreading plant viruses between crop plants. Predatory nematodes can be bred by soaking a specific recipe of leaves and other detritus in water, in a dark, cool

title: Nematode

text: Nematode The nematodes (, ) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called "Nemathelminthes"). They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments. Taxonomically, they are classified along with insects and other moulting animals in the clade Ecdysozoa, and unlike flatworms, have tubular digestive systems with openings at both ends. Nematode species can be difficult to distinguish from one another. Consequently, estimates of the number of nematode species described to date vary by author and may change rapidly over time. A 2013 survey of animal biodiversity published in the mega journal Zootaxa puts this figure at over

title: Nematode

text: system; in parasitic roundworms, the lifecycle is often much more complicated. Nematodes as a whole possess a wide range of modes of reproduction. Some nematodes, such as "Heterorhabditis" spp., undergo a process called endotokia matricida: intrauterine birth causing maternal death. Some nematodes are hermaphroditic, and keep their self-fertilized eggs inside the uterus until they hatch. The juvenile nematodes then ingest the parent nematode. This process is significantly promoted in environments with a low food supply. The nematode model species "C. elegans" and "C. briggsae" exhibit androdioecy, which is very rare among animals. The single genus "Meloidogyne" (root-knot nematodes) exhibits a

title: Nematode

text: place, and can even be purchased as an organic form of pest control. Rotations of plants with nematode-resistant species or varieties is one means of managing parasitic nematode infestations. For example, marigolds, grown over one or more seasons (the effect is cumulative), can be used to control nematodes. Another is treatment with natural antagonists such as the fungus "Gliocladium roseum". Chitosan, a natural biocontrol, elicits plant defense responses to destroy parasitic cyst nematodes on roots of soybean, corn, sugar beet, potato, and tomato crops without harming beneficial nematodes in the soil.<ref name="US-2008/072494"></ref> Soil steaming is an efficient method to kill

title: Nematode

text: nematodes), "Heterodera" (soybean cyst nematodes), "Longidorus", "Meloidogyne" (root-knot nematodes), "Nacobbus", "Pratylenchus" (lesion nematodes), "Trichodorus", and "Xiphinema" (dagger nematodes). Several phytoparasitic nematode species cause histological damages to roots, including the formation of visible galls (e.g. by root-knot nematodes), which are useful characters for their diagnostic in the field. Some nematode species transmit plant viruses through their feeding activity on roots. One of them is "Xiphinema index", vector of grapevine fanleaf virus, an important disease of grapes, another one is "Xiphinema diversicaudatum", vector of arabis mosaic virus"." Other nematodes attack bark and forest trees. The most important representative of this group is

title: Corn cyst nematode

text: growth and reduce yield. The CCN is currently not considered an economically important pest of corn in the United States. If CCN reaches damaging levels crop rotation to non-host crops would be a viable management option as the CCN’s host range is limited to grasses and its non-hosts include soybean, alfalfa, and cotton. Host plant resistant corn lines have been found and could be used to develop resistant hybrids if needed. Corn cyst nematode The corn cyst nematode (CCN) "Heterodera zeae" is a plant parasitic nematode that feeds on corn "Zea mays". The CCN has a limited economic impact worldwide

title: Corn cyst nematode

text: Corn cyst nematode The corn cyst nematode (CCN) "Heterodera zeae" is a plant parasitic nematode that feeds on corn "Zea mays". The CCN has a limited economic impact worldwide due to its high soil temperature requirements. CCN was first described from a population in India in 1970. It was later reported in Egypt and Pakistan. In India the CCN is considered to be one of the four economically important cyst nematodes. The first report of the species in the Western hemisphere came in 1981 from four colonies in Maryland, Harford, Cecil, Kent, and Queen Anne’s counties. These four counties were

title: Alae (nematode anatomy)

text: of a function’ and has been given the functional role of matrix assembly and also putatively, functions in pheromone and olfactory signal transduction. Despite the structural nature of the ZP domain, it is not the ideal protein for strength alone. Wherever ZP domains are found, they are found in definite or putative association with signal transduction accompanied by interaction with an external or hostile environment. In the parasitic nematode "Haemonchus contortus" a ZP domain protein of a dauer stage nematode has been genetically associated to a target molecule found in the environment that this nematode could be using for exiting

title: Entomopathogenic nematode

text: and diversity of the nematode community (Somaseker "et al." 2002). EPNs had no effect on free-living nematodes. However, there was a reduction in the number of genera and abundance of plant-parasitic nematodes, which often remain enclosed within growths on the plant root. The mechanism by which insect parasitic nematodes have an effect on plant parasitic nematodes remains unknown. Although this effect is considered beneficial for agricultural systems where plant parasitic nematodes cause crop damage, it raises the question of what other effects are possible. Future research on the impacts EPNs have on soil communities will lead to greater understanding of

title: Dracunculus (nematode)

text: ("Dracunculus medinensis") were common in ancient times, and were extracted from beneath the skin by winding them slowly around a stick. According to this theory, physicians might have advertised this common service by posting a sign depicting a worm on a rod. However plausible, no concrete evidence in support of this theory has been adduced. Dracunculus (nematode) Dracunculus is a genus of spiruroid nematode parasites in the family Dracunculidae. Some species infest humans and alter their hosts’ behaviour in a way that supports the worm’s reproductive cycle. Dracunculus causes a blister to form on the host, often on the foot

title: Dracunculus (nematode)

text: Dracunculus (nematode) Dracunculus is a genus of spiruroid nematode parasites in the family Dracunculidae. Some species infest humans and alter their hosts’ behaviour in a way that supports the worm’s reproductive cycle. Dracunculus causes a blister to form on the host, often on the foot or lower leg, causing severe pain and a boiling sensation. This will cause the human host to dip the affected area in water to soothe the pain which will cause the blister to burst, allowing reproductive larvae into the water where they can await the next host to infect. The worms can reach a metre

title: Entomopathogenic nematode

text: such as mites, collembolans, and nematodes are also common. Aside from EPNs, the soil ecosystem includes predatory, bacteriovorous, fungivorous and plant parasitic nematode species. Since EPNs are applied in agricultural systems at a rate of 1,000,000 individuals per acre, the potential for unintended consequences on the soil ecosystem appears large. EPNs have not had an adverse effect on mite and collembolan populations (Georgis et al. 1991), yet there is strong evidence that they affect the species diversity of other nematodes. In a golf course ecosystem, the application of "H. bacteriophora", an introduced nematode, significantly reduced the abundance, species richness, maturity,

title: Entomopathogenic nematode

text: were prevalent had little or no mass die-off of lupine. In stands with low nematode prevalence, however, the photos showed repeated lupine die-offs. These results implied that the nematode, as a natural enemy of the ghost moth caterpillar, protected the plant from damage. The authors even suggested that the interaction was strong enough to affect the population dynamics of bush lupine (Strong "et al." 1996). Not only do entomopathogenic nematodes affect their host insects, they can also change the species composition of the soil community. Many familiar animals like earthworms and insect grubs live in the soil, but smaller invertebrates

title: Potato cyst nematode

text: Potato cyst nematode Potato root nematodes or potato cyst nematodes (PCN) are 1-mm long roundworms belonging to the genus Globodera, which comprises around 12 species. They live on the roots of plants of the Solanaceae family, such as potatoes and tomatoes. PCN cause growth retardation and, at very high population densities, damage to the roots and early senescence of plants. The nematode is not indigenous to Europe but originates from the Andes. Fields are free from PCN until an introduction occurs, after which the typical patches, or hotspots, occur on the farmland. These patches can become full field infestations when

title: Potato cyst nematode

text: potato varieties. During the last 10 years a number of varieties have been developed which can keep both potato cyst nematode species below damage and detection threshold, without the use of pesticides. The official recommendations and requirements for crop rotation vary between countries. Potato cyst nematode Potato root nematodes or potato cyst nematodes (PCN) are 1-mm long roundworms belonging to the genus Globodera, which comprises around 12 species. They live on the roots of plants of the Solanaceae family, such as potatoes and tomatoes. PCN cause growth retardation and, at very high population densities, damage to the roots and early

title: Nematode

text: The suborders Spirurina and Tylenchina and the infraorders Rhabditomorpha, Panagrolaimomorpha, and Tylenchomorpha are paraphytic. The monophyly of the Ascaridomorph is uncertain. Nematodes are small, slender worms: typically about 5 to 100 µm thick, and 0.1 to 2.5 mm long. The smallest nematodes are microscopic, while free-living species can reach as much as , and some parasitic species are larger still, reaching over in length. The body is often ornamented with ridges, rings, bristles, or other distinctive structures. The head of a nematode is relatively distinct. Whereas the rest of the body is bilaterally symmetrical, the head is radially symmetrical, with

title: Root-knot nematode

text: leaving some eggs to hatch at a later date. Ammonium ions have been shown to inhibit hatching and to reduce the plant-penetration ability of "M. incognita" juveniles that do hatch. Root-knot nematodes exhibit a range of reproductive modes, including sexuality (amphimixis), facultative sexuality, meiotic parthenogenesis (automixis) and mitotic parthenogenesis (apomixis). Root-knot nematode Root-knot nematodes are plant-parasitic nematodes from the genus Meloidogyne. They exist in soil in areas with hot climates or short winters. About 2000 plants worldwide are susceptible to infection by root-knot nematodes and they cause approximately 5% of global crop loss. Root-knot nematode larvae infect plant roots, causing

title: Coffee root-knot nematode

text: Coffee root-knot nematode There are many plant-parasitic species in the root-knot nematode genus ("Meloidogyne") that attack coffee such as "M. incognita", "M. arenaria", "M. exigua", "M. javanica" and "M. coffeicola". Study has already shown interspecific variability coffee, in which show how this species can be adapting to new hosts and environments. "Meloidogyne exigua" females are small with medium stylet (12–14 µm) and strong basal knobs. This genus has sexual dimorphism; females are swollen and males keep vermiform as adults. The female has a pear shape when swollen. It is not possible differentiate one species from other on coffee in the

title: Coffee root-knot nematode

title: Nematode

text: "Trichinella spiralis", commonly known as the 'trichina worm', occurs in rats, pigs, bears, and humans, and is responsible for the disease trichinosis. "Baylisascaris" usually infests wild animals, but can be deadly to humans, as well. "Dirofilaria immitis" is known for causing heartworm disease by inhabiting the hearts, arteries, and lungs of dogs and some cats. "Haemonchus contortus" is one of the most abundant infectious agents in sheep around the world, causing great economic damage to sheep. In contrast, entomopathogenic nematodes parasitize insects and are mostly considered beneficial by humans, but some attack beneficial insects. One form of nematode is entirely

title: Root-knot nematode

text: Root-knot nematode Root-knot nematodes are plant-parasitic nematodes from the genus Meloidogyne. They exist in soil in areas with hot climates or short winters. About 2000 plants worldwide are susceptible to infection by root-knot nematodes and they cause approximately 5% of global crop loss. Root-knot nematode larvae infect plant roots, causing the development of root-knot galls that drain the plant's photosynthate and nutrients. Infection of young plants may be lethal, while infection of mature plants causes decreased yield. Root-knot nematodes ("Meloidogyne" spp.) are one of the three most economically damaging genera of plant-parasitic nematodes on horticultural and field crops. Root-knot nematodes

title: Nematode

text: move out of the cloaca and are inserted into the genital pore of the female. Amoeboid sperm crawl along the spicule into the female worm. Nematode sperm is thought to be the only eukaryotic cell without the globular protein G-actin. Eggs may be embryonated or unembryonated when passed by the female, meaning their fertilized eggs may not yet be developed. A few species are known to be ovoviviparous. The eggs are protected by an outer shell, secreted by the uterus. In free-living roundworms, the eggs hatch into larvae, which appear essentially identical to the adults, except for an underdeveloped reproductive

title: Nematode

text: matter, but, instead, are parasitic and free-living organisms that feed on living material. Nematodes can effectively regulate bacterial population and community composition — they may eat up to 5,000 bacteria per minute. Also, nematodes can play an important role in the nitrogen cycle by way of nitrogen mineralization. One group of carnivorous fungi, the nematophagous fungi, are predators of soil nematodes. They set enticements for the nematodes in the form of lassos or adhesive structures. Nematode worms ("C. elegans"), part of an ongoing research project conducted on the Space Shuttle Columbia mission STS-107, survived the re-entry breakup. It is believed

title: Capillaria (nematode)

text: Capillariasis is generally used for diseases produced by species of "Capillaria", even if the species is now placed in another genus. Species in the genus "Capillaria" include (among hundreds of described species): Capillaria (nematode) Capillaria is a genus of nematodes in the family Capillariidae (or, according to classifications, in the family Trichinellidae). Since the taxonomy of the Capillariidae is disputed, species are included within the single genus Capillaria or 22 different genera ("Amphibiocapillaria, Aonchotheca, Baruscapillaria, Calodium, Capillaria, Capillostrongyloides, Crocodylocapillaria, Echinocoleus, Eucoleus, Freitascapillaria, Gessyella, Liniscus, Paracapillaria, Paracapillaroides, Pearsonema, Paratrichosoma, Pseudocapillaria, Piscicapillaria, Pseudocapillaroides, Pterothominx, Schulmanela", and "Tenoranema"). Some species parasitic in fish,

title: Entomopathogenic nematode

text: natural disturbances such as fire have not been examined. Although the biological control industry has acknowledged EPNs since the 1980s, relatively little is understood about their biology in natural and managed ecosystems (Georgis 2002). Nematode-host interactions are poorly understood, and more than half of the natural hosts for recognized Steinernema and Heterorhabditis species remain unknown (Akhurst and Smith 2002). Information is lacking because isolates of naturally infected hosts are rare, so native nematodes are often baited using "Galleria mellonella", a lepidopteran that is highly susceptible to parasitic infection. Laboratory studies showing wide host ranges for EPNs were often overestimates, because

title: Nematode

text: mines in South Africa. They represent 90% of all animals on the ocean floor. Their numerical dominance, often exceeding a million individuals per square meter and accounting for about 80% of all individual animals on earth, their diversity of lifecycles, and their presence at various trophic levels point to an important role in many ecosystems. The roughly 2,271 genera are placed in 256 families. The many parasitic forms include pathogens in most plants and animals. A third of the genera occur as parasites of vertebrates; about 35 nematode species occur in humans. Nathan Cobb, a nematologist, described the ubiquity of

title: Nematode

text: dependent upon fig wasps, which are the sole source of fig fertilization. They prey upon the wasps, riding them from the ripe fig of the wasp's birth to the fig flower of its death, where they kill the wasp, and their offspring await the birth of the next generation of wasps as the fig ripens. A newly discovered parasitic tetradonematid nematode, "Myrmeconema neotropicum", apparently induces fruit mimicry in the tropical ant "Cephalotes atratus". Infected ants develop bright red gasters (abdomens), tend to be more sluggish, and walk with their gasters in a conspicuous elevated position. These changes likely cause frugivorous

title: Capillaria (nematode)

text: Capillaria (nematode) Capillaria is a genus of nematodes in the family Capillariidae (or, according to classifications, in the family Trichinellidae). Since the taxonomy of the Capillariidae is disputed, species are included within the single genus Capillaria or 22 different genera ("Amphibiocapillaria, Aonchotheca, Baruscapillaria, Calodium, Capillaria, Capillostrongyloides, Crocodylocapillaria, Echinocoleus, Eucoleus, Freitascapillaria, Gessyella, Liniscus, Paracapillaria, Paracapillaroides, Pearsonema, Paratrichosoma, Pseudocapillaria, Piscicapillaria, Pseudocapillaroides, Pterothominx, Schulmanela", and "Tenoranema"). Some species parasitic in fish, previously classified within "Capillaria", are now included in "Huffmanela" (family Trichosomoididae). Old literature, and sometimes modern medical literature, use "Capillaria" as a genus for species included in all these genera. The term

title: Cooperia (nematode)

text: Cooperia (nematode) Cooperia is one of the most common intestinal parasitic nematodes in cattle in temperate regions. Infections with "Cooperia" may result in mild clinical symptoms, but can lead to weight loss and damage of the small intestine, especially when co-infections with other nematodes such as "O. ostertagi" occur. Infections are usually treated with broad-spectrum anthelmintics such as benzimidazole, but resistance to these drugs has developed in the last decades and is now very common. "Cooperia" has a direct life cycle. Infective larvae are ingested by the host. The larvae grow to adults, which reproduce in the small intestines. Eggs

title: Nematode

text: birds to confuse the infected ants for berries, and eat them. Parasite eggs passed in the bird's feces are subsequently collected by foraging "C. atratus" and are fed to their larvae, thus completing the lifecycle of "M. neotropicum". Similarly, multiple varieties of nematodes have been found in the abdominal cavities of the primitively social sweat bee, "Lasioglossum zephyrum". Inside the female body, the nematode hinders ovarian development and renders the bee less active, thus less effective in pollen collection. Plant-parasitic nematodes include several groups causing severe crop losses. The most common genera are "Aphelenchoides" (foliar nematodes), "Ditylenchus", "Globodera" (potato cyst

title: Cooperia (nematode)

text: are shed onto the pasture with the faeces, which leads to new infections. Co-infections with other gastro-intestinal nematodes such as "O. ostertagi" and "H. contortus" are common. Cooperia (nematode) Cooperia is one of the most common intestinal parasitic nematodes in cattle in temperate regions. Infections with "Cooperia" may result in mild clinical symptoms, but can lead to weight loss and damage of the small intestine, especially when co-infections with other nematodes such as "O. ostertagi" occur. Infections are usually treated with broad-spectrum anthelmintics such as benzimidazole, but resistance to these drugs has developed in the last decades and is now

title: Corn cyst nematode

text: Corn is the preferred host with reproduction on corn far exceeding the other crops. The CCN is a sedentary endoparasitic nematode, establishing feeding sites in the roots of host plants near the vascular tissue. Like other cyst nematodes, CCN feeds from a specialized feeding site known as a syncytium. This feeding site is formed by the deterioration of cell walls of adjoining plant cells in response to elicitors delivered through the nematode’s stylet. This cell wall deterioration leads to the formation of a single multi-nucleated feeding cell. Through the diversion of nutrients to the syncytium, CCN can stunt corn plant

title: Foliar nematode

text: Foliar nematode Foliar nematodes are plant parasitic roundworms in the genus "Aphelenchoides". The three most economically important species are "Aphelenchoides fragariae", "A. ritzemabosi", and "A. besseyi". Foliar nematodes are becoming a widespread and serious problem for the ornamental and nursery industries. "A. fragariae" causes damage on hundreds of different plants including chrysanthemum, begonia, gloxinia, African violet, cyclamen, and a wide variety of bedding plants and ferns, causing brown to black, vein-delimited lesions on leaf tissue, defoliation, and possible stunting of plants. While many plant parasitic nematodes feed on plant roots, foliar nematodes live and reproduce inside the leaves of plants.

title: Foliar nematode

text: not present during the propagation of cuttings. Presently, there are very few control options for plants infested with foliar nematodes. The current recommendations are to destroy infected plant material, and avoid using overhead irrigation to prevent the spread of nematodes to new plants. Foliar nematode Foliar nematodes are plant parasitic roundworms in the genus "Aphelenchoides". The three most economically important species are "Aphelenchoides fragariae", "A. ritzemabosi", and "A. besseyi". Foliar nematodes are becoming a widespread and serious problem for the ornamental and nursery industries. "A. fragariae" causes damage on hundreds of different plants including chrysanthemum, begonia, gloxinia, African violet, cyclamen,

title: Entomopathogenic nematode

text: Entomopathogenic nematode Entomopathogenic nematodes are a group of nematodes (thread worms), causing death to insects. The term "entomopathogenic" has a Greek origin "entomon," refers to insect, and pathogenic, which denotes causing disease. They are multi-cellular metazoans that occupy a bio control middle ground between microbial pathogens and predator/ parasitoids, and are habitually grouped with pathogens, most likely because of their symbiotic relationship with bacteria. Although many other parasitic thread worms cause diseases in living organisms (sterilizing or otherwise debilitating their host), entomopathogenic nematodes, are specific in only infecting insects. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) live parasitically inside the infected insect host, and

title: Entomopathogenic nematode

text: field. For example, parasitic nematodes were found to be completely ineffective against blackflies and mosquitoes due to their inability to swim (Lewis "et al."1998). Efforts to control foliage-feeding pests with EPNs were equally unsuccessful, because nematodes are highly sensitive to UV light and desiccation (Lewis "et al."1998). Comparing the life histories of nematodes and target pests can often explain such failures (Gaugler "et al." 1997). Each nematode species has a unique array of characteristics, including different environmental tolerances, dispersal tendencies, and foraging behaviors (Lewis "et al." 1998). Increased knowledge about the factors that influence EPN populations and the impacts they

title: Entomopathogenic nematode

text: microbial, arthropod, and nematode species diversity (Lupwayi "et al." 1998). Tilled soil also has less moisture and higher temperatures. In a study examining the tolerances of different EPN species to tillage, the density of a native nematode, "H. bacteriophora", was unaffected by tillage, while the density of an introduced nematode, "S. carpocapsae", decreased. The density of a third nematode introduced to the system, "Steinernema riobrave", increased with tillage (Millar and Barbercheck 2002). Habitat preferences in temperature and soil depth can partially explain the nematodes’ different responses to disturbance. "S. carpocapsae" prefers to remain near the soil surface and so is

title: Alae (nematode anatomy)

text: Alae (nematode anatomy) The alae is a protruding ridge that forms longitudinally on many nematodes. In the "Caenorhabditis elegans" nematode they are present in the L1, dauer (an alternative long living larvae stage where the nematode is dormant) and adult stages. The alae are most pronounced during the dauer larval stage and not present in the L2, and L3 "C. elegans" stages. The term ‘alae’ is the plural of ala (wing), describing either one of the pair of ridges that forms on a nematode or an individual crease found on an individual ridge. The term ‘ala’ is rarely used in

title: Strawberry foliar nematode

text: Strawberry foliar nematode Strawberry foliar nematode is a disease common in strawberries and ornamental plants that can greatly affect plant yield and appearance, resulting in a loss of millions of dollars of revenue. Symptoms used to diagnose the disease are angular, water soaked lesions and necrotic blotches. "Aphelenchoides fragariae" is the nematode pathogen that causes the disease. Its biological cycle includes four life stages, three of which are juvenile. The nematode can undergo multiple life cycles in one growing season when favorable conditions are present. They can infect the crowns, runners, foliage, and new buds of the plant via stylet

title: Nematode

text: the head lie two small pits, or 'amphids'. These are well supplied with nerve cells, and are probably chemoreception organs. A few aquatic nematodes possess what appear to be pigmented eye-spots, but whether or not these are actually sensory in nature is unclear. Most nematode species are dioecious, with separate male and female individuals, though some, such as "Caenorhabditis elegans", are androdioecious, consisting of hermaphrodites and rare males. Both sexes possess one or two tubular gonads. In males, the sperm are produced at the end of the gonad and migrate along its length as they mature. The testis opens into

title: Nematode chemoreceptor

text: Nematode chemoreceptor Nematode chemoreceptors are chemoreceptors of nematodes. Animals recognise a wide variety of chemicals using their senses of taste and smell. The nematode "Caenorhabditis elegans" has only 14 types of chemosensory neuron, yet is able to respond to dozens of chemicals because each neuron detects several stimuli. More than 40 highly divergent transmembrane proteins that could contribute to this functional diversity have been described. Most of the candidate receptor genes are in clusters of similar genes; 11 of these appear to be expressed in small subsets of chemosensory neurons. A single type of neuron can potentially express at least

title: Nematode chemoreceptor

text: 4 different receptor genes. Some of these might encode receptors for water-soluble attractants, repellents and pheromones, which are divergent members of the G-protein-coupled receptor family. Sequences of the Sra family of C.elegans receptor-like proteins contain 6-7 hydrophobic, putative transmembrane, regions. These can be distinguished from other 7TM proteins (especially those known to couple G-proteins) by their own characteristic TM signatures. Nematode chemoreceptor Nematode chemoreceptors are chemoreceptors of nematodes. Animals recognise a wide variety of chemicals using their senses of taste and smell. The nematode "Caenorhabditis elegans" has only 14 types of chemosensory neuron, yet is able to respond to dozens

title: Root-knot nematode

text: is difficult and options are limited. "Meloidogyne" spp. were first reported in cassava by Neal in 1889. Damage on cassava is variable depending on cultivar planted, and can range from negligible to serious. Early-season infection leads to worse damage. In most crops, nematode damage reduces plant health and growth; in cassava, though, nematode damage sometimes leads to increased aerial growth as the plants try to compensate. This possibly enables the plant to maintain a reasonable level of production. Therefore, aerial correlations to nematode density can be positive, negative or not at all. Vegetable crops grown in warm climates can experience

title: Entomopathogenic nematode

text: competition, some species of infective juveniles are able to judge the quality of a host before penetration. The infective juveniles of "S. carpocapsae" are repelled by 24-hour-old infections, likely by the smell of their own species’ mutualistic bacteria (Grewal "et al." 1997). Interspecific competition between nematode species can also occur in the soil environment outside of hosts. Millar and Barbercheck (2001) showed that the introduced nematode "Steinernema riobrave" survived and persisted in the environment for up to a year after its release. "S. riobrave" significantly depressed detection of the endemic nematode "H. bacteriophora", but never completely displaced it, even after

title: Northern root-knot nematode

text: Northern root-knot nematode Northern root-knot nematode ("Meloidogyne hapla") is a species of vegetable pathogens which produces tiny galls (a sore caused by friction and abrasion) on around 550 crop and weed species. They invade root tissue after birth. Females are able to lay up to 1,000 eggs at a time in a large egg mass. By surviving harsh winters, they can survive in cold climates (hence, the name, Northern). "Meloidogyne hapla" (Northern root-knot nematode) has a wide host range. It is polyphagous and affects over 550 crops and weeds. It feeds on many agricultural and horticultural plants (vegetables, fruits, ornamentals),

title: Nematode

text: and, had we sufficient knowledge, in many cases even their species could be determined by an examination of their erstwhile nematode parasites. In 1758, Linnaeus described some nematode genera (e.g., "Ascaris"), then included in the Vermes. The name of the group Nematoda, informally called "nematodes", came from Nematoidea, originally defined by Karl Rudolphi (1808), from Ancient Greek νῆμα ("nêma, nêmatos", 'thread') and -eiδἠς ("-eidēs", 'species'). It was treated as family Nematodes by Burmeister (1837). At its origin, the "Nematoidea" erroneously included Nematodes and Nematomorpha, attributed by von Siebold (1843). Along with Acanthocephala, Trematoda, and Cestoidea, it formed the obsolete group

title: Alae (nematode anatomy)

text: measured for their concentration and a threshold reached before an action is instigated. These actions may instigate entry into the dauer state (L1 alae), exiting of the dauer state (pheromone and or presence of an indicator for food availability), for sexual reproduction where the area around the vulva and gonads of the female and male use this family of receptors (RAM-5) where the nematode is likely to identify that reproductive organs are in contact. And quite probably there are some other functions that we have not yet been found. Alae (nematode anatomy) The alae is a protruding ridge that forms

title: What Is a Nation?

text: What Is a Nation? "What is a Nation?" ("Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?") is an 1882 lecture by French historian Ernest Renan (1823–1892), known for the statements that a nation is "a daily referendum", and that nations are based as much on what the people jointly forget, as what they remember. It is frequently quoted or anthologized in works of history or political science pertaining to nationalism and national identity. Renan wrote "What is a Nation" in order to symbolize the nationalism which was born in France as a result of the French Revolution of 1789. Renan begins his essay by noting

title: Potato cyst nematode

text: of the potato cyst nematode using an AMI-intensive soil sampling scheme (currently only available in The Netherlands). Pesticides can be used, but they will not get a field free of nematodes. They will increase yields and are only profitable at high population densities, when the financial profit of the extra yield will surpass the cost of the pesticide application. Crop rotation with at least 6 years between planting of a susceptible crop is an effective means to reduce nematode population densities to below damage threshold. However, the best way to manage potato cyst nematodes is the use of (partial) resistant

title: Alae (nematode anatomy)

text: exiting the dauer state may be determined by the concentration of target molecules around the nematode. In order to measure concentrations accurately, a very large receptor area is necessary, hence a structure such as the alae may be required. The alae appears to be a neural receptor responsive to just a handful of molecules particular to each species of nematode. Up to half a dozen types of receptors may be present at any one time on the alae and each type would be very numerous. The target molecules in the environment that stimulate each type of receptor may then be

title: Strawberry foliar nematode

text: infected plant. All symptomatic plants should be destroyed immediately. Dead plant material should also be handled with caution. Vermiform nematodes can survive and reproduce in compost piles of dead plant material by feeding on fungi that are commonly found in compost. As a result, infected plants should be burned and sterilized to prevent the nematodes from infecting soil (which results directly from burying the material), or other plants (from allowing the plant to remain rooted in the soil near other plants as it dies). Strawberry foliar nematode Strawberry foliar nematode is a disease common in strawberries and ornamental plants that

title: Soybean cyst nematode

text: the soybean growing areas of South America and Asia. The second-stage juvenile, or J2, nematode is the only life stage that can penetrate roots. (The first-stage juvenile occurs in the egg, and third- and fourth-stages occur in the roots). The J2 enters the root moving through the plant cells to the vascular tissue where it feeds. The J2 induces cell division in the root to form specialized feeding sites. As the nematode feeds, it swells. The female swells so much that her posterior end bursts out of the root and she becomes visible to the naked eye. In contrast, the

title: Nematode Her-1

text: function of tra-2a. Nematode Her-1 In molecular biology the nematode Her-1 protein is a protein which adopts an all-helical structure with two subdomains: amino acids 19-80 comprise a left-handed three-helix bundle with an overhand connection between the second and third helices, whilst amino acids 81-164 comprise a left-handed anti-parallel four-helix bundle in which the first helix consists of four consecutive turns of 3-10-helix. Fourteen cysteines are conserved in all known HER-1 sequences and form seven disulphide bonds. The protein dictates male development in "Caenorhabditis elegans", probably by playing a direct role in cell signalling during "C. elegans" sex determination. It

title: Nematode Her-1

text: Nematode Her-1 In molecular biology the nematode Her-1 protein is a protein which adopts an all-helical structure with two subdomains: amino acids 19-80 comprise a left-handed three-helix bundle with an overhand connection between the second and third helices, whilst amino acids 81-164 comprise a left-handed anti-parallel four-helix bundle in which the first helix consists of four consecutive turns of 3-10-helix. Fourteen cysteines are conserved in all known HER-1 sequences and form seven disulphide bonds. The protein dictates male development in "Caenorhabditis elegans", probably by playing a direct role in cell signalling during "C. elegans" sex determination. It also inhibits the

title: What is a Masterpiece?

text: confluence of memories and emotions forming a single idea", that it has "a power of recreating traditional forms so that they become expressive of an artist's own epoch and yet keep a relationship to the past". The highest masterpieces are said to be "illustrations of great themes." Clark also implicitly excluded the erotic from considerations of what constituted a masterpiece, based on his perspective that a necessary condition is the balance between sense and form (works that are too sensual are, therefore, unbalanced and not to be categorised at masterpiece level). What is a Masterpiece? What is a Masterpiece? is

title: Northern root-knot nematode

text: any significant effectiveness against Northern root-knot nematodes. Some species of the plant genus "Brassica" can be used as effective biofumigants against the Northern root-not nematode, however, they can interfere with the effectiveness of biological controls within the IPM. "Meloidogyne hapla" can be controlled using their natural enemies. Common biological controls of nematodes are fungi and bacteria. Some fungi use mycelial traps or sticky spores to catch nematodes while other fungi parasitize eggs and females. Bacteria consume juvenile nematodes by attaching and penetrating the cuticle. There are no known resistant varieties as of now. Northern root-knot nematode Northern root-knot nematode ("Meloidogyne

title: What Is a Nation?

text: to the reasons based on race, geography, history and so on. They argue that Renan maintains his intellectual background but subtly, i.e. the arguments he explicitly used in "What is a Nation?" are not consistent with his thinking. The concept of "daily plebiscite" would be ambiguous. They argue that the definition is an opportunist idealization and it should be interpreted within the Franco-Prussian War and in the midst of the dispute concerning the Alsace-Lorraine region. What Is a Nation? "What is a Nation?" ("Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?") is an 1882 lecture by French historian Ernest Renan (1823–1892), known for the statements

title: Coffee root-knot nematode

text: until the adult stage. Many eggs will be produced by the female nematode, and released in a gelatinous mass. "M. exigua" lays its eggs under the epidermis, unlike "M.coffeicola" that lays them outside of the roots. The juveniles that came out in the gelatinous mass will hatch and find a new feeding site and restart the cycle. Some juveniles may become males when the nematode population is high (competition), environmental condition are not favorable, or the plant is resistant. The life cycle of "Meloidogyne exigua" was reported to be around 35 days at 25–30 °C. "M. exigua" causes galls on

title: Root-knot nematode

text: severe losses from root-knot nematodes, and are often routinely treated with a chemical nematicide. Root-knot nematode damage results in poor growth, a decline in quality and yield of the crop and reduced resistance to other stresses (e.g. drought, other diseases). A high level of damage can lead to total crop loss. Nematode-damaged roots do not use water and fertilisers as effectively, leading to additional losses for the grower. In cassava, it has been suggested that levels of "Meloidogyne" spp. that are sufficient to cause injury rarely occur naturally. However, with changing farming systems, in a disease complex or weakened by

title: Corn cyst nematode

text: placed under quarantine. The nematode was later identified from Cumberland Co., VA, over 170 miles from the nearest known infested field in Maryland. In Virginia the nematode was restricted to a 3 by 2.5 mile strip of land along the Appomattox River. The cysts of CCN are light brown in color and lemon shaped. The cysts also have a zig-zag pattern on the cyst wall with four prominent finger-like bullae below the underbridge. The juveniles have an average stylet length of 20 μm and have a thin finely pointed tail. Females have a vulva slit of approximately 33 μm. The

title: What is a Masterpiece?

text: What is a Masterpiece? What is a Masterpiece? is a 1979 non-fiction book by British historian Kenneth Clark. It is a transcribed version of the Walter Neurath memorial lectures given by Clark. The work, initially released on 1 January 1979, received a Thames & Hudson republication on 1 May 1992. Kenneth Clark had already achieved fame with a series of popular books while also serving as, from 1969 on, the writer, producer and presenter of the BBC programme, "Civilisation", a pioneering television documentary series. The prestigious series earned a Peabody Award as well as general commercial success. In the work,

title: What Is a Rumpletilskin?

text: McGurk, VP of Radio & Retail Promotion at Poindexter, who later became the first Marketing Director of Redeye Distribution and Yep Roc Records of Haw River, NC. What Is a Rumpletilskin? What Is a Rumpletilskin? is the first and only album by hip hop group Rumpletilskinz, released on July 13, 1993, on RCA Records and produced by the group's producer, R.P.M. The album failed to make it to any of the "Billboard" charts, but two singles did, "Attitudes" and "Is It All Right?" Both made it to #24 on the Hot Rap Singles. This release received extensive national independent retail

title: What Is a Rumpletilskin?

text: What Is a Rumpletilskin? What Is a Rumpletilskin? is the first and only album by hip hop group Rumpletilskinz, released on July 13, 1993, on RCA Records and produced by the group's producer, R.P.M. The album failed to make it to any of the "Billboard" charts, but two singles did, "Attitudes" and "Is It All Right?" Both made it to #24 on the Hot Rap Singles. This release received extensive national independent retail promotion through Poindexter International Marketing & Promotions, which was employed by RCA Records. It was also one of the first projects managed by James "DJ Ras J"

title: Nematode

text: 25,000. Estimates of the total number of extant species are subject to even greater variation. A widely referenced article published in 1993 estimated there may be over 1 million species of nematode, a claim which has since been repeated in numerous publications, without additional investigation, in an attempt to accentuate the importance and ubiquity of nematodes in the global ecosystem (rather than as a sign of agreement with the estimated taxonomic figure). Many other publications have since vigorously refuted this claim on the grounds that it is unsupported by fact, and is the result of speculation and sensationalism. More recent,

title: Nematode

text: the lateral nerves are sensory, and the ventral combines both functions. The nervous system is also the only place in the nematode body that contains cilia, which are all nonmotile and with a sensory function. At the anterior end of the animal, the nerves branch from a dense, circular nerve (nerve ring) round surrounding the pharynx, and serving as the brain. Smaller nerves run forward from the ring to supply the sensory organs of the head. The bodies of nematodes are covered in numerous sensory bristles and papillae that together provide a sense of touch. Behind the sensory bristles on

title: Coffee root-knot nematode

text: by the coffee roots, J2 nematode (migratory stage) moves toward to food source. The nematodes penetrate in the roots and search for a site to feed on. Several cells are selected to start uptaking food. Those cells are modified and grow bigger (hypertrophy) without cellular division. However, nuclei division start happening and many nuclei are produced inside generating giant cells. Surrounding cells will suffer hyperplasia and start cellular division wildly. For "M. exigua", these cells will become galls, but not for "M. coffeicola". The nematode starts to swell and get a swollen shape as it molts through the juvenile stages

title: What She Is (Is a Woman in Love)

text: What She Is (Is a Woman in Love) "What She Is (Is a Woman in Love)" is a song written by Bob McDill and Paul Harrison and recorded by American country music artist Earl Thomas Conley. It was released in February 1988 as the lead single from the album, "The Heart of It All". The song was Earl Thomas Conley's fifteenth number one on the country chart. The single went to number one for one week and spent a total of thirteen weeks on the country chart. "What She Is (Is a Woman in Love)" debuted on the U.S. "Billboard"

title: What She Is (Is a Woman in Love)

text: Hot Country Singles for the week of March 12, 1988. What She Is (Is a Woman in Love) "What She Is (Is a Woman in Love)" is a song written by Bob McDill and Paul Harrison and recorded by American country music artist Earl Thomas Conley. It was released in February 1988 as the lead single from the album, "The Heart of It All". The song was Earl Thomas Conley's fifteenth number one on the country chart. The single went to number one for one week and spent a total of thirteen weeks on the country chart. "What She Is

title: Nematode

text: used (and are still used today) and Nematode became a popular term in zoological science. Since Cobb was the first to include nematodes in a particular phylum separated from Nematomorpha, some researchers consider the valid taxon name to be Nemates or Nemata, rather than Nematoda, because of the zoological rule that gives priority to the first used term in case of synonyms. The phylogenetic relationships of the nematodes and their close relatives among the protostomian Metazoa are unresolved. Traditionally, they were held to be a lineage of their own, but in the 1990s, they were proposed to form the group

title: What Is a Nation?

text: and continues to be invoked. Political historian Karl Deutsch, in a quote sometimes mistakenly attributed to Renan, said that a nation is "a group of people united by a mistaken view about the past and a hatred of their neighbours". Benedict Anderson's 1983 work Imagined Communities, which states that a nation is an "imagined political community", argues that Renan contradicts himself when he says French people must have forgotten the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, yet does not explain what it is. In other words, Renan assumes that all his readers will remember the very massacre he says they have forgotten.

title: What Is the What

text: What Is the What What Is the What: The Autobiography of Valentino Achak Deng is a 2006 novel written by Dave Eggers. It is based on the life of Valentino Achak Deng, a Sudanese child refugee who immigrated to the United States under the Lost Boys of Sudan program. It was a finalist for the National Book Award. As a boy, Achak is separated from his family during the Second Sudanese Civil War when the Arab militia, referred to as "murahaleen" (which is Arabic for the deported), wipes out his Dinka village, Marial Bai. During the assault, he loses sight

title: What Is the What

text: That Happens Will Happen Today". Tom Tykwer plans to adapt the novel into a film. In 2009, the novel received the Prix Médicis étranger in France. What Is the What What Is the What: The Autobiography of Valentino Achak Deng is a 2006 novel written by Dave Eggers. It is based on the life of Valentino Achak Deng, a Sudanese child refugee who immigrated to the United States under the Lost Boys of Sudan program. It was a finalist for the National Book Award. As a boy, Achak is separated from his family during the Second Sudanese Civil War when

title: What Is a Nation?

text: French citizen has to have forgotten the massacre of Saint Bartholomew, or the massacre that took place in the South in the thirteenth century. While many nations, such as France, begin with a feudal regime such as a monarchy, others, such as the United States and Switzerland, are formed by acts of consensual aggregation. France and many others, however, survived their feudal roots while maintaining their identity. Renan inquires what is the organizing principle? It can't be race, because France is "Celt, Iberian, German...The most noble countries, England, France and Italy, are the ones where the blood is most mixed."

title: What Is a Man Without a Moustache?

text: What Is a Man Without a Moustache? What Is a Man Without a Moustache? () is a 2005 Croatian romantic comedy-drama film. Hrvoje Hribar directed the film and wrote the screenplay as an adaptation of Ante Tomić's 2000 novel of the same name. Starring Leon Lučev and Zrinka Cvitešić and set against a background of a country still recovering from the Croatian War of Independence, the film tells the story of a young widow who falls in love with a local priest and a difficult choice that the priest faces when being forced to choose between the woman and his

title: Entomopathogenic nematode

text: in a laboratory, contact with a host is assured and environmental conditions are ideal; there are no "ecological barriers" to infection (Kaya and Gaugler 1993, Gaugler "et al." 1997). Therefore, the broad host range initially predicted by assay results has not always translated into insecticidal success. Nematodes are open to mass production and don’t require specialized application equipment since they are compatible with standard agrochemical equipment, including various sprayers (i.e. backpack, pressurized, mist, electrostatic, fan and aerial) and irrigation systems.(Cranshaw, & Zimmerman 2013). The lack of knowledge about nematode ecology has resulted in unanticipated failures to control pests in the

title: Entomopathogenic nematode

text: two years of continued introductions. "S. riobrave" had no effect on populations of the native nematode, "S. carpocapsae", though, which suggests that coexistence is possible. Niche differentiation appears to limit competition between nematodes. Different foraging strategies allow two species to co-exist in the same habitat. Different foraging strategies separate the nematodes in space and enable them to infect different hosts. EPNs also occur in patchy distributions, which may limit their interactions and further support coexistence (Kaya and Koppenhofer 1996). Entomopathogenic nematodes are typically found in patchy distributions, which vary in space and time, although the degree of patchiness varies between

title: Alae (nematode anatomy)

text: as a matrix separating the cuticle thereby exposing itself to the external environment. The alae is formed during an oxidative process where peroxidase acts on protein bound tyrosine residues. The alae is a crease, that by the cross linking process causes radial shrinking of the seam cell secreted proteins. The function of the alae is not yet clear. It is generally given a function related to cuticle strength, nematode movement or fat storage. But the predominant structure of the "C. elegans" alae contain the ZP domain proteins (CUT-1, CUT-3, CUT-5). The ZP domain had been termed ‘the sequence in search

title: Here Is What Is

text: Here Is What Is Here Is What Is is the fifth studio album by Canadian songwriter and record producer Daniel Lanois. It was first released in December 2007 as a high-quality download, and later released on CD on March 18, 2008. The album is the result of the same project that led to the 2007 documentary "Here Is What Is" that premiered at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival in September. The movie documents the aesthetics and creative process behind Lanois' approach to music making and recording. The album has been presented as a direct soundtrack to this film, and

title: Strawberry foliar nematode

text: devastating to alfalfa and strawberry. Strawberry is a major crop in California where fruit production is valued over $523 million. Foliar nematodes reduce fruit and plant yield because they feed on the leaves, crowns, and flower buds of the strawberry plant. Ornamental plants are also a multimillion-dollar industry in the United States, and foliar nematodes destroy these plants as well. In less severe cases of nematode infection, the appearance of the plant is affected by the symptoms of disease, which gives an undesirable appearance in ornamental plants. This reduces the value of the plant and makes most infected plants unmarketable.

title: Strawberry foliar nematode

text: after irrigation. In the greenhouse or nursery, soils, containers, and tools should be sterilized on a regular basis, and the floor and storage areas should be free from plant debris. The most important form of management is prevention of introduction of the nematode to the environment. One should avoid planting infected plants, and it is recommended that new plants (especially in a personal lawn or greenhouse) be planted in an isolated area to monitor the plant for the development of symptoms before transplanting the plant near established plants. This will prevent the established plants from getting infected from a new,

title: Root-knot nematode

text: hundreds of eggs can be produced. Females can continue egg laying after harvest of aerial parts of the plant and the survival stage between crops is generally within the egg. The length of the life cycle is temperature-dependent. The relationship between rate of development and temperature is linear over much of the root-knot nematode life cycle, though it is possible the component stages of the life cycle, e.g. egg development, host root invasion or growth, have slightly different optima. Species within the genus "Meloidogyne" also have different temperature optima. In "M. javanica", development occurs between 13 and 34 °C, with

title: What a piece of work is a man

text: What a piece of work is a man "What a piece of work is man!" is a phrase within a soliloquy by Prince Hamlet in William Shakespeare's play of the same name. Hamlet is reflecting, at first admiringly, and then despairingly, on the human condition. The soliloquy, spoken in the play by Prince Hamlet to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern in Act II, Scene 2, follows in its entirety. Rather than appearing in blank verse, the typical mode of composition of Shakespeare's plays, the speech appears in straight prose: Hamlet is saying that although humans may appear to think and act "nobly"

title: What a piece of work is a man

text: lines written by Montaigne: However, rather than being a direct influence on Shakespeare, Montaigne may have merely been reacting to the same general atmosphere of the time, making the source of these lines one of context rather than direct influence. What a piece of work is a man "What a piece of work is man!" is a phrase within a soliloquy by Prince Hamlet in William Shakespeare's play of the same name. Hamlet is reflecting, at first admiringly, and then despairingly, on the human condition. The soliloquy, spoken in the play by Prince Hamlet to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern in Act

title: Corn cyst nematode

text: CCN has been found in India, Pakistan, Egypt, and the United States. In India and Egypt it is considered to be of economic importance. In the United States it is not considered to be of economic importance due to its limited distribution and high soil temperature requirements for reproduction. Surveys have found the nematode in four Maryland counties and one county in Virginia. However, extensive surveys from 2004 to 2011 failed to identify "H. zeae" from New Jersey, Florida, Wisconsin, Minnesota, South Dakota, North Dakota, and Idaho. The life cycle of the CCN is similar to other cyst nematodes in

title: Strawberry foliar nematode

text: 10–15 minutes at 46.1⁰C, and 8–10 minutes at 47.7⁰. The study also found that fruit production was more sensitive to the treatment than mere survival of the plant, so the minimum exposure times are recommended when using plants for fruit production, and the maximum time is recommended when using plants for propagation. One of the best and most practiced forms of management to reduce the local and geographical spread of the disease is sanitation. Removing the infected leaves of the plant can reduce spread in the individual plant, but because the nematode is found in most foliar tissue the nematodes

title: What a Man My Man Is

text: been re-recorded numerous times by Anderson, including on her Grammy-nominated 2004 album, "The Bluegrass Sessions". What a Man My Man Is "What a Man My Man Is" is the name of a No. 1 U.S. country music hit by Lynn Anderson, from 1974. This was Anderson's last No. 1 country hit, staying at the top for one week and spending a total of nine weeks on the chart. It was also her last pop entry on the Hot 100, reaching number 93. For the next few years, Anderson would place hits in the Country top 15 and 20, but wouldn't

title: What a Man My Man Is

text: What a Man My Man Is "What a Man My Man Is" is the name of a No. 1 U.S. country music hit by Lynn Anderson, from 1974. This was Anderson's last No. 1 country hit, staying at the top for one week and spending a total of nine weeks on the chart. It was also her last pop entry on the Hot 100, reaching number 93. For the next few years, Anderson would place hits in the Country top 15 and 20, but wouldn't reach the top 10 again until 1979 with "Isn't it Always Love". The song has

title: Root-knot nematode

text: studied, free-living nematode "Caenorhabditis elegans". Embryogenesis has also been studied, and the stages of development are easily identifiable with a phase contrast microscope following preparation of an egg mass squash. The egg is formed as one cell, with two-cell, four-cell and eight-cell stages recognisable. Further cell division leads to the tadpole stage, with further elongation resulting in the first stage juvenile, which is roughly four times as long as the egg. The J1 stage of "C. elegans" has 558 cells, and the J1 of "M. javanica" likely has a similar number, since all nematodes are morphologically and anatomically similar. The

title: Entomopathogenic nematode

text: have in their communities will likely increase their efficacy as biological control agents. Recently, studies have shown utilizing both EPNs (steinernematids and heterorhabditids) in combination for biological control of plum curculio in orchards in Northeast America have reduce populations by as much as 70-90% in the field, depending on insect stage, treatment timing and field conditions. More studies are being conducted for the efficacy of EPNs utilized as a biological control agent for organic growers as an alternative solution to chemistries that aren't as effective at controlling insect infestations.(Agnello, Jentsch, Shield, Testa, and Keller 2014). Entomopathogenic nematode Entomopathogenic nematodes are

title: Entomopathogenic nematode

text: species (reviewed in Lewis 2002). Factors responsible for this aggregated distribution may include behavior, as well as the spatial and temporal variability of the nematodes natural enemies, like nematode trapping fungus. Nematodes also have limited dispersal ability. Many infective juveniles are produced from a single host which could also produce aggregates. Patchy EPN distributions may also reflect the uneven distribution of host and nutrients in the soil (Lewis "et al." 1998; Stuart and Gaugler 1994; Campbell "et al." 1997, 1998). EPNs may persist as metapopulations, in which local population fragments are highly vulnerable to extinction, and fluctuate asynchronously (Lewis "et

title: Root-knot nematode

text: optimal development at about 29 °C. Root-knot nematode females lay eggs into a gelatinous matrix produced by six rectal glands and secreted before and during egg laying. The matrix initially forms a canal through the outer layers of root tissue and later surrounds the eggs, providing a barrier to water loss by maintaining a high moisture level around the eggs. As the gelatinous matrix ages, it becomes tanned, turning from a sticky, colourless jelly to an orange-brown substance which appears layered. Egg formation in "M. javanica" has been studied in detail, and is similar to egg formation in the well

title: Strawberry foliar nematode

text: used to reduce the numbers of strawberry foliar nematode (a reduction of 67-85%), but none of these chemicals can completely eradicate the nematodes once they are present in the soil. These chemicals affect all stages of the life cycle because they target the nervous system. One chemical, ZeroTol, a broad-spectrum fungicide and algaecide, was shown be to 100% potent against nematodes living in a water suspension, but the study does not show how nematodes are affected in soil or outside of a laboratory environment. An alternative method of control is a hot water treatment, which affects all stages of the

title: Alae (nematode anatomy)

text: the dauer stage. This was statistically related with a high degree of significance indicating that the alae may specifically function as a receptor site. In the case of "H. contortus" the dauer nematode can remain in the gastric epithelium for months and until the right signals indicating conditions outside the host are favorable for egg survival, it will then trigger resumption of development. During the dauer stage the mouth and anal openings are sealed and neural receptors around the head retracted. The alae is more pronounced than at any other stage and remains exposed to the external environment. Triggers for

title: What Is a Nation?

text: often adopted the religion and manners, and married the women, of the people they conquered. He notes that France was quite ethnically diverse during the French Revolution. For example, "at the end of one or two generations, the Norman invaders were indistinguishable from the rest of the population". Nonetheless, they had a profound influence, bringing with them "a nobility of military habit, a patriotism" which did not exist before. - Renan then states what has become one of the most famous and enduring ideas of the essay. "Forgetfulness, and I would even say historical error, are essential in the creation

title: (What Is) Love?

text: (What Is) Love? "(What Is) Love?" is a song recorded by American entertainer Jennifer Lopez. Originally entitled "What Is Love?", the song appeared on the soundtrack to "The Back-up Plan" (2010), a film in which Lopez stars. The song was later included on Lopez's seventh studio album "Love?" (2011), as the album's title track. "(What Is) Love?" is a midtempo electropop song written by Diana "Wynter" Gordon, with the song's producer Emile "D'Mile" Dernst II. The song is about "not knowing what love is," according to Gordon. A remix of "(What Is) Love?", entitled "What Is Love? Part II", was