query: Who developed the vaccination against polio?

title: Polio vaccine

text: 900 developed polio; in the group receiving the vaccine, only one out of 7,500 developed polio, making the vaccine 88% effective during the first year. However, other researchers believed that the one case was likely caused by the vaccine, and two more possible cases were reported later. After this meeting, Brodie, whose polio vaccine was at least partially effective and reasonably safe, and who developed several ground-breaking ideas about vaccination whose validity was confirmed two decades later with the development of the Salk vaccine, was immediately fired and had trouble finding employment again. Brodie died three and a half years

title: Polio vaccine

text: The results of the field trial were announced 12 April 1955 (the tenth anniversary of the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, whose paralytic illness was generally believed to have been caused by polio). The Salk vaccine had been 60–70% effective against PV1 (poliovirus type 1), over 90% effective against PV2 and PV3, and 94% effective against the development of bulbar polio. Soon after Salk's vaccine was licensed in 1955, children's vaccination campaigns were launched. In the U.S, following a mass immunization campaign promoted by the March of Dimes, the annual number of polio cases fell from 35,000 in 1953

title: Polio vaccine

text: to 5,600 by 1957. By 1961 only 161 cases were recorded in the United States. A week earlier in April 1955, Pierre Lépine at the Pasteur Institute in Paris also announced an effective polio vaccine. In April 1955, soon after mass polio vaccination began in the US, the Surgeon General began to receive reports of patients who contracted paralytic polio about a week after being vaccinated with Salk polio vaccine from Cutter pharmaceutical company, with the paralysis limited to the limb the vaccine was injected into. In response the Surgeon General pulled all polio vaccine made by Cutter Laboratories from

title: Polio vaccine

text: is usually provided in vials containing 10–20 doses of vaccine. A single dose of oral polio vaccine (usually two drops) contains 1,000,000 infectious units of Sabin 1 (effective against PV1), 100,000 infectious units of the Sabin 2 strain, and 600,000 infectious units of Sabin 3. The vaccine contains small traces of antibiotics—neomycin and streptomycin—but does not contain preservatives. In a generic sense, vaccination works by priming the immune system with an 'immunogen'. Stimulating immune response, by use of an infectious agent, is known as immunization. The development of immunity to polio efficiently blocks person-to-person transmission of wild poliovirus, thereby protecting

title: Polio vaccine

text: to all three serotypes of polio virus after two doses of inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), and at least 99% are immune to polio virus following three doses. The duration of immunity induced by IPV is not known with certainty, although a complete series is thought to provide protection for many years. OPV proved to be superior in administration, eliminating the need for sterile syringes and making the vaccine more suitable for mass vaccination campaigns. OPV also provided longer-lasting immunity than the Salk vaccine, as it provides both humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity. One dose of OPV produces immunity to all

title: Polio vaccine

text: poliomyelitis per million doses given. This compares with 5,000 cases per million who are paralysed following a polio infection. Both are generally safe to give during pregnancy and in those who have HIV/AIDS but are otherwise well. The first polio vaccine was the inactivated polio vaccine. It was developed by Jonas Salk and came into use in 1955. The oral polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin and came into commercial use in 1961. They are on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in

title: Polio vaccine

text: incidents reduced public confidence in polio vaccine leading to a drop in vaccination rates. At the same time that Salk was testing his vaccine, both Albert Sabin and Hilary Koprowski continued working on developing a vaccine using live virus. During a meeting in Stockholm to discuss polio vaccines in November 1955, Sabin presented results obtained on a group of 80 volunteers, while Koprowski read a paper detailing the findings of a trial enrolling 150 people. Sabin and Koprowski both eventually succeeded in developing vaccines. Because of the commitment to the Salk vaccine in America, Sabin and Koprowski both did their

title: Polio vaccine

text: A global effort to eradicate polio, led by the World Health Organization, UNICEF, and The Rotary Foundation, began in 1988 and has relied largely on the oral polio vaccine developed by Albert Sabin and Mikhail Chumakov (Sabin-Chumakov vaccine). Polio was eliminated in the Americas by 1994. The disease was officially eliminated in 36 Western Pacific countries, including China and Australia, in 2000. Europe was declared polio-free in 2002. Since January 2011, no cases of the disease have been reported in India, hence in February 2012, the country was taken off the WHO list of polio-endemic countries. In March 2014, India

title: Polio vaccine

text: polio and post-polio syndrome. In the United States, vaccine is administered along with the tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis vaccines (DTaP) and a pediatric dose of hepatitis B vaccine. In the UK, IPV is combined with tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis, and "Haemophilus influenzae" type b vaccines. OPV is an attenuated vaccine, produced by the passage of the virus through nonhuman cells at a subphysiological temperature, which produces spontaneous mutations in the viral genome. Oral polio vaccines were developed by several groups, one of which was led by Albert Sabin. Other groups, led by Hilary Koprowski and H.R. Cox, developed their own

title: Polio vaccine

text: year, with deaths in those years numbering 3,200 and 1,400. Amid this U.S. polio epidemic, millions of dollars were invested in finding and marketing a polio vaccine by commercial interests, including Lederle Laboratories in New York under the direction of H. R. Cox. Also working at Lederle was Polish-born virologist and immunologist Hilary Koprowski of the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, who tested the first successful polio vaccine, in 1950. His vaccine, however, being a live attenuated virus taken orally, was still in the research stage and would not be ready for use until five years after Jonas Salk's polio vaccine

title: Pulse Polio

text: developed cellulites in the heel were convinced that it had been caused by the vaccine that was given a week before. The doctor who gave the vaccine was forced to pay the entire amount for the child's treatment. Pulse Polio Pulse Polio is an immunisation campaign established by the government of India to eliminate poliomyelitis (polio) in India by vaccinating all children under the age of five years against the polio virus. The project fights poliomyelitis through a large-scale, pulse vaccination programme and monitoring for polio cases. Vellore (Tamil Nadu) was the first Indian town to become polio-free through the

title: Pulse Polio

text: Pulse Polio Pulse Polio is an immunisation campaign established by the government of India to eliminate poliomyelitis (polio) in India by vaccinating all children under the age of five years against the polio virus. The project fights poliomyelitis through a large-scale, pulse vaccination programme and monitoring for polio cases. Vellore (Tamil Nadu) was the first Indian town to become polio-free through the pulse strategy, and rest of India adopted the strategy in 1995. The Pulse Polio dates in 2018 are 28 January and 11 March on Sundays. In India, vaccination against polio started in 1978 with Expanded Programme on Immunization

title: Pulse Polio

text: of water treatment made it easier for a child to swallow more polio virus. As a result, children with too few doses of vaccine were not fully protected and sometimes got polio. The eradication program therefore gave drops over and over again, to boost children's immunity higher and as a precaution against missed children. Few parents initially knew that the vaccination campaign was trying to eradicate the disease, so they did not understand the reasons for the increasing intensity of vaccination. The increasing frequency of the drops and cases of polio among partially vaccinated children, caused rumours that the drops

title: Polio vaccine

text: was declared a polio-free country. Although poliovirus transmission has been interrupted in much of the world, transmission of wild poliovirus does continue and creates an ongoing risk for the importation of wild poliovirus into previously polio-free regions. If importations of poliovirus occur, outbreaks of poliomyelitis may develop, especially in areas with low vaccination coverage and poor sanitation. As a result, high levels of vaccination coverage must be maintained. In November 2013, the WHO announced a polio outbreak in Syria. In response, the Armenian government put out a notice asking Syrian Armenians under age 15 to get the polio vaccine. As

title: Vaccination policy

text: introduced in 1978 to provide free immunization against polio, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, tuberculosis, and yellow fever to Nigerian children less than 2 years old. This free immunization can be obtained at any primary health centre in the country. The vaccines are usually administered by a government health care worker. They also conduct routine vaccination visits in schools where all the children in a given school are vaccinated. Facing numerous minor polio epidemics, the Pakistani government has now ruled that the polio vaccination as mandatory and indisputable. In a statement from Pakistani Police Commissioner Riaz Khan Mehsud "There is no

title: Polio vaccine

text: of 2014, polio virus has spread to 10 countries, mainly in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, with Pakistan, Syria, and Cameroon advising vaccinations to outbound travelers. Polio vaccination programs have received resistance from some people in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nigeria (the three countries as of 2017 with remaining polio cases). Some Muslim religious leaders believe that the vaccines are secretly being used for sterilization of Muslims. The fact that in 2011, the CIA organized a fake vaccination program to help find Osama Bin Laden is an additional cause of distrust. In 2015, the WHO announced a deal with the

title: Vaccination and religion

text: polio vaccination, and polio rates are declining rapidly in Afghanistan, with only five cases in Jan–July 2015. In Pakistan there were 28 cases in the same period. In 2015, leaders of the Nation of Islam spoke out against a California Bill that removed philosophical exemptions to school vaccination requirements. Saying that data suggests "that African American males who received the MMR vaccine before age 36 months were at increased risk for autism." They also said that that government mandated vaccines were another Tuskegee Syphilis Study. In the U.S., all states except Mississippi, California and West Virginia allow parents to opt

title: Vaccination policy

text: highest court in the relevant hierarchy. Therefore, criminal trials based on vaccine refusals may be referred to the Cour de Cassation, which will then certify whether the case meets certain criteria. In May 2015, France updated its vaccination policies on diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis, polio, Haemophilus influenzae b infections, and hepatitis B for premature infants. As of 2015, while failure to vaccinate is not necessarily illegal, a parent's right to refuse to vaccinate his or her child is technically a constitutional matter. Additionally, children in France cannot enter schools without proof of vaccination against diphtheria, tetanus, and polio. French Health

title: Pulse Polio

text: did not work. On July 30, 2013 a nine-month-old boy from Navi Mumbai tested positive for vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) type 2. This was the fourth such case recorded in the country in 2013. Many parts of India are remote and hard to access. People in some areas had had poor and caste-discriminatory treatment by government health authorities, which made them less willing to assist in the vaccination programme. The time demands of polio vaccination sometimes left health care workers with less time for other services. The absence of any free health services other than polio vaccination and contraception lead to

title: Vaccination policy

text: Somalia in 1977. Endemic measles, mumps and rubella have been eliminated through vaccination in Finland. The WHO has targeted polio for eradication by the year 2018. Rational individuals will attempt to minimize the risk of illness, and will seek vaccination for themselves or their children if they perceive a high threat of disease and a low risk to vaccination. However, if a vaccination program successfully reduces the disease threat, it may reduce the perceived risk of disease enough so that an individual's optimal strategy is to encourage everyone but their family to be vaccinated, or (more generally) to refuse vaccination

title: Vaccination and religion

text: example, at least 200 children died in a late-2007 measles outbreak in Borno State. In 2013, nine health workers administering polio vaccine were targeted and killed by gunmen on motorcycles in Kano, but this was an isolated incident. Local traditional and religious leaders and polio survivors worked to support the vaccination campaign, and Nigeria has not had a polio case since July 24, 2014; in 2017, if no new cases appear, Nigeria will be declared polio-free. In the 2000s, in Pakistan and Afghanistan, some Taliban issued "fatwas" opposing vaccination as an American plot to sterilize Muslims, and kidnapped, beat, and

title: Vaccination

text: Vaccination Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material (a vaccine) to stimulate an individual's immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen. Vaccines can prevent or ameliorate infectious disease. When a sufficiently large percentage of a population has been vaccinated, herd immunity results. The effectiveness of vaccination has been widely studied and verified. Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases; widespread immunity due to vaccination is largely responsible for the worldwide eradication of smallpox and the elimination of diseases such as polio, measles, and tetanus from much of the world. Smallpox was most likely the first

title: Vaccination

text: outbreak in East Asia cost $54 billion. Vaccination Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material (a vaccine) to stimulate an individual's immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen. Vaccines can prevent or ameliorate infectious disease. When a sufficiently large percentage of a population has been vaccinated, herd immunity results. The effectiveness of vaccination has been widely studied and verified. Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases; widespread immunity due to vaccination is largely responsible for the worldwide eradication of smallpox and the elimination of diseases such as polio, measles, and tetanus from much of the

title: Vaccination Week In The Americas

text: in 2010, and in the WHO African and Western Pacific regions in 2011. The member states of the WHO South-East Asian region committed to the annual campaign in 2012. The goals and activities for each VWA are chosen in accordance with a specific theme, and adapted in alignment with national health objectives. The twelfth VWA takes place from 26 April to 3 May 2014, with the regional slogan: “"Vaccination: Your best shot".” This slogan was chosen to encourage people to protect themselves and their communities against the importation of polio, measles and other vaccine-preventable diseases, in the context of the

title: DNA vaccination

text: DNA vaccination DNA vaccination is a technique for protecting against disease by injection with genetically engineered DNA so cells directly produce an antigen, producing a protective immunological response. DNA vaccines have potential advantages over conventional vaccines, including the ability to induce a wider range of immune response types. Several DNA vaccines are available for veterinary use. Currently no DNA vaccines have been approved for human use. Research is investigating the approach for viral, bacterial and parasitic diseases in humans, as well as for several cancers. Vaccines have eliminated naturally occurring smallpox, and nearly eliminated polio, while other diseases, such as

title: Polio vaccine

text: Vaccines and Immunization supplies the inactivated vaccine to developing countries for as little as (about ) per dose in 10-dose vials. In the United States, the inactivated form costs between $25 and $50. A widespread misconception has arisen in Pakistan that polio vaccine contained "haram" ingredients and could cause impotence and infertility in male children, leading some parents not to have their children vaccinated. This belief is most prevalent in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and the FATA region. Attacks on polio vaccination teams have also occurred, thereby hampering international efforts to eradicate polio in Pakistan and globally, since the virus

title: Vaccination

text: rapidly and with less harm than natural infection. Most vaccines are given by hypodermic injection as they are not absorbed reliably through the intestines. Live attenuated polio, some typhoid, and some cholera vaccines are given orally to produce immunity in the bowel. While vaccination provides a lasting effect, it usually takes several weeks to develop, while passive immunity (the transfer of antibodies) has immediate effect. The term inoculation is often used interchangeably with vaccination. However, some argue that the terms are not synonymous. Dr Byron Plant explains: "Vaccination is the more commonly used term, which actually consists of a 'safe'

title: Vaccination policy

text: Health Assembly in 2012. The plan which is set from 2011–2020 is intended to "strengthen routine immunization to meet vaccination coverage targets; accelerate control of vaccine-preventable diseases with polio eradication as the first milestone; introduce new and improved vaccines and spur research and development for the next generation of vaccines and technologies". In an effort to boost vaccination rates in Australia, the Australian government has decided that starting on 1 January 2016, certain benefits (such as the universal 'Family Allowance' welfare payments for parents of children) will no longer be available for conscientious objectors of vaccination; those with medical grounds

title: Vaccination and religion

text: assassinated vaccination officials; the head of Pakistan's vaccination campaign in Bajaur Agency was assassinated in 2007, on his way back from a meeting with a religious leader. In 2011, a CIA spy ran a fake hepatitis vaccination campaign to search for Osama bin Laden; such actions were strongly condemned by US and international health NGOs, the doctor involved was jailed and the CIA promised not to use vaccination as a cover again. A genuine polio vaccinator had previously vaccinated Osama bin Laden's children and grandchildren in his compound in Abbottabad. Both major sides of the Afghani civil war now support

title: Polio vaccine

text: the developing world is about per dose for the oral form as of 2014. In the United States, it costs between $25 and $50 for the inactivated form. Interruption of person-to-person transmission of the virus by vaccination is important in the global polio eradication, since no long-term carrier state exists for poliovirus in individuals with normal immune function, polio viruses have no nonprimate reservoir in nature, and survival of the virus in the environment for an extended period of time appears to be remote. When the current formulation of IPV is used, 90% or more of individuals develop protective antibodies

title: Polio vaccine

text: in a test called the Francis Field Trial, led by Thomas Francis, the largest medical experiment in history at that time. The test began with about 4,000 children at Franklin Sherman Elementary School in McLean, Virginia, and eventually involved 1.8 million children, in 44 states from Maine to California. By the conclusion of the study, roughly 440,000 received one or more injections of the vaccine, about 210,000 children received a placebo, consisting of harmless culture media, and 1.2 million children received no vaccination and served as a control group, who would then be observed to see if any contracted polio.

title: Vaccination

text: eliminate the risk of outbreaks of some diseases, at various times governments and other institutions have employed policies requiring vaccination for all people. For example, an 1853 law required universal vaccination against smallpox in England and Wales, with fines levied on people who did not comply. Common contemporary U.S. vaccination policies require that children receive recommended vaccinations before entering public school. Beginning with early vaccination in the nineteenth century, these policies were resisted by a variety of groups, collectively called antivaccinationists, who object on scientific, ethical, political, medical safety, religious, and other grounds. Common objections are that vaccinations do not

title: Pulse vaccination strategy

text: by: and that the eradication condition is: Pulse vaccination strategy The pulse vaccination strategy is a method used to eradicate an epidemic by repeatedly vaccinating a group at risk, over a defined age range, until the spread of the pathogen has been stopped. It is most commonly used during measles and polio epidemics to quickly stop the spread and contain the outbreak. Where T= time units is a constant fraction p of susceptible subjects vaccinated in a relatively short time. This yields the differential equations for the susceptible and vaccinated subjects as Further, by setting , one obtains that the

title: Pulse vaccination strategy

text: Pulse vaccination strategy The pulse vaccination strategy is a method used to eradicate an epidemic by repeatedly vaccinating a group at risk, over a defined age range, until the spread of the pathogen has been stopped. It is most commonly used during measles and polio epidemics to quickly stop the spread and contain the outbreak. Where T= time units is a constant fraction p of susceptible subjects vaccinated in a relatively short time. This yields the differential equations for the susceptible and vaccinated subjects as Further, by setting , one obtains that the dynamics of the susceptible subjects is given

title: Vaccination policy

text: mercy, we have decided to deal with the refusal cases with iron hands. Anyone who refuses [the vaccine] will be sent to jail". According to a 2011 publication in "CMAJ": Slovenia has one of the world's most aggressive and comprehensive vaccination programs. Its program is mandatory for nine designated diseases. Within the first three months of life, infants must be vaccinated for tuberculosis, tetanus, polio, pertussis, and Haemophilus influenza type B. Within 18 months, vaccines are required for measles, mumps and rubella, and finally, before a child starts school, the child must be vaccinated for hepatitis B. While a medical

title: Vaccination policy

text: for adults, and is administered by general practitioners. To mitigate some public concerns, Italy currently has a national vaccine injury compensation program. Essentially, those who are ill or damaged by mandatory and recommended vaccinations may receive funding from the government as compensation. One evaluation of vaccine coverage in 2010, which covered the 2008 birth cohort, showed a slight decline in immunization insurance coverage rates of diphtheria, hepatitis B, polio, and tetanus after those specific vaccinations had been made mandatory. However, vaccination levels continued to pass the Italian government's goal of 95% outreach. Aiming to integrate immunization strategies across the country

title: Vaccination policy

text: However, mandatory vaccination policies raise ethical issues regarding parental rights and informed consent. To eliminate the risk of disease outbreaks, at various times governments and other institutions established policies requiring vaccination. For example, an 1853 law required universal vaccination against smallpox in England and Wales, with fines levied on people who did not comply. In the United States, the Supreme Court ruled in "Jacobson v. Massachusetts" (1905) that states have the authority to require vaccination against smallpox during a smallpox epidemic. All U.S states require that children be vaccinated in order to attend school; only three states (Mississippi, West Virginia,

title: Polio vaccine

text: can be carried by travelers. Polio vaccine Polio vaccines are vaccines used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio). Two types are used: an inactivated poliovirus given by injection (IPV) and a weakened poliovirus given by mouth (OPV). The World Health Organization recommends all children be fully vaccinated against polio. The two vaccines have eliminated polio from most of the world, and reduced the number of cases reported each year from an estimated 350,000 in 1988 to 22 in 2017. The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe. Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection. Oral polio vaccines cause about

title: Polio vaccine

text: Polio vaccine Polio vaccines are vaccines used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio). Two types are used: an inactivated poliovirus given by injection (IPV) and a weakened poliovirus given by mouth (OPV). The World Health Organization recommends all children be fully vaccinated against polio. The two vaccines have eliminated polio from most of the world, and reduced the number of cases reported each year from an estimated 350,000 in 1988 to 22 in 2017. The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe. Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection. Oral polio vaccines cause about three cases of vaccine-associated paralytic

title: Pulse Polio

text: polio eradication efforts. In 1998, in Bhavnagar district of Gujarat, immunisation officers reported that 98 children out of the total of 2,000 missed the vaccine. Health workers were first prevented from coming to village. Later, when the booths were established and the program started, many parents did not bring their children. According to them, children from their village developed polio-paralysis even after the immunisation. Health officers who visited a village in West Bengal saw utter discontent among the people as they stated that two children contracted the virus after the vaccine. In another instance, parents of a two-and-a-half-year-old child who

title: Vaccination policy

text: despite the twelve year old state law. Resistance was seen at the local level of the school district as some local school boards and superintendents opposed the state vaccination laws, leading the state board health inspectors to examine vaccination policies in schools. Resistance proceeded during the mid-1900s and in 1977 a nationwide Childhood Immunization Initiative was developed with the goal of increasing vaccination rates among children to 90% by 1979. During the two-year period of observation, the initiative reviewed the immunization records of more than 28 million children and vaccinated children who had not received the recommended vaccines. In 1922

title: Polio vaccine

text: other live-virus vaccines, immunity initiated by OPV is probably lifelong. The trivalent (against wild types 1, 2, and 3) OPV has been used to nearly eradicate polio infection worldwide. Led by The Global Polio Eradication Initiative, 155 countries switched to use the bivalent (against wild type 1 and 3) between 17 April and 1 May 2016. The bivalent OPV is at more effective against type 1 and 3 but does not cover type 2. The United States as of 2017 continues to recommend the use of a trivalent version, but a fully inactivated version. In countries with endemic polio or

title: Haemophilus influenzae

text: is not yet sufficient evidence on how effective this pentavalent vaccine is in relation to the individual vaccines. Hib vaccines cost about seven times the total cost of vaccines against measles, polio, tuberculosis, diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis. Consequently, whereas 92% of the populations of developed countries were vaccinated against Hib as of 2003, vaccination coverage was 42% for developing countries, and only 8% for least-developed countries. The Hib vaccines do not provide cross-protection to any other "Haemophilus influenzae" serotypes like Hia, Hic, Hid, Hie or Hif. An oral vaccination has been developed for non-typeable "Haemophilus influenzae" (NTHi) for patients with

title: Vaccination

text: vaccination campaigns. Although the benefits of preventing serious illness and death from infectious diseases greatly outweigh the risks of rare serious adverse effects following immunization, disputes have arisen over the morality, ethics, effectiveness, and safety of vaccination. Some vaccination critics say that vaccines are ineffective against disease or that vaccine safety studies are inadequate. Some religious groups do not allow vaccination, and some political groups oppose mandatory vaccination on the grounds of individual liberty. In response, concern has been raised that spreading unfounded information about the medical risks of vaccines increases rates of life-threatening infections, not only in the children

title: Polio vaccine

text: vaccinated children had died in both studies; no researchers dared attempt a polio vaccine for another 20 years. Professor John Kolmer, MD (1886–1962), of Temple University in Philadelphia, presented his findings first. He had developed an attenuated poliovirus vaccine, which he tested in about 10,000 children across much of the United States and Canada. Five of these children died of polio and 10 more were paralyzed, usually in the arm where the vaccine was injected, and frequently affecting children in towns where no polio outbreak had occurred. He had no control group, but asserted that many more children would have

title: Polio vaccine

text: Medicine. Other important advances that led to the development of polio vaccines were: the identification of three poliovirus serotypes (Poliovirus type 1 — PV1, or Mahoney; PV2, Lansing; and PV3, Leon); the finding that prior to paralysis, the virus must be present in the blood; and the demonstration that administration of antibodies in the form of gamma globulin protects against paralytic polio. During the early 1950s, polio rates in the U.S. were above 25,000 annually; in 1952 and 1953, the U.S. experienced an outbreak of 58,000 and 35,000 polio cases, respectively, up from a typical number of some 20,000 a

title: Polio vaccine

text: be given between 6 and 18 months of age. A booster vaccination is given at 4 to 6 years of age, for a total of four doses at or before school entry. In some countries, a fifth vaccination is given during adolescence. Routine vaccination of adults (18 years of age and older) in developed countries is neither necessary nor recommended because most adults are already immune and have a very small risk of exposure to wild poliovirus in their home countries. In 2002, a pentavalent (five-component) combination vaccine (called Pediarix) containing IPV was approved for use in the United States.

title: National Anti-Vaccination League

text: medical treatment." In June 1867, the publication "Human Nature" campaigned against "The Vaccination Humbug". It reported that many petitions had been presented to Parliament against Compulsory Vaccination, and many from parents who alleged that their children had died through the operation, and complained that these petitions had not been made public. The journal reported the formation of an Anti- Compulsory Vaccination League "To overthrow this huge piece of physiological absurdity and medical tyranny, and quoted Richard Gibbs, who ran the Free Hospital at the same address as stating "I believe we have hundreds of cases here, from being poisoned with

title: Vaccination

text: Variolae Vacciniae", which coined the term "vaccination" and created widespread interest. He distinguished 'true' and 'spurious' cowpox (which did not give the desired effect) and developed an "arm-to-arm" method of propagating the vaccine from the vaccinated individual's pustule. Early attempts at confirmation were confounded by contamination with smallpox, but despite controversy within the medical profession and religious opposition to the use of animal material, by 1801 his report was translated into six languages and over 100,000 people were vaccinated. Since then vaccination campaigns have spread throughout the globe, sometimes prescribed by law or regulations (See Vaccination Acts). Vaccines are now

title: Vaccination

text: used against a wide variety of diseases. Louis Pasteur further developed the technique during the 19th century, extending its use to killed agents protecting against anthrax and rabies. The method Pasteur used entailed treating the agents for those diseases so they lost the ability to infect, whereas inoculation was the hopeful selection of a less virulent form of the disease, and Jenner's vaccination entailed the substitution of a different and less dangerous disease. Pasteur adopted the name "vaccine" as a generic term in honour of Jenner's discovery. Maurice Hilleman was the most prolific vaccine inventor, developing successful vaccines for measles,

title: Pulse Polio

text: India launched Pulse Polio immunization program with Universal Immunization Program which aimed at 100% coverage. The last reported cases of wild polio in India were in West Bengal and Gujarat on 13 January 2011. On 27 March 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared India a polio free country, since no cases of wild polio been reported in for three years. The Pulse Polio Initiative (PPI) aims at covering every individual in the country. It aspires to reach even children in remote communities through an improved social mobilisation plan. Publicity was extensive and included replacing the national telecoms' authority ringtone

title: Polio vaccine

text: tissue. He had inoculated the planned number of tubes when he noticed that there were a few unused tubes. He retrieved a sample of mouse brain infected with polio virus and added it to the remaining test tubes, on the off chance that the virus might grow. The varicella cultures failed to grow, but the polio cultures were successful. This development greatly facilitated vaccine research and ultimately allowed for the development of vaccines against polio. Enders and his colleagues, Thomas H. Weller and Frederick C. Robbins, were recognized in 1954 for their labors with a Nobel Prize in Physiology or

title: Feline vaccination

text: are both causing professional bodies to recommend reduced frequency in feline vaccination. In 2010, the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) and American Association of Feline Practitioners (AAFP) developed vaccination guidelines recommending that FVRCP vaccinations generally be administered every 3 years, after completion of the kitten series of shots (which is needed due to maternal antibody interference). Internationally, the 2010 The World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA) vaccination guidelines reduce the number of vaccines which should be considered core for felines, as well as recommending less frequent vaccine administration. However, in an open letter to WSAVA, an Australian pet owner and

title: Vaccination

text: Early success brought widespread acceptance, and mass vaccination campaigns have greatly reduced the incidence of many diseases in numerous geographic regions. Generically, the process of artificial induction of immunity, in an effort to protect against infectious disease, works by 'priming' the immune system with an 'immunogen'. Stimulating immune responses with an infectious agent is known as "immunization". Vaccination includes various ways of administering immunogens. Some vaccines are administered after the patient already has contracted a disease. Vaccines given after exposure to smallpox, within the first three days, are reported to attenuate the disease considerably, and vaccination up to a week

title: Vaccination schedule

text: over time. For example, tetanus vaccine boosters are often recommended every 10 years. Vaccine schedules are developed by governmental agencies or physicians groups to achieve maximum effectiveness using required and recommended vaccines for a locality while minimizing the number of health care system interactions. Over the past two decades, the recommended vaccination schedule has grown rapidly and become more complicated as many new vaccines have been developed. Some vaccines are recommended only in certain areas (countries, sub national areas, or at-risk populations) where a disease is common. For instance, yellow fever vaccination is on the routine vaccine schedule of French

title: Polio vaccine

text: both individual vaccine recipients and the wider community. The development of two polio vaccines led to the first modern mass inoculations. The last cases of paralytic poliomyelitis caused by endemic transmission of wild virus in the United States occurred in 1979, with an outbreak among the Amish in several Midwest states. Two separate teams, led by John Kolmer and Maurice Brodie respectively, developed polio vaccines and reported their results at the annual meeting of the American Public Health Association in November 1935. Despite promising results, both were cancelled as a result of the angry reaction from other researchers there, as

title: Post-polio syndrome

text: to occur in cases of nonparalytic polio (NPP). One review states late-onset weakness and fatigue occurs in 14 to 42 percent of NPP patients. Post-polio syndrome Post-polio syndrome (PPS, or post-poliomyelitis syndrome or post-polio sequelae) is a condition that affects approximately 25 to 40 percent of people who have previously survived an acute attack of poliomyelitis, though more recent studies have shown that 80+% of polio survivors show symptoms of Post Polio Sequelae, a viral infection of the nervous system after the initial infection. Typically the symptoms appear 15 to 30 years after recovery from the original paralytic attack, at

title: Australian Vaccination-risks Network

text: Australian Vaccination-risks Network The Australian Vaccination-risks Network Inc., formerly known as the Australian Vaccination-Skeptics Network, formerly known as the Australian Vaccination Network (AVN), is an Australian anti-vaccination pressure group registered in New South Wales. As Australia's most controversial anti-vaccination organisation, it has lobbied against a variety of vaccination-related programs, downplayed the danger of childhood diseases such as measles and pertussis, championed the cause of alleged vaccination victims, and promoted the use of ineffective alternatives such as homeopathy and chiropractic. The vast majority of doctors agree that opposition to vaccination applies to a fringe medical science viewpoint. The group has been

title: Post-Polio Health International

text: its mission from polio to birth defects; most of the special rehabilitation hospitals and clinics devoted to polio survivors were closing; clinical specialists in polio were scattering. Polio survivors (substantially more in 1960 than the CDC-estimated one million in the US who were still alive in 1995) were often isolated from the support needed to cope with maturing and aging with a significant physical disability. PHI at first devoted itself to making sure polio survivors could stay in touch with each other as needed, and with clinicians who had special expertise with polio. These efforts evolved into a variety of

title: Vaccination policy

text: the constitutionality of childhood vaccination was examined in the Supreme Court case "Zucht v. King". The court decided that a school could deny admission to children who failed to provide a certification of vaccination for the protection of the public health. In 1987, a measles epidemic occurred in Maricopa County, Arizona and another court case, "Maricopa County Health Department vs. Harmon", examined the arguments of an individual's right to education over the states need to protect against the spread of disease. The court decided that it is prudent to take action to combat the spread of disease by denying un-vaccinated

title: Vaccination policy

text: Austria, 87% of the population is vaccinated against TBE. The South African Vaccination and Immunisation Centre began in 2003 as an alliance between the South African Department of Health, vaccine industry, academic institutions and other stakeholders. SAIVC works with WHO and the South African National Department of Health to educate, do research, provide technical support, and advocate. They work to increase rates of vaccination in order to improve the nation's health. Spain's 19 autonomous communities, consisting of 17 Regions and 2 cities, follow health policies established by the Inter-Territorial Health Council that was formed by the National and Regional Ministries

title: National Anti-Vaccination League

text: vaccination, I deem incurable. One member of a family dating syphilitic symptoms from the time of vaccination, when all the other members of the family have been clear. We strongly advise parents to go to prison, rather than submit to have their helpless offspring inoculated with scrofula, syphilis, and mania." The 1900 Labour Party General Election Manifesto contained a commitment to "No Compulsory Vaccination". National Anti-Vaccination League The National Anti-Vaccination League was founded in 1896 in Britain, growing from earlier smaller organizations in London, originally under the title Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League. The organisation opposed compulsory vaccination, particularly against smallpox. It

title: Pulse Polio

text: with a vaccination day awareness message, posters, TV and cinema spots, parades, rallies, and one-to-one communication from volunteers. Vaccination booths were set up, with a house-to-house campaign for remote communities. Testing showed that three doses of vaccine was enough to protect children in developed countries, but it became obvious that this was not enough in some areas of India. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare recommended eight to ten doses for each child. Children in some areas of India are weaker and often had diarrhea, which reduced the efficiency of the vaccine. Open defecation, monsoon flooding, and a lack

title: Post-polio syndrome

text: Post-polio syndrome Post-polio syndrome (PPS, or post-poliomyelitis syndrome or post-polio sequelae) is a condition that affects approximately 25 to 40 percent of people who have previously survived an acute attack of poliomyelitis, though more recent studies have shown that 80+% of polio survivors show symptoms of Post Polio Sequelae, a viral infection of the nervous system after the initial infection. Typically the symptoms appear 15 to 30 years after recovery from the original paralytic attack, at an age of 35 to 60. Symptoms include acute or increased muscular weakness, pain in the muscles, and fatigue. The same symptoms may also

title: Small Steps: The Year I Got Polio

text: she is moved back to the Sheltering Arms hospital where she rooms with four other girls who have polio, Dorothy, Shirley, Alice and Renee, who later become her friends. The story takes place in Peg's school, Peg's house, at the Sheltering Arms, and at the University Hospital beginning in 1949. "Small Steps" won the Dorothy Canfield Fisher Children's Book Award, the Golden Kite Award in 1997 and the Mark Twain Readers Award in 1997. Small Steps: The Year I Got Polio Small Steps: The Year I Got Polio is a memoir of author Peg Kehret's childhood experience of polio. The

title: Preben von Magnus

text: Preben von Magnus Preben Christian Alexander von Magnus (25 February 1912 – 9 August 1973) was a Danish virologist who is known for his research on influenza, polio vaccination and monkeypox. He gave his name to the Von Magnus phenomenon. In the 1950s, together with his wife the virologist Herdis von Magnus, he directed the first Danish vaccination programme against polio. In 1958, he was the first to confirm the identity of the monkeypox virus and to describe monkeypox in laboratory crab-eating Macaques during two outbreaks of the disease in the summer and autumn of that year. In 1959 he

title: National Anti-Vaccination League

text: National Anti-Vaccination League The National Anti-Vaccination League was founded in 1896 in Britain, growing from earlier smaller organizations in London, originally under the title Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League. The organisation opposed compulsory vaccination, particularly against smallpox. It was part of a wider anti-vaccinationist movement, arguing that vaccination did more harm than good. After the death of Richard B. Gibbs in 1871, the Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League underwent various changes until 1876 when it was revived under the presidency of the Rev. W. Hume-Rothery. In 1880 the movement was enlarged and reorganised by the formation of "The London Society for the Abolition of

title: Post-polio syndrome

text: approximately 25 to 50 percent of people who survive a poliomyelitis infection. However newer data from countries that have contacted their polio survivors have shown 85% of their polio survivors to have symptoms of Post Polio Syndrome. On average, it occurs 30–35 years afterwards; however, delays of between 8–71 years have been recorded. The disease occurs sooner in persons with more severe initial infection. Other factors that increase the risk of postpolio syndrome include increasing length of time since acute poliovirus infection, presence of permanent residual impairment after recovery from the acute illness, and being female. Post-polio syndrome is documented

title: Vaccination policy

text: immunity against it. This protects those unable to get the vaccine due to medical conditions, such as immune disorders. Vaccine-preventable diseases remain the most common cause of childhood mortality with an estimated three million deaths each year. Each year, vaccination prevents between two and three million deaths worldwide, across all age groups, from diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis and measles. With some vaccines, a goal of vaccination policies is to eradicate the disease – make it disappear from Earth altogether. The World Health Organization coordinated the effort to eradicate smallpox globally through vaccination, the last naturally occurring case of smallpox was in

title: Vaccination of dogs

text: owners. Specific adverse reactions and general consequences for long-term health and immunity are both being cited as reasons to reduce the frequency of pet vaccination. The 2010 vaccination guidelines published by the WSAVA (World Small Animal Veterinary Association) reduce the number of vaccines which should be considered core for canines, as well as recommending less frequent vaccine administration. In the executive summary section, the WSAVA guidelines do argue against needless vaccination and in support of "the development and use of simple in-practice tests for determination of seroconversion (antibody) following vaccination." They also note that "Vaccines should not be given needlessly.

title: Vaccination and religion

text: Vaccination and religion Vaccination and religion have interrelations of varying kinds. Almost no religions object to vaccination, and some parents either fake religious adherence or invent fake religions to provide exemption. The influential Massachusetts preacher Cotton Mather was the first known person to attempt smallpox inoculation on a large scale, inoculating himself and over 200 members of his congregation with the help of a local doctor. While his view became standard, he also caused the first reaction against the practice. Rowland Hill (1744–1833) was a popular English preacher acquainted with Edward Jenner, the pioneer of smallpox vaccination, and he encouraged

title: Pulse Polio

text: and a lack of support from community members have caused problems in the program, as has fatigue at the length of the anti-polio campaign. The campaign was supported by organisations including the Indian federal and state governments, international institutions, and non-governmental organisations. It is part of the Global Polio Eradication Initiative, spearheaded by Rotary International, the World Health Organization, UNICEF, and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Actor Amitabh Bachchan volunteered with the campaign, filming TV and radio spots urging against complacency and personally vaccinating children. The Indian and Afghan cricket teams have supported their national and international

title: Vaccination

text: work, that compulsory vaccination constitutes excessive government intervention in personal matters, or that the proposed vaccinations are not sufficiently safe. Many modern vaccination policies allow exemptions for people who have compromised immune systems, allergies to the components used in vaccinations or strongly held objections. In countries with limited financial resources, limited vaccination coverage results in greater morbidity and mortality due to infectious disease. More affluent countries are able to subsidize vaccinations for at-risk groups, resulting in more comprehensive and effective coverage. In Australia, for example, the Government subsidizes vaccinations for seniors and indigenous Australians. Public Health Law Research, an independent

title: Polio vaccine

text: more may have been exposed to SV40. In 1998, the National Cancer Institute undertook a large study, using cancer case information from the institute's SEER database. The published findings from the study revealed no increased incidence of cancer in persons who may have received vaccine containing SV40. Another large study in Sweden examined cancer rates of 700,000 individuals who had received potentially contaminated polio vaccine as late as 1957; the study again revealed no increased cancer incidence between persons who received polio vaccines containing SV40 and those who did not. The question of whether SV40 causes cancer in humans remains

title: Poliomyelitis eradication

text: call for a region-wide boycott of polio vaccination, polio cases in the country increased more than five-fold between 2002 and 2006, with the uncontrolled virus then spreading across Africa and globally. In Afghanistan and Pakistan, fears that the vaccine contained contraceptives were one reason given by the Taliban in issuing "fatwas" against polio vaccination. Skepticism in the Muslim world was exacerbated when it was learned in 2011 that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had conducted a fake hepatitis B immunization campaign to collect blood samples from Osama bin Laden's Abbottabad compound in order to confirm the genetic identity of the

title: DNA vaccination

text: levels of antigen expressed over several weeks, which supports both primary and secondary phases of antibody response. DNA vaccine expressing HBV small and middle envelope protein was injected into adults with chronic hepatitis. The vaccine resulted in specific interferon gamma cell production. Also specific T-cells for middle envelop proteins antigens were developed. The immune response of the patients was not robust enough to control HBV infection Additionally, the titres of specific antibodies raised by DNA vaccination are lower than those obtained after vaccination with a recombinant protein. However, DNA immunization-induced antibodies show greater affinity to native epitopes than recombinant protein-induced

title: Poliomyelitis in Pakistan

text: on the charge but were later freed after signing an undertaking that they would not oppose vaccination. By 2015, new cases of polio had dropped by 70% as compared to 2014, due to increased vaccination in parts of the northwest Pakistan that had previously been under the control of militants. These areas were secured by Pakistani forces in the Zarb-e-Azb Campgain against Taliban militants. Previously, vaccination teams were forbidden by militants from vaccinating children in the area. Some of the reasons which affect the eradication of polio are political unrest, poor health infrastructure, and government negligence. The most afflicted areas

title: Northern Rivers Vaccination Supporters

text: safety." The website now forms part of the Vaccine Safety Net Project (VSN) within the WHO's Global Vaccine Safety Initiative, and is evaluated by the WHO for credibility, content and accessibility/design every two years. In 2017 the NSW Shadow Health Minister Walt Secord, praised NRVS for their "principled stand" in opposing the "dangerous views" of a touring anti-vaccination campaigner, and called for a "united approach" to increase NSW North Coast vaccination rates. Northern Rivers Vaccination Supporters The Northern Rivers Vaccination Supporters (NRVS) is a vaccination advocacy group formed in 2013 by people who were concerned about low vaccination rates in

title: Vaccination

text: in the 17th century, where vaccination with powdered scabs from people infected with smallpox was used to protect against the disease. Smallpox used to be a common disease throughout the world and 20 to 30% of infected persons died from the disease. Smallpox was responsible for 8 to 20% of all deaths in several European countries in the 18th century. The tradition of vaccination may have originated in India in AD 1000." The mention of inoculation in the "Sact'eya Grantham", an Ayurvedic text, was noted by the French scholar in the journal "". However, the idea that inoculation originated in

title: Vaccine

text: a natural or "wild" pathogen), or therapeutic (e.g., vaccines against cancer are being investigated). The administration of vaccines is called vaccination. Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases; widespread immunity due to vaccination is largely responsible for the worldwide eradication of smallpox and the restriction of diseases such as polio, measles, and tetanus from much of the world. The effectiveness of vaccination has been widely studied and verified; for example, vaccines that have proven effective include the influenza vaccine, the HPV vaccine, and the chicken pox vaccine. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that licensed vaccines are

title: Polio Children

text: education for people adversely affected by conflict in Sudan. Polio Children is working with the Magbenteh Polio Camp in Makeni to establish self-sustaining revenue generating projects. Despite the challenges presented by the ongoing Ebola crisis, in 2016 Polio Children contributed to the rehabilitation of the camp by donating cooking equipment and food. In 2016, Polio Children worked in partnership with the Olympia Wafula Foundation, a charity established by paralympian Anne Wafula Strike, which promotes social inclusion and empowerment of differently-abled and disadvantaged persons. Together they provided tricycles for polio sufferers living in remote areas of Kenya. In 2012 the chairman,

title: Ring vaccination

text: Ring vaccination Ring vaccination is a strategy to inhibit the spread of a disease by vaccinating only those who are most likely to be infected. When someone falls ill, adults they might have infected are vaccinated. Depending on how easily the disease spreads, contacts who could have been infected might include family, neighbours, and friends. Several layers of contacts (the contacts, the contacts' contacts, the contact's contacts' contacts, etc.) may be vaccinated. Some vaccines will protect even if they are given just after infection, but even if the vaccine does not, ring vaccination can prevent the virus from being transmitted

title: Sami-ul-Haq

text: been framed by government agencies for opposing official policies," he shouted in the House, but later resigned from office. After Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan initiated a campaign against polio immunisation, forcing hundreds of thousands of children to miss vaccinations, on 9 December 2013 Maulana Sami ul Haq issued a fatwa in favour of polio vaccination. The fatwa said "vaccination against deadly diseases is helpful in their prevention according to research conducted by renowned medical specialists. It adds that the vaccines used against these diseases are in no way harmful". On 2 November 2018, Sami-ul-Haq was assassinated at around 7:00 pm PST at

title: Standing Committee on Vaccination

text: Standing Committee on Vaccination The Standing Committee on Vaccination at the Robert Koch Institute (), or STIKO, is a scientific committee comprising 18 members at the Robert Koch Institute in Berlin, Germany that provides official recommendations for the vaccination schedules used by the individual German states. The committee meets twice yearly to review the latest research regarding vaccination against infectious diseases. The STIKO was established in 1972 as a department of the German Federal Health Agency in Berlin. During a reorganization of the Federal Health Agency in 1994, the STIKO was attached to the Robert Koch Institute (RKI) which was

title: Polio vaccine

text: lowest risks of importation and transmission, the WHO recommends a primary series of 3 IPV injections, with a booster dose after an interval of six months or more if the first dose was administered before 2 months of age. The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe. Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection. Oral polio vaccine results in vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis in about three per million doses. They are generally safe to give during pregnancy and in those who have HIV/AIDS, but are otherwise well. A potential, but rare, adverse effect of the OPV is its

title: Pulse Polio

text: rumours that the drops caused infertility. Rumours about vaccinations varied by area, but were clustered, so that there was a greater risk of a cluster of unvaccinated children. Some believed that vaccinating newborns, children who are ill, or previously vaccinated children was not safe; the last polio case in India was a girl who had not been vaccinated because she was sickly. There were also rumours that the polio drops were made from the blood of pigs, dogs, or mice, or from pig fat. Poor participation of doctors and nurses, difficulty in maintaining and procuring vaccine, difficulty in procuring vehicles,

title: Polio Hall of Fame

text: seventeen bronze busts show fourteen men and one woman, who were instrumental in polio research and treatment. The last two on the right are Roosevelt and his close aide Basil O'Connor. The first four are the European polio pioneers Jakob Heine, from Germany, the two Swedes Karl Oskar Medin and Ivar Wickman and the Austrian Nobel-Prize Laureate Karl Landsteiner. Nos. 5 to 17 are exclusively Americans. The order of the busts is not strictly chronological. In spite of his achievements in the field of fighting polio, Hilary Koprowski's (inventor of the world's first effective live polio vaccine) bust was not

title: Polio Hall of Fame

text: facility operated by the state of Georgia. A center for post-polio treatment, it provides vocational rehabilitation, long-term acute care, and inpatient rehabilitation for amputees and people recovering from spinal cord injuries, brain damage and stroke. Polio Hall of Fame The Polio Hall of Fame (or the Polio Wall of Fame) consists of a linear grouping of sculptured busts of fifteen scientists and two laymen who made important contributions to the knowledge and treatment of poliomyelitis. It is found on the outside wall of what is called Founder's Hall of the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation in Warm Springs, Georgia.

title: Global Polio Eradication Initiative

text: conducting surveillance through investigation of acute flaccid paralysis cases among children under 15 years old (in order to determine areas where the virus is truly eradicated), and conducting "mop up" campaigns in areas where cases of polio have been identified. By 2012 the GPEI had raised 9 billion dollars in funding and in alone 2011 the GPEI received a 1.1 billion dollars, for a budget of 0.98 billion dollars. 30% of their funding came from the Gates Foundation 30% from developed governments, 27% from countries at risk of polio, and the rest was made up of donations from non profits,

title: Vaccination and religion

text: typically spread via sexual contact, arguing that the possibility of disease deters risky sexual contact. For example, the Family Research Council opposes mandatory vaccination against HPV, a virus that causes various cancers, writing, "Our primary concern is with the message that would be delivered to nine- to 12-year-olds with the administration of the vaccines. Care must be taken not to communicate that such an intervention makes all sex 'safe'." Studies have shown that HPV vaccination does not result in increased sexual activity. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has made vaccination an official initiative in its humanitarian relief

title: Post-Polio Health International

text: Post-Polio Health International Post-Polio Health International (PHI) is a relatively new name for a non-profit organization that officially began its work in 1960. For many years it was known in medical, rehabilitation, and disability circles variously as GINI, or the International Polio Network, or the Rehabilitation Gazette Network, or more familiarly as Gini’s Network, in honor of Gini Laurie, its founder and driving force until her death in 1989. PHI’s mission is to enhance the lives, health, and independence of polio survivors, as well as those in the cross-disability category of home ventilator users, who are addressed through a subsidiary

title: Australian Vaccination-risks Network

text: to measles, and one death due to the measles complication SSPE. The decline in mortality is attributed to Australia's high measles vaccination rates achieving the elimination of endemic measles transmission in Australia. In 2014 Australia was declared by the WHO as having eliminated local strains of measles. But as of 2015/16 deadly measles cases had returned and this was no longer the case. The AVN campaigned against the introduction of a meningococcal vaccine to Australia in 2002. Meryl Dorey accused the government of wasting 41 million on the vaccination program, claimed that the vaccine had shown a large number of

title: British Polio Fellowship

text: support amongst members to be carried out in a caring and inclusive environment; and by developing worldwide alliances with other polio and post-polio groups. It aims to be the first resource on polio and post polio syndrome. It has around 8,000 members and over 40 branches and groups across the UK. It publishes a bi-monthly newsletter, "the bulletin"; and campaigns to raise awareness of PPS among healthcare professionals, members of parliament and the general public and supports the efforts of fellow Polio organisations in their attempts to eradicate the disease worldwide. The British Polio Fellowship, then called The Infantile Paralysis

title: Polio Children

text: of projects. In July 2016, Polio Children was also a finalist in the Charity Initiative of the Year category of the British Indian Awards. The awards recognise the commitment and hard work of the Indian community in contributing to a better society. As a charity, Polio Children relies heavily on voluntary contributions from members of the public and philanthropic organisations. The trustees of the charity bear all the administration costs themselves ensuring 100% of the donations can be spent on the projects the charity supports. Polio Children Polio Children is an international non-governmental organization which has fundraised over £1.3million to

title: Charlene Polio

text: Charlene Polio Charlene Polio (born 1961) is a Professor and Associate chair in the Department of Linguistics and Germanic, Slavic, Asian and African Languages at the Michigan State University, The United States. Her research focuses on second language acquisition with a special focus on second language writing. Along with Cumming, Hyland, Kormos, Matsuda, Manchón, Ortega, Storch and Verspoor, Polio is considered as one of the most prominent researchers on second language writing. Polio obtained her Bachelor of Arts degree in Linguistics in 1983 and her her Master of Arts degree in TESOL in 1984 at the University of Pennsylvania. In

title: Polio Children

text: Olympic Games held in England in 2009. Despite suffering from polio, he won 5 gold medals for his outstanding cricketing ability. Polio Children also works in partnership with the Kwa Mkono Disabled Children’s Trust to support the Kwa Mkono Disabled Children's Centre (formerly known as The Kwa Mkono Polio Hostel). The hostel offers rehabilitation, education and training to physically disabled young people which allows them to live independently when they leave. Polio Children supports an ongoing education programme for the academically-abled hostel residents, and has donated agricultural vehicles to help cultivate nearby land for self-sufficiency, along with a Land Rover

title: Vaccination Act

text: Vaccination Act The UK Vaccination Acts of 1840, 1853, 1867 and 1898 were a series of legislative Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom regarding the vaccination policy of the country. In general, the disadvantages of variolation are the same as those of vaccination, but added to them is the general agreement that variolation was always more dangerous than vaccination. Vaccination was first made compulsory in 1853, and the provisions were made more stringent in 1867, 1871, and 1874. By the Act it was required: The Vaccination Act 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. c. 84) was an Act

title: Vaccination policy

text: proof of religious membership. Only Mississippi, West Virginia and California do not permit religious exemptions. 18 states allow personal or philosophical opposition to vaccination. Vaccination policy Vaccination policy refers to the health policy a government adopts in relation to vaccination. Vaccinations are voluntary in some countries and mandatory in others, as part of their public health system. Some governments pay all or part of the costs of vaccinations in a national vaccination schedule. Vaccination policies aim to produce immunity to preventable diseases. Besides individual protection from getting ill, some vaccination policies also aim to provide the community as a whole

title: Vaccination Week In The Americas

text: fringes, low coverage municipalities, indigenous communities and rural and/or border zones. VWA has been used to conduct large-scale vaccination campaigns, introduce new vaccines, carry out communication and social mobilization campaigns, and to integrate other health promotion measures. Since its launch in 2003, over 365 million individuals have been vaccinated through campaigns conducted under the framework of the initiative. In April 2012, PAHO joined the other five WHO regions to celebrate World Immunization Week. This followed the launch of European Immunization Week (EIW) in the WHO European region in 2005, and Vaccination Week campaigns launched in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean region

title: Australian Vaccination-risks Network

text: Edition" which contained "12 pages of current news from around the world regarding vaccination". The group is strongly against any form of compulsory vaccination, but Dorey disputes that the group is an anti-vaccine organisation. "We don't believe we have the right to tell people whether or not to vaccinate", says Dorey who adds, "but neither does the government." She says the group is just trying to fill "the information void" created by a pro-vaccine government and medical community that ignores negative information. Dorey considers herself, "pro-information and pro-choice". Independent commentators generally reject these claims and point to numerous errors and