query: What person developed COBOL?

title: COBOL

text: existing applications. COBOL was designed in 1959 by CODASYL and was partly based on previous programming language design work by Grace Hopper, commonly referred to as "the (grand)mother of COBOL". It was created as part of a US Department of Defense effort to create a portable programming language for data processing. It was originally seen as a stopgap, but the Department of Defense promptly forced computer manufacturers to provide it, resulting in its widespread adoption. It was standardized in 1968 and has since been revised four times. Expansions include support for structured and object-oriented programming. The current standard is "ISO/IEC

title: COBOL

text: FLOW-MATIC's inventor, Grace Hopper, also served as a technical adviser to the committee. FLOW-MATIC's major contributions to COBOL were long variable names, English words for commands and the separation of data descriptions and instructions. IBM's COMTRAN language, invented by Bob Bemer, was regarded as a competitor to FLOW-MATIC by a short-range committee made up of colleagues of Grace Hopper. Some of its features were not incorporated into COBOL so that it would not look like IBM had dominated the design process, and Jean Sammet said in 1981 that there had been a "strong anti-IBM bias" from some committee members (herself

title: COBOL

text: included). In one case, after Roy Goldfinger, author of the COMTRAN manual and intermediate-range committee member, attended a subcommittee meeting to support his language and encourage the use of algebraic expressions, Grace Hopper sent a memo to the short-range committee reiterating Sperry Rand's efforts to create a language based on English. In 1980, Grace Hopper commented that "COBOL 60 is 95% FLOW-MATIC" and that COMTRAN had had an "extremely small" influence. Furthermore, she said that she would claim that work was influenced by both FLOW-MATIC and COMTRAN only to "keep other people happy [so they] wouldn't try to knock us

title: Computer programming

text: which ran on the UNIVAC I. Another woman working at UNIVAC, Adele Mildred Koss, developed a program that was a precursor to report generators. In Russia, Kateryna Yushchenko developed the Address programming language for the MESM in 1955. The idea for the creation of COBOL started in 1959 when Mary K. Hawes, who worked for Burroghs Corporation, set up a meeting to discuss creating a common business language. She invited six people, including Grace Hopper. Hopper was involved in developing COBOL as a business language and creating "self-documenting" programming. Hopper's contribution to COBOL was based on her programming language, called

title: Grace Hopper

text: on COBOL was Mount Holyoke College alumnus Jean E. Sammet. From 1967 to 1977, Hopper served as the director of the Navy Programming Languages Group in the Navy's Office of Information Systems Planning and was promoted to the rank of captain in 1973. She developed validation software for COBOL and its compiler as part of a COBOL standardization program for the entire Navy. In the 1970s, Hopper advocated for the Defense Department to replace large, centralized systems with networks of small, distributed computers. Any user on any computer node could access common databases located on the network. She developed the

title: COBOL

text: in 1984 that "academics ... hate COBOL" and that computer science graduates "had 'hate COBOL' drilled into them". A 2013 poll by Micro Focus found that 20% of university academics thought COBOL was outdated or dead and that 55% believed their students thought COBOL was outdated or dead. The same poll also found that only 25% of academics had COBOL programming on their curriculum even though 60% thought they should teach it. In contrast, in 2003, COBOL featured in 80% of information systems curricula in the United States, the same proportion as C++ and Java. There was also significant condescension

title: COBOL

text: Committee to answer questions from users and vendors and to improve and expand the specifications. During 1960, the list of manufacturers planning to build COBOL compilers grew. By September, five more manufacturers had joined CODASYL (Bendix, Control Data Corporation, General Electric (GE), National Cash Register and Philco), and all represented manufacturers had announced COBOL compilers. GE and IBM planned to integrate COBOL into their own languages, GECOM and COMTRAN, respectively. In contrast, International Computers and Tabulators planned to replace their language, CODEL, with COBOL. Meanwhile, RCA and Sperry Rand worked on creating COBOL compilers. The first COBOL program ran on

title: COBOL

text: COBOL COBOL (; an acronym for "common business-oriented language") is a compiled English-like computer programming language designed for business use. It is imperative, procedural and, since 2002, object-oriented. COBOL is primarily used in business, finance, and administrative systems for companies and governments. COBOL is still widely used in legacy applications deployed on mainframe computers, such as large-scale batch and transaction processing jobs. But due to its declining popularity and the retirement of experienced COBOL programmers, programs are being migrated to new platforms, rewritten in modern languages or replaced with software packages. Most programming in COBOL is now purely to maintain

title: COBOL ReSource

text: COBOL ReSource COBOL ReSource is a Wang VS COBOL development and production environment for Unix. A product of Getronics (formerly Wang Laboratories, Inc.), COBOL ReSource was first released in 1993 as a tool to replatform and run Wang VS COBOL applications in Unix. It was updated and rereleased in 1995 and its maintenance and ongoing development outsourced to SRDI in the late 1990s. Wang dialects of COBOL-74 and COBOL-85 have important places in the evolution of COBOL. Wang was among the first, if not the first, to integrate COBOL into environments built from the ground up to be interactive as

title: COBOL

text: to inform COBOL users of the heavy reprogramming costs of implementing the new standard. As a result, the ANSI COBOL Committee received more than 2,200 letters from the public, mostly negative, requiring the committee to make changes. On the other hand, conversion to COBOL-85 was thought to increase productivity in future years, thus justifying the conversion costs. COBOL syntax has often been criticized for its verbosity. Proponents say that this was intended to make the code self-documenting, easing program maintenance. COBOL was also intended to be easy for programmers to learn and use, while still being readable to non-technical staff

title: COBOL

text: COBOL and several other contemporary languages; remarking that "the use of COBOL cripples the mind". In a published dissent to Dijkstra's remarks, the computer scientist Howard E. Tompkins claimed that unstructured COBOL tended to be "written by programmers that have never had the benefit of structured COBOL taught well", arguing that the issue was primarily one of training. One cause of spaghetti code was the statement. Attempts to remove s from COBOL code, however, resulted in convoluted programs and reduced code quality. s were largely replaced by the statement and procedures, which promoted modular programming and gave easy access to

title: COBOL

text: with other languages and technologies can be adopted". In 2006 and 2012, "Computerworld" surveys found that over 60% of organizations used COBOL (more than C++ and Visual Basic .NET) and that for half of those, COBOL was used for the majority of their internal software. 36% of managers said they planned to migrate from COBOL, and 25% said they would like to if it was cheaper. Instead, some businesses have migrated their systems from expensive mainframes to cheaper, more modern systems, while maintaining their COBOL programs. COBOL has an English-like syntax, which is used to describe nearly everything in a

title: COBOL

text: Backus–Naur form which the committee did not know of. This resulted in "severe" criticism. Later, COBOL suffered from a shortage of material covering it; it took until 1963 for introductory books to appear (with Richard D. Irwin publishing a college textbook on COBOL in 1966). By 1985, there were twice as many books on Fortran and four times as many on BASIC as on COBOL in the Library of Congress. University professors taught more modern, state-of-the-art languages and techniques instead of COBOL which was said to have a "trade school" nature. Donald Nelson, chair of the CODASYL COBOL committee, said

title: COBOL

text: ALGOL's, although semantic ambiguities remained. Early COBOL compilers were primitive and slow. A 1962 US Navy evaluation found compilation speeds of 3–11 statements per minute. By mid-1964, they had increased to 11–1000 statements per minute. It was observed that increasing memory would drastically increase speed and that compilation costs varied wildly: costs per statement were between $0.23 and $18.91. In late 1962, IBM announced that COBOL would be their primary development language and that development of COMTRAN would cease. The COBOL specification was revised three times in the five years after its publication. COBOL-60 was replaced in 1961 by COBOL-61.

title: COBOL ReSource

text: compatibility features such as VS-style argument passing and return by reference between disjoint processes, and full PUTPARM/GETPARM functionality. Wang's premium XDMS file system was ported to Unix to serve as the file system for COBOL ReSource. Called PDMS, it has a track record of supporting shared access to multiple indexed files for user populations as large as 1,000. COBOL ReSource COBOL ReSource is a Wang VS COBOL development and production environment for Unix. A product of Getronics (formerly Wang Laboratories, Inc.), COBOL ReSource was first released in 1993 as a tool to replatform and run Wang VS COBOL applications in

title: COBOL

text: committee as to objective evidence. COBOL standards have repeatedly suffered from delays: COBOL-85 arrived five years later than hoped, COBOL 2002 was five years late, and COBOL 2014 was six years late. To combat delays, the standard committee allowed the creation of optional addenda which would add features more quickly than by waiting for the next standard revision. However, some committee members raised concerns about incompatibilities between implementations and frequent modifications of the standard. COBOL's data structures influenced subsequent programming languages. Its record and file structure influenced PL/I and Pascal, and the codice_32 clause was a predecessor to Pascal's variant

title: COBOL

text: such as managers. The desire for readability led to the use of English-like syntax and structural elements, such as nouns, verbs, clauses, sentences, sections, and divisions. Yet by 1984, maintainers of COBOL programs were struggling to deal with "incomprehensible" code and the main changes in COBOL-85 were there to help ease maintenance. Jean Sammet, a short-range committee member, noted that "little attempt was made to cater to the professional programmer, in fact people whose main interest is programming tend to be very unhappy with COBOL" which she attributed to COBOL's verbose syntax. The COBOL community has always been isolated from

title: COBOL

text: to be placed after the inner codice_1. The original (1959) COBOL specification supported the infamous statement, for which many compilers generated self-modifying code. codice_29 and codice_30 are procedure labels, and the single statement in procedure codice_29 executed after such an statement means instead. Many compilers still support it, but it was deemed obsolete in the COBOL 1985 standard and deleted in 2002. A "Hello, world" program in COBOL: When the – now famous – "Hello, World!" program example in "The C Programming Language" was first published in 1978 a similar mainframe COBOL program sample would have been submitted through JCL,

title: COBOL

text: 2000 problem (Y2K) was the focus of significant COBOL programming effort, sometimes by the same programmers who had designed the systems decades before. The particular level of effort required to correct COBOL code has been attributed to the large amount of business-oriented COBOL, as business applications use dates heavily, and to fixed-length data fields. After the clean-up effort put into these programs for Y2K, a 2003 survey found that many remained in use. The authors said that the survey data suggest "a gradual decline in the importance of Cobol in application development over the [following] 10 years unless ... integration

title: COBOL

text: compilers targeting the .NET Framework. There were many other new features, many of which had been in the "CODASYL COBOL Journal of Development" since 1978 and had missed the opportunity to be included in COBOL-85. These other features included: Three corrigenda were published for the standard: two in 2006 and one in 2009. Between 2003 and 2009, three technical reports were produced describing object finalization, XML processing and collection classes for COBOL. COBOL 2002 suffered from poor support: no compilers completely supported the standard. Micro Focus found that it was due to a lack of user demand for the new

title: COBOL

text: This was then replaced by the COBOL-61 Extended specifications in 1963, which introduced the sort and report writer facilities. The added facilities corrected flaws identified by Honeywell in late 1959 in a letter to the short-range committee. COBOL Edition 1965 brought further clarifications to the specifications and introduced facilities for handling mass storage files and tables. Efforts began to standardize COBOL to overcome incompatibilities between versions. In late 1962, both ISO and the United States of America Standards Institute (now ANSI) formed groups to create standards. ANSI produced "USA Standard COBOL X3.23" in August 1968, which became the cornerstone for

title: COBOL

text: 1989:2014". COBOL statements have an English-like syntax, which was designed to be self-documenting and highly readable. However, it is verbose and uses over 300 reserved words. In contrast with modern, succinct syntax like , COBOL has a more English-like syntax (in this case, ). COBOL code is split into four "divisions" (identification, environment, data and procedure) containing a rigid hierarchy of sections, paragraphs and sentences. Lacking a large standard library, the standard specifies 43 statements, 87 functions and just one class. Academic computer scientists were generally uninterested in business applications when COBOL was created and were not involved in its

title: COBOL

text: of procedures. This meant that control could jump to and return from any procedure, creating convoluted control flow and permitting a programmer to break the single-entry single-exit rule. This situation improved as COBOL adopted more features. COBOL-74 added subprograms, giving programmers the ability to control the data each part of the program could access. COBOL-85 then added nested subprograms, allowing programmers to hide subprograms. Further control over data and code came in 2002 when object-oriented programming, user-defined functions and user-defined data types were included. Nevertheless, much important legacy COBOL software uses unstructured code, which has become unmaintainable. It can be

title: COBOL

text: b TO x ROUNDED, y, z ROUNDED ADD a, b TO c END-ADD ADD a TO b COBOL can be written in two formats: fixed (the default) or free. In fixed-format, code must be aligned to fit in certain areas (a hold-over from using punched cards). Until COBOL 2002, these were: In COBOL 2002, Areas A and B were merged to form the program-text area, which now ends at an implementor-defined column. COBOL 2002 also introduced free-format code. Free-format code can be placed in any column of the file, as in newer programming languages. Comments are specified using codice_13, which

title: BLIS/COBOL

text: deliberately optimized for COBOL. BLIS/COBOL BLIS/COBOL is a discontinued operating system that, unusually, was written in COBOL. It is the only such system to gain reasonably wide acceptance. It was optimised to compile business applications written in COBOL. BLIS was available on a range of Data General Nova and Data General Eclipse 16-bit minicomputers. It was marketed by Information Processing, Inc. (IPI), who regularly exhibited the product at the National Computer Conference in the 1970s and 80s. It was priced between US$830 and $10,000 depending on the number of supported users and features. In 1977, IPI boasted over 100 operational

title: COBOL

text: records. Explicit file structure definitions preceded the development of database management systems and aggregated data was a significant advance over Fortran's arrays. codice_16 data declarations were incorporated into PL/I, with minor changes. COBOL's facility, although considered "primitive", influenced the development of include directives. The focus on portability and standardization meant programs written in COBOL could be portable and facilitated the spread of the language to a wide variety of hardware platforms and operating systems. Additionally, the well-defined division structure restricts the definition of external references to the Environment Division, which simplifies platform changes in particular. COBOL COBOL (; an acronym

title: COBOL

text: the computer science community. No academic computer scientists participated in the design of COBOL: all of those on the committee came from commerce or government. Computer scientists at the time were more interested in fields like numerical analysis, physics and system programming than the commercial file-processing problems which COBOL development tackled. Jean Sammet attributed COBOL's unpopularity to an initial "snob reaction" due to its inelegance, the lack of influential computer scientists participating in the design process and a disdain for business data processing. The COBOL specification used a unique "notation", or metalanguage, to define its syntax rather than the new

title: COBOL

text: features and due to the abolition of the NIST test suite, which had been used to test compiler conformance. The standardization process was also found to be slow and under-resourced. COBOL 2014 includes the following changes: COBOL programs are used globally in governments and businesses and are running on diverse operating systems such as z/OS, z/VSE, VME, Unix, OpenVMS and Windows. In 1997, the Gartner Group reported that 80% of the world's business ran on COBOL with over 200 billion lines of code and 5 billion lines more being written annually. Near the end of the 20th century, the year

title: COBOL

text: that were popular enough to warrant implementing. The Programming Language Committee also liaised with ECMA and the Japanese COBOL Standard committee. The Programming Language Committee was not well-known, however. The vice-president, William Rinehuls, complained that two-thirds of the COBOL community did not know of the committee's existence. It was also poor, lacking the funds to make public documents, such as minutes of meetings and change proposals, freely available. In 1974, ANSI published a revised version of (ANS) COBOL, containing new features such as file organizations, the statement and the segmentation module. Deleted features included the statement, the statement (which was

title: COBOL

text: 17 August on an RCA 501. On December 6 and 7, the same COBOL program (albeit with minor changes) ran on an RCA computer and a Remington-Rand Univac computer, demonstrating that compatibility could be achieved. The relative influences of which languages were used continues to this day in the recommended advisory printed in all COBOL reference manuals: Many logical flaws were found in "COBOL 60", leading GE's Charles Katz to warn that it could not be interpreted unambiguously. A reluctant short-term committee enacted a total cleanup and, by March 1963, it was reported that COBOL's syntax was as definable as

title: COBOL

text: FACT had not been created with portability in mind or through manufacturer and user consensus. It also lacked a demonstrable implementation, allowing supporters of a FLOW-MATIC-based COBOL to overturn the resolution. RCA representative Howard Bromberg also blocked FACT, so that RCA's work on a COBOL implementation would not go to waste. It soon became apparent that the committee was too large for any further progress to be made quickly. A frustrated Howard Bromberg bought a $15 tombstone with "COBOL" engraved on it and sent it to Charles Phillips to demonstrate his displeasure. A sub-committee was formed to analyze existing languages

title: COBOL ReSource

text: well as batch. Wang also had a principal role in the COBOL standards bodies until the early 1990s. Wang extensions to COBOL involving record locking scope, rollback and rollforward recovery implemented at the file system level allowing transaction processing, and full interactive workstation screen I/O have often made it difficult to port Wang COBOL applications to other systems. On the surface COBOL ReSource appeals to VS users and software developers because it is faithful to the VS look and feel with 32 PFKeys, foreground suspension via Help, VS Field Attribute Characters, underlining, etc. Under the covers, however, are more significant

title: COBOL

text: a total of 200 billion lines of COBOL in existence, which ran 80% of all business programs. In the early 1990s, work began on adding object-orientation in the next full revision of COBOL. Object-oriented features were taken from C++ and Smalltalk. The initial estimate was to have this revision completed by 1997, and an ISO Committee Draft (CD) was available by 1997. Some vendors (including Micro Focus, Fujitsu, and IBM) introduced object-oriented syntax based on drafts of the full revision. The final approved ISO standard was approved and published in late 2002. Fujitsu/GTSoftware, Micro Focus and RainCode introduced object-oriented COBOL

title: COBOL

text: replaced by ) and the implementer-defined random access module (which was superseded by the new sequential and relative I/O modules). These made up 44 changes, which rendered existing statements incompatible with the new standard. The report writer was slated to be removed from COBOL, but was reinstated before the standard was published. ISO later adopted the updated standard in 1978. In June 1978, work began on revising COBOL-74. The proposed standard (commonly called COBOL-80) differed significantly from the previous one, causing concerns about incompatibility and conversion costs. In January 1981, Joseph T. Brophy, Senior Vice-President of Travelers Insurance, threatened to

title: BLIS/COBOL

text: BLIS/COBOL BLIS/COBOL is a discontinued operating system that, unusually, was written in COBOL. It is the only such system to gain reasonably wide acceptance. It was optimised to compile business applications written in COBOL. BLIS was available on a range of Data General Nova and Data General Eclipse 16-bit minicomputers. It was marketed by Information Processing, Inc. (IPI), who regularly exhibited the product at the National Computer Conference in the 1970s and 80s. It was priced between US$830 and $10,000 depending on the number of supported users and features. In 1977, IPI boasted over 100 operational installations of the system

title: COBOL

text: it, such as files and character sets. The data division is used to declare variables and parameters. The procedure division contains the program's statements. Each division is sub-divided into sections, which are made up of paragraphs. COBOL's syntax is usually described with a unique metalanguage using braces, brackets, bars and underlining. The metalanguage was developed for the original COBOL specifications. Although Backus–Naur form did exist at the time, the committee had not heard of it. As an example, consider the following description of an codice_12 statement: formula_1 This description permits the following variants: ADD 1 TO x ADD 1, a,

title: COBOL

text: towards COBOL in the business community from users of other languages, for example FORTRAN or assembler, implying that COBOL could be used only for non-challenging problems. Doubts have been raised about the competence of the standards committee. Short-term committee member Howard Bromberg said that there was "little control" over the development process and that it was "plagued by discontinuity of personnel and ... a lack of talent." Jean Sammet and Jerome Garfunkel also noted that changes introduced in one revision of the standard would be reverted in the next, due as much to changes in who was in the standard

title: COBOL

text: too risky and costly to modify even a simple section of code, since it may be used from unknown places in unknown ways. COBOL was intended to be a highly portable, "common" language. However, by 2001, around 300 dialects had been created. One source of dialects was the standard itself: the 1974 standard was composed of one mandatory nucleus and eleven functional modules, each containing two or three levels of support. This permitted 104,976 official variants. COBOL-85 was not fully compatible with earlier versions, and its development was controversial. Joseph T. Brophy, the CIO of Travelers Insurance, spearheaded an effort

title: COBOL

text: powerful looping facilities. However, could only be used with procedures so loop bodies were not located where they were used, making programs harder to understand. COBOL programs were infamous for being monolithic and lacking modularization. COBOL code could only be modularized through procedures, which were found to be inadequate for large systems. It was impossible to restrict access to data, meaning a procedure could access and modify data item. Furthermore, there was no way to pass parameters to a procedure, an omission Jean Sammet regarded as the committee's biggest mistake. Another complication stemmed from the ability to a specified sequence

title: COBOL

text: is true, whereas when it contains a value of or , the condition-name is true. If the data item contains some other value, both of the condition-names are false. Standard COBOL provides the following data types: Type safety is variable in COBOL. Numeric data is converted between different representations and sizes silently and alphanumeric data can be placed in any data item that can be stored as a string, including numeric and group data. In contrast, object references and pointers may only be assigned from items of the same type and their values may be restricted to a certain type.

title: COBOL

text: be restricted to a certain type. There are two ways of calling a method: the statement, which acts similarly to , or through inline method invocation, which is analogous to using functions. INVOKE my-class "foo" RETURNING var MOVE my-class::"foo" TO var *> Inline method invocation COBOL does not provide a way to hide methods. Class data can be hidden, however, by declaring it without a clause, which leaves the user with no way to access it. Method overloading was added in COBOL 2014. The environment division contains the configuration section and the input-output section. The configuration section is used to

title: COBOL

text: program. For example, a condition can be expressed as or more concisely as or . More complex conditions can be "abbreviated" by removing repeated conditions and variables. For example, can be shortened to . As a consequence of this English-like syntax, COBOL has over 300 keywords. Some of the keywords are simple alternative or pluralized spellings of the same word, which provides for more English-like statements and clauses; e.g., the and keywords can be used interchangeably, as can and , and and . Each COBOL program is made up of four basic lexical items: words, literals, picture character-strings (see )

title: COBOL

text: at least 50 cents per line of code. Fewer than a dozen of the responses were in favor of the proposed standard. In 1983, the DPMA withdrew its opposition to the standard, citing the responsiveness of the committee to public concerns. In the same year, a National Bureau of Standards study concluded that the proposed standard would present few problems. A year later, a COBOL-80 compiler was released to DEC VAX users, who noted that conversion of COBOL-74 programs posed few problems. The new codice_2 statement and inline codice_3 were particularly well received and improved productivity, thanks to simplified control

title: COBOL

text: later versions. This version was known as American National Standard (ANS) COBOL and was adopted by ISO in 1972. By 1970, COBOL had become the most widely used programming language in the world. Independently of the ANSI committee, the CODASYL Programming Language Committee was working on improving the language. They described new versions in 1968, 1969, 1970 and 1973, including changes such as new inter-program communication, debugging and file merging facilities as well as improved string-handling and library inclusion features. Although CODASYL was independent of the ANSI committee, the "CODASYL Journal of Development" was used by ANSI to identify features

title: COBOL

text: and was made up of six individuals: The sub-committee did most of the work creating the specification, leaving the short-range committee to review and modify their work before producing the finished specification. The specifications were approved by the Executive Committee on January 3, 1960, and sent to the government printing office, which printed these as "COBOL 60". The language's stated objectives were to allow efficient, portable programs to be easily written, to allow users to move to new systems with minimal effort and cost, and to be suitable for inexperienced programmers. The CODASYL Executive Committee later created the COBOL Maintenance

title: COBOL

text: them as a "hodgepodge". The subcommittee was given until December to improve it. At a mid-September meeting, the committee discussed the new language's name. Suggestions included "BUSY" (Business System), "INFOSYL" (Information System Language) and "COCOSYL" (Common Computer Systems Language). The name "COBOL" was suggested by Bob Bemer. In October, the intermediate-range committee received copies of the FACT language specification created by Roy Nutt. Its features impressed the committee so much that they passed a resolution to base COBOL on it. This was a blow to the short-range committee, who had made good progress on the specification. Despite being technically superior,

title: COBOL

text: sue the standard committee because it was not upwards compatible with COBOL-74. Mr. Brophy described previous conversions of their 40-million-line code base as "non-productive" and a "complete waste of our programmer resources". Later that year, the Data Processing Management Association (DPMA) said it was "strongly opposed" to the new standard, citing "prohibitive" conversion costs and enhancements that were "forced on the user". During the first public review period, the committee received 2,200 responses, of which 1,700 were negative form letters. Other responses were detailed analyses of the effect COBOL-80 would have on their systems; conversion costs were predicted to be

title: COBOL

text: very likely using a punch card reader, and 80 column punch cards. The listing below, "with an empty DATA DIVISION", was tested using GNU/Linux and the System/370 Hercules emulator running MVS 3.8J. The JCL, written in July 2015, is derived from the Hercules tutorials and samples hosted by Jay Moseley. In keeping with COBOL programming of that era, HELLO, WORLD is displayed in all capital letters. //COBUCLG JOB (001),'COBOL BASE TEST', 00010000 // CLASS=A,MSGCLASS=A,MSGLEVEL=(1,1) 00020000 //BASETEST EXEC COBUCLG 00030000 //COB.SYSIN DD * 00040000 //LKED.SYSLIB DD DSNAME=SYS1.COBLIB,DISP=SHR 00190000 // DD DSNAME=SYS1.LINKLIB,DISP=SHR 00200000 //GO.SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=A 00210000 // 00220000 After submitting the

title: Person

text: of another, and about what makes a person at one time the same person as they were or will be at another time despite any intervening changes. The common plural of "person", "people", is often used to refer to an entire nation or ethnic group (as in "a people"). The plural "persons" is often used in philosophical and legal writing. In ancient Rome, the word "persona" (Latin) or "prosopon" (πρόσωπον; Greek) originally referred to the masks worn by actors on stage. The various masks represented the various "personae" in the stage play. The concept of person was further developed during

title: COBOL

text: JCL, the MVS console displayed: "Line 10 of the console listing above is highlighted for effect, the highlighting is not part of the actual console output". The associated compiler listing generated over four pages of technical detail and job run information, for the single line of output from the 14 lines of COBOL. In the 1970s, adoption of the structured programming paradigm was becoming increasingly widespread. Edsger Dijkstra, a preeminent computer scientist, wrote a letter to the editor of Communications of the ACM, published 1975 entitled "How do we tell truths that might hurt?", in which he was critical of

title: COBOL

text: in the adjacent image, a mine is tripped at the end of when the screen is invalid. When the screen is invalid, control jumps to the section, which, when done, performs . This recursion triggers undefined behavior as there are now two overlapping ranges of procedures being performed. The mine is then triggered upon reaching the end of and means control could return to one of two locations: COBOL 2014 has 47 statements (also called "), which can be grouped into the following broad categories: control flow, I/O, data manipulation and the report writer. The report writer statements are covered

title: COBOL

text: specify variable features such as currency signs, locales and character sets. The input-output section contains file-related information. COBOL supports three file formats, or ': sequential, indexed and relative. In sequential files, records are contiguous and must be traversed sequentially, similarly to a linked list. Indexed files have one or more indexes which allow records to be randomly accessed and which can be sorted on them. Each record must have a unique key, but other, ', record keys need not be unique. Implementations of indexed files vary between vendors, although common implementations, such as C‑ISAM and VSAM, are based on IBM's

title: COBOL

text: can be placed anywhere and can also be used in fixed-format source code. Continuation lines are not present, and the codice_14 directive replaces the codice_15 indicator. The identification division identifies the following code entity and contains the definition of a class or interface. Classes and interfaces have been in COBOL since 2002. Classes have factory objects, containing class methods and variables, and instance objects, containing instance methods and variables. Inheritance and interfaces provide polymorphism. Support for generic programming is provided through parameterized classes, which can be instantiated to use any class or interface. Objects are stored as references which may

title: COBOL

text: and separators. Words include reserved words and user-defined identifiers. They are up to 31 characters long and may include letters, digits, hyphens and underscores. Literals include numerals (e.g. ) and strings (e.g. ). Separators include the space character and commas and semi-colons followed by a space. A COBOL program is split into four divisions: the identification division, the environment division, the data division and the procedure division. The identification division specifies the name and type of the source element and is where classes and interfaces are specified. The environment division specifies any program features that depend on the system running

title: COBOL

text: "" (indices). Another point of controversy was whether to make keywords context-sensitive and the effect that would have on readability. Although context-sensitive keywords were rejected, the approach was later used in PL/I and partially in COBOL from 2002. Little consideration was given to interactivity, interaction with operating systems (few existed at that time) and functions (thought of as purely mathematical and of no use in data processing). The specifications were presented to the Executive Committee on September 4. They fell short of expectations: Joseph Wegstein noted that "it contains rough spots and requires some additions", and Bob Bemer later described

title: COBOL

text: out". Features from COMTRAN incorporated into COBOL included formulas, the clause, an improved codice_1 statement, which obviated the need for GO TOs, and a more robust file management system. The usefulness of the committee's work was subject of great debate. While some members thought the language had too many compromises and was the result of design by committee, others felt it was better than the three languages examined. Some felt the language was too complex; others, too simple. Controversial features included those some considered useless or too advanced for data processing users. Such features included boolean expressions, formulas and table

title: COBOL

text: design; it was (effectively) designed from the ground up as a computer language for business, with an emphasis on inputs and outputs, whose only data types were numbers and strings of text. COBOL has been criticized throughout its life, however, for its verbosity, design process and poor support for structured programming. These weaknesses result in monolithic and, though intended to be English-like, not easily comprehensible and verbose programs. In the late 1950s, computer users and manufacturers were becoming concerned about the rising cost of programming. A 1959 survey had found that in any data processing installation, the programming cost US$800,000

title: COBOL

text: sections which declare different items: the file section, for file records; the working-storage section, for static variables; the local-storage section, for automatic variables; the linkage section, for parameters and the return value; the report section and the screen section, for text-based user interfaces. Data items in COBOL are declared hierarchically through the use of level-numbers which indicate if a data item is part of another. An item with a higher level-number is subordinate to an item with a lower one. Top-level data items, with a level-number of 1, are called '. Items that have subordinate aggregate data are called ';

title: BLIS/COBOL

text: worldwide. By 1985, a version for the IBM PC existed called PC-BLIS. Originally, most operating systems were written in assembly language for a particular processor or family of processors. Non-assembler operating systems were comparatively slow, but were easier for revision and repair. One of the reasons for the C programming language's low-level features, which resemble assembly language in some ways, is an early intent to use it for writing operating systems. Similar goals led to IBM's development of PL/S. The high-level nature of COBOL, which created some problems for operating system development, was partially addressed in BLIS, since it was

title: Person

text: Person A person is a being that has certain capacities or attributes such as reason, morality, consciousness or self-consciousness, and being a part of a culturally established form of social relations such as kinship, ownership of property, or legal responsibility. The defining features of personhood and consequently what makes a person count as a person differ widely among cultures and contexts. In addition to the question of personhood, of what makes a being count as a person to begin with, there are further questions about personal identity and self: both about what makes any particular person that particular person instead

title: Person-centred thinking

text: explains how they will use this budget to meet what is important to and for them. Person centred thinking was first developed by a group of people practicing Essential Lifestyle Planning in the US (now known as 'The Learning Community for Person Centred Practices). These planners realised that while many plans were being written, many of these were not leading to real change in peoples lives. This group decided that person centred planning was something a small group of people needed to know, but that for planning to work, a much wider group of people need skills around listening for

title: CICS

text: needs. When virtual memory was added to versions OS/360 in 1972, the 4K strategy became even more important to reduce paging and thrashing unproductive resource-contention overhead. The efficiency of compiled high-level COBOL and PL/I language programs left much to be desired. Many CICS application programs continued to be written in assembler language, even after COBOL and PL/I support became available. With 1960s-and-1970s hardware resources expensive and scarce, a competitive "game" developed among system optimization analysts. When critical path code was identified, a code snippet was passed around from one analyst to another. Each person had to either (a) reduce the

title: Person–environment fit

text: A meta-analysis of person–job, person–organization, person–group, and person–supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58, 281–342. Kristof-Brown, A., & Guay, R. P. (2011). Person–environment fit. APA handbook of industrial and organizational psychology,3, 3-50. doi:10.1037/12171-001 Locke, E. A. (1969). What is job satisfaction? Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4, 309-336. Locke, E. A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology: 1297-1350. Chicago: Rand McNally. Muchinsky, P. M., & Monahan, C. J. (1987). What is person-environment congruence? Supplementary versus complementary models of fit. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 31, 268-277. Piasentin, K.A., & Chapman, D.S.

title: Person

text: corporations, sovereign states and other polities, or estates in probate. Personal identity is the unique identity of persons through time. That is to say, the necessary and sufficient conditions under which a person at one time and a person at another time can be said to be the "same" person, persisting through time. In the modern philosophy of mind, this concept of personal identity is sometimes referred to as the "diachronic" problem of personal identity. The "synchronic" problem is grounded in the question of what features or traits characterize a given person at one time. Identity is an issue for

title: Person-centred planning

text: person-centred planning in Canada by Jack Pearpoint, Judith Snow and Marsha Forest. Whilst it was developed because of the social and service response to disability, it was quickly recognised to be as useful for many other individuals and groups of people. Disabled people in the UK and USA developed the Social model of disability, arguing for a shift in the balance of power between people and the services on which they rely. Person centred planning is based in the social model of disability because it places the emphasis on transforming the options available to the person, rather than on 'fixing'

title: Person-centred planning

text: the Person-Centered Plan (PCP) offers a platform for the person and their trusted allies to identify and express their vision and commitments without limiting that expression to what can or will be provided by the service system. Some time later, the formal system can develop a plan for service delivery that may be based on and consistent with the person's plan, that recognizes and supports the contributions of the person, family and community, and that clearly acknowledges the limitations of what the system is prepared to provide. John O'Brien sums up the problem of trying to deliver person centredness through

title: Single-person spacecraft

text: compact single-person spacecraft have been considered by ISS for EVA work, to avoid having to go through the decompression needed to use the lower-pressure space suits. NASA developed a body-shaped single person spacecraft called FlexCraft, with the idea of allowing more and shorter EVA. The spacecraft would be at the same atmospheric pressure as the ISS, thus removing the medical stress and time needed to decompress and compress, and the danger of the bends. A single-person spacecraft could also enhance protection against micrometeoriod impacts and radiation from cosmic rays. The Personal Rescue Enclosure was developed for the Space Shuttle. On

title: Third-person pronoun

text: pronouns, the Old Rapa language adheres closely to the same pronominal system. There exists possessive pronouns for each case: inclusive first person singular, first person dual, and first person plural; exclusive first person singular, first person dual, and first person plural; second person singular, second person dual, and second person plural; and third person singular, third person dual, and third person plural. The possessive pronouns of Old Rapa are constructed following three morphemes: "the indefinite article (te) + the possessive marker (a/o) + pronoun" However, when spoken, both the indefinite article and possessive markers are put together into what is

title: Person-centered therapy

text: facilitative, empathic environment wherein the patient could discover the answers for him or herself. Person-centered therapy Person-centered therapy, also known as person-centered psychotherapy, person-centered counseling, client-centered therapy and Rogerian psychotherapy, is a form of psychotherapy developed by psychologist Carl Rogers beginning in the 1940s and extending into the 1980s. Person-centered therapy seeks to facilitate a client's self-actualizing tendency, "an inbuilt proclivity toward growth and fulfillment", via acceptance ("unconditional positive regard"), therapist "congruence" (genuineness), and empathic understanding. Person-centered therapy, now considered a founding work in the humanistic school of psychotherapies, began with Carl Rogers, and is recognized as one of the

title: Person-centered therapy

text: Person-centered therapy Person-centered therapy, also known as person-centered psychotherapy, person-centered counseling, client-centered therapy and Rogerian psychotherapy, is a form of psychotherapy developed by psychologist Carl Rogers beginning in the 1940s and extending into the 1980s. Person-centered therapy seeks to facilitate a client's self-actualizing tendency, "an inbuilt proclivity toward growth and fulfillment", via acceptance ("unconditional positive regard"), therapist "congruence" (genuineness), and empathic understanding. Person-centered therapy, now considered a founding work in the humanistic school of psychotherapies, began with Carl Rogers, and is recognized as one of the major psychotherapy "schools" (theoretical orientations), along with psychodynamic psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, classical Adlerian psychology, cognitive

title: Unisys OS 2200 programming languages

text: back-end and optimizer. There is also a common language runtime environment. The UCS system was developed starting in 1969 and initially included PL/I and Pascal. FORTRAN and COBOL were soon added. Ada was added later. The currently supported languages include COBOL, FORTRAN, C, and PLUS. PLUS, Programming Language for Unisys (originally UNIVAC) Systems, is a block structured language somewhat similar to Pascal which it predates. Previous PLUS, COBOL and FORTRAN compilers are also still supported. An even earlier FORTRAN compiler (FORTRAN V), while no longer supported, is still in use for an application developed in the 1960s in that language.

title: Person-centred planning

text: required by regulatory agencies (e.g., state offices in the USA through local agencies). Person-centred planning can have many effects that go beyond the making of plans. It can create a space during which someone who is not usually listened to has central stage. It can insist that discussion is centred on what the person is telling us is important to them, with their words and behaviours, as well as what others feel is important for the person. It can engage participants personally by allowing them to hear of deeply felt hopes and fears. It can assist people in a circle

title: Reasonable person

text: given circumstances, such customary requirements are not themselves conclusive of what a reasonable person would do. It is precisely for this wide-ranging variety of possible facts that the reasonable person standard is so broad (and often confusing and difficult to apply). However, a few general areas of relevant circumstances rise above the others. Allowing for circumstances under which a person must act urgently is important to preventing hindsight bias from affecting the trier of fact. Given pressing circumstances, a reasonable person may not always act in a manner similar to how they would have acted in a more relaxed setting.

title: Person-affecting view

text: Person-affecting view A person-affecting or person-based view (also called person-affecting restriction) in population ethics captures the intuition that an act can only be bad if it is bad "for" someone. Similarly something can be good only if it is good "for" someone. Therefore, according to standard person-affecting views, there is no moral obligation to create people nor moral good in creating people because nonexistence means "there is never a person who could have benefited from being created". Whether one accepts person-affecting views greatly influences to what extent shaping the far future is important (since there may be greatly more humans

title: Person-centred thinking

text: thinking in services was an important condition for services having the capacity and systems for delivering person centred results. Person-centred thinking tools in common use include one-page profiles, 'working/not working', 'important to/important for', 'good day/bad day', communication charts, 'doughnut' of staff roles and responsibilities, relationship circles, learning logs and person-centred reviews. These tools provide an agenda which a person and the people who know that person best can think together, focussing on what is important to that person, how they wish to live, and then introduce changes that will move towards those aspirations. Practitioners of person centred thinking suggest that

title: Person

text: both continental philosophy and analytic philosophy. A key question in continental philosophy is in what sense we can maintain the modern conception of identity, while realizing many of our prior assumptions about the world are incorrect. Proposed solutions to the problem of personal identity include continuity of the physical body, continuity of an immaterial mind or soul, continuity of consciousness or memory, the bundle theory of self, continuity of personality after the death of the physical body, and proposals that there are actually no persons or selves who persist over time at all. Person A person is a being that

title: Person-centred planning

text: self-determination than traditional person-centered approaches. Person centred thinking and planning is founded on the premise that genuine listening contains an implied promise to take action. Unless what is learned about how the person wishes to live, and where they wish to go in their lives is recorded and acted upon, any planning will have been a waste of time, and more importantly a betrayal of the person and the trust they have placed in those who have planned with them. In the UK initiatives such as individual budgets and self-directed supports using models like In Control mean that Person Centred

title: Person-centered care

text: grown to be internationally associated with successful outcomes of the health care. Initially, the method was developed for senior patients and patients with intellectual disabilities but the ideas have later spread to other medical fields. Within person-centred care, the patient is considered an independent and capable individual with their own abilities to make informed decisions. Autonomy and participation are always emphasised and respected. For the patient, the person-centred approach allows for involvement and extended possibilities to take responsibility for their own health and treatment. There are four vantage points that constitute the foundation of person-centred care The person-centred care is

title: First-person shooter

text: the year before "Doom", has been credited with introducing the genre, but critics have since identified similar though less advanced games developed as far back as 1973. There are occasional disagreements regarding the specific design elements which constitute a first-person shooter. For example, "Deus Ex" or "BioShock" may be considered as first-person shooters, but may also be considered role-playing video games as they borrow from this genre extensively. Certain puzzle games like "Portal" are also called first-person shooters, but lack any direct combat or shooting element, instead using the first-person perspective to help immerse players within the game to help

title: Cat Person

text: for many readers, it captures what it is like to be a woman in her twenties in 2017, including "the desperate need to be considered polite and nice at all costs." Following the story's success, Roupenian secured a seven figure deal with Scout Press for her debut book, and was the subject of a bidding war in the American market, with offers exceeding $1m. Cat Person "Cat Person" is a short story by Kristen Roupenian. It was published in December 2017, in "The New Yorker" and went viral online. The story follows in third person narrative the brief relationship between

title: Reasonable person

text: Reasonable person In law, a reasonable person, reasonable man, or the man on the Clapham omnibus is a hypothetical person of legal fiction crafted by the courts and communicated through case law and jury instructions. Strictly according to the fiction, it is misconceived for a party to seek evidence from actual people in order to establish how the reasonable man would have acted or what he would have foreseen. This person's character and care conduct under any "common set of facts," is decided through reasoning of good practice or policy—or "learned" permitting there is a compelling consensus of public opinion—by

title: Developed country

text: Developed country A developed country, industrialized country, more developed country, or more economically developed country (MEDC), is a sovereign state that has a developed economy and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialized nations. Most commonly, the criteria for evaluating the degree of economic development are gross domestic product (GDP), gross national product (GNP), the per capita income, level of industrialization, amount of widespread infrastructure and general standard of living. Which criteria are to be used and which countries can be classified as being developed are subjects of debate. Developed countries have generally post-industrial economies, meaning the service sector

title: Developed market

text: of markets. From 24 September 2018, FTSE Group classifies 25 countries as developed markets: Developed countries all have met criteria under the following categories: As of October 2017, MSCI classified the following 26 countries as developed markets: According to "MSCI Global investable Market Indexes Methodology - October 2017", Cyprus as well as Iceland and Luxembourg, "are part of the developed market universe", but "given their modest size, these markets are not included in the MSCI World index". As of 31 October 2017, Standard and Poor's classifies the following 25 countries as developed markets: Developed market In investing, a developed market

title: Person–environment fit

text: such as person–supervisor fit and person–job fit, which are conceptually distinct from one another (Edwards & Shipp, 2007; Kristof, 1996). Nevertheless, it is generally assumed that person–environment fit leads to positive outcomes, such as satisfaction, performance, and overall well-being (Ostroff & Schulte, 2007). Person–organization fit (P–O fit) is the most widely studied area of person–environment fit, and is defined by Kristof (1996) as, "the compatibility between people and organizations that occurs when (a) at least one entity provides what the other needs, (b) they share similar fundamental characteristics, or (c) both" (Kristof, 1996). High value congruence is a large facet

title: First-person (gaming)

text: First-person (gaming) In video games, the first person refers to a graphical perspective rendered from the viewpoint of the player's character. In many cases, this may be the viewpoint from the cockpit of a vehicle. Many different genres have made use of first-person perspectives, ranging from adventure games to driving, sailing, and flight simulators. The most notable genre to make use of this device is the first-person shooter, where the graphical perspective has a heavy impact on gameplay. Games with a first-person perspective are usually avatar-based, wherein the game displays what the player's avatar would see with the avatar's own

title: Developed environments

text: and in other isolated dwellings. The main types of communities in rural areas can be: a village of 200 to 800 people, a hamlet with fewer than 200 people, or an isolated dwelling— 1 or 2 buildings with families in it. Populations in Rural communities/areas are usually under 10,000 people. Developed environments Developed environments (human settlements) are environments in geography. Different kinds of developed lands are developed environments. The main developed environments are Urban, Suburban, Rural and (not as much) Exurban communities. The different types of developed human settlements are: urban, suburban, rural and exurban. The main types of communities

title: Developed environments

text: Developed environments Developed environments (human settlements) are environments in geography. Different kinds of developed lands are developed environments. The main developed environments are Urban, Suburban, Rural and (not as much) Exurban communities. The different types of developed human settlements are: urban, suburban, rural and exurban. The main types of communities in urban areas can be: a metropolis (metropolitan area) (pop. usually over 1,000,000) or a city (pop. over 100,000.) Suburban: A residential area on the outskirts of a city. Suburban areas have lower population density than inner city neighborhoods. Suburban areas are dense to semi-dense population areas. A suburban area

title: Google Person Finder

text: Google Person Finder Google Person Finder is an open source web application that provides a registry and message board for survivors, family, and loved ones affected by a natural disaster to post and search for information about each other's status and whereabouts. It was created by volunteer Google engineers in response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Google Person Finder is written in Python and hosted on Google App Engine. Its database and API are based on the People Finder Interchange Format (PFIF) developed in 2005 for the Katrina PeopleFinder Project. Immediately after the 2010 Haiti earthquake a group of 20%

title: Developed country

text: wholly or partly in Europe: 3 countries wholly or partly in Asia: 3 countries in the Americas: 1 country in Oceania: Developed country A developed country, industrialized country, more developed country, or more economically developed country (MEDC), is a sovereign state that has a developed economy and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialized nations. Most commonly, the criteria for evaluating the degree of economic development are gross domestic product (GDP), gross national product (GNP), the per capita income, level of industrialization, amount of widespread infrastructure and general standard of living. Which criteria are to be used and which

title: Zilog Z8000

text: common. They usually had only RS232 serial ports (4–16) and parallel printer ports instead of built in graphics, as was typical for servers of the time. Z8000-based computer systems included Zilog's own System 8000 series, as well as other manufacturers: The Zilog S8000 computer came out with a version of Unix called ZEUS (Zilog Enhanced Unix System). ZEUS was a port of Unix Ver 7 and included what were referred to as 'the Berkeley Enhancements'. ZEUS included a version of COBOL called RM/COBOL (Ryan McFarland COBOL). The availability of RM/COBOL allowed many commercial applications to be quickly ported to the

title: Person-centred planning

text: or changing the person. Specifically person-centred planning was based diversely on principles of community integration/inclusion/ normalisation/social role valorization. Prior to its inception, these principles were crystallised by John O'Brien and Connie Lyle O'Brien in the 'Framework for Accomplishment' which listed five key areas important in shaping people's quality of life, and asserting that services should be judged by the extent to which they enable people to: The title 'person-centred' is used because those who developed it and used it initially shared a belief that services tend to work in a 'service-centred' way. This 'service-centred' behaviour appears in many forms, but

title: First-person shooter

text: Some player communities complain about freemium first-person-shooters, fearing that they create unbalanced games, but many game designers have tweaked prices in response to criticism, and players can usually get the same benefits by playing longer rather than paying. The earliest two documented first-person shooter video games are "Maze War" and "Spasim." "Maze War" was originally developed in 1973 by Greg Thompson, Steve Colley and Howard Palmer, high-school students in a NASA work-study program trying to develop a program to help visualize fluid dynamics for spacecraft designs. The work became a maze game presented to the player in the first-person, and

title: Matching person and technology model

text: are not considered. The use and non-use of technology as conceptualized in the Matching person and technology model has been validated by many researchers and authors representing the fields of occupational therapy, physical therapy, speech language pathology, psychology, and others. The matching person and technology model is operationalized by a series of reliable and valid measures that provide a person-centered and individualized approach to matching individuals with the most appropriate technologies for their use. The matching person & technology model and measures were developed by Marcia J. Scherer beginning in 1986. Matching person and technology model The matching person and

title: Person to Person

text: interviews with George Clooney, Jon Bon Jovi, and Warren Buffett. The premiere attracted 5.9 million viewers, less than a third of the viewers watching "American Idol" and fewer than the 8.44 million who watched "The Middle"; it outrated "One Tree Hill" and "Whitney", though the latter attracted a larger share of the 18–49 audience. Had the two specially-scheduled episodes been well-received, "Person to Person" could have become a regularly scheduled series. The second episode aired on November 23, 2012 (Black Friday), featuring Sean Penn, Alicia Keys and Drew Brees. Person to Person Person to Person is a popular television program

title: Person to Person

text: Person to Person Person to Person is a popular television program in the United States that originally ran from 1953 to 1961, with two episodes of an attempted revival airing in 2012. Edward R. Murrow hosted the original series from its inception in 1953 until 1959, interviewing celebrities in their homes from a comfortable chair in his New York studio (his opening: ""Good evening, I'm Ed Murrow. And the name of the program is 'Person to Person'. It's all live – there's no film""). In the last two years of its original run, Charles Collingwood was the host. Although Murrow

title: Developed country

text: HDI values after the year 2010 are calculated with a different formula. Some institutions have produced lists of developed countries: the UN (list shown above), the CIA, and some providers of stock market indices (the FTSE Group, MSCI, S&P, Dow Jones, STOXX, etc.). The latter is not included here because its association of developed countries with countries with both high incomes and developed markets is not deemed as directly relevant. However many other institutions have created more general lists referred to when discussing developed countries. For example, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identifies 39 "advanced economies". The OECD's 36 members

title: Developed country

text: Terms linked to the concept "developed country" include "advanced country", "industrialized country", "'more developed country" (MDC), "more economically developed country" (MEDC), "Global North country", "first world country", and "post-industrial country". The term industrialized country may be somewhat ambiguous, as industrialization is an ongoing process that is hard to define. The first industrialized country was the United Kingdom, followed by Belgium. Later it spread further to Germany, United States, France and other Western European countries. According to some economists such as Jeffrey Sachs, however, the current divide between the developed and developing world is largely a phenomenon of the 20th century.

title: Developed market

text: Developed market In investing, a developed market is a country that is most developed in terms of its economy and capital markets. The country must be high income, but this also includes openness to foreign ownership, ease of capital movement, and efficiency of market institutions. This term is contrasted with developing market (Emerging markets and frontier markets are types of developing markets). FTSE Group, a provider of economic and financial data, assigns the market status of countries as Developed, Advanced Emerging, Secondary Emerging or Frontier on the basis of their economic size, wealth, quality of markets, depth of markets, breadth

title: Draw-a-Person test

text: Ability Test to scores on the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence in 100 children and found a very low correlation (r=0.27). Similarly, results found with child and youth psychiatric inpatients failed to support the hypothesized relationship between human figure drawings and IQ. This suggests that the Draw-a-Person test should not be used as a substitute for other well-established intelligence tests. Draw-a-Person test The Draw-a-Person test (DAP, DAP test, or Goodenough–Harris Draw-a-Person test) is a psychological projective personality or cognitive test used to evaluate children and adolescents for a variety of purposes. Developed originally by Florence Goodenough in 1926,

title: Person-centered systems theory

text: the requirements have changed. The person-centered systems theory describes the systemic effects of communication between humans (couples, families, organizations) as well as their interrelations through internal processes (perception, thinking, feeling) in its complex, non-linear interaction both bottom-up and top-down. Kriz (2017) provides a comprehensive presentation and discussion of the person-centered systems theory. Person-centered systems theory The person-centered systems theory (German: Personzentrierte Systemtheorie) is a multi-level concept for the understanding of processes in psychotherapy, counseling, coaching and clinical psychology under consideration of the interrelation of different levels – namely body, psyche, interpersonal and social processes. The concept has been developed by