source_sentence,target_sentence
"Lillian Diana Gish (October 14, 1893 – February 27, 1993) was an American actress, director and screenwriter.","ⵍⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⵉⴰⵏⴰ ⵗⵉⵙⵂ (14 Oⵛⵜoⴱⵔⴻ 1893 – 27 ⴼⴻvⵔⵉⴻⵔ 1993) ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⴶⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏⴻ"
"Gish was a prominent film star from 1912 into the 1920s, being particularly associated with the films of director D. W. Griffith.","ⵗⵉⵙⵂ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵎⴰⵙⴻⵂⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ 1912 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ 1920, ⴰⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴻ. W. ⵗⵔⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜⵂ"
"She also did considerable television work from the early 1950s into the 1980s, and closed her career playing opposite Bette Davis in the 1987 film The Whales of August.","ⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵋⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ 1950 ⵂⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ 1980, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷⴰ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴻⵜⵜⴻ ⴻⴰⴱⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵓⵂⴰⵍⴻⵙ ⵓⴼ ⴰⵓⵙⵜ ⵚⴰⵏ 1987"
The first several generations of Gishes were Dunkard ministers.,ⵉⴷⴰⵔⵣⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵗⵉⵙⵂ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵏⴾⴻⵔⵜⴰⵏ
"Their mother opened the Majestic Candy Kitchen, and the girls helped sell popcorn and candy to patrons of the old Majestic Theater, located next door.","ⵎⴰⵜⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⴻⵙⵜⵉⵛ ⵛⴰⵏⴷⵉ ⵆⵉⵜⵛⵂⴻⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⴻⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏⴰⵜⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵙⴰⵛ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴱ-ⵛⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵓⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⴻⵙⵜⵉⵛ ⵟⵂⴻⴰⵜⴻⵔ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵙ."
"The seventeen-year-old Lillian traveled to Shawnee, Oklahoma, where James's brother Alfred Grant Gish and his wife, Maude, lived.","ⵍⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵉⴾⴰ ⵙⵂⴰⵓⵏⴻⴻ, ⴷⴰⵗ Oⴾⵍⴰⵂⵓⵎⴰ, ⴷⵉⵂⴰ ⴷⵉⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ Jⴰⵎⴻⵙ, ⴰⵍⴼⵔⴻⴷ ⵗⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵗⵉⵙⵂ, ⴰⴷ ⵂⵉⵏⵉⵙ, ⵎⴰⵓⴷⴻ"
"Her father died in Norman, Oklahoma, in 1912, but she had returned to Ohio a few months before this.","ⵜⵉⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏ, Oⴾⵍⴰⵂⵓⵎⴰ, ⴷⴰⵗ 1912, ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴾⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ Oⵂⵉⵓ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ."
"When Lillian and Dorothy were old enough they joined the theatre, often traveling separately in different productions.","ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵍⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴻ ⵓⵔⵓⵎⵜⵂⵉ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵛⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⴶⴰⵛⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵂⴻⴰⵜⵔⴻ, ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵛⵉⵆⵉⵍⴰⵏ"
"Gish continued to perform on the stage, and in 1913, during a run of A Good Little Devil, she collapsed from anemia.","ⵗⵉⵙⵂ ⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ, ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1913, ⵆⵓⵔⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵉⵓⵔ ⴰ ⵗⵓⵓⵍ ⵍⵉⵜⵜⵍⴻ ⴻⴻⴱⵉⵍ, ⵜⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⴷⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ."
Her performance in these frigid conditions gave her lasting nerve damage in several fingers.,ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵎⴷⴻ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⴷⵉⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ
"He utilized her expressive talents to the fullest, developing her into a suffering yet strong heroine.","ⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵣⵓⴰⵉ, ⵉⴶⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵂⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴷⴰⵜ."
"She directed her sister Dorothy in one film, Remodeling Her Husband (1920), when D. W. Griffith took his unit on location.","ⵜⵏⵉⵂⴰⴷ ⵉⴻ ⵓⴰⵍⴰⵜⵎⴰⵙ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⵜⵂⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ, ⵕⴻⵎⵓⴷⴻⵍⵉⵏⴶ ⵂⴻⵔ ⵂⵓⵙⴱⴰⵏⴷ (1920), ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴻ. W. ⵗⵔⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜⵂ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⵉⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⴾⵉⵍ."
"She turned down the money, requesting a more modest wage and a percentage so that the studio could use the funds to increase the quality of her films — hiring the best actors, screenwriters, etc.","ⵜⵓⴶⴰⵉ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴼ, ⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵂⴰⴾ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵍⴻⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⴻ ⴾⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏⴻⵙ – ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴶⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵙⵛⴻⵏⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⴻ"
"Many of the silent era's leading ladies, such as Gish and Pickford, had been wholesome and innocent, but by the early 1930s (after the full adoption of sound and before the Motion Picture Production Code was enforced) these roles were perceived as outdated.","ⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵗⵉⵙⵂ ⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ, ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⵓⵆⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵛⴻⴷ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ 1930 (ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⵜⵓⵔⴻ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⵓⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵛⵓⴷⴻ), ⴰⵛⴰⵗⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴰ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ."
"""Louis Mayer wanted to stage a scandal (""""knock her off her pedestal"""") to garner public sympathy for Gish, but Lillian didn't want to act both on screen and off, and returned to her first love, the theater.""","""ⵍⵓⵓⵉⵙ ⵎⴰⵉⴻⵔ ⴻⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⴶⵓ ⵙⵛⴻⵏⴻ ⴰⵉⵛⴷⴰⵏ ( """"ⴰⵂⴰⵙⴰⴶ ⴰⵜⵉⴶⵉⵍⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ), ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴰⴶⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⵣəⴶⵔⴰⵣ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵆⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵗⵉⵙⵂ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ Lⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴻⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵓⵉⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⴻⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⴷⵓⵆⵓⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ, ⵙⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵜ."""
"Returning to movies, Gish was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in 1946 for Duel in the Sun.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵓⵆⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰⵏ, ⵗⵉⵙⵂ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵓⵆⵓⵍ ⴰⵏ Oⵙⵛⴰⵓ ⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ 1946 ⵉⴻ ⴻⵓⴻⵍ ⵓⵏ ⵜⵂⴻ ⵙⵓⵏ."
"She was considered for various roles in Gone with the Wind ranging from Ellen O'Hara, Scarlett's mother (which went to Barbara O'Neil), to prostitute Belle Watling (which went to Ona Munson).","ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⴰⵎⵆⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵙⵓⴾ, ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵍⵍⴻⵏ O'ⵂⴰⵔⴰ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵛⴰⵔⵍⴻⵜⵜ ( ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⴱⴰⵔⴱⴰⵔⴰ O'ⵏⴻⵉⵍ), ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⴰⵜ ⴱⴻⵍⵍⴻ Wⴰⵜⵍⵉⵏⴶ (ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵜ Oⵏⴰ ⵎⵓⵏⵙⵓⵏ)."
She appeared as Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna in the short-lived 1965 Broadway musical Anya.,"""ⵜⴰⵙⴻⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ"
She was interviewed in the television documentary series Hollywood: A Celebration of the American Silent Film (1980).,ⵟⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵓⵓⴷ : ⴰⴰ ⵛⴻⵍⴻⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵓⴼ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵚⵉⵍⴻⵏⵉⵜ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ (1980)
She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1720 Vine Street.,ⵟⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵓⵓⴷ Wⴰⵍⴾ ⵓⴼ ⴼⴰⵎⴻ ⵉⵓⵔ 1720 ⵠⵉⵏⴻ ⵚⵜⵔⴻⴻⵜ.
"At the Cannes festival, Gish won a 10-minute standing ovation from the audience.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ, ⵗⵉⵙⵂ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ 10 ⵎⵉⵏⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵙ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜ."
"""The episode """"Marry for Murder"""" was broadcast on September 9, 1943.""","""ⵟⴰⵙⵓⵉⵍⵜ """"ⵎⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⴼⵓⵔ Mⵓⵔⴷⴻⵔ"""" ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ 9 ⵙⴻⵒⵜⴻⵎⴱⵔⴻ 1943."
"She was awarded an Academy Honorary Award in 1971, and in 1984 she received an AFI Life Achievement Award.","ⵟⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵍⵂⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰ Iⵏⵉⴱⴻⵔⵙⵉⵜⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ 1971, əⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ 1984, ⵜⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⴼI ⵍⵉⴼⴻ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⴻⴱⴻⵎⴻⵏⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵔⴷ."
The University awarded Gish the honorary degree of Doctor of Performing Arts the next day.,ⵍⵏⵉⴱⴻⵔⵙⵉⵜⴻ ⵉⴼⴰ ⵗⵉⵙⵂ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵎⵆⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵛⴰⵍⵓⴻⵏ.
"Following Gish's 1993 death, the University raised funds to enlarge its gallery to display memorabilia received from Gish's estate.","ⴻⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵉⵙⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ 1993, ⵓⵏⵉⴱⴻⵔⵙⵉⵜⴻ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴼ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵆⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵉⵣⴶⵔⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⵉⴾⵜⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵗⵉⵙⵂ."
"The association between herself and D. W. Griffith was so close that some suspected a romantic connection, an issue never acknowledged by Gish, although several of their associates were certain they were at least briefly involved.","ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵜ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰ. ⵓ. ⵗⵔⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜⵂ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵆⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵆⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴻ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ, ⴰⵓⴰ ⵗⵉⵙⵂ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏⵂⴻⵉ, ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵋⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⵂⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ."
"In the 1920s, Gish's association with Duell became something of a tabloid scandal when he sued her and made the details of their relationship public.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ 1920, ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵉⵙⵂ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵓⴻⵍⵍ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵉⵆⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵆⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵔⴻⵙⴰⵏ"
George Jean Nathan praised Gish's acting glowingly—comparing her to Eleonora Duse.,"ⵗⴻⵓⵔⴶⴻ ⵋⴻⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵜⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵉⵙⵂ, ⵜⴰⵜⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵜ— ⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⴻⵓⵏⵓⵔⴰ ⴻⵓⵙⴻ."
"During the period of political turmoil in the US that lasted from the outbreak of World War II in Europe until the attack on Pearl Harbor, she maintained an outspoken non-interventionist stance.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⴰⵆ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵓⵉⵉⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵔⴻⵛⵓⵏⴷⴻ ⵗⵓⴻⵔⵔⴻ ⵎⵓⵏⴷⵉⴰⵍⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ ⵂⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⴶⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴻⴰⵔⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴱⵓⵔ, ⴰⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴶⵉⵛ ⴰⵉⴰⴱⴰⵜⴰⵏ."
"Joseph Frank Keaton (October 4, 1895 – February 1, 1966), known professionally as Buster Keaton, was an American actor, comedian, film director, producer, screenwriter, and stunt performer.","ⵋⵓⵙⴻⴱⵂ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ(4 Oⵛ ⵓⴱⵔⴻ 1895 - 1ⴻⵔ ⴼⴻⴱⵔⵉⴻⵔ 1966), ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵙⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ, ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵎⴰⴶ, ⴰⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰ , ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ, ⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵙⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵛⴰⵣⴰⵣ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏ."
His career declined when he signed with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and lost his artistic independence.,ⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵆⵉⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⴻ ⵎⴻⵜⵔⵓ-ⵗⵓⵍⴷⵓⵉⵏ-ⵎⴰⵉⴻⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⵎⴰⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵣⴰⵔ.
"Many of Keaton's films from the 1920s remain highly regarded, such as Sherlock Jr. (1924), The General (1926), and The Cameraman (1928).","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ 1920 ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵂⴻⵔⵍⵓⵛⴾ ⵋⵔ (1924), ⵟⵂⴻ ⵗⴻⵏⴻⵔⴰⵍ (1926) ⴰⵏ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵛⴰⵎⴻⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ (1928)."
"""His father was Joseph Hallie """"Joe"""" Keaton, who owned a traveling show with Harry Houdini called the Mohawk Indian Medicine Company, or the Keaton Houdini Medicine Show Company, which performed on stage and sold patent medicine on the side.""","""ⵜⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵋⵓⵙⴻⴱⵂ """"ⵋⵓⴻ"""". ⵍⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⵙⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴷⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⵂⵓⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉ, ⴰⵆⵔⴰⵜⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵂⴰⵓⴾ Iⵏⴷⵉⴰⵏⴰ ⵎⴻⴷⵉⵛⵉⵏⴻ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⴰⵏⵉ, ⵉⵓⵔ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵂⵓⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴻⴷⵉⵛⵉⵏⴻ ⵙⵂⵓⵓ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⴰⵏⵉ, ⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵜⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵛⴰⵏⵛ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵆⵓⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵈⵉⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵙ."""
"In Keaton's retelling, he was six months old when the incident occurred, and Harry Houdini gave him the nickname.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⵙ ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵓⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵔⵉⴶⴰ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⵂⵓⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉ ⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵏ."
The act was mainly a comedy sketch.,ⵏⵓⵎⴻⵔⵓ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵆⴰⵙ ⵙⴾⴻⵜⵛⵂ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ.
A suitcase handle was sewn into Keaton's clothing to aid with the constant tossing.,ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴷⵓⵈⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵔⵛⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴶⵓⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵉⵓⴻⵏ.
"However, Buster was always able to show the authorities that he had no bruises or broken bones.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ, ⴱⵓⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⵉⴰ ⴷⵉⵙⴰⴾⵏⵓ ⵉⴻ ⵏⴰⵎⵆⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⴱⴰⵔⵛⴻⵆ ⴻⵆⴰⵙ ⴻⵔⵣⴰⵏ."
Several times I'd have been killed if I hadn't been able to land like a cat.,"Iⵂⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⵉⵛⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵈⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⴻ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⵉⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵎⵓⵙ."
"Noticing that this caused the audience to laugh less, he adopted his famous deadpan expression when performing.","ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵉⵜⴰⵏ."
"Despite tangles with the law and a disastrous tour of music halls in the United Kingdom, Keaton was a rising star in the theater.","ⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵓⵂⵓⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⴰⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵙⵉⵙⵉⵜⴾⵉⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⵣⵙⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵙⵉⵛ-ⵂⴰⵍⵍⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵉⴰⵓⵎⴻ-ⵓⵏⵉ, ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵛⵓⴾⵓⴾⵉⵏⴻⵏ"
"""In February 1917, he met Roscoe """"Fatty"""" Arbuckle at the Talmadge Studios in New York City, where Arbuckle was under contract to Joseph M. Schenck.""","""ⴻⴰⵗ ⴼⴻⴱⵔⵉⴻⵔ 1917, ⴰⵎⵓⵈⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵛⵓⴻ """"ⴼⴰⵜⵜⵉ"""" ⴰⵔⴱⵓⵛⴾⵍⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵙⵉⵍⴾⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷⴶⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ, ⴷⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⵔⴱⵓⵛⴾⵍⴻ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴷⵔ ⵋⵓⵙⴻⴱⵂ ⵎ. ⵙⵛⵂⴻⵏⵛⴾ"
"Buster was such a natural in his first film, The Butcher Boy, he was hired on the spot.","ⴱⵓⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵆⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ, ⵟⵂⴻ ⴱⵓⵜⵛⵂⴻⵔ ⴱⵓⵉ, ⵓⴰ ⴻⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ"
Keaton later claimed that he was soon Arbuckle's second director and his entire gag department.,ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵆⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴷⴻⴾⴰⵍ ⵛⵉⴾⵛⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴱⵓⵛⴾⵍⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵓⵂⴰⵣⵏⴻⵏ.
"It was based on a successful play, The New Henrietta, which had already been filmed once, under the title The Lamb, with Douglas Fairbanks playing the lead.","ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵂⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ, ⵟⵂⴻ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵂⴻⵏⵔⵉⴻⵜⵜⴰ, ⵉⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵍⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⴷⵗ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ əⵏ ⵟⵂLⴰⵎⴱ, ⴷⴰⴷ ⴹⵓⵓⴶⵍⴰⵙ Fⴰⵉⵔⴱⴰⵏⴾⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"He made a series of two-reel comedies, including One Week (1920), The Playhouse (1921), Cops (1922), and The Electric House (1922).","ⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵉⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⴻ Oⵏⴻ ⵓⴻⴻⴾ (1920), ⵟⵂⴻ ⴱⵍⴰⵉⵂⵓⵓⵙⴻ (1921), ⵛⵓⴱⵙ (1922) ⴰⴷ ⵟⵂⴻ ⴻⵍⴻⵛⵜⵔⵉⵛ ⵂⵓⵓⵙⴻ (1922)."
"""Comedy director Leo McCarey, recalling the freewheeling days of making slapstick comedies, said, """"All of us tried to steal each other's gagmen.""","""ⴻⵎⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰ Lⴻⵓ ⵎⵛⵛⴰⵔⴻⵉ, ⴰⵙⴰⵎⴰⴾⵜⴻⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⴶⵓ ⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵣⴰⴱⵓ ⵏⴰⵍⵆⴻⵔ, ⴰⵍⴰⵆⴰⵜ : ""ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⴰⵆ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ."""
"During the railroad water-tank scene in Sherlock Jr., Keaton broke his neck when a torrent of water fell on him from a water tower, but he did not realize it until years afterward.","ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵜⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵂⴻⵔⵍⵓⵛⴾ ⵋⵔ, ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴻⵔⵣⴰ ⴻⵔⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⴼⵜⴰⵣⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴰ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵓ ⵛⵂⴰⵜⴻⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴰⴷ."
"Keaton's character emerged unscathed, due to a single open window.","ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⴻⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴱⴰ ⵏⵉⵉⴰⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⴾⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴻⵔⴰⵜ."
"Aside from Steamboat Bill, Jr. (1928), Keaton's most enduring feature-length films include Our Hospitality (1923), The Navigator (1924), Sherlock Jr. (1924), Seven Chances (1925), The Cameraman (1928), and The General (1926).","ⵉⴶⴰ ⵙⵜⴻⴰⵎⴱⵓⴰⵜ ⴱⵉⵍⵍ, ⵋⵔ ⵏⴰⴱⵉⴶⴰⵜⵓⵔ (1928), ⵜⴰⵣⴰⴶⵔⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⴾⴰⵛ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴰ Oⵓⵔ ⵂⵓⵙⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉ (1923), ⵟⵂⴻ ⵏⴰⴱⵉⴶⴰⵜⵓⵔ (1924), ⵙⵂⴻⵔⵍⵓⵛⴾ ⵋⵔ. (1924), ⵙⴻⴱⴻⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵏⵛⴻⵙ (1925), ⵟⵂⴻ ⵛⴰⵎⴻⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ (1928) ⴰⴷ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵗⴻⵏⴻⵔⴰⵍ ( 1926)."
"Though it would come to be regarded as Keaton's greatest achievement, the film received mixed reviews at the time.","ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ, ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⴱⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ"
"His distributor, United Artists, insisted on a production manager who monitored expenses and interfered with certain story elements.","ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ, ⵓⵏⵉⵜⴻⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⵉⵙⵜⵙ, ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴶⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⴶⵉⵛ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰⵙ."
The actors would phonetically memorize the foreign-language scripts a few lines at a time and shoot immediately after.,"ⴰⵎⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵆ ⴾⴰⵜⴱⴰⵏ əⵏ ⵛⴾⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵍⵉⵍⵉⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ"
"The director was usually Jules White, whose emphasis on slapstick and farce made most of these films resemble White's famous Three Stooges shorts.","ⵓⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵆ ⵋⵓⵍⴻⵙ ⵓⵂⵉⵜⴻ, ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴾⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⴶⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵜⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⴾⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵟⵔⵓⵉⵙ ⵙⵜⵓⵓⴶⴻⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⵉⵜⴻ"
"However, director White's insistence on blunt, violent gags resulted in the Columbia shorts being the least inventive comedies he made.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵆ, ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⵉⵜⴻ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵆⵙⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⴾⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵉⴰ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵉⴶⵉ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍ"
"He made his last starring feature El Moderno Barba Azul (1946) in Mexico; the film was a low-budget production, and it may not have been seen in the United States until its release on VHS in the 1980s, under the title Boom in the Moon.","ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵍⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵛⵉⴶⵔⴻⵏ ⴰⴾⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵍ ⵎⵓⴷⴻⵔⵏⵓ ⴱⴰⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⵣⵓⵍ ( 1946) ⴷⴰⵆ ⵎⴻⵆⵉⵈⵓⴻ ; ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵆ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴼ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⴰⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵠⵂⵙ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ 1980, ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵎ ⵓⵏ ⵜⵂⴻ ⵎⵓⵓⵏ."
"In In the Good Old Summertime, Keaton personally directed the stars Judy Garland and Van Johnson in their first scene together, where they bump into each other on the street.","ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵓⵂⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵗⴰⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⵂⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⵉⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⵆ"
"Reaction was strong enough for a local Los Angeles station to offer Keaton his own show, also broadcast live, in 1950.","ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⴷⵉⴷ ⵓⵏ ⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴶⴻⵍⴻⵙ ⵉⴼⴰ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⴻⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ, ⵓⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉ, ⴷⴰⵗ 1950"
Buster Keaton's wife Eleanor also was seen in the series (notably as Juliet to Buster's Romeo in a little-theater vignette).,"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ, ⴻⵍⴻⴰⵏⵓⵔ, ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵓⵣⴶⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⵍⵉⴻⵜⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴻⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷ ⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴾⴻⵜ ⵙⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵜ)."
Keaton's periodic television appearances during the 1950s and 1960s helped to revive interest in his silent films.,ⵉⵣⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ 1950 ⴰⴷ 1960 ⴰⵙⴻⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⵉⴻ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ
"Well into his fifties, Keaton successfully recreated his old routines, including one stunt in which he propped one foot onto a table, then swung the second foot up next to it and held the awkward position in midair for a moment before crashing to the stage floor.","ⵙⵓⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴷⴰⴷⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰ ⵓⵉ ⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ, ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⴰⵗ ⵂⴻⵔⴾⵉⵛⵉⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⵉⴷⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵈⴰⵉⵎⵓⵜ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵓⵍⵉⵓⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⴷⵔ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴻⵔⵣⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ"
"""Keaton had prints of the features Three Ages, Sherlock Jr., Steamboat Bill, Jr., and College (missing one reel), and the shorts """"The Boat"""" and """"My Wife's Relations"""", which Keaton and Rohauer then transferred to Cellulose acetate film from deteriorating nitrate film stock.""","""ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴼⵓⵜⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵣⴰⴶⵔⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴾⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⵂⵔⴻⴻ ⴰⴶⴻⵙ, ⵙⵂⴻⵔⵍⵓⵛⴾ ⵋⵔ, ⵙⵜⴻⴰⵎⴱⵓⴰⵜ ⴱⵉⵍⵍ ⵋⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵓⵍⵍⴻⴶⴻ (ⴰⵈⴰⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵉⵏⴻ), ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴶⵉⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵓⵜ """"ⵟⵂⴻ ⴱⵓⴰⵜ"""" ⴰⴷ """"ⵎⵉ ⵓⵉⴼⴻ'ⵙ ⵔⴻⵍⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ"""", ⵓⴰⵙ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵓⵂⴰⵓⴻⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⵓⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴻⵜⴰⵜⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴻⵍⵍⵓⵍⵓⵙⴻ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵜⴻ ⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵛⵉⴷ."
"In a series of silent television commercials for Simon Pure Beer made in 1962 by Jim Mohr in Buffalo, New York, Keaton revisited some of the gags from his silent film days.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⴾⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⵉⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴻ, ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 1962 ⴰⵙ ⵋⵉⵎ ⵎⵓⵂⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵓⴼⴼⴰⵍⵓ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵜⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ, ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵓⵜ ⵏⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵛⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"""In December 1958, Keaton was a guest star in the episode """"A Very Merry Christmas"""" of The Donna Reed Show on ABC.""","""ⴻⴰⵗ ⴷⴻⵛⴻⵎⴱⵔⴻ 1958, ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴶⵓⴻⵙⵜ ⵙⵜⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵉⵍ ""ⴰ ⵠⴻⵔⵉ ⵎⴻⵔⵔⵉ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵜⵎⴰⵙ"""" ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴻⴻⴷ ⵙⵂⵓⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵛ."""
"In 1960, he returned to MGM for the final time, playing a lion tamer in a 1960 adaptation of Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.","ⴻⴰⵗ 1960, ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⴻ ⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵎⵗⵎ, ⵏⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⴷⴻⵔⴶⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵆⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ 1960 ⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴻⵏⵜⵓⵔⴻⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵛⴾⵍⴻⴱⴻⵔⵔⵉ ⴼⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴾ ⵟⵓⴰⵉⵏ"
"""He worked with comedian Ernie Kovacs on a television pilot tentatively titled """"Medicine Man,"""" shooting scenes for it on January 12, 1962—the day before Kovacs died in a car crash. """"""","""ⴰⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⴼⴻⵛⴰⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⵏⵉⴻ ⵆⵓⴱⴰⵛⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵉⵍⵓⵜⴻ ⵉⴻ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⴶⵉⴷ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⴰ ""ⵎⴻⴷⵉⵛⵉⵏⴻ ⵎⴰⵏ"", ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵔⴾⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 12 ⵋⴰⵏⴱⵉⴻⵔ 1962, ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵆⵓⴱⴰⵛⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵆⵍⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴼⵜ."""
"He traveled from one end of Canada to the other on a motorized handcar, wearing his traditional pork pie hat and performing gags similar to those in films that he made 50 years before.","""ⴰⵙⴻⴾⴰⵍ ⵙⴰ ⴼⴰⵉ ⵙⴰⴼⴰⵉ"
"Also in 1965, he traveled to Italy to play a role in Due Marines e un Generale, co-starring Franco Franchi and Ciccio Ingrassia.","ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ 1965, ⵉⴾⴰ Iⵜⴰⵍⵉⴻ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴰⴶⵓ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵓⴻ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵗⴻⵏⴻⵔⴰⵍⴻ, ⴷⴰⵔ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵓ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵂⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵉⵛⵛⵉⵓIⵏⴶⵔⴰⵙⵙⵉⴰ"
"One of his most biting parodies is The Frozen North (1922), a satirical take on William S. Hart's Western melodramas, like Hell's Hinges (1916) and The Narrow Trail (1917).","ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⴶⴱⵓⵔⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵟⵂⴻ ⴼⵔⵓⵣⴻⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵜⵂ ( 1922), ⴰⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵓⴶⴱⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵙⵜⴻⵔⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵙ. ⵂⴰⵔⵜ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⴻⵍⵍ'ⵙ ⵂⵉⵏⴶⴻⵙ (1916) ⴰⴷ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵏⴰⵔⵔⵓⵓ ⵟⵔⴰⵉⵍ ( 1917)."
Audiences of the 1920s recognized the parody and thought the film hysterically funny.,ⴰⴷⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ 1920 ⵉⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵏⴰⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ.
The short also featured the impression of a performing monkey which was likely derived from a co-biller's act (called Peter the Great).,"ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵓⴶⴱⵓⴱⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵍⴰo ⵏⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵏⵉⵂⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⴶⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵓⵎⴻⵔⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓ-ⴱⵉⵍⵍⴻⵔ ( ⴰⵆⵔⴰⵜⵉ ⵙⴰⵙ ⴱⴻⵜⴻⵔ ⵜⵂⴻ ⵗⵔⴻⴰⵜ)."
"""Note: Source misspells Keaton's frequent appellation as """"Great Stoneface"""".""","""ⵙⴰⵈⴰⵉⵎ : ⴰⵛⴰⵛⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵜⴻⵆⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ, ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ """"ⵗⵔⴻⴰⵜ ⵙⵜⵓⵏⴻⴼⴰⵛⴻ"
Keaton dated actress Dorothy Sebastian beginning in the 1920s and Kathleen Key in the early 1930s.,ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴻⵆⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⵜⵂⵉ ⵙⴻⴱⴰⵙⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ 1920 ⴰⴷ ⵆⴰⵜⵂⵍⴻⴻⵏ ⵆⴻⵉ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵏⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ 1930
He escaped a straitjacket with tricks learned from Harry Houdini.,ⴰⴶⵎⴰⴷⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵍⵙⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⴷⵓⵆⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⵂⵓⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉ.
"She filed for divorce in 1935 after finding Keaton with Leah Clampitt Sewell, the wife of millionaire Barton Sewell, in a hotel in Santa Barbara.","ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ 1935 ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵍⴻⴰⵂ ⵛⵍⴰⵎⴱⵉⵜⵜ ⵙⴻⵓⴻⵍ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⴱⴰⴶⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵔⵜⵓⵏ ⵙⴻⵓⴻⵍⵍ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵓⵜⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴱⴰⵔⴱⴰⵔⴰ."
He stopped drinking for five years.,ⵓⵉⴰ ⵜⴻⵙⴰⵙⴻ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ
The marriage lasted until his death.,ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⴶⴰ ⵂⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⴱⴰⵏⴻⵙ.
"Confined to a hospital during his final days, Keaton was restless and paced the room endlessly, desiring to return home.","ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⴰⵆⵍⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⵛⵜⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ, ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵓⵎⵓⴷⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ, ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵣⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵉⵈⵉⵍ ⵆⵓⵔⵉⵙ."
"The screenplay, by Sidney Sheldon, who also directed the film, was loosely based on Keaton's life but contained many factual errors and merged his three wives into one character.","ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ, ⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵙⴷⵏⴻⵉ ⵙⵂⴻⵍⴷⵓⵏ, ⵓⴰ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ, ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵓⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵋⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏⴻⵙ ⵛⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⵉⴰⴷⴰⵗ"
"Dedicated to bringing greater public attention to Keaton's life and work, the membership includes many individuals from the television and film industry: actors, producers, authors, artists, graphic novelists, musicians, and designers, as well as those who simply admire the magic of Buster Keaton.","ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵏⴰⴾ, ⵂⴰⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⴾⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ, ⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵂⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ : ⴰⵎⴰⴶⴰⵏ, ⵓⵉⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⵓⵉⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏⴻ, ⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵓⵉⵏⵛⵉⴾⴻⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ, ⴷⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵆⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵓⵆⵙⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ."
"""Hirschfeld said that modern film stars were more difficult to depict, that silent film comedians such as Laurel and Hardy and Keaton """"looked like their caricatures"""".""","""ⵂⵉⵔⵙⵛⵂⴼⴻⵍⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵆⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⵆⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⴰ ⴷⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⵏⴰ ⵎⵓⴾⵉⵙ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ, ⵓⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⵓⴼⵓⵛⴰⵆ ⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⴰⵓⵔⴻⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴷⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ """"ⴰⵍⴰⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"""""
"""Film critic Roger Ebert stated, """"The greatest of the silent clowns is Buster Keaton, not only because of what he did, but because of how he did it.""","ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⵔⵓⴶⴻⵔ ⴻⴱⴻⵔⵜ ⴰⵍⴰⵆⴰⵜ : ""ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵛⵍⵓⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴶⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⴰ """
"""Filmmaker Mel Brooks has credited Buster Keaton as a major influence, saying: """"I owe (Buster) a lot on two levels: One for being such a great teacher for me as a filmmaker myself, and the other just as a human being watching this gifted person doing these amazing things.""","""ⴰⵓ ⵛⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⵎⴻⵍ ⴱⵔⵓⵓⴾⵙ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ, ⵉⵏⴰ : """"ⴰⵔⵂⴻⵆ ⴰⵋⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ (ⴱⵓⵙⵜⴻⵔ)ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ : ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵉⴶⵔⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵓⵆⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵆⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵂⴰⵂⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵛⵉⵏⴻⴰⵙⵜⴻ, ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⴰⵔⵉⵈⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴶ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵎⴰⵆⵏⴻⵏ."
Actor and stunt performer Johnny Knoxville cites Keaton as an inspiration when coming up with ideas for Jackass projects.,ⴻⵎⴰⴶ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵎⴰⵆⵛⴰⴷ ⵋⵓⵂⵏⵏⵉ ⵆⵏⵓⵆⴱⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⵉⵏⴰ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵛⵉⵍ ⵏⵓⴼⴰⵙ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵋⴰⵛⴾⴰⵙⵙ
Lewis was particularly moved by the fact that Eleanor said his eyes looked like Keaton's.,ⵍⴻⵓⵉⵙ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵉⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⴻⴰⵏⵓⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵆⴻⴰⵜⵓⵏ
"""In 1964, he told an interviewer that in making """"this particular pork pie"""", he """"started with a good Stetson and cut it down"""", stiffening the brim with sugar water.""","""ⴻⴰⵗ 1964, ⵉⵍⵉⵆⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⵉ ""ⵏⴰⵎⵉⵏⵙⵉ ⵏⴰ ⵆⵓⵔⵆⵓⵔⵔⵓ ⵉⴱⴷⴰⵏ"", ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ""ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⵙⵜⴻⵜⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣⵜⵉ"", ⵓⵆⴰⴷ ⴻⴼⴰⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⴰⵔ"
His paternal great-grandparents were Welsh.,ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⵉ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵍⵍⵜⴰⵏ
Lloyd began collaborating with Roach who had formed his own studio in 1913.,ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵔ ⵓⴰⵛⵂ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵙⵜⵓⴷⵉⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ 1913
"In 1919, she left Lloyd to pursue her dramatic aspirations.","ⴻⴰⵗ 1919, ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵍⴾⵉⵎ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵏⴰⴼⵓⵛⴰⵆ"
"Reportedly, the more Lloyd watched Davis the more he liked her.","ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⴻⴰⴱⵉⵙ, ⴰ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⵎⵉⵍ"
"Harold Lloyd would move away from tragicomic personas, and portray an everyman with unwavering confidence and optimism.",ⵂⴰⵔⵓⵍⴷ ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⴾⴰⵛⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵏⵓⴼⵓⵛⴰⵆ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⵉⴷⵉⵙ
"""To create his new character Lloyd donned a pair of lensless horn-rimmed glasses but wore normal clothing; previously, he had worn a fake mustache and ill-fitting clothes as the Chaplinesque """"Lonesome Luke"""". """"""","""ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵓⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ, ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵍⴻⵏⵜⵉⵍⵍⴻ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵙⵓ ⴾⴰⵔⵛⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵆⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ; ⴷⴰⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⵉⴶⴰ ⵉⵣⴰⵎⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵍⵛⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⴱⵍⵉⵏⴻⵙⵈⵓⴻ """"ⵍⵓⵏⴻⵙⵓⵎⴻ ⵍⵓⴾⴻ""""."
"""They were natural and the romance could be believable.""""""","""ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵆⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵔⴷⴰ."""
"On Sunday, August 24, 1919, while posing for some promotional still photographs in the Los Angeles Witzel Photography Studio, he picked up what he thought was a prop bomb and lit it with a cigarette.","ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷ 24 ⴰⵓⵓⵜ 1919 ⵉⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⴷⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵓⵣⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⵜⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵂⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵆ ⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵜⵉⵜ ⵓⵉⴶⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⵂⴰⵆ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵓⴻⵏ(ⴼⵓⵜⵓⵜⴰⵏ) ⵓⵉⵜⵣⴻⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴶⴻⵍⴻⵙ,ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵈⵉⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴼⴰⵈ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵆⴻⵜ ⵙⴰⴱⴻⵏ"
"Lloyd was in the act of lighting a cigarette from the fuse of the bomb when it exploded, also badly burning his face and chest and injuring his eye.",ⵍIⵓⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰ ⵉⵙⵂⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵆ ⵏⴰⴱⴻⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵍⴻ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴼⴰⵈ ⴻⵏⴷⴰⵆ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴱⴱⵓⵈⴰⵜ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵆ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵉⴷⵉⵎ ⴷ’ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⵉⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⴻ
"Lloyd and Roach parted ways in 1924, and Lloyd became the independent producer of his own films.","ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵔⵓⴰⵛⵂ ⵉⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ 1924, ⵗⴰⵙ ⵍIⵓⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴻⵎⴰⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ ⵏⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⵉⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ"
"All of these films were enormously successful and profitable, and Lloyd would eventually become the highest paid film performer of the 1920s.","ⴼⵉⵍⵎⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵔⴻⵂ ⴷⵉⵜⵓⴰⵔⵂ ⵙⵉⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⵆ ⴰⵛⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴼ, ⵍIⵓⵉⴷ ⵉⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵎⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵉⵏ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 1920."
"However, his go-getting screen character was out of touch with Great Depression movie audiences of the 1930s.",ⵆⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵓⵂⵉⵛⵓⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵂⴻⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⵎⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴱⵉⵉⵜⵉⵍ ⵏⴻⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 1930
"On March 23, 1937, Lloyd sold the land of his studio, Harold Lloyd Motion Picture Company, to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.","ⵆⵓⵔ 23 ⵎⴰⵔⵙ 1937, ⵍIⵓⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵛⵉⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⴰⴶ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⵎⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵓⵂⴰⵆ, ⵆⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⵍⴷ ⵍIⵓⵉⴷ ⵎⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⵜⵓⵔⴻ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⴰⵏⵉ ,ⵉⴻ ⵍ’ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵙⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⴻⵙⵓ-ⵛⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜⵙ ⵉⵏ ⵛⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ"
"He returned for an additional starring appearance in The Sin of Harold Diddlebock, an ill-fated homage to Lloyd's career, directed by Preston Sturges and financed by Howard Hughes.","Iⵈⴰⵍⵉⴷ ⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵋ ⴰⴼⵓⴾⵉⵔ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵔⵓⵍⴷ ⴻⵉⴷⴷⵍⴻⴱⵓⵛⴾ, ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵓⴶⵔⴻⵂ ⵓⵗⵛⴰⴷ ⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵏ ⵍIⵓⵉⴷ, ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⴾ ⴱⵔⴻⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⵙⵜⵓⵔⴶⴻⵙ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵂⵓⴶⵂⴻⵙ."
"""Lloyd and Sturges had different conceptions of the material and fought frequently during the shoot; Lloyd was particularly concerned that while Sturges had spent three to four months on the script of the first third of the film, """"the last two-thirds of it he wrote in a week or less"""".""","""ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵓⵔⴶⴻⵙ ⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ; ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵛⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵙ ⵙⵜⵓⵔⴶⴻⵙ ⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⴾⵓⵣ ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵛⵔⵉⴱⵜ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ """"ⵓⵉⵏⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⴰ ⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵆ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ"""
"Some saw The Old Gold Comedy Theater as being a lighter version of Lux Radio Theater, and it featured some of the best-known film and radio personalities of the day, including Fred Allen, June Allyson, Lucille Ball, Ralph Bellamy, Linda Darnell, Susan Hayward, Herbert Marshall, Dick Powell, Edward G. Robinson, Jane Wyman, and Alan Young.","Iⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ Oⵍⴷ ⵗⵓⵍⴷ ⵛⵓⵎⴻⴷⵉ ⵟⵂⴻⴰⵜⴻⵔ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵙⵓⵙⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ Lⵓⵆ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⵓⵏ ⵟⵂⴻⴰⵜⴻⵔ, ⴰⴷ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴰⵣ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴻⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵓ, ⵓⵉⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵔⴻⴷ ⴰⵍⵍⴻⵏ, ⵋⵓⵏⴻ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⵙⵓⵏ, ⵍⵓⵛⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴱⴰⵍⵍ, ⵔⴰⵍⴱⵂ ⴱⴻⵍⵍⴰⵎⵉ, ⵍⵉⵏⴷⴰ ⴻⴰⵔⵏⴻⵍⵍ ⵙⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵉⵓⴰⵔⴷ, ⵂⴻⵔⴱⴻⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⴰⵍⵍ, ⴻⵉⵛⴾ ⴱⵓⵓⴻⵍⵍ, ⴻⴷⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵗ. ⵔ ⵓⴱⵉⵏⵙⵓⵏ, ⵋⴰⵏⴻ ⵓⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ Aⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵓⵏⴶ"
"Many years later, acetate discs of 29 of the shows were discovered in Lloyd's home, and they now circulate among old-time radio collectors.","ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵉⵙⵈⵓⴻ ⴰⵛⴻⵜⴰⵜⴻ ⵓⵉ 29 ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵜⵓⵏⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⵔ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ, ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴶⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰ ⴶⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ"
"He was a Past Potentate of Al-Malaikah Shrine in Los Angeles, and was eventually selected as Imperial Potentate of the Shriners of North America for the year 1949–50.","ⵓⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴶⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵉⴾⴰⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴶⴻⵍⴻⵙ, ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴾⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵆⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵔⵉⵏⴻⵔⵙ ⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1949-50."
"Lloyd was invested with the Rank and Decoration of Knight Commander Court of Honour in 1955 and coroneted an Inspector General Honorary, 33°, in 1965.","ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵆⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵙⵉⵛⵂⴰⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵍⵓⴶⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵓⵙⵓⵂⴰ ⵏⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ 1955 ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵎⵓⴾⵍⴰ Iⵏⵙⴱⴻⵛⵜⴻⵓⵔ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍ, 33⁰, ⴷⴰⵗ 1965"
"It said, as first step, Lloyd will write the story of his life for Simon and Schuster.","ⴰⵍⴰⵆⴰⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ, ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⵜⵉⴱ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⴻ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⴷ ⵙⵛⵂⵓⵙⵜⴻⵔ."
"He became known for his nude photographs of models, such as Bettie Page and stripper Dixie Evans, for a number of men's magazines.","ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵜⵓⵜⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵙⴰ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⴻⵜⵜⵉⴻ ⴱⴰⴶⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵔⵉⴱ-ⵜⴻⴰⵙⴻⵓⵙⴻ ⴻⵉⵆⵉⴻ ⴻⴱⴰⵏⵙ, ⵉⴻ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⴰⵣⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⴷⵉⵏ"
"""We never intended them to be played with pianos.""""""","""ⵆⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⵔⴻⵛ ⴰⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓ ⵏⴰ ⵏⵉⴷⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴱⵉⴰⵏⴰⵙ."""
"""They've come close to it, but they haven't come all the way up"""".""","""Oⵂⴰⵣⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⵉⴶⵍⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷ ⵓ""""."
"In the early 1960s, Lloyd produced two compilation films, featuring scenes from his old comedies, Harold Lloyd's World of Comedy and The Funny Side of Life.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜo ⵏⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ 1960, ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⵉⴼⴰ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ,ⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ, ⵂⴰⵔⵓⵍⴷ ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ'ⵙ ⵍⵓⵔⵍⴷ ⵓⴼ ⵛⵓⵎⴻⴷⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵟⵂⴻ ⴼⵓⵏⵏⵉ ⵙⵉⴷⴻ ⵓⴼ ⵍⵉⴼⴻ."
"Time-Life released several of the feature films more or less intact, also using some of Scharf's scores which had been commissioned by Lloyd.","ⵜⵉⵎⴻ-ⵍⵉⴼⴻ ⴰⵣⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵉⵣⴰⴶⵔⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵏⴻⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⵉⴷⵉⵙ, ⴷⴰⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵛⵂⴰⵔⴼ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵂⵉⵙ ⵉⵏⵉⵂⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ."
"The Brownlow and Gill documentary was shown as part of the PBS series American Masters, and created a renewed interest in Lloyd's work in the United States, but the films were largely unavailable.","ⴰⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵓⵏⵍⵓⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵗⵉⵍⵍ ⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴻⵔⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵜⴻⵔⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴱⵙ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⵓⵎⵓⵙⵓⵆⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵉⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵙ ⵂⵓⵔⵓⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⵍⴻⵏⴰⵜ"
"""They also adopted Gloria Freeman (1924–1986) in September 1930, whom they renamed Marjorie Elizabeth Lloyd but was known as """"Peggy"""" for most of her life.""","""ⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵗⵍⵓⵔⵉⴰ ⴼⵔⴻⴻⵎⴰⵏ (1924-1986) ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴻⴱⵜⴻⵎⴱⵔⴻ 1930, ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵎⴰⵔⵋⵓⵔⵉⴻ ⴻⵍⵉⵣⴰⴱⴻⵜⵂ ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ """"ⴱⴻⴶⴶⵉ"""" ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻⵏⴻⵙ"""
"Davis died from a heart attack in 1969, two years before Lloyd's death.","ⴻⴰⴱⵉⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵜⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴷⴻ ⵏⵓⵍⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ 1969, ⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ."
"In 1925, at the height of his movie career, Lloyd entered into Freemasonry at the Alexander Hamilton Lodge No.","ⵗⵓⵔ 1925,ⴶⵓⵔⴻ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ,ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⴶⴰⵔ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⴻⵆⴰⵏⴷⴻⵔ ⵂⴰⵎⵉⵍⵜⵓⵏ ⵍⵉⴷⴶⴻ ⵏⵓ."
"In 1926, he became a 32° Scottish Rite Mason in the Valley of Los Angeles, California.","ⵗⵓⵔ 1926, ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵎⴰⵙⴻⵈⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ 32° ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵛⵓⵙⵙⴻ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴻⴱⴰⴶⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴶⴻⵍⴻⵙ, ⴶⵓⵔ ⵛⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵉⴻ"
A portion of Lloyd's personal inventory of his silent films (then estimated to be worth $2 million) was destroyed in August 1943 when his film vault caught fire.,ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴶⵓⵔ 2 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔⵙ) ⴻⴾⵛⵂⴰⴷ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⵓⵜ 1943 ⴰⵙ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴻⵔⵆⴰ.
The fire spared the main house and outbuildings.,ⵜⴻⵔⴰⵆⴻ ⵜⵓⵉⴰⵂⵉⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ.
Lloyd was honored in 1960 for his contribution to motion pictures with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 1503 Vine Street.,ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰ ⵙⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⵆⴰⵔ ⴶⵓⵔ 1960 ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵍⵜ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵜⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵓⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵍⴾ ⵓⴼ ⴼⴰⵎⴻ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴶ ⵓⵔ 1503 ⵠⵉⵏⴻ ⵙⵜⵔⴻⴻⵜ
"The second citation was a snub to Chaplin, who at that point had fallen foul of McCarthyism and had his entry visa to the United States revoked.","ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵛⵂⴰⴱⵍⵉⵏ, ⴰⵏⵜⴰ, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⴶ,ⴰⴷ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵉ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⴱⵉⵙⴰ ⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵓⴶⵓⵉⵛⵂ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ"
"Gladys Marie Smith (April 8, 1892 – May 29, 1979), known professionally as Mary Pickford, was a Canadian-American film actress and producer with a career that spanned five decades.","ⵗⵍⴰⴷⵉⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴻ ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵂ ( 8 ⴰⴱⵔⵉⵍ 1892-29 ⵎⴰⵉ 1979), ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵛⵂⴰⴶⴰⵍⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴱⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ,ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵙⴻⵙⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⴶⵓⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⵓ-ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏⴻ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵓⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⴶ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ"
"Her father, John Charles Smith was the son of English Methodist immigrants, and worked a variety of odd jobs.","ⵜⵉⵙⵙ, ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵍⴻⵙ ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵂ,ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵔⵓⵔⴻⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴶⵍⴰⵉⵙ,ⵉⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ"
"To please her husband's relatives, Pickford's mother baptized her children as Methodists, the religion of their father.","ⵗⴻ ⵓⴶⵔⴰⵣ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙ ⵏⴻⵙⵙ, ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⴾⴼⴰ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ,ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏ"
"Gladys, her mother and two younger siblings toured the United States by rail, performing in third-rate companies and plays.","ⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⵜⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴻⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵣⵉⵔⴶⵓⵉ,ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵈⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵎ."
"Gladys finally landed a supporting role in a 1907 Broadway play, The Warrens of Virginia.","ⵗⵍⴰⴷⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⴰⴷⵓⴰⵉ ⴶⵓⵔ 1907, ⵟⵂⴻ ⵓⴰⵔⵔⴻⵏⵙ ⵓⴼ ⴱⵉⵔⴶⵉⵏⵉⴰ."
"After completing the Broadway run and touring the play, however, Pickford was again out of work.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏ,ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⴰⴷⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ, ⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵉⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⴶⴰⵍ."
She quickly grasped that movie acting was simpler than the stylized stage acting of the day.,ⵜⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵛⵉⴾ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵔⴰⵈⵉⵙⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
"As Pickford said of her success at Biograph:I played scrubwomen and secretaries and women of all nationalities ... I decided that if I could get into as many pictures as possible, I'd become known, and there would be a demand for my work.","ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵏⴰ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂ : "" Iⴷⴰⵍⴰⴶ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍ, ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵉⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴾⵓⵍ…"". Iⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⴶ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵆ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ,ⴰⴷ ⵣⵓⵣⵉⵉⴰⵆ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵉⵍⵜ ⵉⴰ ⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵏ"
"In January 1910, Pickford traveled with a Biograph crew to Los Angeles.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵋⴰⵏⴱⵉⴻⵔ 1910, ⴱ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵉⴾⴰ ⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴶⴻⵍⴻⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂ"
Actors were not listed in the credits in Griffith's company.,Iⵎⴰⵙⵓⵙⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵣⴶⴻⵔⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜⵂ.
Pickford left Biograph in December 1910.,ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴷⴻⵛⴻⵎⴱⵔⴻ 1910.
She returned to Broadway in the David Belasco production of A Good Little Devil (1912).,"ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴱⵔⵓⴰⴷⵓⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵣⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⴱⴻⵍⴰⵙⵛⵓ, ⴰ ⵗⵓⵓⴷ ⵍⵉⵜⵜⵍⴻ ⴻⴻⴱⵉⵍ (1912)."
"In 1913, she decided to work exclusively in film.","ⵗⵓⵔ 1913, ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵉⴻ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙⵙ."
Pickford left the stage to join Zukor's roster of stars.,ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴶⵉⵛ ⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵌⵓⴾⵓⵔ
"Comedy-dramas, such as In the Bishop's Carriage (1913), Caprice (1913), and especially Hearts Adrift (1914), made her irresistible to moviegoers.","Iⵙⵓⵙⵜⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ,ⵙⵓⵏⴷ Iⵏ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴱⵛⵓⴱ’ⵙ ⵛⴰⵔⵔⵉⴰⴶⴻ (1913), ⵛⴰⴱⵔⵉⵛⴻ (1913), ⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵂⴻⴰⵔⵜⵙ ⴰⴷⵔⵉⴼⵜ (1914),ⵉⴶⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵎⴰⵔ ⵉⴻ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ"
Tess of the Storm Country was released five weeks later.,ⵜⴻⵙⵙ ⵓⴼ ⵜⵂⴻ ⵙⵜⵓⵔⵎ ⵛⵓⵓⵏⵜⵉ ⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⵂⴻⴱⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ.
"Only Charlie Chaplin, who slightly surpassed Pickford's popularity in 1916, had a similarly spellbinding pull with critics and the audience.","ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵍⵉⴻ ⵛⵂⴰⴱⵍⵉⵏ ⵆⴰⵙ, ⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵣⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴶⵓⵔ 1916,ⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⵔⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵣⵎⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ."
She also became vice-president of Pickford Film Corporation.,ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵓⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵓⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ.
"Due to her lack of a normal childhood, she enjoyed making these pictures.","ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ ⵏⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰⵜ, ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵉⴶⵓⵉ ⵓⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ."
"In August 1918, Pickford's contract expired and, when refusing Zukor's terms for a renewal, she was offered $250,000 to leave the motion picture business.","ⴻⴰⵆ ⴰⵓⵓⵜ 1918, ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⴶⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵍⵎⴰⵆⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⵓⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴰ ⵤⵓⴾⵓⵔ, ⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⴰⴼⵓ 250 000 $ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⴼⵉⵍ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ."
"Through United Artists, Pickford continued to produce and perform in her own movies; she could also distribute them as she chose.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵏⵉⵜⴻⴷ, ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵂⵓⴾ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏⴻⵙⵙ ; ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴷⴻⴶ ⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ."
"""During this period, she also made Little Annie Rooney (1925), another film in which Pickford played a child, Sparrows (1926), which blended the Dickensian with newly minted German expressionist style, and My Best Girl (1927), a romantic comedy featuring her future husband Charles """"Buddy"""" Rogers.""",""" ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⴰⵜ,ⵜⴰⴶⴰ ⵍⵉⵜⵜⵍⴻ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⴻ ⵔⵓⵓⵏⴻⵉ (1925),ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴰⵔⴰ,ⵙⴱⴰⵔⵔⵓⵓⵙ (1926),ⴰⵙⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⵉⵛⴾⴻⵏⵙⵉⴻⵏ ⴶⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴻⵎⴰⵏⴷ,ⴰⴷ ⵎⵉ ⴱⴻⵙⵜ ⵗⵉⵔⵍ (1927),ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⴻⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵙⴰⵔⵍⴻⵙ """" ⴱⵓⴷⴷⵉ"""" ⵔⵓⴶⴻⵔⵙ""."
"She played a reckless socialite in Coquette (1929), her first talkie, a role for which her famous ringlets were cut into a 1920s' bob.","ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵉⴻ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵎⴻⴶ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵛⵓⵈⵓⴻⵜⵜⴻ (1929), ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰ,ⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵉⴻ ⵉⴰⵔⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⴱⵓⵜ ⵏⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 1920."
The public failed to respond to her in the more sophisticated roles.,ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰⵜ.
Established Hollywood actors were panicked by the impending arrival of the talkies.,Iⵎⴰⵙⵓⵙⵜⴰ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵓⵓⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ
She retired from film acting in 1933 following three costly failures with her last film appearance being Secrets.,"ⵜⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴶⵓⵔ 1933 ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴻⵏ,ⴰⵣⴰⴶⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴼⴰⵔ."
"During World War I she promoted the sale of Liberty Bonds, making an intensive series of fund-raising speeches, beginning in Washington, D.C., where she sold bonds alongside Charlie Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, Theda Bara, and Marie Dressler.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⴶ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵏⵛ ⵓⴰⵏ Lⵉⴱⴻⵔⵜⵉ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵙ,ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵆⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⵓⵜⴻ,ⴶⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴶⵓⵔ Wⴰⵙⵂⵉⵏⴶⵜⵓⵏ,ⴷⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⵛⴰ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴻⴷⴻⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵔⵉⴻ ⵙⴰⴱⵍⵉⵏ, ⴻⵓⵓⴶⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵉⵔⴱⴰⵏⴾⵙ, ⵟⵂⴻⴷⴰ ⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵔⵉⴻ ⴻⵔⴻⵙⵙⵍⴻⵔ."
"In a single speech in Chicago, she sold an estimated five million dollars' worth of bonds.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵎⵉⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⴰⴶⵓ,ⵜⴰⵛⴰⵏⵛⴰ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵓⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵏ ⴷⵍⵍⴰⵔ ⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵛⵉⵍⵜ."
"At the end of World War I, Pickford conceived of the Motion Picture Relief Fund, an organization to help financially needy actors.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵏⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ, ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵎⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⵜⵓⵔⴻ ⵔⴻⵍⵉⴻⴼ ⴼⵓⵏⴷ, ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ."
"As a result, in 1940, the Fund was able to purchase land and build the Motion Picture Country House and Hospital, in Woodland Hills, California.","ⴻⴰⴶ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉ,ⴶⵓⵔ 1940,ⴰⴶⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴰⵏⵛⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵓⵈⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⵜⵓⵔⴻ ⵛⵓⵓⵏⵜⵔⵉ ⵂⵓⵙⴻ ⴰⵏⴷ ⵂⵓⵙⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⴶⵓⵔ ⵓⵓⵓⴷⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵂⵉⵍⵍⵙ, ⴶⵓⵔ ⵛⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵉⴻ."
"She demanded (and received) these powers in 1916, when she was under contract to Zukor's Famous Players in Famous Plays (later Paramount).","ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏ (ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓ) ⴰⵏəⵎⵓⴾⵓⵍ ⴶⵓⵔ 1916,ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴼⴰⵎⵓⵓⵙ ⴱⵍⴰⵉⴻⵔⵙ ⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵎⴱⵓⵙ ⴱⵍⴰⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵤⵓⴾⴱⵔ(ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵎⵓⵓⵏⵜ)."
The Mary Pickford Corporation was briefly Pickford's motion-picture production company.,ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵓⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ
Distributors (also part of the studios) arranged for company productions to be shown in the company's movie venues.,Iⵎⵓⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ (ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴻⴶ ⵙⵜⵓⴷⵉⵓⵜⴰⵏ) ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴶⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ.
"It was solely a distribution company, offering independent film producers access to its own screens as well as the rental of temporarily unbooked cinemas owned by other companies.","""ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴶⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ, ⵂⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵎⴰⴶⴰⵏ"
"As a co-founder, as well as the producer and star of her own films, Pickford became the most powerful woman who has ever worked in Hollywood.","ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍⵜ,ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⴶⵓⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏⴻⵙⵙ,ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵓⵓⴷ."
She and Chaplin remained partners in the company for decades.,"""ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⴱⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ"
It is rumored she became pregnant by Moore in the early 1910s and had a miscarriage or an abortion.,ⵏⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵎⵓⵓⵔⴻ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 1910 ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴶⵛⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵎⴻⴶ ⵜⴰⴶⵛⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ
The couple lived together on-and-off for several years.,Iⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ
"Around this time, Pickford also suffered from the flu during the 1918 flu pandemic.","ⴻⴰⴶ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵏ,ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴾⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵉⴱⴱⴻ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵉⴱⴱⴻ ⴶⵓⵔ 1918"
They went to Europe for their honeymoon; fans in London and in Paris caused riots trying to get to the famous couple.,ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ; ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵔⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⴷⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵉⵔⵓⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵣ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵣⵉ
Pickford continued to epitomize the virtuous but fiery girl next door.,ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵛⴰⴷⵉⴶⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵂⴰⵣ.
"Foreign heads of state and dignitaries who visited the White House often asked if they could also visit Pickfair, the couple's mansion in Beverly Hills.","Iⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵜⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵎⴶⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⴰⵉⵔ,ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵈ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴱⴻⴱⴻⵔⵍⵉ ⵂⵉⵍⵍⵙ."
"Other guests included George Bernard Shaw, Albert Einstein, Elinor Glyn, Helen Keller, H. G. Wells, Lord Mountbatten, Fritz Kreisler, Amelia Earhart, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Noël Coward, Max Reinhardt, Baron Nishi, Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Austen Chamberlain, Sir Harry Lauder, and Meher Baba, among others.","ⵗⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⵗⴻⵓⵔⴶⴻ ⴱⴻⵔⵏⴰⵔⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⵓ, ⴰⵍⴱⴻⵔⵜ ⴻⵉⵏⵙⵜⴻⵉⵏ, ⴻⵍⵉⵏoⵔ ⵗⵍⵉⵏ, ⵂⴻⵍⴻⵏ ⵆⴻⵍⵍⴻⵔ, ⵂ. ⵓⴻⵍⵍⵙ, ⵍⵓⵔⴷ ⵎⵓⵓⵏⵜⴱⴰⵜⵜⴻⵏ, ⴼⵔⵉⵜⵣ ⵆⵔⴻⵉⵙⵍⴻⵔ,ⴰⵎⴻⵍⵉⴰ ⴻⴰⵔⵂⴰⵔⵜ,ⴼ. ⵙⵛⵓⵜⵜ ⵠⵍⴰⴷⵎⵉⵔ ⵏⴻⵎⵉⵔⵓⴱⵉⵛⵂ-ⴻⴰⵏⵛⵂⴻⵏⴾⵓ, ⵙⵉⵔ ⴰⵔⵜⵂⵓⵔ ⵛⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵉⵍⴻ, ⴰⵓⵙⵜⴻⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵎⴱⴻⵔⵍⴰⵉⵏ, ⵙⵉⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⵓⴷⴻⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴻⵂⴻⵔ ⴱⴱⴰ,ⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⴰⵏ ."
"They were also constantly on display as America's unofficial ambassadors to the world, leading parades, cutting ribbons, and making speeches.","ⵌⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴷⴻⴶ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵂⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ,ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ,ⵜⵉⴾⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⴾⴰⵔⵛⴰⵉⵜ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵜⵓ."
"They divorced January 10, 1936.",ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ 10 ⵋⴰⵏⴱⵉⴻⵔ 1936.
"She criticized their physical imperfections, including Ronnie's small stature and Roxanne's crooked teeth.","ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵎ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⴶⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⴱⴰⴷⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵏⵏⵉⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵆⴰⵏⵏⴻ."
"Her siblings, Lottie and Jack, both died of alcohol-related causes in 1936 and 1933, respectively.","ⴰⵉⵜⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵛⴰⵜⵎⴰⵙ, ⵍⵓⵜⵜⵉⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵋⴰⵛⴾ, ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⴶⵓⵔ 1936 ⴰⴷ 1933, ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵣⴰⵔ."
"Pickford withdrew and gradually became a recluse, remaining almost entirely at Pickfair and allowing visits only from Lillian Gish, her stepson Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and few other people.","ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⴾⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴾⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏ,ⵜⴰⵈⵉⵎⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⴰⵉⵔ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵔⴰⴷⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵙⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⵉⵛ,ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴻⵓⵓⴶⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵉⵔⴱⴰⵏⴾⵙ ⵋⵔ. ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ"
"She appeared in court in 1959, in a matter pertaining to her co-ownership of North Carolina TV station WSJS-TV.","ⵙⴰⵎⴰⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵂⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴶⵓⵔ 1959, ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴱⵉⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵓⵙⵋⵙ-ⵟⵠ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵛⴰⵔⵓⵍⵉⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ."
"""Charles """"Buddy"""" Rogers often gave guests tours of Pickfair, including views of a genuine western bar Pickford had bought for Douglas Fairbanks, and a portrait of Pickford in the drawing room.""",""" ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵍⴻⵙ """"ⴱⵓⴷⴷⵉ"""" ⵔⵓⴶⴻⵔⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⴶⵓ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⴰⵓⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵏⴰⴼⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⴰⵉⵔ, ⴰⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵙⵜⴻⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵛⴰⵛⴰ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵉⴻ ⴹⵉⵓⴶⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵉⵔⴱⴰⵏⴾⵙ, ⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ""."
"She also owned a house in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.","ⵆⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⴰ ⴷⴻⴶ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵟⵓⵔⵓⵏⵜⵓ,ⴷⴰⴶ Oⵏⵜⴰⵔⵉⵓ, ⴶⵓⵔ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ."
"Her handprints and footprints are displayed at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, California.","ⴰⴷⴰⵔⵉⵛ ⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵗⵔⴰⵓⵎⴰⵏ’ⵙ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴻⵙⴻ ⵟⵂⴻⴰⵜⵔⴻ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵓⵓⴷ,ⴶⵓⵔ ⵛⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵉⴻ."
The Mary Pickford Theater at the James Madison Memorial Building of the Library of Congress is named in her honor.,ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵟⵂⴻⴰⵜⴻⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵎⴻⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵙⵓⵏ ⵎⴻⵎⵓⵔⵉⴰⵍ ⴱⵓⵉⵍⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎ.
"A first-run movie theatre in Cathedral City, California is called The Mary Pickford Theatre, which was established on May 25, 2001.","ⴶⵓⵔ ⵛⴰⵜⵂⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵛⵉⵜⵉ,ⴶⵓⵔ ⵛⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵉⴻ,ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵟⵂⴻⴰⵜⴻⵔ, ⵓⴰ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ 25 ⵎⴰⵉ 2001."
"Among them are a rare and spectacular beaded gown she wore in the film Dorothy Vernon of Haddon Hall (1924) designed by Mitchell Leisen, her special Oscar, and a jewelry box.","ⵗⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ,ⵏⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴻⵔⴰⵙⵓⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴶⵓⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⵔⴰⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙⴻ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⵜⵂⵉ ⵠⴻⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⵓⴼ ⵂⴰⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵂⴰⵍⵍ (1924),ⵜⴰⴾⵔⴰⵛ ⵎⵉⵜⵛⴻⵍⵍ ⵍⴻⵉⵙⴻⵏ,ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴾⴱⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴶⵓⴰⵏⴻⵏ."
"The family home had been demolished in 1943, and many of the bricks delivered to Pickford in California.","ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴶⴰⵂⴰⵍ ⴻⴶⵛⴰⴷ ⴶⵓⵔ 1943, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵂⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵛⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵉⴻ."
"In 1993, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars was dedicated to her.","ⵗⵓⵔ 1993, ⵗⵓⵍⴷⴻⵏ ⴱⴰⵍⵎ ⵙⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵍⵎ ⵙⴱⵔⵉⵏⴶⵙ ⵓⴰⵍⴾ ⵓⴼ ⵙⵜⴰⵔⵙ."
"From January 2011 until July 2011, the Toronto International Film Festival exhibited a collection of Mary Pickford memorabilia in the Canadian Film Gallery of the TIFF Bell LightBox building.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵋⴰⵏⴱⵉⴻⵔ 2011 ⵂⴰⵔ ⵋⵓⵉⵍⵍⴻⵜ 2011,ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴶⴰⵔ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⵓⵔⵓⵏⵜⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⴶⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵗⴰⵍⵍⴻⵔⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵆⴰⵛⴰⵎⵜ ⴱⴻⵍⵍ ⵍⵉⴶⵂⵜⴱⵓⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵉⴼⴼ."
It was donated to Keene State College and is currently undergoing restoration by the Library of Congress for exhibition.,ⵟⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴾⴼⴰ ⵉⴻ ⵆⴻⴻⵏⴻ ⵙⵜⴰⵜⴻ ⵛⵓⵍⵍⴻⴶⴻ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵂⴰ ⴷⴰⴱⴻⵔⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵍⵉⴱⵔⴰⵔⵉ ⵓⴼ ⵛⵓⵏⴶⵔⴻⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ.
"The Google Doodle of April 8, 2017 commemorated Mary Pickford's 125th birthday.",ⵗⵓⵓⴶⵍⴻ ⴻⵓⵓⴷⵍⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ 8 ⴰⴱⵔⵉⵍ 2017 ⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵙ 125 ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵓ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴱⵉⵛⴾⴼⵓⵔⴷ
"Gloria Josephine May Swanson (March 27, 1899 – April 4, 1983) was an American actress, producer, and businesswoman.","ⵗⵍⵉⵔⵉⴰ ⵋⵓⵙⴻⴱⵂⵉⵏⴻ ⵎⴰⵉ ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ(27ⵎⴰⵔⵙ 1899-4 ⴰⴱⵔⵉⵍ 1983) ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴰⵍⵜ,ⵜⴻⵎⴰⴶⵓⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ."
Her schoolgirl crush on Essanay Studios actor Francis X. Bushman led to her aunt taking her to tour the actor's Chicago studio.,ⵜⴰⴾⴰⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵆⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙ ⵆ. ⴱⵓⵛⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ Eⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⵙⵜⵓⴷⵉⵓⵙ ⵉⵓⴰⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵙⵜⵓⴷⵉⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵛⵉⵛⴰⴶⵓ
"Her sound film debut performance in the 1929 The Trespasser, earned her a second Academy Award nomination.","ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ,ⵟⵂⴻ ⵜⵔⴻⵙⴱⴰⵙⵙⴻⵔ,ⴶⵓⵔ 1929,ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵏⵣⵉ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ Oⵙⵛⴰⵔⵙ"
"Her father was a Swedish American and her mother was of German, French, and Polish ancestry.","ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⴾⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴻⴷⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵓⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴻⵎⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ, ⵓⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵏⴻⵜⴰⵏ."
"In either version, she was soon hired as an extra.","ⴻⴰⴶ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉ,ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵛⵉⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍⵜ."
"Her first role was a brief walk-on with actress Gerda Holmes, that paid an enormous (in those days) $3.25.","ⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⵉ ⴶⴰⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵗⴻⵔⴷⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵎⴻⵙ,ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴰⴶⴻⵏ (ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ) ⴰⵏ 3,25 ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔⵙ"
"In 1915, she co-starred in Sweedie Goes to College with her future first husband Wallace Beery.","ⵗⵓⵔ 1915,ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⵓⴻⴻⴷⵉⴻ ⵗⵓⴻⵙ ⵜ ⵓ ⵛ ⵓⵍⵍⴻⴶⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⵍⴰⵛⴻ ⴱⴻⴻⵔⵉ."
Vernon and Swanson projected a great screen chemistry that proved popular with audiences.,ⵠⴻⵔⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⴰ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ.
Badger was sufficiently impressed by Swanson to recommend her to the director Jack Conway for Her Decision and You Can't Believe Everything in 1918.,ⴱⴰⴷⴶⴻⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴶⴰⴷⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴷⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵎⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴰ ⵎⴰⴶⵛⵂⴰⴷ ⵋⴰⵛⴾ ⵛⵓⵏⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1918.
"1920), Something to Think About (1920), and The Affairs of Anatol (1921) soon followed.","1920), ⴰⵏⵉⵣⴶⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⵂⴰⵣ (1920),ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵜⵓⵍ (1921) ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⵛⵂⵉⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏⴻ."
"He had become a star in 1921 for his appearance in The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, but Swanson had known him since his days as an aspiring actor getting small parts, with no seeming hope for his professional future.","ⵆⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⵉⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1921 ⵉⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⴶⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴾⵓⵣ ⵉⴱⵉⴶⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴻⵂⵉ ⵎⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏⴻ ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵉⵜⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵏⴻ ⴷⵉⵂⴰ ⴷⵉⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵎⴰⵙⵓⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⵉⴱⴰⵏ-ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⵔⵉⵙⵜ-ⵏⴻⵙⵙ."
Filming was allowed for the first time at many of the historic sites relating to Napoleon.,Iⵙⵙⴰⴼⵉⵍⴰⵓⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⴶoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⵙⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵉ Nⴰⴱⵓⵍⴻ ⵓⵏ.
"At the time, Swanson was considered the most bankable star of her era.","ⴻⴰⴶ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴻ, ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴻⴾⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴻ"
"The production was a disaster, with Parker being indecisive and the actors not experienced enough to deliver the performances she wanted.","ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏⴻ ⵉⵉ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵙⵙⴻⵜ, ⴱⴰⵔⴾⴻⵔ ⴻⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵔⴷⴰ, ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵓⵙⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⴻⴾⴻⵍ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏⴻ ⵉⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⴼⵉⵏⴻ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ-ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ."
"The members took further steps by registering their discontent with Will H. Hays, Chairman of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America.","ⴰⵉⵜⴻⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏⴻ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ-ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⵉⴷⴰⵏⴻ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴻ ⵉⵉ ⵓⵉⵍⵍ ⵂ. ⵂⴰⵉⴻⵙ, ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏⴻ ⴰⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵏⴻ ⵏⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵛ."
"Hays was enthusiastic about the basic story, but did have specific issues that were dealt with before the film's release.","ⵂⴰⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵎⴰⵔ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏⴻ ⴰⵛⵂⴻⴶⴰⵍⴰⵏⴻ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⴰⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ."
He proposed to personally bankroll her next picture and conducted a thorough examination of her financial records.,ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵜⴰ-ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⴾⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙⵙ.
"Kennedy, however, advised her to hire Erich von Stroheim to direct another silent film, The Swamp, subsequently retitled Queen Kelly.","ⵆⴻⵏⵏⴻⴷⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⴰⴷ ⵣⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏⴻ ⴻⵔⵉⵛⵂ ⵠⵓⵏ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵂⴻⵉⵎ ⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵣⵓⴶⴰⵜ, ⴻⴱⴰⵏⴶ,ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵎ ⵟⴰⵍⵉⴰⵜ ⵆⴻⵍⵍⵉ."
Stroheim worked for several months on writing the basic script.,ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵂⴻⵉⵎ ⴰⵛⵉⴶⴰⵍ ⵍⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ.
"Shooting was shut down in January, and Stroheim fired, after complaints by Swanson about him and about the general direction the film was taking.",ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴼⴰⵍⴰⵓⵉ ⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵋⴰⵏⴱⵉⴻⵔ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵂⴻⵉⵎ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔⴾⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⵎⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⴻⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ.
"The Trespasser in 1929 was a sound production, and garnered Swanson her second Oscar nomination.","ⵗⵓⵔ 1929, (ⵟⵂⴻ ⵟⵔⴻⵙⴱⴰⵙⵙⴻⵔ) ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵜⴰⴶ ⴻⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵎⴰⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴰ ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⴶⵓⵔ Oⵙⵛⴰⵔⵙ"
"The world premiere was held in London, the first American sound production to do so.","ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵔⴻ, ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ."
"Perfect Understanding, a 1933 sound production comedy, was the only film produced by this company.","ⴱⴻⵔⴼⴻⵛⵜ ⵓⵏⴷⴻⵔⵙⵜⴰⵏⴷⵉⵏⴶ (ⵟⴰⴷⵉⵓⵜ ⵜⴰ-ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰⵜ), ⵉⴶⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⴰⵙⵜⵓ ⴶⵓⵔ 1933, ⵉⵉ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⴶⴰⵜ."
She began appearing in stage productions and starred in The Gloria Swanson Hour on WPIX-TV in 1948.,ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⴶⵓⵔ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵉⴶⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴼ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵗⵍⵓⵔⵉⴰ ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴱⵉⵆ-ⵟⴱ ⴶⵓⵔ 1948.
"The storyline of the film follows a faded silent movie actress Norma Desmond (Swanson), in love with a failed screenwriter Joe Gillis (William Holden).","ⵜⴻⴱⴰⴷⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉⵉ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵎⴰⵣⵓⵓⴶⴰⵜ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵜ, ⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰ ⴻⴻⵙⵎⵓⵏⴷ (ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ), ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵔⵂⵉⵜ ⵏⴻⵎⴰⴶⵓⵉ ⵏⵉⵎⴻⵛⵂⵍⴰⵏⴻ ⴻⴾⵛⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏⴻ, ⵋⵓⴻ ⵗⵉⵍⵍⵉⵙ (ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⴷⴻⵏ)."
"""Norma plays a card game of bridge with a group of actors also known as """"the Waxworks"""".""",".""ⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⵜⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵎ ⴰⵏ """"ⵓⴰⵆⵓ ⵓⵔⴾⵙ"""""
"Norma dreams of a comeback are subverted, and when Gillis tries to break up with her, she threatens to kill herself, but instead kills him.","ⴻⵎⴰⵏⴰⵓ-ⵏⴰⵓ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⵔⴰⴾⵓⵏⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰ ⴰⵎⵍⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏⴻ, ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵗⵉⵍⵍⵉⵙ ⵓⵔⴰⵎ ⴻⴱⴰⴷⵉ ⴷⵉⵙ, ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴷ ⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⵓ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵎⴰⵛⵂⴻⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ."
"Although Swanson had objected to enduring a screen test for the film, she had been glad to be making much more money than she had been in television and on stage.",ⴻⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏⴰ-ⵜⵓⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵉⵙⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⵓⵉⵜ ⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⵔⵉⵓ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⵓⴼ ⴰⴶⵓⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⴱⵉⵣⵓⵏⵜ.
"Swanson later hosted Crown Theatre with Gloria Swanson, a television anthology series in which she occasionally acted.","ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷo ⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵛⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏⴻ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵗⵍⵓⵔⵉⴰ ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ,ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵍ."
"""She was the """"mystery guest"""" on What's My Line.""","""ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵜⴰⴾ"" ⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⴾⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏⴻ ⵓⵂⴰⵜ'ⵙ ⵎⵉ ⵍⵉⵏⴻ."
"She made a notable appearance in a 1966 episode of The Beverly Hillbillies, in which she plays herself.",ⵗⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⴰⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⵔⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⴶⵓⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ 1966 ⵟⵂⴻ ⴱⴻⴱⴻⵔⵍⵉ ⵂⵉⵍⵍⴱⵉⵍⵍⵉⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⴻⴶⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙⵙ.
"""Actor and playwright Harold J. Kennedy, who had learned the ropes at Yale and with Orson Wells' Mercury Theatre, suggested Swanson do a road tour of """"Reflected Glory"""", a comedy that had run on the Broadway stage with Tallulah Bankhead as its star.""","ⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵛⵂⵍⴰⵏⴻ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⵍⴷ ⵋ. ⵆⴻⵏⵏⴻⴷⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏⴻ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵛⵂⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵗⴰⵍⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴻⵔⵛⵓⵔⵉ ⵟⵂⴻⴰⵜⵔⴻ ⴰⵏ Oⵔⵙⵓⵏ ⵓⴻⵍⵍⵙ, """"ⵙⴻⴼⵍⴻⵛⵜⴻⴷ ⵗⵍⵓⵔⵉ"""" ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵉ ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⴶⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵓⵎⴰⵔ"" ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴰⴶⵓⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴻⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵟⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵔⵉ"
"After her success with Sunset Boulevard, she starred on Broadway in a revival of Twentieth Century with José Ferrer, and in Nina with David Niven.","ⴻⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏⴻ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⵓⵏⵙⴻⵜ ⴱⵓⵓⵍⴻⴱⴰⵔⴷ, ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴶⴱⵔ ⴱⵔⴱⴰⴷⵓⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵎⵉⵙⵙⴱ ⵓⴶⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵟⵓⴻⵏⵜⵉⴻⵜⵂ ⵛⴻⵏⵜⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵋⵓⵙⵉ ⴼⴻⵔⵔⴻⵔ, ⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴻ ⴱⵉⴷ ⵏⵉⴱⴻⵏ."
As a Republican she supported the 1940 and 1944 campaigns for president of Wendell Willkie and the 1964 presidential campaign of Barry Goldwater.,"ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ, ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵉⵉ ⵛⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 1940 ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ 1944 ⴼⴰⵍⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴻⵍⵍ ⵓⵉⵍⵍⴾⵉⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵛⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ 1964 ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⵗⵓⵍⴷⵓⴰⵜⴻⵔ."
"Taking medication given to her by Beery, purported to be for morning sickness, she aborted the fetus and was taken unconscious to the hospital.","ⴻⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⴱⴻⴻⵔⵉ, ⴰⵙ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵂⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵓⵜ, ⵜⴰⴾⵛⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴷⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵍⴰⴾⵜⵓⵔ."
"In 1923, she adopted 1-year-old Sonny Smith, whom she renamed Joseph Patrick Swanson after her father.","ⵗⵓⵔ 1923, ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵏⵉ ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵂ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙ ⴶⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵎ ⵋⵓⵙⴻⴱⵂ ⴱⴰⵜⵔⵉⵛⴾ ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵉⵏ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ."
"She had conceived a child with him before her divorce from Somborn was final, a situation that would have led to a public scandal and possible end of her film career.","ⵜⵓⵂⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⵔⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙⵓⵎⴱ ⵓⵔⵏ, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⴾ ⴰⴷⵉⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⴾⴰ ⵉⴰ ⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵓⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ."
"Following a four-month recuperation from her abortion, they returned to the United States as European nobility.","ⴻⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴰⴾⵓⵣ ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⴶⴰⵛⵂⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⴰⵈⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴻⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵍⵜ Eⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ."
He became a film executive representing Pathé (USA) in France.,ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ ⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵜⵂⵉ (ⵓⵉⴰ) ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛ
"""Swanson described herself as a """"mental vampire"""", someone with a searching curiosity about how things worked, and who pursued the possibilities of turning those ideas into reality.""","""ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ-ⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ "" ⴻⵏⴰⵎⴻⵜⵉⵏⴻ"" ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⵎ ⵓⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵙⵉⴶⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⵏⴰ ⵙⵓⵏⴰⴷ ⵏⴰ ⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ."""
They met by chance in Paris when Swanson was being fitted by Coco Chanel for her 1931 film Tonight or Never.,"ⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵓⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏⴻ ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴾⴰⵏⵓ ⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵛⵓⵛⵓ ⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴻⵂⴰⴷ ⵎⴻⴶ ⵉⴱⴰⵏⴻⵙⵙ (1931"
"Her friends, some of whom openly disliked him, thought she was making a mistake.","Iⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙⵙ, ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴻⵏ, ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰ."
"Swanson had initially thought she was going to be able to retire from acting, but the marriage was troubled by Davey's alcoholism from the start.","ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵗⴻⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⴶⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⴶⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵍⵉ ⵏⴻⵙ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵎⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴰⴱⴻⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ."
"He was the co-author (ghostwriter) of Billie Holiday's autobiography Lady Sings the Blues, the author of Sugar Blues, a 1975 best-selling health book still in print, and the author of the English version of Georges Ohsawa's You Are All Sanpaku.","ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵎⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ (ⴻⵎⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ) ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵣⵓⵈ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵍⵍⵓⴻ ⵂⵓⵍⵉⴷⴰⵉ, ⵍⴰⴷⵉ ⵙⵉⵏⴶⵙ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴱⵍⴻⵓⴻⵙ, ⴻⵎⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴶⴰⵔ ⴱⵍⴻⵓⴻⵙ, ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ 1975 ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴻⵎⴰⴶ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴶⵍⴰⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵓ ⴰⵔⴻ ⴰⵍⵍ ⵙⴰⵏⴱⴰⴾⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵗⴻⵓⵔⴶⴻⵙ ⵓⵂⵙⴰⵓⴰ."
Swanson and her husband first got to know John Lennon and Yoko Ono because they were fans of Dufty's work.,ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ-ⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⵍⴻⵏⵏⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵗⵓⴾⵓ Oⵏⵓ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⴻ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵛⵂⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎ. ⴻⵓⴼⵜⵉ.
"She was cremated and her ashes interred at the Episcopal Church of the Heavenly Rest on Fifth Avenue in New York City, attended by only a small circle of family.","ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵔⴶⴰ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵎⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵍⴰⴶⵔⵉⵙⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴻⴰⴱⴻⵏⵍⵉ ⵙⴻⵙⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴱⴻⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⴰⵜ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ,ⴶⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⴰⴶ ⵏⴰⵍⴶⴰⵉⴰⵍ ⴶⴰⵙⵙ."
"In 1974, Swanson was one of the honorees of the first Telluride Film Festival.","ⵗⵓⵔ 1974, ⵙⵓⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⴻⵍⵍⵓⵔⵉⴷⴻ"
"Due to the erotic nature of her performances, Nielsen's films were censored in the United States, and her work remained relatively obscure to American audiences.","ⴻⴰⴶ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏⴰ ⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵏⵜ,ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴻⵍⵙⴻⵏ ⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴻⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ, ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵛⵂⴰⴶⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⵉ ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ."
Nielsen's family moved several times during her childhood while her father sought employment.,ⴰⵍⴶⴰⵉⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴻⵍⵙⴻⵏ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵉⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏⴻ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ- ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴶⵓⴻ ⵉⴰ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⴶⴰⵍ
Nielsen's father died when she was fourteen years old.,ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴻⵍⵙⴻⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵜⵉ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⴷⵉⴾⵓⵣ ⴰⵏⴻⵙⵙ.
"In 1901, 21-year-old Nielsen became pregnant and gave birth to a daughter, Jesta.","ⵗⵓⵔ 1901, 21 ⵏⵉⴻⵍⵙⴻⵏ, ⵜⴰⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ, ⵋⴻⵙⵜⴰ."
Nielsen graduated from the Theater school in 1902.,ⵏⵉⴻⵍⵙⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵜⴻⴶⴰⵔⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵍⴻⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴶⵓⵔ 1902.
Nielsen's minimalist acting style was evidenced in her successful portrayal of a naive young woman lured into a tragic life.,ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍⵜ ⴶⴰⴷⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴻⵍⵙⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⴻⴶⴱⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵓⴰⵜ.
"Nielsen and Gad married, then made four more films together.","ⵏⵉⴻⵍⵙⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵗⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴶⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ."
I realised that the age of short film was past.,ⴻⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵣⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ
It was international film sales that provided Union with eight Nielsen films per year.,ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙ ⴻⵏⴰⵣⵉ ⴶⴰⵔ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⵉ ⴷⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵓⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵎ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵉⴻⵍⵙⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ.
"""I used every available means – and devised many new ones – in order to bring the Asta Nielsen films to the world.""""""","."" Iⴾⴰⵍⴰⴶ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜ -ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵏⴰⵣⴶⴰⵎⴻⴶ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ -ⵉⴰⴷ ⵣⵓⵣⵓⵉⴰⴶ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰ ⵏⵉⴻⵍⵙⴻⵏ ⵉⴰ ⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ."""
"In a Russian popularity poll of 1911, Nielsen was voted the world's top female movie star, behind Linder and ahead of her Danish compatriot Valdemar Psilander.","ⴻⴰⴶ ⵓⵎⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵣⵉⴻ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⴻ ⴶⵓⵔ 1911, ⵏⵉⴻⵍⵙⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵂⵓⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵛⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵍⵉⵏⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⵏⵓⵉⵙⴻ ⵠⴰⵍⴷⴻⵎⴰⵔ ⴱⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⴻⵔ."
"In 1921, Nielsen, through her own film distribution company of Asta Films, appeared in the Svend Gade and Heinz Schall directed Hamlet.","ⴻⴰⵆ 1921, ⵏⵉⴻⵍⵙⴻⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴱⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵜⴰ ⴼⵉⵍⵎⵙ, ⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵂⴰⵎⵍⴻⵜ, ⵜⵉⴶⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴱⴻⵏⴷ ⵗⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵂⴻⵉⵏⵣ ⵙⵛⵂⴰⵍⵍ."
"However, scholarly works such as the authoritative filmography published by Filmarchiv Austria in 2010 make no mention of such a film.","ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ, ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⴰⴶⵓⵔ ⴼⵉⵍⵎⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉv ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⵉⴰ ⴶⵓⵔ 2010 ⵓⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ"
She worked in German films until the start of sound movies.,ⵜⴰⵛⴻⴶⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴻⵎⴰⵏⴷⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ.
"Thereafter, Nielsen acted only on stage.","""ⴻⴰⴶ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵎ, ⵏⵉⴻⵍⵙⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ"
"Understanding the implications, Nielsen declined and left Germany in 1936.","ⵜⵉⵂⵔⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ, ⵏⵉⴻⵍⵙⴻⵏ ⵓⵏⴶⴰⵉ ⴷⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵍⴻⵎⴰⴶⵏⴻ ⴶⵓⵔ 1936"
They were divorced by 1919 when Nielsen married the Swedish shipbuilder Freddy Windgårdh.,"ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ 1919,ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⵏⵉⴻⵍⵙⴻⵏ ⴻⵏⴰⵎⴻⴾⵔⴰⵙⵙ ⵙⵓⵉⴷⵓⵉⵙ ⴼⵔⴻⴷⴷⵉ ⵓⵉⵏⴷⴶⴰⵔⴷⵂ."
They began a long-term common-law marriage that lasted from 1923 until the late 1930s.,ⴰⵙⵙ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵍⵉ ⵣⵉⴶⵔⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵂⵓⴶⴰ ⴶⵓⵔ 1923 ⵂⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷo ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1930.
"Fred Astaire (born Frederick Austerlitz; May 10, 1899 – June 22, 1987) was an American dancer, actor, singer, choreographer, and television presenter.","ⴼⵔⴻⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ( ⵉⵓⴰ ⴼⵔⴻⴷⴻⵔⵉⵛⴾ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⴻⵔⵍⵉⵜⵣ ; 10 ⵎⴰⵉ 1899-22 ⵋⵓⵉⵏ 1987 ) ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵍⴰⵍ,ⴻⵎⴰⵛⴻⵙⵜⵉ, ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵣⴰⵔ ,ⵛⵓⵔⴻⴶⵔⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵎⴰⵙⵙⴻⴾⵏⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴱⵉⵣⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏ."
"He starred in more than 10 Broadway and West End musicals, made 31 musical films, four television specials, and numerous recordings.","Iⴷⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ 10 ⵏⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵔ ⵓⴰⴷⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⴻⵙⵜ ⴻⵏⴷ, ⵉⴶⴰ 31 ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ, ⴰⴾⵓⵣ ⵎⴰⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵍⴱⵉⵣ ⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ."
Astaire's mother was born in the US to Lutheran German immigrants from East Prussia and Alsace.,ⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⴰ Aⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵓⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⴷⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵏⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴻⵎⴰⵏⴷⵙ ⵍⵓⵜⵂⴻⵔⵉⴻⵏⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵙⵙⴻ ⵓⵔⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵙⴰⵛⴻ
"Fritz was seeking work in the brewing trade and moved to Omaha, Nebraska, where he was employed by the Storz Brewing Company.","ⴼⵔⵉⵜⵣ ⵉⵎⴰⵗ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉⵉⴰⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵉⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ Oⵎⴰⵂⴰ, ⵏⴻⴱⵔⴰⵙⴾⴰ, ⵉⵓⵔ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴻ ⵙⵜⵓⵔⵣ ⴱⵔⴻⵓⵉⵏⴶ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⴰⵏⵉ"
"""Johanna planned a """"brother and sister act"""", common in vaudeville at the time, for her two children.""","""ⵋⵓⵂⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰⵉ """"ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⴰⵉⴻⵏ"""", ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵆ ⴱⴰⵓⴷⴻⴱⵉⵍⵍⴻ, ⵉⴻ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ""."
They began training at the Alviene Master School of the Theatre and Academy of Cultural Arts.,ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⴶ ⵓⵔ ⵍ’ⵉⵛ ⵓⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⴻⵏⴻ ⵎⴰⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ.
"They were taught dance, speaking, and singing in preparation for developing an act.","ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⴶⵔⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵓⵍ, ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵓⵙⴰⴶ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴰ ⵙⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴶⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵎⴻⵔⵓ."
"In an interview, Astaire's daughter, Ava Astaire McKenzie, observed that they often put Fred in a top hat to make him look taller.","ⴻⴰⴶ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵓⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ, ⴰⴱⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵎⵛⴾⴻⵏⵣⵉⴻ,ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴻⴷ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵜ."
"As a result of their father's salesmanship, Fred and Adele landed a major contract and played the Orpheum Circuit in the Midwest, Western and some Southern cities in the US.","ⴼⵔⴻⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴻⵍⵍⴻ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⴶⵓⵓⵉⵜ Oⵔⴱⵂⴻⵓⵎ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵎⵉⴷⵓⴻⵙⵜ, ⵉⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ,ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ."
"In 1912, Fred became an Episcopalian.","ⵗⵓⵔ 1912, ⵔⵔⴻⴷ ⴻⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴱⵉⵙⵛⵓⴱⴰⵍⵉⴻⵏ."
"From vaudeville dancer Aurelio Coccia, they learned the tango, waltz, and other ballroom dances popularized by Vernon and Irene Castle.","ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵓⴷⴻvⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴰⵓⵔⴻⵍⵉⵓ ⵛⵓⵛⵛⵉⴰ, ⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⵓ, ⴱⴰⵍⵙⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵠⴻⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ Iⵔⴻⵏⴻ ⵛⴰⵙⵜⵍⴻ"
"He first met George Gershwin, who was working as a song plugger for Jerome H. Remick's music publishing company, in 1916.","ⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵗⴻⵓⵔⴶⴻ ⵗⴻⵔⵙⵂⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴶⵓⵔ 1916, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴻⴶⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴻ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ Jⴻⵔⵓⵎⴻ ⵂ. ⵔⴻⵎⵉⵛⴾ"
"""Of their work in The Passing Show of 1918, Heywood Broun wrote: """"In an evening in which there was an abundance of good dancing, Fred Astaire stood out ... He and his partner, Adele Astaire, made the show pause early in the evening with a beautiful loose-limbed dance.""""""","“ⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵟⵂⴻ ⴱⴰⵙⵙⵙⵉⵏⴶ ⵙⵂⵓⵓ ⴶⵓⵔ 1918, ⵂⴻⵉⵓⵓⵓⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⵓⵏ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ: """"ⴻⴰⴶ ⴻⵂⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⴶⵓⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜⵏⵉⵏ, ⴼⵔⴻⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⵉⴷ ... Iⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ, ⴰⴷⴻⵍⴻ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ, ⵏⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵉⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵏⴻⵂⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵍⵓⵍ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴻⴷⵏⴻⵏ."
"But by this time, Astaire's dancing skill was beginning to outshine his sister's.","ⵎⴰⵛⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⴾⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ, ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵍⴰⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵉⵏⴻⵙ."
Astaire's tap dancing was recognized by then as among the best.,ⵜⵉⴼⴰⴷⴻⵍⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ.
"After the close of Funny Face, the Astaires went to Hollywood for a screen test (now lost) at Paramount Pictures, but Paramount deemed them unsuitable for films.","ⴻⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵏⵏⵉ ⵂⴰⵛⴻ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵓⵓⴷ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⵓⴰⵍ (ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⴶⴰⵙ) ⴶⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵎⵓⵓⵏⵜ ⴱⵉⵛⵜⵓⵔⴻⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴻⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵎⵓⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ"
The end of the partnership was traumatic for Astaire but stimulated him to expand his range.,ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴻⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴻⵔⵜ ⵉⴻ Aⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵎⴰⵛⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴷⴰⴶⵓⴰⵙ ⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ.
They lent him for a few days to MGM in 1933 for his significant Hollywood debut in the successful musical film Dancing Lady.,ⴼⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵎⵗⵎ ⴶⵓⵔ 1933 ⵉⴻ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ Hⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵓⵓⴷ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⴻⴰⵏⵛⵉⵏⴶ ⵍⴰⴷⵉ.
"""He wrote his agent, """"I don't mind making another picture with her, but as for this 'team' idea, it's 'out!'""","IIⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵉⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ : ""ⴰⵔⵂⴻⴶ ⵉⴶⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⵉⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵏⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⴶⴰⵜ"", “ⵉⵎⴷⴰ"""
"The partnership, and the choreography of Astaire and Hermes Pan, helped make dancing an important element of the Hollywood film musical.","ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⴰⴷ Hⴻⵔⵎⵉⵙ ⴱⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⴻ ⵉⴶⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⵍⵓⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⴾⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵓⵓⴷ."
Six out of the nine Astaire–Rogers musicals became the biggest moneymakers for RKO; all of the films brought a certain prestige and artistry that all studios coveted at the time.,ⵙⴰⴷⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⵣⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ-ⵙⵓⴶⴻⵔⵙ ⴻⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⴶⵓⵛⵜ ⵎⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵣⵔⵉⴼ ⵉⴻ ⵙⵆO ; ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵉⴷ ⵉⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵂⴰⴾ ⵜⵉⵎⴱⴻ ⵙⵜⵉⴷⵉⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵣⵏⴻⵏ.
This gave the illusion of an almost stationary camera filming an entire dance in a single shot.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⴾⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⴶⵓⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵎⴻⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⴾⴻⵜ ⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵍⵓⵍ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ
Astaire's style of dance sequences allowed the viewer to follow the dancers and choreography in their entirety.,ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⴰⵎ ⵣⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴻ ⵉⵎⵓⴶⵓⵂⴰ ⵉⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴾⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵍⴰⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ
Astaire's second innovation involved the context of the dance; he was adamant that all song and dance routines be integral to the plotlines of the film.,"ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵓⵍ,ⴻⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ."
"""One would be a solo performance by Astaire, which he termed his """"sock solo.""""""",""" Iⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⵉⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ,ⵓⴰ ⵉⴶⴰⵔⵓ "" ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵓⵙⵙⴻⵜⵜⴻ"""
I think Ginger Rogers was.,Oⵔⴷⴻⴶ ⴶⴰⵙ ⴻⴾⴰⵍⵜⵉ ⵗⵉⵏⴶⴻⵔ ⵔⵓⴶⴻⵔⵙ.
She faked it an awful lot.,ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴶⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ.
"In 1976, British talk-show host Sir Michael Parkinson asked Astaire who his favorite dancing partner was on Parkinson.","ⵗⵓⵔ 1976, ⴻⵎⴰⴷⴻⴶⵓⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵙⵉⵔ ⵎⵉⵛⵂⴰⴻⵍ ⴱⴰⵔⴾⵉⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵉⵏⴷⴻⴾ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴻⴷ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⵍⵓⵍ"
"Despite their success, Astaire was unwilling to have his career tied exclusively to any partnership.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ."
"Throughout this period, Astaire continued to value the input of choreographic collaborators.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⴾ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰ, ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵜⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⵓⵣⴰⵜ ⵉⴰ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴻⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ."
"""They starred in Broadway Melody of 1940, in which they performed a celebrated extended dance routine to Cole Porter's """"Begin the Beguine.""""""",""" ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴱⵔⵓⴰⴷⵓⴰⵉ ⵎⴻⵍⵓⴷⵉ ⴶⵓⵔ 1940, ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵔ """"ⴱⴻⴶⵉⵏ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴱⴻⴶⵓⵉⵏⴻ "" ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⴻ ⴱⵓⵔⵜⴻⵔ. """""""
He played alongside Bing Crosby in Holiday Inn (1942) and later Blue Skies (1946).,Iⴷⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⴶ ⵛⵔⵓⵙⴱⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵂⵓⵍⵉⴷⴰⵉ Iⵏⵏ ( 1942 ) ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴱⵍⵓⴻ ⵙⴾⵉⴻⵙ ( 1946 ).
"""The latter film featured """"Puttin' On the Ritz"""", an innovative song-and-dance routine indelibly associated with him.""","""ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴻ "" ⴱⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏ Oⵏ ⵜⵂⴻ ⵔⵉⵜⵣ"" ⵏⵓⵎⴻⵔⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵍⵓⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵙⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴻⴱⴷⴰⵏ."""
"The first film, You'll Never Get Rich (1941), catapulted Hayworth to stardom.","ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ‘’ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵎ ⵉⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴼ’’ ( 1941 ), ⵛⴰⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵜⴻ ⵂⴰⵉⵓⵓⵔⵜⵂ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵣⵉⵉ"
"""It featured a duet to Kern's """"I'm Old Fashioned,"""" which became the centerpiece of Jerome Robbins's 1983 New York City Ballet tribute to Astaire.""","""ⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵉⵏⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵔ """"I’ⵎ Oⵍⴷ ⴼⴰⵙⵂⵉⵓⵏⴻⴷ,"""" ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⴻⵔⵏ, ⴻⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵛ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⵛⵉⵜⵉ ⴱⴰⵍⵍⴻⵜ ⴶⵓⵔ 1983, ⴷⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ Jⴻⵔⵓⵎⴻ ⵙⵓⴱⴱⵉⵏⵙ."""
Astaire choreographed this film alone and achieved modest box office success.,ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴱⵓⵆ-ⵓⴼⴼⵉⵛⴻ
The fantasy Yolanda and the Thief (1945) featured an avant-garde surrealistic ballet.,ⴰⵏⵉⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵎⴰⴾⵔⴰⴷ ( 1945 )ⵉⴶⴰ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵍⵓⵍ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⵜ.
"Always insecure and believing his career was beginning to falter, Astaire surprised his audiences by announcing his retirement during the production of his next film Blue Skies (1946).","ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴶⵓⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵂⵉⴶⵓⵉⵜ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷ, ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⴶⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴻ ⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵏⴼⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏ ⵉⴶⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉⴻ ⴱⵍⵓⴻ ⵙⴾⵉⴻⵙ (1946)."
Both of these films revived Astaire's popularity and in 1950 he starred in two musicals.,"ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⵉⴷⴰⴶ ⵂⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵣⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ Aⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴶⵓⵔ 1950, ⵉⴷⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⵍ."
"While Three Little Words did quite well at the box office, Let's Dance was a financial disappointment.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏ ⵟⵂⵔⴻⴻ ⵍⵉⵜⵜⵍⴻ ⵓⵓⵔⴷⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵛⴰⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴱⵓⵆ-ⵓⵎⵓⴼⴼⵉⵛⴻ, ⵍⴻⵜ’ⵙ ⴻⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⴻⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴶⵔⴰⵣⵙⵜ."
"But because of its high cost, it failed to make a profit on its first release.","ⴻⴰⴶ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⴰⴶⵓⵔ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"Then, his wife Phyllis became ill and suddenly died of lung cancer.","Iⵣⴰⵔ, ⵂⴰⵏⵉⵙⵙ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵍⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⴻⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⵉⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵛⵉⴾ ."
Daddy Long Legs only did moderately well at the box office.,ⴻⴰⴷⴷⵉ ⵍⵓⵏⴶ ⵍⴻⴶⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴱⵓⵆ-ⵓⴼⴼⵉⵛⴻ
"Similarly, Astaire's next project – his final musical at MGM, Silk Stockings (1957), in which he co-starred with Cyd Charisse, also lost money at the box office.","ⵙⵓⵏⴷ, ⴱⵔⵓⵋⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ-ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵎⵗⵎ, ⵙⵉⵍⴾ ⵙⵜⵓⵛⴾⵉⵏⴶ (1957), ⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵛⵉⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵉⵙⵙⴻ,ⵉⴶⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⴻⴶ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴱⵓⵆ-ⵓⴼⴼⵉⵛⴻ."
"""The first of these programs, 1958's An Evening with Fred Astaire, won nine Emmy Awards, including """"Best Single Performance by an Actor"""" and """"Most Outstanding Single Program of the Year.""""""",""" ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵏ ⴻⴱⴻⵏⵉⵏⴶ ⵓⵉⵜⵂ ⴼⵔⴻⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ (1958), ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵣⴰ ⴻⵎⵎⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⵔⴷⵙ,ⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⵉ"" ⵓⴶⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ"" ⴰⴷ "" ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ""""""."
"""The choice had a controversial backlash because many believed his dancing in the special was not the type of """"acting"""" for which the award was designed.""",""" ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴾⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵙⵂ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰ ⴰⴶⴻⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ,ⵓⴻⵔⴷ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵎⵓⵙⵙⴻⵏ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵙⵂ ⵜⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ."
"They restored the original videotape, transferring its contents to a modern format and filling in gaps where the tape had deteriorated with kinescope footage.","ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷ ⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵍⴱⵉⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵜ,ⴰⴷⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⴶⴰⵏⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴱⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⴶ ⵓⵉⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⵓⵍ, ⴾⵉⵏⴻⵙⴾⵓⴱ"
Astaire appeared in non-dancing roles in three other films and several television series from 1957 to 1969.,ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵜⴻⴷⵎⴻⵏ ⵓⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵂⴻⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵍⵎⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴻⵔⵉⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ 1957 ⴰⴷ 1969
"Astaire's dance partner was Petula Clark, who played his character's skeptical daughter.","ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⵓⵓⵙ ⴱⴻⵜⵓⵍⴰ ⵛⵍⴰⵔⴾ,ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⴰⵜⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵏⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ."
Astaire continued to act in the 1970s.,ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵜⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 1970.
"In the second compilation, aged seventy-six, he performed brief dance linking sequences with Kelly, his last dance performances in a musical film.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵔⵎⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⵜ,ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⴰ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵆⴻⵍⵍⵉ,ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵆ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵗ ⵏ'ⵉⵏⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⴷⴰⵗ"
"In 1978, he co-starred with Helen Hayes in a well received television film A Family Upside Down in which they played an elderly couple coping with failing health.","ⴻⴰⵗ 1978, ⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵂⴻⵍⴻⵏ ⵂ ⵂⴰⵉⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵓⵜ, ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵉⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⴰⴶⵓ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⴾⵓⵙⴰ ⵓⴰⵛⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ."
Astaire asked his agent to obtain a role for him on Galactica because of his grandchildren's interest in the series and the producers were delighted at the opportunity to create an entire episode to feature him.,"ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴾⵜⵉⴱ ⴻⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⴷⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⵔⴻⵓ ⴻⴷⴷⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⴰⵍⴰⵛⵜⵉⵛⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ,ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵣⴰⵙⴻⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵓⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵗ."
"""Long after the photography for the solo dance number """"I Want to Be a Dancin' Man"""" was completed for the 1952 feature The Belle of New York, it was decided that Astaire's humble costume and the threadbare stage set were inadequate and the entire sequence was reshot.""","""ⴰⵂoⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵎⵉⵔⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵓⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ """"I ⵓⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓ ⴱⴻ ⴰ ⴻⴰⵏⵛⵉⵏ' ⵎⴰⵏ"""" ⵉⴻ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵟⵂⴻ ⴱⴻⵍⵍⴻ ⵓⴼ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ 1952, ⴰⴱⴰⵜⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵔⵂⵓ ⵛⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵓⴷ ⵓⴷⵍⴰⴶⴰⵜⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵙⵛⵉⵏⴻ ⵜⵛⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵜⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵜ."""
"Frame for frame, the two performances are identical, down to the subtlest gesture.","ⴰⵙⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⴰⵜ, ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵍⴰⵂ ⵏⴰⵜ, ⵂⴰⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⵙ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴰⵍⴰ"
His was a uniquely recognizable dance style that greatly influenced the American Smooth style of ballroom dance and set standards against which subsequent film dance musicals would be judged.,"ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ,ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ,ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵜⴻⵎⴱⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⴾⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵂ ⵂⴰⵔⴶⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵂ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ îîⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵆ."
He notes Astaire's dance style was consistent in subsequent films made with or without the assistance of Pan.,"ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵈⵉⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵂⴰⴶⴰ ⵜⴰⵆ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵆ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ,ⵂⴰⵔⴶⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⵉⵜⴻⴷⴻⵎ ⵓⴰⵍⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴻⵏ."
"""However, this was almost always confined to the area of extended fantasy sequences, or """"dream ballets"""".""","""ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⴰ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ,ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⴼ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴰ ⵏⵓⵍ,ⴷⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵏ""ⴱⴰⵍⵍⴻⵜⵙ ⴷⴻ ⵔⵉⴱⴻ."""
"""Later in life, he admitted, """"I had to do most of it myself.""""""","""ⵜⴰⵂⵓⴶⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻⵏⴻⵙ,ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⴰⵙⵂ:""ⵏⴰⴾ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵜⵉⴶⴻⵏ."""
"""Many dance routines were built around a """"gimmick,"""" like dancing on the walls in Royal Wedding or dancing with his shadows in Swing Time.""","""ⴰⴶⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷ ⴰⴾⵔⴻⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ""""ⴶⵉⵎⵎⵉⵛⴾ""""ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵉⴰⵍ ⵓⴻⴷⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⵎⴻ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵉⵏⴶ ⵟⵉⵎⴻ."
They would work with a rehearsal pianist (often the composer Hal Borne) who in turn would communicate modifications to the musical orchestrators.,"ⴰⵛⵉⵆⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⴷⴰⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⵓⵔⵉⴾ ( ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⴶ ⵂⴰⵍ ⴱⴱⵔⵏⴻ) ⵓⴰⵙ, ⴷⴰⵆ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ, ⵉⵜⴰⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵔ."
"With all the preparation completed, the actual shooting would go quickly, conserving costs.","ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⵏⵜⵉⴷ,ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵎⴰⴷⵓⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵉⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵂⵉⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏ,ⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⴼ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ"
"""He will not even go to see his rushes... He always thinks he is no good.""""""","ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⴷⵉⴶⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵂⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ...ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴶⴻⵍ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ."""
"Michael Kidd, Astaire's co-choreographer on the 1953 film The Band Wagon, found that his own concern about the emotional motivation behind the dance was not shared by Astaire.","ⵎⵉⵛⵂⴰⴻⵍ ⴾⵉⴷⴷ,ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵛⵓⵂⴻⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⴻ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴱⴰⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1953, ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ"
"""Let's add the looks later.' """"""","""ⵙⵉⵓⵉⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴶⵔⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴻⵏ"""
"""Irving Berlin considered Astaire the equal of any male interpreter of his songs—""""as good as Jolson, Crosby or Sinatra, not necessarily because of his voice, but for his conception of projecting a song.""","""Iⵔvⵉⵏⴶ ⴱⴻⵔⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵂⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵆⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴻⴷⵉⵏ""""ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵋⵓⵍⵙⵓⵏ, ⵛⵔⵓⵙⴱⵉ ⵎⴻⵆ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵜⵔⴰ,ⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴱⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⴱⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵆ."
"In his heyday, Astaire was referenced in lyrics of songwriters Cole Porter, Lorenz Hart and Eric Maschwitz and continues to inspire modern songwriters.","ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴻ ⵏⴻⵙ,ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴾⵉⴱⴻⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵆ ⵛⵓⵍⴻ ⴱⵓⵔⵜⴻⵔ,ⵍⵓⵔⴻⵏⵣ ⵂⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵔⵉⵛ ⵎⴰⵙⵛⵂⵓⵉⵜⵣ ⵂⴰⵔⴶⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵛⵓⵎⴱ ⵓⵙⵉⵜⴻⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵂⵙⴰⵏⵉⴶⵔⴰⵣⴰⵏ"
"During 1952, Astaire recorded The Astaire Story, a four-volume album with a quintet led by Oscar Peterson.","ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵙ 1952, ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵜⵉⴶⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴰⵙⵜⵔⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⵙⵂⵓⵔⵜ,ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵓⵎ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵓⵣ ⴱⵓⵍⵓⵎⴻⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵈⵓⵉⵏⵜⴻⵜ ⵙⴰ ⵏⵉⵂⴰⴷ Oⵙⵛⴰⵔ ⴱⴻⵜⴻⵔⵙⵓⵏ"
"Bogart began acting in Broadway shows, beginning his career in motion pictures with Up the River (1930) for Fox and appeared in supporting roles for the next decade, sometimes portraying gangsters.","ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵆ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵓⴰⴷⵓⴰⵉ.ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴱ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵔⵉⴱⴻⵔ(1930)ⵉⴻ ⴼⵓⵎⵓⵆ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⴰⵏⵙⵂⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ,ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⵔⴶⴰⵓ ⵎⴻⴷⵉⵏ."
"Bogart's private detectives, Sam Spade (in The Maltese Falcon) and Phillip Marlowe (in 1946's The Big Sleep), became the models for detectives in other noir films.","ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ, ⵙⴰⵎ ⵙⴱⴰⴷⴻ ( ⴷⴰⵆ ⴼⴰⵓⵛⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⵜⴰⵉⵙ) ⴰⴷ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵍⵉⴱ ⵎⴰⵔⵍⵓⵓ (ⴷⴰⵆ ⵗⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵙⵓⵎⵎⴻⵉⵍ, ⵓⴰⵏ 1946), ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵓⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ."
"Soon after the principal photography for The Big Sleep (1946, their second film together), he filed for divorce from his third wife and married Bacall.","ⴻⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴱⵉⴶ ⵙⵍⴻⴻⴱ (1946,ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ)ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵏⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ,ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵛⴰⵍⵍ."
"He reprised those unsettled, unstable characters as a World War II naval-vessel commander in The Caine Mutiny (1954), which was a critical and commercial hit and earned him another Best Actor nomination.","ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴶⵔⴰⵂ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵆⵙⵂⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵜⴻⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⴻⵔⵔⴻ ⵎⵓⵏⴷⵉⴰⵍⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵜⵉⵏⴻⵔⵉⴻ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵛⴰⵉⵏⴻ (1954), ⵓⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵙⵂⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⴻⵔⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴶⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⴼⴻⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ."
"""The name """"Bogart"""" derives from the Dutch surname, """"Bogaert"""".""","""Iⵙⵙⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ""ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ""ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵙⴻⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴶⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴻⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰⵉⵙ, , """" ⴱⵓⴶⴰⴻⵔⵜ"""""
"Maud was an Episcopalian of English heritage, and a descendant of Mayflower passenger John Howland.","ⵎⴰⵓⴷ ⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⴱⵉⵙⵛⵓⴱⴰⵍⵉⴻⵏⵏⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⴶⵉⵏⴻ ⴰⵏⴶⵍⴰⵉⵙⴻ,ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵉⴼⵍⵓⵓⴻⵔ, ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⵂⵓⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷ."
"""Clifford McCarty wrote that Warner Bros. publicity department had altered it to January 23, 1900 """"to foster the view that a man born on Christmas Day couldn't really be as villainous as he appeared to be on screen"""".""","ⵛⵍⵉⴼⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵎⵛⵛⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵉⵜⴻⴷⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⵏⴻⵔ ⴱⵔoⵙ əⵎⵉⵙⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵙ 23 ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵏⴱⵉⴻⵔ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵙ 1900""""ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⴶⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵉⵜⴻⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵍ Nⵓⴻⵍ ⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵓⵍ ⵉⴱⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"Lauren Bacall wrote in her autobiography that Bogart's birthday was always celebrated on Christmas Day, saying that he joked about being cheated out of a present every year.","ⵍⴰⵓⵔⴻⵏ ⴱⴰⵛⴰⵍⵍ ⵜⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵜⵓⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⴻ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵓⴰ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵜⴰⴶⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵏⵓⴻⵍ,ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵂⴰⴾⴻⵏ ⵛⴰⴷⴻⴰⵓⵆ əⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⴱⴻⵔⵙⴰⵉⵔⴻ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ."
"Maud was a commercial illustrator who received her art training in New York and France, including study with James Abbott McNeill Whistler.","ⵎⴰⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵉⵜⴻⴷⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵉⵔⴻ,ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⵉⵙⵜⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⴶⴰⵓ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ,ⴼⴰⵍ ⵋⴰⵎⴻⵙ ⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵜ ⵎⵛⵏⴻⵉⵍⵍ ⴷⵂⵉⵙⵜⵍⴻⵔ."
"She earned over $50,000 a year at the peak of her career – a very large sum of money at the time, and considerably more than her husband's $20,000.","ⵗⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ 50 000 ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔⵙ ⴷⴰⵆ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵏⴰⵛⵉⵆⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ – ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵆ ⴻⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ 20 000 ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ."
"""He had two younger sisters: Frances (""""Pat"""") and Catherine Elizabeth (""""Kay"""").""","""ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵙⵂⴰⵜⵎⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ:ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻⵙ(""ⴱⴰⵔ"") ⴰⴷ ⵛⴰⵜⵂⴻⵔⵉⵏⴻ ⵉⵍⵉⵣⴰⴱⴻⵜⵂ(""ⵆⴰⵉ"")."""
"A kiss, in our family, was an event.",Iⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵍⴻⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵆ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓ ⵎⴰⴶⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ.
"He inherited a tendency to needle, a fondness for fishing, a lifelong love of boating, and an attraction to strong-willed women from his father.","ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⵔⴶⴰⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴰⴱⴰ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾⵓⴾ ⵗⴻ ⵜⴰⵓⴷⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ."
"Bogart later attended Phillips Academy, a boarding school to which he was admitted based on family connections.","ⴻⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⴻⵎⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵉⴱⴱⵙ,ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⴱⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵉⴻ ⵜⵉⵓⵙⵙⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ."
"Several reasons have been given; according to one, he was expelled for throwing the headmaster (or a groundskeeper) into Rabbit Pond on campus.",ⴰⴶⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⴰⵂ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵜⴰⵏⴶ ⵔⴰⴱⴱⵉⵜ ⴱⵓⵏⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⵎⴱⵓⵙ.
"He then volunteered for the Coast Guard Temporary Reserve in 1944, patrolling the California coastline in his yacht, the Santana.","ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵔⴷⴻⵙ-ⵛⵓⵜⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵙ 1944,ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⴰⴷ ⵍⵉⵜⵜoⵔⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵉⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ, ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰ."
"In one, his lip was cut by shrapnel when his ship (the ) was shelled.",ⵜⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏⴾⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⴻⴼⴻⵓ
"While changing trains in Boston, the handcuffed prisoner reportedly asked Bogart for a cigarette.","ⴰⵙ ⵜøⴶⴰⵣ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏⵣⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵔⴰⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵓⵏ,ⴰⵉⵜⴻⴷⴻⵎ ⴻⵈⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵈⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵣⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴶⴰⵔⴻⵜⵜⴻ"
"By the time Bogart was treated by a doctor, a scar had formed.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵆⵓⵔ ⴻⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ,ⴰⵂⴰⵉⵓⴶ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⴰ ⵂⵉⴷ."
"""Instead of stitching it up, he screwed it up.""""""","""ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ,ⵓⴾⵏⴻⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵜⵉⴼ."""
"His character and values developed separately from his family during his navy days, and he began to rebel.","ⵜⴰⵍⵈ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵔⵂⵓ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙⴾⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙⴾⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ."
"Bogart resumed his friendship with Bill Brady Jr. (whose father had show-business connections), and obtained an office job with William A. Brady's new World Films company.",ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴷⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵉⵍⵍ ⴱⵔⴰⴷⵉ ⵂⵔ.(ⴰⴱⴰ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵂⵓⵓ-ⴱⵓⵙⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ)ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴻⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵓⵔⵍⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵎⵙ ⴷⴻ ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⴰ.ⴱⵔⴰⴷⵉ.
"He made his stage debut a few months later as a Japanese butler in Alice's 1921 play Drifting (nervously delivering one line of dialogue), and appeared in several of her subsequent plays.","""ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ"
"A barroom brawl at this time was also a purported cause of Bogart's lip damage, dovetailing with Louise Brooks' account.","Iⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⴰⵉⵉⴷ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴻⵙⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⵍⴰⴱⵉⴰⵍⴻⵙ,ⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵉⵛⵉⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⵓⵉⵙⴻ ⴱⵔⵓⵓⴾⵙ."
"""Bogart disliked his trivial, effeminate early-career parts, calling them """"White Pants Willie"""" roles.""","""ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⴻⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵏⵉⵙⵙⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴶⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴾⴻⵉⴻⵏ,ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵉⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⴼⵉⵏ""ⵓⵂⵉⵜⴻ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵙ ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴻ""."
"Menken said in her divorce filing that Bogart valued his career more than marriage, citing neglect and abuse.",ⵎⴻⵏⴾⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙⵉⵙⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴻⴷ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵣⵉⵉ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼⴰ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ.
"There he met Spencer Tracy, a Broadway actor whom Bogart liked and admired, and they became close friends and drinking companions.","ⴻⴷⴻⴶ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴱⴻⵏⵛⴻⵔ ⵟⵔⴰⵛⵉ,ⴰⵛⵜⴻⵓⵔ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⴰⴷⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ,ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵜⵏⴰⵏ."
"Tracy received top billing, but Bogart appeared on the film's posters.","""Iⵙⵙⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵔⴰⵛⵉ ⴰⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⴼ,ⵎⴰⵙⵂⴰⵏ"
"A quarter of a century later, the two men planned to make The Desperate Hours together.","ⴰⴾⵓⵣⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵎⴻⴷⵉⵏ ⴶⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⵉⴱⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵔⴷⴰ."
"Bogart shuttled back and forth between Hollywood and the New York stage from 1930 to 1935, out of work for long periods.","ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1930 ⴰⴷ 1935,ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴶⴰⵔ ⵋⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵓⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵛⵉⵏⴻ ⵏⴻⵓ-ⵉⵓⵔⴾⴰⵉⵙⴻ,ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍ"
"""Although Leslie Howard was the star, The New York Times critic Brooks Atkinson said that the play was """"a peach ... a roaring Western melodrama ... Humphrey Bogart does the best work of his career as an actor.""""""","ⵍⴻⵙⵍⵉⴻ ⵂⵓⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⴰⵏⴷⴻⵔ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴱⴻⴷⴻⵜⵜⴻ ,ⵉⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵓⵓⴾⵙ ⴰⵜⴾⵉⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵓ-ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⵔⵉⵎⴻⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰ ⴱⵉⵉⵛⴻ ⵜⴰ ⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ""ⵓⵏⴻ ⴱⴻⵛⵂⴻ...ⵓⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵓⴷⵔⴰⵎⴻ ⵓⴻⵙⵜⴻⵔⵏ ⵔⵓⴶⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ...ⵂⵓⵎⴱⵂⵔⴻⵉ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵓⴾⵙⵙⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻⵏⴻⵙ."
Warner Bros. bought the screen rights to The Petrified Forest in 1935.,ⵓⴰⵔⵏⴻⵔ ⴱⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⴰ ⵙⵂⵉⵏⵙⵂⴰⵂⵉⴷ ⴷⵔⵓⵉⵜⵙ ⵟⵂⴻ ⴱⴻⵜⵔⵉⴼⵉⴻⴷ ⴼⵓⵔⴻⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵙ 1935.
"Howard, who held the production rights, made it clear that he wanted Bogart to star with him.","ⵂⵓⵓⴰⵔⴷ, ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵜⴰⴼⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⵓⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏ,ⵉⵏⴰ ⴰ ⴻⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ."
"When Warner Bros. saw that Howard would not budge, they gave in and cast Bogart.","ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⵏⴻⵔ ⴱⵔⵓⵙ, ⵉⵣⴰⵆ ⵂⵓⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵓⴰⵔⵉⵜⵉⵉⵓ, ⵉⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵙ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ"
"""According to Variety, """"Bogart's menace leaves nothing wanting"""".""","ⵠⴰⵔⵉⴻⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵏⴰ,""""ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵉⴻⵜ"""
"There must be something in my tone of voice, or this arrogant face—something that antagonizes everybody.","Iⵍⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵏⵉⵏ,ⵎⴻⵆ ⵉⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴱⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ...ⵂⴰⵔⴻⵜ ⵉⵉⴻⵏ ⵉⴷⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵜⴻⴷⴻⵎⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ."
"In spite of his success, Warner Bros. had no interest in raising Bogart's profile.","ⵂⴾⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⵔⴻⵓ, ⵓⴰⵔⵏⴻⵔ ⴱⵔⵓⵂⵙ. ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵆⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ."
"Bogart used these years to begin developing his film persona: a wounded, stoical, cynical, charming, vulnerable, self-mocking loner with a code of honor.","ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⴷ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⵉ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ : ⴰⴷⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⵂⵉⴰⴶ, ⴰⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ, ⵛⵉⵏⵉⵈⵓⴻ, ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ, ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵈⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ."
His disputes with Warner Bros. over roles and money were similar to those waged by the studio with more established and less malleable stars such as Bette Davis and James Cagney.,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵙⵂ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔⵏⴻⵔ ⴱⵔⵓⵙ.ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼⵓⴻⵍⴰⵂ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵓⴰⵉⵉⴷ ⵙⵜⵓⴷⵉⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴻⵜⵜⴻ ⴻⴰⴱⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵋⴰⵎⴻⵙ ⵛⴰⴶⵏⴻⵉ.
"His only leading role during this period was in Dead End (1937, on loan to Samuel Goldwyn), as a gangster modeled after Baby Face Nelson.","ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴻⴰⴷ ⴻⵏⴷ (1937,ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵂⴰⴾⴰ ⵉⴻ ⵙⴰⵎⵓⴻⵍ ⵗⵓⵍⵓⵉⵏ) ⴻⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴶⴰⵏⴶⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⴼⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉ ⴼⴰⵛⴻ ⵏⴻⵍⵙⵓⵏ."
"""In Black Legion (1937), a movie Graham Greene described as """"intelligent and exciting, if rather earnest"""", he played a good man who was caught up with (and destroyed by) a racist organization.""","""ⴻⴰⵆ ⴱⵍⴰⵛⴾ ⵍⴻⴶⵉⵓⵏ (1937), ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵗⵔⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵗⵔⴻⴻⵏⴻ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ """"ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵉⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴱⴰⵜ"""", ⵉⵜⴰⴶⵓ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ (ⴰⴷ ⴻⵆⵛⴰⴷ) ⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵙⴰⵜⴻⵏ"
"""The trouble was they were drinking mine and I was making this stinking movie.""""""","ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵙ ⴻⴷⴰⴶⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⴾⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵆ ⵓⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ."""
"On August 21, 1938, Bogart entered a turbulent third marriage to actress Mayo Methot, a lively, friendly woman when sober but paranoid and aggressive when drunk.","21 ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵙ 1938,ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴷⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵉⵓ ⵎⴻⵜ ⵂⵓⵜ,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴻⴷⴰⵓ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵍⴰⵎⵉⴷ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴾⴼⴰⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵉⵂⴻⵜ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⵉⴷ."
"She set their house afire, stabbed him with a knife, and slashed her wrists several times.","ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⴰ ⴻⴼⴻⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴻⵏ, ⵜⵉⴷⴰⴾⴻⵜ ⵙⴰⴱⵙⵉⵔ"
"""According to their friend, Julius Epstein, """"The Bogart-Methot marriage was the sequel to the Civil War"""".""","“ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴻⵏ, ⵋⵓⵍⵉⵓⵙ ⴻⴱⵙⵜⴻⵉⵏ,""""ⴰⵣⵍⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴻⵜⵂⵓⵜ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⴶⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵓⵙⵙⴰⵜⴻⵏ."""
"Methot's influence was increasingly destructive, however, and Bogart also continued to drink.","ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵜⵂⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵓⵜ ⴾⵓⵍ, ⵎⴰⵙⵂⴰⵏ, ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉ."
"When he thought an actor, director or studio had done something shoddy, he spoke up publicly about it.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵆ ⵓⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⵂⵉⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵜⴻⵓⵔ, ⵔⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⴰⵜⴻⵓⵔ ⵎⴻⵆ ⵙⵜⵉⴷⵉo ⵉⴶⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴱⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵏⵉⵂⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⵓⵉⴰⵜ ⴾⵓⵍ."
"Paul Muni, George Raft, Cagney and Robinson turned down the lead role, giving Bogart the opportunity to play a character with some depth.","ⴱⴰⵓⵍ ⵎⵓⵏⵉ, ⵗⴻⵓⵔⴶⴻ ⵔⴰⴼⵜ, ⵛⴰⴶⵏⴻⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵓⴶⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ, ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵆⵓⵔ ⵏⵓⵆⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵉⴷⴻⵔ."
"He worked well with Ida Lupino, sparking jealousy from Mayo Methot.","ⴰⵙⵂⵉⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ Iⴷⴰ ⵍⵓⴱⵉⵏⵓ, ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵉⵓ ⵎⴻⵜⵂⵓⵜ"
"He could quote Plato, Pope, Ralph Waldo Emerson and over a thousand lines of Shakespeare, and subscribed to the Harvard Law Review.",".ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⵈⵔⴰ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ,ⴱⵓⴱⴻ, ⵔⴰⵍⴱⵂ ⵓⴰⵍⴷⵓ ⴻⵎⴻⵔⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⴼⴰⴷ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵙⵂⴰⴾⴻⵙⴱⴻⴰⵔⴻ,ⵎⴰⵙⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵂⴰⵔⴱⴰⵔⴷ ⵍⴰⵓ ⵔⴻⴱⵉⴻⵓ."
"Based on the Dashiell Hammett novel, it was first serialized in the pulp magazine Black Mask in 1929 and was the basis of two earlier film versions; the second was Satan Met a Lady (1936), starring Bette Davis.","Iⵍⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵙⵂⵉⴻⵍⵍ ⵂⴰⵎⵍⴻⵜ,ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⴶⵔⴰⵂ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴻ ⴻⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⴰⵣⵉⵏⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⴱ ⴱⵍⴰⵛⴾ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵙ 1929 ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴱⴻⵔⵙⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵜ ⴰ ⵍⴰⴷⵉ(1936), ⴰⴷ ⴱⴻⵜⵜⴻ ⴻⴰⴱⵉⵙ."
Huston then eagerly accepted Bogart as his Sam Spade.,ⵂⵓⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⴻⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ ⴰⵙ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⴰⴶ ⵙⴰⵎ ⵙⴱⴰⴷⴻ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ.
"The film, directed by Michael Curtiz and produced by Hal Wallis, featured Ingrid Bergman, Claude Rains, Sydney Greenstreet, Paul Henreid, Conrad Veidt, Peter Lorre and Dooley Wilson.","ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵜⴰ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵎⵉⵛⴰⴻⵍ ⵛⵓⵔⵜⵉⵣ, ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵂⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵍⵍⵉⵙ,ⵜⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⴰⵂⵓⴾⵙⵙⴻⵏ ⵉⵉ Iⵏⴶⵔⵉⴷ ⴱⴻⵔⴶⵎⴰⵏ,ⵛⵍⴰⵓⴷⴻ ⵛⵔⴰⵉⵏⵙ, ⵙⵉⴷⵏⴻⵉ ⵗⵔⴻⴻⵏⵙⵜⵔⴻⴻⵜ, ⴱⴰⵓⵍ ⵂⴻⵏⵔⴻⵉⴷ,ⵛⵓⵏⵔⴰⴷ ⵠⴻⵉⴷⵜ,ⴱⴻⵜⴻⵔ ⵍⵓⵔⵔⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵓⵓⵍⴻⵉ ⵓⵉⵍⵙⵓⵏ."
"Bogart is reported to have been responsible for the notion that Rick Blaine should be portrayed as a chess player, a metaphor for the relationships he maintained with friends, enemies, and allies.","ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴰ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴾⵉⵔⴻ ⴰⵙ ⵔⵉⵛⴾ ⴱⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻ ⴰⵏⵉⵂⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵆⴰⵙⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ,ⵜⵉⵎⴾⴰⵔⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴶⴰⵔⴻⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵂⴰⴾⵉⴷ ⴻⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⵉⴾⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ."
"Bogart was nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role, but lost to Paul Lukas for his performance in Watch on the Rhine.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵜ,ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⵛⵜⴻⵓⵔ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ,ⵎⴰⵙⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⴱⴰⵓⵍ ⵍⵓⴾⴰⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵜⵛⵂ ⵓⵏ ⵜⵂⴻ ⵔⵂⵉⵏⴻ"
"Bogart went on United Service Organizations and War Bond tours with Methot in 1943 and 1944, making arduous trips to Italy and North Africa (including Casablanca).","ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵎⴻⵜⵂⵓⵜ ⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵜⴻⴷ Oⵔⴶⴰⵏⵉⵣⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴱⵓⵏⴷ ⵟⵓⵓⵔⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1943 ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1944, ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ Iⵜⴰⵍⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ (ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵛⴰⵙⴰⴱⵍⴰⵏⵛⴰ)."
"""When they met, Bacall was 19 and Bogart 44; he nicknamed her """"Baby.""""""","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴻⵏ, ⴱⴰⵛⴰⵍⵍ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ 19, ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ 44 ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ; ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⴰⵏⵓ "" ⴱⴰⴱⵉ"""
"""We'll have a lot of fun together"""".""",ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵏⴻⴷ ⵏⴰⴶⴰ ⵏⵉⴷⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⴶⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵆ.
"By Myself and Then Some, HarperCollins, New York, 2005.","ⴱⵉ ⵎⵉⵙⴻⵍⴼ ⴰⵏ ⵟⵂⴻⵏ ⵙⵓⵎⴻ, ⵂⴰⵔⴱⴻⵔⵛⵓⵍⵍⵉⵏⵙ, ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ, 2005."
"He considered himself Bacall's protector and mentor, and Bogart was usurping that role.","ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷ ⴰⴶⴰⵏⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵂ ⵓⴶⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ, ⵎⴻⵏⵜⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵛⴰⵍⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⵓⴻⵏ"
"""Also, he has a sense of humor that contains that grating undertone of contempt.""""""","ⴻⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⴶ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵉⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⴻ. """""
"The dialogue, especially in the added scenes supplied by Hawks, was full of sexual innuendo, and Bogart is convincing as private detective Philip Marlowe.","ⴻⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏⵉ,ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵂⴰⵓⴾⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵏⴻ, ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴻⵏ ⴰⵗⴼⴰⵍⵏⴻⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵏ, ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵔⵏⴰⴻⵏ ⴻⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵜⴻⵛⵜⵉⴱⴻ ⴱⵔⵉⴱⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵉⴱ ⵎⴰⵔⵍⵓⵓⴻ"
"The marriage was a happy one, with tensions due to their differences.","ⴰⵣⵍⵉ ⴰⵂⵓⴾⵙⵙⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴶⴰⵔⴻⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"""According to Bogart's biographer, Stefan Kanfer, it was """"a production line film noir with no particular distinction"""".""","Iⵏⴰ ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ, ⵙⵜⴻⴼⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵏⴼⴻⵔ, ⴰⵏⵜⴰ""""ⵉⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⵓⴰⵍ, ⵓⴰⵔⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴱⴰⴷⵂⵉ."
"Lacking a love interest or a happy ending, it was considered a risky project.","ⵓⴰⵔⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵣⵉⴶⵔⴰⵣ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⵋⴻⵜ ⵉⴱⵔⴰⵔⴰⴻⵏ"
"""James Agee wrote, """"Bogart does a wonderful job with this character ... miles ahead of the very good work he has done before.""""""","ⵋⴰⵎⴻⵙ ⴰⴶⵔⴻⴻ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ""""ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⴰⴶ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵓⴾⵙⴻⵏ ...ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵉⵍⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔⴻⵙ ⵜⴻⵏ."
"Bogart appeared in his final films for Warners, Chain Lightning (1950) and The Enforcer (1951).","ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⴹⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⵎⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵉⴻ ⵓⴰⵔⵏⴻⵔ, ⵛⵂⴰⵉⵏ ⵍⵉⴶⵂⵜⵉⵏⴶ(1950) ⴰⴷ ⵟⵂⴻ ⴻⵏⴼⵓⵔⵛⴻⵔ (1951)."
Santana also made two films without him: And Baby Makes Three (1949) and The Family Secret (1951).,ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴻⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵍⵎⵙ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ :ⴰⵏⴷ ⴱⴰⴱⵉ ⵎⴰⴾⴻⵙ ⵟⵂⴻⴻ(1949)ⴰⴷ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴼⴰⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⵙⴻⵛⵔⴻⵜ (1951)
"Several Bogart biographers, and actress-writer Louise Brooks, have felt that this role is closest to the real Bogart.","ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⴻⵙ ⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⴶⴻⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴾⵜⵉⴱⵜ ⵍⵓⵓⵉⵙⴻ ⴱⵍⵓⵓⴾⵙ,ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷ ⴰⵆⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵂⴰⵣ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ."
"A parody of sorts of The Maltese Falcon, Beat the Devil was the final film for Bogart and John Huston.","ⴱⴰⵔⵓⴷⵉⴻ ⴻⴰⵗ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵎⴰⵍⵜⴻⵙⴻ ⴼⴰⵍⵛⵓⵏ,ⴱⴻⴰⵜ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴻⴻⴱⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵙⵓⵏ"
"Huston's love of adventure, his deep, longstanding friendship (and success) with Bogart, and the chance to work with Hepburn convinced the actor to leave Hollywood for a difficult shoot on location in the Belgian Congo.","ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴻ ⵂⵓⵍⵙⵓⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⵆⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴷⵓⵓⴰ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵂⴻⴱⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵜⴻⵓⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵓⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴶⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴶⵓ ⴱⴻⵍⴶⴻ."
"Bacall came for the over-four-month duration, leaving their young son in Los Angeles.","ⴱⴰⵛⴰⵍⵍ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⴷ ⵉⴻ ⴰⴷⴰⴶⵓ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵉⵜ,ⴻⴰⵗ ⵓⴻⵉⴰⵂⵉⵏ ⴻⵍⴻⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴶⴻⵍⴻⵙ."
"""She Luxed my undies in darkest Africa.""""""","""ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵂⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵓ ⴻⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵉ."
"Hepburn (a teetotaler) fared worse in the difficult conditions, losing weight and at one point becoming very ill.","ⵂⴻⴱⴱⵓⵎ ( ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵓ ⴰⵙⵎⵉⴷ) ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵆ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴷⴰ ⵙⵓⴼⵔⵓⵉ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ."
"Despite the discomfort of jumping from the boat into swamps, rivers and marshes, The African Queen apparently rekindled Bogart's early love of boats; when he returned to California, he bought a classic mahogany Hacker-Craft runabout which he kept until his death.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵉⴱⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵓⴶⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⵋⴻⵔⴻⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵓⴰⵍ, ⵟⵂⴻ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⴻⴻⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⴰⵏⴾⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵂⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴻ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵓⴰⵏ ; ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴻⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵉⴻ, ⴰⵛⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵛⴾⴻⵔ-ⵛⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵛⴾ ⵉⵜⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⵜⴰⴱⴰ"
"""When Bogart won, however, he said: """"It's a long way from the Belgian Congo to the stage of this theatre.""","ⵎⵓⴶⵓⴷⵓ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ, ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ , ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰ : ‘’ ‘’ ⵟⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴶⵓ ⴱⴻⵍⴶⴻ ⵣⴰⴶⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ'' ‘"
"As in tennis, you need a good opponent or partner to bring out the best in you.","ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴻⵏⵏⵉⵙ, ⴰⵏⵉⵂⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⴾⴻⵏⵉⵙ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵔⵂⵓ ⵎⴻⵆ ⴰⵎⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⵣⴶⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜⴻ ⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ."
"Though he retained some of his old bitterness about having to do so, he delivered a strong performance in the lead; he received his final Oscar nomination and was the subject of a June 7, 1954 Time magazine cover story.","Iⵏⴾⴰ ⴰⴷⴻⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ, ⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵔⵂⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵣⴰⴱⵓ ⵜⴰ-ⵜⴰⵛⴰⵎⴰⵜ ; ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵎⵓⴾⵍⴰⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵜⴰ-ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵏ Oⵙⵛⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴶⴰⵉ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵍⵙⴰⵜ ⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⴰⵣⵉⵏⴻ ⵜⵉⵎⴻ ⵍⴻ 7 ⵋⵓⵉⵏ 1954."
He is the type of director I don't like to work with ... the picture is a crock of crap.,ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴻⵏⴰⵎⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⴷⴻⵔⵂⴰⵆ ⴰⴷ-ⵏⴰⵎⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ…ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵙⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴼⴻⵏ.
"""Despite the acrimony, the film was successful; according to a review in The New York Times, Bogart was """"incredibly adroit ... the skill with which this old rock-ribbed actor blends the gags and such duplicities with a manly manner of melting is one of the incalculable joys of the show"""".""","‘’ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴾⵏⴰ, ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ; ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⵟⵉⵎⴻⵙ, ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴱⴰ ⵎⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴻⵔⴻ ⴰⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⵓⵆⴻⴷ…ⵜⴰⵎⵆⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵆⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵛⴾ ⵎⴻⵍⴻ ⵉⴻ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵜⵉⴼ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⵎⴰⵆⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵛⵔⴻ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵜⵉⴱⴰ ⴻⴶⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵣⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴻⵔⴻ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴶⵉⵂⴰⵏ"
"He was uneasy with Ava Gardner in the female lead; she had just broken up with his Rat Pack buddy Frank Sinatra, and Bogart was annoyed by her inexperienced performance.","ⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⴶⵔⴻⵣ ⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰ ⵗⴰⵔⴷⵏⴻⵔ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵛⵗⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏ; Iⴾⴻⵜ ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵛⴰⵛⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵜ ⴱⴰⵛⴾ, ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴾ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵜⵔⴰ, ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴰⴶⵔⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵔⵙⴻⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ."
"When Bacall found them together, she extracted an expensive shopping spree from her husband; the three traveled together after the shooting.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⴰⵏⵂⵉⴰ ⴱⴰⵛⴰⵍⵍ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵉⴰ ⵔⴰⴶ ⴰⵙⵓⴾ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴻⵏ ; ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴻⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⴾⵉⵍ."
"He also appeared on The Jack Benny Show, where a surviving kinescope of the live telecast captures him in his only TV sketch-comedy performance (October 25, 1953).","Iⵣⴶⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵋⴰⵛⴾ ⴱⴻⵏⵏⵉ ⵙⵓⵓ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴰⵜⴰⴼⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵙⵜⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵙⴾⴻⵜⵛⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ( 25 ⵓⵛⵜⵓⴱⵔⴻ 1953)."
Stephen became an author and biographer and hosted a television special about his father on Turner Classic Movies.,ⵙⵜⴻⴱⵂⴻⵏ ⴻⴶⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⵆⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⵙⵉⴷⵓⵓ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⴻⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵟⵓⵏⴻⵔ ⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵛ ⵎⵓⴱⵉⴻ
"In the wake of Santana, Bogart had formed a new company and had plans for a film (Melville Goodwin, U.S.A.) in which he would play a general and Bacall a press magnate.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵔⵉⵛ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰ, ⴱⵓⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ (ⵎⴻⵍⴱⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⵗⵓⵓⴷⵓⵉⵏ, ⵓ.ⵙ.ⴰ) ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⴰ ⴷⵉⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⵆⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵛⴰⵍⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵜ"
He did not talk about his health and visited a doctor in January 1956 after considerable persuasion from Bacall.,"ⵓⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵉⵎⴶⵔⵉⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴻⵆⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵛⵜⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⴰⵏⴱⵉⴻⵔ 1956, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⵆⵓⵍ ⵏⵉⵎⴰⵙⴷⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵛⴰⵍⵍ"
"He had additional surgery in November 1956, when the cancer had metastasized.","Iⴶⴰ ⵓⴱⴻⵔⴻ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⵓⴱⴻⵎⴱⵔⴻ 1956, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⵛⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴷ."
"""On it was inscribed, """"If you want anything, just whistle.""""""","ⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ :`` `` ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴻⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ, ⵙⵓⴾⵓⵙⵓⵜ."
"Having studied with Stella Adler in the 1940s, he is credited with being one of the first actors to bring the Stanislavski system of acting and method acting, derived from the Stanislavski system, to mainstream audiences.","ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⴷⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⴻⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⴷⴻⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1940, ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵂⵉⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵆⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⵉⵙⵍⴰⴱⵙⴾⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴶⵎⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵆⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⵉⵙⵍⴰⴱⵙⴾⵉ."
"He directed and starred in the cult western One-Eyed Jacks, a critical and commercial flop, after which he delivered a series of notable box-office failures, beginning with Mutiny on the Bounty (1962).","Iⴶⴰ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴻⵙⵜⴻⵔⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⵜⴻ Oⵏⴻ-ⴻⵉⴻⴷ ⵋⴰⵛⴾⵙ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷⵔⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵛⵉⵏⵛ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷⵔⴰ ⴰⵜⴱⴰⵏⵜⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵓⵆ-ⵓⴼⴼⵉⵛⴻ, ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵏ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴱⵓⵓⵏⵜⵉ (1962)."
He refused the award due to alleged mistreatment and misportrayal of Native Americans by Hollywood.,ⵓⴶⴰⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵋⵓⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵔⵓⵔ ⵏⴰⵍⵎⴰⵆⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵓⵜ ⵓⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵏⴷⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵓⴷ.
"According to the Guinness Book of World Records, Brando was paid a record $3.7 million ($ million in inflation-adjusted dollars) and 11.75% of the gross profits for 13 days' work on Superman.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⵗⵓⵉⵏⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴻⵛⵓⵔⴷⵙ, ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ 3,7 ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔ ( ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ) ⴰⴷ 11,75 ⴱⵓⵔⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ 13 ⵉⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵛⵉⵆⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⴱⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏ"
"His ancestry was mostly German, Dutch, English, and Irish.","Iⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵉⵎⵜⴰⵏ, ⵏⴻⴰⵍⴰⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵏⴶⵍⴻⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷⴻⵜⴰⵏ"
Brando was raised a Christian Scientist.,ⴱⵓⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵓⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⴻⵏⵜⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ.
"However, she was an alcoholic and often had to be brought home from bars in Chicago by her husband.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ, ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵎⴰⵙⴰⵓ ⵏⴰ ⴰⵍⵛⵓⵍ ⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰ ⵜⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵜⵉⵓⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⴻ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⴰⴶⵓ."
"""Brando harbored far more enmity for his father, stating, """"I was his namesake, but nothing I did ever pleased or even interested him.""","""ⴱⵓⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵛⴰⵛⴾⴰ ⴰⵋⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⴻ ⵜⵉⵙ, ⴰⵍⵉⵆⴰⵜ : "" ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵏⵓⵆⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⵉⵙ ⴰⴶⵔⴻⵣ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⵂⴻⵉ."
"Around 1930, Brando's parents moved to Evanston, Illinois, when his father's work took him to Chicago, but separated in 1935 when Brando was 11 years old.","ⴻⴰⵗ 1930, ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⴷⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴻⴱⴻⵔⵜⵓⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ Iⵍⵍⵉⵏⵓⵉⵙ, ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⵛⵉⵆⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵛⴰⴶⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 1935, ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⴱⵓⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵍⴰ 11 ⴻⵍⴰⵏ."
"""Brando, whose childhood nickname was """"Bud"""", was a mimic from his youth.""","""ⴱⵓⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⵓⴰⵙ ⵙⵉⵙⵉⵎⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ """"ⴱⵓⴷ"""", ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⵏⴻⵙ."
"In the 2007 TCM biopic Brando: The Documentary, childhood friend George Englund recalls Brando's earliest acting as imitating the cows and horses on the family farm as a way to distract his mother from drinking.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⴱⵓⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵓⴰ 2007 ⴰⵏ ⵟⵛⵎ : ⵟⵂⴻ ⴻⵓⵛⵓⵎⴻⵏⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵗⴻⵓⵔⴶⴻ ⴻⵏⴶⵍⵓⵏⴷ, ⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵎⴷⵔⵉⵜ, ⵉⵙⴰⵎⴰⴾⵜⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⴶⴱⵓⴱⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵉⵋⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵈ, ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵏⴰⵛⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵎⵉⴷ."
Brando's sister Frances left college in California to study art in New York.,"ⴼⵓⴰⵏⵛⴻ, ⵓⴰⵍⴰⵜⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵏⵉⴱⴻⵔⵙⵉⵜⴻ ⵓⴰ ⵛⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵉⴻ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵆⴰⵔⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ."
Brando excelled at theater and did well in the school.,ⴱⵓⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵎⴰⵈⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵔⵂⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵛⵓⵍⴻ
"The faculty voted to expel him, though he was supported by the students, who thought expulsion was too harsh.","ⴰⵛⵓⵂⵓ ⵏⵓⴾⵓⵙ ⵏⴰⵣⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴻⵙ, ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵆⵔⴰⵏ, ⵓⵉ ⴰⵆⴻⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵣⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵓⴶⵓ."
"""In a 1988 documentary, Marlon Brando: The Wild One, Brando's sister Jocelyn remembered, """"He was in a school play and enjoyed it ... So he decided he would go to New York and study acting because that was the only thing he had enjoyed.""","""ⴻⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 1988, ⵎⴰⵔⵍⵓⵏ ⴱⵓⴰⵏⴷⵓ : ⵟⵂⴻ ⵓⵉⵍⴷ ⵓⵏⴻ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵉⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⵋⵓⵛⴻⵍⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵏ : """" Iⴷⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵛⵓⵍⴻ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵣⴰⵣⵙ…Iⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴻⵆⴰⵔⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵆⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵜ-ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔⵂⴰⵜ."""
"For a time he lived with Roy Somlyo, who later became a four time Emmy winning Broadway producer.","ⵓⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵉⵜ, ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⵔⵓⵉ ⵙⵓⵎⵍⵉⵓ, ⵓⴰ ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⴰⴷⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⵣ ⴻⵎⵎⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⵔⴷⵙ."
Brando's remarkable insight and sense of realism were evident early on.,ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵏⵉⴶⵉ ⵏⵓⵆⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⴾ.
"According to Dustin Hoffman in his online Masterclass, Brando would often talk to camera men and fellow actors about their weekend even after the director would call action.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴻⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵂⵓⴼⴼⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⵜⴻⵔⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴻⵔⵏⴻⵜ, ⴱⵓⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴶⴰⵏⵓ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵓⵉⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⴻⴾ-ⴻⵏⴷ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ."
"His behavior had him kicked out of the cast of the New School's production in Sayville, but he was soon afterwards discovered in a locally produced play there.","ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⴶⴰⵔⵜⵉⵂⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵏⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵙⵛⵂⵓⵓⵍ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵉⴱⵉⵍⵍⴻ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵜⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⴰⵜ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵎⵉⵣⵗⴰⵆ"
Cornell also cast him as the Messenger in her production of Jean Anouilh's Antigone that same year.,"ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ,ⵛⵓⵔⵏⴻⵍⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵆⵍⴰⴼⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⴶⵓⵏⴻ ⴷⴻ ⵋⴻⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⵉⵍⵂ."
"Bankhead had turned down the role of Blanche Dubois in A Streetcar Named Desire, which Williams had written for her, to tour the play for the 1946–1947 season.","ⴱⴰⵏⴾⵂⴻⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵉ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵛⵂⴻ ⴻⵓⴱⵓⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵔⴻⴻⵜⵛⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵎⴻⴷ ⴻⴻⵙⵉⵔⴻ, ⵓⴰⵙ ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎⵙ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵙ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵙⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉⵍⵉⵉ ⵙⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ 1946-1947"
"""Wilson was largely tolerant of Brando's behavior, but he reached his limit when Brando mumbled through a dress rehearsal shortly before the November 28, 1946, opening. """"""","""ⵓⵉⵍⵙⵓⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵔⴻ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵉⵉⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰⴾⵜⴰⴾ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵓⵙⵓⵆⵓⵍ ⵏⴰ ⴷⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜ-ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ 28 ⵏⵓⴱⴻⵎⴱⵔⴻ 1946."
"""It was marvelous,"""" a cast member recalled. """"""","""ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ "", ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰⵂⵉⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵆⴰⵜ."
"Critics were not as kind, however.","ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵈⴻⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ, ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏⴷⴰⵆ ."
"""He received better reviews at subsequent tour stops, but what his colleagues recalled was only occasional indications of the talent he would later demonstrate. """"""","""Iⵙⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉⵍⵉⵉ ⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴾⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴱⴰⵜⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ"
Brando displayed his apathy for the production by demonstrating some shocking onstage manners.,ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⴾⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ
"After several weeks on the road, they reached Boston, by which time Bankhead was ready to dismiss him.","ⴻⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵣⴰⴱⵓ, ⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵓⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⴾⵂⴻⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴰⵓ ⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⴶ."
"""Pierpont writes that John Garfield was first choice for the role, but """"made impossible demands.""""""","""ⴱⵉⴻⵔⵓⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵙ ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⵗⴰⵔⴼⵉⴻⵍⴷ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ """"ⵉⵜⴰⴶⵓ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ"""""
"""It humanizes the character of Stanley in that it becomes the brutality and callousness of youth rather than a vicious old man ... A new value came out of Brando's reading which was by far the best reading I have ever heard.""""""","Iⴾⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵆⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⵍⴻⵉ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵎⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴱⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⴷⴻⵔⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⴻⵆⵓⵍ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⴰⵎⵆⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰⵉⴰⵏ….ⵜⴻⵎⴱⴻ ⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⵆⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵉⴶ ⵜⴻⵆⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜⵓⴼⴰⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵍⴰ."""""""
"""He said, """"The curtain went up and on the stage is that son of a bitch from the gym, and he's playing me.""""""","""I ⵏⴰ : ""ⵔⵉⴷⴻⴰⵓ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵍⵓⵔⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⴶⵉⵎⵏⴰⵙⴻ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵛⵍⴰⵏ."""
Brando's first screen role was a bitter paraplegic veteran in The Men (1950).,ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵆⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵛⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵎⴰⵛⴻⵂⵉ ⵜⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⴱⵍⵉⴶⵉⴻ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵟⵂⴻ ⴱⴻⵏ (1950).
"By Brando's own account, it may have been because of this film that his draft status was changed from 4-F to 1-A. He had had surgery on his trick knee, and it was no longer physically debilitating enough to incur exclusion from the draft.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⵉⴶⵓⵎⵉⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴱⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⵉⵓⵔ 4-ⴼ ⵂⴰⵔ 1-ⴰ. ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵉⴱⵔⵉⵣⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵛⴰⵍⴶⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⵆⵉⵍ. ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵉⴱⵔⵉⵣⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵛⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴷⴻ ⵉⴻ ⵜⵓⵉⵛⵉⴶ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵏ."
"Coincidentally, the psychiatrist knew a doctor friend of Brando.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵆⵓⵔ, ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵉⴰⵜⵔⴻ ⵉⵣⴰⵉ ⵍⴰⵛⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ."
The role is regarded as one of Brando's greatest.,ⴰⵛⵉⵍ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⴻ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ.
The film was directed by Elia Kazan and co-starred Anthony Quinn.,ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴰⵜ-ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⵉⴰ ⵆⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵜⴻⵏⴰⵎⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵓⵏⵉ ⵔⵓⵉⵏⵏ
"During our scenes together, I sensed a bitterness toward me, and if I suggested a drink after work, he either turned me down or else was sullen and said little.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ, ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵉⴰ ⵉⴻ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⴱⵔⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵙⵓ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ, ⴰⵔⵓⴶⵉⵉ ⵎⴻⵆ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵓⵉⵔⵉⴶⵓ ⴰⵜ-ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ."
"After achieving the desired effect, Kazan never told Quinn that he had misled him.","ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴷⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵆⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵣⴰⵏ, ⵆⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⵔⵉⵏⴰ ⵉⴻ ⵙⵓⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵙ ⵂⵉⵍⴻ"
"Gielgud was so impressed that he offered Brando a full season at the Hammersmith Theatre, an offer he declined.","ⵗⵉⴻⵍⴶⵓⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵎⴰⵆⵈⵉ ⵓⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴼⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵎⵎⴻⵔⵙⵎⵉⵜⵂ ⵟⵂⴻⴰⵜⵔⴻ, ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵆⴰⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉ"
It was like a furnace door opening—the heat came off the screen.,ⵙⵓⴷ ⵆⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵍ ⴼⵓⵔⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⴻⵏ- ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⵜⴻ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵍⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴻⵜ
"""By all accounts, Brando was upset by his mentor's decision, but he worked with him again in On The Waterfront. """"""","""ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴰⵆⵉ ⴷⴰⴾ, ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜ-ⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵉⵆⵉⵍ ⴷⵉⵔⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ Oⵏ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵓⴰⵜⴻⵔⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ."
"Triumph's importers were ambivalent at the exposure, as the subject matter was rowdy motorcycle gangs taking over a small town.","ⴰⵎⴰⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵟⵔⵉⵓⵎⴱⵂ ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵂⵓⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⵓⴾⵓⵙ, ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵉⵆⵉⵍ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴶⵍⵓⴼⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵆⵔⵎ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ."
"When initially offered the role, Brando—still stung by Kazan's testimony to HUAC—demurred and the part of Terry Malloy nearly went to Frank Sinatra.","ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⴾⵉⵍ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ, ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋⵓⵂⴻⵏⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⴰⵛ- ⵓⵛⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⴻⵔⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵍⵍⵓⵉ ⵉⵛⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵜ-ⵜⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵜⵔⴰ."
Brando won the Oscar for his role as Irish-American stevedore Terry Malloy in On the Waterfront.,"ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓ Oⵙⵛⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⴻⵔⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵍⵍⵓⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷo-ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵏ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵓⴰⵜⴻⵔⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ."
"""In his July 29, 1954, review, The New York Times critic A. H. Weiler praised the film, calling it """"an uncommonly powerful, exciting, and imaginative use of the screen by gifted professionals.""""""","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ 29 ⵋⵓⵉⵍⵍⴻⵜ 1954, ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⵟⵉⵎⴻⵙ ⴰ. ⵂ. ⵓⴻⵍⵍⴻⵔ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ, ⴰⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ """"ⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴻⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵙ-ⵙⵓⵆⵙⴰⴷⴰⵜ, ⵜⴰⵣⵉⵣⴰⵉⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ Iⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵉⵉⵜⴻ""""."
He portrayed Napoleon in the 1954 film Désirée.,Iⴶⴰ ⴻⵛⴻⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 1954.
Brando was especially contemptuous of director Henry Koster.,ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴻⵏⵔⵉ ⵆⵓⵙⵜⴻⵔ.
"""Relations between Brando and costar Frank Sinatra were also frosty, with Stefan Kanfer observing: """"The two men were diametrical opposites: Marlon required multiple takes; Frank detested repeating himself.""""""","""ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵔ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵜⵔⴰ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⵙⵓⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵆⴻⵍ ⵙⵜⴻⴼⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵏⴼⴻⵔ : """"ⵎⴻⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵆⴰ : ⵎⴰⵔⵍⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵂⵓⵛⵓⵍ ⵉⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵜⵓⵏⴻⵏ ; ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ."""""
"""Frank Sinatra called Brando """"the world's most overrated actor"""", and referred to him as """"mumbles"""".""","""ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵜⵔⴰ ⴻⵆⵔⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ"""" ⴻⵎⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⵍⴾⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰⵜ ""ⵂⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴶⴰⵏ """"ⴰⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."""""""
"""Pauline Kael was not particularly impressed by the movie, but noted """"Marlon Brando starved himself to play the pixie interpreter Sakini, and he looks as if he's enjoying the stunt—talking with a mad accent, grinning boyishly, bending forward, and doing tricky movements with his legs.""","""ⴱⴰⵓⵍⵉⵏⴻ ⵆⴰⴻⵍ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⴾⴻⵍ ⴻⵔⴻ ⵜⵉⴶⵔⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ """"ⵎⴰⵔⵍⵓⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⴻⴶⴰⵉ ⵍⴰⵣ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⵉⵆⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⴾⵉⵏⵉ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴻⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴷⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⴷⴰⵔ – ⵉⵎⵉⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⵎ ⴻⵔⴻ ⴰⵋⵓⵔⴻⵏ, ⵉⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⵎ ⴰⵔⴰ, ⴰⴾⵓⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋⴰⵏ oⴾⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⵏ."""""
"""Newsweek found the film a """"dull tale of the meeting of the twain"""", but it was nevertheless a box-office success.""","""ⵏⴻⵓⵙⵓⴻⴻⴾ ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ """"ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⴾⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"""" ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵓⵆ-oⴼⴼⵉⵛⴻ."""
The film went on to win four Academy Awards.,ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴾoⵣ Oⵙⵛⴰⵔⵙ.
"""By all accounts, Brando was devastated by her death, with biographer Peter Manso telling A&E's Biography, """"She was the one who could give him approval like no one else could and, after his mother died, it seems that Marlon stops caring.""""""","""ⴹǎⵗ ⴷⴻⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵍ, Bⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⵜəⵙⵉⵔⵎⴰⵈⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏⵜ əⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ, ⴰⵓⴰ əⵙⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⴰ Pⴻⵜⴻⵔ Mⴰⵏⵙo ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⴰⵍⵉⵆⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰ&ⴻ'ⵙ ⴱⵉoⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ : ""ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⴼⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⵜⴰⴶ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ, ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵍⵓⵏ ⵓⴰⵜⴰⵜⵉⴾⵎⴰ."""""""
The Young Lions also features Brando's only appearance in a film with friend and rival Montgomery Clift (although they shared no scenes together).,ⵟⵂⴻ ⵗⵓⵏⴶ ⵍⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⴰⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵉⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵎⴰⴾⴻⵏⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⴶⵓⵎⴻⵔⵉ ⵛⵍⵉⴼⵜ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴱⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ).
"""Brando portrays the lead character Rio, and Karl Malden plays his partner """"Dad"""" Longworth.""","""ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵔⵉo, ⴰⴷ ⵆⴰⵔⵍ ⵎⴰⵍⴷⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⴻⵙ """"ⴹⴰⴷ"""".ⵍⵓⵏⴶ ⵓⵔⵜⵂ. """
Brando's inexperience as an editor also delayed postproduction and Paramount eventually took control of the film.,ⴰⵙⵓⵣⵙⵉⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵙⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵎⴰⵙⴻⵂⵉ ⵉⴷⴶⴰⵍ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ.
"""By then, I was bored with the whole project and walked away from it.""""""","""ⴰⴶⵓⵏⴷⴻⴷⴰⵗ , ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⴷⴰⵂⵉ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴾⴰⵛⴰⵆ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ."""""""
"Brando's revulsion with the film industry reportedly boiled over on the set of his next film, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's remake of Mutiny on the Bounty, which was filmed in Tahiti.","ⵟⴰⵣⵓⴷⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⵉⴻ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜoⴾⴰⵉ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ, ⴼⴰⵎⵓⵜⵉⵏⵙ ⵓⵉ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴻⵜⵔo-ⵗⵓⵍⴷⵓⵉⵏ-ⵎⴰⵉⴻⵔ, ⵓⴰ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵟⴰⵂⵉⵜⵉ."
"""Mutiny director Lewis Milestone claimed that the executives """"deserve what they get when they give a ham actor, a petulant child, complete control over an expensive picture.""""""","""ⵓⴰⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵜⵉⵏⵙ, ⵍⴻⵓⵉⵙ ⵍⵉⵍⴻⵙⵜⵓⵏⴻ, ⵉⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ""ⵉⵏⴰⵂⴰⴶ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⴾⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⴾⵓⵍ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙoⵂⴻⵜ"
The Ugly American (1963) was the first of these films.,ⵟⵂⴻ ⵓⴶⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏ (1963) ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ.
"All of Brando's other Universal films during this period, including Bedtime Story (1964), The Appaloosa (1966), A Countess from Hong Kong (1967) and The Night of the Following Day (1969), were also critical and commercial flops.","Silmantan fuk wi eqal magrad ən Brando dǎɣ alwaq wendǎɣ, fal Bedtime Story (1964), Appaloosa (1966), hinis ən Hong Kong (1967) dǎɣ ehad ən sund dašalwen (1969), aqalan əntanedǎɣ aydaran dǎɣ təzmit əd mašanšan."
"Brando had also appeared in the spy thriller Morituri in 1965; that, too, failed to attract an audience.","ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⴶⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵂⵔⵉⵍⵍⴻⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴾⵔⵉⵜ ⵎⵓⵔⵉⵜⵓⵔⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ 1965, ⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵔⴻⵣ ⵉⴻ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ."
"Candy was especially appalling for many; a 1968 sex farce film directed by Christian Marquand and based on the 1958 novel by Terry Southern, the film satirizes pornographic stories through the adventures of its naive heroine, Candy, played by Ewa Aulin.","ⵛⴰⵏⴷⵉ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⴻⵏ, ⵙⴻⵆ ⴼⴰⵔⵛⴻ ⴷⴻ 1968 ⵉⴶⴰ ⵙⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵈⵓⴰⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰ 1958 ⴻⵏ ⵟⴻⵔⵔⵉ ⵙⵓⵜⵂⴻⵔⵏ, ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⵉⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵆⵙⵓⵙⵉⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ, ⵛⴰⵏⴷⵉ, ⵜⴰⵆⵔⴰⵉ Eⵓⴰ ⴰⵓⵍⵉⵏ."
"""In the March 1966 issue of The Atlantic, Pauline Kael wrote that in his rebellious days, Brando """"was antisocial because he knew society was crap; he was a hero to youth because he was strong enough not to take the crap"""", but now Brando and others like him had become """"buffoons, shamelessly, pathetically mocking their public reputations.""""""","""ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵔⵙ 1966 ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵂⴻ ⴰⵜⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵛ, ⴱⴰⵓⵍⵉⵏⴻ ⵆⴰⴻⵍ ⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ, ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, """"ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴶⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ"""", ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵎⴰⵙⴻⵂⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵉⴱⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ """",ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵏⴷⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ """"ⵉⵎⴰⵛⴾⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵋⴰⴾⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵆⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⵙⵓⵆⵙⵉⴷ, ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵂⴻⵜ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ """"""."
"""I was very convincing in my pose of indifference, but I was very sensitive and it hurt a lot.""""""","""ⵔⵉⴷⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵉ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵆ ⴰⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵎⴻⵔ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵎⴰⵂⵉ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ."""""
The film overall received mixed reviews.,"ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ, ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵓⵛⵓⵙⴾⵓ."
"Brando dedicated a full chapter to the film in his memoir, stating that the director, Gillo Pontecorvo, was the best director he had ever worked with next to Kazan and Bernardo Bertolucci.","ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵓⴼ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ, ⴰⵍⵉⵆⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵎⴰⴶ, ⵗⵉⵍⵍo ⴱⵓⵏⵜⴻⵛⵓⵔⴱⵓ, ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⴶ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵎⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵆⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴻⵔⵏⴰⵔⴷⵓ ⴱⴻⵔⵜⵓⵍⵓⵛⵛⵉ."
"In 1971, Michael Winner directed him in the British horror film The Nightcomers with Stephanie Beacham, Thora Hird, Harry Andrews and Anna Palk.","ⴷⴰⵗ 1971, ⵎⵉⵛⴰⴻⵍ ⵓⵉⵏⵏⴻⵔ ⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵏⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵏⵉⴶⵂⵜⵛⵓⵎⴻⵔⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⴻⴶⵂⴰⵏⵉⴻ ⴱⴻⴰⵛⴰⵎ, ⵟⵂⵓⵔⴰ ⵂⵉⵔⴷ, ⵂⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⴻⵓⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵍⴾ."
He bested Brando at the 1972 New York Film Critics Circle Awards.),ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴻ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵙ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵛⵔⵉⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵛⵉⵔⵛⵍⴻ ⴰⵓⴰⵔⴷⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ 1972).
"Brando also had One-Eyed Jacks working against him, a troubled production that lost money for Paramount when it was released in 1961.","ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵜⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵛⴾ ⵓⵉⴷⵉⴶⵔⴻⵓ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵆⵓⵔ, ⵏⴰⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵉⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⴰⴶⴰⵔⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ 1961."
"""Coppola convinced Brando to a videotaped """"make-up"""" test, in which Brando did his own makeup (he used cotton balls to simulate the character's puffed cheeks).""","""ⵛⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⵉⴰ ⵔəⴶⵉⵛ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵔⴰⴶⵓ """"ⴰⵛⵉⵛⵓⵂⴰⵆ"""" ⵉⴶⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⵜⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ, ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⵉⵛⵉⵛⴰⵂⴰⵆ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴻⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ ( ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⵍⵓⵍⴰⵆⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴱⵓ ⵉⴰ ⴷⵉⵙⴰⴾⵜⵉⴷ ⵉⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵓⴼⵏⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⴷəⵎ)""."
"""Brando had doubts himself, stating in his autobiography, """"I had never played an Italian before, and I didn't think I could do it successfully.""""""","""ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴻⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵂⵓⴶⵓ, ⵉⴶⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵛⵆⴰⵍ : """"ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⵉⵔⵉⴶⴰ Iⵜⴰⵍⵉⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵆⴻⵍⴰⵆ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵆ ⵉⴶⵓ ⵏⴰ ⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ."""""
"Brando was signed for a low fee of $50,000, but in his contract, he was given a percentage of the gross on a sliding scale: 1% of the gross for each $10 million over a $10 million threshold, up to 5% if the picture exceeded $60 million.","ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⴰ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴱⵓ ⴰⵏ 50 000 $, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⴷⵓⴰⵜ ⴻⵏⴻⵙ, ⵉⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⴻⵍⵍⴻ ⵎⵓⴱⵉⵍⴻ : 1% ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴾⵓⵙⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ 10 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ 10 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉoⵏⵙ, ⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔ 5% ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⵓⵈⴰⵉ 60 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵙ"
"""In a 1994 interview that can be found on the Academy of Achievement website, Coppola insisted, """"The Godfather was a very unappreciated movie when we were making it.""","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ 1994 ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⴻⵎⵉ ⵓⴼ ⴰⵛⵉⴻⴱⴻⵎⴻⵏⵜ, ⵛⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵂⴰⵉⵜ : """"ⴱⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴶⵔⴰⵣ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵔⵉⵜⴰⴶⵓ."""
They didn't like the way I was shooting it.,ⵓⴰⴷⴰⵔⵂⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⴰ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ.
"In a 2010 television interview with Larry King, Al Pacino also talked about how Brando's support helped him keep the role of Michael Corleone in the movie—despite the fact Coppola wanted to fire him.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔⴷⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ 2010 ⵉⵓⵔ ⵍⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⵆⵉⵏⴶ, ⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵛⵉⵏo ⴰⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴰⵆⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍⵜⵉ ⵙⵓⴷⵓⴼ ⵏⴰⵛⵉⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵛⴻⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵔⵍⴻⵓⵏⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ, ⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⴾ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵛⵓⴱⴱoⵍⴰ ⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵛⵉⴶ."
"""He broke the ice by toasting the group with a glass of wine."""" '""","""ⴻⵔⵣⴰ ⴶⵍⴰⵛⴻ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⴶⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵓⵉⵜ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵆⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵛⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵙⵎⵉⴷ."""" """""
"""Caan adds, 'The first day we met Brando everybody was in awe.'""""""","""ⵛⴰⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵓⴻⴷ : ‘ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo, ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵆⴰⵜ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵙⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ."""""
"""Also, because he had so much power and unquestioned authority, I thought it would be an interesting contrast to play him as a gentle man, unlike Al Capone, who beat up people with baseball bats.""""""","ⴰⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ, ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵆⵉⵔⴻ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵓⵉⵏⵓ, ⴰⵆⴻⵍⴰⵆ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴷⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ, ⴻⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵓⵏⴻ, ⵓⴰ Iⵏⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴱⴰⵜⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⴻⴱⴰⵍⵍ."" "" """
There was really no beginning.,ⵓⴰⵔⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴼⴰⵓ.
"He boycotted the award ceremony, instead sending indigenous American rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather, who appeared in full Apache attire, to state Brando's reasons, which were based on his objection to the depiction of indigenous Americans by Hollywood and television.","Iⵜⴰⵎⴰⵆ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⴾ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵂⴰⴾⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵉⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵍ, ⵙⴰⵛⴻⴻⵏ Lⵉⵜⵜⵍⴻⴼⴻⴰⵜⵂⴻⵔ, ⵓⵉ ⴰⵍⵙⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⵍⴻ ⴰⴱⴰⵛⴻ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵉⵣⴶⵔⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵏⴷo, ⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵛⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵂoⵍⵍⵉⵓooⴷ əⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ."
"As with previous films, Brando refused to memorize his lines for many scenes; instead, he wrote his lines on cue cards and posted them around the set for easy reference, leaving Bertolucci with the problem of keeping them out of the picture frame.","ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⵓⴶⴰⵉ ⴷⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵆⴰⵔⴻⵏⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵏⴻⵏ ;ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴶⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵜⵎⴰ ⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⵔⵂⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⴾ, ⵓⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴱⴻⵔⵜⵓⵍⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⴼ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴻⵍⴻ."
His gross participation deal earned him $3 million.,ⴰⵙⵓⴾⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵏⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⵓⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴷⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍ 3 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔ.
"""Pauline Kael, in The New Yorker review, wrote """"The movie breakthrough has finally come.""","""ⴱⴰⵓⵍⵉⵏⴻ ⵆⴰⴻⵍ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾⴻⵔ, ⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱ : ""ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵔ ⵏⴰⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷo."""
"In 1973, Brando was devastated by the death of his childhood best friend Wally Cox.","ⴷⴰⵗ 1973, ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉⴱⴻⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵆ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⵓⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵛoⵆ."
"Absent for the first hour of the movie, Clayton enters on horseback, dangling upside down, caparisoned in white buckskin, Littlefeather-style.","ⵓⴰⵔⴷⵓⵙⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴻⵓⵔⴻ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ, ⵛⵍⴰⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵛ ⴷⴰⴱⴰⵋⴻ, ⴰⵜⵉⵓⵍⵉⴶⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴻⵆⴰⴼⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⵙⵉⴷⴻⵔ, ⴻⵍⴰⴾⴻⴼ ⵏⴰⵍⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍⴻ, ⵉⴶⴰ ⵍⵉⵜⵜⵍⴻⴼⴻⴰⵜⵂⴻⵔ."
"""Penn, who believed in letting actors do their thing, indulged Marlon all the way.""""""","""ⴱⴻⵏⵏ, ⵓⴰ ⴰⵆⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⴰⵉⵓⵓ ⵉⵎⴰⴾⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵆⵉⵙⴻⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⴻ ⵎⴰⵔⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷo."""""
"In 1978, Brando narrated the English version of Raoni, a French-Belgian documentary film directed by Jean-Pierre Dutilleux and Luiz Carlos Saldanha that focused on the life of Raoni Metuktire and issues surrounding the survival of the indigenous Indian tribes of north central Brazil.","ⴷⴰⵗ 1978, ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⵉⴶⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴶⵍⴰⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵓⵏⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛo-ⴱⴻⵍⴶⴻ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵋⴻⴰⵏ-ⴱⵉⴻⵔⵔⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵓⵉ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵓⵙ ⵙⴰⵍⴷⴰⵏⵂⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵆⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵓⵏⵉ ⵎⴻⵜⵓⴾⵜⵉⵔⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵣⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵙⵉⵍ."
"In 1979, he made a rare television appearance in the miniseries Roots: The Next Generations, portraying George Lincoln Rockwell; he won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for his performance.","ⴷⴰⵗ 1979, ⴰⵙoⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵏⵉ-ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴻ ⵔⵓⵜⵙ : ⵟⵂⴻ ⵏⴻⵆⵜ ⵗⴻⵏⴻⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⴻⵓⵔⴶⴻ ⵍⵉⵏⵛⵓⵍⵏ ⵔⵓⵛⴾⵓⴻⵍⵍ ; ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴱⵔⵉⵎⴻⵜⵉⵎⴻ ⴻⵎⵎⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵓⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵛⵉⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵏⵉ-ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴻ ⵎⴻⵆ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ."
Brando was paid $1 million a week for 3 weeks work.,ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ 1 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏ ⴷⴻ ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⴰ ⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ 3 ⵏⵓⴶⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵛⵉⵆⵉⵍ .
"In the documentary, Coppola talks about how astonished he was when an overweight Brando turned up for his scenes and, feeling desperate, decided to portray Kurtz, who appears emaciated in the original story, as a man who had indulged every aspect of himself.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ, ⵛⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵆⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⵎⴻⵆ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵛⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵜⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰ, ⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵓⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉ ⵆⵓⵔⵜⵣ, ⵓⴰ ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⵉⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍⴻⵏⴻⵙ"
"However, he returned in 1989 in A Dry White Season, based on André Brink's 1979 anti-apartheid novel.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ , ⵉⵓⴰⵍⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ 1989 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⴷⵓⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⵓⵔ, ⵜⵉⴶⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵏⵜⵉ-ⴰⴱⴰⵔⵜⵂⴻⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴱⵔⵉ ⴱⵔⵉⵏⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ 1979."
"Brando received praise for his performance, earning an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor and winning the Best Actor Award at the Tokyo Film Festival.","ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ, ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵙⴾⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵍⵂⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ oⴼⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⴻⵙⵜⵉⴱⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟoⴾⵉo."
"""Variety also praised Brando's performance as Sabatini and noted, """"Marlon Brando's sublime comedy performance elevates The Freshman from screwball comedy to a quirky niche in film history.""""""","""ⴱⴰⵔⵉⴻⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵛⵉⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛəⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⴱⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ : """"ⵟⵉⵂⵓⵙⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵛⵉⵆⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵍⵓⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⴻⵎⴰⵆⴰⵔ ⵟⵂⴻ ⴼⵔⴻⵙⵂⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⵙⵛⵔⴻⵓⴱⴰⵍⵍ ⵉⴻ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ."""""""
"The Island of Dr. Moreau screenwriter Ron Hutchinson would later say in his memoir, Clinging to the Iceberg: Writing for a Living on the Stage and in Hollywood (2017), that Brando sabotaged the film's production by feuding and refusing to cooperate with his colleagues and the film crew.","ⴻⵎⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴻ ⵏⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵔⴻⴰⵓ, ⵔⵓⵏ ⵂⵓⵜⵛⵉⵏⵙoⵏ, ⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ, ⵛⵍⵉⵏⴶⵉⵏⴶ ⵜo ⵜⵂⴻ Iⵛⴻⴱⴻⵔⴶ : ⵓⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏⴶ ⴼⵓⵔ ⴰ ⵍⵉⴱⵉⵏⴶ ⵓⵏ ⵜⵂⴻ ⵙⵜⴰⴶⴻ ⴰⵏⴷ ⵉⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⴷ ( 2017), ⴰⵙ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴻⵆⵛⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴾⵉⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴶⴰⵉ ⴷⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵆⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵉ."
This was his last role and his only role as a female character.,ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏ.
"""The actor's son, Miko, was Jackson's bodyguard and assistant for several years, and was a friend of the singer. """"""","""ⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ, ⵎⵉⴾo, ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⴰⵣ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵎⴰⵋⴻⵉⵂⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵛⴾⵙⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵙ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ."""""""
"Dad had a hard time breathing in his final days, and he was on oxygen much of the time.","ⵟⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻⵏⴻⵙ, ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵏⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵛⵓⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⴼⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵙⴰ ⵙⴰⴶⵓⴷ."
So Michael got Dad a golf cart with a portable oxygen tank so he could go around and enjoy Neverland.,"ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓⵛⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ, ⵛⴰⵏⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵎⵆⵉⵔⴻ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵍ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴶⵉⴶⵏⴻⵏ"
He also suffered from diabetes and liver cancer.,ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⴾⴰⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵉⴰⴱⵉⵜⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵛⴰⵏⵛⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⵂ.
His single recorded line was included within the final game as a tribute to the actor.,ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⵜⴻⵏⴰⵆⴻ ⵏⴻⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵆⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵔ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴶⵔⴰⴱⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴹⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷo ⵏⵉⴶⵉ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵓⵔ ⴾⴰⵏoⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴻⵓⴻⵜ.
A distressed Brando told Malden he kept falling over.,ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵙ-ⵉⵗⵛⴰⴷ ⵓⵍⵂ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴻ ⵎⴰⵍⴷⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴷⵓ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ.
"Shortly before his death, he had apparently refused permission for tubes carrying oxygen to be inserted into his lungs, which, he was told, was the only way to prolong his life.","ⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⴱⴰ ⵏⴻⵙ, ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ-ⵉⴶⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⴾⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⵓ (ⵓⵏⴼⴰⴰⵙ) ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵜⴻⵏ, ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏ-ⴰⵙ, ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷoⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵛⴶⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴻⵙ."
"""In 1976, he told a French journalist, """"Homosexuality is so much in fashion, it no longer makes news.""","""ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1976, ⵉⵏⵏ ⴰⵉⴻ ⵣⵂⵓⵔⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙ : "" ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔ ⵏ-ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ-ⴰⵓⵙⴰⴼ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴱ-ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵙ ⵣⵂⵓⵔⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ """
"He also claimed numerous other romances, although he did not discuss his marriages, his wives, or his children in his autobiography.","Iⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ ⴰⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ-ⵉⴷⵓⴱⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ, ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵏ-ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵏⴻⵙ."
"Brando met actress Rita Moreno in 1954, and they began a love affair.","ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⵈⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏƭ=ⴼⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⵙ-ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⵉⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵔⴻⵏⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1954, ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔ."
"Years after they broke up, Moreno played his love interest in the film The Night of the Following Day.","ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⴱⴷ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⵔⵉⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵔⴻⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵂⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵛⴰⵍ-ⴻⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵔⵂⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ."
"She is said to have been the daughter of a Welsh steel worker of Irish descent, William O'Callaghan, who had been superintendent on the Indian State railways.","Iⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜ-ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵍⵍⴻ-ⵙ ⵏ-ⴻⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴶⴰⵍⵍoⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴻⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ Iⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ O'ⵛⴰⵍⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ, ⵙ-ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵎⴰⵏⴰⵣⵔⴰⴼ əⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵌⵓⵍⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ-ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ-Iⵏⴷⴻ."
"Brando and Kashfi had a son, Christian Brando, on May 11, 1958; they divorced in 1959.","ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵆⴰⵙⵂⴼⵉ ⴰⵔⴶⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵔ, ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo, ⴻⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 11 ⵎⴰⵉo ⴷⴰⵗ 1958 ; ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1959."
They had two children together: Miko Castaneda Brando (born 1961) and Rebecca Brando (born 1966).,ⴻⵔⴶⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ : ⴰⵉⴾⵓ ⵛⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ (ⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 1961) ⴰⴷ ⵔⴻⴱⴻⴾⴾⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ (ⵜⴰⵓⵓⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ 1966).
"Because Teriipaia was a native French speaker, Brando became fluent in the language and gave numerous interviews in French.","ⴻⴷ ⵟⴻⵔⵉⵉⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵜ, ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ."
Brando and Teriipaia divorced in July 1972.,ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⴰⴷ ⵟⴻⵔⵉⵉⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 1972.
"Brando had a long-term relationship with his housekeeper Maria Cristina Ruiz, with whom he had three children: Ninna Priscilla Brando (born May 13, 1989), Myles Jonathan Brando (born January 16, 1992), and Timothy Gahan Brando (born January 6, 1994).","ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵙ-ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵛⴰⴶⵔⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⵛⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏⴰ ⵔⵓⵉⵣ, ⵉⵙ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰɗ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ : ⵏⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⵔⵉⵙⵛⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo (ⵜⴻⵓⴰⵜ ⴻⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 13 ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵉⴰ 1989), ⵎⵉⵍⴻⵙ ⵋoⵏⴰⵜⵂⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ (ⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 16 ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵣⵂⴰⵏⵓⴰⵔ 1992) ⴻⵜ ⵟⵉⵎⵓⵜⵂⵉ ⵗⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ (ⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 6 ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵣⵂⴰⵏⵓⴰⵔ 1994)."
"His numerous grandchildren also include Prudence Brando and Shane Brando, children of Miko C. Brando; the children of Rebecca Brando; and the three children of Teihotu Brando among others.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵉⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ ⵉ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⴻⵏⵛⴻ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⴰⴷ ⵔⵂⴰⵏⴻ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⴱⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⴾⵓ ⵛ. ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⵏ ⵔⴻⴱⴻⵛⵛⴰ ⵔⴰⴱⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵟⴻⵉⵂⵓⵜⵓ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⴷ-ⴰⵙⴰⵍ-ⴰⵓⴻⵏ."
His behavior during the filming of Mutiny on the Bounty (1962) seemed to bolster his reputation as a difficult star.,ⴰⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⵎⵓⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵏ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴱⵓⵓⵏⵜⵉ (1962) ⵉⴾⴼⴻ ⴰⵌⵌⴰⵂⴰⴼ ⵏ-ⴻⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵌⵌⵓⵂⴻⵏ.
"Galella had followed Brando, who was accompanied by talk show host Dick Cavett, after a taping of The Dick Cavett Show in New York City.","ⵗⴰⵍⴻⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉⴻ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⵉ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵌⵌoⴼⴰⴷ ⴻⵏⴰⵎⴻⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴾ-ⵙⵂⵓ ⴹⵉⵛⴾ ⵛⴰⴱⴻⵜⵜ, ⴷⴰⴼⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴹⵉⵛⴾ ⵛⴰⴱⴻⵜⵜ ⵔⵂⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ."
"The filming of Mutiny on the Bounty affected Brando's life in a profound way, as he fell in love with Tahiti and its people.","Iⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⵙ ⵎⵓⵜⵉⵏⵙ ⴷⵓ ⴱⵓⴻⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵍⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵉⵜⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ."
The 1983 hurricane destroyed many of the structures including his resort.,"ⴰⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ 1983 ⴰⵔⵌⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⵙ ⵉⵂⴰ ⴻⴷⴰⴶⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
He was listed in the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) records as Martin Brandeaux to preserve his privacy.,ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵓⴾⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵆⵓⵎⵉⵙⵓⵏ ⵏ-ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ-ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ-ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ( ⵛoⵎⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉoⵏ ⴼⴻⴷⴻⵔⴰⵍⴻ ⴷⴻⵙ ⵛoⵎⵎⵓⵏⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⵏⵙ) (ⴼⵛⵛ) ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⴻⴰⵓⵆ ⵉ-ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴼⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ.
He attended some fundraisers for John F. Kennedy in the 1960 presidential election.,Iⵋⴰⵂⴰ ⵉⴻ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵗ ⵏ-ⴰⵌⵔⴻⴼ ⵉⴻ ⵋoⵂⵏ ⵂ. ⵆⴻⵏⵏⴻⴷⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴻⵙⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ-ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ1960.
"In autumn of 1967, Brando visited Helsinki, Finland at a charity party organized by UNICEF at the Helsinki City Theatre.","ⴷⴻⴰⵗ ⴻⵓⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ 1967, ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷo ⵉⴾⴾⴰ ⵂⴻⵍⵙⵉⵏⴾⵉ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵉ-ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⴰⵉⵂⵉ ⵉⴻⵜⴰⵗⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ- ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵗ ⵏ-ⴰⵌⵔⴻⴼ ⵉⵋⴰ ⵓⵏⵉⵙⴻⴼ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ-ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏHⴻⵍⵙⵉⵏⴾⵉ."
He spoke in favor of children’s rights and development aid in developing countries.,Iⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ-ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵏ-ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ-ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ-ⵉⴾⴾⵓⵉ ⴰⵙ-ⴷⴰⵜ.
"""I felt I'd better go find out where it is; what it is to be black in this country; what this rage is all about,"""" Brando said on the late-night ABC-TV talk show Joey Bishop Show.""","""Oⴼⵔⴰⵉⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⵂⵉⵉⴰⵈ-ⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⴰⵓⴻⵏ-ⵉⵏ ; ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⴾⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ-ⵉ ; ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⴾⴰⵔ-ⵉ"", ⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⴾ-ⵙⵂⵓⵓ ⵓ ⵋⴻⵉ ⴱⵉⵙⵂⵓⴱ ⵔⵂⵓⴻ, ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵙ-ⵟⴱ."""
"""It was one of the most incredible acts of courage I ever saw, and it meant a lot and did a lot.""""""","""ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ-ⴰⵂⴻⵉⴰⵗ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ-ⴰⵋⵋⴻⵏ ⴷ-ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ-ⴰⵋⵋⴻⵏ."""""""
"""In 1964 Brando was arrested at a """"fish-in"""" held to protest a broken treaty that had promised Native Americans fishing rights in Puget Sound.""","""ⴰⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1964, ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈ ⴰⵏ """"ⴼⵉⵙⵂ-ⵉⵏ"""" ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵛⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵏⴷⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ-ⵓⴾⴾⴰⵙ ⵏ-ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵓⴶⴻⵜ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ."""""
"""Brando ended his financial support for the group over his perception of its increasing radicalization, specifically a passage in a Panther pamphlet put out by Eldridge Cleaver advocating indiscriminate violence, """"for the Revolution.""""""",ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ-ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵂⴰⴾⵜ ⴻⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⵉⴾⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⵎⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵉ ⴻⵍⴷⵔⵉⴷⴶⴻ ⵛⵍⴰⴻⴰⴱⴻⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⵆⵏⴻⵏ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ-ⴻⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ‘’ⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⴱⴰⵏ ‘’ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴻⵎ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ
Sacheen Littlefeather represented him at the ceremony.,ⴰⵛⵂⴻⴻⵏ Lⵉⵜⵜⵍⴻⴼⴻⴰⵜⵂⴻⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵙⵂ ⴻⴷⴰⴶⴶ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍ.
The event grabbed the attention of the US and the world media.,ⴰ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ-ⵉⵎⵓⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⵏ- ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⴰⴰⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓ-ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜⵜⵏⴻⵏ.
He was also an activist against apartheid.,ⴰⴱⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ.
He is listed by the American Film Institute as the fourth greatest male star whose screen debut occurred before or during 1950 (it occurred in 1950).,ⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ Iⵏⵙⵜⵉⵜⵓⵜⴻ ⵉⵋⵋⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ-ⵙ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴻⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ-ⵉⵙⴰⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ 1950 (ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ).
"""Retrieved August 19, 2009.Encyclopedia Britannica describes him as """"the most celebrated of the method actors, and his slurred, mumbling delivery marked his rejection of classical dramatic training.""","""ⵔⴻⵜⵔⵉⴻⴱⴻⴷ ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜ 19, 2009. ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵍⵂⴰⵓ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵏⵉⴰ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ oⴼⴼⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ.”"
He was a development from the gangster leader and the outlaw.,Iⴶⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⴾ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷ-ⵉⴱⴰ-ⵏ ⵜⵓⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ
"His portrayal of the gang leader Johnny Strabler in The Wild One has become an iconic image, used both as a symbol of rebelliousness and a fashion accessory that includes a Perfecto style motorcycle jacket, a tilted cap, jeans and sunglasses.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ-ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⴾ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵋⵓⵂⵏⵏⵉ ⵙⵜⵔⴰⴱⵍⴻⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵓⵉⵍⴷ ⵓⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⴼⴰⵙⵓⴻⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙⵏⴰⵏⴰⵏ, ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴻⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⴰ-ⵜ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵉ-ⴷ-ⴰⵛⵔⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵔⴰⵙⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ ⵎⵓⵜⵓⵍⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵍⴰⵎ, ⵜⴰⴾⵓⵎⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵉⵗⴰⵜ ⵋⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ"
"""The """"I coulda been a contender"""" scene from On the Waterfront, according to the author of Brooklyn Boomer, Martin H. Levinson, is """"one of the most famous scenes in motion picture history, and the line itself has become part of America's cultural lexicon.""""""","ⴰⵓⴰ ‘’ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵎ ’’I ⵛⵓⵍⴷⴰ ⴱⴻⵏⵏ ⴰ ⵛⵓⵏⵜⴻⵏⴷⴻⵔ’’’’ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵓⴰⵜⴻⵔⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ, ⴱⵔⵓⴾⵍⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⵎⴻⵔ, ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⵂ. ⵍⴻⴱⵉⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵎⴰⵔ ⵉ-ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏ”"
"""You have to make 'em believe that you are dying ... Try to think of the most intimate moment you've ever had in your life.""""""","ⵍⵉⵣⴰⵎ ⴾⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰⵎⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎ… ⴰⵔⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴾⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷ-ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ “”"
In 1999 the American Film Institute ranked him eighth among its list of greatest male stars of the Golden Age of Hollywood.,"ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ 1999, ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ Iⵏⵙⵜⵉⵜⵓⵜⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⴷⴻⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴻⵍⵗⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ-ⵙ-ⴰⵜⴰⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵓⴷ."
"He spent several years in vaudeville as a dancer and comedian, until he got his first major acting part in 1925.","Iⵋⵋⴰ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋooⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵓⴷⴻⴱⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⵙⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴷ-ⴻⵔⴻ ⵉⵙⴰⴷⵙⴻⵏ, ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵤ ⵉ-ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⵉ-ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵋ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵓⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵙⵂⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ , ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ 1925."
"After rave reviews, Warner Bros. signed him for an initial $400-a-week, three-week contract; when the executives at the studio saw the first dailies for the film, Cagney's contract was immediately extended.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵋⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵓⴰⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⴰ- ⵜ-ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⵓⴰⵔⵏⴻⵔ ⴱⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵓⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⴻⵙⵂⵓⴰⵍ ⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵂⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⵓ-ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵉⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵈⵉⵎ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ 400 ⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⴾ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵉⴰⵜ ;ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ-ⴷ- ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵏ-ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵗⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵂⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⴶⵏⴻⵉ ⴰⵓⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ."
He was nominated a third time in 1955 for Love Me or Leave Me with Doris Day.,Iⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ-ⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1955 ⵉⴻ ⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⵎⴻ ⵓⵔ ⵍⴻⴰⴱⴻ ⵎⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⵔⵉⵙ ⴹⴰⵉ.
"Cagney walked out on Warner Bros. several times over the course of his career, each time returning on much improved personal and artistic terms.","ⵛⴰⴶⵏⴻⵉ ⵉⴼⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⵏⴻⵔ ⴱⵔⵓⵙ. ⴹⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰ-ⵙ-ⴰⴷ ⵓⵗⵍⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ- ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⴷ-ⵉⵋⵋⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴼⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵏⴻⵏ."
"He worked for an independent film company for a year while the suit was being settled, establishing his own production company, Cagney Productions, in 1942 before returning to Warner seven years later.","ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴻⵂⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵉ-ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⴾⵔⴰⵙⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ-ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴻⵂⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵉ-ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵏⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⴾⵔⴰⵙⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⵙ ⵉ-ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ, ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵗⴰⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⵙ-ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⴶⵏⴻⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ 1942 ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵔⵏⴻⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ"
"Cagney was the second of seven children, two of whom died within months of their births.",ⵛⴰⴶⵏⴻⵉ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰ-ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⵂⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⴾⵔⴰⵙⵂⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵏ
"The family moved twice while he was still young, first to East 79th Street, and then to East 96th Street.",ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵉⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴻⴰⵙⵜ 79ⵜⵂ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵙⵜ 96ⵜⵂ ⵙⵜⵔⴻⴻⵜ.
I feel sorry for the kid who has too cushy a time of it.,ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵈ-ⴰⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⴰⵙⵜ.
"He was a good street fighter, defending his older brother Harry, a medical student, when necessary.",ⴻⵎⴰⴾⴾⴻⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵂⴰⵔⴻⵜ ⵉⵜⵉⴶⴰⵌ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ ⵍⴰⵆⵜⵓⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰ ⵓⴻⵏ.
"He became involved in amateur dramatics, starting as a scenery boy for a Chinese pantomime at Lenox Hill Neighborhood House (one of the first settlement houses in the nation) where his brother Harry performed and Florence James directed.",Iⵋⵋⴰⵙⵂ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ ⵜⴻⵉⴰⵜⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⴻ ⵉⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⴻⴾⵓⴰⵉⵏ ⵙⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉ-ⵏ ⵙⵂⵉⵏⵓⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴻⴷⴰⴶⴶ ⵓⴰ-ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵍⴻⵏⵓⵆ ⵂⵉⵍⵍ ⵏⴻⵉⴶⵂⴱⵓⵔⵂⵓⴷ ⵂⵓⵙⴻ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⴰⵔⵔⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⴻⴷⴰⴶⴶ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏⴰⵌⵌⴰⵔ ⴰ ⵓⴰ-ⵙ-ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⴻⵏⵛⴻ ⵋⴰⵎⴻⵙ ⵉ-ⵜⴰⵉⵉⴰⵔⵜ ⵉ-ⴰⵓⴻⵏ
The show began Cagney's 10-year association with vaudeville and Broadway.,ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍ ⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵙⵂⵓⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵏⵜo ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⴻⵔ ⵛⴰⴶⵏⴻⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵓⴷⴻⴱⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⴰⴷⵓⴰⵉ.
"Eventually, they borrowed some money and headed back to New York via Chicago and Milwaukee, enduring failure along the way when they attempted to make money on the stage.",ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵔⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⵣⵔⴰⴼ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⵙ-ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵔⴷⴻⵏ-ⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⴰⴶⵓ ⴻⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⵓⴰⵓⴾⴻ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ-ⵉⴱⴰ –ⵏ-ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ –ⴷ ⵙⴰⵓⴰⵋⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ.
"As with Pitter Patter, Cagney went to the audition with little confidence he would get the part.","ⵗⴰⵔ ⴱⵉⵜⵜⴻⵔ ⴱⴰⵜⵜⴻⵔ, ⵛⴰⴶⵏⴻⵉ ⵉⴾⴾⴰ ⴻⴷⴰⴶⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵍⴰⵉⵏ- ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴱⴰ-ⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴻⵔ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ-ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵂ:ⴰⵗⴰⵍ-ⴰⵏ"
This was a devastating turn of events for Cagney; apart from the logistical difficulties this presented—the couple's luggage was in the hold of the ship and they had given up their apartment.,ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⴻ ⵛⴰⴶⵏⴻⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⵜ ⴻⵏ ⵛⴰⵗⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵗⵓⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵓⴰⵏⵂⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ Iⵍⵈⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⵙ ⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ.
"""He made up his mind that he would get a job doing something else.""""""",“Iⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵗⴰⴼ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ.””
"Cagney also established a dance school for professionals, and then landed a part in the play Women Go On Forever, directed by John Cromwell, which ran for four months.",ⵛⴰⴶⵏⴻⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⵔⴰⵙ ⴻⴷⴰⴶⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵉⴻ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵍⴰⵓⵍ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵓⵓⵎⴻⵎ ⵗⵓ ⵓⵏ ⴼⵓⵔⴻⴱⴻⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵋoⵂⵏ ⵛⵔⵓⵎⵓⴻⵍⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵌ ⵓⵔⴰⵏ.
The show received rave reviews and was followed by Grand Street Follies of 1929.,ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍ ⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵈⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵓⴰⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵜⵔⴻⴻⵜ ⴼⵓⵍⵍⵉⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵏ 1929.
"Retitled Sinners' Holiday, the film was released in 1930.",Iⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵙⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⵏⴻⵔⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵏ 1930.
"However, the contract allowed Warners to drop him at the end of any 40-week period, effectively guaranteeing him only 40 weeks’ income at a time.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴻ ⵓⴰⵔⵏⴻⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵗoⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴷⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ 40 ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵉⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵎⴰⵂⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ 40 ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵉⴰⵜⴻⵏ
"Due to the strong reviews he had received in his short film career, Cagney was cast as nice-guy Matt Doyle, opposite Edward Woods as Tom Powers.",ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵋⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵣⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵏⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⴰⴶⵏⴻⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⴰⵔⵂⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴻ ⵓⵉⵍⴻ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴻⴷⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵓⴷⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵟⵓⵎ ⴱⵓⵓⴻⵔⵙ.
"Producer Darryl Zanuck claimed he thought of it in a script conference; Wellman said the idea came to him when he saw the grapefruit on the table during the shoot; and writers Glasmon and Bright claimed it was based on the real life of gangster Hymie Weiss, who threw an omelette into his girlfriend's face.",ⴻⴰⵔⵔⵉⵍ ⵌⴰⵏⵓⵛⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⴷ ⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵛⴰⵗⴻⵍ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵓⴰⵋ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵍⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵛⴻⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵍⴰⵋⴰⵌⵜ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵛⴻⵗⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⵗⵍⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵔⵉⴶⵂ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⴱⵔⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵂⵉⵎⵉⴻ ⵓⴻⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⴾⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴽⴰⵎ.
I never dreamed it would be shown in the movie.,ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵏⴰⵣⵋⴰⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰ-ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰ.
"""He saw the film repeatedly just to see that scene, and was often shushed by angry patrons when his delighted laughter got too loud.""""""",Iⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉ-ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⵉ-ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⴻⴷⴰⴶⴶ ⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⴾ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉ ⴾⴰⵉⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵋⴰⵛ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵌⵌⴰ ⵏⴻⵙ - ⵉ-ⵜ-ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴻⵜ.
Warner Bros. was quick to team its two rising gangster stars—Edward G. Robinson and Cagney—for the 1931 film Smart Money.,ⵓⴰⵔⵏⴻⵔ ⴱⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ-ⵏ-ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⴾ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⴰ-ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ: ⴻⴷⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵗ ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵏⵙⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵛⴰⴶⵏⴻⵉ ⵉ-ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⴰ-ⵙ-ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵂⵓⵏⴻⵉ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ 1931.
"As he completed filming, The Public Enemy was filling cinemas with all-night showings.","ⵛⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ, ⵟⵂⴻ ⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⵛ ⴻⵏⴻⵔⴶⵉ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵂⴰⴷ-ⴰⵏ, ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴶⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ."
"The studio heads also insisted that Cagney continue promoting their films, even ones he was not in, which he opposed.",ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⵏ-ⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵙⵉⵍⵜ ⵛⴰⴶⵏⴻⵉ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵂⵉ
The success of The Public Enemy and Blonde Crazy forced Warner Bros.' hand.,ⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⵛ Eⵏⴻⵎⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵍⵓⵏⴷⴻ Eⵔⴰⵏⵣⵉ ⴰⵛⴰⵛⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵌⵓⵔⵏⴻⵔ ⴱⵔⵓⵙ.
The film was swiftly followed by The Crowd Roars and Winner Take All.,"ⵜⵂⴻ ⵛⵔⵓⴷ ⵔⵓⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉⵏⵏⴻⵔ ⵟⴰⴾⴻ ⴰⵍⵍ, ⴻⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ- ⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⴾ."
"Historians also debate the nature of history as an end in itself, as well as its usefulness to give perspective on the problems of the present.","ⵟⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ, ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ- ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵓⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ, ⵓⴰⵔ- ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵓⴰⴷⵂⴰⴾ-ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⵏⴻⵙ ⵉ- ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⵓⴰ-ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ."
"However, ancient cultural influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today.","ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵓⴰⴾⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵙⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ, ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ-ⵉ."
"""Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian, is often considered the """"father of history"""" in the Western tradition, although he has also been criticized as the """"father of lies"""".""","”ⵂⵉⵔⴰⴷoⵜⴻ, ⴻⵎⴰⵋ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵂⵉⵏ oⴾⴾⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⴻⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⴷⴻ ⵜⴰ-ⵙⴷⴰⵜ J.ⵛ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴾⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ “”ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ”” .”"
"""In Middle English, the meaning of history was """"story"""" in general.""",ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴶⵍⴰⵉⵙ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⴻⵏ ”ⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉ.”
"""In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are solidly synthetic and highly inflected, the same word is still used to mean both """"history"""" and """"story"""".""","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵍⴻⵎⴰⵏⴶⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓ-ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵜ’ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⵜ-ⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⴻ ⴰⴷⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ, ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵂⴰⵓ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⴾⴰⴱⴻⵏ, ⵜⴰⴼⴻⵔⵜ- ⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰ-ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ”” ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ””ⴰⴷ”ⵉⵙⴰⵍⵏ””.”"
"""In the words of Benedetto Croce, """"All history is contemporary history"""".""",ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴻⵏⴻⴷⴻⵜⵜⵓ” ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵜ-ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ.
"""Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the """"true past"""").""",ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⴷ-ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⴷⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵋ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷ-ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ( ⵙ-ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⴾⴾⵈⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⴾⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵜ ;
The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and at other times as part of the social sciences.,ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⴶ-ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ.
"In the 20th century, French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global history.","ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000,ⴼⴻⵔⵏⴰⵏⴷ ⴱⵔⴰⵓⴷⴻⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ, ⴻⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴻⴶⵂⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ, ⵜⴻⴶⵂⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵋoⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⴻⴶⵂⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵉⵎ"
"In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three.",ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⵜ-ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜ-ⴰⵋⵋ ⵜⵉⵌⵓⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ: ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ .
"Archaeological finds rarely stand alone, with narrative sources complementing its discoveries.",ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⵓⴾⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵉ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉ-ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍⵍ-ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⴰ ⵜ-ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⵜ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ .
"""For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, USA, has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents idealizing """"liberty"""" and the material record, demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth made apparent by the study of the total historical environment.""",“ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴾ ⵍⴻⵓⵏⴻ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵏⴰⵙⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵗ ⵉ-ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵉ-ⵉⵙⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ.”
"It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the modern trend has been toward specialization.",ⵓⴷⴰⴼ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵛⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵈ-ⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴼo ⵜ-ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ əⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ.
"Thirdly, it may refer to why history is produced: the philosophy of history.",ⵓⴰ-ⵙ-ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴱⴰⴱ ⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜ-ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ : ⴻⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⵏⴻⵙ.
By whom was it produced (authorship)?,(ⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ)?
What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?,ⴻⵏⴷⴻⴾ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ-ⴰⵓⴰ-ⵜ-ⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ (ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵜ) ⴼⴰⵍ.
The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history.,Eⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⵏ-ⴰⵙⴻⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵓ-ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ-ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ .
"Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, and looked at cause and effect, rather than as the result of divine intervention (though Herodotus was not wholly committed to this idea himself).",ⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴰⴼ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵛⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵈ-ⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⵜ-ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ.
There were historical traditions and sophisticated use of historical method in ancient and medieval China.,ⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⴻⵍⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵏⵏⴰⴼⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⵈⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴻ .
"Chinese historians of subsequent dynastic periods in China used his Shiji as the official format for historical texts, as well as for biographical literature.","ⵆⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏoⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵉⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴻ, ⴰⴷⴾⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ (ⵙⵂⵉⵋⵉ) ⵏⴻⵙ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⵉ-ⵉⴾⴰⵜⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴻⴷ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⵜ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍⵍ-ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ."
"Around 1800, German philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a more secular approach in historical study.","ⵙ-ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⴰⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⵏ 1800 , ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ-ⵓ-ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⵈ-ⵙ-ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵗⴻⵓⵔⴶ ⵆⵓⵍⵂⴻⵍⵎ ⴼⵔⵉⴻⴷⵔⵉⵛⵂ ⵂⴻⴶⴻⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴻⵎⴰⴶⵏⴻ ⵏ-ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴾⵜⵉⴱ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ , ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⵜ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ -ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ -ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵂⵉⵏ-ⵜ-oⴾⴾⴰⵉⴰⵜ."
"The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ ⵏ- Iⴱⵏ ⵆⵂⴰⵍⴷⵓⵎ ⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴻⴱⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⵜ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ-ⵙ-ⴰ-ⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵆⵙⴰⴱ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⵜ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴻⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ -ⵏ-ⴻⴾⴻⵜ ⴻⵏⵏⴻⵙ, ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴻⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵉ-ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴻⵋⵔⴻⵓ ⴰⵆⴰⵙⴰⴱ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⴷ-ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ."
"""His historical method also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history,H. Mowlana (2001). """"""","“Eⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ-ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ, ⴰⵙⵉⵙⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ-ⵜ- ⴰⵙ ⵓⵋⵔⴻⵂ ⵏ-ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰ-ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ-ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴾⴼ ⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴾⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ, ⵂ. ⵎⵓⵍⴰⵏⴰ (2001)."""""""
"""Dr. S.W. Akhtar (1997). """"""",“ⴻⵓ.ⵙ.ⵓ.ⴰⴾⵂⵜⴰⵔ ( 1997).””””
"For Ranke, historical data should be collected carefully, examined objectively and put together with critical rigor.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⵏⴾⴻ, ⴰⵓⴰ-ⵜ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ, ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⴻⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵔⵂⵓ, ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵓⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⴻⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⵙ -ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives, which often tended to glorify the nation or great men, to more objective and complex analyses of social and intellectual forces.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵜⴰ-ⵙ 20 ⵏ-ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ,ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ-ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵋⵔⴻⵂ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⵜ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⴷ-ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ, ⵉ-ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ-ⵓⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ."
Many of the advocates of history as a social science were or are noted for their multi-disciplinary approach.,Iⵎⴰⴶⴰⵌⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵓⴰ –ⴷ-ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴻⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵋⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ .
So far only one theory of history came from the pen of a professional Historian.,"ⵂⴰⵔ-ⴰⵛⴰⵍ-ⵉ-ⴷⴰⵗ, ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⵜ-ⵉⴷ –ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴻⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵋⴰⵔⵏⴰⵜ ⴻⵔⴻ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"Intellectual historians such as Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte and George Mosse have argued for the significance of ideas in history.","ⵆⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ, ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⴻⵔⴱⴻⵔⵜ ⴱⵓⵜⵜⴻⵔⴼⵉⴻⵍⴷ, ⴻⵔⵏⵙⵜ ⵏⵓⵍⵜⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵗⴻⴰⵔⴶⴻ ⵎⵓⵙⵙⴻ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ."
"Scholars such as Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw and Detlev Peukert sought to examine what everyday life was like for ordinary people in 20th-century Germany, especially in the Nazi period.","ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵙⵣⴰⵜ, ⵍⴰⵏ ⵆⴻⵔⵛⵂⴰⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴹⴻⵜⵍⴻⴱ ⴱⴻⵓⴾⴻⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉ-ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⵜ-ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ-ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵣⴰ-ⵏ-ⴰⵍⵍⴻⵎⴰⴶⵏⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⴾ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏ-ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⴰ-ⵙ 20 ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ."
"Feminist historians such as Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, and Lynn Hunt have argued for the importance of studying the experience of women in the past.","ⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜ-ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴰ, ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⵍⴰⵛⵂ ⵙⵛoⵜⵜ, ⵛⵍⴰⵓⴷⵉⴰ ⵆⵓⵏⵣ, ⵏⴰⵜⴰⵍⵉⴻ ⵌⴻⵎⵓⵏ ⴹⴰⴱⵉⵙ, ⵙⴻⵉⵍⴰ ⵔⵓⵓⴱⵜⵜⵂⴰⵎ, ⵗⵉⵙⴻⵍⴰ ⴱⴰⵛⴾ, ⵗⴻⵔⴷⴰ ⵍⴻⵔⵏⴻⵔ, ⵓⵍⵉⵣⴰⴱⴻⵜⵂ ⴼoⵆ-ⵗⴻⵏoⴱⴻⵙⴻ ⴻⴷ ⵍⵉⵏⵏ ⵂⵓⵏⵜ, ⴻⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼo ⵜⴰ-ⵏ-ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ -ⴰⵓⴰ-ⴷ-ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ."
"Another defence of history from post-modernist criticism was the Australian historian Keith Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing of History.","ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴻⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ, ⵙ-ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵆⴻⵉⵜ ⵓⵉⵏⴷⵙⵛⵂⵓⵜⵜⵍⴻ,ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴼⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜ-ⵉⴷ-ⴰⵛⵔⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ 1994 ⵙ-ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵆⵉⵍⵍⵉⵏⴶ Oⴼ Hⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉ."
Historical omissions can occur in many ways and can have a profound effect on historical records.,"ⴰⵓⴰ ⵂⵉ-ⵏ-ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ,ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵓⴻⴾⴾⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵖⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ."
Ancient history: the study from the beginning of human history until the Early Middle Ages.,ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵜ ⵟⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ-ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⵈ-ⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵌ.
Comparative history: historical analysis of social and cultural entities not confined to national boundaries.,"ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴻⵌⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ : ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ-ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜəⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ əⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵋⵋⴻⵏ ,ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴰⵌⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵜ ⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⴰⵉ-ⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⵗⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ."
Cultural history: the study of culture in the past.,ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⵜ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ : ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⵙ .
Intellectual history: the study of ideas in the context of the cultures that produced them and their development over time.,"ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ : ⴰⴾⴰⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵉⵉⴰⵜⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⵓⴰ-ⵙ-ⵜ-ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⵙ –ⵜ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ , ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⵓⵈ-ⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵓⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ."
"Modern history: the study of the Modern Times, the era after the Middle Ages.","ⵟⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵟⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ-ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵛⵔⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⵈ-ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⴾoⵌ."
Palaeography: study of ancient texts.,ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ: ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ -ⵉⴾⴰⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ
Psychohistory: study of the psychological motivations of historical events.,Iⵋⵋⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ : ⴰⵙⴰⵎⴰⴷⵏⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴼⴰⵍⵍ-ⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ.
Women's history: the history of female human beings.,ⵟⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏ : ⵟⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴻⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ( ⵜⵉⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏ )
Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the dating system used.,"ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴻⵔⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ , ⴰⵎⵓⴰⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⴷ--ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴾⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ,ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴷⴰⴱ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⴰⵜ , ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ-ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⵓⵈ-ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋ ."
"To do this, historians often turn to geography.","ⴰ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ,ⵙⵉⵗⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ-ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ –ⴷ-ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⵈⵍⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰ-ⵙⴰⵍ-ⴰ-ⵓⴻⵏ."
"For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is essential.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏoⴼⵍⴰⵉⵜ ⵉⴻ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⵉⵙⵔ, ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵙ ."
"History of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean.","ⵟⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ,ⵜ-ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰ-ⵜ-ⵓⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ--ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ-ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ-ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵛⴰⵔⴰⵉⴱⴻ ."
"History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have been found.","ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⴰⵉⴱⴻ ,ⵜⴻⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⴷ-ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵛⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ,ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴾoⴷ ⴰⵏ 7000 ⵏ-ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ."
"History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.","ⵟⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ Eⵓⵔⴰⵙⵉⴻ ,ⵜ-ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ oⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ-ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋooⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏ ; ⵎⵓⵉⴻⵏⵜ-Oⵓⵉⴻⵏⵜ , ⴰⵙⵉⴻ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ-ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵙ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ-ⴰⵍⵈⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ , ⵜⴰ-ⵏ ⵋⴻⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵙ ⴷ-ⴰⵍⵈⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴻⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴻⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⵏ Eⵓⵔⴰⵓⴱⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴻ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ-ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ Eⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ-ⴰⵍⵈⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ."
History of East Asia is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in East Asia.,ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴻ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵜ-ⴰⵉⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵙ .
History of Southeast Asia has been characterized as interaction between regional players and foreign powers.,"ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴻ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ ⵋⴻⵔ ⵈⵋⵋⵓⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵈⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ,ⵜ-ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⴻⵔ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵜⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰ-ⵏ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ."
"""The """"old"""" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were """"social"""" in the sense of being outside the elite system.""","ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ 1960, ⵜ-ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ-ⴻⵏ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴻⵗⴰⴼ , ⴰⵂⵂⴰⵏⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵋⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜ-ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⵂⵈⵔⴰⵏ –ⵙ-ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ-ⴻⵏⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ."
"It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people.","ⵜⴰⴾⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ , ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵗⴰⵜⴻⵏ , ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ -ⴰⵍⵣⵂⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜ -ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ."
This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time.,"ⴻⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ ,ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ , ⵜ-ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⵓⴰ-ⵙ –ⵜ-ⴰⴶⴶⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵜ ⵋⴻⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰ ⴰⵓⴾⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵗⵍⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ."
"It gained popularity in the United States, Japan and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.","ⵜⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴻⵜⵜⴻ ⵜ-ⴰⵋⵋⴻⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ-ⵙ-ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴻⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⴻⵙ, ⵋⴰⴱⵓⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ -ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ 1980 ⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ , ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⵉ-ⴰⵙⵓⴾ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ."
"Despite being a relatively new field, gender history has had a significant effect on the general study of history.","ⴾⵓⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴻⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ,ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵙⴰⴼ ,ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵋⵋⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⴷ-ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ."
"At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship was downplayed.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵓⵆⴼⴰⵔⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵛⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴷⴶⴻ,ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⴷ-ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ,ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵉ-ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵏⵏⴰⵌ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ."
The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War.,"Iⵎⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴻⵏⵏⴻⵙ , ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴰ ⴰ oⵋⵋⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⵈ-ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵓ- ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⴻⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ."
"In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⵙ-ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ Eⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ ,ⴰⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓ-ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵋⴻⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ-ⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⴻⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵗⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⵂⴰⴷ ⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ-ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉ-ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⴰⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⵏ Eⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ."
Many view the field from both perspectives.,Aⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵎ ⵉ-ⴰ-ⵓⴻⵏ .
"In the United States, textbooks published by the same company often differ in content from state to state.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ , ⵓⵉ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ-ⵙ-ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ Eⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ , ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜ-ⴰⵣⵣⵢⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵋⴻⵔ ⴰⵍⵣⵂⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜ-ⴻⵏ , ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ- ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ-ⴻⵏ ⵓⵍⴻⵂ ⵋⴻⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ."
"Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with success.","ⵆⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ,ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉ-ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵋⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴼⴰⵍⵍ-ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ."
"A civilization (or civilisation) is a complex society that is characterized by urban development, social stratification, a form of government, and symbolic systems of communication (such as writing).","ⵓⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ,ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵙ ⴰ-ⵓⴻⵏ , ⵉⵙⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵓⵓⴰⴷⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ , ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴶⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ ,ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⵓⴰ-ⵙ-ⵜ-ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⵍⵉⵏ (ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ) ."
"In this broad sense, a civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies, including the cultures of nomadic pastoralists, Neolithic societies or hunter-gatherers; however, sometimes it also contrasts with the cultures found within civilizations themselves.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰ ⵓⴻⵏ , ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ-ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵓⵙⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜ-ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ-ⴻⵏ ⴻⵔⵜⴻⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴷⵓⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⵎⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ."
"The fundamental treatise is Norbert Elias's The Civilizing Process (1939), which traces social mores from medieval courtly society to the Early Modern period.","ⴰⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ , ⴰⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⴰ , ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴰⴰⵏⵏⴰⴾ ⵜ-ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵜ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵛⵉⴱⵉⵍⵉⵣⵉⵏⴶ ⴱⵔⵓⵛⴻⵙⵙ (1939) ⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⴱⴻⵔⴼⵜ ⵢⵍⵉⴰⴾⵙ, ⵉⵙⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ –ⵜ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ-ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ-ⵏ-ⴰⵛⴰⵍ-ⵉ;"
"""Related words like """"civility"""" developed in the mid-16th century.""","“ⵜⵉⴼⴻⵔ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉ-ⵏ ⵙⴻⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ “”ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ”” ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ,ⴰⵓⵓⵉⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏ-ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⴰ-ⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⵙⴰⵜ (16).”"
"""In the late 1700s and early 1800s, during the French Revolution, """"civilization"""" was used in the singular, never in the plural, and meant the progress of humanity as a whole.""","“ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴷⵓ ⵏ-ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ 1700 ⴰⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵏ-ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ 1800 ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵈ-ⴷ ⴰⵏⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ (ⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏⵙⴻⵜⴰⵏ), ⴰⵓⴰ “”ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ”” ⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⴰⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰ-ⵏ-ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⴾ ⵋⴻⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⴻⵏ ⵋⴻⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ.”"
"""Only in this generalized sense does it become possible to speak of a """"medieval civilization"""", which in Elias's sense would have been an oxymoron.""","“ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉ-ⵉⵙⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵓⴰ –ⴷ-ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ “ⵜⴰⵎⴻⵜⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ” , ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰ-ⵓⴻⵏ, ⵢⵍⵉⴰⵙ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴻⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⴰ-ⵓⴰⵔ-ⴻⵏ ⵓⵂⴻⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ.”"
"""Here, civilization, being more rational and socially driven, is not fully in accord with human nature, and """"human wholeness is achievable only through the recovery of or approximation to an original discursive or prerational natural unity"""" (see noble savage).""","ⴻⵉⵂⴰ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴻⵏ ,ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵉ-ⵉⵙⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⴾ, ⵓⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ¬ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⴾⴰⵏⵏⵓ ⴻⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴰ-ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴻⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵙ-ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
"Civilizations have been distinguished by their means of subsistence, types of livelihood, settlement patterns, forms of government, social stratification, economic systems, literacy and other cultural traits.","ⵜⵉⵎEⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵗⴰⵔⴰⴷ, ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵂⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴰⵋⵉⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⴷⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜ-ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍⵍ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ ⴱⴻⵔⵓⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷ-ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"All civilizations have depended on agriculture for subsistence, with the possible exception of some early civilizations in Peru which may have depended upon maritime resources.","ⵟⵉⵎⴻⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵗⴰⵔⴰⴷ, ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵂⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴰⵋⵉⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⴷⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜ-ⵉⵉⵉⴰɗ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍⵍ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ ⴱⴻⵔⵓⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷ-ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
Grain surpluses have been especially important because grain can be stored for a long time.,"ⴰⵓⴰ-ⵙ-ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵗⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⵜⴰⵂⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴰⵔ."
"However, in some places hunter-gatherers have had access to food surpluses, such as among some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest and perhaps during the Mesolithic Natufian culture.","ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴰ ,ⵉⵎⴰⵂⵓⵉⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉ-ⴷ-ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⴾⵛⴰⵏ,ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴻ ⵜⴰ-ⴷ-ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵋⴻⵔ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵋⴻⵔ ⴾⴰⵍ-ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵛⵉⴼⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⴻⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜ-ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ."
"""The word """"civilization"""" is sometimes simply defined as """"'living in cities'"""".""","ⵜⵉⴼⴻⵔ ⵜⵉ-ⵙ-ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵟⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ , ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ."
State societies are more stratified than other societies; there is a greater difference among the social classes.,"ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ-ⵏ-ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ,ⴰⵋⴰⵔⵏⴰⵜ ⵜ-ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ-ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴶⴰⵏ ; ⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴰ ⴰⵋⵋⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏ."
"Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.","ⵜⵉⵎⴻⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻ ,ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴻⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⵉ-ⴰⵙⴰⵓⴰⵋ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ."
"Some people also acquire landed property, or private ownership of the land.",ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴶⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ .
"By the early Iron Age, contemporary civilizations developed money as a medium of exchange for increasingly complex transactions.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜo ⵏ-ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴷⴻⵂ ⵓⴰ-ⵙ-ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ ⵜⴰⵌⵓⵍⵉ ,ⵜⵉⵎⴻⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ , ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵌⵔⴻⴼ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴻⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ( ⴻⵙⵙⵓⴾ ) ⴻⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⵏⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ , ⵜⵉⵓⵓⴰⴷⵜ ⴰⵉ-ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵏ ."
These people may not be personally acquainted with one another and their needs may not occur all at the same time.,"ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴻⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷooⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏⵎⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ , ⴷⴻⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴷⴻⵂ ⵉⴾⴻⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏⵙ ."
The transition from simpler to more complex economies does not necessarily mean an improvement in the living standards of the populace.,"ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⴾⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ-ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙoⵂⴻⵏ , ⴰ-ⴷⴰⵔ-ⴷ-ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏ-ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵓⵓⵉⴷ ."
"The average stature of a population is a good measurement of the adequacy of its access to necessities, especially food.","Eⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⵓⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴻ ,ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵗⴰⵎⴰⵏ,ⵉ-ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵙⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ."
"Like money, the writing was necessitated by the size of the population of a city and the complexity of its commerce among people who are not all personally acquainted with each other.","ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍ ,ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵎⴰⵂⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ –ⵜ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜ-oⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴻ ⵏ-ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵈⵙⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⵏ-ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⵋⴻⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ-ⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⵉⴾⴻⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ."
"These include organized religion, development in the arts, and countless new advances in science and technology.","Iⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵙ-ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ , ⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵛⴰvⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ."
"""These cultures are called by some """"primitive"""", a term that is regarded by others as pejorative. """"""","Iⵙⴰⵋⵉⴰⴾ-ⴻⵏ , ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵂⴰⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵙ-ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ , ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ."
"""Anthropologists today use the term """"non-literate"""" to describe these peoples.""","“ⵆⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵣⵂⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ , ⴰ-ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ-ⵜ –ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴻⵔⴻ ⵓⴰⵔ-ⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵏ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⴷ-ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ.”"
"But civilization is also spread by the technical, material and social dominance that civilization engenders.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ , ⵜⵉⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏⴷⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⵉⴾⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ, ⵉⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⴷ-ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵓ ."
"Civilizations tend to develop intricate cultures, including a state-based decision making apparatus, a literature, professional art, architecture, organized religion and complex customs of education, coercion and control associated with maintaining the elite.","ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ,ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓ-ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴷⴷⵓⵎⴰ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ-ⵜ-ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ , ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ , ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴾⵔⵓⵙⴻⵏ ,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵗⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ,ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴻⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴰⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ."
The civilization in which someone lives is that person's broadest cultural identity.,"ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ, ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴻⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ."
"The aim is to preserve the cultural heritage of humanity and also the cultural identity, especially in the case of war and armed conflict.","ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵌⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⵜ-ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ-ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵌⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴻⵛⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴰ-ⵏ-ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⴾ."
"""Early twentieth-century philosopher Oswald Spengler,Spengler, Oswald, Decline of the West: Perspectives of World History (1919) uses the German word Kultur, """"culture"""", for what many call a """"civilization"""".""","ⵓ ⵟⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵓⴰ-ⵙ-ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵙⵓⴰⵍⴷ ⵙⴱⴻⵏⴶⵍⴻⵔ , Oⵙⵓⴰⵍⴷ ⵙⴱⴻⵏⴶⵍⴻⵔ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⴰ-ⵙ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⴻⵏ ,ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ Oⴼ ⵟⵂⴻ ⴰⴻⵙⵜ ; ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ (1919)ⴰ ⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵟⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ."
"""Spengler states civilization is the beginning of the decline of a culture as """"the most external and artificial states of which a species of developed humanity is capable"""".""","ⵙⴱⴻⵏⴶⵍⴻⵔ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ , ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰ-ⵓⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵓⵜ –ⴻⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⴷ-ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⴾⵛⵓ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴷⵓⴷⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ-ⵏ- ⵉⵋⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵙⴰⵓⴻ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ ."
"""Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of the failure of a """"creative minority"""", through moral or religious decline, to meet some important challenge, rather than mere economic or environmental causes.""","ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ , ⵓⴷⴰⵏⴰⵜ , ⴰ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉ- ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵟⵓⵉⵏⴱⴻⴻ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰ-ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ-ⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⵓⵔ –ⵙ-ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴻⵏ –ⵙ-ⴰⵓⴰ-ⵙ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴼⵏⴰⵌ ,ⵜⴻⴱⴰⴷⴷⴻ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴾⵎⵓ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏⵈⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⵎⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⵣⵓⵣⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ"
"For example, trade networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres.","ⵛⵓⵏⴷ, ⵜⴰⴱⴻⵔⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴻⵎⴻⵙⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ, ⵂⴰⵔ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵆIⵆⴻ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⵋⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴱⴻⵍⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵙⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⴱⴻⵍⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉⴾ."
"During the Uruk period, Guillermo Algaze has argued that trade relations connected Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran and Afghanistan.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⴾ, ⵗⵓⵉⵍⵍⴻⵔⵎⵓ ⴰⵍⴶⴰⵣⴻ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵣⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴶⵉⴰⵜⴻ,ⵎⵉⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜⴰⵎⵉⴻ, Iⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴶⵂⴰⵏⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ."
"Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and even culturally interdependent in many ways.","ⵜⴰⵋⵓⵜⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ, ⴼⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⵓⵙⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵋⴰⵔⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴻⵎⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then expanded to a global scale with European colonization, integrating the Americas, Australia, China and Japan by the nineteenth century.","ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵉⴻⵏ-ⵓⵓⵉⴻⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴷ,ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵛⴰⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴷ, ⵉⴶⴰⵛⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⴻⴰⵜⴻⵏ, ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⵉⴰ, ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵋⴰⴷⵓⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ 19 ⴻⵍⴰⵏ."
"This encouraged a secondary products revolution in which people used domesticated animals not just for meat, but also for milk, wool, manure and pulling ploughs and carts – a development that spread through the Eurasian Oecumene.","ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵛⴰⵏⵣⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴻⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ,ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵗ,ⴰⵎⵣⴰⴷⴰⵏ,ⵉⵗⴰⵔⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵔⴰⴾⴰⴱ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴰⵉⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴾⴰⵜⴻⵏ–ⵜⴰⵋⵓⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ Oⴻⵛⵓⵎⵉⵏⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ Eⵓⵔⴰⵙⵉⴻ."
"""This area has been identified as having """"inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of the cursive script"""".""",""" ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ"""" ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵋⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴻ,ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵋⵉⵉⴰⴾ,ⴰⴷⴰⵎⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵉⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵋⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⴱⴰⵏ""""."
"This climate change shifted the cost-benefit ratio of endemic violence between communities, which saw the abandonment of unwalled village communities and the appearance of walled cities, associated with the first civilizations.","ⴰⴰⵂⴰⵏⵣⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⴾⴰⵛ ⵎⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⵋⵉ-ⴱⵓⵏⴰⴼⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰ ⵋⴰⵔ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ,ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⴻⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵓⵋⵓⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ."
"The civilized urban revolution in turn was dependent upon the development of sedentism, the domestication of grains and animals, the permanence of settlements and development of lifestyles that facilitated economies of scale and accumulation of surplus production by certain social sectors.","ⴰⵎⵍⵉⵍⵉ ⵏⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴻⴾⴰⵍⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵋⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵎⵉⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⵋⴰⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⴰⵜⴰⵗⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵗⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵙⴰⵔⵗⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⴰⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵙⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴻⵏ."
"Some focus on historical examples, and others on general theory.","Iⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴻⴶⴱⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ,ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵋⴻⵜ."
"""For Gibbon, """"The decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness.""","""ⵗⴻ ⵗⵉⴱⴱⴷⵏ, """"ⵙⴰⵎⴷⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴻ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵏⴻⵣ""""."
"""Theodor Mommsen in his History of Rome suggested Rome collapsed with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE and he also tended towards a biological analogy of """"genesis"""", """"growth"""", """"senescence"""", """"collapse"""" and """"decay"""".""","ⵜⴻⵓⴷⵓⵔ ⵎⴰⵎⵎⵙⴻⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵎⴻ, ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⵎⴻ ⵜⴰⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴻⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ⵗⵓⵔ 476 ⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴻⵗ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴷⴻⵗ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⴰⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ"""" ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⴰⵜ"""",""""ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ"""",""""ⵜⵓⵛⴰⵔⵜ"""",""""ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴻⵍ"""", ⴰⴷ ""ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ""."""""
"Arnold J. Toynbee in his A Study of History suggested that there had been a much larger number of civilizations, including a small number of arrested civilizations, and that all civilizations tended to go through the cycle identified by Mommsen.","ⴰⵔⵏⵓⵍⴷ ⵋ. ⵟⵓⵉⵏⴱⴻⴻ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴰ ⵙⵜⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⴼ ⵂⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉ, ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵎⴻⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⵉⵂⴰ ⵎⴻⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵎⵎⵙⴻⵏ."
"During the intermediate phase, the increasing population growth leads to the decrease of per capita production and consumption levels, it becomes more and more difficult to collect taxes, and state revenues stop growing, whereas the state expenditures grow due to the growth of the population controlled by the state.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵋⴰⵔ, ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵓⴻⴷⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⴾⵓ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵜⴻ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵗ, ⴻⵈⴰⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴰⵍⴻⵏ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ,ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋⵓⵜⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴾⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⴾⵓⵎ."
Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends.,ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴻⴼⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ.
"The fact that Rome needed to generate ever greater revenues to equip and re-equip armies that were for the first time repeatedly defeated in the field, led to the dismemberment of the Empire.","Iⵋⵉ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵔⵓⵎⴻ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵍⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵍⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵛⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵗⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⵗⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵉⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵗⴰⵔⵗⴰⵔ, ⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴾⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ."
He argues that the collapse of the Maya has lessons for civilization today.,ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴻⴶⴰⴰⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉ.
The energy expended to energy yield ratio is central to limiting the survival of civilizations.,ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ.
"Koneczny claimed that civilizations cannot be mixed into hybrids, an inferior civilization when given equal rights within a highly developed civilization will overcome it.","ⵆⵓⵏⴻⴰⵣⵏⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⴰⵜ, ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⴻⵔⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵋⵓⵜⴻ, ⴰⵜⴰⵜⴰⵓⴰⵔ."
"Cultural Historian Morris Berman suggests in Dark Ages America: the End of Empire that in the corporate consumerist United States, the very factors that once propelled it to greatness―extreme individualism, territorial and economic expansion, and the pursuit of material wealth―have pushed the United States across a critical threshold where collapse is inevitable.","ⵜⵉⵎⴻⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵗⴰⵔⴰⴷ, ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵂⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴰⵋⵉⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⴷⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜ-ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍⵍ ⵓⴰ-ⵏ ⴱⴻⵔⵓⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷ-ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ"
"The corrosion of these pillars, Jacobs argues, is linked to societal ills such as environmental crisis, racism and the growing gulf between rich and poor.","ⴰⵙⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵜⴻⵓⴻⵏ, ⵗⵓⵔ ⵋⴰⵓⴱⵙ,ⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴾⵎⵓⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵗⴰⵛⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴰⵣⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⵓ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵔ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵈⴰⵓ."
"This need for civilizations to import ever more resources, he argues, stems from their over-exploitation and diminution of their own local resources.","ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⴶⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵓⴰⴷ, ⴰⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ, ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵋ."
"""In the graphic, Ma means """"million years ago"""".)""","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ, ⵉⵏⴰⵓ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⵉⵍⴰ"""" ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉ ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵜⵉⴰⵏ""""."
Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism.,"ⵜⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⴰⵓⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵍⵉⵍⵉⵉ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ."
"Recognizable humans emerged at most 2 million years ago, a vanishingly small period on the geological scale.","ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵓⵉ 2 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵜⵉⴰⵏ,ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵣⵍⴻ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵋⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ."
"It is estimated that 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, over five billion, have gone extinct.","ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ 99%ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵓⵓⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴻⵏ."
"The Earth's crust has constantly changed since its formation, as has life since its first appearance.","ⵜⴻⵗⴻⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⴰⵣⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ,ⴾⵓⵍ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵗⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
The Moon is formed around this time probably due to a protoplanet's collision into Earth.,"ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵎ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵈⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ."
The atmosphere is composed of volcanic and greenhouse gases.,ⵋⴻⵏⵋⵋ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵍⴰⵍⵉⵉ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵓ ⴰⴾⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ.
"Bacteria begin producing oxygen, shaping the third and current of Earth's atmospheres.","Iⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓ, ⵉⵜⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵏⴰⵋ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵗ."
"The early continents of Columbia, Rodinia and Pannotia, in that order, may have existed in this eon.","Iⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵉⴰ, ⵔⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⴰ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎ, ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⴰⵎ."
"""Gradually, life expands to land and familiar forms of plants, animals and fungi begin appearing, including annelids, insects and reptiles, hence the eon's name, which means """"visible life"""".""","""ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵓⵉ, ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵍⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰ ⵛⴾⴰⵏ, ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⴰⴶⵓⵔ, ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴾⴰⵓⴻⵏ,ⵉⵎⵓⴶⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵍⵓⵍⴰⵎ,ⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵍⴰ ""ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⵉⵜⵓⴰⵏⵂⵉⵉⴰⵜ""."""
It was composed of hydrogen and helium created shortly after the Big Bang 13.8 Ga (billion years ago) and heavier elements ejected by supernovae.,"ⴷⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⴷⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵂⵉⵍⵉⵓⵎ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴱⵉⴶ ⴱⴰⵏⴶ,ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ 13,8 ⵗⴰ (ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⴰⵜⵉⴰⵏ),ⴻⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⵋⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴻⴼⴻⵓ."
"As the cloud began to accelerate, its angular momentum, gravity, and inertia flattened it into a protoplanetary disk perpendicular to its axis of rotation.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵋⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵍ,ⴰⵏⴰⴾⴰ ⵛ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵏⴰⵈ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ,ⵜⴻⵔⴶⴰ ⵛⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴰⵙⴼⴰⵍⵜⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵍⴻⴼⴻ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴻⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⴻⵜ ⵜoⵗⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ."
"After more contraction, a T Tauri star ignited and evolved into the Sun.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ,ⴻⵜⴰⵔ ⵟ ⵟⴰⵓⵔⵉ ⴻⵔⵗⴰ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ."
Earth formed in this manner about 4.54 billion years ago (with an uncertainty of 1%) and was largely completed within 10–20 million years.,"ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ 4,54 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵜⵉⴰⵏ (ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ 1%) ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 10 ⴰⵙ 20 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵜⵉⴰⵏ."
"The proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the heavy, siderophile metals.",ⵙⴻⵏⵜⵓ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⵓⵙⵙⴻ ⵉⴻ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉ.
"From crater counts on other celestial bodies, it is inferred that a period of intense meteorite impacts, called the Late Heavy Bombardment, began about 4.1 Ga, and concluded around 3.8 Ga, at the end of the Hadean.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵋⵓⵜⴻ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ, ⵏⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴶⴰⴷⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ,ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏⴰ ⵜⴻⵓⴻⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵜ, ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ 4,1 ⵗⴰ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ 3,8 ⵗⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴷⵉⴻⵏ."
"By the beginning of the Archean, the Earth had cooled significantly.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵂⴰⴻⵏ, ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷ."
"New evidence suggests the Moon formed even later, 4.48 ± 0.02 Ga, or 70–110 million years after the start of the Solar System.","ⵙⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵉⵋⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⵉⵍⴰⵍ, 4,48 +_ 0,02 ⵗⴰ, ⵎⴻⵗ 70 ⴰⵙ 110 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ"
The collision released about 100 million times more energy than the more recent Chicxulub impact that is believed to have caused the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs.,"ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵗⴻⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵉⴰ ⴰⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ 100 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎoⵈⴰⵙ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⴰⵆⵓⵍⵓⴱ,ⴰⴷ ⴷⵓⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴰⵈⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴼⵓⵔⵉⵜ."
"The giant impact hypothesis predicts that the Moon was depleted of metallic material, explaining its abnormal composition.","ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⴻⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵉⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵉⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉ,ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ."
"The initial crust, formed when the Earth's surface first solidified, totally disappeared from a combination of this fast Hadean plate tectonics and the intense impacts of the Late Heavy Bombardment.","ⵜⴻⵗⴻⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ, ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵗⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵍⴰⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵓ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⴷⴻⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⴾⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴷⵉⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵗⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵓⴻⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴷ."
These pieces of late Hadean and early Archean crust form the cores around which today's continents grew.,Iⴾⴰⵔⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴷⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙⵙ ⴰⵏⵓⵉ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵋⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰ.
Cratons consist primarily of two alternating types of terranes.,Iⴾⴻⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵔⵔⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
"For this reason, greenstones are sometimes seen as evidence for subduction during the Archean.","ⵗⴻ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ, ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⴾⵓ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⴻⵏ."
Now it is considered likely that many of the volatiles were delivered during accretion by a process known as impact degassing in which incoming bodies vaporize on impact.,ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴾⵉⵎ-ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵆⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵋoⵔ ⵏ ⴶⴰⵣ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵋⴰⵙⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⵔ
"Planetesimals at a distance of 1 astronomical unit (AU), the distance of the Earth from the Sun, probably did not contribute any water to the Earth because the solar nebula was too hot for ice to form and the hydration of rocks by water vapor would have taken too long.","ⵢⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵋⴰⵋⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵗⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵋⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ,ⵓⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵓⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵓⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⵓⵙⵙⴻ ⵉⴻ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⵓ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ."
"Recent evidence suggests the oceans may have begun forming as early as 4.4 Ga. By the start of the Archean eon, they already covered much of the Earth.","Iⵙⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵏⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵗⴰⵔ 4,4 ⵗⴰ. ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴻⴾⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵂⴰⴻⵏ, ⴰⴱⵉⵔⴰⵏⴱⴰⴾⴻⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵋⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ."
"Thus, the Sun has become 30% brighter in the last 4.5 billion years.","ⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ 30 % ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵗⴻ ⵗⴰⵔ 4,5 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ."
"There are many models, but little consensus, on how life emerged from non-living chemicals; chemical systems created in the laboratory fall well short of the minimum complexity for a living organism.","Iⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏⵜ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵎⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵔ; ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵎⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵗⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵋⵉⵋ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ."
"Although atmospheric composition was probably different from that used by Miller and Urey, later experiments with more realistic compositions also managed to synthesize organic molecules.","ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵏⴰⵋ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵓⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵉⵍⵍⴻⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴻⵉ, ⵜⵉⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ ⵓⵍⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵙⵙⴰ."
"RNA would later have been replaced by DNA, which is more stable and therefore can build longer genomes, expanding the range of capabilities a single organism can have.","ⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵛⴰⵏⵣⵉ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴻⵏ, ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⴾⵓ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵣⴰⴶⵔoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⵂⵔⴰⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴻⵗ ⴻⵓⴰⵍⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ."
A difficulty with the metabolism-first scenario is finding a way for organisms to evolve.,ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ.
"""Research in 2003 reported that montmorillonite could also accelerate the conversion of fatty acids into """"bubbles"""", and that the bubbles could encapsulate RNA attached to the clay.""","""Iⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ 2003 ⵉⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵈ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵔⵓⴱ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⵉⵍⵉⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵙ """"ⵜⴰⴾⵓⴼⴻ"""", ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵛⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵈ""."
This LUA cell is the ancestor of all life on Earth today.,ⵜⴻⴷⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵍⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ.
The change to an oxygen-rich atmosphere was a crucial development.,Iⴾⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵏⴰⵋ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⴷⵓ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ.
"They used fermentation, the breakdown of more complex compounds into less complex compounds with less energy, and used the energy so liberated to grow and reproduce.","ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵎⴰⵎ, ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵣⵍⵉⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⵔⴰⵏ,ⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴰ."
Most of the life that covers the surface of the Earth depends directly or indirectly on photosynthesis.,ⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵓⵉ ⵍⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵈⵓⴷ ⵎⴻⵗ Iⴱⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵓⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴱⴻⵔⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵏⵣⵉ.
"To supply the electrons in the circuit, hydrogen is stripped from water, leaving oxygen as a waste product.","ⵗⴻ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⴻⴰⵜⵔⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⴻⵔⴰⵜ,ⴰⴷⵓ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵓⵉⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵙⵙ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ."
"The simpler anoxygenic form arose about 3.8 Ga, not long after the appearance of life.","Iⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⵓⵆⵉⴶⵉⵏⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜⵔⴰⵗⵙⴻ ⵜⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ 3,8 ⵗⴰ, ⴰⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ."
"At first, the released oxygen was bound up with limestone, iron, and other minerals.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜo, ⵓⴼⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴻⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵙⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ."
"Though each cell only produced a minute amount of oxygen, the combined metabolism of many cells over a vast time transformed Earth's atmosphere to its current state.","ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵋⵉ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵙ,ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ ⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵋⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵣⴰⵋⵔⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵛⴰⵣⴰⵜ ⵋⴰⵏⴰⵋ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵗ."
"The ozone layer absorbed, and still absorbs, a significant amount of the ultraviolet radiation that once had passed through the atmosphere.","ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰⵎ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ, ⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⴱⴰⵋⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵙⴰⴼⴰⵍⴰ."
"As a result, the Earth began to receive more heat from the Sun in the Proterozoic eon.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵎ, ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⵓⵙⵙⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ."
"Glacial deposits found in South Africa date back to 2.2 Ga, at which time, based on paleomagnetic evidence, they must have been located near the equator.","ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵋⴰ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵔ ⵗⵓⵔ 2,2 ⵗⴰ, ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵜⵓⵗ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴻⵗⴰⴰⵜ ⴻⴷⴻⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⴻⵜ."
"The Huronian ice age might have been caused by the increased oxygen concentration in the atmosphere, which caused the decrease of methane (CH4) in the atmosphere.","ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴻⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵔⵓⵏⵉⴻⵏⵏⴻ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⴰⵏⴰⵋ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴰⴷoⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵜⵂⴰⵏⴻ (ⵛⵂ4) ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⴰⵏⴰⵋ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ."
"However, the term Snowball Earth is more commonly used to describe later extreme ice ages during the Cryogenian period.","ⴰⵋⵓⴷⴻⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵍⴰⵗⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴻⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵓⴶⵉⵏⵉⴻⵏⵏⴻ."
"Carbon dioxide combines with rain to weather rocks to form carbonic acid, which is then washed out to sea, thus extracting the greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.","ⴻⵉⵓⵆⵉⴷⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏⴻ ⵉⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵛⴰⵏⵣⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴰⵉⴷⴻ ⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏⵉⵈⵓⴻ, ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴱⴰⵏⴶ, ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴾⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵣ ⴰⴾⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵏⴰⵋ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ."
"The Bacteria domain probably first split off from the other forms of life (sometimes called Neomura), but this supposition is controversial.",ⵜⴰⴾⵉⵛⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴰⵜⴻⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵓⵉⵉⴰⴷⴷⴻⵏ (ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵏⴻⵓⵎⵓⵔⴰ) ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⵋ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵉⵛ.
"The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2.4 ago; these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis.","Iⵋⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴻⵣⵍⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵎⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵉⵓⴷⵔⵓⵜⵉⵔⵓⵣⵓïⵈⵓⴻ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ 2,4 ⴻⵍⴰⵏ; ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵔ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵉⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵗⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜ."
Perhaps the large cell attempted to digest the smaller one but failed (possibly due to the evolution of prey defenses).,ⵜⴻⴷⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵂⴰⵎⴰⵛ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴻⵜⴰⵜⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵔⴰⵙ (ⵉⵂⴰⵎⴰⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵓⵣⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⵏ).
"Using oxygen, it metabolized the larger cell's waste products and derived more energy.","ⵓⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵙ, ⵜⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵛⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⴾⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⴻⵏ."
"Soon, a stable symbiosis developed between the large cell and the smaller cells inside it.","ⵙⵉⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⴾⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴰⵍ ⵋⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ."
A similar event occurred with photosynthetic cyanobacteria entering large heterotrophic cells and becoming chloroplasts.,Iⵎⴻⵛⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴰⵜⴻⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴶⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵋⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⵓⵍⴰⵜⴻⵏ.
"Besides the well-established endosymbiotic theory of the cellular origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts, there are theories that cells led to peroxisomes, spirochetes led to cilia and flagella, and that perhaps a DNA virus led to the cell nucleus, though none of them are widely accepted.","ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵜⵓⴰⵂⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⵍⵓⵔⵓⴷⵍⴰⵙⵜⴻⵙ,ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜⴻⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵋⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴻⵔⵓⵆⵉⵙⵓⵎⴻⵙ, ⵙⴱⵉⵔⵓⵛⵂⵉⵜⴻⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵣⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉ, ⵉⵂⴰⵎⴰⵛ ⵗⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⵋⵉⵜ,ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵔⴷ."
"Around 1.1 Ga, the supercontinent Rodinia was assembling.","Iⴱⵔⴻⵜ 1,1 ⵗⴰ, ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⵔⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉⴰ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓ."
"Although the division between a colony with specialized cells and a multicellular organism is not always clear, around 1 billion years ago, the first multicellular plants emerged, probably green algae.","ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵋⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵗⴾⴰⴼⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵋⴰⵜⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵋⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⴻⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ 1 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵔⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵜⵉⴰⵏ, ⵉⵂⴰⵛⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵋⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⴷ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ ⵉⵍⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ."
"Paleomagnetic poles are supplemented by geologic evidence such as orogenic belts, which mark the edges of ancient plates, and past distributions of flora and fauna.","Iⵛⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⴼⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴶⴱⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ, ⵙⴰⵛⵓⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵍⵜⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⵛⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"About 1000 to 830 Ma, most continental mass was united in the supercontinent Rodinia.","Iⴱⵔⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ 1000 ⴰⵙ 830 ⵎⴰ, ⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⵓⵜⴻ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⵔⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉⴰ."
The hypothetical supercontinent is sometimes referred to as Pannotia or Vendia.,ⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⴰ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵗⴻⵏⴷⵉⴰ
The intensity and mechanism of both glaciations are still under investigation and harder to explain than the early Proterozoic Snowball Earth.,ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵗⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵍⴰⵈ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵜⵉⵔⵓⵣⵓïⵈⵓⴻ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴰ.
"Because CO2 is an important greenhouse gas, climates cooled globally.","ⵛO2 ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴶⴰⵣ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⵓⵙⵙⴻ, ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴻⴷⵏⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ."
Increased volcanic activity resulted from the break-up of Rodinia at about the same time.,ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵍⵉⵍⵉⵉ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴻⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴾⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵣ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ.
"The new forms of life, called Ediacara biota, were larger and more diverse than ever.","Iⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ,ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⵉⴰⴰⵔⴰ,ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⵓⵜⴻ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ."
"It consists of three eras: The Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, and is the time when multi-cellular life greatly diversified into almost all the organisms known today.","ⵜⴰⵎⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ: ⴱⴰⵍⵉⵓⵣⵓïⵈⵓⴻ, ⵎⵉⵙⵓⵣⵓïⵈⵓⴻ, ⴰⴷ ⵛⵉⵏⵓⵣⵓïⵈⵓⴻ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴰⵋⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵉⴻ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴰ ⴻⴷⴻⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵛⴰⵍⵉ."
This causes the sea level to rise.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵓⵉⴷ ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⴰⴱⴰⵏⴶ.
Traces of glaciation from this period are only found on former Gondwana.,Iⴷⵔⴰⵛ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵎⴷⴻ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵔⵂⴻⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵏⴷⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ.
"The continents Laurentia and Baltica collided between 450 and 400 Ma, during the Caledonian Orogeny, to form Laurussia (also known as Euramerica).","ⴻⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵓⵔⴻⵏⵜⵉⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵍⵜⵉⵛⴰ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 450 ⵂⴰⵔ 400 Mⴰ, ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵏⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴰⵍⵉⴷoⵏⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴶⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵓⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴻ (ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ)."
"The collision of Siberia with Laurussia caused the Uralian Orogeny, the collision of Gondwana with Laurussia is called the Variscan or Hercynian Orogeny in Europe or the Alleghenian Orogeny in North America.","ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⴻⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴱⴻⵔⵉⴻ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵍⴰⵓⵔⴻⵏⵜⵉⴻ ⴰⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵏⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⴻⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵏⴷⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ Lⴰⵓⵔⴻⵏⵜⵉⴻ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵏⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⵓⵉⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵂⴻⵔⴰⵉⵏⵉⴻⵏⵏⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ Eⵓⵔⵓⴷⴻ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵏⴰⴾ ⵜⴰ ⴼⴰⵙⵓⵙⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ."
"Whereas the Ediacaran life forms appear yet primitive and not easy to put in any modern group, at the end of the Cambrian most modern phyla were already present.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵗⵔⵓⴼⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⴰⵛⴰⵔⵉⴻⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜⴻⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵜⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴻⵏ, ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⴱⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵍⴰⵏ."
Some of these Cambrian groups appear complex but are seemingly quite different from modern life; examples are Anomalocaris and Haikouichthys.,"Iⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵙⵓⵂⴻⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏⵉⵎ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵉⴻⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ; ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⵍⵓⴰⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵉⴾⵓⵓⵉⵛⵂⵜⵂⵉⵙ."
"A creature that could have been the ancestor of the fishes, or was probably closely related to it, was Pikaia.","ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵗⵍⵓⴾ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵜ ⵓⵗⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ, ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵉⵔⵓⵓ, ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴱⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰ."
"Fish, the earliest vertebrates, evolved in the oceans around 530 Ma.","ⴻⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ, ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴶⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ 530 ⵎⴰ"
"The oldest fossils of land fungi and plants date to 480–460 Ma, though molecular evidence suggests the fungi may have colonized the land as early as 1000 Ma and the plants 700 Ma.",ⵓⵉ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴶⵓⵍⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵎⴷⵉⴶⵏoⵏⵜⴰⵏ 480–460 ⵎⴰ ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 1000 ⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵂⵉⵛⴾⴰⵏ 700 ⵎⴰ.
Fins evolved to become limbs that the first tetrapods used to lift their heads out of the water to breathe air.,ⴻⴼⵔⴻⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓəⵙ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⵓⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⴷⵣⴰⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⴼⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⴶⴰⵎⴰ.
"Eventually, some of them became so well adapted to terrestrial life that they spent their adult lives on land, although they hatched in the water and returned to lay their eggs.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴼⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵛⵉⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵂⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴻⵔⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴷⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ."
"Plants evolved seeds, which dramatically accelerated their spread on land, around this time (by approximately 360 Ma).","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ (ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ 360 ⵎⴰ) ⵓⴰⵙ ⵉⵂⵉⵙⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵏⴱⴰⵏ, ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵓɗ ⵏəⵎⵛⵉⵔⵛⵉⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ."
Another 30 million years (310 Ma) saw the divergence of the synapsids (including mammals) from the sauropsids (including birds and reptiles).,ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ 30 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ (310 ⵎⴰ) ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴶⴰⵔ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⴷⵙⵉⴷⴻⵙ (ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⴾⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ) ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵓⵔⵓⴷⵙⵉⴷⴻⵙ (ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵗⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ).
"The Triassic–Jurassic extinction event at 200 Ma spared many of the dinosaurs, and they soon became dominant among the vertebrates.","ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⴾⵉ əⵏ ⵟⵔⵉⴰⵙ-ⵋⵓⵔⴰⵙⵙⵉⵈⵓⴻ, ⴷⴰⵗ 200 ⵎⴰ, ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⵉⵏoⵙⴰⵓⵔⴻⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵉⴾⵛⵉⴾ ⴰⵉⴻⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ."
60% of marine invertebrates became extinct and 25% of all families.,60% ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵓⴰ ⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴶⵔⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎəⴾⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ 25% ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵔⵓⴻⵜⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴾ.
"The third mass extinction was the Permian-Triassic, or the Great Dying, event was possibly caused by some combination of the Siberian Traps volcanic event, an asteroid impact, methane hydrate gasification, sea level fluctuations, and a major anoxic event.","ⵓⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵎⵉⴾⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⴱⴻⵔⵎⵉⴻⵏ-ⵟⵔⵉⴰⵙ, ⵎⴻⵗ ⵗⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ : ⴰⵎⵍⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴾⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴱⵉⵔⵉⴻⵏ, ⵓⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ, ⴰⴷⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵜⵂⴰⵏⴻ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴷⵉ ⵏⴰⴶⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏoⵆⵉⵈⵓⴻ."
"This was by far the deadliest extinction ever, with about 57% of all families and 83% of all genera killed.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵉⴶ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⴾⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ, ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵂⵓⵉⵛⵉ 57% ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵔⵓⴻⵜⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴰⴷ 83 % ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴾ."
"By the early Paleocene the earth recovered from the extinction, and mammalian diversity increased.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵍⵉⵓⵉⵏⴻ, ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⵉ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵉⴷ"
"Grassless savanna began to predominate much of the landscape, and mammals such as Andrewsarchus rose up to become the largest known terrestrial predatory mammal ever, and early whales like Basilosaurus took control of the seas.","ⴰⵍⴻⵗⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⵉⵎⵓⵣ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⴻⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰⵂⵓⵙ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⵏⴾⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⴰⵙⵉⵍⵓⵙⴰⵓⵔⵓⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴶⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ."
Giant ungulates like Paraceratherium and Deinotherium evolved to rule the grasslands.,Iⵔⵉⵣⴻⴶⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⴱⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵛⴻⵔⴰⵜⵂⴻⵔⵉⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴹⴻⵉⵏⵓⵜⵂⴻⵔⵉⵓⵎ ⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴱⵔⴰⵉⵔⵉⴻⵙⵜⴰⵏ.
The Tethys Sea was closed off by the collision of Africa and Europe.,ⴻⴶⴰⵔⴻⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵉⵜⵂⵉⵙ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵉⴾⵓⵛⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⴰⴷ Eⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ.
"The land bridge allowed the isolated creatures of South America to migrate over to North America, and vice versa.","ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵗⵍⴰⴾⴻⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵉⴻ ⴰⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ ⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ, ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ."
The ice ages led to the evolution of modern man in Saharan Africa and expansion.,ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ƭⴰⵓⴰƭ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵂⴰⵔⵉⴻⵏⵏⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵛⵉⵔⵛⵉⵔ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ.
"It is believed by many that a huge migration took place along Beringia which is why, today, there are camels (which evolved and became extinct in North America), horses (which evolved and became extinct in North America), and Native Americans.","ⴰⵋⴻⵏ ⴰⵗⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵎⴻⵛⵓⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴼⴰⴷⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵏⴶⵉⴻ, ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⴼⴰⵍ, ⴻⵛⴰⵍⵉ, ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵙ ( ⵓⵉ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴾⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ), ⵉⴱⵉⵋⵓⴰⵏ (ⵓⵉ ⴰⵓⵉɗⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴾⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ) ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵏⴷⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ."
"Brain size increased rapidly, and by 2 Ma, the first animals classified in the genus Homo had appeared.","ⵜⴻⴱⴰⴷⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵈⵉⵍⵈⵉⵍ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵛⵉⴾⵛⵉⴾ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ 2 ⵎⴰ, ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵣⴻⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⵓ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"The ability to control fire probably began in Homo erectus (or Homo ergaster), probably at least 790,000 years ago but perhaps as early as 1.5 Ma.","ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜⴻ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵏⴰⵂⵉⴷ ⵉⴰ ⴻⴼⴻⵓ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵓⵎⵓ ⴻⵔⴻⴰⵜⵓⵙ (ⵎⴻⵗ ⵂⵓⵎⵓⴻⵔⴶⴰⵙⵜⴻⵔ), ⴰⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⵓⵎⵉⵛⵉ 790 000 ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵏəⵎ 1,5 ⵎⴰ."
It is more difficult to establish the origin of language; it is unclear whether Homo erectus could speak or if that capability had not begun until Homo sapiens.,ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ; ⵓⴰⵔⵏⵉⵙⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵂⵓⵎⵓ ⴻⵔⴻⴰⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵎⵓⵙⴰⴱⵉⴻⵏⵙ.
"Social skills became more complex, language became more sophisticated, and tools became more elaborate.","ⴱⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ oⴶⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ, ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ oⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⴶⴰⵔ."
"The first humans to show signs of spirituality are the Neanderthals (usually classified as a separate species with no surviving descendants); they buried their dead, often with no sign of food or tools.","ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴰⵏⴷⴻⵔⵜⴰⵍⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ (ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵜⵍⴻⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴻⵔⵓⴻⵜⴻⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ); ⵏⴰⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⵙⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴱⴰ ⵏⴰⴷⵔⵉⵛ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⵉⵏⵙⵉ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵏ."
"As language became more complex, the ability to remember and communicate information resulted, according to a theory proposed by Richard Dawkins, in a new replicator: the meme.","Iⵣⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ oⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰśⵓⵂⵓ, ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⴾⵜⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵂⵓⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴶ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⵙoⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵉⴰⵂⴰⵔⴷ ⴹⴰⵓⴾⵉⵏⵙ, ⵉⴻ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵏⵉɗ : ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴻⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ."
"Between 8500 and 7000 BC, humans in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East began the systematic husbandry of plants and animals: agriculture.","ⵗⴰⵔ 8500 əⴷ 7000 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⴱⵉ Iⵙⵙⴰ., ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⴰ, ⵗⵓⵔ ⵎⵓⵉⴻⵏ-Oⵔⵉⴻⵏⵜ, ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵉⴰⴾ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵛⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⴷ ⵔⵉⵣⴻⴶⴰⵏ : ⵉⵎⴰⴶⵉⴰⴾⴰⵏ."
"However, among those civilizations that did adopt agriculture, the relative stability and increased productivity provided by farming allowed the population to expand.","ⴻⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵉⴰⴾⴰⵏ, ⵉⴱⴰ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵜⴻⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⴻⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴻ ⴰⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵜ."
"This led to Earth's first civilization at Sumer in the Middle East, between 4000 and 3000 BC.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵉⴻ ⵙⵓⵎⴻⵔ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵉⴻⵏ-Oⵔⵉⴻⵏⵜ, ⴶⴰⵔ 4000 ⴰⴷ 3000 ⴷⴰⵜ."
"Humans no longer had to spend all their time working for survival, enabling the first specialized occupations (e.g. craftsmen, merchants, priests, etc.).","ⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔⵉⵍⴻⵏ ⵓⴾⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵓⴰⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ (ⴰⵜⴰⵎoⵙⵏⴻⵏ, ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ, ⵉⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏⵛⴰⵏ, ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷⵉⵉⴰⴷ.)."
"By around 500 BC, there were advanced civilizations in the Middle East, Iran, India, China, and Greece, at times expanding, at times entering into decline.","Iⴱⵔⴻⵜ əⴰⵏ 500 ⴷⴰⵜ. ⵏⴰⴱⵉ Iⵙⵙⴰ., ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵛⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎoⵉⴻⵏ-Oⵔⵉⴻⵏⵜ, ⴷⴰⵗ Iⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ Iⵏⴷⴻ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⴻ əⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵔⵉⴰⴻ, ⵙⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵛⴰⵔⵛⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴷⵉ."
"This civilization developed in warfare, arts, science, mathematics and in architect.","ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ, ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ, ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ, ⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵍⴰⴶⴰⵏ."
The Roman Empire was Christianized by Emperor Constantine in the early 4th century and declined by the end of the 5th.,ⵜⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔoⵎⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵔⴻⵜⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵓⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵏ Iⵗⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴻⵔⴾⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵗⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ.
"The House of Wisdom was established in Abbasid-era Baghdad, Iraq.","ⵜⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵈⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴶⴷⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰⵗ Iⵔⴰⴾ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴱⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⴻ."
"In the 14th century, the Renaissance began in Italy with advances in religion, art, and science.","ⴷⴰⵗ14ⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⵙⴻⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⴻ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰ Iⵜⴰⵍⵉⴻ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ."
"European civilization began to change beginning in 1500, leading to the scientific and industrial revolutions.","ⵜⴰⵉⵉⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1500, ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴻⵜⴰⵏ."
"From 1914 to 1918 and 1939 to 1945, nations around the world were embroiled in world wars.","ⴻⴰⵗ 1914 ⵂⴰⵔ 1918 ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ 1939 ⵂⴰⵔ 1945, ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
"After the war, many new states were formed, declaring or being granted independence in a period of decolonization.","ⴻⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ, ⵉⵜⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⴷⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
"Technological developments include nuclear weapons, computers, genetic engineering, and nanotechnology.","ⵜⴻⵓⴰⴷⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻⵓⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵛⵉⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴶⴻⵏⵉⵜⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵏⵓⵜⴻⵛⵂⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⴻ."
"Major concerns and problems such as disease, war, poverty, violent radicalism, and recently, human-caused climate change have risen as the world population increases.","ⴰⵛⴰⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⵉⵏⴰ, ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ, ⴰⵍⴰⴾⵉⵓⴰⵏ, ⵜⴻⵔⵓⴻⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⴻⵗⵛⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ, ⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵆⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵜ."
"Human history, or recorded history, is the narrative of humanity's past.","ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ, ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵉⵉⵎⴰⵜ, ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵓⵜ ⵏⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⴷⵜⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ."
"The Neolithic saw the Agricultural Revolution begin, between 10,000 and 5000 BCE, in the Near East's Fertile Crescent.","ⵏⵉⵓⵍⵉⵜⵂⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⵓⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵓⴰƭ ⵙⵓⴶⵉⴰⴾ, ⴶⴰⵔ 10 000 ⴰⴷ 5 000 ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⴰƭ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⵉⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵓⵛⵂⴻ-Oⵔⵉⴻⵏⵜ."
"As farming developed, grain agriculture became more sophisticated and prompted a division of labour to store food between growing seasons.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴶⵉⵉⴾ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ, ⵙⵉⴶⵉⴰⴾ ⵓəⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵙⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵙⵉⵈⵉⵉⵎⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵉⴰⴾⴰⵏ."
Hinduism developed in the late Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent.,ⵂⵉⵏⴷⵓⵓⵉⵙⵎⴻ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵏⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴱⵔⵓⵏⵣⴻ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ.
"""Post-classical history (the """"Middle Ages,"""" c. 500–1500 CE,) witnessed the rise of Christianity, the Islamic Golden Age (c. 750 CE – c. 1258 CE), and the Timurid and Italian Renaissances (from around 1300 CE).""",""" ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴷⴰⵜ-ⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵈⵓⴻ (ⵍⴻ """"ⵎⵓⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⴶⴻ"""", ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ 500-1500 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ) ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵂⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎⴻ, ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⵓⵔⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ (ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ 750 ⵏⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ-ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ 1258 ⵏⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ), ⴰⴷ ⵕⴻⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⴻ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵔⵉⴷⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⵓⵎⵉⵛⵉ 1300 ⵏⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ)."""
"By the 18th century, the accumulation of knowledge and technology had reached a critical mass that brought about the Industrial Revolution and began the late modern period, which started around 1800 and has continued through the present.","ⵜⴰⵗ 18ⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵓⵙⵓⴷⵉⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵓⴰƭ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵉⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ 1800 əⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴻⵛⴰⵍⵉⴷⴰⵗ."
"Anatomically modern humans arose in Africa about 300,000 years ago, and achieved behavioral modernity about 50,000 years ago.","ⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⵜⵓⵎⵉⵈⵓⴻⵎⴻⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⴰⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⵓⵎⵉⵛⵉ 300 000 ⵏⴻⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵓⴰⴷⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ 50 000 ⵏⴻⵍⴰⵏ."
"Perhaps as early as 1.8 million years ago, but certainly by 500,000 years ago, humans began to use fire for heat and cooking.","Iⵂⵓⵎⵉⵛⵉ 1,8 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵍⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ 500 000 ⵏⴻⵍⴰⵏ, ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⴼⴻⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵓⴷⵓⵓⴰⵏ."
"Paleolithic humans lived as hunter-gatherers, and were generally nomadic.",ⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵍⵉⵓⵍⵉⵜⵂⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵉⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⴰⵉⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⴷⵓⵎⴰ əⴷ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⵗⵈⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ.
The rapid expansion of humankind to North America and Oceania took place at the climax of the most recent ice age.,ⴰⵎⵛⵉⵔⵛⵉⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵔⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ Oⵛⴻⴰⵏⵉⴻ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴷⴻ.
"The Yellow River valley in China cultivated millet and other cereal crops by about 7000 BCE; the Yangtze valley domesticated rice earlier, by at least 8000 BCE.","ⵗⴰⵔ ⵂⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴱⴰⵏⴶ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴻ ⵉⴰ ⴷⵉⴶⵉⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵍⴰⵍⴻⵜ əⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ 7000 ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ; ⴶⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵏⴶⵜⵣⴻ ⴰⵜⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵉⴾ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⵓⵎⵉⵛⵉ 8000 ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ."
"Metalworking, was first used in the creation of copper tools and ornaments around 6000 BCE.",ⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴰⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵍⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵓⴾⵓ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ 6000 ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ.
"Cities were centres of trade, manufacturing and political power.","ⴻⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏⵛⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⵉⵓⴻⵏ."
The development of cities was synonymous with the rise of civilization.,ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴷⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵓⵗⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵂⵉⴾⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ.
"These cultures variously invented the wheel, mathematics, bronze-working, sailing boats, the potter's wheel, woven cloth, construction of monumental buildings, and writing.","ⴰⵙⵉⴶⵉⴰⴾ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ, ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵏⵣⴻ, ⴰⴾⵔⴰⴱⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴻⵓⴰⵏ, ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⵉⴻⵔ, ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵉ, ⵜⵓⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ."
Typical of the Neolithic was a tendency to worship anthropomorphic deities.,ⵏⵉⵓⴻⵍⵉⵜⵂⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⴷⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵎⵓⵔⴱⵂⴻⵙ.
"These settlements were concentrated in fertile river valleys: the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the Nile in Egypt, the Indus in the Indian subcontinent, and the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers in China.","ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴶⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵍⵓⴱⵉⴰⵍⴻⵙ ⴼⴻⵔⵜⵉⵍⴻⵙ : ⵟⵉⴶⵔⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵓⴱⵂⵔⴰⵜⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵙⵓⴱⵓⵜⴰⵎⵉⴻ, ⵏⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵙⵔ, Iⵏⴷⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴻⴱⴰⵏⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵏⴶⵜⵣⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴻ."
"Cuneiform writing began as a system of pictographs, whose pictorial representations eventually became simplified and more abstract.","ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⵉⵉⴼⵓⵔⵎⴻ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴰⵜⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎⵎⴻⵙ, ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴰⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵓⵗⵉⵍ ⵏⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴱⵓⵜ."
Transport was facilitated by waterways—by rivers and seas.,ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵈⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴶⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ.
These developments led to the rise of territorial states and empires.,ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⴱⵉⴻⵏ.
In Crete the Minoan civilization had entered the Bronze Age by 2700 BCE and is regarded as the first civilization in Europe.,"ⴻⴰⵗ ⵛⵔⵉⵜⴻ, ⵜⴰⵉⵉⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⵓⴻⵏⵏⴻ ⵉⴶⴰⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴱⵔⵓⵏⵣⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ 2700 ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵉⵉⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ."
"Over the following millennia, civilizations developed across the world.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵢⵏⴰⵉⵔⴻⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵍⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⵜⴰⵉⵉⵜⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴾ."
"In India, this era was the Vedic period (1750-600 BCE), which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 6th century BCE.","ⴻⴰⵗ Iⵏⴷⴻ, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴱⵉⴷⵉⵈⵓⴻ (1750-600 ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ), ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏⴷⵓⵓⵉⵙⵎⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⴻⵏⵏⴻ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ 6ⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ."
"During the formative stage in Mesoamerica (about 1500 BCE to 500 CE), more complex and centralized civilizations began to develop, mostly in what is now Mexico, Central America, and Peru.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵓⵜⵓⴷ ⵙⴰ ⵏⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵙⵓ-ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ (ⴰⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ 1500 ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔ 500 ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ), ⵜⵢⵢⵉⵉⵜⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴼ, ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵛⴰⵍⵉⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴻ ⵎⵆⵉⵈⵓⴻ, ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⵓ."
"Karl Jaspers' Axial-Age theory also includes Persian Zoroastrianism, but other scholars dispute his timeline for Zoroastrianism.)","ⵜⴻⴾⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⵉⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵔⵍ ⵋⴰⵙⴷⴻⵔⵙ ⵉⵂⴰ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵣⵓⵔⵓⴰⵙⵜⵔⵉⵙⵎⴻ ⴱⴻⵔⵙⴻ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵓⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⴰⵔⴷⴻⵏ ⴰⵂⵔⵓⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⴻ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵣⵓⵔⵓⴰⵙⵜⵔⵉⵙⵎⴻ)."
"These were Taoism, Legalism, and Confucianism.","ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵎⵉⵙⵎⴻ, ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⴶⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎⴻ."
The great empires depended on military annexation of territory and on the formation of defended settlements to become agricultural centres.,ⵓⵉⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⴱⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵏⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵏⵉⴻⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴰⵣⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴶⵉⴰⴾ.
There were a number of regional empires during this period.,Iⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉ ⵏⵓⵎⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵉⴱⵉⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ.
"The Median Empire gave way to successive Iranian empires, including the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE), the Parthian Empire (247 BCE–224 CE), and the Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE).","ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⴰ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⴻ ⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵔⴰⵏⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴰⵂⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⴷⴻ (550-330 ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ), ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵜⵂⴻ (247–224 ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ) ⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⴷⴻ ( 224-651 ⵏⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ)."
"Later, Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE), of Macedon, founded an empire of conquest, extending from present-day Greece to present-day India.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⴻⵆⴰⵏⴷⵔⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ (356-323 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⴱⵉ Iⵙⵙⴰ), ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⵉⴷⵓⵉⵏⴻ, ⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵂⴰ ⵗⴰⵜ, ⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵗⵔⵉⵛⴻ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ Iⵏⴷⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰ."
"From the 3rd century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's Golden Age.","ⴰⴷⵉⵜⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⴷ 3ⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰ ⵗ, ⵜⴰⴶⵓⵣⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⴷⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⴰ ⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ Iⵏⴷⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵜ."
The ensuing stability contributed to heralding in the golden age of Hindu culture in the 4th and 5th centuries.,ⵜⴻⴷⴰⴾⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵙⴰⴶⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⴰ ⵗ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏⴷⵓⴻ ⴷⴰ ⵗ 4ⴻ ⴰⴷ 5ⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ.
"By the time of Augustus (63 BCE – 14 CE), the first Roman Emperor, Rome had already established dominion over most of the Mediterranean.","ⴻⴰ ⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜ (63 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⴱⵉ Iⵙⵙⴰ. – 14 ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰ ⵗ), ⵓⵉⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵉⵏ, ⵔoⵎⴻ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵗⵉⵍ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵗ ⵎⵉⴷⵉⵜⴻⵔⵔⴰⵏⴻ."
"The Western empire would fall, in 476 CE, to German influence under Odoacer.","ⵜⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵉⴷⴻⵏⵜ ⴰⵜⴰⴷⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵗ 476 ⵏⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ, ⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⴰⵛⴻⵔ."
The Han dynasty was comparable in power and influence to the Roman Empire that lay at the other end of the Silk Road.,"ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵉⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ."
"As with other empires during the Classical Period, Han China advanced significantly in the areas of government, education, mathematics, astronomy, technology, and many others.","ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵈⵓⴻ, ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴰ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵓⴰⵙⴰⵙⴼⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⵉⵓⴻⵏ, ⵉⴻ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵜⵔⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⴻ, ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ."
"Successful regional empires were also established in the Americas, arising from cultures established as early as 2500 BCE.","ⵓⵉⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷⴰⴼⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 2500 ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ."
"The great Mayan city-states slowly rose in number and prominence, and Maya culture spread throughout the Yucatán and surrounding areas.","ⵓⵉⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵉⵜⵉⵙ-ⵉⵜⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵉⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴼo, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵉⴰ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵛⴰⵔⵛⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵓⴰⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵂⴰⵣⵏⴻⵏ."
"There were, however, in some regions, periods of rapid technological progress.","ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏⴰⵜⵔⴰⴱⵏⴻⵏ."
"China's Han dynasty fell into civil war in 220 CE, beginning the Three Kingdoms period, while its Roman counterpart became increasingly decentralized and divided about the same time in what is known as the Crisis of the Third Century.","ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏoⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵛ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴱⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 220 ⵏⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ, ⵉⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵏⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵔⵓⵉⵙ ⵔⵓⵉⴰⵓⵎⴻⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵏⴻⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ IIIⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ."
The development of the stirrup and the breeding of horses strong enough to carry a fully armed archer made the nomads a constant threat to the more settled civilizations.,ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⴰⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵎⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵉⵉⵜⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⴰ ⵓⵔⴶⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵉⵎⵉⵜⴻ.
"The remaining part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern Mediterranean, continued as what came to be called the Byzantine Empire.","ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⵜⵉⵈⵉⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⴷⵉⵜⴻⵔⵔⴰⵏⵉⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ, ⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ."
"The era is commonly dated from the 5th-century fall of the Western Roman Empire, which fragmented into many separate kingdoms, some of which would later be confederated under the Holy Roman Empire.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ, ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⵂⴰⵉⵓⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜ-ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⴻ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵉⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵈⵓ."
"South Asia saw a series of middle kingdoms of India, followed by the establishment of Islamic empires in India.","ⴰⵙⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵉ ⵉⵏⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ Iⵏⴷⴻ, ⵙⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ Iⵏⴷⴻ."
"This allowed Africa to join the Southeast Asia trading system, bringing it contact with Asia; this, along with Muslim culture, resulted in the Swahili culture.","ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵜⴰⵓⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵛⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ-ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ, ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵎⴷⵉⵙ ⴷ’ⴰⵙⵉⴻ, ⵎⴰⵎⵓⵙ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴰⵂⵉⵍⵉⴻ."
"This was also a cultural battle, with the Byzantine Hellenistic and Christian culture competing against the Persian Iranian traditions and Zoroastrian religion.","ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⴶⴰⵛ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ, ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴻⵍⵍⵢⵏⵉⵙⵜⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⵔⵢⵜⵉⴻⵏⵏⴻ ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏⴻ ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵏⵉⴻⵏⵏⴻⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⵔⵙⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵔⵓⴰⵙⵜⵔⵉⴻⵏⵏⴻ."
"From their centre on the Arabian Peninsula, Muslims began their expansion during the early Postclassical Era.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵏ, ⴰⵏⵉⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⵛⵉⵔⵛⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵈⵓⴻ."
Much of this learning and development can be linked to geography.,ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⴰⴷⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵔⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴶⵉⴰⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⴻ.
The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous.,ⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵓ-ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⵓ-ⴰⵙⵉⴰⵜⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ.
"Motivated by religion and dreams of conquest, European leaders launched a number of Crusades to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the Holy Land.","ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵓⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ, ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴷⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵈⴰⵙⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵉ ⵏⴰⵛⵉⵔⴶⵉⵛ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵛⵉⴷⵉⴶⴰⵏ."
"Arab domination of the region ended in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia.","ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ 11ⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴶⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⵙⴻⵍⴷⵋⵓⵓⴾⵉⴷⴻⵙ, ⴰⵂⵓⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ ⵏⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵈⵓⴻⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ'ⴰⵙⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ."
The region will later be called the Barbary Coast and will host pirates and privateers who will use several North African ports for their raids against the coastal towns of several European countries in search of slaves to be sold in North African markets as part of the Barbary slave trade.,ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵜⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴱⴰⵔⵉⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵂⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵓⵔⵙⴰⵉⵔⴻⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⵓⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ-ⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵂⴰⵣⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵏⴻⵓⵔⵓɗⴻⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴻⴾⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵂⵉⵏ ⵛⵉⵛⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴻⴱⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ-ⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴾⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴱⴰⵔⵉⴻ.
"In the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate the region and soon became the sole faith of most of the population, though Buddhism remained strong in the east.",ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵜⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴱⴰⵔⵉⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵂⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵓⵔⵙⴰⵉⵔⴻⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⵓⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ-ⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵂⴰⵣⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵏⴻⵓⵔⵓɗⴻⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴻⴾⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵂⵉⵏ ⵛⵉⵛⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴻⴱⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ-ⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴾⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴱⴰⵔⵉⴻ
"After Genghis Khan died in 1227, most of Central Asia continued to be dominated by a successor state, Chagatai Khanate.","ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⴻⵏⴶⵉⵙ ⵆⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 1227, ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⴻ ⵜⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⵍⴰ ⴷⵓⵗⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴾⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⴶⴰⵜⴰⵉ."
The region then became divided into a series of smaller khanates that were created by the Uzbeks.,ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵉⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜⵙ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ Oⵓⵣⴱⴻⴾⵙ.
The barbarian invaders formed their own new kingdoms in the remains of the Western Roman Empire.,Iⵎⴰⵂⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵋoⵔⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵔⵉⵛ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ Eⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ.
"Christianity expanded in western Europe, and monasteries were founded.","ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎⴻ ⴰⵎⵛⴰⵔⵛⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵓⵔⴱⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ."
"Manorialism, the organization of peasants into villages that owed rents and labour service to nobles, and feudalism, a political structure whereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rents from lands and manors, were two of the ways of organizing medieval society that developed during the High Middle Ages.","ⵎⴰⵏⵓⵔⴰⵜ, ⵙⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⴶⴻⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⵂⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⴷⵉⴼⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵂⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⵉⴻ ⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴼⵉⵓⴷⵉⵙⵎⴻ, ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴱⵉⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵂⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⴷⵉⴶⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵣⴻⵔⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⵙⴾⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵛⵉⵍⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⵉⵉⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵓⵙⵓⴷⵉⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⴷⵉⴻⵗⴰⵍⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵉɗⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ Hⴰⵓⵜ ⵎⵓⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⴶⴻ"
Italian merchants imported slaves to work in households or in sugar processing.,ⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⴻⴾⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵏəⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⵉⵙⵓⴾⴰⵔ.
"Famine, plague, and war devastated the population of western Europe.","ⵎⴰⵏⴰ, ⴷⴻⵙⵜⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴷⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ"
They eventually gave way to the Zagwe dynasty who are famed for their rock cut architecture at Lalibela.,"ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵉⴰⵓⵜ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵤⴰⴶⵓⴻ, ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵙⵍⴰⴱⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⵉⴱⵍⴻⴰ."
"They controlled the trans-Saharan trade in gold, ivory, salt and slaves.","ⴰⵏⵉⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵔⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⴰⵗ, ⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴱⵓⵉⵔⴻ, ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵙⵉⵎⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴻⴾⵍⴰⵏ."
"Central Africa saw the birth of several states, including the Kingdom of Kongo.","ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵓⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵆⵓⵏⴶⵓ"
"They built large defensive stone structures without mortar such as Great Zimbabwe, capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, Khami, capital of Kingdom of Butua, and Danangombe (Dhlo-Dhlo), capital of the Rozvi Empire.","ⴰⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵙⵜⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏ ⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴻⵏⴷⴻ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵗⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵤⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵓⴻ, ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜəⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵤⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵓⴻ, ⵆⵂⴰⵎⵉ, ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵜⵓⴰ, ⴰⴷ ⴻⴰⵏⴰⵏⴶⵓⵎⴱⴻ (ⴻⵂⵍⵓ-ⴻⵂⵍⵓ), ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵣⵗⵉ."
"The ninth century saw a Tripartite Struggle for control of northern India, among the Pratihara Empire, the Pala Empire, and the Rashtrakuta Empire.","ⵓⴰⵙⵜⴰⵣⴰ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⵉⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⴱⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ Iⵏⴷⴻ, ⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵔⴰⵜⵉⵂⴰⵔⴰ, ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ Ɗⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵛⵜⵔⴰⴾⵓⵜⴰ."
"""The Tang dynasty eventually splintered, however, and after half a century of turmoil the Song dynasty reunified China, when it was, according to William McNeill, the """"richest, most skilled, and most populous country on earth"""".""","ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵉⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵏⴶ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⴷⴰ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵆ, ⴶⵓⵔ ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵎⵛⵏⴻⵉⵍ,""""ⴰⵆⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴼ,ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ""""."""
"After about a century of Mongol Yuan dynasty rule, the ethnic Chinese reasserted control with the founding of the Ming dynasty (1368).","ⴻⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⵏⴶⵓⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵉⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⴰⵏ,ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴻⵓⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵔ ⵓⵍⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵉⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⴶ (1368)."
The Nara period of the 8th century marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state and is often portrayed as a golden age.,ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ 8ⴻ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴻ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴻⵔⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴻⵜ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵆ.
"The feudal period of Japanese history, dominated by powerful regional lords (daimyos) and the military rule of warlords (shoguns) such as the Ashikaga shogunate and Tokugawa shogunate, stretched from 1185 to 1868.","ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⴼⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⴱⵓⵏ, ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ (ⴷⴰⵉⵎⵉⵓⵙ) ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⴻⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵏⴰⵙ (ⵙⵂⵓⴶⵓⵏⵙ) ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵂⵓⴶⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵂⵉⴾⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵂⵓⴶⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵟⵓⴾⵓⴶⴰⵓⴰ, ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔ ⴶⵓⵔ 1185 ⵂⴰⵔ 1868."
"Silla conquered Baekje in 660, and Goguryeo in 668, marking the beginning of the Northern and Southern States period (남북국시대), with Unified Silla in the south and Balhae, a successor state to Goguryeo, in the north.","ⵙⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴱⴰⴻⴾⵋⴻ ⴶⵓⵔ 660,ⴰⴷ ⵗⵓⴶⵓⵔⵉⴻⵓ ⴶⵓⵔ 668,ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵏⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ (남북국시대), ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⴷⵏⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵍⵂⴰⴻ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⴶⵓⵔⵉⴻⵓ, ⴶⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ."
"Starting in the 9th century, the Bagan Kingdom rose to prominence in modern Myanmar.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵙ 9ⴻ, ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵎⵉⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ."
"The Ancestral Puebloans and their predecessors (9th – 13th centuries) built extensive permanent settlements, including stone structures that would remain the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century.","ⴱⵓⴻⴱⵍⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ( Iⵆⴻ-ⵆIIIⴻ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ) ⴰⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵓ,ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴶⴰⵙⵎⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈoⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⴷ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵆIⵆⴻ."
"In South America, the 14th and 15th centuries saw the rise of the Inca.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴷ,ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 14ⴻ ⴰⴷ 15ⴻ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴾⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ Iⵏⴾⴰⵙ."
"The Scientific Revolution received impetus from Johannes Gutenberg's introduction to Europe of printing, using movable type, and from the invention of the telescope and microscope.",ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏⵣⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵉⵓⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴼⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ ⵉⴻ ⵉⴶⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ Jⵓⵂⴰⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⵗⵓⵜⴻⵏⴱⴻⵔⴶ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴶⵉⵛⵂ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵍⴻⵙⴾⵓⴱⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵉⴾⵔⵓⵙⴾⵓⴱⴻ.
"The late modern period continues either to the end of World War II, in 1945, or to the present.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ, ⴶⵓⵔ 1945, ⵎⴻⵆ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴻⵛⵂⴰⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⴶ."
"The early Modern period was characterized by the rise of science, and by increasingly rapid technological progress, secularized civic politics, and the nation state.","ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⴻⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ,ⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵔⵓⴱ,ⴼⴰⵍ ⴼⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ."
"During the early modern period, Europe was able to regain its dominance; historians still debate the causes.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ,ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ ⵜⵓⴶⵔⵓⵓ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ;ⵜⵓⵏⴼⴰⵙⵙⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵣⴶⴰⵎ."
It had developed an advanced monetary economy by 1000 CE.,ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⴶⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴼ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1000 ⵓⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵆ.
"It enjoyed a technological advantage and had a monopoly in cast iron production, piston bellows, suspension bridge construction, printing, and the compass.","ⵜⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴱⵓⵏⴰⴼⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓ,ⴰⵙⵂⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵙⵜⵓⵏ,ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ,ⵉⴻ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵎⴰⵙⴻⴾⵏⵉ."
One theory of Europe's rise holds that Europe's geography played an important role in its success.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵉⴻ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵓⵣⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⴶⵙⴰⴷⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ.
This gave Europe some degree of protection from the peril of Central Asian invaders.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵉ ⴻⵔoⴱⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵆⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵆⵜⴰⵍⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ.
The Golden Age of Islam was ended by the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258.,ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵆ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰ ⵉⵎⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⴾⵓ ⵎoⵓⵏⴶⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴶⴷⴰⴷ ⴶⵓⵔ 1258.
Geography contributed to important geopolitical differences.,ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵉⴻ ⴻⴱⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉⴾ.
"By contrast, Europe was almost always divided into a number of warring states.","ⴻⴰⴶ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴶⴰⵍ,ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ ⵉⵛⵂ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ"
Nearly all the agricultural civilizations have been heavily constrained by their environments.,Iⵛⵂ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎəⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴶⴰⵉⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵂⵣⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ.
Technological advance and the wealth generated by trade gradually brought about a widening of possibilities.,ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⵓⵜⴻ ⵏⴰⵣⵔⵉⴼ ⵓⴰ ⴰⴷoⵔⴰⵓ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴻⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵓⵉⵜⴰⵏ.
"Europe's maritime expansion unsurprisingly—given the continent's geography—was largely the work of its Atlantic states: Portugal, Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands.","ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⴻⴱⴰⵏⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ,ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰ ⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵣ ⴰⵏ ⴻⴱⴰⵏⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵈⵓⴻ :ⴱⵓⵔⵜⵓⴶⴰⵍ, ⴻⵙⴱⴰⴶⵏⴻ, ⴰⵏⴶⵍⴻⵜⴻⵔⵔⴻ, ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵉⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏⴷⴻ."
"In North Africa, the Saadi Sultanate remained as an independent Berber state until 1659.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⴷ,ⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⴰⴷⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴶⵓⵔ 1659."
The Swahili coast declined after coming under the Portuguese Empire and later the Omani Empire.,"ⵜⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴰⵂⵉⵍⵉⴻ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⵜⵓⴶⴰⵍ,ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵏ."
"The South African Kingdom of Zimbabwe gave way to smaller kingdoms such as Mutapa, Butua, and Rozvi.","ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴷ-ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵤⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵓⴻ ⵓⵉⴰ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⴻ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⵓⵜⴰⴱⴰ,ⴱⵓⵜⵓⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵣⴱⵉ."
Other civilizations in Africa advanced during this period.,ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵛⵂⵔⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ
"Japan experienced its Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1603), followed by the Edo period (1603–1868).","ⵋⴰⴱⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵏⴻⵙⵙ ⴰⵣⵓⵛⵂⵉ-ⵎⵓⵎⵓⵉⴰⵎⴰ (1568-1603),ⵙⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴻⴷⵓ ( 1603-1868)."
"The Johor Sultanate, centred on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, became the dominant trading power in the region.","ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵂⴰⵔ,ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ,ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵎəⵍⴰ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ."
"Russia made incursions onto the northwest coast of North America, with a first colony in present-day Alaska in 1784, and the outpost of Fort Ross in present-day California in 1812.","ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⴶⴰ ⵓⴶⵉⵛⵂ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵓⵔⴷ-ⵓⵓⴻⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⴷ, ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⴶⵓⵔ 1784,ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵜⴻ ⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵔⵓⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵛⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⴶⵓⵔ 1812."
"The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and used new modes of production—the factory, mass production, and mechanization—to manufacture a wide array of goods faster and using less labour than previously required.","ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴶⵉⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⴻⵜⴰⴶⵏⴻ-ⵟⴰⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵙⵉⵏⴻⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵉⴶⵉⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵎⵉⴷⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ."
"After Europeans had achieved influence and control over the Americas, imperial activities turned to the lands of Asia and Oceania.","ⴻⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵜⴰⵍⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵆ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ, ⴰⵛⵂⵉⴶⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴻ ⴰⴷ Oⵛⵉⴰⵏⵉⴻ."
"The British also colonized Australia, New Zealand and South Africa with large numbers of British colonists emigrating to these colonies.","ⵆⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵏⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⴾⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴻ, ⵏⵓⵓⴱⴻⵍⵍⴻ-ⵤⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴷ,ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⵓⵜⴻ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⴷⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵏⵉⵈⵓⴻ ⴰⵙⵙⴻⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ."
"Within Europe, economic and military challenges created a system of nation states, and ethno-linguistic groupings began to identify themselves as distinctive nations with aspirations for cultural and political autonomy.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ,ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⴰⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⴻⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴾⴰⵔⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ,ⴰⴷ ⴶⵔⵓⴱⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵙⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⴰⵉ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵎəⵏⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉⴾ."
"Meanwhile, industrial pollution and environmental damage, present since the discovery of fire and the beginning of civilization, accelerated drastically.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴻⵏ,ⴻⴶⴻⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵆⴰⵛⵂⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⵣⴰⵓⴰⵏ,ⴰⵜⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴻⴼⴻⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ,ⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵆⵏⴰ ⴰⵂⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
Much of the rest of the world was influenced by heavily Europeanized nations: the United States and Japan.,ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴶⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ : ⴻⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵋⴰⴱⵓⵏ.
"World War I led to the collapse of four empires – Austria-Hungary, the German Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Russian Empire – and weakened the United Kingdom and France.","ⴰⴾⴰⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵉⵓⴰⵉⴷ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵓⵣ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ – ⴰⵓⵜⵔⵉⵛⵂⴻ-ⵂⵓⵏⴶⵔⵉⴻ, ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴻⵎⴰⵏⴷ, ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ Oⵜⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⴻ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵉⴰⵓⵎⴻ-Uⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵉⴰ."
"Ongoing national rivalries, exacerbated by the economic turmoil of the Great Depression, helped precipitate World War II.","ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⴶⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⴰⵎⴰⵏⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵉⴷⴰⵆⵓⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵙⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵔⵓⴱ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ."
"The Cold War ended peacefully in 1991 after the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent fall of the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall, and the collapse of the Eastern Bloc and the Warsaw Pact.","ⴰⴾⴰⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵎⴻⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵔⵂⵓ ⴶⵓⵔ 1991 ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰⵎ-ⴶⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴷⴻ, ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵎ ⴰⵏ ⴻⴾⴰⵔⵛⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣoⵍⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴻⵔⵍⵉⵏ, ⴻⵜ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵙⵓⴱⵉⴻ."
"In the early postwar decades, the colonies in Asia and Africa of the Belgian, British, Dutch, French, and other west European empires won their formal independence.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵏⴰⵙ, ⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵂⵙⵉⵉⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⴻⵍⴶⴻ, ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵏⵉⵈⵓⴻ, ⵂⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⵜⴰⵏ,ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵉⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵜ."
"The European Union's effectiveness was handicapped by the immaturity of its common economic and political institutions, somewhat comparable to the inadequacy of United States institutions under the Articles of Confederation prior to the adoption of the Constitution of the United States that came into force in 1789.","ⴰⵙⵙⴻⵆⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴷⴻ ⵜⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵓⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴷⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉⴾ ⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⴷⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⴶⵓⵔ 1789."
"In the decades after World War II, these advances led to jet travel, artificial satellites with innumerable applications including the Global Positioning System (GPS), and the Internet.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⴾⴰⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵛⴰⵏⵣⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵜⵉⴻⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵔ, ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴰⵜ əⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶoⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴾⵓⵍ (ⵗⴱⵙ), ⴰⴷ ⵉⴻ ⵉⵏⵜⴻⵔⵏⴻⵜ."
"Worldwide competition for natural resources has risen due to growing populations and industrialization, especially in India, China, and Brazil.","ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵉⴻ ⵉⴶⵓⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴶⵓⵜⴻ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴶⵓⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ,ⴰⴷⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ Iⵏⴷⴻ, ⵓⵔ ⵙⵉⵏⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴱⵔⴻⵙⵉⵍ."
An archive is an accumulation of historical records – in any media – or the physical facility in which they are located.,ⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⴻⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ –ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵓⴷ ⴾⵓⵍ-ⵎⴻⴶ ⴰⴼⴰⵜⴰⵆ ⵉⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵂⴰ.
"""They have been metaphorically defined as """"the secretions of an organism"""", and are distinguished from documents that have been consciously written or created to communicate a particular message to posterity.""",""" ⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵏⵣⵉ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ """"ⵉⴶⵓⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ"""", ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵜⵓ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ"
"This means that archives are quite distinct from libraries with regard to their functions and organization, although archival collections can often be found within library buildings.","ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴻⴱⴰⴷⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵏⴶⴰⵣⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴻⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴶoⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴼo ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⵉⵆⴰⵛⵎⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵏ"
"Archaeologists have discovered archives of hundreds (and sometime thousands) of clay tablets going back to the third and second millennia BC in sites like Ebla, Mari, Amarna, Hattusas, Ugarit, and Pylos.","ⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ (ⵉⵣⵔ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⴼⴷⴰⵏ) ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵍⵜⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵈ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵉⵓⴰⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵓ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⴰ. ⴷⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴻⴱⵍⴰ, ⵎⴰⵔⵉ, ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵏⴰ, ⵂⴰⴼⵓⵙⴰⵙ, ⵓⴶⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵉⵍⵓⵙ."
"However, they have been lost, since documents written on materials like papyrus and paper deteriorated at a faster pace, unlike their stone tablet counterparts.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏ, ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⴶⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ, ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵗⴰⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴱⴰⴷⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵍⵜⴰⵈ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏⵜ."
England after 1066 developed archives and archival research methods.,"ⴰⵏⴶⵍⵜⴻⵔⵔⴻ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ 1066,ⵜⴰⴾⵔⴰⵛ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵆ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ."
"While there are many kinds of archives, the most recent census of archivists in the United States identifies five major types: academic, business (for profit), government, non-profit, and other.","ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴻⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ ⵉⵣⴰⵉ ⵙⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ : ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⵆⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ,ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ (ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴼ), ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵂⴰⴾⵓⵎ, ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⵉⵂⴰ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ"
Access to the collections in these archives is usually by prior appointment only; some have posted hours for making inquiries.,ⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴶ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵏ ;ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴻⵙⵜⴰⵏ.
"Examples of prominent business archives in the United States include Coca-Cola (which also owns the separate museum World of Coca-Cola), Procter and Gamble, Motorola Heritage Services and Archives, and Levi Strauss & Co. These corporate archives maintain historic documents and items related to the history and administration of their companies.","ⵗⴰⵔ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴻⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ,ⵏⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⴰⵓⴰ-ⴰⵓⵍⴰ (ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴷⴻⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵓⵔⵍⴷ ⵓⴼ ⵛⵓⵛⴰ-ⵛⵓⵍⴰ), ⴱⵔⵓⵛⵜⴻⵔ ⴰⵏⴷ ⵗⴰⵎⴱⵍⴻ, ⵎⵓⵜⵓⵔⵓⵍⴰ ⵂⴻⵔⵉⵜⴰⴶⴻ ⵙⴻⵔⵗⵉⵛⴻ ⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⴱⴻⵙ,ⴰⴷ ⵍⴻⴱⵉ ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵓⵙ & ⵛⵓ. ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⵓⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵏⵙⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ."
"Workers in these types of archives may have any combination of training and degrees, from either a history or library background.","Iⵎⴰⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵎⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵔⴷ, ⵜⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵎⴻⵆ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ."
"In the United States, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) maintains central archival facilities in the District of Columbia and College Park, Maryland, with regional facilities distributed throughout the United States.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴻⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ, ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⴱⴻ ⴰⵏⴷ ⵔⴻⵛⵓⵔⴷⵙ ⴰⴷⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ (ⵏⴰⵏⴰ) ⵜⴰⵜⴰⴼ ⵓⴶⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵉⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵓⵍⵍⴻⴶⴻ ⴱⴰⵔⴾ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⴰⴷ ⵓⴶⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰ"
"In the UK, the National Archives (formerly known as the Public Record Office) is the government archive for England and Wales.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵔⵓⵉⴰⵓⵎⴻ-ⵓⵏⵉ, ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ (ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⵛ ⵔⴻⵛⵓⵔⴷ Oⴼⴼⵉⴰⴻ) ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵈⵓⵎ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵏⴶⵍⴻⵜⴻⵔⵔⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴱⴰⵉⵙ ⴷⴻ ⵗⴰⵍⵍⴻⵙ."
"Put together, the total volume of archives under the supervision of the French Archives Administration is the largest in the world.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⴻⴷⴰⴰⵏ, ⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴰⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵜⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ."
"Archdioceses, dioceses, and parishes also have archives in the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches.","ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴶⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ, ⵍⴰⴶⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⴶⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⵂⵓⵍⵉⴾⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴶⵍⵉⴰⴰⵜⴰⵏ"
Often these institutions rely on grant funding from the government as well as the private funds.,ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ.
Many museums keep archives in order to prove the provenance of their pieces.,Iⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⴰⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ
This was a separate figure from the 1.3% that identified themselves as self-employed.,"ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⴰⴾⴻⵍ ⴻⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ 1,3% ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ."
"The archive's mission is to gather stories from women who want to express themselves, and want their stories heard.",ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴻⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴼⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰⵙⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ.
"The archives of an organization (such as a corporation or government) tend to contain other types of records, such as administrative files, business records, memos, official correspondence, and meeting minutes.","ⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ (ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵎⴻⵆ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵓⵎ) ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍ, ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⴰⵓⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵆⵉⵎⵉⵜⴻⵏ."
"Many of these donations have yet to be cataloged, but are currently in the process of being digitally preserved and made available to the public online.","Iⵂⵓⴾ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⴷⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ,ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ."
International partners for archives are UNESCO and Blue Shield International in accordance with the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property from 1954 and its 2nd Protocol from 1999.,"Iⵎⴰⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵔ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵙⴻⴼⴰO ⴰⴷ ⴱⵍⵓⴻ ⵙⵂⵉⴻⵍⴷ Iⵏⵜⴻⵔⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⴷⴰⵍ, ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵉⴻ ⵉⴻ ⵉⴶⵓⵣ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⴶⵓⵔ 1954 ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ 1999"
"""Page, Morgan M. """"One from the Vaults: Gossip, Access, and Trans History-Telling.""""""","ⴱⴰⴶⴻ, ⵎⵓⵔⴶⴰⵏ ⵎ. """" ⵓⵏⴻ ⴼⵔⵓⵎ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴱⴰⵓⵍⵜⵙ: ⵗⵓⵙⵙⵉⴱ, ⴰⴰⴰⴻⵙ, ⴰⵏⴷ ⵟⵔⴰⵏⵙ ⵂⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉ-ⵟⴻⵍⵍⵉⵏⴶ."""""
"An example of this is Morgan M. Page’s description of disseminating transgender history directly to trans people through various social media and networking platforms like tumblr, Twitter, and Instagram, as well as via podcast.","Iⵔⵉ ⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴶⴰⵏ ⵎ. ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵓⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵏⵙⵜ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⴱ ⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵣⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴱⵍⵔ, ⵟⵓⵉⴼⴻⵔ ⴰⴷ Iⵏⵙⵜⴰⴶⵔⴰⵎ, ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ"
"""With the options available through counter-archiving, there is the potential to """"challenge traditional conceptions of history"""" as they are perceived within contemporary archives, which creates space for narratives that are often not present in many archival materials.""","""ⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴰⴾⵓⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ """"ⴰⴷⵉⵙⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⵓⵓⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ""ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴻⵍ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ."""
"A biography, or simply bio, is a detailed description of a person's life.","ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ, ⵎⴻⵆ ⵈⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ, ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴰⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴼⵉⴱⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ."
"Biographical works are usually non-fiction, but fiction can also be used to portray a person's life.","ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴶⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵗⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵉⴼⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ."
"""Another well-known collection of ancient biographies is De vita Caesarum (""""On the Lives of the Caesars"""") by Suetonius, written about AD 121 in the time of the emperor Hadrian.""","""Iⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴹⴻ ⵗⵉⵜⴰ ⵙⴰⴻⵙⴰⵔⵓⵎ (""""ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵢⵙⴰⵔⵙ""""(ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵜⵓⵢⵜⵓⴻ, ⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 121 ⴰⴷ. ⵏⴰⴱⵉ Iⵙⵙⴰ, ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⴷⵔⵉⴻⵏ."""
"Hermits, monks, and priests used this historic period to write biographies.","ⵆⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵏⵜⴰ, ⴰⵎⴰⵗⵙⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵓⴾ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍⴻⵏ."
One significant secular example of a biography from this period is the life of Charlemagne by his courtier Einhard.,ⴰⵙⴰⴶⴱⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⴰⴶⵔⴰⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵔⵍⴰⵎⴰⴶⵏⴻ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⵉⵏⵂⴰⵔⴷ.
They contained more social data for a large segment of the population than other works of that period.,ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗ.
"By the late Middle Ages, biographies became less church-oriented in Europe as biographies of kings, knights, and tyrants began to appear.","ⵜⴰⵆ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⴶⴻ, ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴶⵉⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ, ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜⵉ."
"Following Malory, the new emphasis on humanism during the Renaissance promoted a focus on secular subjects, such as artists and poets, and encouraged writing in the vernacular.","ⵢⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵍⵓⵔⵉ, ⵓⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴻⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⴻⵆⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⴱⵓⵜⴰⵏ, ⵢⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓⵙⴾⵓ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⴷⴰⵆ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⴾⴰⵍ."
Two other developments are noteworthy: the development of the printing press in the 15th century and the gradual increase in literacy.,ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ : ⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴱⵔⵉⵎⴻⵔⵉⴻ ⴷⴰⵆ 15ⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⴰⵜ ⵏⴰ ⵙⴰⵆⵉⵔ.
"Influential in shaping popular conceptions of pirates, A General History of the Pyrates (1724), by Charles Johnson, is the prime source for the biographies of many well-known pirates.","Iⵂⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼoⵔⵎⴰⵜⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⴾⵉⵔⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰ ⵗⴻⵏⴻⵔⴰⵍ ⵂⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⴼ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵜⴻⵙ (1724), ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵍⴻⵙ ⵋoⵂⵏⵙⵓⵏ, ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵈⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⴾⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ."
Carlyle asserted that the lives of great human beings were essential to understanding society and its institutions.,ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵉⵍⴻ ⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⵉⵂⵉⵎⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴻⵙ.
"Boswell's work was unique in its level of research, which involved archival study, eye-witness accounts and interviews, its robust and attractive narrative, and its honest depiction of all aspects of Johnson's life and character – a formula which serves as the basis of biographical literature to this day.","ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵓⴻⵍⵍ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵆⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵆ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵆⴰⵔⴻ ⵏⵓⴰⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵋⵓⵂⴻ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵜⵓⵜⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵉⴶⵔⴰⵏⴰⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵆⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⵂⵏⵙⴰⵏ - ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⴾⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜo ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵆⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⴻ ⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔ ⴻⵛⴰⵍⵉⴷⴰⵗ."
"However, the number of biographies in print experienced a rapid growth, thanks to an expanding reading public.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ, ⵂⴰⴷⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵉ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵛⵉⴾ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴱⴰ ⵏəⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵆⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵂⵔⴰⵓ."
Periodicals began publishing a sequence of biographical sketches.,ⴰⵍⴰⵓⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴻⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵂⴻⴰⵜⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵜⴰⵏ.
"""Sociological"""" biographies conceived of their subjects' actions as the result of the environment, and tended to downplay individuality.""","ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⴻ ""ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ"" ⵙⴰⵎⴰⴾⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵓⵈ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵉⵉ ⵏⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗ."""
The conventional concept of heroes and narratives of success disappeared in the obsession with psychological explorations of personality.,ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵓⵂⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵂ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵛⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ.
"""Up until this point, as Strachey remarked in the preface, Victorian biographies had been """"as familiar as the cortège of the undertaker"""", and wore the same air of """"slow, funereal barbarism.""""""","ⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵛⵂⴻⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ, ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ """"ⵜⴻⵔⵓⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵆ ⴰⵆⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⴼⴰⵙⴰⵏ-ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏⵜ"""" ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ""ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴼⴻⵏ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵉ""."
"The book achieved worldwide fame due to its irreverent and witty style, its concise and factually accurate nature, and its artistic prose.","ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴻⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⴱⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵎⴰⵍⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵏⵉⴱⴰ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵏⵉⴰⵜ, ⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵍⴰⵈⴰ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⴷⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ, ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⵔ."
"""Robert Graves (I, Claudius, 1934) stood out among those following Strachey's model of """"debunking biographies.""""""","""ⵔⵓⴱⴻⵔⵜ ⵗⵔⴰⴱⴻⵙ (ⵍ, ⵛⵍⴰⵓⴷⵉⵓⵙ, 1934) ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵛⵂⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ """"ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵜⴰⵏ""""."
"By World War I, cheap hard-cover reprints had become popular.","ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴻⵎⵉⵉⵔⴻ ⵗⵓⴻⵔⵔⴻ ⵎⵓⵏⴷⵉⴰⵍⴻ, ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵉⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⴶⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ."
"Along with documentary biographical films, Hollywood produced numerous commercial films based on the lives of famous people.","ⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱⵏⴻⵏ, ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵓⵓⴷ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵏⴰⵏ."
"Unlike books and films, they often do not tell a chronological narrative: instead they are archives of many discrete media elements related to an individual person, including video clips, photographs, and text articles.","ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ, ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⴶⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⵏⴰ ⵏⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ : ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵉⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗ, ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⴷⴻⵓⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵂⴰⵜⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱⵏⴻⵏ."
"""General """"life writing"""" techniques are a subject of scholarly study.""","""ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴱⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ""ⴾⴰⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ"" ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵆⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ"
"""The information can come from """"oral history, personal narrative, biography and autobiography” or """"diaries, letters, memoranda and other materials"""".""","""ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴱⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ""ⴾⴰⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ"" ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴰ ⵜⴰⵆⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ"
"European-style castles originated in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes.","ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵍⵎⴰⵆⵏⴰ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ 9ⴻ ⴰⴷ 10ⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⴻ ⵛⴰⵔⵓⵍⵉⵏⴶⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⴰⴱ ⵉⴻ ⴱⵓⴷⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍⵉⵏⴻⵙ ⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ"
"Urban castles were used to control the local populace and important travel routes, and rural castles were often situated near features that were integral to life in the community, such as mills, fertile land, or a water source.","ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵆⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵉ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜəⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ əⵏⴼⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰoⵂⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴶⵏⵉⴾⴰⴶⵏⵉⴾⴰ, ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵉⵔⵋⴻⵏ ⵎⴻⵆ ⴰⵛⴰⵛⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"In the late 12th and early 13th centuries, a scientific approach to castle defence emerged.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ 12ⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ 13ⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⴰⵓⵂⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵎⴰⵆⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴶⵓⵣ ⵏⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ"
"These changes in defence have been attributed to a mixture of castle technology from the Crusades, such as concentric fortification, and inspiration from earlier defences, such as Roman forts.","ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵓⵜⵓⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵏ ⵏⵓⴶⵓⵣ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⵜ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵏⵓⴶⵓⵣ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵜ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ"
"Although gunpowder was introduced to Europe in the 14th century, it did not significantly affect castle building until the 15th century, when artillery became powerful enough to break through stone walls.","ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴻⵋⴻⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻⴷⴰⵗ 14ⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⵓⴰⵔⵜⵉⴶⵔⴻⵓ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ 15ⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴼⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⴱⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵂⵓⵏ"
"Feudalism was the link between a lord and his vassal where, in return for military service and the expectation of loyalty, the lord would grant the vassal land.","ⴼⴻⵓⴷⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎⵉⵉⴰ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⵎⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⵓⵔ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⵙⴾⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴶⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ, ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵂⴰⴾⵓ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵛⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ"
"Castles served a range of purposes, the most important of which were military, administrative, and domestic.","ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⵓⵉⵙ ⵓⵉⵓⴶⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵏⴰⵏ, ⴱⵓⵔⴰⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏⴻ."
"As William the Conqueror advanced through England, he fortified key positions to secure the land he had taken.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵉⵍⵍⴰⵓⵎⴻ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵛⵓⴰⵔ ⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⴶⵍⴻⵜⴻⵔⵔⴻ, ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵓⵂⵓⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵆⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴱⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴶⵓⵣ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ"
A castle could act as a stronghold and prison but was also a place where a knight or lord could entertain his peers.,ⴻⵏⵓ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⴰⴼⵓ ⵉⴻ ⵙⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵙⵓ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵓⵔ ⴻⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⴻⵆ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⵉⴶⵔⵉⵓ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏⴻⵙ.
"In different areas of the world, analogous structures shared features of fortification and other defining characteristics associated with the concept of a castle, though they originated in different periods and circumstances and experienced differing evolutions and influences.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏⴰ ⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ, ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⵆⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵆⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵆⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ, ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵙⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵣⵓⵆⴻⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏ"
"By the 16th century, when Japanese and European cultures met, fortification in Europe had moved beyond castles and relied on innovations such as the Italian trace italienne and star forts.","ⴻⵗ ⵆⵠIⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⴶⵉⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⴱⵓⵏⴰⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⵏⴻⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵈⵓⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷⵓⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ oⴾⴰⵉ ⴻⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴻⵏ ⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵜⵔⴰⵏ."
"The excavation of earth to make the mound left a ditch around the motte, called a moat (which could be either wet or dry).","ⴻⵗⴻⵛ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵆⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵉⵓ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⴰⵣ ⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ, ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵛⴰ ( ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴱⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵆ ⴰⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ)."
"It was a common feature of castles, and most had at least one.","ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⵆⴰ ⵜⴰoⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴾ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵉⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗ."
Water was supplied by a well or cistern.,ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵂⴰⴾⴻⵏ ⵙⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵆ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴼⵜ.
"Although often associated with the motte-and-bailey type of castle, baileys could also be found as independent defensive structures.","ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵛ-ⴰⴷ-ⴱⴰⵉⵍⴻⵉ, ⴱⴰⵉⵍⴻⵉⵙ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵆⵉⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⵓⴶⵓⵣ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ."
"""Keep"""" was not a term used in the medieval period – the term was applied from the 16th century onwards – instead """"donjon"""" was used to refer to great towers, or turris in Latin.""","ⴻⵓⵏⵋⵓⵏ"" ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵈⴻⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⴷⵉⴻⴱⴰⵍⴻ – ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 16ⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ, """"ⴷⵓⵏⵋⵓⵏ"""" ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴰⵉⵈⵉⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⴾⵓⵏⴰⵏ, ⵎⴻⵆ ⵜⵓⵔⵔⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ."""
"Although often the strongest part of a castle and a last place of refuge if the outer defences fell, the keep was not left empty in case of attack but was used as a residence by the lord who owned the castle, or his guests or representatives.","ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵏⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⴶⵉⵜ ⵏⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵏⴰⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵏⵓⴶⵓⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⴶⴰⵎⴰ, ⴷⵓⵏⵋⵓⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵈⴻⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴱⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ, ⵉⴻ ⵏⴰⴼⵜⴰⵆⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵆ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ."
"Walkways along the tops of the curtain walls allowed defenders to rain missiles on enemies below, and battlements gave them further protection.","ⴻⴰⴶⴻⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⴶⵔⵉⵜ ⵏⵉⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴶⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴱⵔⵓⵋⴻⵛⵜⵉⵍⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⵓⵏⴶⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⴻⵔ, ⴰⴷ ⵛⵔⴻⵏⴻⴰⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵣⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⴰ"
"The front of the gateway was a blind spot and to overcome this, projecting towers were added on each side of the gate in a style similar to that developed by the Romans.","ⴻⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵂⵉⵔ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵂⴻⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ, ⴻⴶⵉⵍⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵣⴰⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⴼⵉⵔⴷⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵂⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵉⵏ"
The passage through the gatehouse was lengthened to increase the amount of time an assailant had to spend under fire in a confined space and unable to retaliate.,ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⴰⵉⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⴰⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⴷ ⵏⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⴻ ⵎⴰⵆⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵂⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⵔⴰⴾⵉⵉ ⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⴼⴻⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⵆ
"They were most likely used to drop objects on attackers, or to allow water to be poured on fires to extinguish them.","ⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴶⵓⴷⴰⴾ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴶⵉ ⵏⴰⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵆⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵎⴻⵆ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⴷⴰⴱⴻⵏ ⵉⴰ ⵙⴰⴶⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴻⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵉⵏ."
A smaller horizontal opening could be added to give an archer a better view for aiming.,ⵙⵂⵉⵔ ⴰⵔⵉⴶⴰⵉⵔⴰⴶⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷoⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵉⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵙⴻⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⴾ ⵏⴻⵔⴻ ⵉⵜⵉⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵙⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂ
"The earliest fortifications originated in the Fertile Crescent, the Indus Valley, Egypt, and China where settlements were protected by large walls.","ⵓⵉⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏⴻ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵓⵂⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵉⵔⵋⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⴶⴰⵔⵜⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵓⵉ Iⵏⴷⵓⵙ, Eⴶⵉⴱⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴻⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⵓⵔ ⵎⵓⵣⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴰoⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ"
"Many earthworks survive today, along with evidence of palisades to accompany the ditches.","ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵛⴰⵍⵉⴷⴰⵗ, ⴷⴰⴷ ⴷⵔⵉⵛ ⵓⵏ ⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴻⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴰⵛⵉⵓⴻⵏ"
"Although primitive, they were often effective, and were only overcome by the extensive use of siege engines and other siege warfare techniques, such as at the Battle of Alesia.","ⴻⴰⵜ ⵆIIⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴹⴰⵏⴻⵎⴰⵔⴾ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴶⵍⴻⵜⴻⵔⵔⴻ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵈ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵎ"
"Discussions have typically attributed the rise of the castle to a reaction to attacks by Magyars, Muslims, and Vikings and a need for private defence.","ⴱⴰⵜⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏⴾⵉⵔ ⵏⴰ ⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⴶⵉⴰⵔⵙ, Iⵏⵉⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵠⵉⴾⵉⵏⴶⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵏⵓⴶⵓⵣ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ"
"Some high concentrations of castles occur in secure places, while some border regions had relatively few castles.","Iⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵓⴷⵓⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ əⵏⵜⵉⴼⵍⵉⵙⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜⵉⴻⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ"
Building the hall in stone did not necessarily make it immune to fire as it still had windows and a wooden door.,"ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵜⵉⵜⵉⴶⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵂⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵓⵉⵔ ⵉⴻ ⴰⴼⴻⵓ, ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵙⵂⵉⵔ ⵓⵏ ⵏⴰⵛⵆⴻⵔ"
Castles were not just defensive sites but also enhanced a lord's control over his lands.,"ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵈⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴶⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⴶⵓⵣⴰⵏ, ⴾⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴻ ⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴶⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
"In 864 the King of West Francia, Charles the Bald, prohibited the construction of castella without his permission and ordered them all to be destroyed.","ⴻⴰⵗ 864, ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ, ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵍⴻⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵓⴱⴻ, ⵉⴷⴶⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵙⵜⴻⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⴰⴷⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⵔⵣⵉⵏⵂⴻⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ"
"Switzerland is an extreme case of there being no state control over who built castles, and as a result there were 4,000 in the country.","ⵙⵓⵉⵙⵙⴻ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵣⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵔⵉⵜⵓⴶⵓ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵍⴰ 4 000"
"In 950 Provence was home to 12 castles, by 1000 this figure had risen to 30, and by 1030 it was over 100.","ⴻⴰⵗ 950, ⴱⵔⵓⴱⴻⵏⵛⴻ ⵙⴰⴷⴰⵏ 12 ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ 1000 ⴻⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ 30, ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ 1030 ⵓⴾⴰⵉ 100Dⴰɣ"
"In the early 11th century, the motte and keep – an artificial mound with a palisade and tower on top – was the most common form of castle in Europe, everywhere except Scandinavia.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ 11ⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⴼⴰⵔⴰⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵓⵏⵋⵓⵏ – ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵉⵔ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵆⵍⵉⵜ - ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⵣⵉⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ, ⴷⴰⵂⴰⵜⵉⴾⴻⴷ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵛⴰⵏⴷⵉⵏⴰvⴻⵜⴰⵏ"
"Although stone construction would later become common elsewhere, from the 11th century onwards it was the primary building material for Christian castles in Spain, while at the same time timber was still the dominant building material in north-west Europe.","ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵆ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵂⴰⵏ, ⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⴷ 11ⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⵓⵙⵓⵆⵉⵏ əⵏ ⵏⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵔⴻⵜⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ Eⵙⴱⴰⴶⵏⴻ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗ, ⵉⵛⴰⵆⴻⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵉⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏəⵙⵓⵙⵓⵆⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⴱⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ"
Before the 12th century castles were as uncommon in Denmark as they had been in England before the Norman Conquest.,"ⴻⴰⵜ ⵆIIⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴻⴰⵏⴻⵎⴰⵔⴾ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴶⵍⴻⵜⴻⵔⵔⴻ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵈ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏⴷⴻ"
"Their decoration emulated Romanesque architecture, and sometimes incorporated double windows similar to those found in church bell towers.",ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⴶ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⴶⴰⵛ ⵓⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵏⴾⵓⵔⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⴼⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵛⵍⵓⵛⵂⴻⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴻⴶⵍⵉⵙⴻⵜⴰⵏ
"Although superseded by their stone successors, timber and earthwork castles were by no means useless.","ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴶⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵂⵓⵏ, ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵆⴻⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵈⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ"
"Until the late 12th century castles generally had few towers; a gateway with few defensive features such as arrowslits or a portcullis; a great keep or donjon, usually square and without arrowslits; and the shape would have been dictated by the lay of the land (the result was often irregular or curvilinear structures).","ⵂⴰⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵆIIⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵆⵍⴰⵉ, ⵏⴰⵙⵂⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵏⵓⴶⵓⵣ ⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵓⴶⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵆ ⵂⴻⵔⵙⴻ, ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵏⵋⵓⵏ, ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴷ ⵉⵛⵓⴶⵓⵛⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ (ⵉⴷⵉⴶⵎⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⴻⵆ ⴰⵆⵉⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ)"
The towers would have protruded from the walls and featured arrowslits on each level to allow archers to target anyone nearing or at the curtain wall.,ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵆⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵛⵓⴶⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⴷⴰⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⴻⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⴼ ⴷǎⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵂⵉⵣⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵓⵉⵔ ⵎⴻⵆ ⵉⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⵂⴰ ⴷⵉⵍⴰⵏ
"Where keeps did exist, they were no longer square but polygonal or cylindrical.","ⴻⵉⵂⴰ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵏⵋⵓⵏ, ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵈⴻⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⴶⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⴻⵆ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴾⴱⴰⵜ"
"Probably developed in the 12th century, the towers provided flanking fire.","ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆIIⴻ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⵜəⵙⵉⵆⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⴷⴰⴾ"
It seemed that the Crusaders had learned much about fortification from their conflicts with the Saracens and exposure to Byzantine architecture.,ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵉⵎⵓⵈⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵔⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⴰⴶⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏⴻ
"Legends were discredited, and in the case of James of Saint George it was proven that he came from Saint-Georges-d'Espéranche, in France.","ⵍⴻⴶⴻⵏⴷⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵋⴰⵛⵈⵓⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜ-ⵗⴻⴰⵔⴶⴻⵙ, ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵉⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜ-ⵗⴻⵓⵔⴶⴻⵙ-ⴻⵙⴱⴻⵔⴰⵏⵛⵂⴻ, ⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ"
"""The castle builders of Western Europe were aware of and influenced by Roman design; late Roman coastal forts on the English """"Saxon Shore"""" were reused and in Spain the wall around the city of Ávila imitated Roman architecture when it was built in 1091.""","""ⴰⵎⵓⵆⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵔoⵎⴰⵉⵏⴻ ; ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵜⵉⴻⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵏⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ, ⴼⴰⵍ ""ⵙⴰⵆⵓⵏ ⵙⵂⵓⵔⴻ"" ⵏⴰⵏⴶⵍⴰⵉⵙ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴻⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵙⴱⴰⴶⵏⴻ, ⵉ ⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏⴰⵆⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⴶⴱⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ 1091"
An example of this approach is Kerak.,Uⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⵓⵂⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⴻⵔⴰⴾ
The castles they founded to secure their acquisitions were designed mostly by Syrian master-masons.,ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⴶⵉⵣ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⴶⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵉⴰⴷⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ-ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵆⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ
"While castles were used to hold a site and control movement of armies, in the Holy Land some key strategic positions were left unfortified.","Iⵣⴰⵔ ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴷⵓⴼ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴶⵉ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵎⵓⵜⵓⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵎⵉ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⴷⵉⴶⴰⵏ, ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⴱⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵈⴻⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⴰⵏ"
"Design varied not just between orders, but between individual castles, though it was common for those founded in this period to have concentric defences.","ⴰⵏⵓⵙⴶⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴰ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵙⴰ ⴷⴰⴶ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵓ ⵙⴰ ⵉⴰⵏ, ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵓⵏⴻⵏ"
If assailants made it past the first line of defence they would be caught in the killing ground between the inner and outer walls and have to assault the second wall.,"ⴰⴼⴰⵍ əⵎⴰⴾⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴱⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏⵓⴶⵓⵣ, ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵔ ⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ"
"For instance, it was common in Crusader castles to have the main gate in the side of a tower and for there to be two turns in the passageway, lengthening the time it took for someone to reach the outer enclosure.","ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ, ⴻⵈⴰⵍⴰⵛⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵂⵉⴻ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵂⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⵏⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵂⴰⴶⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵔⴰⵓⵉⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ"
"Although there were hundreds of wooden castles in Prussia and Livonia, the use of bricks and mortar was unknown in the region before the Crusaders.","ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ əⵏ ⵛⴰⵆⴻⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵓⵙⵙⴻ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⵉⴱⵓⵏⵉⴻ, ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵏⴷⴻ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ"
"Arrowslits did not compromise the wall's strength, but it was not until Edward I's programme of castle building that they were widely adopted in Europe.","ⴰⵎⵓⵂⵓⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵣⵉⵣⴶⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴶⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴻⴷⵓⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⵏⴱⴻ"
"Although machicolations performed the same purpose as the wooden galleries, they were probably an Eastern invention rather than an evolution of the wooden form.","ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⵂⵉⵛⵓⵓⵍⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵆⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵆⴻⵔⴰⵏ , ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵆⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵆ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵆⴻⵔⴰⵏ"
"Conflict and interaction between the two groups led to an exchange of architectural ideas, and Spanish Christians adopted the use of detached towers.","ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴶⴰⵔ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴶⵔⵓⵓⴱⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴻⵂⴰⴾⴻ ⵏⵉⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵔⴻⵜⵉⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵙⴱⴰⴶⵏⵓⵍ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⴻⵏ"
"""French historian François Gebelin wrote: """"The great revival in military architecture was led, as one would naturally expect, by the powerful kings and princes of the time; by the sons of William the Conqueror and their descendants, the Plantagenets, when they became dukes of Normandy.""","""ⴰⵓⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴰⵉⵙ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵓⵉⵙ ⵗⴻⴱⴻⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱ : """"ⵓⴰⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⴰⵉⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⴻⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵉⴶⵉⴷ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵉⵍⵍⴰⵓⵎⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⵈⵓⴻⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴱⵍⴰⵏ.ⵜⴰⴶⴻⵏⴻⵜⵙ, ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵛⵙ ⴷⴻ ⵏⵓⵜⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⴻ."""""
"The new castles were generally of a lighter build than earlier structures and presented few innovations, although strong sites were still created such as that of Raglan in Wales.","ⵓⵉⵉⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵙⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ əⴷ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴻⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵉ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵔⴰⴶⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵍⵍⴻⵙ."
"These guns were too heavy for a man to carry and fire, but if he supported the butt end and rested the muzzle on the edge of the gun port he could fire the weapon.","ⵆⴰⵏⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⵉⴰ ⴰⵔⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴰⵏⴶⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵂⴰⴱⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵉⴻ ⵛⵔoⵙⵙⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵏⴼⵓ ⴻⵎ ⴼⴰⵜ ⴻⴼⴰⴷⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⵓⵏ, ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⴶⵉ ⵏⴰⴼⴻⵓ"
"This adaptation is found across Europe, and although the timber rarely survives, there is an intact example at Castle Doornenburg in the Netherlands.","ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵂⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⴰⵆⴻⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵉⵏⵜⵉⵍⴰ, ⵉⵍⴻⵉ ⴰⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏⴱⵓⵔⴶ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ-ⴱⴰⵙ"
"Other types of port, though less common, were horizontal slits – allowing only lateral movement – and large square openings, which allowed greater movement.","ⵉⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⵜ, ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵓⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵔⵉⴶⴰⵉⵔⴰⴶⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ – ⵓⴰⵔⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵜⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ- ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉⵎⴰⴶoⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⵏⴻⵏⴻ, ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⴶⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ."
"Ham is an example of the trend for new castles to dispense with earlier features such as machicolations, tall towers, and crenellations.","ⵂⴰⵎ ⴻⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⵆⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⵂⵉⵛⵓⵓⵍⵉⵜⴰⵏ, ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵓⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⵉⵆⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵔⴻⵏⴻⴰⵓⵜⴰⵏ"
"In an effort to make them more effective, guns were made ever bigger, although this hampered their ability to reach remote castles.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓⵛⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ, ⵛⴰⵏⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴾ ⵜəⵎⵆⵉⵔⴻ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵍ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ oⴶⵉⴶⵏⴻⵏ"
"While this sufficed for new castles, pre-existing structures had to find a way to cope with being battered by cannon.","ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴶⴷⵂⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵉⵂⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⴷⵉⴶⵔⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵏⵉⴶⵉ əⵏⴷⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⵓⵏ"
A solution to this was to pull down the top of a tower and to fill the lower part with the rubble to provide a surface for the guns to fire from.,ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⵜⴻⵏⴰⵆⴻ ⵏⴻⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵆⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵔ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴶⵔⴰvⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵏⵉⴶⵉ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵓⵔ ⴾⴰⵏⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴻⵓⴻⵜ
"From this evolved star forts, also known as trace italienne.",ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⴰ
The second choice proved to be more popular as it became apparent that there was little point in trying to make the site genuinely defensible in the face of cannon.,ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⵛ-ⴰⴾ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵗⵍⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⵓⵢⵜⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵔⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ
Some true castles were built in the Americas by the Spanish and French colonies.,ⵙⴰⵜo ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵏⵙ ⵢⴷ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ
"Among other defensive structures (including forts and citadels), castles were also built in New France towards the end of the 17th century.","ⴷⴰⵗⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴷ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⴷⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ) , ⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1700."
"The manor house and stables were within a fortified bailey, with a tall round turret in each corner.",ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵓⵔ ⵢⴷ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⵙⵉⴾ ⵉⵋⵉⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴼⵓⴾ
"Although castle construction faded towards the end of the 16th century, castles did not necessarily all fall out of use.","ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵉⵍⴰⵛⵂ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1600 , ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ"
In other cases they still had a role in defence.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ
"In later conflicts, such as the English Civil War (1641–1651), many castles were refortified, although subsequently slighted to prevent them from being used again.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ (1641-1651) ⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵔⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵓⴷⵉ
"Revival or mock castles became popular as a manifestation of a Romantic interest in the Middle Ages and chivalry, and as part of the broader Gothic Revival in architecture.",ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵆⵉⵔ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴶⵓⵜⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ
This was because to be faithful to medieval design would have left the houses cold and dark by contemporary standards.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⵢⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⴶⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⴻⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵓⴶⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵂⴰ
"Follies were similar, although they differed from artificial ruins in that they were not part of a planned landscape, but rather seemed to have no reason for being built.",ⴰⵎⴰⴾⵓ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⴰⵛⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵜⴰⵗⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴷⴻⵉ.
"A castle with earthen ramparts, a motte, timber defences and buildings could have been constructed by an unskilled workforce.","ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⴼⵏⵢⵏ, ⵢⴶⴰⵎ, ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵂⵉⵙⴾⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵢ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ"
The cost of building a castle varied according to factors such as their complexity and transport costs for material.,ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⴰⵋ
"In the middle were castles such as Orford, which was built in the late 12th century for UK£1,400, and at the upper end were those such as Dover, which cost about UK£7,000 between 1181 and 1191.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ Oⵓⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 12 ⵏ ⴻⴼⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⵉ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ 1,400 £ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⵓⴱⴻⵔ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1181 ⴻⴷ 1191 ⵙ 7,000 £ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ"
"The cost of a large castle built over this time (anywhere from UK£1,000 to UK£10,000) would take the income from several manors, severely impacting a lord's finances.","ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ( ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵗⵓⵔ 1,000 £ ⵂⴰⵔ £10,000 ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ) ⴻⵔⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ"
"Medieval machines and inventions, such as the treadwheel crane, became indispensable during construction, and techniques of building wooden scaffolding were improved upon from Antiquity.","ⵎⴰⵔⵛⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⵓⴾⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⴾⵢⵔⵜⴾⴻⵔⵜ, ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵢⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ, ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵂⵉⵛⴾ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ."
"Many countries had both timber and stone castles, however Denmark had few quarries and as a result most of its castles are earth and timber affairs, or later on built from brick.",ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⴷⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴹⴰⵏⵢⵎⴰⵔⴾ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵉⴼⴰⵔⵜ
"For example, when Tattershall Castle was built between 1430 and 1450, there was plenty of stone available nearby, but the owner, Lord Cromwell, chose to use brick.","Iⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵜⵜⵢⵔⵙⵂⴰⵍⵍ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1430 ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1450, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⴷⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙ ⵍⵓⵔⴷ ⵛⵔⵓⵎⵓⵢⵍⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵍⴱⵉⵍⵗⴰⵏ"
"He relied on the support of those below him, as without the support of his more powerful tenants a lord could expect his power to be undermined.",ⵉⴶⴷⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵉⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴰ
"This especially applied to royalty, who sometimes owned land in different countries.",ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵔⴰⵛ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ
"Royal households took essentially the same form as baronial households, although on a much larger scale and the positions were more prestigious.",ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵆⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵆⵉⴰⵎⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ
As social centres castles were important places for display.,Iⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ
"Castles have been compared with cathedrals as objects of architectural pride, and some castles incorporated gardens as ornamental features.",ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴾⴰⵜⵢⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ
Courtly love was the eroticisation of love between the nobility.,ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵉⵙ ⵉ ⴰⴱⴰⴾⴰⴷ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵂⴰ
The legend of Tristan and Iseult is one example of stories of courtly love told in the Middle Ages.,ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵟⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ Iⵙⵢⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ.
The purpose of marriage between the medieval elites was to secure land.,Iⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⴰ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
"This derives from the image of the castle as a martial institution, but most castles in England, France, Ireland, and Scotland were never involved in conflicts or sieges, so the domestic life is a neglected facet.","ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⴻⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ, Iⵔⴻⵍⴰⵏⴷ, Eⵛⵓⵙⵙⴻ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵔⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍ"
"For instance many castles are located near Roman roads, which remained important transport routes in the Middle Ages, or could lead to the alteration or creation of new road systems in the area.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰ ⴷⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵢⵏ.
"Urban castles were particularly important in controlling centres of population and production, especially with an invading force, for instance in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century the majority of royal castles were built in or near towns.","ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵣ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵉⵔⵛⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1100, Iⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ"
"Rural castles were often associated with mills and field systems due to their role in managing the lord's estate, which gave them greater influence over resources.",ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⴼⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵔⴼⵉⵜⵢⵏ
"Not only were they practical in that they ensured a water supply and fresh fish, but they were a status symbol as they were expensive to build and maintain.",ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵛ-ⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⵔⵓⵙ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
The benefits of castle building on settlements was not confined to Europe.,ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴱⴷⵢⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ Eⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵗⴰⵙ
"Settlements could also grow naturally around a castle, rather than being planned, due to the benefits of proximity to an economic centre in a rural landscape and the safety given by the defences.",ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵓⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵎⵓ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⵋ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⴼⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ
"They were usually located near any existing town defences, such as Roman walls, although this sometimes resulted in the demolition of structures occupying the desired site.",ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ Iⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ
"When the Normans invaded Ireland, Scotland, and Wales in the 11th and 12th centuries, settlement in those countries was predominantly non-urban, and the foundation of towns was often linked with the creation of a castle.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ Iⵔⴻⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵢⵛⵓⵙⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵍⵢⵙ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1100 ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1200 , ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ oⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴻⵏⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⵢⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵜⵓ"
"This signified a close relationship between feudal lords and the Church, one of the most important institutions of medieval society.",ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴰ
"Another example is that of the 14th-century Bodiam Castle, also in England; although it appears to be a state of the art, advanced castle it is in a site of little strategic importance, and the moat was shallow and more likely intended to make the site appear impressive than as a defence against mining.","ⵉⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴷⵉⴰⵎ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ 1400 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ, ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ, ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵛⴰⵋⵔⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵗⵢⵛ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰ ⵂⵓⵙⴾⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵓⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ."
Garrisons were expensive and as a result often small unless the castle was important.,ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵓⴶⴰⵣⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴷⵉⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ
"In 1403, a force of 37 archers successfully defended Caernarfon Castle against two assaults by Owain Glyndŵr's allies during a long siege, demonstrating that a small force could be effective.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1403, 37 ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵢⵔⵏⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ Oⵓⴰⵉⵏ ⵗⵍⵉⵏⴷⵓⵔ'ⵙ ⴰ ⴻⵂⵓⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⴷⵉⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ"
Under him would have been knights who by benefit of their military training would have acted as a type of officer class.,ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵉⴱⵉⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎoⵉⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⵛⴰⵎ
"It was more efficient to starve the garrison out than to assault it, particularly for the most heavily defended sites.",ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵋⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵣ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⵉⵣ
"A long siege could slow down the army, allowing help to come or for the enemy to prepare a larger force for later.",ⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵂⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⵉⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵓ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⴻⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉ ⵢⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏⴶⴰⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ
"If forced to assault a castle, there were many options available to the attackers.","ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⴰⵜⵓ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ"
"The trebuchet, which probably evolved from the petraria in the 13th century, was the most effective siege weapon before the development of cannons.","ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⴱⵢⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⴰ ⴰ ⴷⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1300, ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵔⵓⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵢⵔ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵔⵓⴷⴰⵏ"
Ballistas or springalds were siege engines that worked on the same principles as crossbows.,ⴱⴰⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵙⴱⵔⵉⵏⴶⴰⵍⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵏⴶⴰⵉ
They were more commonly used against the garrison rather than the buildings of a castle.,ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵓⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ
"A mine leading to the wall would be dug and once the target had been reached, the wooden supports preventing the tunnel from collapsing would be burned.","ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵎ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵢⵗⵢⵛⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ , ⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⵉⵛ ⴻⴼⵢⵓ ⴰⵂⵉⵛⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴶⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵜ"
"A counter-mine could be dug towards the besiegers' tunnel; assuming the two converged, this would result in underground hand-to-hand combat.","ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵗⵢⵛ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙⴰⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵈⵢⵙⵜ, ⴰ ⴷⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵓ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ"
"They were used to force open the castle gates, although they were sometimes used against walls with less effect.","ⵆⴰⵍⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⵢⴷ ⵜ ⵉⵓ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ."
"A safer option for those assaulting a castle was to use a siege tower, sometimes called a belfry.",ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⵢⵔ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⵜⵓ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴻⵍⴼⵔⵉ
"The estates of the realm, or three estates, were the broad orders of social hierarchy used in Christendom (Christian Europe) from the Middle Ages to early modern Europe.","ⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ,ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴶⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ Iⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔⵉ (Iⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ) ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ."
"The monarchy included the king and the queen, while the system was made up of clergy (the First Estate), nobles (Second Estate), peasants and bourgeoisie (Third Estate).","ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵢⵂⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ ⴾⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ( ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ), ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵂⴰ (ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ) ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵈⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ (ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ)"
"""In England, a two-estate system evolved that combined nobility and clergy into one lordly estate with """"commons"""" as the second estate.""","“ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵂⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴾⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵓⵉⵜⵂ “ⵛⵓⵎⵎoⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ” ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ”"
"""In Scotland, the Three Estates were the Clergy (First Estate), Nobility (Second Estate), and Shire Commissioners, or """"burghers"""" (Third Estate), representing the bourgeois, middle class, and lower class.""","“ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ Eⵛⵓⵙⵙⵢ, ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵈⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ( ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ), ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵂⴰ ( ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ), ⵉⴷ ⴾⵓⵎⵉⵙⴻⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵓⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ““ⴱⵓⵔⴶⵂⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ”” (ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ) ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵛⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ”"
"Since clergy could not marry, such mobility was theoretically limited to one generation.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ , ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⵔⵓⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵓⴾⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵓⵍⵉⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ"
"Huizinga The Waning of the Middle Ages (1919, 1924:47).","ⵂⵓⵉⵣⵉⵏⴶⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ (1919, 1924:47)."
Commoners were universally considered the lowest order.,ⴾⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
In many regions and realms there also existed population groups born outside these specifically defined resident estates.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵆⵍⴰⵈ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵔⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ
"The economic and political transformation of the countryside in the period were filled by a large growth in population, agricultural production, technological innovations and urban centers; movements of reform and renewal attempted to sharpen the distinction between clerical and lay status, and power, recognized by the Church also had their effect.","ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ, ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵋⵋⴰⵙⵜ, ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ; ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴶⵂⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵈⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵋⵓⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵔⴷⴰ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ"
"The second order, those who fight, was the rank of the politically powerful, ambitious, and dangerous.","ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ, ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴾⴾⵓⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ , ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ"
"In addition, the First and Second Estates relied on the labour of the Third, which made the latter's inferior status all the more glaring.","ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ, ⵎⵉⵙⵙⴰⵓⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⵢⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ"
Most were born within this group and also died as a part of it.,ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵂⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ.
"In May 1776, finance minister Turgot was dismissed, after failing to enact reforms.","ⵢⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵣⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1776, ⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵟⵓⵔⴶⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⴾⴾⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴻⴶⵓ ⴻⵋⵓⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰ"
"When he could not persuade them to rubber-stamp his 'ideal program', Louis XVI sought to dissolve the Estates-General, but the Third Estate held out for their right to representation.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵙⵙⴰⵔⴷⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ “ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵜⴰⵙ”, ⵍⵓⵓⵉⵙ ⵆⴱI ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢ-ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⵉⵛⴰⵏ"
"Because the Parliament of Scotland was unicameral, all members sat in the same chamber, as opposed to the separate English House of Lords and House of Commons.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵎⴱⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⵙⵙⵢ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵉⴶⵂⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵎⴱⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ."
"""As in England, the Parliament of Ireland evolved out of the Magnum Concilium """"great council"""" summoned by the chief governor of Ireland, attended by the council (curia regis), magnates (feudal lords), and prelates (bishops and abbots).""","""Iⵛⵎⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵎⴱⵍⵢⵜⴰⵏ Iⵔⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴾⴰⵛ ⵉⵏ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴶⵏⵓⵎ ⵛⵓⵏⵛⵉⵍⵉⵓⵎ ““ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ”” ⵉⵙⴰⵉⵗⵉⵎ ⵗⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ Iⵔⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴾⵓⵎⵙⵢⵉ (ⵛⵓⵔⵉⴰ ⵔⵢⴶⵉⵙ), ⵎⴰⴶⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ (ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ), ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ (ⴱⵓⵎⴱⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ)."""
"In 1297, counties were first represented by elected knights of the shire (sheriffs had previously represented them).","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1297, ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵉⴱⴰⵋⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ “ⵙⵂⴻⵔⵉⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ)"
"Each were free men, and had specific rights and responsibilities, and the right to send representatives to the Riksdag of the Estates.",Iⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵍⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⵓⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵔⵉⵆⵙⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ
"Prior to the 18th century, the King had the right to cast a deciding vote if the Estates were split evenly.","ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800, ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴾⵉⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵜ"
"However, after the Diet of Porvoo, the Diet of Finland was reconvened only in 1863.","ⵂⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵢⵉⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⴱⵓⵓ , ⴹⵉⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴷⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1863"
"Around 1400, letters patent were introduced, in 1561 the ranks of Count and Baron were added, and in 1625 the House of Nobility was codified as the First Estate of the land.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1400, ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ, ⵗⵓⵔ 1561 ⵔⴰⵏⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1625 ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
Heads of the noble houses were hereditary members of the assembly of nobles.,"ⴰⵊⵍ ⵜⵢⴾⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵗⵏⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵢⴷⵜⵢⴴⵓⵔⵙⴰⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ,ⴰⴹⴾⵓⴹ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏ ⴷⵗ ⵢⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵜⴰⴷⵗ ⵢⵣⵍⵢ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⵌ geoid"
This resulted in great political influence for the higher nobility.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ Iⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ
"In later centuries, the estate included teachers of universities and certain state schools.","ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵊⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ GPS ⵜⵏ,ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵍⵓⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ,ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵜ ⵉⴾⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴹⴾⵓⴹ ⵏ ⴰⵌⵓⴾ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴷⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵣⵓⴷ"
"Trade was allowed only in the cities when the mercantilistic ideology had got the upper hand, and the burghers had the exclusive right to conduct commerce within the framework of guilds.",ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴱⵓⵔⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ
"In order for a settlement to become a city, a royal charter granting market right was required, and foreign trade required royally chartered staple port rights.","ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ , ⴰⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵛ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"Since most of the population were independent farmer families until the 19th century, not serfs nor villeins, there is a remarkable difference in tradition compared to other European countries.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⴶⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⴻⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⵓⴰⴷⴷⴻⵏ ⵙⵢⵔⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ vⵉⵍⵍⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍ ⵋⴰⵔ ⵢⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ."
Their representatives to the Diet were elected indirectly: each municipality sent electors to elect the representative of an electoral district.,"Iⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴾⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ , ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵙⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵓⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵓⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ."
They had no political rights and could not vote.,ⵗⵢⵓⵉⴷ ⵢⵈⵍ ⵔⵓⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴷⴴ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰ ⵎⴷⴰⵏⴰⵏ
"In Sweden, the Riksdag of the Estates existed until it was replaced with a bicameral Riksdag in 1866, which gave political rights to anyone with a certain income or property.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵢⴷ , ⵔⵉⴾⵙⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵔⵉⴾⵙⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1866 ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵔⴰⵛ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ"
"In Finland, this legal division existed until 1906, still drawing on the Swedish constitution of 1772.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1906 ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⵓⵏⵙⵜⵉⵜⵓⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1772"
"Furthermore, the industrial workers living in the city were not represented by the four-estate system.",ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵗⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵂⵔⴾⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵢⴾⴰⵜⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵛⴴⵔⵢⵜ
Later in the 15th and 16th centuries Brussels became the place where the States General assembled.,ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1500 ⵉⴷ 1600 ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴻⵍⵋⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵉⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⵗⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ
"As a consequence of the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and the events that followed afterwards, the States General declared that they no longer obeyed King Philip II of Spain, who was also overlord of the Netherlands.","ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⴻⵛⵂⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1579 ⵉⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ, ⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ 2 ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ-ⴱⴰⵙ"
It was the level of government where all things were dealt with that were of concern to all the seven provinces that became part of the Republic of the United Netherlands.,ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ-ⴱⴰⵙ
"In the Southern Netherlands, the last meetings of the States General loyal to the Habsburgs took place in the Estates General of 1600 and the Estates General of 1632.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ-ⴱⴰⵙ, ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵉⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵚⵜⴰⵜⴻⵙ ⵗⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵂⴰⴱⵙⴱⵓⵔⴶⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ- ⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1600 ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1632 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵙⵜⴰⵜⴻ ⵗⴻⵏⴻⵔⴰⵍ"
"It no longer consisted of representatives of the States, let alone the Estates: all men were considered equal under the 1798 Constitution.","Iⴱⴰⵙ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ , Iⵏⵙⵛⵔⵉⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵢⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ: ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ 1798"
"In 1815, when the Netherlands were united with Belgium and Luxemburg, the States General were divided into two chambers: the First Chamber and the Second Chamber.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1815, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ-ⴱⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴻⵍⴶⵉⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵍⵓⵆⵢⵎⴱⵓⵔⴶ, ⵚⵜⴰⵜⴻ ⵗⴻⵏⴻⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜⵢⵏ: ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ."
"From 1848 on, the Dutch Constitution provides that members of the Second Chamber be elected by the people (at first only by a limited portion of the male population; universal male and female suffrage exists since 1919), while the members of the First Chamber are chosen by the members of the States Provincial.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1848, ⴰⵛⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴻⴰⵏⴻⵎⴰⵔⴾ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵓⵜ ( ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⴷⴰⵏ , ⵓⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1919) ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ."
"The clergy was represented by the independent prince-bishops, prince-archbishops and prince-abbots of the many monasteries.",Iⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵈⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴱⵓⵎⴱⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"Many peoples whose territories within the Holy Roman Empire had been independent for centuries had no representatives in the Imperial Diet, and this included the Imperial Knights and independent villages.",ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵓⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵉⴱⵉⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵍⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⴻⵆⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"The four major estates were: nobility (dvoryanstvo), clergy, rural dwellers, and urban dwellers, with a more detailed stratification therein.","Iⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴾoⵣ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ: Iⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵂⴰ (ⴷⴱⴱⵓⵉⴰⵏⵙⵜⴱⵓ), ⵈⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ, ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⵢⵔⴰⵜ"
"The bourgeoisie in its original sense is intimately linked to the existence of cities, recognized as such by their urban charters (e.g., municipal charters, town privileges, German town law), so there was no bourgeoisie apart from the citizenry of the cities.","ⴱⵓⵔⵋⵓⴰⵣⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴷⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⴷⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ (ⵉⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ,ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⴷⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵉ, ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ , ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ) ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴱⵓⵔⵋⵓⴰⵣⵉ ⵜⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ"
"""Historically, the medieval French word bourgeois denoted the inhabitants of the bourgs (walled market-towns), the craftsmen, artisans, merchants, and others, who constituted """"the bourgeoisie"""".""","“”ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ, ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵋⴰⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⵢⵓⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶ ( ⵉⴶⵂⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵂⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ) ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ,ⴾⵢⵍ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⵉⵏ “”ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⵢⵓⵉⵙⵉ””"
"Guilds arose when individual businessmen (such as craftsmen, artisans and merchants) conflicted with their rent-seeking feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed.",ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵔⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵛⵂⴰⵉ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴼⵓⴾ (ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ) ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ
They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations.,ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵛ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⴻⵓⵉⵙ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ
"The names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the region's history.",Iⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴶⵉⴷⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⴹⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
"These people nevertheless live lavishly, enjoying the company of the great artists of the time.",ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ
"In the French language, the term bourgeoisie almost designates a caste by itself, even though social mobility into this socio-economic group is possible.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵜ , ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⴻⵓⵉⵙⵉⴻ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴾⵓⴷ ⴻⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ"
"Hitler distrusted capitalism for being unreliable due to its egotism, and he preferred a state-directed economy that is subordinated to the interests of the Volk.",ⵂⵉⵍⵜⵢⵔ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵉ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ
"""Hitler also said that the business bourgeoisie """"know nothing except their profit. '""",“ⵂⵉⵍⵜⴻⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⴻⵓⵉⵙⵉⴻ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵉⵣⵏⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ““ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵏⴰⵏ ⴶⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴾⴰⵔⵔⴰⵛⴰⵏ””
The utility of these things was inherent in their practical functions.,ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⴶⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ
"Belle de Jour (Beauty of the day, 1967) tells the story of a bourgeois wife who is bored with her marriage and decides to prostitute herself.","ⴱⴻⵍⵍⴻ ⴷⴻ ⵋⵓⵓⵔ ( ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ, ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1967) ⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴻⴶⵓⵉⵙ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⴾⴰⵆⴱⴰⵜ"
"In Europe, the title of Emperor has been used since the Middle Ages, considered in those times equal or almost equal in dignity to that of Pope due to the latter's position as visible head of the Church and spiritual leader of the Catholic part of Western Europe.","ⴷⴰⵂ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵔ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵋⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⴷⴰ ⵓⴶⵂ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⴻ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ"
"In as much as there is a strict definition of emperor, it is that an emperor has no relations implying the superiority of any other ruler and typically rules over more than one nation.","ⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⴷⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵓⵔ, ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰ ⵓⵙⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏoⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵆⴾⴰⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰ oⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ."
"Their status was officially recognised by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1514, although not officially used by the Russian monarchs until 1547.","ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵆⵉⴰⵣ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵢⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1514, ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⴶⵂ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⴷⵋⵢⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ 1547"
"Such pre-Roman titles as Great King or King of Kings, used by the Kings of Persia and others, are often considered as the equivalent.",Iⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵔⵓⵓⵎⴰ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ
Empire became identified instead with vast territorial holdings rather than the title of its ruler by the mid-18th century.,ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⴻ ⴻⵛⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⴻⵏ ⴶⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800
"""Ancient Romans abhorred the name Rex (""""king""""), and it was critical to the political order to maintain the forms and pretenses of republican rule.""",“ⵆⴻⵍ ⵔ ⵓⵎⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴻⵆ (““ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ””) ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⵢⴶⵂ ⵉ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⴶⵂⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ
"Augustus, considered the first Roman emperor, established his hegemony by collecting on himself offices, titles, and honours of Republican Rome that had traditionally been distributed to different people, concentrating what had been distributed power in one man.","ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜⵓⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⴻⵔⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ, ⵉⴷ ⵙⴻⵎⴶⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ , ⵉⴷⵓⴼ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ"
"""However, it was the informal descriptive of Imperator (""""commander"""") that became the title increasingly favored by his successors.""","ⴷⴰⴶⵂ,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵋⴻⵏⴻⵔⴰⵍ (“”ⴾⵓⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰ””) ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴾⴾⵓⵙⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ”"
This is one of the most enduring titles: Caesar and its transliterations appeared in every year from the time of Caesar Augustus to Tsar Simeon II of Bulgaria's removal from the throne in 1946.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ: ⵛⴰⵢⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵏ ⵛⴰⴻⵙⴰⵔ Aⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜⵓⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵙⴰⵔ ⵙⵉⵎⴻⵓⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ 2 ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⴾⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⴶⴰⵔⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵆⵉⴰⵎⵜ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1946
"Exceptions include the title of the Augustan History, a semi-historical collection of Emperors' biographies of the 2nd and 3rd century.",ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴻⵎⴱⴻⵔⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2 ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 3.
"Few were however granted the title, and it was certainly not a rule that all wives of reigning Emperors would receive it.","ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⵛ-ⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⴻⴶⵂⴰ ⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴻⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵆⴾⴰ,ⴻⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵔⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ"
"In the late Republic, as in the early years of the new monarchy, Imperator was a title granted to Roman generals by their troops and the Roman Senate after a great victory, roughly comparable to field marshal (head or commander of the entire army).","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵔⴻⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⴾ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⴰⵜ, ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ , ⴾⵓⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴾⴰⵔⵔⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵋⴻⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵎⴱⵍ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ, ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵢⵛⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⴰⵍⴰ (ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⴾⵓⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ)"
"The succeeding Nervan-Antonian Dynasty, ruling for most of the 2nd century, stabilised the Empire.","ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵔⴱⴰⵏ-ⴰⵏⵜⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴻⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⴶⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ."
"Three short lived secessionist attempts had their own emperors: the Gallic Empire, the Britannic Empire, and the Palmyrene Empire though the latter used rex more regularly.","Iⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵋ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ: ⵗⴰⵍⵍⵉⵛ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⴻ, ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵉ ⴱⴰⵍⵎⵉⵔⵢⵏⵢ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵗⴰⵔⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⵆ"
"At one point, there were as many as five sharers of the imperium (see: Tetrarchy).","ⴷⴰⵂ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⵏⵢⵏ Iⵎⴱⵢⵔⵉⵓⵎ (ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷ: ⵟⴻⵜⵔⴰⵛⵂⵉ)"
The city is more commonly called Constantinople and is today named Istanbul).,ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⵂⵉⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵢ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ Iⵙⵜⴰⵏⴱⵓⵍ)
"""These Later Roman """"Byzantine"""" Emperors completed the transition from the idea of the Emperor as a semi-republican official to the Emperor as an absolute monarch.""",“ⵆⵢⵍ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ Iⵎⵉⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⵏ ““ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ”” ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵔⴻⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⴾ ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ”.
"""Byzantine period emperors also used the Greek word """"autokrator"""", meaning """"one who rules himself"""", or """"monarch"""", which was traditionally used by Greek writers to translate the Latin dictator.""",“ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵎⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ “”ⴰⵓⵜⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵓⵔ”” ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ “”ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵆⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ”” ⵎⵢⴶⵂ “”ⵎⵓⵏⴰⵔⴾ”” ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵙ ⴶⵂⴰⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵢⵉⴾⵜⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ””
"In fact, none of these (and other) additional epithets and titles had ever been completely discarded.","ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⵉⵉⵉⴻⴷ) ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴾⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴻⵜ."
"""Following the tragedy of the horrific sacking of the city, the conquerors declared a new """"Empire of Romania"""", known to historians as the Latin Empire of Constantinople, installing Baldwin IX, Count of Flanders, as Emperor.""","“” ⵢⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⴶⵂⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴻⵎⵢⵍ ⵏ “”ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵕoⵎⴰⵏⵉⴰ”” ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵔⵔⵉⵎ ⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ Lⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ Eⵎⴱⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⴻ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵆⴾⴰⵎ ⵢⵔⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵍⴷⵓⵉⵏ Iⵆ ⵏ ⴼⵍⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔⵙ””"
"From the time of Otto the Great onward, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia became the Holy Roman Empire.",ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⵓⵍⵉⵏⴶⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⴰⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵓⵉⵍⵉⵜ
This junior King then bore the title of Roman King (King of the Romans).,ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵓⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ( ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ)
The Holy Roman Emperor was considered the first among those in power.,ⴻⵎⴱⵓⵔⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ
Geography is often defined in terms of two branches: human geography and physical geography.,ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴶⵂⵏⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴶⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵓⵏ: ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
"Traditionally, geography has been associated with cartography and place names.",ⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵓⵆ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⴷⵓ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ
"Because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⴷⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵓⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ, ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵆⴰⵜ, ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⴻⵋ,ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵓⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵓⵏ"
"The former largely focuses on the built environment and how humans create, view, manage, and influence space.","ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵓⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ, ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
"It requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, like the ways that human societies conceptualize the environment.",ⵜⴰⵛⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
The study of systems larger than the Earth itself usually forms part of Astronomy or Cosmology.,ⵜⴻⴶⵂⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴻⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴶⵂⴰⵔⴻ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵈ ⵉⴷ ⵈⵓⵏⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
"Regional science: In the 1950s, the regional science movement led by Walter Isard arose to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the descriptive tendencies of traditional geography programs.","ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ: ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1950, ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔ Wⴰⵍⵜⵔ Iⵙⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵓⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵉⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⵂⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.,ⴰⵙⵉⴾⴾⵉⵔⴷⵉ ⵉⵓ-ⵉⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴻⴾⵏⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ
"In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗIⵙ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⵢⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ
"Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields, including hydrology, geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis, urban planning, logistics, and epidemiology.","ⴰⵍⵆⵉⵙⴰⴱ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵆⴷⵓⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴻⵂⴰ ⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵜⵔⵓⵍ , ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵈⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
"""The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu, and several cities, in turn surrounded by a """"bitter river"""" (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star.""","“ⵆⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵢⵛⴾⵂⴰⵔⴷ ⵓⵏⴶⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⴾⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵓⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵓⴱⵂⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵍⴰⵉⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵍⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴰ , ⵓⵔⴰⵔⵜⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵂⵍⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ “ⵢⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰⵏ” ( Oⵛⵢⴰⵏⵓⵙ) ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵋⵉⵍⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵜⵔⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵓⴰⵏ”"
"In contrast to the Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.","ⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ Iⵎⴰⴶⵓ ⵎⵓⵏⴷⵉ, ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 900 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⴶⵂⵉⵙⴰ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵛ-ⴰⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ"
Thales is also credited with the prediction of eclipses.,ⵜⵂⴰⵍⵢⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⴶⵂⵔⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵎⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ
"There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in shape, with the credit going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras.","Iⵍⵢ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵉⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵓⵢⵏ ,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵋⴰⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵎⵢⵏⵉⴷⴻⵙ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⴱⵉⵜⵂⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ"
One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by Eratosthenes.,Iⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⵓⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵉ ⵢⵔⴰⵜⵓⵙⵜⵂⵓⵏⵓⵙ
"The meridians were sub-divided into 360°, with each degree further subdivided into 60 (minutes).",ⵎⵉⴻⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ 360 ⵏ ⴷⵢⴶⵔ ⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⴷⵢⴶⵔⵢ ⴷⵢⴶⵂ ⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵙ 60 ⵏ (ⵎⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ)
"He extended the work of Hipparchus, using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 miles for a degree.",Iⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⴱⴱⵓⵔⵛⵂⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵉⵉⴰⵋ ⴼⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⴶⵂⵓⴰⴷ 56.5 ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴾⵉⵍⵓⵎⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵉ ⴷⵢⴶⵔⴻ
"During the Middle Ages, the fall of the Roman empire led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the Islamic world.","ⵢⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ, ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵎⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ"
"Further, Islamic scholars translated and interpreted the earlier works of the Romans and the Greeks and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for this purpose.","ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ , ⵉⵎⴰⴶⵂⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵉⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ,ⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴾⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⴶⴷⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ"
Abu Rayhan Biruni (976–1048) first described a polar equi-azimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere.,ⴰⴱⵓ ⵔⴰⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵓⵏⵉ (ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 976 ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ 1048) ⵉⵍⵍⴰⴶⵗⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ oⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⵉⵔⵓⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ
"He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of the valleys, and expanse of the horizon.","Iⵛⴰⵏⵏⴰⵛⵋⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⴻⴾⵏⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵗⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
The problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location.,ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵜⴰⴾⵛⵉⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴷⵢⴶⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ
"The 18th and the 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic discipline, and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin).",ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵜⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵔⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴶⵂⴰⵔⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ( ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵢⵔⵍⵉⵏ)
"Over the past two centuries, the advancements in technology with computers have led to the development of geomatics and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's portfolio of tools.","ⵢⴰⵗ 2 ⴰⴼⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴻⴾⵏⵓⵍⵋⵉ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵋⵉⵢⵎⴰⵏⵜⵉⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴶⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⵙⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ"
"Arnold Henry Guyot (1807–1884) – noted the structure of glaciers and advanced understanding in glacier motion, especially in fast ice flow.",ⴰⵔⵏⵓⵍⴷ ⵂⵢⵔⵉ ⵗⵓⵉⵓⵜ (ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1807 ⵂⴰⵔ 1884) - ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵉⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴶⵍⴰⵛⵉⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵛⴰⵓⴰⵏⴾⴰⵜ ⴶⵍⴰⵛⵉⵢⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⴻⴷⵏⵢⵏ
William Morris Davis (1850–1934) – father of American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion.,ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵎⵓⵔⵔⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⴱⵉⵙ ( ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1850 ⵂⴰⵔ 1934) - ⵉⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
Ellen Churchill Semple (1863–1932) – first female president of the Association of American Geographers.,ⵢⵍⵍⴻⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵔⵛⵂⵉⵍ ⵙⴻⵎⴱⵍⴻ ( ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1863 ⵂⴰⵔ 1932) ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵂⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
Walter Christaller (1893–1969) – human geographer and inventor of Central place theory.,ⵓⴰⵍⵜⵢⵔ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵍⵉⵢⵔ ( ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1893 ⵂⴰⵔ 1969) - ⴰⵓ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⵔⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ
"David Harvey (born 1935) – Marxist geographer and author of theories on spatial and urban geography, winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.","ⵢⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴱⵢⵉ ( ⵉⵓⴰ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1935) - ⴰⵓ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵆⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵋⵓⵄⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ , ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵓⵛⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵓⵜⵔⵉⵏ ⵍⵓⴷ"
"In some cases, a distinction is made between the official (constitutional) capital and the seat of government, which is in another place.","ⵢⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ( ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ) ⵉⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ"
"Examples are ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, ancient Athens, Rome, Bratislava, Budapest, Constantinople, Chang'an, ancient Cusco, Kyiv, Madrid, Paris, Podgorica, London, Beijing, Prague, Tallinn, Tokyo, Lisbon, Riga, Vilnius, and Warsaw.","Iⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ , ⴰⴱⴱⴰⵙⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⴶⵂⴷⴰⴷ, ⴰⵜⵂⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰ, ⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⵙⵍⴰvⴰ, ⴱⵓⴷⴰⴱⴻⵙⵜ, ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍ, ⵛⵂⴰⵏ’ⴰⵏ, ⵛⵓⵙⵛo ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ, ⵆⵉⵉv, ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⴷ, ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ, ⴱⵓⴷⴶⵓⵔⵉⵛⴰ, ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵔⵢ, , ⴱⵔⴰⴶⵓⵢ, ⵟⴰⵍⵍⵉⵏⵏ, ⵟⵓⴾⵉⵢ, ⵍⵉⵙⴱⵓⵏ, ⵔⵉⴶⴰ, ⴷⵉⵍⵏⵉⵓⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔⵙⴰⵓ"
"In some countries, the capital has been changed for geopolitical reasons; Finland's first city, Turku, which had served as the country's capital since the Middle Ages under the Swedish rule, lost its right during the Grand Duchy of Finland in 1812, when Helsinki was made the current capital of Finland by the Russian Empire.","ⵢⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ; ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ Fⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎ ⵙⵓⴻⴷⴻ, ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵢⵜ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵢⵓⵛⵂⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1812 ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ ⵂⵢⵍⵙⵉⵏⴾⵉ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ"
"In Canada, there is a federal capital, while the ten provinces and three territories each have capital cities.","ⵢⴰⴶⵂ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ, ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ 10 ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 3 ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ"
"""In Australia, the term """"capital cities"""" is regularly used to refer to those six state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra, and Darwin, the capital of the Northern Territory.""","“ⵢⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴰ , ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ““ ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ”” ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵉⴶⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵓⵓⵉⴷ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⵏⴱⴻⵔⵔⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⵔⵓⵉⵏ, ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ”"
"Unlike in federations, there is usually not a separate national capital, but rather the capital city of one constituent nation will also be the capital of the state overall, such as London, which is the capital of England and of the United Kingdom.","ⴰⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵜⵢⴷ ⵆⵉⵏⴶⴷⵓⵎ"
The national capitals of Germany and Russia (the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the federal city of Moscow) are also constituent states of both countries in their own right.,ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ ( ⵙⵜⴰⴷⵜⵙⵜⴰⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵢⵔⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵛⵓⵓ) ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ
"Frankfort, Kentucky, midway between Louisville and Lexington.","ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾⴼⵓⵔⵜ, ⵆⵢⵏⵜⵓⵛⴾⵉ, ⵎⵉⴷⵓⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵍⵓⵓⵉⴱⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴻⵆⵉⵏⴶⵜⵓ"
"Tallahassee, Florida, chosen as the midpoint between Pensacola and St. Augustine, Florida – then the two largest cities in Florida.","ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵂⴰⵙⵙ,,ⵢⵢ, ⵂⵍⵓⵔⴷⵉⴰ, ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵋⴰⵔⵢⵉⵋⴰⵔⵢⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵢⵏⵙⴰⵛoⵍⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵜ ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏⴻ, ⴼⵍⵓⵔⴷⵉⴰ- ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ 2 ⵜⵉ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⵉⴷⴰ"
Changes in a nation's political regime sometimes result in the designation of a new capital.,Iⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵣⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ
"When the Canary Islands became an autonomous community in 1982, Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria were both given capital status.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⴻⵆⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1982,ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵛⵔⵓⵣ ⴷⴻ ⵟ,ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵉⴼⴻ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴰⵙ ⴱⴰⵍⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴻ ⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⵔⵉⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ"
Estonia: the Supreme Court and the Ministry of Education and Research are located in Tartu.,ⵢⵙⵜⵓⵏⵉⴰ: ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵢⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵟⴰⵔⵜⵓ
"In case of emergency, the seat of the constitutional powers can be transferred to another town, in order for the Houses of Parliament to sit in the same location as the President and Cabinet.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜⴻⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵎⴰⴷⴰⵜ, ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵉⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵢⴱⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ"
The entire state machinery shifts from one city to another every six months.,ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ 6 ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
"Dharamshala, which is also the headquarters of the Central Tibetan Administration, is the second winter capital of the state.",ⵢⵂⴰⵔⴰⵎⵙⵂⴰⵍⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⵉⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⵉⴱⴻⵜⵉ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵙⴰⵎⴻⴷ
The city itself is administered as a Union territory.,ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ
"Uttarakhand: Dehradun is the administrative and legislative capital, while the high court is located in Nainital.",ⵓⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⴾⵂⴰⵏⴷ: ⵢⵢⵂⵔⴰⴷⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵔⵓⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⵂⴰ ⵎⴰⵉⵏⵉⵜⴰⵍ
Its construction started in 1960 and was completed in 1966.,ⵢⴷⴻⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ 1960 ⵉⵎⴷⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1966
The presidential palace (Malacanang Palace) and the Supreme Court are located within the capital city but the two houses of Congress are located in separate suburbs.,ⴱⵉⵔⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ( ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵛⴰⵏⴰⵏⴶ ⴱⵍⴰⵛⴻ) ⵉⴷ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ
"""Sri Lanka: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is designated the administrative capital and the location of the parliament, while the former capital, Colombo, is now designated as the """"commercial capital"""".""","“ⵙⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⵏⴾⴰ: ,ⵙⵔⵉ ⵋⴰⵉⴰⵓⴰⵔⴷⵢⵏⵢⴱⵓⵔⴰ ⴾⵓⵜⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵔⵓⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ “”ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ””"
"South Africa: The administrative capital is Pretoria, the legislative capital is Cape Town, and the judicial capital is Bloemfontein.","ⴰⵊⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ , ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉ ⴾⵔⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⴹⴰⴾⵓⴹⵏ ⴰⵌⵓⴾ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏ ⴷⵗ ⴰⴷⴶ ⵊⵓⴾ"
Switzerland: Bern is the Federal City of Switzerland and functions as de facto capital.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏⴷⵗ ⴰⵙ GPS Receiver ⵜⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵊⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⴱⵍ ⵏⴰⵎⵜⴾⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵙⵢⵍⵎⴰⴷⵜ ⴰⴹⴾⵓⴹ ⵏ ⴰⴴⴰⵔⴰⵓ
"Also similar to Illinois and New York State, most statewide elected officials and officers who are based in Southeast Pennsylvania (City of Philadelphia, Bucks County, Montgomery County, Delaware County, and Chester County) prefer working mostly in Philadelphia.","ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ Iⵍⵍⵉⵏⵓⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ Nⵢⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ, ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵢⵏⵏⵙⵉⵍvⴰⵏⵉⴰ ( ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⴰⴷⵢⵍⴱⵂⵉⴰ, ⴱⵓⵛⴾⵙ ⵛⵓⵓⵏⵜⵉ, ⵎⵓⵏⵜⴶⵓⵎⵢⵔⵉ ⵛⵓⵓⵏⵜⵉ, ⵢⵢⵍⵓⴰⵔⵢ ⵛⵢⵓⵏⵜⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵛⵂⴻⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⵛⵓⵓⵏⵜⵉ) ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰ"
Israel and Palestine: Both the Government of Israel and the Palestinian Authority claim Jerusalem as their capital.,Iⵣⵔⴰⵉⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⵏ: ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ Iⵣⴰⵉⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴶⵂⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵋⵢⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
A symbolic relocation of a capital city to a geographically or demographically peripheral location may be for either economic or strategic reasons (sometimes known as a forward capital or spearhead capital).,ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵢⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵂⵓⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⴰⴾⵔⴰ ( ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗ
The Ming emperors moved their capital to Beijing from the more central Nanjing to help supervise the border with the Mongols.,ⵢⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⴶ ⵙ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵢⵉⵋⵉⵏⴶ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ Nⴰⵏⵋⵉⵏⴶ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵂⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⴷⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⴶⵓⵍⵙ
"Delhi finally became the colonial capital after the Coronation Durbar of King-Emperor George V in 1911, continuing as independent India's capital from 1947.",ⵢⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵢⵢⵍⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⴹⵓⵔⴱⴰⵔ ⵗⵢoⵔⴶⴻ ⵠ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1911 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ Iⵏⴷⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1947.
"Sometimes, the location of a new capital city was chosen to terminate actual or potential squabbling between various entities, such as in the cases of Canberra, Ottawa, Washington, Wellington and Managua.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⵜ-ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵏⴱⵢⵔⵔⴰ, Oⵜⵜⴰⵓⴰ, ⵓⴰⵙⵂⵉⵏⴶⵜⵓⵏ, ⵓⵢⵍⵍⵉⵏⴶⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⴶⵓⴰ"
"In the Three Kingdoms period, both Shu and Wu fell when their respective capitals of Chengdu and Jianye fell.","ⵢⴰⴰⴶⵂ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵙⵂⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵓ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵢⵏⴶⴷⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴰⵏⵉⵢ"
"After the Qing dynasty's collapse, decentralization of authority and improved transportation and communication technologies allowed both the Chinese Nationalists and Chinese Communists to rapidly relocate capitals and keep their leadership structures intact during the great crisis of Japanese invasion.","ⵗⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵍ-ⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵉⵏⴶ, ⴷⵢⵙⵢⵏⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⵣⴰⵙⵉoⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍoⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴾⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵂⵓⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵉⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⵢⵜⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⴱⵓⵏ"
It can be defined as a permanent and densely settled place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks.,ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⴷⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴱⴷⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵆⴰⴷⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⴶⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵋⵋⴰⵙⵜ
"Historically, city-dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall, but following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid urbanization, more than half of the world population now lives in cities, which has had profound consequences for global sustainability.","ⵢⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ, ⵉⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴱⵉⵣⵣⵢⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵂⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ,ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⵉⵎ"
"This increased influence means that cities also have significant influences on global issues, such as sustainable development, global warming and global health.","ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵓ-ⵉ-ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵍⴰⵍ, ⵜⵓⴾⵉⵙⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴻⵆⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ"
"Therefore, compact cities are often referred to as a crucial element of fighting climate change.",ⵆⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵙⴰⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙoⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ
"For example, country capitals such as Beijing, London, Mexico City, Moscow, Nairobi, New Delhi, Paris, Rome, Athens, Seoul, Tokyo, and Washington, D.C. reflect the identity and apex of their respective nations.","ⵢⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⵢⵉⵋⵉⵏⴶ, ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵔⵢ, ⵎⵢⵆⵉⵛⵓ ⵛⵉⵜⵉ, ⵎⵓⵙⵛⵓⵓ, ⵏⴰⵉⵔⵓⴱⵉ, ⵏⵢⵓ ⵢⵢⵍⵂⵉ, ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ, ⵔⵓⵎⴰ, ⴰⵜⵂⵢⵏⵢ, ⵙⵢⵓⵓⵍ, ⵟⵓⴾⵉⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵂⴰⵙⵉⵏⴶⵜⵓⵏ ⵢ.ⵛ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
"The city may be looked on as a story, a pattern of relations between human groups, a production and distribution space, a field of physical force, a set of linked decisions, or an arena of conflict.","ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ, ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵉⵙⵙⴰ, ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⴱⴰⵜⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⵙ."
"National censuses use a variety of definitions - invoking factors such as population, population density, number of dwellings, economic function, and infrastructure - to classify populations as urban.","ⵜⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⴾⴾⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ- ⵋⴰⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ, ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ, ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵗⵢⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ- ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵣⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⴶⵂⵉⴱ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⴰⵣⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ"
"The mutual interdependence of town and country has one consequence so obvious that it is easily overlooked: at the global scale, cities are generally confined to areas capable of supporting a permanent agricultural population.","ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵋⵢⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵔⵉ:ⴹⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⴾ , ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵋⵋⴰⵙⵜ"
"As cities grew in complexity, the major civic institutions, from seats of government to religious buildings, would also come to dominate these points of convergence.","Iⵛⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵎⵓⴷ, ⵜⵉⴶⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴰ ⵂⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵜⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ"
Physical environment generally constrains the form in which a city is built.,ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵉ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ
And it may be set up for optimal defense given the surrounding landscape.,ⵆⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴻⴶⵓ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵍⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⵓⴾ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵜ
"This form could evolve from successive growth over a long time, with concentric traces of town walls and citadels marking older city boundaries.",Iⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵢⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵋⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⵉⵔⵛⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⴷⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵛⵓⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ
"In cities such as Moscow, this pattern is still clearly visible.","ⵢⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⵛⵓⵓ, ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ"
"Excavations in these areas have found the ruins of cities geared variously towards trade, politics, or religion.","Iⵗⵢⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⵉⵔⵛⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ, ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ"
China's planned cities were constructed according to sacred principles to act as celestial microcosms.,ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵔⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ
"These sites appear planned in a highly regimented and stratified fashion, with a minimalistic grid of rooms for the workers and increasingly more elaborate housing available for higher classes.",ⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⵉⵣⵣⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵉⵉⴰⵋ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵏ ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ
"In the following centuries, independent city-states of Greece, especially Athens, developed the polis, an association of male landowning citizens who collectively constituted the city.","ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ , ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⵛⵢ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ,ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵂⵢⵏⵢⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙ, ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴻⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⴰⵙⵏⵢⵏ"
"Under the authority of its empire, Rome transformed and founded many cities (coloniae), and with them brought its principles of urban architecture, design, and society.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ (ⵛⵓⵏⴰⴻ) ⵙ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵙⵉⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵗⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru.,"ⴰⵜⵜⴰⴱⵉⴰ ⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵜⴻ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⵓ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ 30 ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⴶⵂⵉⴱ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵓⵔⵜⴻ ⵛⵂⵉⵛo , ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵢⵔⵓⵙ"
"The locus of power in the West shifted to Constantinople and to the ascendant Islamic civilization with its major cities Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba.","ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⴻ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴱⴰⴷⴶⴷⴰⴷ, ⵛⴰⵉⵔⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵛⵓⵔⴷⵓⴱⴰ"
"By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires.","ⵗⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1300 ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ 1400 , ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ , ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴶⵂⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⴰⵏ"
Western Europe's larger capitals (London and Paris) benefited from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an Atlantic trade.,ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ (ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵔⵢ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ) ⵉⵣⵂⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⴾ
England led the way as London became the capital of a world empire and cities across the country grew in locations strategic for manufacturing.,ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵔⵢ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ
"Entrepreneurial leadership became manifest through growth coalitions made up of builders, realtors, developers, the media, government actors such as mayors, and dominant corporations.","ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵗⵓⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵏⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ, ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⵔⵗⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵙoⵙⵉⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ."
"""The results were efforts at downtown revitalization; inner-city gentrification; the transformation of the CBD to advanced service employment; entertainment, museums, and cultural venues; the construction of sports stadiums and sport complexes; and waterfront development.""""""","“Iⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴻⵓⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⴱⴰⴷⴷⴻ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ; ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ; ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵛⴱⵢ ⵙ ⵙⴰⵔⵓⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ; ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ, ⵎⵓⵣⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵉⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ; ⵉⴷⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⵔⵉⴾⵔⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ”””"
"Until the 18th century, an equilibrium existed between the rural agricultural population and towns featuring markets and small-scale manufacturing.","ⵆⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ,ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⴶⵂⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵂⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏ,ⵢⵏ"
The cultural appeal of cities also plays a role in attracting residents.,ⴰⴾⵓⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵜⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ
"Batam, Indonesia, Mogadishu, Somalia, Xiamen, China and Niamey, Niger, are considered among the world's fastest-growing cities, with annual growth rates of 5–8%.","ⴱⴰⵜⴰⵎ, Iⵏⴷⵓⵏⵢⵙⵉⴰ, ⵎⵓⴶⴰⴷⵉⵙⵂⵉⵓ, ⵙⵓⵎⴰⵍⵉⴰ, ⵆⵉⴰⵎⵢⵏ, ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ Nⵉⴰⵎⵢⵉ, Nⵉⴶⵢⵔ, ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵙ ⵢⵔⵎⴰⴷ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵓⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ 5 ⵂⴰⵔ 8%."
"The UN predicts an additional 2.5 billion citydwellers (and 300 million fewer countrydwellers) worldwide by 2050, with 90% of urban population expansion occurring in Asia and Africa.","ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ UN ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ 2.5 ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ (300 ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ) ⴷⵉⵂⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2050, ⵙ 90% ⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴰ ⵂⵢ ⵉⵙⴾⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ"
"A deep gulf divides rich and poor in these cities, with usually contain a super-wealthy elite living in gated communities and large masses of people living in substandard housing with inadequate infrastructure and otherwise poor conditions.",Iⵍⵍⴻ ⵜⵢⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵛⴰⵋⵔⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵈⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⵢⵎ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⵏⵢⵏ
"""Yet municipalities routinely enact sweeping by-laws directed at open ended (and ill-defined) offences such as loitering and obstruction, requiring permits for protests or requiring residents and homeowners to remove snow from the city's sidewalks.""""""",“ⵎⵢⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⴷⵢⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵓⵜⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⴻⴶⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ oⵜⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴷⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵋⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⴶⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵛⵉⵓⴰⵏⴾⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵓⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵏⵓⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ”””
"These are provided more or less routinely, in a more or less equal fashion.",ⵆⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵙ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ
"""These production oriented criteria often give rise to """"service deliver rules"""", regularized procedures for the delivery of services, which are attempts to codify the productivity goals of urban service bureaucracies.""","“Iⵛⵛⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ““ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵛⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ””, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵛⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴾⵓⴷⴻ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔoⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ"
"""""""Robert L. Lineberry, """"Mandating Urban Equality: The Distribution of Municipal Public Services""""; in Hahn & Levine (1980).""","“”””ⵔⵓⴱⴻⵔⵜ ⵍ. Lⵉⵏⵢⴱⵢⵔⵔⵉ “” ⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵜⵉⵏⴶ ⵓⵔⴱⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵓⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉ: ⵟⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵢⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ”” ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵂⵏ & ⵍⵢⴱⵉⵏⵢ (1980)."""
"However, financing municipal services, as well as urban renewal and other development projects, is a perennial problem, which cities address through appeals to higher governments, arrangements with the private sector, and techniques such as privatization (selling services into the private sector), corporatization (formation of quasi-private municipally-owned corporations), and financialization (packaging city assets into tradable financial instruments and derivatives).","ⵂⴰⴷ ⵉⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴰⵙⴰⵔⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵢⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵔⵓⵋⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⴰⵉⵏⵉ ⴷ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵙ ⵋⴰⵔⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴾⵓⵔⵢ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ, ⵉⵏⵓⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴻⴾⵜⴻⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴻⴾⵏⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵎⵉⵍⴾⵓ ( ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴻⴾⵜⴻⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⴾⵍⴻ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ) ⴾⵓⵔⴱⵓⵔⴰⵜⵉⵣⴰⵙⵉoⵏ (ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⴰⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵎⴻⵔⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ) ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⴰⴼ (ⵜⵢⵓⴰⵗⵏⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⴰⵋ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ)"
"""The impact of globalization and the role of multinational corporations in local governments worldwide, has led to a shift in perspective on urban governance, away from the """"urban regime theory"""" in which a coalition of local interests functionally govern, toward a theory of outside economic control, widely associated in academics with the philosophy of neoliberalism.""",“ⵜⵉⴾⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴶⵍⵓⴱⴰⵍⵉⵣⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴻⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵆⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ ⵙ ⴰ ⵓⵋⵉⵋⴰⵏ “ⵓⵔⴱⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⴶⵉⵎⴻ ⵜⵂⴻoⵔⵉ” ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴻⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵓⵙⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴾⴰⴷⵢⵎⵉⴾⵙ ⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴶⵂⴰⴼⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵍⵉⴱⵢⵔⴰⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ
"Planning tools, beyond the original design of the city itself, include public capital investment in infrastructure and land-use controls such as zoning.","ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴶⵂⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⴱⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴻⴾⴻⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ"
"""Also available to cities in their implementation of planning objectives are municipal powers of zoning, subdivision control and the regulation of building, housing and sanitation principles.""""""","“ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵉ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⵉ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵎⵎⵉⵛⵂⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵢⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ, ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ””"
"People living relatively close together may live, work, and play, in separate areas, and associate with different people, forming ethnic or lifestyle enclaves or, in areas of concentrated poverty, ghettoes.","ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⵋ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⵏⵢⵏ,ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⵗⵂ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰⵈⵈⵉⵓⴰ"
"""Suburbs in the west, and, increasingly, gated communities and other forms of """"privatopia"""" around the world, allow local elites to self-segregate into secure and exclusive neighborhoods.""",‘ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴱⵜⴱⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ “ⴱⵔⵉⴱⴰⵜⵓⴱⵉⴰ”” ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴱⵉⵉⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴾⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⴼⵉⴰⵜ”
"This outcast proletariat—perhaps 1.5 billion people today, 2.5 billion by 2030—is the fastest-growing and most novel social class on the planet.","ⴱⵔⵓⵍⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉⴰ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵏⴾⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵎⵉⵛ ⵢⵓⴰⴷ 1.5 ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ , 2.5 ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2030 ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵏⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵓⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵉⵎ"
It is ontologically both similar and dissimilar to the historical agency described in the Communist Manifesto.,Iⴾⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
As hubs of trade cities have long been home to retail commerce and consumption through the interface of shopping.,Iⵛⵎⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴾⵉⵛ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⵏ
A thicker labor market allows for better skill matching between firms and individuals.,ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
"Cultural elites tend to live in cities, bound together by shared cultural capital, and themselves playing some role in governance.","ⵆⵢⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵣⴰⴷⴷⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ,ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⴷⴷⵢⵈ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵆⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
"""Greg Kerr & Jessica Oliver, """"Rethinking Place Identities"""", in Kavaratzis, Warnaby, & Ashworth (2015).""","“ⵗⵔⵢⴶ ⵆⵢⵔⵔ & ⵋⵢⵙⵙⵉⵛⴰ Oⵍⵉⴱⵢⵔ, “”ⴰⵎⵓⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ”, ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵆⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵙ, ⵓⴰⵔⵏⴰⴱⵉ,& ⴰⵙⵂⵓⵓⵔⵜⵂ (2015)."""
"Patriotic tourists visit Agra to see the Taj Mahal, or New York City to visit the World Trade Center.",ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵔⴰ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵋ ⵎⴰⵂⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⵓⵔⵍⴷ ⵟⵔⴰⴷⴻ ⵛⵢⵏⵜⵢⵔ
"Why do anonymous people—the poor, the underprivileged, the unconnected—frequently prefer life under miserable conditions in tenements to the healthy order and tranquility of small towns or the sanitary subdivisions of semirural developments?","ⵎⴰⴼⴻⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ- ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵈⵉⵓⵢⵏ , ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⴷⵉⵎ, ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴾⵓⵏⴾⵜⵢ - ⴰⵙⵙoⴼⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴻⵔⴾ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴻⵆⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⴶⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⴻⵆⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵢⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ?"
Those who came to live in them did so in order to participate and compete on any attainable level.,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵣⵓⵈ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷ
Sports also play a major role in city branding and local identity formation.,ⵙⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
"More importantly, there is also huge long term potential for both tourism and investment (Kasimati, 2003).","ⴰⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴻ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵣⵎ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵗⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ (ⴾⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵜⵉ, 2003)"
"""War brought concentration of social leadership and political power in the hands of a weapons-bearing minority, abetted by a priesthood exercising sacred powers and possessing secret but valuable scientific and magical knowledge.""""""",“ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴾⵓⴾⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵔⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵈⵈⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵆⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⴰⵔⴰⵜ””
"During World War II, national governments on occasion declared certain cities open, effectively surrendering them to an advancing enemy in order to avoid damage and bloodshed.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ , ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⵢⵔⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰ ⵉⴶⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵗⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵉ"
"Such warfare, known as counterinsurgency, involves techniques of surveillance and psychological warfare as well as close combat, functionally extends modern urban crime prevention, which already uses concepts such as defensible space.","Iⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴷⵎⵉⵔ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴾⵔⴰ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⴻ ⵂⴰⴷ ⵉⴾ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵂⴰⵣ ⵉⵙⵔⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⴶⵍⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵏ ⴶⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ , ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴶⵂⴰⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ"
"Because of the higher barriers to entry, these networks have been classified as natural monopolies, meaning that economic logic favors control of each network by a single organization, public or private.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵓⵛⵂ, ⵔⵢⵣo ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⴱⵓⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴻⴾⵢⵏⵢⵎⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴶⵂⵏⴰ ⵢⵔⴷⴰ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⴾⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ"
"""Kath Wellman & Frederik Pretorius, """"Urban Infrastructure: Productivity, Project Evaluation, and Finance""""; in Wellman & Spiller (2012).""","“ⵆⴰⵜⵂ ⵢⵍⵍⵎⴰⵏ & ⴼⵔⵢⴷⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴱⵔ,ⵢⵜⵓⵔⵉⵓⵙ, """"Iⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ:ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ , ⴱⵔⵓⵋⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ””” ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵓⵢⵍⵍⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵙⴱⵉⵍⵍⴻⵔ (2012)”"
"Sanitation, necessary for good health in crowded conditions, requires water supply and waste management as well as individual hygiene.",Iⵣⴰⵣⴷⵓⴶⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵍⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⴶⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵉⴶⵂⴰⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⴷⵉⴶⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ
"Modern urban life relies heavily on the energy transmitted through electricity for the operation of electric machines (from household appliances to industrial machines to now-ubiquitous electronic systems used in communications, business, and government) and for traffic lights, streetlights and indoor lighting.","ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ oⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵏⴻⵔⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ(ⵉⵎⵓⵜⴰⵋ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴻⴼⴻⵓ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ) ⵉⴷ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴼⵢⵏ, ⵢⴼⵢⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵔⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ"
"""Tom Hart, """"Transport and the City""""; in Paddison (2001).""","“ⵜⵢⵎ ⵂⴰⵔⵜ, “””ⵟⴰⵍⴰⵙⴼⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ”” ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴱⴰⴷⴷⵉⵙⵓⵏ ( 2001)”"
"Many big American cities still operate conventional public transit by rail, as exemplified by the ever-popular New York City Subway system.",ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵙⴰⴷⴷⵢⵈ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵔⴰⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ
"Anthropogenic buildings and waste, as well as cultivation in gardens, create physical and chemical environments which have no equivalents in wilderness, in some cases enabling exceptional biodiversity.",Iⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴶⵂⴰⵛⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵂⴰⴷ ⵉⴾ ⴰⴶⴰⵉⴰⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵋⴰⵏ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵙⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴼⴰⵣoⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵔⵉⵣⵢⵋ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ
"From one perspective, cities are not ecologically sustainable due to their resource needs.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ , ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵉⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵣⴰⵋⵔⵢⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
"Modern cities are known for creating their own microclimates, due to concrete, asphalt, and other artificial surfaces, which heat up in sunlight and channel rainwater into underground ducts.",ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⵏⴰⵜⵙ ⴰⵙⴱⵂⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵔⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⴼⴻⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ ⵙⴰⴷⴷⴻⵈ ⵣⴰⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏⴰ ⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
Aerial particulates increase rainfall by 5–10%.,Iⴼⵉⵔⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ 5 ⵂⴰⵔ10%
"For example, within the urban microclimate, less-vegetated poor neighborhoods bear more of the heat (but have fewer means of coping with it).","Iⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ, ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵙⵢⵏ ⵉⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴾⵉⵙⵢ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ( ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵏ ⵉⵓⴰⵗⴰⵏ)"
"Generally they are called Urban open space (although this word does not always mean green space), Green space, Urban greening.","ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⵔⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⴰⵏⵢⵏ ( ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⵉⵔ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵍⵢⵏ, ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ"
"The study used data from almost 20,000 people in the UK.",ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ 20.000 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ
People who did not get at least two hours — even if they surpassed an hour per week — did not get the benefits.,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ 2 ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ- ⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴱⵓⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵢ ⵉⵋⵔⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ
"""The study didn't count time spent in a person's own yard or garden as time in nature, but the majority of nature visits in the study took place within two miles from home. """"""",“ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵓⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴻⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ 2 ⴾⵉⵍⵓⵎⵢⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ”””
"""Saskia Sassen used the term """"global city"""" in her 1991 work, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo to refer to a city's power, status, and cosmopolitanism, rather than to its size.""","“ⵙⴰⵙⴾⵉⴰ ⵙⴰⵙⵙⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ““ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ”” ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ 1991. Aⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ: ⵏⵢⵓ ⵗoⵔⴾ, ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵔⴻ, ⵟⵓⴾⵉⵓ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⴰⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵛⵉⵔⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ”"
"3 (1982): 319 Global cities form the capstone of the global hierarchy, exerting command and control through their economic and political influence.","3 (1982): 319 ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴻⴾⴰⴷⴰⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ , ⴾⵉⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ"
Critics of the notion point to the different realms of power and interchange.,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ
Multinational corporations and banks make their headquarters in global cities and conduct much of their business within this context.,ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴶⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ.
"""Nancy Duxbury & Sharon Jeannotte, """"Global Cultural Governance Policy""""; Chapter 21 in The Ashgate Research Companion to Planning and Culture; London: Ashgate, 2013.""","“ⵏⴰⵏⵛⵉ ⴻⵓⵆⴱⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵂⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⵋⵢⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵜⵢ ““ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵉⵎ”” ⴷⴰⴶⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ 21 ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵉⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵂⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ; ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵔⵢ: ⴰⵙⵂⴶⴰⵜⵢ, 2013”"
"""The Habitat I conference in 1976 adopted the """"Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements"""" which identifies urban management as a fundamental aspect of development and establishes various principles for maintaining urban habitats.""",“ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1976 ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⴱⴷⴰⵜ ““ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵠⴰⵏⵛⵓⵓⴱⵢⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵗⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ”” ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ””
"In January 2002 the UN Commission on Human Settlements became an umbrella agency called the United Nations Human Settlements Programme or UN-Habitat, a member of the United Nations Development Group.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2002 ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ UN ⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵍⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ Nⴰⵜⵉoⵏⵙ Uⵏⵉⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵓⵏ-ⵂⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵜ, ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ Nⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⵓⵏⵉⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ"
The Bank's policies have tended to focus on bolstering real estate markets through credit and technical assistance.,ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴱⴰⵏⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵍⵙⵉⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ.
"Cities figure prominently in traditional Western culture, appearing in the Bible in both evil and holy forms, symbolized by Babylon and Jerusalem.",Iⵎⵓⵛⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵉⵏⵣⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵛⵂⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⵉⵍⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵋⵢⵔⵓⵣⴰⵍⵢⵎ
"Cities can be perceived in terms of extremes or opposites: at once liberating and oppressive, wealthy and poor, organized and chaotic.","ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ; ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⵉⵙⴰⴾⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏⴰ, ⵢⵂⴰⵔⴻ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰⵈⵉⵓⴰ ,ⵓⴶⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ"
This and other political ideologies strongly influence narratives and themes in discourse about cities.,ⵓⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ
Classical and medieval literature includes a genre of descriptiones which treat of city features and history.,ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⵔⵢⵆ ⵏⵜ
Other early cinematic representations of cities in the twentieth century generally depicted them as technologically efficient spaces with smoothly functioning systems of automobile transport.,Iⵙⴰⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⵢⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1200 ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴶⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴼⵢⵏ
A country is a distinct territorial body or political entity (i.e. a nation).,ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ( ⴰⵓⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ)
It is not inherently sovereign.,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ
"The largest country in the world by geographical area is Russia, while the most populous is China, followed by India, the United States, Indonesia, Pakistan and Brazil.","ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵙ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⴰⵙ Iⵏⴷⵉⴰ, ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ, Iⵏⴷⵓⵏⵢⵙⵉⴰ, ⴱⴰⴾⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵔⴰⵣⵉⵍ"
"In many European countries the words are used for sub-divisions of the national territory, as in the German Bundesländer, as well as a less formal term for a sovereign state.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵢⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⵉⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ
"""There is no universal agreement on the number of """"countries"""" in the world since a number of states have disputed sovereignty status.""",“ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ “ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ” ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⴰⵍ”
The degree of autonomy of non-sovereign countries varies widely.,ⴷⴻⴶⵔⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵢⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⵢⵓ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ
The report classifies country development based on per capita gross national income (GNI).,ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵙ ⴶⵔⵓⵙⵙ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵛoⵎⴻ ( ⵗNI)
"The 2019 report recognizes only developed countries in North America, Europe, and Asia and the Pacific.","ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 2019 ⵢⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ , ⵉⵓⵔⵓⴱⵢ, ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵉⴼⵉⴾ ⵗⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵏⵢⵏ"
"The World Bank defines its regions as East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, North America, South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa.","ⴱⴰⵏⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⴰⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵉⴼⵉⴾ, ⴻⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵛⴰⵔⵉⴱⴱⵢⴰⵏ, Mⵉⴷⴷⵍⵢ ⵢⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ, ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ, ⵙⵓⵓⵜⵂ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵂⴰⵔⴰ"
"Exploration is the act of searching for the purpose of discovery of information or resources, especially in the context of geography or space, rather than research and development that is usually not centred on earth sciences or astronomy.",ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵔⴼⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⴷ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵜⵔⴰⵏ
Only the one done by emperor Nero seemed to be a preparative for the conquest of Ethiopia or Nubia: in 62 AD two legionaries explored the sources of the Nile river.,"ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵎⴱⵔⵓⵔ ⵏⵢⵔo ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⵉⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵉ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵜⵂⵉⵓⴱⵉⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵏⵓⴱⵉⴰ: ⵢⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 62 ⴷⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ ,ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵔⴼⵉⵜⴻⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵍⴻ"
"The Romans also organized several explorations into Northern Europe, and explored as far as China in Asia.",ⵆⵢⵍ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⴷⵢⴶⵂ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵢⵔ ⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ
100 AD-166 AD Romano-Chinese relations begin.,ⴷⴰⵗ 100 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ 166 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⵉⴷⵓⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ
"The key invention to their exploration was the outrigger canoe, which provided a swift and stable platform for carrying goods and people.",ⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⴱⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⵓⵢ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
2011 studies at Wairau Bar in New Zealand show a high probability that one origin was Ruahine Island in the Society Islands.,Iⵎⵓⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 2011 ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵓⴰⵉⵔⴰⵓ ⴱⵏⴱⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵤⵢⴰⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴶⵂⵏⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵔⵓⴰⵂⵉⵏⵢ Iⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵉ Iⵙⵍⴰⵏⵙⴷ
There are cultural and language similarities between Cook Islanders and New Zealand Maori.,Iⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵛⵓⵓⴾ Iⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵌⵢⴰⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵎⴰⵓⵔⵉ
"During 1328–1333, he sailed along the South China Sea and visited many places in Southeast Asia and reached as far as South Asia, landing in Sri Lanka and India, and he even went to Australia.","ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1328 ⵂⴰⵔ 1333, ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴶⵂⵍⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵢⵓⵜⵂ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⴷⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵋⴰⵍⴰ-ⴷⴰⴶⵂ-ⴰⵍⵈⴰⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵙⵓⵓⵜⵂ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ, ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵙⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⵏⴾⴰ ⴷ Iⵏⴷⵉⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴰ"
"Portugal and Spain dominated the first stages of exploration, while other European nations followed, such as England, Netherlands, and France.","ⴱⵓⵔⵜⵓⴶⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰ ⵂⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵓⴷ ⵢⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵏⵢⵂⵢⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷⵙ ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵢ"
The extreme conditions in the deep sea require elaborate methods and technologies to endure them.,ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴻⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ
"An administrative subdivision, instead, is understood to be a division of a state proper.",ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ
The dependent territories that currently remain in the world today generally maintain a very high degree of political autonomy.,Iⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⴶⵔⵢ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ
"Cook Islands' status is considered to be equivalent to independence for international law purposes, and the country exercises full sovereignty over its internal and external affairs.","ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵓⴾ Iⵙⴰⵏⴷⵙ ⵜⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⴻ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⵏⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴱⴰⵔⵉⴷ"
"Under the terms of the free association agreement, however, New Zealand retains some responsibility for the foreign relations and defence of Niue.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ, ⵏⵢⵓ ⵌⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⵉⵛⴰⵔⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⵉⴷⵓⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵓⵢ"
"This list is generally limited to entities that are either subject to an international treaty on their status, uninhabited, or have a unique level of autonomy and are largely self-governing in matters other than international affairs.","ⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴶⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵣⵓⵈ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ"
"They are independently administrated jurisdictions, although the British Government is solely responsible for defense and international representation and has ultimate responsibility for ensuring good government.",ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⵢⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ
No crown dependency has representation in the U.K. Parliament.,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⴱⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵛⴰⵛⴾⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⵢⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ U.
New Zealand and its dependencies share the same governor-general and constitute one monarchic realm.,ⵏⵢⵓ ⵤⵢⴰⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ
The mutually negotiated Covenant to Establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) in Political Union with the United States was approved in 1976.,ⵆⵓⵏⵜⵔⴰ ⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵓⵢⴰⵍⵜⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏⴰ Iⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ (ⵛNMI) ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵢⵛⵓⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1976
"This is a constant source of ambiguity and confusion when trying to define, understand, and explain Puerto Rico's political relationship with the United States.","ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⵗⵏⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⴼ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵔⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ, ⵉⴼⵂⵉⵎ ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⴻⴼⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⵉⴷⵓⵓⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵢⵔⵜⵓ ⵔⵉⵛⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ"
"""However, the status of its """"constituent countries"""" in the Caribbean (Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten) can be considered akin to dependencies or """"associated non-independent states.""""""","“ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ““ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ”” ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵔⵉⴱⴱⴻⴰⵏ ( ⴰⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⵛⵓⵔⴰⵛⴰⵓ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⴰⵔⵜⵢⵏ) ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ““ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⵢⵛ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⴻⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ””"
"Borders are geographic boundaries, imposed either by geographic features such as oceans, or by arbitrary groupings of political entities such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other subnational entities.","ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰⵍⵓⵢⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵙⵎⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ Orthdrome ,ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵢ ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵢ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵏ ⵜⵢ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵢ"
"Most external borders are partially or fully controlled, and may be crossed legally only at designated border checkpoints and border zones may be controlled.",Iⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⴱⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⵛⵂⵢⴾⴱⵓⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ
"Most countries have some form of border control to regulate or limit the movement of people, animals, and goods into and out of the country.","ⴰⵛ-ⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵂⵓ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ , ⴰⵔⵔⵉⵣⵢⵋ ⴷ ⵉⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴱⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
To stay or work within a country's borders aliens (foreign persons) may need special immigration documents or permits; but possession of such documents does not guarantee that the person should be allowed to cross the border.,ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵂⴰ (ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⵜⴰⴶⵂ) ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵎ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵆⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⴶⴰⵜⴻⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵂⵉⴾ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ
Most countries prohibit carrying illegal drugs or endangered animals across their borders.,ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⵢⴶⵂ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⵢⵋ ⵢⵔⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"In places where smuggling, migration, and infiltration are a problem, many countries fortify borders with fences and barriers, and institute formal border control procedures.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵜⵔⴰⴼⵉⴾ, ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⴷⵉⵔⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍ , ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉ ⴶⵔⵉⵉⴰⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵉⵣⴰⴾⴾⵢⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ"
This is common in countries within the European Schengen Area and on rural sections of the Canada–United States border.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵛⵂⵢⵏⴶⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗⵢⵔⵓⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ
Rivers: some political borders have been formalized along natural borders formed by rivers.,"Iⵋⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ"
"In the Hebrew Bible, Moses defined the middle of the river Arnon as the border between Moab and the Israelite tribes settling east of the Jordan.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵉⵏⵣⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⴰⵂⵓⴷ, ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵎⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵋⴰⵔⴻⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵏoⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵎⴰⵓⴱ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ Iⵣⵔⴰⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⴰⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵋⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏⵉⵢ"
"Examples are Lake Tanganyika, with the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia on its west shore and Tanzania and Burundi on the east; and the Great Lakes which form a substantial part of the border between Canada and the United States.","Iⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵏⴶⴰⵏⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵋⴰⵎⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴶo ⵢⵢⵎⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⵤⴰⵎⴱⵉⴰ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ,ⵟⴰⵏⵣⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵔⵓⵏⴷⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⴰⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ"
"Mountain ranges: Many nations have their political borders defined along mountain ranges, often along a drainage divide.",Iⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵗⴰⵗⴻⵏ : ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵋⵉⵍⵎⴰⵎ
One example is the defensive forest created by China's Song Dynasty in the eleventh century.,ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⴰⵣ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴰ’ⵙ ⵙⵓⵏⴶ ⴷⵉⵏⴰⵙⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1100
"For instance, the boundary between East and West Germany is no longer an international boundary, but it can still be seen because of historical markers on the landscape, and it is still a cultural and economic division in Germany.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⴰⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵉⴱⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⴷⵢⵈ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴷ ⵢⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ"
"Maritime borders exist in the context of territorial waters, contiguous zones, and exclusive economic zones; however, the terminology does not encompass lake or river boundaries, which are considered within the context of land boundaries.","ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵢⵣⴰⵔⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ, ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴶⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴻⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ; ⵙⴰⴷⴷⵢⵈ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⴶⵂⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ ⵢⵣⴰⵔⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ"
Airspace extends 12 nautical miles from the coast of a country and it holds responsibility for protecting its own airspace unless under NATO peacetime protection.,ⴰⵉⵔⵙⴱⴰⵛⵢ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⴶⵂⵜⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ 12 ⴾⵉⵍⵢⵎⵜⵉⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵉⵔⵙⴱⴰⵛⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵟO ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⴼⵉⴰⵜ
"However, there is a general agreement of vertical airspace ending at the point of the Kármán line.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵔⵙⴱⴰⵛⵢ ⵢⴶⵂⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵎⴰⵏ"
Overall border regulations are placed by national and local governments and can vary depending on nation and current political or economic conditions.,ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴶⵂⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ
Working across borders – Harnessing the potential of cross-border activities to improve livelihood security in the Horn of Africa drylands .,ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ - ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵈ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⴶⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴰⵍⵆⵢⵔ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵙⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵛⴰ ⴷⵔⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⵙ
Human economic traffic across borders (apart from kidnapping) may involve mass commuting between workplaces and residential settlements.,ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉ ⵏⵢⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ( ⴰⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎoⵙ ⵜⵉⴾⵔⴰ) ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⵔⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
"It can enable and stop movement, across as well as along borders.",ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⴾⴾⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⴷⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ
Many cross-border regions are also active in encouraging intercultural communication and dialogue as well as cross-border economic development strategies.,ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⴱⴰⴷⴷⵢ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴾoⵏoⵎⵉ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ
"Since its conception in the mid-80's, this artistic practice has assisted in the development of questions surrounding homeland, borders, surveillance, identity, race, ethnicity, and national origin(s).","ⵗⵂⵓⵔ ⵉⴶⵂⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1980 , ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵓⵉⴾⵉⵍ, ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⵢⵛⵂⵏⵢ, ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵓⵉⵍ"
"Borders can include but are not limited to language, culture, social and economic class, religion, and national identity.","ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ, ⴰⴶⵏⴰ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ , ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵓⵉⵍ"
"""These artists are often """"border crossers"""" themselves.""",“ⵆⴻⵍ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⴶⵂ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ “ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ” ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"In general, a rural area or a countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities.",ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵋⵢⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴶⵂⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ
Typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements.,Iⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ
Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their population living in a rural community.,ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⵋⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵉ 15% ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⴶⵂⵉⴱ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ
"Rural northern regions are predominantly rural census divisions that are found either entirely or mostly above the following lines of parallel in each province: Newfoundland and Labrador, 50th; Quebec 54th; Ontario, 54th; Manitoba, 53rd; Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia, 54th.","ⵙⵓⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵣⵉⵓⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⴶⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴼⵓⴾ: ⵏⴻⵓⴼⵓⵓⵏⴷⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴷ ⵍⴰⴱⵔⴰⴷⵓⵔ, 50ⵜⵂ; ⵔⵓⵢⴱⵢⵛ 54ⵜⵂ;Oⵏⵜⴰⵔⵉⵓ, 54ⵜⵂ, ⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵓⴱⴰ, 53ⵔⴷ, ⵙⴰⵙⴾⵜⵛⵂⵢⵓⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⴱⵢⵔⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⵉⵙⵂ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵉⴰ , 54ⵜ."
"The U.S. Census Bureau, the USDA's Economic Research Service, and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) have come together to help define rural areas.","ⴱⵉⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ , ⵙⴰⵔⵓⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴶⵂ ⴻⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ (ⵎOⴱ) ⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵂⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ"
"The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107–171, Sec.","ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵋⵋⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2002 (ⴱ.ⵍ. 107-171, ⵙⵢⵛ"
"""According to the handbook, Definitions of Rural: A Handbook for Health Policy Makers and Researchers, """"Residents of metropolitan counties are generally thought to have easy access to the relatively concentrated health services of the county's central areas.""","“ⵙ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵂⴰⵏⴷⴱⵓⴾⴾ, ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴶⵂⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ: ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵉ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ, ““ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⵂⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵔⵓⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ”"
"""This became the Goldsmith Modification definition of rural. """"""",“ⴰⵓⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴶⵂⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵢⵏⵂⴰⴷ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ”
"""President Emmanuel Macron government launched an action plan in 2019 in favour for rural areas named """"Agenda Rural"""".""",“ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵢ ⴻⵎⵎⴰⵏⵓⵆⵢⵍ ⵎⴰⵛⵔⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵗⵓⵜⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2019 ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ““ ⴰⵋⵢⵏⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ
In Scotland a different definition of rural is used.,ⵢⴰⵗ ⵙⵛⵓⵍⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ
"RBI defines rural areas as those areas with a population of less than 49,000 (tier -3 to tier-6 cities).",ⵔⴱI ⵙⵉⵔ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵛⴰⴶⵂⵉⴱ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ 49.000 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ (ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵉ 3 ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵉ 6 ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ)
Rural areas in Pakistan that are near cities are considered as suburban areas or suburbs.,Iⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⴾⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ
"Suburbs might have their own political or legal jurisdiction, especially in the United States, but this is not always the case, especially in the United Kingdom where most suburbs are located within the administrative boundaries of cities.","ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ , ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵏⵉⵜⵢⴷ ⵆⵉⵏⴶⴷⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ"
"In others, such as Morocco, France, and much of the United States, many suburbs remain separate municipalities or are governed locally as part of a larger metropolitan area such as a county, district or borough.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵓⵛ , ⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ , ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵋⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵓⵓⵏⵜⵉ , ⴷⵉⵙⵜⵔⵉⵛⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⵓⵔⵓⴶⵂ"
"The terms inner suburb and outer suburb are used to differentiate between the higher-density areas in proximity to the city centre (which would not be referred to as 'suburbs' in most other countries), and the lower-density suburbs on the outskirts of the urban area.",Iⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵣⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ ( ⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ) ⴷ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⵢⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴾⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ
"In New Zealand, most suburbs are not legally defined, which can lead to confusion as to where they may begin and end.","ⴷⴰⴶⵂ Nⵢⵓ ⵤⵢⴰⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴶⵂⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⴶⵂⴰ , ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⴶⵂⵏⵢ ⵏ ⵢⴶⵂⴰⴼ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
The word suburbani was first employed by the Roman statesman Cicero in reference to the large villas and estates built by the wealthy patricians of Rome on the city's outskirts.,Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴶⵂⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵢⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵔⵢⵎⴰ ⵛⵉⵛⵢⵔo ⴱⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵂⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴾⴰⵔⴾⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ
"By the mid-19th century, the first major suburban areas were springing up around London as the city (then the largest in the world) became more overcrowded and unsanitary.","ⵗⵂⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 , ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴷⵔⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ ( ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵉⵎ) ⵉⴷⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ"
The line reached Harrow in 1880.,Iⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⵓ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1880
"""The Met's marketing department coined the term """"Metro-land"""" in 1915 when the Guide to the Extension Line became the Metro-land guide, priced at 1d.""",‘’ ⵙⴰⵔⵓⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴾⵢⵜⵉⵏⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵜ ⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⵎⵢⵜⵔⵓ-ⵍⴰⵏⴷ”” ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1915 ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴶⵉⴷ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴶⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵜⵔo-ⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ 1.
"""In part, this was a response to the shocking lack of fitness amongst many recruits during World War One, attributed to poor living conditions; a belief summed up in a housing poster of the period """"you cannot expect to get an A1 population out of C3 homes"""" – referring to military fitness classifications of the period.""","“ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵎⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵋⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ; ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⴻ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵛⴰⵛ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ““ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴻⵎ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴰ1 ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ 3 ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ””- ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ””"
"The Report also legislated on the required, minimum standards necessary for further suburban construction; this included regulation on the maximum housing density and their arrangement and it even made recommendations on the ideal number of bedrooms and other rooms per house.","ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⴷⴷⵢⵈ ⵢⵗⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵢⵔⴰⵗⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ; ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⵙⴰⴷⴷⴻⵈ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ"
Within just a decade suburbs dramatically increased in size.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵢⵔⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ
Levittown developed as a major prototype of mass-produced housing.,ⵍⵢⴱⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⴻⴶⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ
"Shopping for different goods and services in one central location without having to travel to multiple locations, helped to keep shopping centers a component of these newly designed suburbs which were booming in population.","Iⵛⴰⵏⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵢⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ, ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵉ ⴰⴶⵂⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵜⵉⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ"
"The Highway Act of 1956 helped to fund the building of 64,000 kilometers across the nation by having $26 thousand-million to use, which helped to link many more to these shopping centers with ease.",ⵂⵉⴶⵂⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⵛⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1956 ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⴰⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ 64.000 ⵏ ⴾⵉⵍoⵎⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ 2600.000 ⵏ ⴷoⵍⵍⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ Aⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⴶⵂⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴶⵂ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵜⵉⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ
Some suburbs had developed around large cities where there was rail transportation to the jobs downtown.,ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴶⵂⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ
The product was a great housing boom.,ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ
"With 16 million eligible veterans, the opportunity to buy a house was suddenly at hand.",ⵜⴰⴼⴼⴰⵓⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵛⵉⵏⵛ ⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ 16 ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉoⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵜⵔⵢⵜ
"Developers purchased empty land just outside the city, installed tract houses based on a handful of designs, and provided streets and utilities, or local public officials race to build schools.","ⵆⵢⵍ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵢⵉ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵢⴱⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ, ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴾⴱⵉⵣⵣⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴻⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵔⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵙⴰⵔⵓⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ"
Veterans could get one with a much lower down payment.,ⵆⵢⵍ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵜⵔⵢⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ
"The growth of the suburbs was facilitated by the development of zoning laws, redlining and numerous innovations in transport.","ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵗⴰⵙ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ"
African-Americans and other people of color largely remained concentrated within decaying cores of urban poverty.,ⵆⵢⵍ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⵈⴰⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⴾⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ
"After World War II, availability of FHA loans stimulated a housing boom in American suburbs.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ, ⴻⵎⴻⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵂⴰ ⴻⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ"
Economic growth in the United States encouraged the suburbanization of American cities that required massive investments for the new infrastructure and homes.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴻⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ
"""An alternative strategy is the deliberate design of """"new towns"""" and the protection of green belts around cities.""",“ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ““ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴻⵉⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ”” ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵏⵜⵉⴾⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ”
Federal subsidies for suburban development accelerated this process as did the practice of redlining by banks and other lending institutions.,ⵜⵉⴷⵂⵉⵍⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵉ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴻⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵋⵋⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴱⴰⵏⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⴰⵙ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
"Virginia Beach is now the largest city in all of Virginia, having long since exceeded the population of its neighboring primary city, Norfolk.","ⴱⵉⵔⴶⵉⵏⴰ ⴱⴻⴰⵛⵂ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⴶⵉⵏⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴻⵜ, ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵛⴰⵋⵔⴻⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏⴻⵜ, Nⵓⵔⴼⵓⵍⴾ"
"A greater percentage of whites (both non-Hispanic and, in some areas, Hispanic) and lesser percentage of citizens of other ethnic groups than in urban areas.",Iⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⴶ-ⴶⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ( ⵂⵉⵙⵔⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵂⵉⵙⵔⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⵜⴰⵏ) ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ oⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ
"Compared to rural areas, suburbs usually have greater population density, higher standards of living, more complex road systems, more franchised stores and restaurants, and less farmland and wildlife.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ, ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⴶⵂⵉⴱ ,ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⵜ, ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⴱⵉⵜⵉⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵔⴻⵙⵜⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⴻⵋ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ"
"""However, of this metropolitan population, in 2001 nearly half lived in low-density neighborhoods, with only one in five living in a typical """"urban"""" neighborhood.""","“ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2001 ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⵎoⵙ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰ oⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ “ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ““ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ””"
"Throughout Canada, there are comprehensive plans in place to curb sprawl.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
"The majority of recent population growth in Canada's three largest metropolitan areas (Greater Toronto, Greater Montréal, and Greater Vancouver) has occurred in non-core municipalities.","Iⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ (ⵗⵢⴰⵜⵢⵔ ⵟⵓⵔⵓⵏⵜⵓ, ⵗⵔⵢⴰⵜⵢⵔ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵔⵢⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵗⵔⵢⴰⵜⵢⵔ ⵠⴰⵏⵛⵓⵓⴱⵢⵔ) ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ"
This is due to annexation and large geographic footprint within the city borders.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵔⴻⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵎⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴷⵉⵔⵉⵛ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵋoⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ
"In the 2016 census, the City of Calgary had a population of 1,239,220, whereas the Calgary Metropolitan Area had a population of 1,392,609, indicating the vast majority of people in the Calgary CMA lived within the city limits.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ 2016, ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵍⴶⴰⵔⵉ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ 1.239.220 ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵍⴶⴰⵔⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ 1.392.609 ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵍⴶⴰⵔⵉ ⵛⵎⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ"
"In the UK, the government is seeking to impose minimum densities on newly approved housing schemes in parts of South East England.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵆ, ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴻⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵉⵍⵣⵉⵎ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴻⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ"
"Suburbs can be found in Guadalajara, Mexico City, Monterrey, and most major cities.","ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵗⵓⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰ, ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴻⵆⵉⵛⵓ, ⵎⵓⵏⵜⴻⵔⵔⵉ ⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ"
"""As the growth of middle-class and upper-class suburbs increased, low-class squatter areas have increased, most notably """"lost cities"""" in Mexico, campamentos in Chile, barriadas in Peru, villa miserias in Argentina, asentamientos in Guatemala and favelas of Brazil.""","“ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵈⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ, ⵉⴾⴰⵔⴱⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵈⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ “”ⵍⵓⵙⵜ ⵛⵉⵜⵉⵢⵙ”” ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵎⴻⵆⵉⵛⵓ, ⵛⴰⵎⴱⴰⵎⴻⵏⵜⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵛⵂⵉⵍⵉ, ⴱⴰⵔⵔⵉⴰⴷⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴱⴻⵔⵓ, ⴱⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⵉⵙⵢⵔⵉⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵔⴶⴻⵏⵜⵉⵏⴰ, ⴰⵙⵢⵏⵜⴰⵎⵉⵢⵏⵜⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵗⵓⴰⵜⵢⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴷ ⴼⴰⴱⴻⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴱⵔⴰⵣⵉⵍ”"
"In an illustrative case of South Africa, RDP housing has been built.","ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵙⵓⵓⵜⵂ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⴰ , ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⴻⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ"
"In certain areas such as Klang, Subang Jaya and Petaling Jaya, suburbs form the core of these places.","ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵆⵍⴰⵏⴶ, ⵙⵓⴱⴰⵏⴶ ⵋⴰⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴱⴻⵍⴰⵉⵏⴶ ⵋⴰⵉⴰ, ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ"
"In the suburban system, most trips from one component to another component requires that cars enter a collector road, no matter how short or long the distance is.","ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵔⴼⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ‘ⵛⵓⵍⵍⴻⵛⵓⵜⵔ ⵔⵓⴰⴷ’ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏⴻⵜ"
"If a traffic crash occurs on a collector road, or if road construction inhibits the flow, then the entire road system may be rendered useless until the blockage is cleared.",ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴼⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ‘ⵛoⵍⵍⴻⵛⵜⵓⵔ ⵔⵓⴰⴷ’ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵙⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴼⴻⵏ ⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴶⵂⴼⵉⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⴾⵉ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍ
This encourages car trips even for distances as low as several hundreds of yards or meters (which may have become up to several miles or kilometers due to the road network).,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴼⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ( ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴾⵉⵍoⵎⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴾⵉⵍⵓⵎⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵔⴻⵣⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ).
"Taken together, these two groups of taxpayers represent a largely untapped source of potential revenue that cities may begin to target more aggressively, particularly if they're struggling.","ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵔⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ"
"French songs like La Zone by Fréhel (1933), Aux quatre coins de la banlieue by Damia (1936), Ma banlieue by Reda Caire (1937), or Banlieue by Robert Lamoureux (1953), evoke the suburbs of Paris explicitly since the 1930s.","ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⵉⵂⴻⵍ (1933), ⴰⵓⵆ ⵈⵓⴰⵜⵔⴻ ⵛⵓⵉⵏⵙ ⴷⴻ ⵍⴰ ⴱⴰⵏⵍⵉⴻⵓⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴰⵎⵉⴰ ( 1936), ⵎⴰ ⴱⴰⵏⵍⵉⴻⵓⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴻⴷⴰ ⵛⴰⵉⵔⴻ ( 1937) ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⴱⴰⵏⵍⵉⴻⵓⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⴱⴻⵔⵜ ⵍⴰⵎⵓⵓⵔⴻⵓⵆ (1953) ⵉⵎⵎⵉⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1930."
"French cinema was although soon interested in urban changes in the suburbs, with such movies as Mon oncle by Jacques Tati (1958), L'Amour existe by Maurice Pialat (1961) or Two or Three Things I Know About Her by Jean-Luc Godard (1967).","ⵙⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵏⵛⵍⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵛⵈⵓⴻⵙ ⵟⴰⵜⵉ ( 1958), ⵍ’ⴰⵎⵓⵓⵔ ⴻⵆⵉⵙⵜⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵓⵔⵉⵛⴻ ⴱⵉⴰⵍⴰⵜ (1961) ⵎⴻⵗ ⵟⵓⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵟⵂⵔⴻⴻ ⵟⵂⵉⵏⴶⵙ I ⵆⵏⵓⵓ ⴰⴱoⵓⵜ ⵂⴻⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴻⴰⵏ-ⵍⵓⵛⵂ ⵗⵓⴷⴰⵔⴷ ( 1967)"
"""The 1962 song """"Little Boxes"""" by Malvina Reynolds lampoons the development of suburbia and its perceived bourgeois and conformist values, while the 1982 song Subdivisions by the Canadian band Rush also discusses suburbia, as does Rockin' the Suburbs by Ben Folds.""",“ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⴶⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ 1962 ““ⵍⵉⵜⵜⵍⴻ ⴱⵓⵆⴻⵙ”” ⵏ ⵎⴰⵍvⵉⵏⴰ ⵔⴻⵉⵏⵓⵍⴷⵙ ⵍⴰⵎⵔⵓⵓⵏ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴰⵔⵂo ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⴻⵓⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1982 ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⴶⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⴷⵉvⵉⵣⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴱⴰⵏⴷ ⴱⵓⵙⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱⵉⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵔⵙⵛⴾⵉⵏ’ ⵜⵂⴻ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴻⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⴷⵙ”
Over the Hedge is a syndicated comic strip written and drawn by Michael Fry and T. Lewis.,ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⵙⵜⵔⵉⵔ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⵉⵛⵂⴰⴻⵍ ⴼⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵟ. ⵍⴻⵓⵉⵙ ⴷⴻⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ
"British television series such as The Good Life, Butterflies and The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin have depicted suburbia as well-manicured but relentlessly boring, and its residents as either overly conforming or prone to going stir crazy.","ⵙⴻⵔⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵟⴰⵍⴰvⵉⵣⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵟⵂⴻ ⵗⵓⵓⴷ ⵍⵉⴼⴻ, ⴱⵓⵜⵜⴻⵔⴼⵍⵉⴻⵙ ⴷⵂⴻ ⴼⴰⵍⵍ ⴷ ⵔⵉⵙⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴻⴶⵉⵏⴰⵍⴷ ⴱⴻⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱⵉⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⵉⵛⵉⵍⴷⴰⵛ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵋⴰⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴱⵓⴷⴷⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet but smaller than a town (although the word is often used to describe both hamlets and smaller towns), with a population typically ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand.",ⴱⵉⵍⴰⵋ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ( ⴾⵓⴷⴷⴻⴶⵂ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴶⵂⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵔⵎⵢⵏ) ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵢⴼⴷⴰⵏ.
"This also enabled specialization of labor and crafts, and development of many trades.",ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴻⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋ ⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ
The size of these villages varies considerably.,ⵜⵉⵎⴶⵂⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ vⵉⵍⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ
Desa are generally located in rural areas while kelurahan are generally urban subdivisions.,ⴷⴻⵙⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵆⵢⵍⵓⵔⵔⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⴶⵂⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ
"A desa or kelurahan is the subdivision of a kecamatan (subdistrict), in turn the subdivision of a kabupaten (district) or kota (city).","ⴷⴻⵙⴰ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⵆⴻⵍⵓⵔⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵆⴻⵛⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ (ⵙⵓⴱⴷⵉⵙⵜⵔⵉⵛⵜ) , ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵆⴰⴱⵓⵔⴰⵜⴻⵏ (ⴷⵉⵙⵜⵔⵉⵛⵜ) ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⵆⵓⵜⴰ ( ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎⵜ)"
"In Malaysia, a kampung is determined as a locality with 10,000 or fewer people.","ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵉⵙⵉⴰ , ⵆⴰⵎⵔⵓⵏⴶ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏ 10.000 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ"
"All Muslims in the Malay or Indonesian village want to be prayed for, and to receive Allah's blessings in the afterlife.",ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵉⵙⵉⴰ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵏⴻⵙⵉⴰ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⴰⴼ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜ
Mainland Singapore used to have many kampung villages but modern developments and rapid urbanisation works have seen them bulldozed away; Kampong Lorong Buangkok is the last surviving village on the country's mainland.,"ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴶⴰⵔⵓⵔⴻ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ, ⴻⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵙⴰⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵔⴰⵣⴻ, ⵆⴰⵎⵔⵓⵏⴶ Lⵓⵔⵓⵏⴶ ⴱⵓⴰⵏⴶⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⴱⵉⵍⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⴻⵈⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ"
Vietnam's village is the typical symbol of Asian agricultural production.,ⴱⵉⵍⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⴻⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴻⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵋⵋⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ
"In Slovenia, the word selo is used for very small villages (fewer than 100 people) and in dialects; the Slovene word vas is used all over Slovenia.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵙⵍⴱⵓⴻⵏⵉⴰ, ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴻⵍⵓ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉ vⵉⵍⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ ( ⵉⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⵉ 100 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ) ⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ; ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴱⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵍⵓⴱⴻⵏⴻ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵍⵓⴱⴻⵏⵉⴰ"
It could be relative to a Sanskrit like Afgan word deh and Indonesian word desa.,ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵂⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⵙⴾⵔⵉⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴶⴰⵏ ⴻⴻⵂ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵏⴻⵙⵉⴰ ⴷⴻⵙⴰ
Approximately 46% of all migrated people have changed their residence from one city to another.,ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵏ 46% ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵜ
"The lowest administrative unit of the Russian Empire, a volost, or its Soviet or modern Russian successor, a selsoviet, was typically headquartered in a selo and embraced a few neighboring villages.","ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴻⵎⵔⵉⵔⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ, ⴱⵓⵍⵓⵙⵜ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⴰⵎⴰⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵉⴻⵜ ⵓⵏⵉⵓⵏ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ, ⵙⴻⵍⵙⵓⴱⵉⴻⵜ, ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵙⴻⵍⵓ ⵜⵙⵍⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵍⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏⴻⵜ"
"While peasants of central Russia lived in a village around the lord's manor, a Cossack family often lived on its own farm, called khutor.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵜⵉⵉⵋⵋⴰⵙ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ vⵉⵍⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵔⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⵓⵔ, ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵙⵙⴰⵛⴾ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵋⵋⵓⵙ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵆⵂⵓⵜⵓⵔ"
"There is, however, another smaller type of settlement which is designated in Ukrainian as a selysche (селище).",ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴾⵔⴰⵉⵏⵢ ⵙⴻⵍⵉⵙⵛⵂⴻ (селище).
"They represent a type of a small rural locality that might have once been a khutir, a fisherman's settlement, or a dacha.","ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵆⵂⵓⵜⵉⵔ , ⴰⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴷⴰⵛⵂⴰ"
"However, ambiguity is often avoided in connection with urbanized settlements by referring to them using the three-letter abbreviation smt instead.",ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⵓⴰⵗⵏⴻ ⵏ ⴻⵗⴰⴼ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⵔⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⵎⵜ.
They became really popular during the Stolypin reform in the early 20th century.,ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵔⴻⴼⵓⵔⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵜⵓⵍⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⵉⵛⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900
Larger villages can also be referred to as a Flecken or Markt depending on the region.,ⴱⵉⵍⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⵂⵉⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵍⴻⵛⴾⴻⵏ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⵎⴰⵔⴾⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵙ ⵔⴻⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ
"For example, in areas such as the Lincolnshire Wolds, the villages are often found along the spring line halfway down the hillsides, and originate as spring line settlements, with the original open field systems around the village.","Iⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ Lⵉⵏⵛⵓⵍⵏⵙⵂⵉⵔⵢ ⵓⵓⵍⴷⵙ, ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⵓⴰⵔⵜ, ⴰⵂⵏⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ"
"Some villages have disappeared (for example, deserted medieval villages), sometimes leaving behind a church or manor house and sometimes nothing but bumps in the fields.","ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵏ (ⵉⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵢⵔⵓ) , ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵉⵉⵉⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"Other villages have grown and merged and often form hubs within the general mass of suburbia—such as Hampstead, London and Didsbury in Manchester.","ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵏⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱⵉⴰ - ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⴰⵍⵔⵙⵜⴻⴰⴷ, ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵔⴻ ⴷ ⴻⵉⴷⵙⴱⵓⵔⵉ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵎⴰⵏⵛⵂⴻⵙⵜⴻⵔ"
"Seen as being far from the bustle of modern life, it is represented as quiet and harmonious, if a little inward-looking.","ⵓⵋⵋⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ, ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⴻⵜ"
"These (such as Murton, County Durham) grew from hamlets when the sinking of a colliery in the early 20th century resulted in a rapid growth in their population and the colliery owners built new housing, shops, pubs and churches.","ⵓⵉⵏ (ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⵔⵜⵉⵏ, ⵛⵓⵓⵏⵜⵉ ⴻⵓⵔⵂⴰⵎ) ⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵗⴰⵓⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ 1900 ⴻⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵓⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵓⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ, ⴱⵉⵜⵉⴶⵉ, ⵔⵓⴱ ⴷ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ."
Maltby was constructed under the auspices of the Sheepbridge Coal and Iron Company and included ample open spaces and provision for gardens.,"ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴱⵉ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵜⵉ ⵙⵂⵢⴱⴱⵔⵉⴷⴶⵢ ⵛⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴷ Iⵔⵓⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⴰⵏⵉ , ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵋⴰⵏ"
"The typical village had a pub or inn, shops, and a blacksmith.","ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴱⵓⴱ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵂⵓⵜⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⴱⵉⵜⵉⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵏⵂⴰⴷ"
"However, some civil parishes have no functioning parish, town, or city council nor a functioning parish meeting.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ,ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵆⴷⴻⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ, ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴻⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵉⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ"
"In Scotland, the equivalent is also a community council, however, despite being statutory bodies they have no executive powers.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵛⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴾⵓⵎⵙⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ,ⴰⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"The district of Danniyeh consists of thirty-six small villages, which includes Almrah, Kfirchlan, Kfirhbab, Hakel al Azimah, Siir, Bakhoun, Miryata, Assoun, Sfiiri, Kharnoub, Katteen, Kfirhabou, Zghartegrein, Ein Qibil.","ⴷⵉⵙⵜⵔⵉⴾⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴻⵂ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⵔⴰⵂ, ⵆⴼⵉⵔⵛⵂⵍⴰⵏ, ⵂⴰⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵉⵎⴰⵂ, ⵙⵉⵉⵔ, ⴱⴰⴾⵂⵓⵓⵏ, ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴰⵜⴰ, ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵓⵏ, ⵙⴼⵉⵉⵔⵉ, ⵆⵂⴰⵎ,ⵓⵓⴱ, ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴻⵏ, ⵆⵂⵉⵔⵂⴰⴱⵓⵓ, ⵌⴶⵂⴰⵔⵜⵢⴶⵔⵢⵉⵏ, ⵢⵉⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⵉⵍ"
"Dinniyeh has an excellent ecological environment filled with woodlands, orchards and groves.","ⴷⵉⵏⵏⵉⵉⵢⵂ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵂⵉⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵗⴰⵓ ⵉⴷⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵂⵉⵛⴾⴰⵏ, ⵢⵔⵛⵂⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴶⵔⵓⴱⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"Villages in the south of Syria (Hauran, Jabal al-Druze), the north-east (the Syrian island) and the Orontes River basin depend mostly on agriculture, mainly grain, vegetables, and fruits.","ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴰ ( ⵂⴰⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⵋⴰⴱⴰⵍ ⴰⵍ-ⵢⵔⵓⵣⵢ) ,ⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰ -ⵉ-ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ (ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴰⵏ Iⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷ) ⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵛⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⵏⵜⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵆⵉⵋⵋⴰⵙ, ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵗⴰⵎ, ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾⴰⵏ"
"Mediterranean cities in Syria, such as Tartus and Latakia have similar types of villages.",ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵜⵢⵔⵔⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵟⴰⵔⵜⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵜⴰⴾⵉⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ
"""Every urbanization is a """"pueblo"""" unless is elevated by decree to the next category.""",“ⵓⵔⴱⴰⵏⵉⵣⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ““ⴱⵓⵢⴱⵍⵢ”” ⵂⴰⵔ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴾⵉⵣ ⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ “
"However, this is a generality; in many states, there are villages that are an order of magnitude larger than the smallest cities in the state.","ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ"
"In some cases, the village may be coterminous with the town or township, in which case the two may have a consolidated government.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵓⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⵢⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ"
"Hempstead, the largest village, has 55,000 residents; making it more populous than some of the state's cities.",ⵂⴰⵎⴱⵙⵜⴻⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ 55.000 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ; ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵢ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ
"The village of Arlington Heights, Illinois had 75,101 residents as of the 2010 census.","ⴷⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵍⵉⵏⴶⵜⵓⵏ ⵂⵢⵉⴶⵂⵜⵙ, Iⵍⵍⵉⵏⵓⵉⵙ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ 75.101 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ 2010"
Villages can incorporate land in multiple townships and even multiple counties.,ⴷⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴾⵓⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ
"The largest village is Menomonee Falls, which has over 32,000 residents.",ⴷⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵎⵢⵏⵓⵎⵓⵏⴻⴻ ⴼⴰⵍⵍⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ 32.000 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ
"""In Maryland, a locality designated """"Village of ..."""" may be either an incorporated town or a special tax district.""","“ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷ , ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ““ⵜⵢⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ.... ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⴷⵉⵙⵜⵔⵉⴾⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ”"
At that time Traditional rulers used to have absolute power in their administrative regions.,ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
Every Hausa village was reigned by Magaji (Village head) who was answerable to his Hakimi (mayor) at the town level.,ⵂⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵗⴰⵓⵙⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵋⴰⵙ ⴰⵉⴶⴰⵋⵉ (ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ) ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⴾⵉⵎⵉ (ⵎⴻⵔ) ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ
"They have mud houses with thatched roofing though, like in most of the villages in the North, zinc roofing is becoming a common sight.","ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵙⴰ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⵎⵓⵣ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ , ⵣⵉⵏⵛ ⵔⵓⵓⴼⵉⵏⴶ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ"
Others are lucky to have wells within a walking distance.,ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵔⵉⵣⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵙⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⵓⵣⴰⵏ
An atlas is a collection of maps; it is typically a bundle of maps of Earth or a region of Earth.,ⴰⵜⵍⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ; ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵏ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
"This title provides Mercator's definition of the word as a description of the creation and form of the whole universe, not simply as a collection of maps.","ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵉ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵔⵛⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰⴾ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ , ⵓⴰⴷⴷⴻⵏ ⴶⵂⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ"
A desk atlas is made similar to a reference book.,ⴱⵉⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ
"""In cartography, a contour line (often just called a """"contour"""") joins points of equal elevation (height) above a given level, such as mean sea level.""","“ⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉ, ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵢⵗⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ (ⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ““ⵜⴰⵗⵢⵍⵉⵜ” ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵜ (ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ) ⵙ ⴰ ⵢⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵋⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ”"
The gradient of the function is always perpendicular to the contour lines.,ⵗⵔⵉⵉⴰⵋ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵓⵣⵗⴰⵗ ⵉ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵢⵍⵉⵜ
"Contour lines are curved, straight or a mixture of both lines on a map describing the intersection of a real or hypothetical surface with one or more horizontal planes.","ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵢⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉⴰⵏ , ⵓⵗⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴱⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵣⵗⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ."
"In 1701, Edmond Halley used such lines (isogons) on a chart of magnetic variation.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1701, ⴻⴷⵎⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⴰⵍⵢⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ( ⵉⵙⵓⴶⵓⵏⵙ) ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⴶⵏⴻⵜⵉⴾ vⴰⵔⵉⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ"
"In 1791, a map of France by J. L. Dupain-Triel used contour lines at 20-metre intervals, hachures, spot-heights and a vertical section.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1791, ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ Fⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵋ. ⵍ. ⴻⵓⴱⴰⵉⵏ-ⵟⵔⵉⴻⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ 20 ⵏ ⵎⵢⵜⵉⵔ, ⵂⴰⵛⵂⵓⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ,ⵂⴰⵛⵂⵓⵔⵓ,ⵙⴱⵓⵜ-ⵂⵢⵉⴶⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ"
"Isobaths were not routinely used on nautical charts until those of Russia from 1834, and those of Britain from 1838.",ⵉⵙⵓⴱⴰⵜⵂ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵏⴰⵓⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1834 ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1838
"As late as 1944, John K. Wright still preferred isogram, but it never attained wide usage.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1944, ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⵆ ⵓⵔⵉⴶⵂⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼ ⵉⵙⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵓⵢⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵏ"
"Despite attempts to select a single standard, all of these alternatives have survived to the present.","ⴷⵔⴻⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉ ⵏⴻⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴾⴻⵏ , ⴼⴻⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ"
"Weather stations are seldom exactly positioned at a contour line (when they are, this indicates a measurement precisely equal to the value of the contour).","ⵙⵜⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵏⴰⵛ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⵏⴰⵙⵙⴻ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ ( ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ , ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴾⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ)"
"In meteorology, the barometric pressures shown are reduced to sea level, not the surface pressures at the map locations.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴻⵜⴻo, ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵋⴰⵔⴻⵓ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⴻⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ"
Isallobars are lines joining points of equal pressure change during a specific time interval.,ⵉⵙⴰⵍⵍⵓⴱⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴶⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ
Isallobaric gradients are important components of the wind as they increase or decrease the geostrophic wind.,ⴶⵔⴰⴷⵉⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ Iⵙⵓⵍⵍⵓⴱⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵓⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴼⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⵓⵏⵉⵏⴾⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵓ
An isotherm at 0 °C is called the freezing level.,ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵂⴻⵔⵎ ⵗⵓⵔ 0 °ⵛ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⴻⴷⴰⵏ
"From these contours, a sense of the general terrain can be determined.","ⵗⵂⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴻⵍⵉⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴶⴻⵏⴻⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵔⵔⴰⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜ ⵓ ⴰⴶⵂⵉⵍ"
"In cartography, the contour interval is the elevation difference between adjacent contour lines.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉ, ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⴻⵔ"
Two or more contour lines merging indicates a cliff.,ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⵜⵉⵗⴻⵍⵉⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ
"Usually contour intervals are consistent throughout a map, but there are exceptions.",ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵗⵎⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ
Whether crossing an equipotential line represents ascending or descending the potential is inferred from the labels on the charges.,ⵋⵉⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵛⵂⴰⵛⵂ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵍⴰⴱⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⵔⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ
Acid precipitation is indicated on maps with isoplats.,ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⴷ ⴱⵔⴻⵛⵉⴱⵉⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵓⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
Contour lines are also used to display non-geographic information in economics.,ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵉⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ
Such isolines are useful for representing more than two dimensions (or quantities) on two-dimensional graphs.,ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⴻⵍⵉⵉⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙo ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⴾⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ (ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉⴻⵏ ) ⴼⴰⵍ ⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ.
"In interpreting radar images, an isodop is a line of equal Doppler velocity, and an isoecho is a line of equal radar reflectivity.","ⴻⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵔⴰⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵓⴷⵔⵓⴱ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴻⴱⴱⵍⴻⵔ vⴻⵍⵓⵛⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴻⵛⵂⵓ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵔⴰⴷⴰⵔ ⵔⴻⴼⵍⴻⵛⵜⵉvⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵜ"
Line color is the choice of any number of pigments that suit the display.,ⴻⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ
"Line type refers to whether the basic contour line is solid, dashed, dotted or broken in some other pattern to create the desired effect.","ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ, ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵗⵜⴰⴱⴰⵗ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵔⵣⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴻⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⴶⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
Numerical marking is the manner of denoting the arithmetical values of contour lines.,ⴻⵛⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵔⵉⵜⵂⵎⴻⵜⵉⵛ vⴰⵍⵓⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ.
"If the contour lines are not numerically labeled and adjacent lines have the same style (with the same weight, color and type), then the direction of the gradient cannot be determined from the contour lines alone.","ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵛⵛⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⴻⵔ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍ ( ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉⵜ , ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍ) ⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵓⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⴰⴷⵉⴻⵏⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵋ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ"
A properly labeled contour map helps the reader to quickly interpret the shape of the terrain.,ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴻⵛⵓⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵂⵉⵍ ⴻⵎⴰⴶⵂⵉⵔ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵂⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵎⵓⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵔⵔⴰⵉⵏ
Then the coordinates of other places are measured from the nearest control point through surveying.,ⴻⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵓⵔⴷⵓⵏⴰⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴻⵂⵉⵣ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ
This phenomenon is called datum shift.,Iⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴷⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵙⵂⵉⵍⴼⵜ
"More ambitious undertakings such as the Struve Geodetic Arc across Eastern Europe (1816-1855) and the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India (1802-1871) took much longer, but resulted in more accurate estimations of the shape of the Earth ellipsoid.",ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⴶⵍⴰⵉ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⴱⴻ ⵗⴻⵓⴷⴻⵜⵉⵛ ⴰⵔⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1816 ⵂⴰⵔ 1855) ⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵏ ⵟⵉⴶⵓⵏⵓⵎⴻⵜⵔⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1802 ⵂⴰⵔ 1871) ⴰⵂⵓⵋ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⴻⵓⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵍⵍⵉⴱⵙⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
"An approximate definition of sea level is the datum WGS 84, an ellipsoid, whereas a more accurate definition is Earth Gravitational Model 2008 (EGM2008), using at least 2,159 spherical harmonics.","ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵋⴰⵔⴻⵓ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵓⵗⵙ 84, ⴻⵍⵍⵉⴱⵙⵓⵉⴷ, ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⴻⴰⵔⵜⵂ ⵗⵔⴰvⵉⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⴷⴻⵍ 2008 ( ⴻⵗⵎ2008) ⵉⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ 2.159.ⵙⴱⵂⴻⵔⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⵎⵓⵏⵉⵛⵙ"
"When used without qualification, the term latitude refers to geodetic latitude.",ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵜⵉ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵜⵓⴷⴻ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴶⴻⵓⴷⴻⵜⵉⵛ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵜⵓⴷⴻ
"The datum shift between two particular datums can vary from one place to another within one country or region, and can be anything from zero to hundreds of meters (or several kilometers for some remote islands).",ⴷⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵙⵂⵉⴼⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⵔⴻⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵢⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵎⵢⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ( ⵎⴻⵗ ⵎⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵋⵏⴻⵏ)
"For example, in Sydney there is a 200 metres (700 feet) difference between GPS coordinates configured in GDA (based on global standard WGS 84) and AGD (used for most local maps), which is an unacceptably large error for some applications, such as surveying or site location for scuba diving.","ⵉⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⴷⵏⵢⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ 200 ⵏ ⵎⵢⵜⵉⵔ (700 ⵏ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ) ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⴱⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⴰ ( ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⴷ ⵓⵗⵙ 84 ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ) ⴷ ⴰⵗⴻ ( ⵢⵆⴰⴷⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ) ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴱⵍⵉⴾⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ"
"Since reference datums can have different radii and different center points, a specific point on Earth can have substantially different coordinates depending on the datum used to make the measurement.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵔⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⵉ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ, ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵜⵓⵎⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵢⴾⴻⵜ"
"The most common reference Datums in use in North America are NAD27, NAD83, and WGS 84.","ⴷⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴻ27, ⵏⴰⴻ83, ⴷⵓⵗⵙ 84"
"""This datum, designated as NAD 83 ...is based on the adjustment of 250,000 points including 600 satellite Doppler stations which constrain the system to a geocentric origin.""""""",“ⴷⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵏⴰⵢ 83...ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⴷ ⵏ 250.000 ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵂⴰⵏ 600 ⵏ ⵙⴰⵜⵢⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⵜⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⴹⵓⴱⴱⵍⴻⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴶⴻⵓⵛⵢⵏⵜⵔⵉⵛ ⵓⵔⵉⴶⵉⵏ””
"It is the reference frame used by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and is defined by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) (formerly the Defense Mapping Agency, then the National Imagery and Mapping Agency).",ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵔⵉⵛ ⵙ ⴻⴻⴱⴰⵔⵜⵎⴻⵏⵜ ⵓⴼ ⴻⴻⴼⴻⵏⵙⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ (ⴻⵓⴻ) ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⴼⴻ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⵗⴻⵓⵙⴱⴰⵜⵉⴰⵍ-ⵉⵏⵜⴻⵍⵍⵉⴶⴻⵏⵛⴻ ⴰⴶⴻⵏⵛⵉ (ⵏⵗⴰ) ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ (ⴰ ⴻⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴻⴼⴻⵏⴻ ⵎⴰⴱⴱⵉⵏⴶ ⴰⴶⴻⵏⵛⵉ ⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵜⵉoⵏⴰⵍ Iⵎⴰⴶⴻⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⴷ ⵎⴰⴱⴱⵉⵏⴶ ⴰⴶⴻⵏⵛⵉ)
"It was used as the reference frame for broadcast GPS Ephemerides (orbits) beginning January 23, 1987.",ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴱⵔⵓⴰⴷⵛⴰⵙⵜ ⵗⴱⵙ ⴻⴱⵂⴻⵎⴻⵔⵉⴷⴻⵙ ( ⵓⵔⴱⵉⵜⵙ) ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 23 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1987.
"It became the reference frame for broadcast orbits on June 28, 1994.",ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴱⵔⵓⴰⴷⵛⴰⵙⵜ ⵓⵔⴱⵉⵜⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵣⴻⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 28 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ 1994.
"WGS 84 (G873) was adopted as the reference frame for broadcast orbits on January 29, 1997.",ⵓⵗⵙ 84 (ⵗ873) ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴱⵔⵓⴰⵛⴰⵙⵜ ⵓⵔⴱⵉⵜⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 29 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1997
WGS 84 is the default standard datum for coordinates stored in recreational and commercial GPS units.,ⵓⵗⵙ 84 ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴹⴻⴼⴰⵓⵍⵜ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⴷ ⴷⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵉ ⵛⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵣⴰⵏⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⴱⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ
"For example, the longitudinal difference between a point on the equator in Uganda, on the African Plate, and a point on the equator in Ecuador, on the South American Plate, increases by about 0.0014 arcseconds per year.","Iⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵙ Uⴶⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵓⵓⵉⴷ ⵙ 0.0014ⴰⵔⵛⵙⴻⵛⵓⵏⴷⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ"
"Most mapping, such as within a single country, does not span plates.",Iⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵆⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵙⴰ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ
"Ptolemy credited him with the full adoption of longitude and latitude, rather than measuring latitude in terms of the length of the midsummer day.",ⴱⵜⵓⵍⴻⵎⵉ ⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴻⴾⴻⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵍⴰⵏ
Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes' recovery of Ptolemy's text a little before 1300; the text was translated into Latin at Florence by Jacobus Angelus around 1407.,ⵆⴰⵔⵜoⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⵜⵓⵍⴻⵎⵉ ⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴻⴾⴻⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⴻⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵓⴶⵂⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ Eⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵆⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵓⴷⴻⵙ ⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵜⵓⵍⴻⵎⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵉ 1300: ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵉⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵊⴰⵛⵓⴱⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴶⴻⵍⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⴻⵏⵛⴻ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1407
"They then choose the most appropriate mapping of the spherical coordinate system onto that ellipsoid, called a terrestrial reference system or geodetic datum.",ⴻⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⴰⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵍⵍⵉⴱⵙoⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵟⴻⵔⵔⴻⵙⵜⵔⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵗⴻⴰⴷⴻⵜⵓⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵜⵓⵎ
"φ, or phi) of a point on Earth's surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through (or close to) the center of the Earth.","φ, ⵓⵔ ⵔⵂⵉ) ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔⵉⴰⵍ ⵔⵍⴰⵏⴻ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⴶⵂⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵂⵉ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴾⴰⵉ (ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵣ ⵉⵏ) ⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
"All meridians are halves of great ellipses (often called great circles), which converge at the North and South Poles.",ⵎⵓⵎⴻⵔⵉⴷⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵎⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ( ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵍⵓⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ) ⴰⵂⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙ ⵔⵓⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⴰⵍⴰ
"The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E. This is not to be conflated with the International Date Line, which diverges from it in several places for political and convenience reasons, including between far eastern Russia and the far western Aleutian Islands.",ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵛⵢⴷⴰⵍ ⵎⴻⵔⵉⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⴻⴻⵏⵓⵉⵛⵂ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ 180°W ⴰⵏⴷ 180°E ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ. ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵂⴻⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ Iⵏⵜⴻⵔⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⴹⴰⵜⴻ ⵍⵉⵏⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴻⵂⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴻⵓⵜⵉⴰⵏ Iⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷⵙ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ
Coordinates on a map are usually in terms northing N and easting E offsets relative to a specified origin.,ⵛⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷ ⵢ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵗⵉⵏⵏⵉ
"In geography, latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the Earth's surface.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ , ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⵢ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ-ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
Latitude is used together with longitude to specify the precise location of features on the surface of the Earth.,ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵗⵉⵔ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
The second step is to approximate the geoid by a mathematically simpler reference surface.,ⵜⵉⴾⴾⵢⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⵓⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵔⵢⴼⵔⵢⵏⵙ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾ
Lines of constant latitude and longitude together constitute a graticule on the reference surface.,ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵓⵍⴻ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵔⵢⴼⵢⵔⵢⵏⵙ
"""Since there are many different reference ellipsoids, the precise latitude of a feature on the surface is not unique: this is stressed in the ISO standard which states that """"without the full specification of the coordinate reference system, coordinates (that is latitude and longitude) are ambiguous at best and meaningless at worst"""".""","“ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴻⵍⵍⵉⴱⵙⵓⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ , ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴶⵂⴰⵙ. ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ IⵙO ⵙⵜⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⴷ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ “ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵔⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻ, ⵛⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ( ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ) ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴻⵗⴰⴼ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ””"
The plane through the centre of the Earth and perpendicular to the rotation axis intersects the surface at a great circle called the Equator.,ⴰⴱⵉⵓⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵓⵣⵗⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵔⵓⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴰⵆⵉⵙ ⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ Eⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ
The time variation is discussed more fully in the article on axial tilt.,ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵔⵜⵉⴾⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⵉⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵍⵜ
"The situation is reversed at the June solstice, when the Sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer.",ⵜⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⵣⵢⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵟⵔⵓⴱⵉⵛ ⵓⴼ ⵛⴰⵏⵛⴻⵔ
"Since latitude is defined with respect to an ellipsoid, the position of a given point is different on each ellipsoid: one cannot exactly specify the latitude and longitude of a geographical feature without specifying the ellipsoid used.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⵢ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵍⵍⵉⴱⵙⵓⵉⴷ, ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵍⵍⵉⴱⵙⵓⵉⴷ ⴼⵓⴾ: ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵋⵓⵔⴶⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴻⵍ ⴻⵍⵍⵉⴱⵙⵓⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵙ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ"
Geographic latitude must be used with care.,ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⴻⵙⴰⵓⵢⵉ
The evaluation of the meridian distance integral is central to many studies in geodesy and map projection.,ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵛⵉⵛ ⵏ ⵓⵋⵋⵉⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵔⵉⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴶⵢⵓⴷⵢⵙⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ
There are two methods of proceeding.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵓⵜⵜⵉⴼ ⵏⵢⵜ
"When converting from isometric or conformal to geodetic, two iterations of Newton-Raphson gives double precision accuracy.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍⴰ Iⵙⵓⵎⴻⵜⵔⵉⵛ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴶⴻⵓⴷⴻⵜⵉⵛ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ-ⵔⴰⴱⵂⵙⵓⵏ ⵂⴰⴾⴾⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ"
The differences shown on the plot are in arc minutes.,ⵜⴰⵎⴻⵣⵍⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵔⵔⴰⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵏⴶⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
The transformation between geodetic and Cartesian coordinates may be found in Geographic coordinate conversion.,ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴶⴻⵓⴷⴻⵜⵉⵛ ⵛⴰⵔⵜⴻⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⵔⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵓⵉⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ
In general the true vertical at a point on the surface does not exactly coincide with either the normal to the reference ellipsoid or the normal to the geoid.,ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵉⵉⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵍⵍⵉⴱⵙⵓⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴶⴻⵓⵉⴷ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ
"Longitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the east–west position of a point on the Earth's surface, or the surface of a celestial body.",ⵟⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ-ⴷⴰⴶⵂ-ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ
"The prime meridian, which passes near the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, England, is defined as 0° longitude by convention.","ⴱⵔⵉⵎⴻ ⵎⴻⵔⵉⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵉⴰⵍ Oⴱⵙⴻⵔvⴰⵜⵓⵔⵉ, ⵗⵔⵢⵏⵓⵉⵛⵂ, ⴻⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⵂⵉⵔ ⵙ 0° ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ"
"Local time (for example from the position of the sun) varies with longitude, a difference of 15° longitude corresponding to a one-hour difference in local time.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ( ⵉⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ) ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴻⵣⴰⵣⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ 15° ⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
"The principle is straightforward, but in practice finding a reliable method of determining longitude took centuries and required the effort of some of the greatest scientific minds.",ⵎⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵉ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴻⵛⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⴻⵏⵛⵢ
His prime meridian passed through Alexandria.,ⴱⵔⵢⵎⴻ ⵎⵢⵔⵉⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴻⵆⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉⴰ
"He used a prime meridian through the Canary Islands, so that all longitude values would be positive.",ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴱⵔⵉⵎⴻ ⵎⵢⵔⵉⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⵔⵉ Iⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏⵀ
"Hindu and Muslim astronomers continued to develop these ideas, adding many new locations and often improving on Ptolemy's data.","ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ Iⵏⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵀⴰⵔ ⴰⵊⵊⵓⴷⵉ oⴽⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵢⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴻⵢⵏⴰⵢⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵇ ⵉⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵜⵓⵍⴻⵎⵢ ⵗⴼ"
"In the later Middle Ages, interest in geography revived in the west, as travel increased, and Arab scholarship began to be known through contact with Spain and North Africa.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ, ⴰⴼoⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋoⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵗⵓⵔ Iⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵔⴰⵙⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ"
"Christopher Columbus made two attempts to use lunar eclipses to discover his longitude, the first in Saona Island, on 14 September 1494 (second voyage), and the second in Jamaica on 29 February 1504 (fourth voyage).","ⴾⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⴼⵔ ⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓⵙ ⴻⵔⴰⵎ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴻⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙ-ⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵏⴻⵜ, ⴰⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵓⵏⴰ ⵏⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵜⴰⵎⴱⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 14 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1494 ( ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ-ⵙⵉⵏ) ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ-ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴳⴰⵎⴰⵉⵛⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 29 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1504. ( ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣ"
"Initially an observation device, developments over the next half century transformed it into an accurate measurement tool.","ⵙ ⵜⵢⵣⴰⵔⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵖⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ, ⵉⴼⴻⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴻⴾⴻⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ"
"On land, the period from the development of telescopes and pendulum clocks until the mid 18th-Century saw a steady increase in the number of places whose longitude had been determined with reasonable accuracy, often with errors of less than a degree, and nearly always within 2-3°.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵍⴻⵙⵛⵓⴱⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴻⵏⴷⵓⵍⵓⵎ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵓⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ , ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⵉ ⴷⴻⴶⵔⴻ ⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ 2 ⴷ 3 °."
"Making accurate observations in an ocean swell is much harder than on land, and pendulum clocks do not work well in these conditions.",Iⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴻⵋⵋⴰⵔⴻⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⴻⵏⴷⵓⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⵔ ⵆⴰⴷⴷⵉⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⴻⵏ
"It offered two levels of rewards, for solutions within 1° and 0.5°.",ⴻⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 1° ⵂⴰⵔ 0.5°
"This work was supported and rewarded with thousands of pounds from the Board of Longitude, but he fought to receive money up to the top reward of £20,000, finally receiving an additional payment in 1773 after the intervention of parliament.","ⴰⵍⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵏⴷⵙ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴱⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵓⴼ Lⵓⵏⴶⵉⵜⵓⴷⴻ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⴻⴶⵂⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵋⵔⵓ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴻⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ 20,000 ⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔ, ⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1773 ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ"
Lunar distances came into general use after 1790.,Uⵋⵋⵉⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1790
It was quickly realised that the telegraph could be used to transmit a time signal for longitude determination.,Iⵋⵔⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵎⵓⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴻⵍⴻⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⵉⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ
"The Survey established chains of mapped locations through Central and South America, and the West Indies, and as far as Japan and China in the years 1874–90.",ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴻⵙⵜ Iⵏⴷⵉⴻⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⴱⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 1874 ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ 90
This changed when wireless telegraphy became available in the early 20th-Century.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴻⵍⴻⴶⵔⴰⴶⵂⵉ ⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵗⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000
Radio navigation systems came into general use after World War II.,ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉ ⵏ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
"With the exception of magnetic declination, all proved practicable methods.","ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⴶⵏⴻⵜⵉⵛ ⴷⴻⵛⵍⵉⵏⴰⵜⵉoⵏ, ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵓⵋⵋⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ"
Longitude at a point may be determined by calculating the time difference between that at its location and Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).,ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⴷⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⵣⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻⴷ ⵓⵏⵉvⴻⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵟⵉⵎⴻ (ⵓⵟⵙ)
"The word near is used because the point might not be at the centre of the time zone; also the time zones are defined politically, so their centres and boundaries often do not lie on meridians at multiples of 15°.","Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ: ⵙⴰⴷⴷⴻⵈ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴼoⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⴰⵜ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵂⴻⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴻⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵜⴼⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ 15°"
"The international standard convention (ISO 6709)—that East is positive—is consistent with a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system, with the North Pole up.",Iⵏⵜⴻⵔⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⴱⵜⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⴱⴻⵏⵜⵉoⵏ (IⵙO6709)- ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⴷ - ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⵋⵔⴰⵂ ⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⵜⴻⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵛⴻⴻⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻ ⴱⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵓⵔⵜⵂ ⴱⵓⵍⴻ
They have since shifted to the standard approach.,ⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵓⵋⵋⵛ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵍⴰⵏ
"The geoid is the shape that the ocean surface would take under the influence of the gravity of Earth, including gravitational attraction and Earth's rotation, if other influences such as winds and tides were absent.",ⵗⴻⵓⵉⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴻⵍⴰ ⴰⵔⴻⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴻⵋⴰⵔⴻⵓ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵍⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵔⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵍⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵔⴻⵏ
It can be known only through extensive gravitational measurements and calculations.,Iⴾⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴾⴰⵛⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵜ
"Although the physical Earth has excursions of +8,848 m (Mount Everest) and −10,984 (Marianas Trench), the geoid's deviation from an ellipsoid ranges from +85 m (Iceland) to −106 m (southern India), less than 200 m total.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴰ ⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ +8,848 ⵎ (ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ Eⴱⴻⵔⴻⵙⵜ) ⴷ -10,984 (ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏⴰⵙ ⵟⵔⴻⵏⵛⵂ), ⴰⴼⵔⵓⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⴻⵓⵉⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⵍⵍⵉⴱⵙⵓⵉⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ +85ⵎ (Iⵛⴻⵍⴰⵏⴷ) ⵂⴰⵔ -106ⵎ (Iⵏⴷⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ), ⴰ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉ 200 ⵎ"
"If the continental land masses were crisscrossed by a series of tunnels or canals, the sea level in those canals would also very nearly coincide with the geoid.","ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴾⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴻⵗⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵓⵔⵙⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴻⵛⴰⵏ, ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴻⵋⵋⴰⵔⴻⵓ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⴻⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴻⵗ ⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵣ ⴶⴻⵓⵉⴷ"
"That means that when traveling by ship, one does not notice the undulations of the geoid; the local vertical (plumb line) is always perpendicular to the geoid and the local horizon tangential to it.","ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵜⵓ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵣⴰ ⴻⴶⵔⴰ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴶⴻⵓⵉⴷ; ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵜⴻ ⵏⴻⵜ (ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ) ⵂⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵓⵣⵗⴰⵗ ⵉ ⴶⴻoⵉⴷ ⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵈⴰⵙ ⴷⵉⵔⵉⵙ"
"That is because GPS satellites, orbiting about the center of gravity of the Earth, can measure heights only relative to a geocentric reference ellipsoid.","ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵜⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⴱⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴻⴱⴰⵏⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ, ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴻⴾⴻⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⴾ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴻⵍⵍⵉⴱⵙoⵉⴷ"
"Modern GPS receivers have a grid implemented in their software by which they obtain, from the current position, the height of the geoid (e.g. the EGM-96 geoid) over the World Geodetic System (WGS) ellipsoid.",ⵗⴱⵙ ⵔⴻⵛⴻⵉⴱⴻⵔⵙ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵉⵉⴰⵋ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴼⵜⵓⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⵔⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴶⴻⵓⵉⴷ (ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ Eⵗⵎ-96 ⵗⴻⵓⵉⴷ) ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴻⵔⵍⴷ ⵗⴻⵓⴷⴻⵜⵉⵛ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ (ⵗⵓⵙ) ⴻⵍⵍⵉⴱⵙⵓⵉⴷ
"If that sphere were then covered in water, the water would not be the same height everywhere.","ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ , ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⴻ ⵉⴾⴾⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⴾ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴼⵓⴾ"
This is why many handheld GPS receivers have built-in undulation lookup tables to determine the height above sea level.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵗⴱⵙ ⵔⴻⵛⴻⵉⴱⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴻⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴻⵋⵋⴰⵔⴻⵓ.
"The first products based on GOCE satellite data became available online in June 2010, through the European Space Agency (ESA)’s Earth observation user services tools.",Iⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵜⴻⵍⵉⵜ ⵗⵓⵛE ⵉⵓⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴻⵔⵏⴻⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵣⴻⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2010 ⵙ Eⵓⵔⵓⴱⴻⴰⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵛⴻ ⴰⴶⴻⵏⵛⵉ (ⵢⵙⴰ) ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ
"The geoid is a particular equipotential surface, and is somewhat involved to compute.",ⵗⴻⵓⵉⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⵂⴰ ⵎⴻⴷⴰⵏⴰⵏ
"A globe is a spherical model of Earth, of some other celestial body, or of the celestial sphere.",ⵗⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
A model globe of the celestial sphere is called a celestial globe.,Iⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴶⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴶⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ
It might show nations and major cities and the network of latitude and longitude lines.,ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵔⴻⵣⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ
"Typically, it will also divide the celestial sphere into constellations.",ⴰⴷ ⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴻⵜⵔⴰⵏ
"The first known mention of a globe is from Strabo, describing the Globe of Crates from about 150 BC.",Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴶⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⵜⵔⴰⴱⵓ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴶⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵔⴰⵜⴻⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 150 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ
"Many globes are made with a circumference of one metre, so they are models of the Earth at a scale of 1:40 million.",ⵗⵍⴰⴱⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ 1:40 ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵜⴰⵗ
"Most modern globes are also imprinted with parallels and meridians, so that one can tell the approximate coordinates of a specific location.",Iⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵗⵍoⴱⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵍⵍⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴻⵔⵉⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵛⵓⵖⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ
Early terrestrial globes depicting the entirety of the Old World were constructed in the Islamic world.,ⵗⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵍⴰⵋ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵔⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ
"Behaim was a German mapmaker, navigator, and merchant.","ⴱⴻⵂⴰⵉⵎ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ, ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⵓⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⵙⴰⴱⴱⵉⴱ"
"Before constructing the globe, Behaim had traveled extensively.","ⵢⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵍⵓⴱⴻ, ⴱⴻⵂⴰⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⴻⴾⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ"
"Another early globe, the Hunt–Lenox Globe, ca.","ⵗⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ , ⵂⵓⵏⵜ-ⵍⴻⵏⵓⵆ, ⵛⴰ"
It may be the oldest globe to show the New World.,ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴶⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ
A facsimile globe showing America was made by Martin Waldseemueller in 1507.,ⵗⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵓ ⴰⵙⴰⴶⴱⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴾⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵉⴾⵏⴻ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ Wⴰⵍⴷⵙⴻⴻⵎⵓⴻⵍⵍⴻⵔ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1507
"Globus IMP, electro-mechanical devices including five-inch globes have been used in Soviet and Russian spacecraft from 1961 to 2002 as navigation instruments.","ⵗⵍⵓⴱⵓⵙ IMP, ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴻⵍⴻⴾⵜⵔⵓ-ⵎⴻⴾⴰⵏⵉⴾ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵓⵍⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙoⴱⵉⴻⵜ ⴷ ⵙⴱⴰⵛⴻⵛⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1961 2002 ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ"
This method of globe making was illustrated in 1802 in an engraving in The English Encyclopedia by George Kearsley .,ⴰⵗⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴶⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵓⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵜⵉ ⵗⴻⵓⵔⴶⴻ ⵆⴻⴰⵔⵙⵍⴻⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵏⵛⵉⵛⵍⵓⴱⴻⴷⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵏⴶⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1802
This is placed in a machine which molds the disk into a hemispherical shape.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⵉⵏ ⵜⴰ ⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴷⵉⵙⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
These globes were “enormous” and very costly.,ⵗⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ “ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔⴻ” ⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ
The latter has a Soviet bullet hole through Germany.,ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵔⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴱⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ
"A great circle, also known as an orthodrome, of a sphere is the intersection of the sphere and a plane that passes through the center point of the sphere.","ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⵜⵂⵓⴷⵔⵓⵎⴻ , ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵈⴻⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵈⴻⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵉⵓⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ"
"This special case of a circle of a sphere is in opposition to a small circle, that is, the intersection of the sphere and a plane that does not pass through the center.",ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵈⴻⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵉⵓⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ
"The exception is a pair of antipodal points, for which there are infinitely many great circles.",Iⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ
The length of the minor arc of a great circle is taken as the distance between two points on a surface of a sphere in Riemannian geometry where such great circles are called Riemannian circles.,ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⵋⵋⵉⵋ ⵓⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵎⵛⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵉⴻⵎⴰⵏⵏⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵔⵉⴻⵎⴰⵏⵏⵉⴰⵏ
Another great circle is the one that divides the land and water hemispheres.,ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴻⵎⵉⵙⵒⵂⴻⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ
"In cartography, a map projection is a way to flatten a globe's surface into a plane in order to make a map.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉ, ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⴱⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⵉⴶⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ"
"Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions are acceptable and others are not; therefore, different map projections exist in order to preserve some properties of the sphere-like body at the expense of other properties.","ⵢⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ, ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵗⴱⵉⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ; ⴰⴷⵉⵛ , ⵉⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ"
"Projections are a subject of several pure mathematical fields, including differential geometry, projective geometry, and manifolds.","Iⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⴶⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⴻⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴼⵍⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⵓⵓⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴻⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵎⵛⴰⵗⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉ, ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵎⵛⴰⵗⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴶⵓⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⴻⵏ"
"Rather, any mathematical function that transforms coordinates from the curved surface distinctly and smoothly to the plane is a projection.",ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⴻⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵛⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴱⵉⵓⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ
"The Earth and other large celestial bodies are generally better modeled as oblate spheroids, whereas small objects such as asteroids often have irregular shapes.",ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵙⵓⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴱⵍⴰⵜⴻ ⵙⴱⵂⴻⵔⵓⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴻⵔⵓⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⴾ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ
"Because the curved Earth's surface is not isometric to a plane, preservation of shapes inevitably leads to a variable scale and, consequently, non-proportional presentation of areas.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⴰ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴱⵉⵓⵏ , ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⵉ ⵙ ⴻⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ"
The purpose of the map determines which projection should form the base for the map.,ⴰIⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵉ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ
Data sets are geographic information; their collection depends on the chosen datum (model) of the Earth.,Iⵙⵓⴶ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ; ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴷⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ
"Like Tissot's indicatrix, the Goldberg-Gott indicatrix is based on infinitesimals, and depicts flexion and skewness (bending and lopsidedness) distortions.","ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵟⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜ’ⵙ Iⵏⴷⵉⵛⴰⵜⵔⵉⵆ, ⵗⵓⵍⴷⴱⴻⵔⴶ-ⵗⵓⵜⵜ Iⵏⴷⵉⵛⴰⵜⵔⵉⵆ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴼⵉⵏⵉⵜⴻⵙⵉⵎⴰⵍⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⵜ ( ⴰⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵋⴰⵔ ) ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⵉⵉⴰⵏ"
Sometimes spherical triangles are used.,ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⴶⴰⵎⵛⴰⴾⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ
Another way to visualize local distortion is through grayscale or color gradations whose shade represents the magnitude of the angular deformation or areal inflation.,Iⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵋ ⴰⵔ ⵙ ⴶⵔⴰⵉⵙⵛⴰⵍⴻ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴻⵍⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴻⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ
"Because the Earth's actual shape is irregular, information is lost in this step.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⵓⴾⴰⵜ , ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⴶⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⴻⵍⵜ ⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ"
"To compare, one cannot flatten an orange peel without tearing and warping it.)",ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵉⴻⴷ ⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵓⵍⵗⵉⵍⵜ)
Tangent means the surface touches but does not slice through the globe; secant means the surface does slice through the globe.,"ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵓⵋⴻⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ, ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉ"
"If these lines are a parallel of latitude, as in conical projections, it is called a standard parallel.","ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵓⵋⴻⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ, ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉ"
This applies for any cylindrical or pseudocylindrical projection in normal aspect.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏⴷⵉⵔ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴱⵙⴻⵓⴷⵓⵛⵉⵍⵉⵏⴷⵔⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ
Scale is constant along all straight lines radiating from a particular geographic location.,ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ
"Whether spherical or ellipsoidal, the principles discussed hold without loss of generality.","ⵋⵉⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴻⵍⵍⵉⴱⵙoⵉⴷ, ⵉⵛⵛⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⵋⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⴻⵏ"
The ellipsoidal model is commonly used to construct topographic maps and for other large- and medium-scale maps that need to accurately depict the land surface.,"ⵉⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴻⵍⵍⵉⴱⵙⵓⵉⴷ, ⵉⵛⵛⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⵋⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⴻⵏ"
"Compared to the best fitting ellipsoid, a geoidal model would change the characterization of important properties such as distance, conformality and equivalence.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵍⵍⵉⴱⵙⵓⵉⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵓⵛ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ,ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴶⴻⵓⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵋⵉⵋ ,ⴰⵈⵈⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ"
"For irregular planetary bodies such as asteroids, however, sometimes models analogous to the geoid are used to project maps from.","ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵙⵓⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴻⵔⵓⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴶⴻⵓⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"The projections are described in terms of placing a gigantic surface in contact with the Earth, followed by an implied scaling operation.",Iⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵉⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ
"""Where the light source emanates along the line described in this last constraint is what yields the differences between the various """"natural"""" cylindrical projections.""",“ⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴼⴻⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵙⵉⴱⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵉⵎⵛⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ”
"This cylinder is wrapped around the Earth, projected onto, and then unrolled.","ⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏⴷⵉⵔ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ , ⵉⵜ ⴰⵓ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜ ⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴻⵔⴰ"
"""North-south distances neither stretched nor compressed (1): equirectangular projection or """"plate carrée"""".""",“ⵓⵋⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ-ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵔⴾⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⴻⵙⴰⵏ (1) ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ““ⴱⵍⴰⵜⴻ ⵛⴰⵔⴻⴻ””
"Since this projection scales north-south distances by the reciprocal of east-west stretching, it preserves area at the expense of shapes.","ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⵋⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ-ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵔⴾⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ-ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ , ⴻⵗⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ"
"Other meridians are longer than the central meridian and bow outward, away from the central meridian.",ⵎⴻⵔⵉⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵉⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵋⵉⵋ ⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⴷⵉⴰⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ
"Therefore, meridians are equally spaced along a given parallel.",ⴰⴷⵉⵛ ⵎⴻⵔⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ
"The resulting conic map has low distortion in scale, shape, and area near those standard parallels.","ⵆⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⴾⵓⵏⵉⵛ ⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴻⵂⴻⵜ ⴰⴼⵔⵓⵗ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ,ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ"
Can be constructed from a point of perspective an infinite distance from the tangent point; r(d) = c sin .,"ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵋⵋⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ, ⵔ (ⴷ)= ⵛ ⵙⵉⵏ"
"Near-sided perspective projection, which simulates the view from space at a finite distance and therefore shows less than a full hemisphere, such as used in The Blue Marble 2012).",ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵋⴰ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵉⵙⴾⴱⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⵋⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰ ⵉⴷ oⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵂⴻⵎⵉⵙⴱⵂⴻⵔⴻ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵍⵓⴻ ⵎⴰⵔⴱⵍⴻ 2012)
The special point or points may get stretched into a line or curve segment when projected.,ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⴰⴷⴷoⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴾⵉⴱ ⵙ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⴰⴾⵉⵏ
Azimuthal equidistant: Distances from the center and edge are preserved.,ⵟⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵉⵎⵓⵜⵂ: ⵓⵋⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⴾ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"Thus, many projections exist to serve the many uses of maps and their vast range of scales.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵂⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴻⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ
Reference maps of the world often appear on compromise projections.,ⵆⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵣⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵆⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ
The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator in 1569.,ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵛⴰⵜoⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏⴷⵉⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⴻⵎⵉⵙⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵓ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⴻⵔⴰⵔⴷⵓⵙ ⵎⴻⵔⵛⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1569.
"As a side effect, the Mercator projection inflates the size of objects away from the equator.","ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵎⴰ, ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵛⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵓⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵋⵋⵉⵋ ⵏ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ"
"However, given the geometry of a sundial, these maps may well have been based on the similar central cylindrical projection, a limiting case of the gnomonic projection, which is the basis for a sundial.","ⵗⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵎⵛⴰⴾⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷⵉⴰⵍ, ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏⴷⵉⵔ oⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵣⵣⴾⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⵏⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉⵛ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴻⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴷⵉⴰⵍ"
"However, this was a simple, and common, case of misidentification.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵔⴾ ⴰⵋⴰⵎⵓⵍ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ"
"""Mercator titled the map : """"A new and augmented description of Earth corrected for the use of sailors"""".""",“” ⴻⵔⵛⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ “” ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ”””
"Various hypotheses have been tendered over the years, but in any case Mercator's friendship with Pedro Nunes and his access to the loxodromic tables Nunes created likely aided his efforts.",ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⵉⴷⵓⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵛⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴻⴷⵔⵓ ⵏⵓⵏⴻⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴱⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⵆⵓⴷⵔⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵓⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ
"However, the mathematics involved were developed but never published by mathematician Thomas Harriot starting around 1589.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⵎⴰⵜⴻⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵙ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⵂⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵜⴻⵎⴰⵜⵉⵙⵉⴻⵏ ⵟⵂoⵎⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⵔⵉⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1589"
"Two main problems prevented its immediate application: the impossibility of determining the longitude at sea with adequate accuracy and the fact that magnetic directions, instead of geographical directions, were used in navigation.",Iⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴾⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵎⵓⴷ: Iⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵗⴰⵛⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⴷⴰⴶ ⵎⴰⴶⵏⴻⵜⵉⵛ ⴰ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ
"However, it did not begin to dominate world maps until the 19th century, when the problem of position determination had been largely solved.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ"
"Due to these pressures, publishers gradually reduced their use of the projection over the course of the 20th century.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ, ⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⵙⵂⴻⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000"
"In accomplishing this, the unavoidable east–west stretching of the map, which increases as distance away from the equator increases, is accompanied in the Mercator projection by a corresponding north–south stretching, so that at every point location the east–west scale is the same as the north–south scale, making it a conformal map projection.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴾⴰⴱ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴻⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵋⵋⵉⵋ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ , ⵉⴷⴷⴻⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵛⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴾⴰⴱ ⵓⴰ ⴷⵉⵔ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ,ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ, ⵜⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ"
"At latitudes greater than 70° north or south the Mercator projection is practically unusable, because the linear scale becomes infinitely large at the poles.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ 70° ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵛⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵆⴷⴻⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴱⵓⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ
"Ellesmere Island on the north of Canada's Arctic archipelago looks about the same size as Australia, although Australia is over 39 times as large.",ⵢⵍⵍⴻⵙⵎⴻⵔⴻ Iⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⵉⵛ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⴱⴻⵍⴰⴶⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ oⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴰ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ 39 ⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵜⴼⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ
Greenland's real area is comparable to the Democratic Republic of the Congo's alone.,ⴻⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵗⵔⴻⴻⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵋⴰⵎⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴶⵓ ⴷⴻⵎⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉⴾ
"Alaska appears to be the same size as Australia, although Australia is actually 4½ times as large.",ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴾⴰ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴻⵗ ⵜⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴰ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵙ 4½
Sweden appears much larger than Madagascar.,ⵙⵓⴻⴷⴻ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴻⵗ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵙⵛⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴻ
"""A World Map on a Regular Icosahedron by Gnomonic Projection.""""""",“ⵆⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ Iⵛⵓⵙⴰⵂⴻⴷⵔⵓⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵗⵏⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉⵛ””
"As a result of these criticisms, modern atlases no longer use the Mercator projection for world maps or for areas distant from the equator, preferring other cylindrical projections, or forms of equal-area projection.","ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ, ⴰⵜⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵉⴱⴰⵙ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴻⵔⵛⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴱⵔⵓⵋⴻⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵉ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵋⵉⵋⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜoⵔ, ⵉⵙⵙoⴼⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏⴷⵉⵔ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ oⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ"
"Arno Peters stirred controversy beginning in 1972 when he proposed what is now usually called the Gall–Peters projection to remedy the problems of the Mercator, claiming it to be his own original work without referencing prior work by cartographers such as Gall's work from 1855.",ⴰⵔⵏⵓ ⴱⴻⵜⴻⵔⵙ ⴻⵔⴰⵓ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1972 ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵗⴰⵍⵍ-ⴱⴻⵜⴻⵔⵙ ⴱⵔⵓⵋⴻⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵛⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵓⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵓ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵍⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1855
"The range for a amongst the possible choices is about 35 km, but for small scale (large region) applications this variation may be ignored, and mean values of 6,371 km and 40,030 km may be taken for the radius and circumference respectively.",ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵏⴻⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⵂⴰ 35 ⵏ ⴾⵉⵍoⵎⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ (ⵔⴻⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ) ⵏ ⴰⴱⵍⵉⴾⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴻⵜⵜⴰⵓⴰⴷ ⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴻⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ 6371 ⵏ ⴾⵉⵍⵓⵎⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⴷ 40.030 ⵏ ⴾⵉⵍⵓⵎⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⴾⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
A cylindrical map projection is specified by formulae linking the geographic coordinates of latitude φ and longitude λ to Cartesian coordinates on the map with origin on the equator and x-axis along the equator.,ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏⴷⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⴱⴷⴻ ⴼoⵔⵎⵓⵍⴰⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵛⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ λ ⵙ ⵛⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⵜⴻⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ
"Since the cylinder is tangential to the globe at the equator, the scale factor between globe and cylinder is unity on the equator but nowhere else.","Iⵛⵎⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏⴷⵉⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⴶⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜoⵔ, ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴶⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏⴷⵉⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ"
The difference (λ − λ0) is in radians.,ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ λ 0ⵂⴰⵔ λⵓ ⴻⵂⴰ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ
"Even more extreme truncations have been used: a Finnish school atlas was truncated at approximately 76°N and 56°S, an aspect ratio of 1.97.","ⵆⵓⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ: ⴰⵜⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾoⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵣ 76°ⵏ ⴷ 56° ⵙ, ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ 1.97 ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ"
"Narrower strips are better: sec 8° = 1.01, so a strip of width 16° (centred on the equator) is accurate to within 1% or 1 part in 100.","ⴱⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵂⵉⵣ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜ : ⵙⴻⵛ 8°= 1.01, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⵉⴾⴰⵏ 16° (ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ) ⵓⵗⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔ 1% ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ 1 ⴷⴰⵗ 100."
The value of e2 is about 0.006 for all reference ellipsoids.),ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴻ2 ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙ 0.006 ⵉ ⴻⵍⵍⵉⵒⵙoⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
"For the above model 1 cm corresponds to 1,500 km at a latitude of 60°.","I ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ 1 ⵛⵎ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ 1,500 ⵏ ⴾⵉⵍⵓⵎⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵏ 60°"
This chord subtends an angle at the centre equal to 2arcsin(cos φ sin ) and the great circle distance between A and B is 2a arcsin(cos φ sin ).),ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵏⵏⴰⴾ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵜoⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ 2 ⴰⵔⵛⵙⵉⵏ (ⵛⵓⵙ φ ⵙⵉⵏ ) ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰ ⴷ ⴱ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ 2ⴰ ⴰⵔⵛⵙⵉⵏ ⵛⵓⵙ φ ⵙⵉⵏ )
"For other bodies a fixed surface feature is usually referenced, which for Mars is the meridian passing through the crater Airy-0.","I ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵙⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴾⴾⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵛⴰⵎⵓⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⴻⵔⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵛⵔⴰⵜⴻⵔ ⴰⵉⵔⵉ-ⵓ0"
"By convention for the Earth, Moon, and Sun it is expressed in degrees ranging from −180° to +180° For other bodies a range of 0° to 360° is used.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ, ⴰⵉoⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴻⴶⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ -180° ⵂⴰⵔ +180 ⵉ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵙⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴻⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ 0° ⵂⴰⵔ 360° ⴰ ⵉⵋⵍⴰⵏ"
The scale of a map is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground.,ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵋⵉⵋ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⵋⵉⵋ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
The first way is the ratio of the size of the generating globe to the size of the Earth.,ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴶⵍⵓⴱⴻ ⴻⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵓⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ
Many maps state the nominal scale and may even display a bar scale (sometimes merely called a 'scale') to represent it.,ⵆⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷoⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴶⵔⵉⵉⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵏ (ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙⴰⵏ “ⴰⵗⴰⵏ”) ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⴻⵜ
In this case 'scale' means the scale factor (= point scale = particular scale).,ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ “ⴰⵗⴰⵏ” ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵙⵛⴰⵍⴻ ⴼⴰⵛⵜⵓⵔ (ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵏⴰⵗⴰⵐ ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ)
The map projection becomes critical in understanding how scale varies throughout the map.,ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ
This is a survey of virtually all known projections from antiquity to 1993.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1993
Small scale refers to world maps or maps of large regions such as continents or large nations.,ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵔⴻⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ
"Large-scale maps show smaller areas in more detail, such as county maps or town plans might.",ⵆⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ
"""However, as explained above, cartographers use the term """"large scale"""" to refer to less extensive maps – those that show a smaller area.""","“ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ, ⴰⵓ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “”ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⴰⵏ”” ⵉ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴻⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ - ⵜⵉ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ”"
This is commonly illustrated by the impossibility of smoothing an orange peel onto a flat surface without tearing and deforming it.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⵏⴶⵉⴼ ⵏ ⴻⵍⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵏⴶⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴻⵗⴰⵔⵗⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⵔⴰⵓ ⴻⴷ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ
Conversely isotropic scale factors across the map imply a conformal projection.,ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙoⵜⵔⵓⴱⵉⵛ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⴻⵂⴰⵉ ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵓⵋⴻⵛⵜⵉoⵏ
The qualification 'small' means that at some given accuracy of measurement no change can be detected in the scale factor over the element.,ⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ” ⵉⵎoⵙ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵈⵈⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴻⴾⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷoⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ
We say that these coordinates define the projection map which must be distinguished logically from the actual printed (or viewed) maps.,ⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵛooⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵓⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ
Since the point scale varies with position and direction the projection of the circle on the projection will be distorted.,ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵉⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴻⴷⴶ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴷⵉⴾⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉ
Superimposing these distortion ellipses on the map projection conveys the way in which the point scale is changing over the map.,ⴰⵎⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⵍⵍⵉⵒⵙⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⴻⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵉⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ
The ratio of the major axis to the minor axis is .,Iⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵆⵉⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵆⵉⵙ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ
The scale is true (k=1) on the equator so that multiplying its length on a printed map by the inverse of the RF (or principal scale) gives the actual circumference of the Earth.,ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ (ⵆ1) ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵜⴼⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜ ⵉⵓⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵔⴼ (ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ) ⴻⵂⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ
The top plot shows the isotropic Mercator scale function: the scale on the parallel is the same as the scale on the meridian.,ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ Iⵙⵓⵜⵔⵓⴱⵉⵛ ⵎⴻⵔⵛⴰⵜⵓⵔ: ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴻⵔⵉⴷⵉⴰⵏ
"Therefore, the tangent Mercator projection is highly accurate within a strip of width 3.24 degrees centred on the equator.",ⵉⵛⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴻⵔⵛⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ 3.24 ⵏ ⴷⴻⴶⵔⴻ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ
These observations prompted the development of the transverse Mercator projections in which a meridian is treated 'like an equator' of the projection so that we obtain an accurate map within a narrow distance of that meridian.,Iⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ Iⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵛⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⴻⵔⵉⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ” ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⵓ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵋⵋⵉⵋ ⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵉⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ
"The four cardinal directions, or cardinal points, are the four main compass directions: north, east, south, and west, commonly denoted by their initials N, E, S, and W respectively.","ⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ: ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ, ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ, ⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵙ ⴻⵛⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ,ⴻⵙ ⴷ ⵓ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ"
"When travelling East or West, it is only on the Equator that one can keep East or West and be going straight (without the need to steer).","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⴻⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ , ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵗⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⴾⵍⴻ ⵏⴻⵜ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉ)"
The north pole of the magnetic needle points towards the geographic north pole of the earth and vice versa.,ⴱⵓⵍⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⵎⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵏⴻⵜⵉⵛ ⴻⵂⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴱⵓⵍⴻ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵂⴰⴾ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ
"In the middle of the day, it is to the south for viewers in the Northern Hemisphere, who live north of the Tropic of Cancer, and the north for those in the Southern Hemisphere, who live south of the Tropic of Capricorn.","ⵜⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ, ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⴻⵎⵉⵙⴱⵂⴻⵔⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵟⵔⵓⴱⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⵛⴻⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵂⴻⵎⵉⵙⴱⵂⴻⵔⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⴱⵔⵉⵛⵓⵔⵏ"
"In these locations, one needs first to determine whether the sun is moving from east to west through north or south by watching its movements—left to right means it is going through south while the right to left means it is going through north; or one can watch the sun's shadows.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ, ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴻⵂⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵏⴾⴰⵛ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⵙ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ- ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍⴶⵓⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⴾ ⵙ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍⴶⴰⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ; ⵎⴻⵗ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵍⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ"
"Because of the Earth's axial tilt, no matter what the location of the viewer, there are only two days each year when the sun rises precisely due east.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵏⴻⵛ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴾⵉⴰⴷ , ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵙ-ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴾⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ"
"For this method to work in the southern hemisphere, the 12 is pointed toward the Sun and the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate north.","I ⴰⵙⵉⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴻ ⵜⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴻⵎⵉⵙⴱⵂⴻⵔⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰ, 12 ⴻⵂⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵉⴷⵉ (12ⵂ00) ⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ."
"This axis intersects the Celestial Sphere at the North and South Celestial poles, which appear to the observer to lie directly above due North and South respectively on the horizon.",ⴰⵆⵉⵙ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵛⴻⵍⴻⵙⵜⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⴱⵂⴻⵔⴻ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴱⵓⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⴰⴶ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⴰ ⵉⵏⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ
"The resulting photograph reveals a multitude of concentric arcs (portions of perfect circles) from which the exact center can be readily derived, and which corresponds to the Celestial pole, which lies directly above the position of the true pole (North or South) on the horizon.",ⵜⴻⵍⴰⵉ ⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵏⴶⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ( ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⴻⵏ oⵗⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵏ)ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⵉⵔ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ oⴶⴷⴰⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⵉ ⵛⴻⵍⴻⵙⵜⵉⴰⵍ ⴱⵓⵍⴻ ⵉⵏⵙⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ (ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ) ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ
The exact position of the pole changes over thousands of years because of the precession of the equinoxes.,ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⴻ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴻⵈⵓⵉⵏⵓⵆ ⵜⴰⵏ
"""The asterism """"Big Dipper"""" may be used to find Polaris.""",“ⴰⵙⵜⴻⵔⵉⵙⵎ”’ⴱⵉⴶ ⴻⵉⴱⴱⴻⵔ”” ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⴰⵔⵉⵙ”
"Since it finds true, rather than magnetic, north, it is immune to interference by local or shipboard magnetic fields.",ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵏⴻⵜⵉⵛ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ
"Most maps in medieval Europe, for example, placed east (E) at the top.",ⵆⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ Eⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ (ⴻ) ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ
"Topographic maps include elevation, typically via contour lines.",ⵆⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⴱⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵂⴻⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴾⵓⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ
The North point will then be the point on the limb that is closest to the North celestial pole.,ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵂⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⴻ ⵏ ⴻⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ
"Going around the disk clockwise from the North point, one encounters in order the West point, the South point, and then the East point.","ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴷⵉⵙⴾ ⵙ ⵜⴻⴾⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⴰⵔ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ, ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ, ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ."
"In pre-modern Europe more generally, between eight and 32 points of the compass – cardinal and intercardinal directions – were given names.",ⴻⴰⵗ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⵜⴰⵎ ⴷ 32 ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ- ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ
"Systems with five cardinal points (four directions and the center) include those from pre-modern China, as well as traditional Turkic, Tibetan and Ainu cultures.","ⵔⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⵉⵎⵎoⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ (ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷⴰⴶ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ) ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵟⵓⵔⴾⵉⵛ, ⵟⵉⴱⴻⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵉⵏⵓ"
"""Some may also include """"above"""" and """"below"""" as directions, and therefore focus on a cosmology of seven directions.""",“ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ““ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ”” ⴷ ““ⵙⵉⴷⴻⵔ”” ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷⴰⴶ ⴷ ⴾⵓⵙⵎⵓⵉⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵉⴰⵜ”
North is associated with the Himalayas and heaven while the south is associated with the underworld or land of the fathers (Pitr loka).,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵜoⵙⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⵂⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵓⵙⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵏⴷⴻⵔⵓⵓⵔⵍⴷ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ( ⴱⵉⵜⵔ ⵍⵓⴾⴰ)
North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions.,ⵓⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣⵜ
"""Septentrionalis is from septentriones, """"the seven plow oxen"""", a name of Ursa Major.""","“ⵙⴻⴱⵜⴻⵏⵜⵔⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵙⴻⴱⴻⵏⵜⵔⵉⵓⵏⴻⵙ, “”ⴱⵍⵓⵓ ⵓⵆⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ””, ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵙⴰ Mⴰⵋⵓⵔ"
"""For example, in Lezgian, kefer can mean both """"disbelief"""" and """"north"""", since to the north of the Muslim Lezgian homeland there are areas formerly inhabited by non-Muslim Caucasian and Turkic peoples.""","“ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ Lⴻⵣⴶⵉⴰⵏ, ⵆⴻⴼⴻⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ “ⵜⴰⴾⴾⵓⴼⵉⵔⴰ”” ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ”” ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰv ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ Lⴻⵣⴶⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ ,ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵛⵓⴰⵛⴰⵙⴻ ⴷ ⵟⵓⵔⴾⵉⵛ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ”"
"On any rotating astronomical object, north often denotes the side appearing to rotate counter-clockwise when viewed from afar along the axis of rotation.","ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ , ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵋⵉⵋ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵆⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ"
"But simple generalizations on the subject should be treated as unsound, and as likely to reflect popular misconceptions about terrestrial magnetism.",ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵔⵜⵉⵉⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴻⵎⴰⵙⵍⵉ ⴷ ⴰ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴻⵔⴾ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵔⵔⴻⵙⵜⵔⵉⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴶⵏⴻⵜⵉⵙⵎ
"This convention has developed from the use of a compass, which places north at the top.",ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵓ-ⵉⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾoⵎⴱⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵎăⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴼⴰⵍⴰ
"95% of the Global North has enough food and shelter, and a functioning education system.",95% ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⴰⵜⴻ ⴷ ⵜⴻⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ
"""Use of the term """"South"""" may also be country-relative, particularly in cases of noticeable economic or cultural divide.""",“ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ” ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏⵉⴱⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ”
"Rarely does the meaning broaden to Bolivia, and in the most restricted sense it only covers Chile, Argentina and Uruguay.","ⵛⴰⵔⵏⴰⵛ ⴰⵍⵎⴰ ⵗⵏⴰ ⴻⵓⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴱⵓⵍⵉvⵉⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰ ⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵙⴰ ⵛⵂⵉⵍⵉ, ⴰⵔⴶⴻⵏⵜⵉⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⴶⵓⴰⵉ."
"West is the direction opposite that of the Earth's rotation on its axis, and is therefore the general direction towards which the Sun appears to constantly progress and eventually set.",ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴷⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⵉⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴷⵉⴾ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴷ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ
"In Ancient Egypt, the West was considered to be the portal to the netherworld, and is the cardinal direction regarded in connection with death, though not always with a negative connotation.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴻⴶⵉⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ, ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱ ⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵂⴰⵏⵏⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴱⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴷⵉⴾ ⵜⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
"In Judaism, west is seen to be toward the Shekinah (presence) of God, as in Jewish history the Tabernacle and subsequent Jerusalem Temple faced east, with God's Presence in the Holy of Holies up the steps to the west.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵋⵓⴷⴰⵉⵙⵎ, ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⴻⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵂⴻⴾⵉⵏⴰⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⴰⵂⵓⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⴻⵔⵏⴰⵛⵍⴻ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴻⵔⵓⵣⴰⵍⴻⵎ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⴱⴱ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ,, ⵙ ⴻⵎⴻⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ"
The Arctic Circle is one of the two polar circles and the most northerly of the five major circles of latitude as shown on maps of Earth.,ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⵉⵛ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵙⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴾⵏⴻⵏ oⵔⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ
A circle of latitude or line of latitude on Earth is an abstract east–west small circle connecting all locations around Earth (ignoring elevation) at a given latitude coordinate line.,ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⵉⵎ ⴰⴷⴾⵓⵍ) ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⴻ.
"Circles of latitude are unlike circles of longitude, which are all great circles with the centre of Earth in the middle, as the circles of latitude get smaller as the distance from the Equator increases.",ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓăⵉⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⴻⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵉⵓăⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵋⴰⵔⴻⵉ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⵉⵂⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵋⵉⵋ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵗⴰⵔ
A circle of latitude is perpendicular to all meridians.,ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⵣⵗⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵎⴻⵔⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
The Equator is the longest circle of latitude and is the only circle of latitude which also is a great circle.,ⴻⵈⵓⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⵓⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ
"On a map, the circles of latitude may or may not be parallel, and their spacing may vary, depending on which projection is used to map the surface of the Earth onto a plane.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ, ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⴰⴷⴷoⴱⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷoⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵔ ⴻⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴾⵉⵔⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵔoⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⵉoⵏ"
"For instance, on a Mercator projection the circles of latitude are more widely spaced near the poles to preserve local scales and shapes, while on a Gall–Peters projection the circles of latitude are spaced more closely near the poles so that comparisons of area will be accurate.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵛⴰⵜoⵔ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵗⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵍⵍ-ⴱⴻⵜⴻⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⴱⵓⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵗⵉⴷ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⴻⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ"
"There are many smaller terms, resulting in varying daily shifts of some metres in any direction.",Iⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴷⵉⴾ ⴼⵓⴾ
54°40'N The border between 19th century Russian territories to the north and conflicting American and British land claims in western North America.,54° 40’ⵏⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ
"43°30'N In the US, the border between Minnesota and Iowa.","43°30’ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ, ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵎⵉⵏⵏⴻⵙoⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵍⵓⵓⴰ"
42°N Originally the northward limit of New Spain.,42°ⵏ ⴰⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴱⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ
"41°N In the US, part of the border between Wyoming and Utah, the border between Wyoming and Colorado, and part of the border between Nebraska and Colorado.","41°ⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵓ ⵉⵓⵎⵉⵏⴶ ⴷ Uⵜⴰⵂ, ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵓⵉⵓⵎⵉⵏⴶ ⴷ ⵛoⵍⵓⵔⴰⴷⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵏⴻⴱⵔⴰⵙⴾⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵔⴰⴷⵓ"
"38°N The boundary between the Soviet and American occupation zones in Korea, and later between North Korea and South Korea, from 1945 until the Korean War (1950–1953).",38°ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵙⵓⴱⵉⴻⵜ ⵓⵏⵉⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎ Aⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵆⵓⵔⴻⴰ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵆⵓⵔⴻⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵆoⵔⴻⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1945 ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵆoⵔⴻⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ (1950 ⵂⴰⵔ 1953)
Geographically it is a Westward extension of the border between Virginia and North Carolina and part of the border between Kentucky and Tennessee.,ⴻⴰⵗ ⵋoⵓⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⴱⵉⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵠⵉⵔⴶⵉⵏⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵛⴰⵔⵓⵍⵉⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵆⴻⵏⵜⵓⵛⴾⵉ ⴷ ⵟⴻⵏⵏⴻⵙⵙⴻⴻ.
"Also, part of the border between North Carolina and Georgia.",ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵛⴰⵔⵓⵍⵉⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵗⴻⵓⵔⴶⵉⴰ
"32°N In the US, part of the border between New Mexico and Texas.","32° ⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ, ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵎⴻⵆⵉⵛⵓ ⴷ ⵟⴻⵆⴰⵙ"
25°N Part of the border between Mauritania and Mali.,25°ⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵎⴰⵓⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵎⴰⵍⵉ
17°N The division between Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) and Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) during the Vietnam War.,17°ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵋⴰⵎⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵠⵉⴻⵜⵏⴰⵎ (ⴱⵉⴻⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰ) ⴷ ⵋⴰⵎⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⴻⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⴷⴻⵎⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉⴾ (ⵠⵉⴻⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ)ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵠⵉⴻⵜⵏⴰⵎ
8°N Part of the border between Somalia and Ethiopia.,8°ⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵙⵓⵎⴰⵍⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴻⵜⵉⵓⴱⴰ
7°S A short section of the border between Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola.,7° ⵜⴻⵂⴰⵏⴷⵉⴶⵉⵜ ⴶⴰⵛⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵎⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛoⵏⴶo ⴷⴻⵎⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴶⵓⵍⴰ
"The arts are a very wide range of human practices of creative expression, storytelling and cultural participation.","ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵍ , ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵋⵓⵛ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ"
"They can employ skill and imagination to produce objects, performances, convey insights and experiences, and construct new environments and spaces.","ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵏⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵂⵉⵏⵣⵓⵣⴰⵗ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵂⴰⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ"
"They can also develop or contribute to some particular aspect of a more complex art form, as in cinematography.",ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵏⴻⵎⴰⵜⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉ
The first meaning of the word art is « way of doing ».,ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ «ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ».
"In its most basic abstract definition, art is a documented expression of a sentient being through or on an accessible medium so that anyone can view, hear or experience it.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ , ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⴰⵔⴻⵉ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵜ , ⵜⴻⵙⴰⵍⴻ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ"
Such public rating is dependent on various subjective factors.,ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⴻ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ
"In Ancient Greece, all art and craft was referred to by the same word, techne.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵗⵔⴻⴻⵛⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜoⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ oⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ , ⵜⴻⵛⵂⵏⴻ."
"Ancient Roman art depicted gods as idealized humans, shown with characteristic distinguishing features (e.g. Zeus' thunderbolt).","ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵕoⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ (ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵤⵓⴻⵙ, ⵜⵂⵓⵏⴷⴻⵔⴱⵓⵍⵜ)"
A characteristic of this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline (a contemporary equivalent is the cartoon).,ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵗⴻⵍⵉⵜ (ⴰ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⵛⴰⵔⵜⵓⵓⵏ)
"In modern academia, the arts are usually grouped with or as a subset of the humanities.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⴻⵎⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ, ⵜⵉⵎⵛⴰⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⴶⵉⵜⵜⴻⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵓⵍⴰⵎ"
"""The word architecture comes from the Greek arkhitekton, """"master builder, director of works,"""" from αρχι- (arkhi) """"chief"""" + τεκτων (tekton) """"builder, carpenter"""".""","“ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵗⵔⴻⴻⴾ ⴰⵔⴾⵂⵉⵜⴻⴾⵜⵓⵏ, “”ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ”” ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴱχι- (ⴰⵔⴾⵂⵉ) """"ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ” + τεκτων (ⵜⴻⴾⵜoⵏ) “”ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ, ⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⴷ””"
"In modern usage, architecture is the art and discipline of creating, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of, a complex object or system.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⴾⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ"
"Planned architecture manipulates space, volume, texture, light, shadow, or abstract elements in order to achieve pleasing aesthetics.","ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴻⵎⴰⵙⵍⵉ, ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ, ⴻⴼⴻⵓ, ⵜⴻⵍⴰⵉ, ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣⴰⵏ"
"While some ceramic products are considered fine art, some are considered to be decorative, industrial, or applied art objects.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵗⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⴻ ⴰⵔⵜ, ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵍoⵋⴰⵏ, ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ"
"In a pottery or ceramic factory, a group of people design, manufacture, and decorate the pottery.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴾⴾⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵗⴰⵏ,ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴾⴾⴰⵏ"
"It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface.",ⴻⵂⴻⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⵛⵉⵛⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵓⴶⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵛⵉⵏⴾⵉⵛ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ
"The main techniques used in drawing are line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, and blending.","ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴻⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵏ ⴷⴻⵙⵉⵏ, ⵂⴰⵜⵛⵂⵉⵏⴶ, ⵛⵔⵓⵙⵙⵂⴰⵜⵛⵂⵉⴶ, ⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓⵎ ⵂⴰⵜⵛⵂⵉⵏⴶ, ⵙⵛⵔⵉⴱⴱⵉⵏⴶ, ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⵉⵛⴰⵔⵓⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ"
"Paintings can be naturalistic and representational (as in a still life or landscape painting), photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic (as in Symbolist art), emotive (as in Expressionism), or political in nature (as in Artivism).","ⴼⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷoⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴻⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ (ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴼⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ, ⵏ ⵜⴻⵍⴰⵉ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ, ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ, ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ (ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵉⵎⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴰⵔⵜ), ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ (ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵆⴱⵔⴻⵙⵙⵉoⵏⵉⵙⵎ) ⵎⴻⵗ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ (ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⵉvⵉⵙⵎ)"
"""The noun """"literature"""" comes from the Latin word littera meaning """"an individual written character (letter).""""""",“Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⵍⵉⵜⵜⴻⵔⴰⵜⵓⵔⴻ”” ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵉⵜⵜⴻⵔⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ “ⴻⵎⴰⵙⵍⴻ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ (ⴻⵎⴰⵙⵍⴻ)”””
"Each discipline in the performing arts is temporal in nature, meaning the product is performed over a period of time.",ⵂⴰⴾ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ.
"Dance is also used to describe methods of non-verbal communication (see body language) between humans or animals (e.g. bee dance, mating dance), motion in inanimate objects (e.g. the leaves danced in the wind), and certain musical forms or genres.","ⴻⴰⵍⵍoⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴻⵗ ⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⵎ (ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ) ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵔⵉⵣⵣⴻⵋ (ⴻ.ⴶ ⴷⴰⵍⵍoⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵍⵍoⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴱⴰⴾⴾⴰⴷ) , ⴰⵛⵉⵓⵉⵏⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ (ⴻ.ⴶ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵏⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓ) ⴷ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ"
"The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context.","Iⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ,ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵙ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ“ⵛoⴱⵓⵙⴻⵔ ⵕⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴷ ⵢⴶⵏⴻⵔ ⴻⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵗⵉⵎⴱⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ oⴱⴻⵔⴰ, ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴹⴻⵔ ⵔⵉⵏⴶ ⴷⴻⵙ ⵓⵉⴱⴻⵍⵓⵏⴶⴻⵏ (““ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⴱⴻⵍⵓⵏⴶ””)."
"""The composer Richard Wagner recognized the fusion of so many disciplines into a single work of opera, exemplified by his cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen (""""The Ring of the Nibelung"""").""","“ⵛⵓⴱⵓⵙⴻⵔ ⵔⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴷ ⵓⴰⴶⵏⴻⵔ ⴻⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵗⵉⵎⴱⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴻⵔⴰ, ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴹⴻⵔ ⵔⵉⵏⴶ ⴷⴻⵙ ⵏⵉⴱⴻⵍⵓⵏⴶⴻⵏ (““ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴱⴻⵍⵓⵏⴶ””)."
"Other works in the late 19th, 20th and 21st centuries have fused other disciplines in unique and creative ways, such as performance art.","ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900, 2000 ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 2021 ⵙⴰⴱⴱⵓⵈⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵏⴻⵔⴼoⵔⵎⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⴰⵔⵜ."
"John Cage is regarded by many as a performance artist rather than a composer, although he preferred the latter term.",ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⵛⴰⴶⴻ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴶ-ⴶⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⴽⵙⴻⵔ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ
"The applied arts includes fields such as industrial design, illustration, and commercial art.","ⴰⴱⴱⵍⵉⴻⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⴻⵙⵉⴶⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ"
"Within social sciences, cultural economists show how video games playing is conducive to the involvement in more traditional art forms and cultural practices, which suggests the complementarity between video games and the arts.","ⵍⵍⴹⴰⵗ ⵙⵛⵉⴻⵏⵛⴻⵙ ⵙoⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴻⴾoⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵙⵓⵍⵂ ⵉⵏ vⵉⴷⴻo ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵏ vⵉⴷⴻⵉⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ"
"""Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton """"architect"""", from ἀρχι- """"chief"""" and τέκτων """"creator"""") is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or other structures.""","“ⴻⴷⴻⵉ (ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵜⴻⵛⵜⵓⵔⴰ, ⵉⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⴻⴻⴾ ἀρχιτέκτων ⴰⵔⴾⵂⵉⵜⴻⴾⵜoⵏ """"ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵜⴻⴾⵜ"""", ⴼⵔoⵎ ⴰρχι- """"ⴰⵎⴰⵏoⴾⴰⵍ"""" ⴰⵏⴷ τέκτων """"ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ"""") ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⵎăⵛⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ, ⴰⴰⴱχιτέκτων ⴰⵔⴾⵂⵉⵜⴻⴾⵜⵓⵏ """"ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵜⴻⵛⵜ"""", ⴼⵔⵎ ἀρχι- """"ⵛⵂⵉⴻⴼ"""" ⴰⵏⴷ τέκτων """"ⵛⵔⴻⴰⵜⵓⵔ"""") ⴰⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⴷ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ”"
"The practice, which began in the prehistoric era, has been used as a way of expressing culture for civilizations on all seven continents.",ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⵏⴰⵜ ⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ oⵍⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ.
"""In the 19th century, Louis Sullivan declared that """"form follows function"""". """"""","“ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ 1900, ⵍoⵓⵉⵙ ⵙⵓⵍⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ “ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ”””"
"Architecture began as rural, oral vernacular architecture that developed from trial and error to successful replication.",ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵙ ⴻⵔⴻⵎ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ
"During the European Middle Ages, pan-European styles of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals and abbeys emerged while the Renaissance favored Classical forms implemented by architects known by name.","ⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ Eⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ, ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏ-Eⵔⴱⴱⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵎⴱⴻⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵗⵓⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵔⴻⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ"
"Emphasis was put on modern techniques, materials, and simplified geometric forms, paving the way for high-rise superstructures.","ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⴷ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵎⵛⴰⵗⵜ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵛⴰⵋⵔⵜⵏⴻⵏ"
A unifying or coherent form or structure.,ⴻⵓⵎⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ.
"The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, and was based on universal, recognisable truths.","ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ oⵂⵓⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵜⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ"
"In the 16th century, Italian Mannerist architect, painter and theorist Sebastiano Serlio wrote Tutte L’Opere D’Architettura et Prospetiva (Complete Works on Architecture and Perspective).","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1600, ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵏⴻⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ Iⵜⴰⵍⵉⴰ, ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵍⵓⵋ ⴷ ⵙⴻⴱⴰⵙⵜⵉⴰⵏo ⵙⴻⵔⵍⵉo ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵟⵓⵜⵜⴻ ⵍ’Oⴱⴻⵔⴻ ⵉⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⴻⵜ ⴱⵔoⵙⴱⴻⵜⵉvⴰ (ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵜⴻⵛⵜⵓⵔⴻ ⴷ ⴱⴻⵔⵙⴱⴻⵛⵜⵉⴱⴻ)"
"""Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only """"true Christian form of architecture.""""""","“ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵜⵂⵉⵛ, ⴱⵓⴶⵉⵏ ⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ “””ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ”””."
"Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are Rationalism, Empiricism, Structuralism, Poststructuralism, Deconstruction and Phenomenology.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉ oⵔⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵎoⵙⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵜⵉoⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ, ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⵉⵛⵉⵉⵙⵎ , ⵔⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ; ⴱoⵙⵜⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ, ⴰⴼⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵂⴻⵏⵓⵎⴻⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ."
The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged.,ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ oⵍⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵗⵔⴻⴻⴾ ⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ oⵂⵓⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ
Texts on architecture have been written since ancient time.,Iⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ
"Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity.",ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⴻⵋⵉoⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ
"The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.",ⴻⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⵎⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⵉⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⵍⴰⵜⵂoⵎⵓⵔⵓⵎ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴼⵉⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ
"Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio – and the cult of the individual had begun.","Iⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ - ⴱⵔⵓⵏⴻⵍⵍⴻⵙⵛⵂⵉ, ⴰⵍⴱⴻⵔⵜⵉ, ⵎⵉⵛⵂⴻⵍⴰⵏⴶⴻⵍo, ⴱⴰⵍⵍⴰⴷⵉo - ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ"
"Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at École des Beaux-Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility.","ⵜⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 , ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ Eⵛoⵍⴻ ⴷⴻⵙ ⴱⴻⴰⵓⵆ-ⴰⵔⵜⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵙⴾⵉⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ"
"Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine-made objects.",ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜ ⴰⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎoⵙ ⴻⴻⵓⵜⵙⵛⵂⴻⵔ ⵓⴻⵔⴾⴱⵓⵏⴷ ⴻⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1907 ⵉ ⴻⵗⵏⵓ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ.
"When modern architecture was first practised, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵓ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ, ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ, ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⴰⵉ"
"The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functional details.",ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴷⵓⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ
"Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures.",ⴻⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴷⵓⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⵍoⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ
"The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become increasingly complicated, and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws.","ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵎⴰⵗⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵋⵋⵉⵜ, ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍ, ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵙ, ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴷ ⵙⴻⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵉ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
"Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with a profound effect on the architectural profession.",ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵜ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵂ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ
This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment.,ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴻⵗ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ
The U.S. Green Building Council's LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this.,ⵗⵔⴻⴻⵏ ⴱⵓⵉⵍⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⵛⵓⵓⵏⵛⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵍⴻⴻⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵍⴻⵏ ( ⵟⵉⵣⵔⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵏⴻⵔⴶⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ) ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵛⵓⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵓⴰⴷ ⵓⴻⵏ
"It can also be the initial design and plan for use, then later redesigned to accommodate a changed purpose, or a significantly revised design for adaptive reuse of the building shell.",ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵉ ⴰ ⴻⵋ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ
"Preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, construction, trials, operation and maintenance, launching and dry-docking are the main activities involved.","Iⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴱⴻⵙⵙⴻⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰ , ⴻⴷⴻⵉ , ⴻⵔⴻⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ, ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ,ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ"
"Conversely, sacred architecture as a locale for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely private, personal and non-public.","Iⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⴻⵏ, ⴰⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵂⵉⵋ, ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⴻⵔⴰⵏ"
"With the rise of Christianity and Islam, religious buildings increasingly became centres of worship, prayer and meditation.","ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ , ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ, ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ."
"India was crisscrossed by trading routes of merchants from as far away as Siraf and China as well as weathering invasions by foreigners, resulting in multiple influences of foreign elements on native styles.",Iⵏⴷⵉⴰ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⵙⴰⴱⴱⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⵉⵔⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴻ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵜⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⵔⵛⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵜⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
An existing example is at Nalanda (Bihar).,ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ (ⴱⵉⵂⴰⵔ)
"In accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas (stupa halls).","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵙⴻⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ , ⵙⵜⵓⴱⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵛ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⴰⵉⵜⵉⴰ-ⴶⵔⵉⵂⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ (ⵙⵜⵓⴱⴰ ⵂⴰⵍⵍⵙ)"
"Buddhist temples were developed rather later and outside South Asia, where Buddhism gradually declined from the early centuries CE onwards, though an early example is that of the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar.","Iⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣ ⴱⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵎ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵛE, ⴾⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵂⴰⴱⴱⴷⵂⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱoⴷⵂ ⵗⴰⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵂⴰⵔ"
"In Hindu belief, the temple represents the macrocosm of the universe as well as the microcosm of inner space.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ"
It evolved over a period of more than 2000 years.,ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ 2000 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ
"In addition, brick replaced stone, classical order was less strictly observed, mosaics replaced carved decoration, and complex domes were erected.","ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ,Iⴱⵍⴰⴶ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏⵜ, ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⴾⴻⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ, ⵎoⵙⴰⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍoⵋ ⵉⵏⵋⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴷoⵎⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴻⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ"
The earliest styles in Islamic architecture produced 'Arab-plan' or hypostyle mosques during the Umayyad Dynasty.,Iⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴻⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ “ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵏ” ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⵋⵉⴷⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴰ ⵏⵉ ⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵉⵉⴰⴷ.
"In iwan mosques, one or more iwans face a central courtyard that serves as the prayer hall.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⵋⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ Iⵓⴰⵏ , ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ"
"The top of the minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the immediate area.",Iⵙⵉⴾⵏⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⵋⵉⴷⴰⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾⴻⴷⴰⴶⵓⴰ oⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜⴷⴰⵗⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⵋⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷⴻⴷⴰⴶⵓⴰ oⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜⴷⴰⵗⴻⴷⴰⴶⴻⵂoⵣⴰⵏ
"Consequently, mosque architects borrowed the shape of the bell tower for their minarets, which were used for essentially the same purpose – calling the faithful to prayer.",ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏⵓⵉⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⵋⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏⵉⴷⴷⵓⵎⵓⵏⵜⴰⵣoⵍⵉⵜⴰⵏⴻⵎⴰⵙⵍⵉⵉⵉⵙⵉⴾⵏⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⵋⵉⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏⵙⴾⴰⵍⴰⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ oⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵏⴰⵗⴱⴰⴷⴰⵏⵙⴰⵎⵓⴷ
"Although domes normally took on the shape of a hemisphere, the Mughals in India popularized onion-shaped domes in South Asia and Persia.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗⴰⵙⴷoⵎⴻⵜⴰⵏⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏⴷⵓⵎⵓⵜⴰⵏⵏⵂⴻⵎⵉⵙⴱⵂⴻⵔⴻ , ⵎⵓⴶⵂⴰⵍⵙⴷⴰⵗ Iⵏⴷⵉⴰⵉⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⴷoⵎⴻⵜⴰⵏⵓⵉⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏⴷⵓⵎⵓⵓⴰⵏⴰⵍⴱⴰⵙⴰⵍⴷⴰⵗⴰⵙⵉⴰⵜⴰⵏⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⴻⵔⵙⵉⴰ"
"Usually opposite the entrance to the prayer hall is the qibla wall, which is the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall.",ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾⴻⵎⵓⴰⵏⵓⵋⵋⵉⵛⵏⴰⵎⵉⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵉⴼⴰⵍⴻⴷⴰⴶⵓⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴷⵉⵎoⵙⴰⵏⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⵓⴰⵏⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏⴻⴷⴰⴶⵓⴰⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗⴻⴷⴰⴶⵓⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴷ
"In the qibla wall, usually at its center, is the mihrab, a niche or depression indicating the'qibla wall.","ⴻⴰⵗⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⵓⴰⵏⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ,ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾⴷⴰⵗⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏⴻⵜⵉⵍⵍⴻⵎⵉⵂⵔⴰⴱ, ⴻⴷⴰⴶⵎⴻⵗⴰⴷⴰⴱoⵏⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⴰⵏⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⵓⴰⵏⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ"
The mihrab serves as the location where the imam leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis.,ⵎⵉⵂⵔⴰⴱⴻⴷⴰⴶⵓⴰⴷⴰⵗⵉⵜⴰⵋⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴰⵎⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏⵓⵉⵏⵙⴰⵎⵎoⵙⴷⴰⵗⴰⵛⴰⵍ
"It consists of a nave, transepts, and the altar stands at the east end (see cathedral diagram).","ⴻⵂⴻⵏⴰvⴻ, ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⴻⴱⵜⵙⴷⴰⵍⵜⴰⵔⴰⵣⵣⵓⴾⴻⵏⵙⵉⵂⴰⵙⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜⵓⴰⵏⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ (ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷⴷⴰⵗⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍⴷⵉⴰⴶⵔⴰⵎ)."
"Most architectural historians regard Michelangelo's design of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome as a precursor to the Baroque style; this can be recognized by broader interior spaces (replacing long narrow naves), more playful attention to light and shadow, extensive ornamentation, large frescoes, focus on interior art, and frequently, a dramatic central exterior projection.","ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⵓⴰⵏⴱⴰⵔⵓⵈⵓⴻ:ⴰⵓⴻⵏⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⵣⵓⵉⵜⵏⴻⵜⵙⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏⵓⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ (ⵛⴰⵔⵔⴻⵉⵏⴻⵏⵏⴰvⴻⵜⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔoⵙⵏⴻⵏ) ⵉⵉⵋⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏⵉⴻⴼⴻⵓⴷⵜⴻⵍⴰⵉ, ⴰⴷⴰⵍoⵋⵉⵏⴾⴰⵛⴰⵏ, ⴼⵔⴻⵙⵛo ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⵏⴻⵏ, ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴷⴰⵗⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⴷⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉⴷⴰⵗⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ"
"While secular structures clearly had the greater influence on the development of modern architecture, several excellent examples of modern architecture can be found in religious buildings of the 20th century.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗⴰⵙⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏⵓⴰⵔ oⵂⴻⵔⴰⵏⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⴷⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜⴼⴰⵍⴻⴼⴻⵙⵏⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏⵓⵉⵏⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ, ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵏⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏⵏⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏⵓⵉⵏⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏⴰⴷⴰⵜⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉⵓⴰⵏ 2000"
"""It has been described as a """"phalanx of fighters"""" turned on their tails and pointing heavenward.""",“Iⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⵉⵔⵙⵉⵙⵉⵎⵓⴰⵏ “ⴱⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏⵆⵓⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⴾⴾⵓⵏⵏⴰⵙ”” ⵛⵉⵓⴰⴾⴾⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏⴼⴰⵍⵜⵉⴷⵉⵎⴱⵓⵓⴻⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏⵙⴰⵙⴰⵍⵣⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜ”
"The Temple at Independence, Missouri was conceived by Japanese architect Gyo Obata after the concept of the chambered nautilus.","ⴻⵂⴰⵏⵗⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⴻⵆⵍⴰⵍⵍ ,ⵎⵉⵙⵙoⵓⵔⵉⵉⴾⵏⴻⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴱoⵏⵙⵉⵙⵉⵎⵏⴻⵜⵗⵉo Oⴱⴰⵜⴰⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⵓⴰⵏⵛⵂⴰⵎⴱⴻⵔⴻⴷⵏⴰⵓⵜⵉⵍⵓⵙ"
The Basilica of Our Lady of Licheń on the other hand is a much more traditional edifice.,ⴱⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉⵛⴰⵜⴰⵏ Oⵓⵔⵍⴰⴷⵉⵜⴰⵏⵍⵉⵛⵂⴻⵏⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵙⴻⴷⴰⴶⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏⴻⵂⴰⵏⵓⴰⵏⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ
An architectural style is a set of characteristics and features that make a building or other structure notable or historically identifiable.,Iⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⵏⴻⴷⴻⵉⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⵜⴰⴾⴰⵎⵎⵓⵙⵜⵏⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵉⵎⵎoⵋⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏⴻⴷⴻⵉⵎⴻⵗⴰⵜⵉⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴷⴰⵗⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ
"Most architecture can be classified within a chronology of styles which changes over time reflecting changing fashions, beliefs and religions, or the emergence of new ideas, technology, or materials which make new styles possible.","Iⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏⴼⵓⴾⴰⴷⴷoⴱⴻⵏⴰⴷⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵏⴻⵏⴷⴰⵗⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏⵏⴷⵓⵎⵓⵜⴰⵏ, ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏⴷⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏⵎⴻⵗⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓⵏⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴻⵏⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⵜⴻⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉⵎⴻⵗⵉⵙⵓⵋⵙⴰⵔⵗⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏⵉⵛⵛⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ."
"At any time several styles may be fashionable, and when a style changes it usually does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas.","ⵙⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⴼⵓⴾⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏⴰⴷⴰⵗⵏⵉⵏⵜoⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵓⴰⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ , ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷⵉⵜⴰⵋⴰⵓⴻⵏⵙⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏⵜoⵍⵙⵉⵋⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⴻⵜⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ"
"For instance, Renaissance ideas emerged in Italy around 1425 and spread to all of Europe over the next 200 years, with the French, German, English, and Spanish Renaissances showing recognisably the same style, but with unique characteristics.","ⴻⴰⵗⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴻⵏⵜⵉⵏⵈⴻⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛⴻ, ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵋⵋⵔⴰⵓⵏⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏ Iⵜⴰⵍⵉⴰⴻⴷⴻⵙⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉⵓⴰⵏ 1425 ⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏⴰⴷⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴻⵔoⴱⴰⴷⴰⵗ 200 ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉⵜⵉⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏⵉⴷⵈⴻⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛⴻⵜⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ, ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ,ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰⴷⵚⵒⴰⵏⵉⴰⵙⴰⴾⵏⵉⵏⴻⵏⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ oⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏⵙⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ"
"After an architectural style has gone out of fashion, revivals and re-interpretations may occur.","ⴻⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵙⵉⴱⴰⵙⵉⵏⴼⴰⴻⴷⴻⵉⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ, ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵉⴰⵏⴷⵉⴶⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵏⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷⴰⴷⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏ"
"The Spanish mission style was revived 100 years later as the Mission Revival, and that soon evolved into the Spanish Colonial Revival.",Iⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⵏⴻⵔⴰⴾⴰⴼⵓⴰⵏⵚⵒⴰⵏⵉⴰⵉⵏⴾⴰⵔⵉⴷⴷⴰⵗ 100 ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵓⴰⴼⴰⵍⵜⴰⵏⴰⴾⵔⴰⵏⴻⵔⴰⴾⴰⴼⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏⵉⵏⴾⴰⵛⵂⵙⴰⵙⴱⴻⵔⴻⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰⴾⵔⴰⵏⵜⴰⴾⴾⵉⵍⵓⵓⴰⵏⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ
An example of Mannerist architecture is the Villa Farnese at Caprarola in the rugged country side outside of Rome.,ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍⵏⴻⴷⴻⵉⵏⵎⴰⵏⵏⴻⵔⵉⵙⵜⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⵠⵉⵍⵍⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏⴻⵙⴻⴷⴰⵗⵛⴰⴱⵔⴰⵔoⵍⴰⴷⴰⵗⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜⵓⴰⴻⵛⵗⴰⴷⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴷⴰⵗⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰⵏⵈoⵎⴰ
"Through Antwerp, Renaissance and Mannerist styles were widely introduced in England, Germany, and northern and eastern Europe in general.","ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓⴻⵔⴱ, ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏⵓⵉⵏⵈⴻⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛⴻⴷⵎⴰⵏⵏⴻⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏⵏⴻⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⴷⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰⴷⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜⵏⴻⵔoⴱⴰ"
The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms.,Iⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵈⴻⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆoⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ
"Architectural theory is the act of thinking, discussing, and writing about architecture.","ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵉⵎoⵙ ⴰⵣⴰⵏⵏⵉⵙⵋⵓⵎⵉ, ⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ"
"Architectural theory is often didactic, and theorists tend to stay close to or work from within schools.",ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ
"This does not mean, however, that such works did not exist, given that many works never survived antiquity.",ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴻⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵛⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ
"Probably written between 27 and 23 BC, it is the only major contemporary source on classical architecture to have survived.","ⴻⵂⴰⵎⵉⵛ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵋⵉⵔ 27 ⴷ 23 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ , ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴶⵓⵂⴻ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴶⴰⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ"
"It also proposes the three fundamental laws that architecture must obey, in order to be so considered: firmitas, utilitas, venustas, translated in the 17th century by Sir Henry Wotton into the English slogan firmness, commodity and delight (meaning structural adequacy, functional adequacy, and beauty).","Iⵋⵋⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵂⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴻⵔⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⴰ ⴼⵍ ⴻⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ: ⴼⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⴰⵙ, ⵓⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜⴰⵙ, vⴻⵏⵓⵙⵜⴰⵙ, ⵉⴼⴼⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1700 Hⴻⵏⵔⵉ ⵓoⵜⵜoⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴶⵍⵓⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⴰⵍⵜ, ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⴷⴻ (ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ, ⴰⵈⵈⴰⴷ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ)"
"Since the architectural theories were on structures, fewer of them were transcribed.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⴰⵔ ⵏⴻⵏ"
These theories anticipated the development of Functionalism in modern architecture.,ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵛ-ⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵏⵛⵜⵉoⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ
"This in turn formed the basis for Art Nouveau in the UK, exemplified by the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh, and influenced the Vienna Secession.",ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜⵜⵉⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵓⵓvⴻⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵆ ⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵍⴻⵙ ⵈⴻⵏⵏⵉⴻ ⵎⴰⵛⴾⵉⵏⵜⵓⵙⵂ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵠⵉⴻⵏⵏⴰ
The generation born during the middle-third of the 19th century was largely enthralled with the opportunities presented by Semper's combination of a breathtaking historical scope and a methodological granularity.,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴼⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⴻⵎⴱⴻⵔ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⵉ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵎăⵗⵏⴰ
The Modern Movement rejected these thoughts and Le Corbusier energetically dismissed the work.,ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵈⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵓⵙⵉⴻⵔ ⵉⴱⴷⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ
"Another influential planning theorist of this time was Ebenezer Howard, who founded the garden city movement.",ⴰⵓ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⴱⴻⵏⴻⵣⴻⵔ ⵂⵓⵓⴰⵔ ⴰ ⴻⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵔⴷⴻⵏ ⵛⵉⵜⵉ ⵎovⴻⵎⴻⵏⵜ
"An early use of the term modern architecture in print occurred in the title of a book by Otto Wagner, who gave examples of his own work representative of the Vienna Secession with art nouveau illustrations, and didactic teachings to his students.",ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵉⵓⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ oⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⴰⴶⵏⴻⵔ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵠⵉⴻⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵓⵓⴱⴻⴰⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ
"Frank Lloyd Wright, while modern in rejecting historic revivalism, was idiosyncratic in his theory, which he conveyed in copious writing.","ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾ ⵍⵍⵓⵉⴷ ⵓⵔⵉⴶⵂⵜ , ⴾⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴾⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵏⴾⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵉⵓⵙⵉⵏⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵋⵋⴻⵏ"
Wright was more poetic and firmly maintained the 19th-century view of the creative artist as unique genius.,ⵓⵔⵉⴶⵂⵜ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⴰⵓⵏⴰⵂⴰⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵛⵂⵉⵏ
"This has also been the case with educators in academia like Dalibor Vesely or Alberto-Perez Gomez, and in more recent years this philosophical orientation has been reinforced through the research of a new generation of theorists (E.G. Jeffrey Kipnis or Sanford Kwinter).",ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⴻⵎⵉⴰ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴻⴰⵍⵉⴱⵓⵔ ⵠⴻⵙⴻⵍⵉ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵍⴱⴻⵔⵜⵓ-ⴱⴻⵔⴻⵣ ⵗⵓⵎⴻⵣ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴷⵉⴾ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙoⵂⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ( ⴻ.ⵗ ⵋⴻⴼⴼⵔⴻⵉ ⵆⵉⴱⵏⵉⵙ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⴷⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵆⵓⵉⵏⵜⴻⵔ)
"Others, like Beatriz Colomina and Mary McLeod, expand historical understandings of architecture to include lesser or minor discourses that have influenced the development of architectural ideas over time.",Iⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⴻⴰⵜⵔⵉⵣ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵎⵉⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵎⵛLⴻoⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵉ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ
"In their theories, architecture is compared to a language which can be invented and re-invented every time it is used.","ⴰⴻⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⴾⴾⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵗⵏⵓ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⴻⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ"
"Since 2000, architectural theory has also had to face the rapid rise of urbanism and globalization.","ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000, ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"""In the past decade, there has been the emergence of the so-called """"Digital"""" Architecture.""","“ⴻⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ““ⴻⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵍ””"
Architects also design organic-looking buildings in the attempt to develop a new formal language.,ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵂⵉⵛⴾⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵔⴻⵎ ⵏ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ
"Since these new architectural tendencies emerged, many theorists and architects have been working on these issues, developing theories and ideas such as Patrick Schumacher's Parametricism.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵉⵓ-ⵓⵉⴷ ⵏⴰⵜ , ⴰⵓ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ , ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜ-ⵉⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵎⴻⵜⵔⵉⵛⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵜⵔⵉⵛⴾ ⵙⵛⵂⵓⵍⴰⵛⵂⴻⵔ"
"Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Roman Empire.",ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵏ ⵈoⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ
Magnificent golden mosaics with their graphic simplicity brought light and warmth into the heart of churches.,ⵎⵓⵙⴰⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵓⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴻⴼⴻⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴾⵉⵙⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵍⵂⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ
Some of the columns were also made of marble.,Iⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴻⴾⴰⴷⴰⵉⵜ
"Precious wood furniture, like beds, chairs, stools, tables, bookshelves and silver or golden cups with beautiful reliefs, decorated Byzantine interiors.","Iⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵛⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴼⵜⴰⵈ, ⵜⴰⵆⵉⴰⵎⴻⵏ, ⵉⵙⴾⴰⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴾⵓⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍoⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"For Classical temples, only the exterior was important, because only the priests entered the interior, where the statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated was kept.","ⴰI ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵎⴱⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ,ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⵜⴰⵜⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵗⵍⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ"
"Those in the Cathedral of Saint Mark, Venice (1071) specially attracted John Ruskin's fancy.","ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⴾ, ⵠⴻⵏⵉⵛⴻ (1071) ⴰⵔⴾⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⴾⵉⵏ"
"On eastern columns the eagle, the lion and the lamb are occasionally carved, but treated conventionally.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵂⵉⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴻⵂⴻⵍⴻ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⵏⵋⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⴻⵜ"
Composite columns line the principal space of the nave.,Iⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴱⴻ
The columns are filled with foliage in all sorts of variations.,Iⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵏⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
"Other structures include the ruins of the Great Palace of Constantinople, the innovative walls of Constantinople (with 192 towers) and Basilica Cistern (with hundreds of recycled classical columns).","Iⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴻⵂⴰ ⵉⵗⴰⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵗⵔⴻⵜ ⴱⴰⵍⵛⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏoⵓⴱⵍⴻ, ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏⵓ ⵍⴻ (ⵉⵍⴰⵏ 192 ⵏ ⵜⵓⵓⴻⵔ) ⴷ ⴱⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉⵛⴰ ⵛⵉⵙⵜⴻⵔⵏ ( ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ oⵍⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰ)"
"The Paleologan period is well represented in a dozen former churches in Istanbul, notably St Saviour at Chora and St Mary Pammakaristos.",ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵍⴻⵓⵍⵓⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴻⵎⴻⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ Iⵙⵜⴰⵏⴱⵓⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵜ ⵙⴰⴱⵉⵓⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵂⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴱⴰⵎⵎⴰⴾⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵙ
The Church of the Holy Apostles (Thessaloniki) is cited as an archetypal structure of the late period with its exterior walls intricately decorated with complex brickwork patterns or with glazed ceramics.,ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱoⵎⴱⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ (ⵟⵂⴻⵙⵙⴰⵍoⵏⵉⴾⵉ) ⵉⵜ ⴰⵓ ⴻⵎⴻⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍoⵋ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵍⵗⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵛⴻⵔⴰⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⴱⴻⵔⵏⵉⵙ
"At Saint Sergius, Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna, churches of the central type, the space under the dome was enlarged by having apsidal additions made to the octagon.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜ ⵙⴻⵔⴶⵉⵓⵙ, ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏⵙⵓⵍⴻ ⴷ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵠⵉⵜⴰⵍⴻ, ⵕⴰⴱⴻⵏⵏⴰ, ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⴻⵔ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⴻ ⵂⴰⵔⵉⴾ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴱⵙⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ Oⵛⵜⴰⴶⵓⵏ"
"This unbroken area, about 260 ft (80 m) long, the larger part of which is over 100 ft (30 m) wide, is entirely covered by a system of domical surfaces.","ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴻⵙ ⵜⴻⵔⴰⵣⴻ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ 260 ⵏ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ (80 ⵏ ⴰⵗⵉⵍ), ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ 100 ⵏ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ (30 ⵏ ⴰⵗⵉⵍ) ⵂⴰⵔⵉⴾ, ⵉⵍⵙⴻ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⴻ"
At the Holy Apostles (6th century) five domes were applied to a cruciform plan; the central dome was the highest.,"ⴻⴰⵗ ⴱoⵎⴱⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ (ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 6) , ⵙⴰⵎⵎoⵙ ⴷoⵎⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵔoⵉⵆ, ⴷoⵎⴻ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ oⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ"
"Sometimes the central space was square, sometimes octagonal, or at least there were eight piers supporting the dome instead of four, and the nave and transepts were narrower in proportion.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ oⵛⵜⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ oⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵜ ⴰⴼⵏⴻⵏ ⴷoⵎⴻ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴾⴾoⵣⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵏⴰⴱⴻ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⴻⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⵓⴷⵏⴻⵏ"
Still in front put a square court.,ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙ ⴷⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ oⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ
"Directly under the center of the dome is the ambo, from which the Scriptures were proclaimed, and beneath the ambo at floor level was the place for the choir of singers.",ⵙⵉⴷⴻⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷoⵎⴻ ⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴰⵎⴱo ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜ ⴰⵓ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵙⵉⴷⴻⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴱo ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵂⴰⵗⴰⵏ
Rows of rising seats around the curve of the apse with the patriarch's throne at the middle eastern point formed the synthronon.,Iⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵆⵉăⵎⴻⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴱⵙⴻ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵆⵉⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵏⵓⵏ
The domes and vaults to the exterior were covered with lead or with tiling of the Roman variety.,ⴻⵉⵎⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵍⴻⴰⴷ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⴶ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵈoⵎⴰ
There are considerable Byzantine influences which can be detected in the distinctive early Islamic monuments in Syria (709–715).,ⴻⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵋⴰⵎoⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴰ (ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 709 ⵂⴰⵔ 715)
"Bricks 70 cm x 35 cm x 5 cm were used, and these bricks were glued together using mortar approximately 5 cm thick.",Iⴱⵉⵍⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ 70 ⵏ ⵛⵎ ⵆ 35 ⵛⵎ ⵆ 5 ⵛⵎ ⴰ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⵉⵍⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵜⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⴰⵓ ⵏ 5 ⵛⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ
Perhaps the most definite feature of the Hagia Irene is the strict contrast between the interior and exterior design.,ⴻⵂⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ Iⵔⴻⵏⴻ ⵂⴰⴶⵉⴰ ⵉⵎoⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ.
"This style influenced the construction of several other buildings, such as St. Peter's Basilica.",Iⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ oⵔⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉⵛⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵜ. ⴱⴻⵜⴻⵔ
"The construction of the final version of the Hagia Sophia, which still stands today, was overseen by Emperor Justinian.",ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⴶⵉⴰ ⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴻⵎⴱⴻⵔoⵔ ⵋⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ
"Gothic architecture (or pointed architecture) is an architectural style that was particularly popular in Europe from the late 12th century to the 16th century, during the High and Late Middle Ages, surviving into the 17th and 18th centuries in some areas.",ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ (ⵎⴻⵗ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⴰⵏ) ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵔoⴱⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1200 ⵂⴰⵔ 1600 ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1700 ⴷ 1800 ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ.
The style at the time was sometimes known as opus Francigenum (lit.,Iⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ Oⴱⵓⵙ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⴶⴻⵏⵓⵎ (ⵍⵉⵜ)
The primary engineering innovation and one of the other characteristic design components is the flying buttress.,Iⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵋⴻⵏⵉⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⵍⵉⵉⵏⴶ ⴱⵓⵜⵜⵔⴻⵙⵙ
"However, there is no evidence to indicate that there was a connection between Armenian architecture and the development of the Gothic style in Western Europe.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ , ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴶⵓⵂⴻ ⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴰ oⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵔoⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ"
"Thus the Gothic style, being in opposition to classical architecture, from that point of view was associated with the destruction of advancement and sophistication.","Iⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ, ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⵔăⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵗⴰⵛⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⵗⴰⵓ"
"The term ‘Saracen’ was still in use in the 18th century and it typically referred to all Muslim conquerors, including the Moors and Arabs.",Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⵙⴰⵔⴰⵛⴻⵏ” ⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴾⴾⵓⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵎooⵔⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵏ
"His aversion of the style was so strong that he refused to put a Gothic roof on the new St. Paul's, despite being pressured to do so.",ⵎⵉⴾⴷⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵋ ⵜⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵗⵓⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⵜ.ⴱⴰⵓⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴶⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵋ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ.
"Several authors have taken a stance against this allegation, claiming that the Gothic style had most likely filtered into Europe in other ways, for example through Spain or Sicily.",Iⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵆⵉⴻⵣ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵛ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵔoⴱⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵙⵉⵛⵉⵍⵉ.
It was also influenced by theological doctrines which called for more light and by technical improvements in vaults and buttresses that allowed much greater height and larger windows.,oⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵗⴰⵔⵔⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴻⴼⴻⵓ ⴰⵋⵋⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵜⵜⵔⴻⵙⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⵏⴻⵏ
Rib-vaults were employed in some parts of the cathedral at Durham (1093–) and in Lessay Abbey in Normandy (1098).,ⵈⵉⴱ-ⴱⴰⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴹⵓⵔⵂⴰⵎ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⵜⴰⵉ (1093) ⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ Lⴻⵙⵙⴰⵉ ⴰⴱⴱⴻⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏoⵔⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉ (1098)
"The Duchy of Normandy, part of the Angevin Empire until the 13th century, developed its own version of Gothic.","ⴻⵓⵜⵛⵂⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵏoⵔⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉ, ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴶⴻⴱⵉⵏ ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⴻ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1300 ⴻⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ."
One example of early Norman Gothic is Bayeux Cathedral (1060–70) where the Romanesque cathedral nave and choir were rebuilt into the Gothic style.,ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏoⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⴻⵓⵆ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1060 ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ 70) ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⴾⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵏⴰvⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵈoⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ
Coutances Cathedral was remade into Gothic beginning about 1220.,ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵛoⵓⵜⴰⵏⵛⴻⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1220
Suger reconstructed portions of the old Romanesque church with the rib vault in order to remove walls and to make more space for windows.,Iⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴶⴻⵔ ⵓⵉ oⵍⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵈoⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵔⵉⴱ vⴰⵓⵍⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⴾⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴻⵎⴻⵍ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ
"In addition, he installed a circular rose window over the portal on the facade.","ⴻⵓⵍⴰⵙ, ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵛⴰⴶⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵍⴰⵍⵓⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵋⵋⵉⵛ"
"Durham Cathedral was the first cathedral to employ a rib vault, built between 1093 and 1104.","ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⵂⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵔⵉⴱ vⴰⵓⵍⵜ, ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1093 ⴷ ⵓⴰ 1104."
"One of the builders who is believed to have worked on Sens Cathedral, William of Sens, later travelled to England and became the architect who, between 1175 and 1180, reconstructed the choir of Canterbury Cathedral in the new Gothic style.","Iⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵗⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵚⴻⵏⵙ ⵛⴰⵜⵂⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ , ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴻⵏⵙ, ⵉⵙⵙoⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴻⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵙ oⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⵏⵜⴻⵔⴱⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ.ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⴾⴼⵉⵔⵜ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵛⵂⴰⴱⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵛⴰⵓⴰⵏⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜ-ⴻⴻⵏⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵟoⵓⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴻⵓⴻⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛ ⵙ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ."
"French Gothic churches were heavily influenced both by the ambulatory and side-chapels around the choir at Saint-Denis, and by the paired towers and triple doors on the western façade.",ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⴾⴼⵉⵔⵜ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵛⵂⴰⴱⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵛⴰⵓⴰⵏⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵚⴰⵉⵏⵜ-ⴻⴻⵏⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵟoⵓⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴻⵓⴻⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛ ⵙ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ.
"The builders of Notre-Dame went further by introducing the flying buttress, heavy columns of support outside the walls connected by arches to the upper walls.","ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏoⵜⵔⴻ-ⴹⴰⵎⴻ ⵉⴾⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵜⵜⵔⴻⵙⵙ ⴼⵍⵉⵉⵏⴶ , ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ oⵙⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏⴶⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ"
His work was continued by William the Englishman who replaced his French namesake in 1178.,ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1178.
"Tiercerons – decorative vaulting ribs – seem first to be have been used in vaulting at Lincoln Cathedral, installed c.1200.",ⵜⵉⴻⵔⵛⴻⵔoⵙ- ⴱⴰⵓⵍⵜ-ⵔⵉⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋⵏⴻⵏ - oⵍⴰⵂ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵆⴰⴷⴻⵜⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⵏⵛoⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1200.
"The first building in the High Gothic was Chartres Cathedral, an important pilgrimage church south of Paris.","ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵛⴰⵋⵔⴻⵏ ⵉⵎoⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵜⵔⴻⵙ, ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵋⵉⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵒⴰⵔⵉⵙ"
"The walls were filled with stained glass, mainly depicting the story of the Virgin Mary but also, in a small corner of each window, illustrating the crafts of the guilds who donated those windows.","Iⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋⵏⴻⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴰⵎⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵋⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⴼⵓⴾ, ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶ-ⴶⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"In central Europe, the High Gothic style appeared in the Holy Roman Empire, first at Toul (1220–), whose Romanesque cathedral was rebuilt in the style of Reims Cathedral; then Trier's Liebfrauenkirche parish church (1228–), and then throughout the Reich, beginning with the Elisabethkirche at Marburg (1235–) and the cathedral at Metz (c.1235–).","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴻⵔoⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵗⵓⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵓⴰ ⵛⴰⵋⵔⴻⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⴻ ⵏ ⵈⵓⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⵉⵍⵉ, ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜ ⵟⵓⵓⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1220-) ⵙ ⴾⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵈoⵎⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵈⴻⵉⵎⵙ;ⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⵔⵉⴻⵔ'ⵙ ⵍⵉⴻⴱⴼⵔⴰⵓⴻⵏⴾⵉⵔⵛⵂⴻ ⵒⴰⵔⵉⵙⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1228- ) ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵈⴻⵉⵛⵂ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴻⵍⵉⵙⴰⴱⴻⵜⵂⴾⵉⵔⵛⵂⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵔⴱⵓⵔⴶ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1235- ) ⴷ ⴾⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵜⵣ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (ⵛ. 1235)"
Lancet windows were supplanted by multiple lights separated by geometrical bar-tracery.,ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵛⴻⵜ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴼⴻⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴱⴰⵔ-ⵜⵔⴰⵛⴻⵔⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⴶⴰⵎⵛⴰⴾⵜ
"Other characteristics of the High Gothic were the development of rose windows of greater size, using bar-tracery, higher and longer flying buttresses, which could reach up to the highest windows, and walls of sculpture illustrating biblical stories filling the facade and the fronts of the transept.","ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴻⴷ ⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵜⴰ ⵛⴰⵋⵔoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵋⵋⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⴾ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ'ⵉⴱⴰⴶⴰⵏ, ⴱⵓⵜⵜⵔⴻⵙⵙ ⵛⴰⵋⵔⴻⵏ, ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⵉⴷ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ oⵋⵋⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵏⵋⵉⵍ ⵉⴷⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⴻⴱⵜ."
"The high and thin walls of French Rayonnant Gothic allowed by the flying buttresses enabled increasingly ambitious expanses of glass and decorated tracery, reinforced with ironwork.",Iⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴻⵏⵛⵂ ⵈⴰⵉoⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵍⵉⵉⵏⴶ ⴱⵓⵜⵜⵔⴻⵙⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⵛⴻⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣoⵍⵉ
Masons elaborated a series of tracery patterns for windows – from the basic geometrical to the reticulated and the curvilinear – which had superseded the lancet window.,ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵛⴻⵔⵉ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ - ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴻⴶⴰⵎⵛⴰⴾⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵙⴰⵍⵙⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ- ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵛⴻⵜ
"Churches with features of this style include Westminster Abbey (1245–), the cathedrals at Lichfield (after 1257–) and Exeter (1275–), Bath Abbey (1298–), and the retro choir at Wells Cathedral (c.1320–).","ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵙⵜⵎⵉⵏⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⴰⴱⴱⴻⵉ (1245–) ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1245–) ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⵉⵛⵂⴼⵉⴻⵍⴷ (ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1257- ) ⴷ ⴻⵆⵜⴻⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1275- ) , ⴱⴰⵜⵂ ⴰⴱⴱⴻⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1298) ⴷ ⵛⵂoⵔⴰⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴻⵍⵍⵙ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ (ⵛ. 1320)."
Use of ogees was especially common.,ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ Oⴶⴻⴻⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ
"Examples of French flamboyant building include the west façade of Rouen Cathedral, and especially the façades of Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes (1370s) and choir Mont-Saint-Michel's abbey church (1448).","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴻⵏⵛⵂ ⴼⵍⴰⵎⴱⵓⵉⴰⵏⵜ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵈoⵓⴻⵏ, ⴷ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜⴻ-ⵛⵂⴰⵒⴻⵍⵍⴻ ⴷⴻ ⵠⵉⵏⵛⴻⵏⵏⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1370) ⴷ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂoⵉⵔ ⵎoⵏⵜ-ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜ-ⵎⵉⵛⵂⴻⵍ’ⴰⴱⴱⴻⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1448)"
It first appeared in the cloisters and chapter-house (c. 1332) of Old St Paul's Cathedral in London by William de Ramsey.,Iⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵍoⵉⵙⵜⴻⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⴱⵜⴻⵔ-ⵂoⵓⵙⴻ (ⵛ.1332) ⵜⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵏ Oⵍⴷ ⵙⵜ ⴱⴰⵓⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍoⵏⴷoⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⴷⴻ ⵔⴰⵎⵙⴻⵉ
"Perpendicular is sometimes called Third Pointed and was employed over three centuries; the fan-vaulted staircase at Christ Church, Oxford built around 1640.","ⴻⴰⵣⵗⴰⵈⵜ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵙⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ 300 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ; ⴼⴰⵏ-vⴰⵓⵍⵜⴻⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⵛⴰⵙⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵜ, ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ Oⵆⴼoⵔⴷ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1640."
"The Kings of France had first-hand knowledge of the new Italian style, because of the military campaign of Charles VIII to Naples and Milan (1494), and especially the campaigns of Louis XII and Francis I (1500–1505) to restore French control over Milan and Genoa.",ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ Iⵜⴰⵍⵉⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴰⵗⵍⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵍⴻⵙ ⵠII ⵂⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⴱⵍⴻⵙ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1494) ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵗⵍⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵍoⵓⵉⵙ ⵆII ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙ I (1500 ⵂⴰⵔ 1505) ⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⵗⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵗⴻⵏoⴰ
The Château de Blois (1515–24) introduced the Renaissance loggia and open stairway.,ⵛⵂⴰⵜⴻⴰⵓ ⴷⴻ ⴱⵍoⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1515 ⵂⴰⵔ 24) ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵈⴻⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵍoⴶⴶⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵜⴰⵉⵔⵓⴰⵉ.
"Under Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, England was largely isolated from architectural developments on the continent.","ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴻⵏⵔⵉ ⵠIII ⴷ ⴻⵍⵉⵣⴰⴱⴻⵜⵂ I, ⴻⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵔoⴱⴰ."
Shute published the first book in English on classical architecture in 1570.,ⵂⵓⵜⴻ ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1570
"The pointed arch did not originate in Gothic architecture; they had been employed for centuries in the Near East in pre-Islamic as well as Islamic architecture for arches, arcades, and ribbed vaults.","ⵙⵟⵉⵛⴰⵏⴶⴰⵉ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ; ⵜ ⴰⵓ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵏⴶⵉⵓⴻⵏ, ⴰⵔⵛⴰⴷⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ."
"They were also sometimes used for more practical purposes, such as to bring transverse vaults to the same height as diagonal vaults, as in the nave and aisles of Durham Cathedral, built in 1093.",ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴰⵓ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙvⴻⵔⵙⴻ vⴰⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ oⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ vⴰⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⴰⴶoⵏⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰvⴻ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵔⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⵂⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1093.
"Unlike the semi-circular barrel vault of Roman and Romanesque buildings, where the weight pressed directly downward, and required thick walls and small windows, the Gothic rib vault was made of diagonal crossing arched ribs.","ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎoⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵕoⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵈoⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙⵈⵓⴻ ⵙ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⴾ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴻⵂⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⴷⴻⵔ, ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵉⴱⵉⵍⵗⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⴻⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔoⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵏⴶⴰⵉ."
The outward thrust against the walls was countered by the weight of buttresses and later flying buttresses.,ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⴾⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵂⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵜⵜⵔⴻⵙⵙⴻⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵍⵉⵉⵏⴶ ⴱⵓⵜⵜⵔⴻⵙⵙⴻⵙ
"They were very difficult to build, and could only cross a limited space.",ⴰⵙⵙoⵂⴰⵜ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷoⴱⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵉⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴾⴰⵓⵣⴰⵏ.
"The alternating rows of alternating columns and piers receiving the weight of the vaults was replaced by simple pillars, each receiving the same weight.","Iⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵂⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⴾ ⵏ vⴰⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵔⴰⵈⵈoⵙⵏⴻⵏ , ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⵓⴾ oⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ"
"The first of these new vaults had an additional rib, called a tierceron, which ran down the median of the vault.",ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ vⴰⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵜⵉⴻⵔⵛⴻⵔoⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵏ vⴰⵓⵍⵜ
These vaults often copied the forms form of the elaborate tracery of the Late Gothic styles.,ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴶⴱⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⴻⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ
"A second type was called a reticulated vault, which had a network of additional decorative ribs, in triangles and other geometric forms, placed between or over the traverse ribs.",Iⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵙⴰⵍⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵔⴻⵣo ⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵋ ⵏ ⵜⴻⴶⴰⵎⵛⴰⴾⵜ ⴷ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴻⴶⴰⵎⵛⴰⴾⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵔⴰvⴻⵔⵙⴻ
An example is the cloister of Gloucester Cathedral (c. 1370).,ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵆⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵍoⵓⵛⴻⵙⵜⴻⵔ (ⵛ.1370)
"They were used later at Sens, at Notre-Dame de Paris and at Canterbury in England.","ⴰⵜ ⴰⵓ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴻⵏⵙ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏoⵜⵔⴻ-ⴹⴰⵎⴻ-ⴷⴷⴻ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵏⵜⴻⵔⴱⵓⵔⵉ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ"
"In the High Gothic period, a new form was introduced, composed of a central core surrounded several attached slender columns, or colonettes, going up to the vaults.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵓⴰ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⴻⵏ, ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵛoⵔⴻ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴻⵗⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵛoⵍoⵏⴻⵜⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ"
"In England, the clustered columns were often ornamented with stone rings, as well as columns with carved leaves.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴻⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏⵜ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⴼⴰⵙⴻⵏ ⵉⵏⵋⴰⴼⵏⴻⵏ"
"In place of the Corinthian capital, some columns used a stiff-leaf design.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜⵂⵉⴰ, ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴻⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴼⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙoⵂⴻⵜ."
"In later structures, the buttresses often had several arches, each reaching in to a different level of the structure.","ⴻ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⵜⵜⵔⴻⵙⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵏⴶⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ , ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜ ⴻⵓⴰⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ"
The arches had an additional practical purpose; they contained lead channels which carried rainwater off the roof; it was expelled from the mouths of stone gargoyles placed in rows on the buttresses.,ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵏⴶⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⵜ ; ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⴾⴾⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴷⴰ; ⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵔⴶⵜⵉⵍⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵓⵜⵜⵔⴻⵙⵙ
"They also had a practical purpose; they often served as bell towers supporting belfries, whose bells told the time by announcing religious services, warned of fire or enemy attack, and celebrated special occasions like military victories and coronations.","Iⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ; ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⴻⵍⵍ ⵜⵓⵓⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵂⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴱⴻⵍⴼⵔⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣoⵍⵉ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ, ⵔⴰⵈⵈⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴼⴻⵓ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⴼⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵍoⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵉⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵆⵉⴰⵎⴻⵏ."
"Since cathedral construction usually took many years, and was extremely expensive, by the time the tower were to be built public enthusiasm waned, and tastes changed.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ , ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙoⵂⴰⵜ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂoⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵍⵓⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ."
Chartres would have been even more exuberant if the second plan had been followed; it called for seven towers around the transept and sanctuary.,ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵜⵔⴻⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴻⴾⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⵓⵉⵜ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ; ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵓⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⴻⵒⵜ ⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⵉⵍⵉ.
The early and High Gothic Laon Cathedral has a square lantern tower over the crossing of the transept; two towers on the western front; and two towers on the ends of the transepts.,ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵛⴰⵋⵔⴻⵜ ⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵍⴰoⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴻⴼⴰⵜⴻⵍⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⴻⴱⵜ; ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜoⵓⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ; ⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜoⵓⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⴻⵒⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
"In Normandy, cathedrals and major churches often had multiple towers, built over the centuries; the Abbaye aux Hommes (begun 1066), Caen has nine towers and spires, placed on the facade, the transepts, and the centre.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉ, ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵓⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⵉⴷⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ; ⴰⴱⴱⴰⵉⴻ ⴰⵓⵆ ⵂoⵎⵎⴻⵙ (ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1066), ⵛⴰⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰ ⵜⵓⵓⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ , ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⴻⵒⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ."
"A variation of the spire was the flèche, a slender, spear-like spire, which was usually placed on the transept where it crossed the nave.","ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴾ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⵍⴻⵛⵂⴻ , ⵉⵙⵉⴾ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⴻⵒⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵏⴰvⴻ."
Amiens Cathedral has a flèche.,ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴻⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴼⵍⴻⵛⵂⴻ
"It was removed in 1786 during a program to modernise the cathedral, but was put back in a new form designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc.",ⴰⵎⵎⵓⴾⴾⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1786 ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵙ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⵗⵏⴰ ⴻⵓⴶⵉⵏⴻ ⵠⵉⵓⵍⵍⴻⵜ-ⵍⴻ-ⴹⵓⵛ
"In English Gothic, the major tower was often placed at the crossing of the transept and nave, and was much higher than the other.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵗⵓⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵜⵓⵓⴻⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴷⵉⵂⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵈⴰⵙ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⴻⵒⵜ ⴷ ⵏⴰⴱⴻ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵋⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵜ"
"A crossing tower was constructed at Canterbury Cathedral in 1493–1501 by John Wastell, who had previously worked on King's College at Cambridge.",ⵜⵓⵓⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⵜⴻⵔⴱⵓⵔⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1493 ⵂⴰⵔ 1501 ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⵓⴰⵙⵜⴻⵍⵍ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴷⴶⴻ
An unusual double arch had to be constructed in the centre of the crossing to give the tower the extra support it needed.,ⵟⵉⵛⴰⵏⴶⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜⴼⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵈⴻⵙⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴻⴾⴼⵓ ⵜoⵓⴻⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ.
"Construction began again in 1724 to the design of Nicholas Hawksmoor, after first Christopher Wren had proposed a design in 1710, but stopped again in 1727.","ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1724 ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵛⵂoⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵓⴾⵙⵎⵓⵓⵔ , ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⴱⵂⴻⵔ ⵓⵔⴻⵏ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1710 ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴾⴰⵜ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1727."
"Cologne Cathedral had been started in the 13th century, following the plan of Amiens Cathedral, but only the apse and the base of one tower were finished in the Gothic period.",ⴾⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵍoⴶⵏⴻ ⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1300 ⵜ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴻⵏⵙ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⴰⴱⵙⴻ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⴰⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴻⵔ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵜⵂⵉⵛ
"The tower of Ulm Minster has a similar history, begun in 1377, stopped in 1543, and not completed until the 19th century.","ⵟoⵓⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⵎ ⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ oⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ , ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1377, ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⴾⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1543 ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵎⴷⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900."
Burgos Cathedral was more inspired by Northern Europe.,ⴻⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴶoⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴻⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ
"Plate tracery was the first type of tracery to be developed, emerging in the later phase of Early Gothic or First Pointed.","ⴻⵔⴰⵛⴻⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵛⴻⵔⵉ ⴻⵗⵏⴰⵏ, ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⴻⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵗⵓⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⴰⵜ"
"Tracery is practical as well as decorative, because the increasingly large windows of Gothic buildings needed maximum support against the wind.",ⵜⵔⴰⵛⴻⵔⵉ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍoⵋ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⵓⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵂⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓ.
"""Plate tracery reached the height of its sophistication with the 12th century windows of Chartres Cathedral and in the """"Dean's Eye"""" rose window at Lincoln Cathedral.""",“Iⴱⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵓⴾ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵗⴰⵓ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1200 ⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵜⵔⴻⵙ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵛⴰⴶⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ““ⴹⴻⴰⵏ’ⵙ ⴻⵉⴻ”” ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⵏⵛoⵍⵏ”.
"Stone bar-tracery, an important decorative element of Gothic styles, first was used at Reims Cathedral shortly after 1211, in the chevet built by Jean D'Orbais.","ⵜⵔⴰⵛⴻⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴱⵍⴰⵗ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏⵜ, ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ, ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵈⴻⵉⵎⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ 1211 ⴰ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵂⴻvⴻⵜ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵍⴻⴰⵏ ⴻ’Oⵔⴱⴰⵉⵙ"
"Bar-tracery became common after c.1240, with increasing complexity and decreasing weight.",ⴱⴰⵔ-ⵜⵔⴰⵛⴻⵔⵉ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ oⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵛ.1240 ⵙ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵓⴾ
"Rayonnant also deployed mouldings of two different types in tracery, where earlier styles had used moulding of a single size, with different sizes of mullions.","ⵈⴰⵉoⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵛⴻⵔⵉ, ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ oⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ , ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉoⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ."
The mullions of Geometrical style typically had capitals with curved bars emerging from them.,ⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⴶⴰⵎⵛⴰⴾⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ.
The mullions were in consequence branched into Y-shaped designs further ornamented with cusps.,ⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉoⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵛⵓⵙⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ
"Second Pointed (14th century) saw Intersecting tracery elaborated with ogees, creating a complex reticular (net-like) design known as Reticulated tracery.","Iⵣⵣⵓⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1400) ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵜⵔⴰⵛⴻⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⵓⵈⵈⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴶⴻⴻⵙ, ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴻⵍⵙⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵜⵔⴰⵛⴻⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴻⵍⵙⵉⵜ"
"These shapes are known as daggers, fish-bladders, or mouchettes.","ⴻⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵓⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⴷⵉⴼⴻⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵉⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵏ, ⵎoⵓⵛⵂⴻⵜⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"Perpendicular strove for verticality and dispensed with the Curvilinear style's sinuous lines in favour of unbroken straight mullions from top to bottom, transected by horizontal transoms and bars.","ⵙⵜⵔⴱⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵈⵈⴰⵙ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵛⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉoⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ oⵗⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴻⵔ , ⴰⵣⵓⵏⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⵔⵉⵋⴻⵏ"
The transoms were often topped by miniature crenellations.,ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙoⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴻⴷ ⴻⵂⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵛⵔⴻⵏⴻⵍⵍⴰⵜⵉoⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ.
"It frequently covered the facades, and the interior walls of the nave and choir were covered with blind arcades.",Iⵍⵙⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⴰvⴻ ⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵉⵔ ⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵔⵛⴰⴷⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵔⵗⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ
2 Vaults Barrel or groin Ribbed Ribbed vaults appeared in the Romanesque era and were elaborated in the Gothic era.,2 ⴱⴰⵓⵍⵜ ⴱⴰⵔⵔⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴶⵔoⵉⵏ ⵈⵉⴱⴱⴻⴷ vⴰⵓⵍⵜⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵈoⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵜⵂⵉⵛ
"They have a long nave making the body of the church, where the parishioners worshipped; a transverse arm called the transept and, beyond it to the east, the choir, also known as a chancel or presbytery, that was usually reserved for the clergy.","Iⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴱⴻ ⵛⴰⵋⵔⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⴰⴱⴱⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴱoⵎⴱⴻⵔⵜⴰⵏ ; ⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⴱⴻⵔⵙⴻ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⴻⴱⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ, ⵛⵂⵓⵉⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵏⵛⴻⵍ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴱⵔⴻⵙⴱⵉⵜⴻⵔⵔⵉ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ"
A passage called the ambulatory circled the choir.,ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵛⵂoⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⴾⵓⴰⵉⴰⵜ
"The early cathedrals, like Notre-Dame, had six-part rib vaults, with alternating columns and piers, while later cathedrals had the simpler and stronger four-part vaults, with identical columns.","ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵏoⵜⵔⴻ-ⴹⴰⵎⴻ, ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵙⵉⴷⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴾoⵣⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵔⴰⵈⵈoⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙoⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ oⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ."
"Transepts were usually short in early French Gothic architecture, but became longer and were given large rose windows in the Rayonnant period.",ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⴻⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⴶⴰⵛⵓⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔoⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉoⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ
"In England, transepts were more important, and the floor plans were usually much more complex than in French cathedrals, with the addition of attached Lady Chapels, an octagonal Chapter House, and other structures (See plans of Salisbury Cathedral and York Minster below).","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴻⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵟⵔⴰⵏⵙⴻⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴰⵙⵙoⵂⴻⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴷⵉ ⵛⵂⴰⴱⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ oⵙⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ, ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵎⴰⵎⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ( ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⵉⵙⴱⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵗoⵔⴾ ⵎⵉⵏⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴻⵔ)"
An elevation typically had four levels.,ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴾⴾoⵣ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ
"Above that was a narrower gallery, called the triforium, which also helped provide additional thickness and support.",ⴱ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⵜⴻⵗⴻⵛⵜ ⴾⴰⵔⵓⵣⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵜⵔⵉⴼⵓⵔⵉⵓⵎ ⵜⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵉ
"This system was used at Noyon Cathedral, Sens Cathedral, and other early structures.","ⴱⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵉⵓⵏ, ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴻⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ"
"The tribune disappeared, which meant that the arcades could be higher.",ⴱⴰⵜⵎⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵋⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵎoⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵛⴰⴷⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ
"A similar arrangement was adapted in England, at Salisbury Cathedral, Lincoln Cathedral, and Ely Cathedral.","ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ oⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⵉⵙⴱⵓⵔⵉ,ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⵏⵛoⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⵉ"
"This was made possible by the development of the flying buttress, which transferred the thrust of the weight of the roof to the supports outside the walls.",ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵗⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵍⵉⵉⵏⴶ ⴱⵓⵜⵜⵔⴻⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⴾⵉ ⴰⵣⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⴶⴱⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ
Beauvais Cathedral reached the limit of what was possible with Gothic technology.,ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴻⴰⵓⴱⴰⵉⵙ ⵜ ⴻⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴱⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⴾⵏoⵍoⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ
Gothic facades were adapted from the model of the Romanesque facades.,ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⴰⵙⵉⴶⴱⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙⵈⵓⴻ
"The sculpture of the central tympanum was devoted to the Last Judgement, that to the left to the Virgin Mary, and that to the right to the Saints honoured at that particular cathedral.","ⵙⵛⵓⵍⴱⵜⵓⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴱⴰⵏⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ , ⵙ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍⴶⴰⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵓⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵙ ⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⴻⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ"
"""They followed the doctrine expressed by Saint Thomas Aquinas that beauty was a """"harmony of contrasts.""""""",“Iⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵟⵂoⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵓⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ““ ⴰⵂⴰⵔoⵋ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ”””
In England the rose window was often replaced by several lancet windows.,ⴻⴰⵗ ⴻⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵛⴰⴶⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵛⴻⵜ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ
"The portals were crowned with high arched gables, composed of concentric arches filled with sculpture.",ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⴻⴷ ⴶⴰⴱⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵏⴶⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴷⵏⴰⵉ ⵙⵛⵓⵍⴱⵜⵓⵔⴻ
"The towers were adorned with their own arches, often crowned with pinnacles.","ⵜoⵓⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵏⴶⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ , ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵒⵉⵏⵏⴰⵛⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"While French cathedrals emphasised the height of the facade, English cathedrals, particularly in earlier Gothic, often emphasised the width.","ⵆⵓⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵣⵓⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ"
"He broke away from the French emphasis on height, and eliminated the column statutes and statuary in the arched entries, and covered the facade with colourful mosaics of biblical scenes (The current mosaics are of a later date).","ⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵉ ⴰⵣⵓⴾ, ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵋⵉⵋ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵏⴶⴰⵉ , ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵙⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵏⵋⵉⵍ (ⵎoⵙⴰⵉⵛ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ"
The sculptor Andrea Pisano made the celebrated bronze doors for Florence Baptistry (1330–1336).,ⴰⵏⴷⵔⴻⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵏⵣⴻ ⵉ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⴻⵏⵛⴻ ⴱⴰⴱⵜⵉⵙⵜⵔⵉ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1330-1336)
"There is usually a single or double ambulatory, or aisle, around the choir and east end, so parishioners and pilgrims could walk freely easily around east end.","Iⵍⵍⴻ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ, ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵙⵉⵉⵏ ⵜ ⵉ ⵛⵉⵓⵉⵏⴾⵉⵜ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵛⵂoⵉⵔ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ, ⵉ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴱoⵎⴱⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵂⵓⵋⴰⵋ ⴰⵛⵉⵓⵉⵏⴾⵉ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ"
"""Abbot Suger first used the novel combination rib vaults and buttresses to replace the thick walls and replace them with stained glass, opening up that portion of the church to what he considered """"divine light"""".""","‘ ⴰⴱⴱoⵜ ⵙⵓⴶⴻⵔ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵔⵉⴱ vⴰⵓⵍⵜ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵜⵜⵔⴻⵙⵙ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵔⵉ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⴻⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋⵏⴻⵏ, ⵜⴰⵔⵂⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵎ ⵏ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ “”ⴻⴼⴻⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ””"
"There are three such chapels at Chartres Cathedral, seven at Notre Dame de Paris, Amiens Cathedral, Prague Cathedral and Cologne Cathedral, and nine at Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua in Italy.","Iⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⴱⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵜⵔⴻⵙ , ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏoⵜⵔⴻ ⴻⴰⵎⴻ ⴷⴻ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴻⵏⵙ, ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⴶⵓⴻ ⴷ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛoⵍⵓⴶⵏⴻ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉⵛⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂoⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴷⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ Iⵜⴰⵍⵉⴰ“Iⵍⴻ ⴷⴻⴾⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵛⴻⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴻⵜ “ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⴻⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⴻ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵗⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ; ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵆⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ”"
"""An edict of the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 had declared: """"The composition of religious images is not to be left to the inspiration of artists; it is derived from the principles put in place by the Catholic Church and religious tradition.""",“Iⵍⴻ ⴷⴻⴾⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵛⴻⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ 787 ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴻⵜ “ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⴻⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⴻ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵗⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ; ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵆⴰⵜoⵍⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ”
"Gradually, as the style evolved, the sculpture became more and more prominent, taking over the columns of the portal, and gradually climbing above the portals, until statues in niches covered the entire facade, as in Wells Cathedral, to the transepts, and, as at Amiens Cathedral, even on the interior of the facade.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵉⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵜⵉⵉ, ⵙⵛⵓⵍⵒⵜⵓⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔⴻ , ⵛⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵙⵜⴰⵜⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴱⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵍⵍⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵟⵔⴰⵏⵙⴻⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴻⵏⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ."
This set a pattern of complex iconography which was followed at other churches.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ
"The tympanum over the central portal on the west façade of Notre-Dame de Paris vividly illustrates the Last Judgement, with figures of sinners being led off to hell, and good Christians taken to heaven.","ⴱⵉⵓⴰⵏⵓⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵏoⵜⵔⴻ-ⵉⴰⵎⴻ ⴷⴻ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⴷⴰⵜⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ, ⵉⵓⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⴱⴻⴾⴾⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⴼⴻⵓ ⴷ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ oⵍⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜ"
The torments of hell were even more vividly depicted.,ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵣⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⴼⴻⵓ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴻⴷ ⴷⴻⵗ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵋ
"They were part of the visual message for the illiterate worshippers, symbols of the evil and danger that threatened those who did not follow the teachings of the church.","ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⵗⴱⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵋⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵛⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴱⴰⵙ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⵜⵉⵙⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴷⴻⵗ ⵙ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴻⴶⵍⵍⵉⵣ"
"They were replaced with figures in the Gothic style, designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc during the 19th-century restoration.",Iⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⴻⵗⵏⴰ ⴻⵓⴶèⵏⴻ ⵠⵉoⵍⵍⴻⵜ-ⵍⴻ-ⴻⵓⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900
"Religious teachings in the Middle Ages, particularly the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, a 6th-century mystic whose book, De Coelesti Hierarchia, was popular among monks in France, taught that all light was divine.","ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴱⵙⴻⵓⴷo-ⴻⵉoⵏⵉⵙⵉⵓⵙ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴰⵔⴻⴱⵓⴰⴶⵉⵜⴻ, ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵛⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 6 ⵙ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵏⴻⵜ , ⴻⴻ ⵛoⴻⵍⴻⵙⵜⵉ ⵂⵉⴻⵔⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⴰ, ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱoⵎⴱⴻⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ, ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵔ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ."
"The windows on the north side, frequently in the shade, had windows depicting the Old Testament.","ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⵍⴰⵉ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵓⵔⴰⵜ."
"The details were painted onto the glass in vitreous enamel, then baked in a kiln to fuse the enamel on the glass.",Iⴼⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔ ⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⵉⴱⵙⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵓⵔ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵙⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵙ
Sainte-Chapelle became the model for other chapels across Europe.,ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜⴻ-ⵛⵂⴰⴻⴻⵍⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵉ ⵛⵂⴰⴱⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵔⵓⴱⴰ
"Clear glass was dipped into coloured glass, then portions of the coloured glass were ground away to give exactly the right shade.","ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵙ ⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⵉⵛⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⴼ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⵍⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ"
"One of the most celebrated Flamboyant buildings was the Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes (1370s), with walls of glass from floor to ceiling.","Iⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵍⴰⵎⴱⵓⵉⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⵂⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜⴻ ⵛⵂⴰⴱⴻⵍⵍⴻ ⴷⴻ ⵠⵉⵛⴻⵏⵏⴻⵙ (ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1370), ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⵉⴷⴻⵔ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ."
The stained glass windows were extremely complex and expensive to create.,ⴼⴰⵏⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵙ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⵉⴶⵏⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙoⵂⴰⵜ ⴻⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"The rose was a symbol of the Virgin Mary, and they were particularly used in churches dedicated to her, including Notre-Dame de Paris.",ⴱⴰⵛⵓⵗⴻ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⵛⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵉⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵓⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵂⴻⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴻⵍⴶⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵂⴰ ⵏoⵜⵔⴻ-ⴻⴰⵎⴻ ⴷⴻ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ
"The Palais de la Cité in Paris, close to Notre-Dame de Paris, begun in 1119, which was the principal residence of the French kings until 1417.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵍⴰⵉⵙ ⴷⴻ ⵍⴰ ⵛⵉⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ, ⴻⵂⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵜⵔⴻ-ⴹⴰⵎⴻ ⴷⴻ ⵓⴰⵔⵉⵙ, ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1119 ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⴾⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1417"
"However, it was soon made obsolete by the development of artillery, and in the 15th century it was remodelled into a comfortable residential palace.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵔⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴱⴻ ⵜoⵍⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1500, oⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ oⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ"
"The oldest existing example in England is probably the Mob Quad of Merton College at Oxford University, constructed between 1288 and 1378.",ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵔⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵂⴰⵎⵉⵛ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⴱ ⵈⵓⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵜoⵏ ⵛoⵍⵍⴻⴶⴻ ⴷⴰv Oⵆⴼoⵔⴷ ⵓⵏvⴻⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1288 ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1378
"A similar kind of academic cloister was created at Queen's College, Oxford in the 1140s, likely designed by Reginald Ely.",Iⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ oⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⴻⵎⵉⵛ ⵛⵍoⵉⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⴻⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵈⵓⴻⴻⵏ’ⵙ ⵛoⵍⵍⴻⴶⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ oⵆⴼoⵔⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1140 ⵙ ⴻⵂⴰⵎⵉⵛ ⵈⴻⴶⵉⵏⴰⵍⴷ ⴻⵍⵉ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵗⵏⴰⵏ
"Some colleges, like Balliol College, Oxford, borrowed a military style from Gothic castles, with battlements and crenolated walls.","ⵍⴰⴾⴾoⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⴰⴾⴾoⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵍⵍⵉo, oⵆⴼoⵔⴷ, ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⴻⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵂⴰⵜo ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵙ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵂⴰⴷⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵏ"
"""He wrote in 1447 that he wanted his chapel """"to proceed in large form, clean and substantial, setting apart superfluity of too great curious works of entail and busy moulding.""""""","“Iⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1447 ⴰⵙ ⴻⵔⵂⴰ ⵛⵂⴰⴱⴻⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ ““ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⴰⵏ , ⵣⴰⴷⴷⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵉⴶⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ”””"
"The walls had two levels of walkways on the inside, a crennellated parapet with merlons, and projecting machicolations from which missiles could be dropped on besiegers.","Iⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⵓⵉⵏⴾⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ , ⴱⴰⵔⴰⴱⴻⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵂⴰⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴻⵔⵍoⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⵂⵉⵛoⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷoⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵉⵙⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴰⵓⵉⵋⵉⵔ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ"
"Castles were surrounded by a deep moat, spanned by a single drawbridge.",ⵛⴰⵜo ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵗⵍⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴻⵗⴻⵛⵜ ⵛⴰⵋⵔⴻⵜ ⴰⴾⴾoⴾⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⴰⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷⴶⴻ
"One good surviving example is the Château de Dourdan, near Nemours.",ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⴰⵜⴻⴰⵓ ⴷⴻ ⴻⵓⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵏⴻⵎoⵓⵔⵙ
The conversion implied compromises since Latin churches are oriented towards the East and mosques are oriented towards Mecca.,ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵎⴰⴷ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⵋⵉⴷⴷⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴾⴾⴰⵜ
"Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque, in Famagusta, Northern Cyprus.",ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⵋⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⴰ ⵎⵓⵙⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⴱⴰⵙⵂⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵙⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵟⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵉⴱⵔⵓⵙ
"The Gothic style began to be described as outdated, ugly and even barbaric.","Iⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ , ⵉⵍⴰⵛ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ oⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⴻ"
"Ireland was an island of Gothic architecture in the 17th and 18th centuries, with the construction of Derry Cathedral (completed 1633), Sligo Cathedral (c. 1730), and Down Cathedral (1790–1818) are other examples.","Iⵔⴻⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1700 ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴻⵔⵔⵉ (ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1633), ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵍⵉⴶo (ⵛ.1730), ⴷ ⵆⴰⵜⴻⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻoⵓⵏ (1790 ⵂⴰⵔ 1818) ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ."
"The two western towers of Westminster Abbey were constructed between 1722 and 1745 by Nicholas Hawksmoor, opening a new period of Gothic Revival.","ⵜⴻⵓⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴻⵙⵜⵎⵉⵏⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⴰⴱⴱⴻⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵓⵙⴾⵙⵎⵓⵓⵔ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1722 ⴷ 1745, oⵔⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ"
"This period of more universal appeal, spanning 1855–1885, is known in Britain as High Victorian Gothic.","ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1855 ⵂⴰⵔ 1885, ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵠⵉⵛⵜoⵔⵉⴰ."
"From the second half of the 19th century onwards, it became more common in Britain for neo-Gothic to be used in the design of non-ecclesiastical and non-governmental buildings types.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900, oⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵏⴻo-ⴶoⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ"
"""Landscape architects work on structures and external spaces in the landscape aspect of the design – large or small, urban, suburban and rural, and with """"hard"""" (built) and """"soft"""" (planted) materials, while integrating ecological sustainability.""","“ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶoⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ- ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵎⴰⴷⵔoⵉⴰⵏ, ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ, ⵙⵓⴱⵓⵔⴱ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ “ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵏ (ⵉⴷⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ) ⴷ “”ⵍⴰⵎⵎⴻⴷⵏⴻⵏ”” (ⵙⴰⵏⴶⴰⵜ) , ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ”"
They can also review proposals to authorize and supervise contracts for the construction work.,ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⴼ ⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ
The first person to write of making a landscape was Joseph Addison in 1712.,ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵋoⵙⴻⴱⵂ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵙoⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1712
"During the latter 19th century, the term landscape architect began to be used by professional landscapes designers, and was firmly established after Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. and Beatrix Jones (later Farrand) with others founded the American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) in 1899.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900, ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶoⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵔⵙ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶoⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵉ ⴼⵔⴻⴷⴻⵔⵉⵛⴾ ⵍⴰⵓ Oⵍⵎⵙⵜⴻⴷ, ⵋⵔ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴱⴻⴰⵜⵔⵉⵆ ⵋoⵏⴻⵙ ( ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏⴷ) ⵉⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵙoⵛⵉⴻⵜⵉ oⴼ ⵍⴰⵏⴷⵙⵛⴰⴱⴻ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵜⴻⵛⵜⵙ (ⴰⵙⵍⴰ) ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1899"
Their projects can range from site surveys to the ecological assessment of broad areas for planning or management purposes.,ⴼⵔoⵋⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈoⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ
"Their work is embodied in written statements of policy and strategy, and their remit includes master planning for new developments, landscape evaluations and assessments, and preparing countryside management or policy plans.","ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴼoⵍⵉⵜⴾ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵜⵓⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⵂⴻⵜ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼoⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ"
In recent years the need and interest of therapeutic gardens have been increasingly rising.,ⴻⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴻⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼoⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵋⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴻⵆⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ
"Among these were Central Park in New York City, Prospect Park in Brooklyn, New York and Boston's Emerald Necklace park system.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⵂⴻⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴻⵏⵜⵔⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵔⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⵛⵉⵜⵉ, ⴱⵔⵓⵙⴱⴻⵛⵜ ⴱⴰⵔⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵓⵓⴾⵍⵉⵏ, ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴻⵔⴰⵍⴷ ⵏⴻⵛⴾⵍⴰⵛⴻ ⴱⴰⵔⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵜoⵓⵏ"
"She was design consultant for over a dozen universities including: Princeton in Princeton, New Jersey; Yale in New Haven, Connecticut; and the Arnold Arboretum for Harvard in Boston, Massachusetts.","ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵛⴰⵎⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⴻⵂⴰ: ⵓⵔⵉⵏⵛⴻⵜⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵏⵛⴻⵜⵓⵏ, ⵏⴻⵓ ⵋⴻⵔⵙⴻⵉ, ⵗⴰⵍⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵂⴰvⴻⵏ, ⵛoⵏⵏⴻⵜⵉⵛⵓⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵏⵓⵍⴷ ⴰⵔⴱⵓⵔⴻⵜⵓⵎ ⵉ ⵂⴰⵔvⴰⵔⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵛⵂⵓⵙⵙⴻⵜⵜⵙ"
"Urban Planners are qualified to perform tasks independent of landscape architects, and in general, the curriculum of landscape architecture programs do not prepare students to become urban planners.",ⵆⴻⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ oⵂⴻⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ
Roberto Burle Marx in Brazil combined the International style and native Brazilian plants and culture for a new aesthetic.,ⵈoⴱⴻⵔⵜⵓ Bⵓⵔⵍⴻ ⵎⴰⵔⵆ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⴰⵣⵉⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴻⵎⴰⵗⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵣⵉⵍⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴰⵍoⵋ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ
He popularized a system of analyzing the layers of a site in order to compile a complete understanding of the qualitative attributes of a place.,Iⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵉⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ
"Once recognized by AILA, landscape architects use the title 'Registered Landscape Architect' across the six states and territories within Australia.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⵉⵍⴰ, ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ‘ⵈⴻⴶⵉⵙⵜⴻⵔⴻⴷ ⵍⴰⵏⴷⵙⵛⴰⴱⴻ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵜⴻⵛⵜ’ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴰ"
"Within NZ, Members of NZILA when they achieve their professional standing, can use the title Registered Landscape Architect NZILA.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵏⵤ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵏⵤIⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⴰⴷⴷoⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵈⴻⴶⵉⵙⵜⴻⵔⴻⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵜⴻⵛⵜ ⵍⴰⵏⴷⵙⵛⴰⴱⴻ"
"ILASA's mission is to advance the profession of landscape architecture and uphold high standards of professional service to its members, and to represent the profession of landscape architecture in any matter which may affect the interests of the members of the institute.",ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ Iⵍⴰⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴾⵉⵛ ⴰⵍⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵗⵍⵉⵙ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⴾⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ
At present there are fifteen accredited programmes in the UK.,ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵙⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵔⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵆ
"""In 2008, the LI launched a major recruitment drive entitled """"I want to be a Landscape Architect"""" to encourage the study of Landscape Architecture.""","“ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2008, ⵍI ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴻⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ “ⴰⵔⵂⴻⵗ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ”” ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶoⵏ”"
Several states require passage of a state exam as well.,ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴻⴶⵣⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ
"By the 6th century BC, the sand already covered the statues of the main temple up to their knees.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 6 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ , ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⵙⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
"One scheme to save the temples was based on an idea by William MacQuitty to build a clear freshwater dam around the temples, with the water inside kept at the same height as the Nile.",ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵎⴰⵛQⵓⵉⵜⵜⵉ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵉ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⵙⴰⵙⴻ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵉⵍⴻ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ
They considered that raising the temples ignored the effect of erosion of the sandstone by desert winds.,Iⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵏ ⴻⵛⴻⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ
"Between 1964 and 1968, the entire site was carefully cut into large blocks (up to 30 tons, averaging 20 tons), dismantled, lifted and reassembled in a new location 65 metres higher and 200 metres back from the river, in one of the greatest challenges of archaeological engineering in history.","ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ 1964 ⴷ 1968, ⵙⵉⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ (ⵂⴰⵔ 30 ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏ, ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ 20 ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏ) ,ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⴷⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴶ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ 65 ⵏ ⵎⴻⵜⴰⵔ ⴷ 200 ⵏ ⵎⴻⵜⴰⵔ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙ ⴻⵋⴰⵔⴻⵓ , ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵉ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ"
"Many visitors also arrive by plane at an airfield that was specially constructed for the temple complex, or by road from Aswan, the nearest city.","Iⵏⴰⴼⵜⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⵉⵓⵏ ⴻⵗⴰⵔⵗⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵙ Aⵙⵓⴰⵏ , ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ"
"The colossal statues along the left-hand wall bear the white crown of Upper Egypt, while those on the opposite side are wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt (pschent).",ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍⴶⴰⵉ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴱⴻⵔ ⴻⴶⵉⴱⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜⴼⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴱⴻⵔ ⴷ ⵍⵓⵓⴻⵔ ⴻⴶⵉⵒⵜ (ⴱⵙⵛⵂⴻⵏⵜ)
"The most famous relief shows the king on his chariot shooting arrows against his fleeing enemies, who are being taken prisoner.",ⴻⴻⴷⴰⵓⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵔⴾⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵛⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴾⴰⵙⴰⵓ.
There are depictions of Ramesses and Nefertari with the sacred boats of Amun and Ra-Horakhty.,Iⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴻⵙⵙⴻⵙⴻⵙ ⴷ ⵏⴻⴼⴻⵔⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵓⵉⵍⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵔⴰ-ⵂⵓⵔⴰⴾⵂⵜⵉ
"These dates are allegedly the king's birthday and coronation day, respectively.",Iⵛⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⵉⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴻⵆⵉⴰⵎⵜ
"In fact, according to calculations made on the basis of the heliacal rising of the star Sirius (Sothis) and inscriptions found by archaeologists, this date must have been October 22.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⵎⴻⴷⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⵓⵙ (ⵙⵓⵜⵂⵉⵙ) ⴷ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 22 ⵏ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵉⴷ ⴻⵍ ⴼⵉⵜⵔ."
This was in fact the second time in ancient Egyptian history that a temple was dedicated to a queen.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ Eⴶⵉⴱⵜ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⴰⵜ
"Traditionally, the statues of the queens stood next to those of the pharaoh, but were never taller than his knees.","ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ, ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⵗⴰⵓⵏⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴻⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴼⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ"
The capitals of the pillars bear the face of the goddess Hathor; this type of column is known as Hathoric.,ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵜⵂⵓⵔ; ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴻⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵜⵂⵓⵔⵉⵛ.
"On the south and the north walls of this chamber there are two graceful and poetic bas-reliefs of the king and his consort presenting papyrus plants to Hathor, who is depicted as a cow on a boat sailing in a thicket of papyri.",ⴻⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵂⵉⵛⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵍⴰⵜⵂⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵜⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴱⴰⵋⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵔⵉ
"None of the current buildings are believed to date from before the 17th century, but they were likely built with the same construction methods and designs as had been used for centuries before.",ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ oⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1700 ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⴻⵂⴰⵎⵉⵛ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵓⴰ
"Other kasbahs and ksour were located all along this route, such as the nearby Tamdaght to the north.","ⵆⴰⵙⴱⴰⵂ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴻⴷ ⵉⴷ ⴾⵙoⵓⵔ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴻⵏ, ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵟⴰⵎⴷⴰⵗⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ."
The village's buildings are grouped together within a defensive wall that includes corner towers and a gate.,Iⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⴷⴷⴻⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵗⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵓⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵋⴻⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱ
"The village also has a number of public or community buildings such as a mosque, a caravanserai, a kasbah (castle-like fortification) and the Marabout of Sidi Ali or Amer.","ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⵋⵉⴷⴷⴰ, ⵛⴰⵔⴰvⴰⵏⵙⴻⵔⴰⵉ, ⴾⴰⵙⴱⴰⵂ (ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⵜⵓ) ⴷ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵈⵈⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⵉ ⴰⵍⵉ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵎⴻⵔ"
"It was made of compressed earth and mud, usually mixed with other materials to aid adhesion.",Iⴾⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵈ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵗⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵜⵓⵗ
"The Aswan Dam, or more specifically since the 1960s, the Aswan High Dam, is the world's largest embankment dam, which was built across the Nile in Aswan, Egypt, between 1960 and 1970.","ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1960 , ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⴷⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ Nⵉⵍⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵓⴰⵏ, ⴻⴶⵉⴱⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1960 ⵂⴰⵔ 1970"
"Like the earlier implementation, the High Dam has had a significant effect on the economy and culture of Egypt.","ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ, ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⴶⵉⵜ"
"However, this natural flooding varied, since high-water years could destroy the whole crop, while low-water years could create widespread drought and consequently famine.","ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⴰⵏⴰⵋⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴻⵗⴰⵛⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵓⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵔⵓⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵗⴻⵗⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰ"
"Instead the Nile Valley Plan by the British hydrologist Harold Edwin Hurst was favored, which proposed to store water in Sudan and Ethiopia, where evaporation is much lower.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ Eⵗⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵍⴻ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⵍⴷ Eⴷⵓⵉⵏ ⵂⵓⵔⵙⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴻⵜⵂⵉⵓⴱⵉⴰ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴶⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⴰⵏ"
"Initially, both the United States and the USSR were interested in helping development of the dam.",ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵔ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ
"At that time the U.S. feared that communism would spread to the Middle East, and it saw Nasser as a natural leader of an anticommunist procapitalist Arab League.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ, ⵢⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⵉⵋⴰⵛ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵙⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴾⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⵣⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴾⵉⵛ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵉⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⴰⵓⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵏⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵔ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵆⵉⵢⵣ ⵙ ⴾⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⵣⵎ ⴷⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵏ"
"After the UN criticized a raid by Israel against Egyptian forces in Gaza in 1955, Nasser realized that he could not portray himself as the leader of pan-Arab nationalism if he could not defend his country militarily against Israel.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵏⵓ ⵓⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ Iⵙⵔⴰⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⴰⵣⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ 1955, ⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵔ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵓⴶⵓⵣ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⴰⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ Iⵙⵔⴰⵉⵍ."
"Nasser did not accept these conditions, and consulted the USSR for support.",ⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵔ ⵓⴰⴷⵉⵔⵓⴷⵓ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵙⵙ.
"Dulles was angered more by Nasser's diplomatic recognition of China, which was in direct conflict with Dulles's policy of containment of communism.","ⴷⵓⵍⵍⵢⵙ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵣⵉⵢ ⵜⴰ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ ⵉⵢ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵔ, ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⴾⵓⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵢⵓⵍⵍⵢⵙ."
He was also irritated by Nasser's neutrality and attempts to play both sides of the Cold War.,ⴷⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⴰⵣⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙ ⵏⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴷⵢ.
The enormous rock and clay dam was designed by the Soviet Hydroproject Institute along with some Egyptian engineers.,ⵓⴰⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵈ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⴰ Iⵏⵙⵜⵉⵜⵓⵜ ⵙⵓⴱⵉⵉⵜⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵢⴶⵉⴱⵜⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ
"Conversely, the dam flooded a large area, causing the relocation of over 100,000 people.","ⴰⵏⵉⵎⵉⵙⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵙⴰ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⴰ ⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ 100 000 ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ."
The assessment of the costs and benefits of the dam remains controversial decades after its completion.,ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵣⴰⵓⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ.
"Not taking into account the negative environmental and social effects of the dam, its costs are thus estimated to have been recovered within only two years.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵢⵔⵓⵢⵜⵜⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⵢⵂ ⵏⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ, ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵛ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵣⴰⵓⵢ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ."
Another observer disagreed and he recommended that the dam should be torn down.,Iⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⴷ ⴷⵢⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⴶⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ.
"The dam mitigated the effects of floods, such as those in 1964, 1973, and 1988.","ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ ⵉⵆⴰⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1964, 1973 əⴷ 1988."
"A new fishing industry has been created around Lake Nasser, though it is struggling due to its distance from any significant markets.","ⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴾⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏⵓⴾⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴶⴰ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵛ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵔ, ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴶⵉⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⴷⴰⴾ."
About half a million families were settled on these new lands.,ⴰⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵉⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵓⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴷⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ.
"On other previously irrigated land, yields increased because water could be made available at critical low-flow periods.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⵓⴱⴷⴰⴶ, ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵓⵉⴷ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ."
"In Sudan, 50,000 to 70,000 Sudanese Nubians were moved from the old town of Wadi Halfa and its surrounding villages.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵓⴷⴰⵏ, 50 000 à 70 000 ⵏⵓⴱⵉⵢⵏⵙ ⵙⵓⵓⴷⴰⵏⴰⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵆⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⵉ ⵂⴰⵍⴼⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵉⵏⵜⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⴰⵣ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ."
"The government developed an irrigation project, called the New Halfa Agricultural Development Scheme to grow cotton, grains, sugar cane and other crops.","ⵗⵓⴱⵢⵔⵏⵢⵎⴰ ⴰⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴶⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵆⵔⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵂⴰⵍⴼⴰ ⴰⴶⵔⵉⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵢⵢ ⴱⵢⵍⵓⴱⵎⵢⵏⵜ ⵙⵛⵂⵢⵎⵢ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⴶⵉⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴱⵓ, ⴰⵜⴰⵆⴰⵎ, ⴰⵋⴰⴱⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⴶⵉⴰⴾ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ."
Housing and facilities were built for 47 village units whose relationship to each other approximated that in Old Nubia.,Iⵂⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ 47 ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵔⵢⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⴱⵉⵢ.
"The nutrient value added to the land by the sediment was only 6,000 tons of potash, 7,000 tons of phosphorus pentoxide and 17,000 tons of nitrogen.","ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⵙⴰⴷⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵛⵔⵉⵎⵛⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ 6 000 ⵜⵓⵏⵏⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵙⵓ, 7 000 ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵏⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵢⵏⵜⵓⵆⵉⴷⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵂⵓⵙⴱⵂⴰⵜⵢ ⴰⴷ 17 000 ⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵏⵏⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⵓⵓⵢ."
Soil salinity also increased because the distance between the surface and the groundwater table was small enough (1–2 m depending on soil conditions and temperature) to allow water to be pulled up by evaporation so that the relatively small concentrations of salt in the groundwater accumulated on the soil surface over the years.,"ⵆⴰⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵙⴰⵎⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵉⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰ-ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ (1 ⵂⴰⵔ 2 ⵎ ⵙ ⴱⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⵜ) ⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵔⵓⴷⴰⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵎⴰⵙⵓⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⴷⵓ, ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⴷⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵙⵉⵎⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵍⴰⵏ"
By the 1950s only a small proportion of Upper Egypt had not been converted from basin (low transmission) to perennial (high transmission) irrigation.,"ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ 1950, ⵉⵉⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵓⵜⵢ-ⵢⴶⵉⴱⵜⵢ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵙⵓⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ (ⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ) ⵂⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵓ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ (ⵉⵂⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵙⵂⴰⵜ)."
S. haematobium has since disappeared altogether.,"ⴰⵔⵓ, ⵙ. ⴰⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵓⴱⵉⵓⵎ ⴷⴰⴾⵉⵏⵢⵙ ⴰⵎⵍⴰⵓⴰⵜ."
This means that the dead storage volume would be filled up after 300–500 years if the sediment accumulated at the same rate throughout the area of the lake.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⴷⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⴰⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵜⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 300 ⵂⴰⵔ 500 ⵏⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵔⵉⵎⵛⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⴷⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴱⴰⵏⴶ.
"After construction of the dam, aquatic weeds grew much faster in the clearer water, helped by fertilizer residues.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴶⴰⵓⵜ, ⴰⵍⵉⵎⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵉⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⵙⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⴷⵉⴶⵏⵢⵏ, ⵙⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵔⵉⵎⵛⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ."
Mediterranean fishing and brackish water lake fishery declined after the dam was finished because nutrients that flowed down the Nile to the Mediterranean were trapped behind the dam.,"ⵓⴾⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵜⵢⵔⵔⴰⵏⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴱⴰⴶ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵓⵎⴰⵜⵔⵢ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴶⴰⵓⵜ, ⴼⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵉⵛⴾⴰ ⵓⵉ ⴷⵉⴼⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⴱⵔⵢⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵜⵢⵔⵔⴰⵏⵢ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴼⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⴱⴰⴶⴰⵓⵜ."
A concern before the construction of the High Dam had been the potential drop in river-bed level downstream of the Dam as the result of erosion caused by the flow of sediment-free water.,ⴰⵛⴰⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵓⵜ ⴱⴰⵔⵔⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴷⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵔⵢⵔⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵛⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⴱⴰⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⴱⴰⴶⴰⵓⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵆⴰⵛⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵓⵉⵔⵂⵉⵂⴰ ⵢⵔⴾⵉⵛⵆⵉⵍ.
"The red-brick construction industry, which consisted of hundreds of factories that used Nile sediment deposits along the river, has also been negatively affected.","ⴷⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵋⴰⵆⵏⵢⵏ, ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⵢ ⵏⵓⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⴷⵓⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵔⴾⵉⵛⵉⵆⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵎ ⵏⴰⴱⴰⵏⴶ, ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
Because of the lower turbidity of the water sunlight penetrates deeper in the Nile water.,"ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵔⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵉⴶⴰⵙⵂ ⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⵉⵍ."
"Construction work began in 1995 and, after some US$220 million had been spent, the complex was officially inaugurated on 16 October 2002.","ⴰⵛⵉⴷⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ 1995 ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰƭ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⴰⵏ 220 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴰⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴷ 16 ⵓⴰⵜⵓⴱⵔⵢ 2002."
"The recreation of the ancient library was not only adopted by other individuals and agencies, it garnered support from Egyptian politicians.",ⴰⵙⴰⵎⵓⵙⵓⵗⵉⵍ ⴰ-ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⴰⵔ
UNESCO's involvement beginning in 1986 created a great opportunity for the project to truly be international in focus.,ⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵢⵙⵛO ⴷⴰⵗ 1986 ⵉⴶⴰ ⵉⵢ ⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⴰⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵉⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ.
This architectural team consisted of ten members representing six countries.,ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
"The first pledges were made for funding the project at a conference held in 1990 in Aswan: USD $65 million, mostly from the MENA states.","ⵓⵉⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵔⴷⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ 1990 ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵓⴰⵏ : 65 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⵙ, ⴰⴷⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵆ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵏⴰ."
"In 2010, the library received a donation of 500,000 books from the National Library of France, Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF).","ⴷⴰⵗ 2010, ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ 500 000 ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴰⵢ (ⴱⵏⴼ)."
"The main reading room stands beneath a 32-meter-high glass-panelled roof, tilted out toward the sea like a sundial, and measuring some 160 m in diameter.","ⴷⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵂⴰ ⴷⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⴾⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵢⵜ ⴰⵏ 32 ⵎⵢⵜⵔⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴷⵢ, ⵜⴰⴾⵓⵜⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⴱⵔⵢⵜ ⵏⴰⴶⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵢⵙⴰⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ 160 ⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ."
"Holding approximately 1,316 artifacts, the Antiquities Museum collection provides a glimpse into Egyptian history from the Pharaonic era to the conquest of Alexander the Great to the Roman civilizations before the advent of Islam across Egypt.","Iⵂⴰ ⴰⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ 1 316 ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ, ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⵓⵙⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⴾⵓ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵙⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⴶⵉⴷⵜⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ, ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵢⵆⴰⵏⴷⵔⵢ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⴶⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ Iⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵙⵔ."
"Microfilm: This section includes microfilms of around 30,000 rare manuscripts and 50,000 documents, as well as a collection from The British Library of around 14,000 Arabic, Persian, and Turkish manuscripts, which is considered the largest collection in Europe.","ⵎⵉⵛⵔⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎⵙ : ⵜⵢⴷⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⵔⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ 30 000 ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⵢⵏ ⵙⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ 50 000 ⵏⴰⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⵍⵉⴱⵔⴰⵔⵉ ⵏⵉⴶoⵎⵉⵛ 14 000 ⴰⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⵏⴰⵔⴰⴱⵢ, ⴷⵢⵔⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⵢ."
"However, in 2010 the library received an additional 500,000 books from the Bibliothèque nationale de France.)","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏⴷⴰ, ⴷⴰⵗ 2010, ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ 500 000 ⵏⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵉⴰ.)"
The Great Mosque of Djenné is a large banco or adobe building that is considered by many architects to be one of the greatest achievements of the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style.,ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⴶⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵢⵋⵢⵏⵏⵢ ⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵈ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴷⵉⵙⵢ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵋⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵓⵓⴷⴰⵏⵢ-ⵙⴰⵂⵢⵍⵜⴰⵏ.
"The earliest document mentioning the mosque is Abd al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan which gives the early history, presumably from the oral tradition as it existed in the mid-seventeenth century.","ⵓⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⴶⵉⴷⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵟⴰⵔⵉⴾⵂ ⴰⵍ-ⵙⵓⵓⴷⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷ ⴰⵍ-ⵙⴰⴷⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ, ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵢⴷⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵓⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ 17 ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ."
His immediate successor built the towers of the mosque while the following Sultan built the surrounding wall.,ⴰⵎⴰⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵓⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⴶⵉⴷⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵍⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ.
This would have been the building that Caillié saw.,ⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⴰⵉⵍⵍⵉⵉ.
"The new mosque was a large, low building lacking any towers or ornamentation.","ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⴶⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵔ, ⵓⵉ ⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵎⵢⵆ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⴶ."
"The rebuilding was completed in 1907 using forced labour under the direction of Ismaila Traoré, head of Djenné's guild of masons.","ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⴰ 1907 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵏ Iⵙⵎⴰⵉⵍⴰ ⵟⵔⴰⵓⵔⵉ, ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵋⵢⵏⵏⵉ."
There has been debate as to what extent the design of the rebuilt mosque was subject to French influence.,ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⴾⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⴶⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴰⵔⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵛⵓⵂⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴰⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ.
He thought that the cones made the building resemble a baroque temple dedicated to the god of suppositories.,ⴰⵗⵢⵍ ⴾⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵢⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵆⴰⵎⵉⵍ.
"He also says that local people were so unhappy with the new building that they refused to clean it, only doing so when threatened with prison.","ⴰⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴷⵢⴾⵈⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⴷⴰⵔⵂⵢⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴶⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙ ⵓⵉⵜⴰⵜⵉⴶⵉⵏ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⴷⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵛⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⴾⴰⵙⵓ."
"The larger tomb to the south contains the remains of Almany Ismaïla, an important imam of the 18th century.","ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵓ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⵉⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵈⵉⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵎⵉ Iⵙⵎⴰⵉⵍⴰ, ⴰⵍⵉⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵔⵂⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ 18ⵢ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ."
"In some cases, the original surfaces of a mosque have even been tiled over, destroying its historical appearance and in some cases compromising the building's structural integrity.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⴶⵉⴷⴰ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴰⵔⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴶⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢ."
"In 1996, Vogue magazine held a fashion shoot inside the mosque.","ⴷⴰⵆ 1996, ⵎⴰⴶⴰⵣⴰ ⴱⵓⴶⵓⵢ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵜⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⴶⵉⴷⴰ."
"It is accessed by six sets of stairs, each decorated with pinnacles.","ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⴰⵛ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⵙ ⵙⵓⴾⵓⵏⴾⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴷⵍⴰⴶ ⴰⵙ ⴷⵉⵏⴰⴰⵍⵢ."
The prayer wall or qibla of the Great Mosque faces east towards Mecca and overlooks the city marketplace.,"ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵆ ⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵎⵉⵣⴶⵉⴷⴰ ⵟⴰⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⵜ, ⵙⵉⴱⵔⵢⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜⵢ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵏⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ."
The cone shaped spires or pinnacles at the top of each minaret are topped with ostrich eggs.,ⴰⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⵙⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵏⵉⴾ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵗⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴷⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⴰⴶⴰⵉⵉⵙ.
"The small, irregularly-positioned windows on the north and south walls allow little natural light to reach the interior of the hall.","ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵏⴾⴰⵔⵓⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏⵜⵢⵏ, ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵢⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ, ⵜⵉⵉⵉⵏⴰⵜⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵔⵢ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵜ"
The imam conducts the prayers from the mihrab in the larger central tower.,ⴰⵍⵉⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵎⵉⵂⵔⴰⴱ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ.
"To the right of the mihrab in the central tower is a second niche, the pulpit or minbar, from which the imam preaches his Friday sermon.","ⴷⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵎⵉⵂⵔⴰⴱ ⵏⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴰⵂⵢ, ⵢⵙⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵢⵆ ⵎⵉⵏⴱⴰⵔ, ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵏⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⵏⵢⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⵋⵓⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜ."
The walls of the galleries facing the courtyard are punctuated by arched openings.,ⴰⵗⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵉⵙⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵆⴱⴰ ⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴰⵋ ⵉ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵔoⴷⴰⵏ .
"Rather than a single central niche, the mihrab tower originally had a pair of large recesses echoing the form of the entrance arches in the north wall.","ⴰⵙ ⵉⵉⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⵉⴰⵂⵢ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ, ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵂⵔⴰⴱ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵓⵙⵓⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵍⵉ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⵏⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰ ⵙⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ."
"It requires several days to cure but needs to be periodically stirred, a task usually falling to young boys who play in the mixture, thus stirring up the contents.","ⴰⵙⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⵙⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉⵍⵉⵉ ⵙⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵙⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⵙⴰⵎⵍⵉⵍⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵏ"
A race is held at the beginning of the festival to see who will be the first to deliver the plaster to the mosque.,"ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⴶⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⴰⴷⴰⵓⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵉƭ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⴶⵉⴷⴰ."
"In 1930, an inexact replica of the Djenné Mosque was built in the town of Fréjus in southern France.","ⴷⴰⵗ 1930, ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵋⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⴶⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵋⵢⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵔⵉⵋⵓⵙ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵉⴰ."
"The original mosque presided over one of the most important Islamic learning centers in Africa during the Middle Ages, with thousands of students coming to study the Quran in Djenné's madrassas.",ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⵋⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴷⴰⵏ ⴰ-ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⴰⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵋⵢⵏⵏⵉ.
On 20 January 2006 the sight of a team of men hacking at the roof of the mosque sparked a riot in the town.,"20 ⵋⴰⵏⵗⵉⵢⵔ 2006, ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵢⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⴶⵉⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵈⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ."
In the mosque the mob ripped out the ventilation fans that had been presented by the US Embassy at the time of the Iraq War and then went on a rampage through the town.,"ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⴶⵉⴷⴰ, ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏⴶⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵜⵈⵉⵔ ⵉⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⵏⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜⵢⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴱⴰⵙⵙⴰⴷⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ Iⵔⴰⴾ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵛⴰⵔⵛⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ."
"The Great Sphinx of Giza, commonly referred to as the Sphinx of Giza or just the Sphinx, is a limestone statue of a reclining sphinx, a mythical creature.","ⵓⴰⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴱⵂⵉⵏⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵉⵣⵢⵂ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⵣⴰⵉ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴷⵂⵉⵏⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵉⵣⵢⵂ ⵎⵢⵆ ⵈⴰⵙ ⵙⴱⵂⵉⵏⵆ, ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵈ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴷⵂⵉⵏⵆ ⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵗⵍⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵉⵏⵂⵉⵉ."
"Furthermore, the angle and location of the south wall of the enclosure suggests the causeway connecting Khafre's Pyramid and Valley Temple already existed before the Sphinx was planned.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏ, ⵢⴷⴰⵏⴶ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵂⴰⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⵉⵔⴰⵎⵉⴷⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⵂⵉⴱⵂⵔⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵜⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴱⵂⵉⵏⵆ."
"When the Stele was re-excavated in 1925, the lines of text referring to Khaf flaked off and were destroyed.","ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵙⵜⵉⵍⵢ ⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵗⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 1925, ⴰⵍⵗⵓⵔⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⵏⵎⵉⵗⵉⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵆⵂⴰⴼⵔⵢ ⴰⵜⵎⴰⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴶⴰⴷⴰⵏ."
The cult of the Sphinx continued into medieval times.,ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴱⵂⵉⵏⵆ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵂⴰⵓⴱⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴱⵗⴰⵍⵜⴰⵏ.
"Alexandria, Rosetta, Damietta, Cairo and the Giza Pyramids are described repeatedly, but not necessarily comprehensively.","ⴰⵍⵢⵆⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉⵢ, ⵔⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢ, ⵢⴰⵎⵉⵢⵜⵢ, ⴰⴰⵉⵔⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵔⴰⵎⵉⴷⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵉⵣⵢⵂ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ."
"""Seven years after visiting Giza, André Thévet (Cosmographie de Levant, 1556) described the Sphinx as """"the head of a colossus, caused to be made by Isis, daughter of Inachus, then so beloved of Jupiter"""".""","""ⴰⵙⴰ ⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵗⵉⵣⵢⵂ, ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉ ⵟⵂⵢⴱⵢⵜ ( ⵛⵓⵙⵎⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⵢⴱⴰⵏⵜ, 1556) ⵜⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵙⴱⵂⵉⵏⵆ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ""ⵢⵗⴰⴼ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ, ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ Iⵙⵉⵙ, ⵢⵍⵢⵙ ⴰⵏ Iⵏⴰⴰⵂⵓⵙ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⵓⴱⵉⵜⵢⵔ""""."
"Johannes Helferich's (1579) Sphinx is a pinched-face, round-breasted woman with a straight haired wig; the only edge over Thévet is that the hair suggests the flaring lappets of the headdress.","ⵙⴱⵂⵉⵏⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⵂⴰⵏⵏⵢ ⵂⵢⵍⴼⵢⵔⵉⵛⵂ (1579) ⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ƭ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵢⴶⵉⵔⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵗⵉⵍⴰⵍⵓⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ, ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⵓⵎⴱⵓⵜ ⵏⴰⵎⵣⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ; ⵂⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵟⵂⵉⵗⵢⵜ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⴾⴰⵛⵢⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⴰⴱⵓⵏⵢⵙ."
"Although certain tracts on the Stela are likely accurate, this passage is contradicted by archaeological evidence, thus considered to be Late Period historical revisionism, a purposeful fake, created by the local priests as an attempt to imbue the contemporary Isis temple with an ancient history it never had.","ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵜⵉⵍⵢ ⴰⴷⵉⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⴰⵏⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵛ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴷⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⴶⴰⵏ, ⴰⵏⴰⵙⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⵢⵔⴷⴰⵏ, ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵉ ⵓⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ Iⵙⵉⵙ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵜⴰⵜⴶⵔⵢⵓ."
"""Recent discoveries, however, strongly show that it was really not built before the reign of Khafre, in the fourth dynasty.""""""","“ⴰⵜⵓⵉⵏⵂⵉⵉ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⵓⵏⴷⵢⵏⴷⴰⵗ, ⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵈⵢⵍ ⵓⴰⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵆⵂⴰⴼⵔⵢ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰ ⵙⵓⴾⵓⵣⴰ ⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⵉⵓⵢⵏ."""""""
"""Maspero believed the Sphinx to be """"the most ancient monument in Egypt"""".""","“ⵎⴰⵙⴱⵢⵔⵓ ⴰⵗⵢⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴱⵂⵉⵏⵆ ⵜⵈⴰⵍ """"ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵙⵔ""""."""
"Part of its headdress had fallen off in 1926 due to erosion, which had also cut deeply into its neck.",",ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵋⴰⴱⵓⵏⵢⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 1926 ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⵣⵏ, ⵉⴾⵔⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵔ ⵏⵢⵙ."
The layer in which the head was sculpted is much harder.,ⵜⵢⵙⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⴾⴰⵜ ⵢⵗⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵢⵂⵢⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏ.
Other tales ascribe it to being the work of Mamluks.,"ⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⵢⵍⵓⴾⵙ"
"According to al-Maqrīzī, many people living in the area believed that the increased sand covering the Giza Plateau was retribution for al-Dahr's act of defacement.","ⵜⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⵍ-ⵎⴰⵈⵔⵉⵣⵉ, ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵗⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⵙⴰ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵉⵣⴰⵂ ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵣⴰⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵢⴰⵂⵔ."
Al-Minufi stated that the Alexandrian Crusade in 1365 was divine punishment for a Sufi sheikh of the khanqah of Sa'id breaking off the nose.,ⴰⵍ-ⵎⵉⵏⵓⴼⵉ ⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵢⵆⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉⵢ 1365 ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵍⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⵢ ⵙⵢⵉⴾⵂ ⵙⵓⵓⴼⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⵂⴰⵏⵈⴰⵂ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰ'ⵉⴷ ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵛⴰⵔ.
"The idea is considered pseudoarchaeology by academia, because no textual or archaeological evidence supports this to be the reason for the orientation of the Sphinx.","ⴰⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴰⵜ, ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵂⵢ ⵜⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⴼⴰⵙⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⴶⵢⵍ ⵉⴶⵉ ⵏⵓⵏⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴱⵂⵉⵏⵆ."
"There is a long history of speculation about hidden chambers beneath the Sphinx, by esoteric figures such as H. Spencer Lewis.","ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵣⵉⴶⵔⵢⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵏⴰⵣⴶⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰ ⴷⴰⵓ ⵙⴷⵂⵉⵏⵆ, ⵙⴰ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴼ. ⵙⴱⵢⵏⵛⵢⵔ ⵍⵢⵓⵉⵙ."
It is believed to be the second most visited historical site in Egypt; only the Giza pyramid complex near Cairo receives more visits.,Oⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵙ-ⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵔ; ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵎⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵉⵣⴰ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵋⴰⵔⵔⴰⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵉⵔⵓ
"The three other parts, the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Montu, and the dismantled Temple of Amenhotep IV, are closed to the public.","ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ, ⴰⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵓⵜ, ⴰⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵓⵓ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵉⴶⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵏⵂⵓⵜⵢⴱ IƔ, ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ."
"The original temple was destroyed and partially restored by Hatshepsut, although another pharaoh built around it in order to change the focus or orientation of the sacred area.","ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵗⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵜⵛⵢⴷⵙⵓⵓⵜ, ⴰⵛⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴼⵢⵔⵗⴰⵓⵏⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵈⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵆ ⴰⵂⴰⵣⴰⴰⵢⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵙⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⵙⵓⵓⴰⵏ."
Construction of temples started in the Middle Kingdom and continued into Ptolemaic times.,ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ​ⴰⴷ ⴷⵓⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ Pⵜⵢ ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵉⵈⵓⵢⵜⴰⵏ
The deities represented range from some of the earliest worshiped to those worshiped much later in the history of the Ancient Egyptian culture.,ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵢⵏ ⵜⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ.
These architraves may have been lifted to these heights using levers.,"ⴰⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⵓⵗⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⴼⴰⵍⴰ , ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰ ⵙⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵂⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵓⴰⵉ."
"If stone had been used for the ramps, they would have been able to use much less material.","ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴷⴰⵔⵏ, ⵏⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
Final carving was executed after the drums were put in place so that it was not damaged while being placed.,ⴰⵜⵉⴾⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⴷⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵓⵉ ⵗⵉⵛⵉⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵏⵉⴶⵉ.
"The city of Thebes does not appear to have been of great significance before the Eleventh Dynasty and previous temple building there would have been relatively small, with shrines being dedicated to the early deities of Thebes, the Earth goddess Mut and Montu.","ⴰⵗⵔⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵉⴱⵢⵙ ⵢⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵟⵂⵉⴱⵢⵙ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⵢⵔⵔⵢ ⵎⵓⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵓⵓ."
Amun (sometimes called Amen) was long the local tutelary deity of Thebes.,ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ( ⵓⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⵔⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⵏ) ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵓⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵂⵉⴱⵢⵙ.
"Major construction work in the Precinct of Amun-Re took place during the Eighteenth Dynasty, when Thebes became the capital of the unified Ancient Egypt.","Iⴼⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵜⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ-ⵔⵢ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ 18 ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵎⵓⴾⵍⴰ,ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵟⵂⵉⴱⵢⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵉⴷⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ."
"Another of her projects at the site, Karnak's Red Chapel or Chapelle Rouge, was intended as a barque shrine and originally may have stood between her two obelisks.","Iⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ, ⵛⴰⴱⵢⵍⵍⵢ ⵙⵓⵓⴶⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵔⵏⴰⴾ, ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵂⵓⵎⵉⵛⵉ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵢ ⴰⴶⴰⵔ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ."
"Known as the unfinished obelisk, it provides evidence of how obelisks were quarried.","ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⴰ, ⴰⵙⵋⴰⵉⵂⴰ ⵙⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴷⵉⵣⴶⵈⴰⵔⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ"
"The last major change to the Precinct of Amun-Re's layout was the addition of the First Pylon and the massive enclosure walls that surround the whole precinct, both constructed by Nectanebo I of the Thirtieth Dynasty.","ⵓⴰⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵂⵉⴷ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ-ⵔⵢ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ƭⵉⵓⴰ ƭ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴶⵉⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵗⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ, ⴷⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⴰⵜⴰⵏⵢⴱⵓ 1ⵢⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ."
"The Karnak temple complex is first described by an unknown Venetian in 1589, although his account gives no name for the complex.","ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵆⴰⵔⵏⴰⴾ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ Ɣⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ 1589, ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵔⵉⴼⴰ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ."
"Protais' writing about their travel was published by Melchisédech Thévenot (Relations de divers voyages curieux, 1670s–1696 editions) and Johann Michael Vansleb (The Present State of Egypt, 1678).","ⴰⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵜⴰⵉⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵍⵛⵉⵙⵉⴷⵢⵛ ⵟⵂⵉⵗⵢⵏⵓⵜ ( ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰ-ⵏ ⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵏⴰⴼ, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ 1670-1696) ⴰⴷ ⵋⵓⵂⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵉⵛⴰⵢⵍ Ɣⴰⵏⵙⵍⵢⴱ ( ⵎⵉⵙⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ 1678)."
"Following excavation and restoration works by the Johns Hopkins University team, led by Betsy Bryan (see below) the Precinct of Mut has been opened to the public.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵓ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵗⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵓ ⵋⵓⵂⵏⵙ ⵂⵓⴷⴾⵉⵏⵙ, ⵙⴰⵏⵉⵂⴰⴷ ⴱⵢⵜⵙⵉ ⵏⵔⵉⴰⵏ ( ⴰⵏⵂⵉⵉ ⵉⴷⵢⵔ), ⴰⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⵔⴰ ⵉⵢ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ."
"In 2006, Betsy Bryan presented her findings of one festival that included apparent intentional overindulgence in alcohol.","ⴷⴰⵗ 2006, ⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉ ⴱⵔⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⵉⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵙⴰⵙⵢ ⵏⵉⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⵣⵋⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⵉⴷ."
"These findings were made in the temple of Mut because when Thebes rose to greater prominence, Mut absorbed the warrior goddesses, Sekhmet and Bast, as some of her aspects.","ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵂⵓⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵓⵜ, ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵟⵂⵉⴱⵢⵙ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ, ⵎⵓⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵓⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ, ⵙⵢⴾⵂⵎⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵙⵜ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ."
"In a later myth developed around the annual drunken Sekhmet festival, Ra, by then the sun god of Upper Egypt, created her from a fiery eye gained from his mother, to destroy mortals who conspired against him (Lower Egypt).","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵢⴾⵂⵎⵢⵜ, ⵙⵢ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵗⴰⵍⵍⴰⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ-ⵉⴶⵉⴷⵜⵢ, ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰ ⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵜ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⵛⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⴾⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵙⴰⵎⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ( ⵟⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵜ-ⵎⵉⵙⵔ)."
The Luxor Temple is a large Ancient Egyptian temple complex located on the east bank of the Nile River in the city today known as Luxor (ancient Thebes) and was constructed approximately 1400 BCE.,ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⵓⵆⵓⵔ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵙⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵢⴼⴰⴷⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵢ ⵛⴰⵍⵉ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⵓⵆⵓⵔ ( ⵓⴰⵏⵓⵔⵓ ⵟⵂⵉⴱⵢⵙ) ⴰⴷ ⴰⵉⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ 1400 ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ.
"Four of the major mortuary temples visited by early travelers include the Temple of Seti I at Gurnah, the Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahri, the Temple of Ramesses II (i.e., Ramesseum), and the Temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu.","ⴰⴾⵓⵣ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵍⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵜⵉ Iⵢⵔ ⵗⵓⵔⵏⴰⵂ, ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ,ⵂⴰⵜⴰⵂⵢⴷⵙⵓⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵉⵔ ⵢⵍ ⴱⴰⵂⵔⵉ, ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵎⵙⵉⵙ II ( ⵓⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵎⵢⵙⵙⵢⵓⵎ) ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵎⵙⵉⵙ III ⴰⵏⵗⵓⵔ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵏⵢⵜ ,ⵂⴰⴱⵓ."
"To the rear of the temple are chapels built by Amenhotep III of the 18th Dynasty, and Alexander.",ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉ ⵙⵉⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⵏⵂⵓⵜⵢⴷ III ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ 18ⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵢⵆⴰⵏⴷⵔⵢ.
This sandstone is referred to as Nubian sandstone.,ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵈ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵈ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⴱⵉⵜⴰⵏ.
"""Alexander Badawy, """"Illusionism in Egyptian Architecture,"""" Studies in the Ancient Oriental Civilization, 35 (1969): 23.""","""ⴰⵍⵢⵆⴰⵏⴷⵔⵢ ⴱⴰⴷⴰⵓⵉ, """"ⴰⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⵉⵏⵂⵉⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ"""" ,ⵙⵜⵓⴷⵉⵢⵙ ⵉⵏ ⵜⵂⵢ ⴰⵏⵛⵉⵢⵏⵜ Oⵔⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵛⵉⴱⵉⵍⵉⵣⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ, 35 (1969) : 23."""
Along the avenue the stations were set up for ceremonies such as the Feast of Opet which held significance to temple.,"ⴷⴼⴰⴷⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴶ, ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴷⵢ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵢⵜ, ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ."
"Lalibela is a town in Lasta district of North Wollo Zone in Amhara Region, Ethiopia.","ⵍⴰⵍⵉⴱⵢⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⵜⴰ ⵍⴰⵙⵜⴰ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏⵓⵔⴷ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵂⴰⵔⴰ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵜⵂⵉⵓⵢⵉⵓ."
"To Christians, Lalibela is one of Ethiopia's holiest cities, second only to Axum, and a center of pilgrimage.","Ɣⵓⵔ ⴾⵔⵢⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵍⴰⵍⵉⴱⵢⵍⴰ ⵜ-ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵓⴱⵉⴰ, ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵆⵓⵎ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵋⵉⵋ."
The names of several places in the modern town and the general layout of the rock-cut churches themselves are said to mimic names and patterns observed by Lalibela during the time he spent as a youth in Jerusalem and the Holy Land.,ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵙⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏⵜ ⵙⵉⴶⴱⵓⵔⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵍ ⵍⴰⵍⵉⴱⵢⵍⴰ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⵉⵔⵓⵙⴰⵍⵢⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴷⵉⴶⴰⵏ.
Christian faith inspires many features with Biblical names – even Lalibela's river is known as the River Jordan.,ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵔⵢⵜⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵓⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⴱⵍⵉⵈⵓⵢⵜⴰⵏ – ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰ ⴰ ⵛⴰ ⵛⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⵉⴱⵢⵍⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⵓⵔⴷⴰⵉⵏ.
"Portuguese priest Francisco Álvares (1465–1540), accompanied the Portuguese Ambassador on his visit to Dawit II in the 1520s.","ⴰⵍⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵔⵜⵓⴶⴰⵉⵙ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙⵛⵓ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵔⵢⵙ ( 1465-1540), ⴰⴷⵢⵓ ⴷⴰⵎⴱⴰⵙⴰⴷⵢⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵔⵜⵓⴶⴰⵉⵙ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵓⵜ ⵉⵢ ⵢⴰⵓⵉⵜ II ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1520."
"The next reported European visitor to Lalibela was Miguel de Castanhoso, who served as a soldier under Cristóvão da Gama and left Ethiopia in 1544.","ⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵔⵓⴷⵢⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵍⵉⴱⵢⵍⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⵉⴶⵓⵢⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏⵂⵓⵙⵓ, ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⴱⴰⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵗⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⴱⵓⵉⵢ ​ⴷⴰⵗ 1544."
"""Its pillars were likewise cut from the mountain.""""),""","""ⵜⴰⴶⵉⵜⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜⵢⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵉⵙⵍⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴾⴰⵔⴰⴼ.""""""),"""
There is some controversy as to when some of the churches were constructed.,Iⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰ ⵛ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵙⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ.
His report described two types of vernacular housing found in the area.,ⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⵏⵢⵙ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰ-ⵏ ⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵜ-ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ.
"Saint Catherine's Monastery, officially Sacred Monastery of the God-Trodden Mount Sinai, is an Eastern Orthodox monastery located on the Sinai Peninsula, at the mouth of a gorge at the foot of Mount Sinai, near the town of Saint Catherine, Egypt.","ⴰⵎⵉ ⵛⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜⵢ-ⵛⴰⵜⵂⵢⵔⵉⵏⵢ, ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉ ⵛⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵓⵉⴷⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵉ, ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵉ ⵛⵉⵔ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵢ, ⴰⵙⴰⴶⵉⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵓ ⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜⵢ-ⵛⴰⵜⵂⵢⵔⵉⵏⵢ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵙⵔ."
"""The Saint Catherine monastery is located in the shadow of a group of three mountains; Ras Sufsafeh (possibly """"Mount Horeb"""" c.1 km west), Jebel Arrenziyeb and Jebel Musa, the """"Biblical Mount Sinai"""" (peak c.2 km south).""","""ⴰⵎⵉⵛⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜⵢ- ⵛⴰⵜⵂⵢⵔⵉⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵍⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴾⵉⵔⴼⴰⵏ : ⵔⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⴼⵙⴰⴼⵢⵂ (ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵓⵗⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ""ⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵂⵢⵔⵢⴱ"" ⴷⴰⵗ 1ⴾⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ), ⵋⵢⴱⵢⵍ ⴰⵔⵔⵢⵏⵣⵉⵉⵢⴱ ⴰⴷ ⵋⵢⴱⵢⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⴰ, ""ⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵉ ⴱⵉⴱⵍⵉⵈⵓⵢ"" (ⵢⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ 2 ⴾⵎ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ).(ⵢⵎ ⴰⵏ 2ⴾⵎ ⴱⵉⴱⵍⵉⵈⵓⵢ""."
Catherine herself ordered the execution to commence.,ⵛⴰⵜⵂⵢⵔⵉⵏⵢ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵢⵎⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏⵂⵢⵜ ⵜⵢⵏⴰⵗⵢ.
"""The monastery was built by order of Emperor Justinian I (reigned 527–565), enclosing the Chapel of the Burning Bush (also known as """"Saint Helen's Chapel"""") ordered to be built by Empress Consort Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, at the site where Moses is supposed to have seen the burning bush.""","""ⴰⵎⵉⵛⵉⵔ ⴰⵉⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵔⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵋⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ Iⵢ (527-565), ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⴼⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ (ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ "" ⴰⵂⴰⴷⵢⵍⵍⵢ ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜⵢ-ⵂⵢⵍⵢⵏⵓ"") ⴰⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵢⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵏⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵂⵢⵍⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴱⵓⵉⵙⵢ ⵉⵏⵉⵂⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵂⵉⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵜ."""
"The site is sacred to Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.","ⴷⴷⴰⴶ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎⵢ, ⴰⵏⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵋⵓⴷⴰⵉⵉⵙⵎ."
"During the seventh century, the isolated Christian anchorites of the Sinai were eliminated: only the fortified monastery remained.","Ɣⵓⵔ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵢ ⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⵉⵏⴰⵗⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵆⵂⵔⵢⵜⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ : ⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵛⴰⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵂⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏⵢⵏ."
"From the time of the First Crusade, the presence of Crusaders in the Sinai until 1270 spurred the interest of European Christians and increased the number of intrepid pilgrims who visited the monastery.","ⴷⴰⵆ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵉⵂⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵓⵢⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔ 1270 ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵓⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵂⵔⵢⵜⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⴷⵓⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⴷⵉ ⵂⵓⴶⵓⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵛⴰⵔ."
"The exact administrative status of the church within the Eastern Orthodox Church is ambiguous: by some, including the church itself, it is considered autocephalous, by others an autonomous church under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem.","ⴰⵂⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⵜⴱⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴶⵔⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴶⵔⵉⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵜⴱⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ : ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵍⴰⴶⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵢⵎⴰⵏⵢⵙ, ⴰⵜⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⵜⵓ ⵛⵉⴱⵂⴰⵍⵢ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⴰⴶⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴶⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵢ ⴰⵈⵓⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴱⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⵉⵔⵓⵙⴰⵍⵢⵎ."
But in 2003 Russian scholars discovered the donation act for the manuscript signed by the Council of Cairo Metochion and Archbishop Callistratus on 13 November 1869.,"ⴷⴰⵗ 2003, ⴰⵏⵓⵎⴰⵗⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴾⵢ ⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵢⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵉⵔⵢ ⵎⵢⵜⵓ ⴰⵂⵉⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ 13 ⵏⵓⵗⵢⵎⴱⵔⵢ 1869."
Palimpsests are notable for having been reused one or more times over the centuries.,ⴱⴰⵍⵉⵎⴱⵙⵢⵙⵜⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵗⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵋⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⴾⵉⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ.
Each page took approximately eight minutes to scan completely.,ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵎⵉⵛ ⴰⵜⴰⵎ ⵎⵉⵏⵓⵜⴰⵏ.
"The large icon collection begins with a few dating to the 5th (possibly) and 6th centuries, which are unique survivals; the monastery having been untouched by Byzantine iconoclasm, and never sacked.","ⵓⴰⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵉⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ 5 ( ⵉⵂⵓⵎⵉⵛ) ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 6 ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵉⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⵗⴰⵙ; ⴰⵎⵉⵛⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵜⵓⴰⴷⴰⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵉ ⴰⵓⵏⵓ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⵎⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵛⵢⴷ."
"The conservation of its architectural structures, paintings, and books comprise much of the Foundation's purpose.","ⴰⵜⴰⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ, ⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⵂⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ."
Its size reflects the relative prosperity of the time.,ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴾⵓⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ-ⴰⴾⵏⵓ ⴰⵙⵓⴷⵓⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ.
"It was built on the site of an earlier, smaller temple also dedicated to Horus, although the previous structure was oriented east-west rather than north-south as in the present site.","ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵈⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴶⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓⵓⵓⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ, ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⴷⵔⵉⵜ, ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵢ ⵂⵓⵔⵓⵙ, ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵗ."
The temple of Edfu fell into disuse as a religious monument following Theodosius I's persecution of pagans and edict banning non-Christian worship within the Roman Empire in 391.,ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ Eⴷⴼⵓⵓ ⵓⴷⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵉⴰⵓⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵎⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵟⵂⵉⵓⴷⵓⵙ Iⵢⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⵔⵢⵜⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵎⴷⵉⵔⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 391
"Over the centuries, the temple became buried to a depth of 12 metres (39 ft) beneath drifting desert sand and layers of river silt deposited by the Nile.","ⴰⵏⵉⵏⴾⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ, ⵙⵓⵏⵓ ⵢⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴱⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⴰⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ 12 ⵎⵢⵜⵔⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵓ ⵜⵢⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵣⴰⵏⵉⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵔⴾⵉⵛⵉⵗⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵉⵏ."
"In 1860 Auguste Mariette, a French Egyptologist, began the work of freeing Edfu temple from the sands.","ⵢⴰⵗ 1860, ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵢⵜⵜ, ⴰⵏⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵂⵔⴰⵏⵛⴰⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵙⵔ, ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵓ ⵉⵢ ⵓⴾⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴼⵓⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ."
Great Zimbabwe is a medieval city in the south-eastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwe and the town of Masvingo.,"ⵓⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵌⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆⵉⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵌⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵓⵢ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵢⴱⴰⴶ ⵎⵓⵜⵉⵔⵉⴾⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵔ ⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵗⵉⵏⴶo"
Great Zimbabwe is believed to have served as a royal palace for the local monarch.,ⴰⵗⵢⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵗⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵌⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵓⵢ ⵢⵈⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵏ.
They were constructed without mortar (dry stone).,ⴰⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵓⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⵢⵏⴷⵢ ( ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ
"The first confirmed visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, with investigations of the site starting in 1871.","ⵓⵉⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⴰⵗⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ 19 ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⵓⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ 1871."
The Great Zimbabwe area was settled by the 4th century AD.,ⴰⴾⴰⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵌⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵓⵢ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⴰ 4 ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ.
"David Beach believes that the city and its state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourished from 1200 to 1500, although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 1500s to João de Barros.","ⵢⴰⵗⵉⴷ ⴱⵢⴰ ⴰⵂ ⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵗⵔ ⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ, ⵜⴰⵗⵔ ⵏⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵌⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵓⵢ, ⵉⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ 1200 ⴰⴷ 1500, ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏⵢⵏⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ 1500 ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⵓⴰⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵔⵓⵙ."
"They are known as the Hill Complex, the Valley Complex and the Great Enclosure.","ⴰⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⵢⵏⵢⵆ, ⴱⴰⵏⵏⵢⵉ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⵏⵢⵆ ⴰⴷ ⵗⵔⵢⴰⵜ Eⵏⵛⵍⵓⵙⵓⵔⵢ."
"The Valley Complex is divided into the Upper and Lower Valley Ruins, with different periods of occupation.","ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⵏⴰⴶⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵔⵜⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵔⵜⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴶⴰⵔⵜⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵏⵉⴷⵢⵔ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵓⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⵗⵢ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ."
"The focus of power moved from the Hill Complex in the 12th century, to the Great Enclosure, the Upper Valley and finally the Lower Valley in the early 16th century.","ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵏⵓⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵂⵜ ⴰⵏ 12 ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⵓ, ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵉⵣⵓⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⵜⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵉⴷⴰⵔⴰ ⴶⴰⵔⵜⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⵏ 16 ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ."
"Other artefacts include soapstone figurines (one of which is in the British Museum), pottery, iron gongs, elaborately worked ivory, iron and copper wire, iron hoes, bronze spearheads, copper ingots and crucibles, and gold beads, bracelets, pendants and sheaths.","ⵓⴰⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵗⵔⵓⵂⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏ ( ⵜⴰⵙ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⴰⵂ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⵉⵙ ⵎⵓⵙⵢⵓⵎ), ⴰⵏⴰⴾⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵉ, ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴾⵉ, ⵜⵉⵗⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵉⵗⵔⵢ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵉ, ⵉⵏⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵏⵣⵢ, ⴰⴾⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵗⵢⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵉⴱⵔⵢ, ⴰⴷ ⵣⴰⴾⴰⵜⵢⵏ, ⵉⵛⵉⴶⴱⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⴰⵗ."
"That international commerce was in addition to the local agricultural trade, in which cattle were especially important.","ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴰⵙⵢⵓⴰⴼⵉ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴶⵉⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ ⵢⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵉⵂⴰⵏ."
"Portuguese traders heard about the remains of the medieval city in the early 16th century, and records survive of interviews and notes made by some of them, linking Great Zimbabwe to gold production and long-distance trade.","Iⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵔⵜⵉⴶⴰⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵔⵉⵛ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵢⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ 16 ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵢⵉ ⴰⴷⵔⵉⵛ ⵏⵓⴶⵓⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎ ⴰⵜⴾⴰⵏⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵙ ⵉⵉⴰⴷⴰⵗⵙⴰⵏ, ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵜⴰⵂⵜ ⴶⴰⵔ ⵗⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵥⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵓⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴾⵉⵙⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵂⵢⴱⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵉⴶⵏⵢⵏ."
"He asserted that the figurine instead appeared to date to the subsequent Ptolemaic era (c. 323–30 BC), when Alexandria-based Greek merchants would export Egyptian antiquities and pseudo-antiquities to southern Africa.","Iⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵗⵔⵓⵂⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵜⵓⵏⵢⵎⴰïⵈⵓⵢ ( ⵉⴱⵔⵢⵜ ⴰⵏ 323-30 ⴰⵗ. ⵋ.- ⴰ.), ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴾⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵢ ⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⵢⵆⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵏⵓⵔⵓ ⵎⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ."
"Bent had no formal archaeological training, but had travelled very widely in Arabia, Greece and Asia Minor.","ⴱⵢⵏⵜ ⵓⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⵉⵉⴰ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵔⵢⵛⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵢ ⵎⵉⵏⵢⵓⵔⵢ."
They have a tradition of ancient Jewish or South Arabian descent through their male line.,ⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵓⵣ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⵉⵗⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵔⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵆ ⵙⵓⴷ-ⴰⵔⴰⴱⵢ ⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵏⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵏ.
"The Lemba claim was also reported by a William Bolts (in 1777, to the Austrian Habsburg authorities), and by an A.A. Anderson (writing about his travels north of the Limpopo River in the 19th century).","ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵎⴱⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵉⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⵉⵏⵏⵉⴰⵎ ⴱⵓⵏⵜⵙ (ⴷⴰⵗ 1777, ⵉⵢ ⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵓⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⵂⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴱⵙⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶ), ⴰⴷ ⴰ.ⴰ. ⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔⵙⵓⵏ (ⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴱⴰⴶ ⵏⵉⵎⴱⵓⴱⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ 19 ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ)."
"She had first sunk three test pits into what had been refuse heaps on the upper terraces of the hill complex, producing a mix of unremarkable pottery and ironwork.","ⵟⴰⵗⴰⵛ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵏⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⴷⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⵉⵔⴼⵢⵏ, ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵏ-ⵢⵏ ⴰⵉⵜⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵈ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵍⵉⴰⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵔⵜⵢⵉ."
Caton Thompson immediately announced her Bantu origin theory to a meeting of the British Association in Johannesburg.,ⵛⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵟⵂⵓⵎⴱⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵉⵍ ⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵜⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵓⵓⵢ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⵉⵙⵂ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋoⵂⴰⵏⵏⵢⵙⴱⵓⵔⴶ.
"The radiocarbon evidence is a suite of 28 measurements, for which all but the first four, from the early days of the use of that method and now viewed as inaccurate, support the 12th-to-15th-centuries chronology.","ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵋⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 28 ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵜ, ⴰⵙ ⴾⵓⵍ, ⴰⵜⵉⴾⴰⵙ ⵓⵉ ⵏⵓⴾⵢⵣ ⴰⵣⴰⵏⵢⵏ, ⵉⴶⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⵢⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵛⴰⵍⵉⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵗⵢⴷ, ⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵓ ⴰⵏ 12 ⵂⴰⵔ 15 ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ."
"The removal of gold and artefacts in amateurist diggings by early colonial antiquarians caused widespread damage, notably diggings by Richard Nicklin Hall.","ⵓⴾⵉⵙⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⵓⵔⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⴶⵓⵍⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵎⴰⵗⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵗⴰⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ, ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵎⴰⵗⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵔⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⴷ ⵏⵉ ⴰⴾⵍⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⵍⵍ."
"Preben Kaarsholm writes that both colonial and black nationalist groups invoked Great Zimbabwe's past to support their vision of the country's present, through the media of popular history and of fiction.","ⴱⵔⵢⴱⵢⵏ ⵆⴰⴰⵔⵙⵂⵓⵍⵎ ⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵙ ⴶⵔⵓⵓⴷⵜⴰⵏ ⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵗ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴰⴰⴷ ⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵓⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵥⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵓⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⴷⵂⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵢⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵙⵉⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵉⵂⴰ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ."
Pikirayi and Kaarsholm suggest that this presentation of Great Zimbabwe was partly intended to encourage settlement and investment in the area.,ⴱⵉⴾⵉⵔⴰⵉⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵆⴰⴰⵔⵙⵂⵓⵍⵎ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵉⵂⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵥⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⴰⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⴾⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ.
"In 1980 the new internationally recognised independent country was renamed for the site, and its famous soapstone bird carvings were retained from the Rhodesian flag and Coat of Arms as a national symbol and depicted in the new Zimbabwean flag.","ⴷⴰⵗ 1980, ⵓⴰ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⵈⵏⵢⵙ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴶ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴶⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵍⴰⴱⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵜⵓⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵓ ⴷⵔⴰⴷⵢⴰⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⵓⴾⵍⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵂⵓⴷⵢⵙⵉⵢ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵛⵉⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵂⴰ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵔⴰⴷⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵥⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵓⵢ."
"An example of the former is Ken Mufuka's booklet, although the work has been heavily criticised.","ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⴼⵓⴾⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵂⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵣⴰⵏ."
It was created to preserve the rich history of this country which was facing a dark future due to globalisation.,ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵜⵉⴼ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢⵏⵢⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⴼ.
"The site exhibits a multitude of architectural styles, reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico and of the Puuc and Chenes styles of the Northern Maya lowlands.","ⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵢⵜⵏⵢⵏ, ⴰⴷⵉⴷⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵆⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵓ ⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⵢⵏⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵉⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ."
"The city may have had the most diverse population in the Maya world, a factor that could have contributed to the variety of architectural styles at the site.","ⴰⵗⵔ ⴰⵎ ⵉⴶⵓⵎⵉⵛⵉ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵉⴰ, ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵙ ⵉⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ."
"""One possible translation for Itza is """"enchanter (or enchantment) of the water,"""" from its (itz), """"sorcerer"""", and ha, """"water"""".""","""ⴰⵍⵉⵗⵉ ⵓⴰⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵉⵢ Iⵜⵣⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ """"ⵢⵏⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔ (ⵎⵢⵆ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ) ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ"""", ⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙ (ⵉⵜⵣ), ""ⴰⵣⵉⵎⴰ"", ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰ, ""ⴰⵎⴰⵏ""""."
"This form preserves the phonemic distinction between chʼ and ch, since the base word chʼeʼen (which, however, is not stressed in Maya) begins with a postalveolar ejective affricate consonant.","ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵗⵔⵓⴼⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⵔⵢ ⵉⴱⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵉⵣⴰⵏ ⵢⵏ ⴶⴰⵔ ⴰⵂ' ⴰⵏ ⴰⵂ, ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵂ’ⵢ’ ⴷⴰⵗ ( ⴰⵎⵢⵙ, ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏⴷⴰⵗ, ⵓⴰⵔⵉⵋⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵉⴰ) ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵔⵓⴼ ⴰⴼⴼⵔⵉ ⴰⵜⵉⵗⵢ ( ⵛ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵙⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵟⴰⵎⴰⵛⵢⵈ) ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵔⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴾⴰⵏⵢⵏ."
"""Of these cenotes, the """"Cenote Sagrado"""" or Sacred Cenote (also variously known as the Sacred Well or Well of Sacrifice), is the most famous.""","""ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ, """"ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵍⵉ ⵙⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⵓ"""" ⵎⵜⵗ ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵍⵉ ⵙⴰ ⴰⵔⵉ ( ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓ ⵙⴰⵛⵔⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵏⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⴾⵓⵜⵢ), ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ."""
"""Instead, the city's political organization could have been structured by a """"multepal"""" system, which is characterized as rulership through council composed of members of elite ruling lineages.""","""ⴰⵙⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴰⵎⵙⵓⴷⵉⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵎⵓⴾⵉⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⵉⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵉⴾ """"ⵎⵓⵍⵜⵢⴷⴰⵍ"""", ⵉⴶⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵂⵢⵍⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⵢⵏ."""
"It was, however, toward the end of the Late Classic and into the early part of the Terminal Classic that the site became a major regional capital, centralizing and dominating political, sociocultural, economic, and ideological life in the northern Maya lowlands.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵢⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⴰⵂⵓⴶⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷo ⴰⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴷⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴰⵓ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵢⵔⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵏⵓⵎⵓⴾⵉⵍⴰ, ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵏⴰⵣⵔⵉⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ."
Hunac Ceel supposedly prophesied his own rise to power.,ⵆⵓⵏⴰⵛ ⵛⵢⵢⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴰⵓⵏⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵎⵓⴾⵍⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵙⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ.
"While there is some archeological evidence that indicates Chichén Itzá was at one time looted and sacked, there appears to be greater evidence that it could not have been by Mayapan, at least not when Chichén Itzá was an active urban center.","ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵢⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵉⵏ Iⵜⵏⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵉⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴶⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ, ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵂⵉ ⴰⵂⵉⵏ Iⵜⵣⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ."
"After Chichén Itzá elite activities ceased, the city may not have been abandoned.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⴱⴰⴷⵢ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵉⵏ Iⵜⵣⴰ, ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵈⵢⵍ ⵉⵂⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ."
Montejo returned to Yucatán in 1531 with reinforcements and established his main base at Campeche on the west coast.,ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵢⵋⵓ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵗⵓ ⴰⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 1531 ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴶⴰ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵎⴱⵢ ⴰⴰⵂⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ.
"Montejo the Younger eventually arrived at Chichen Itza, which he renamed Ciudad Real.","ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵢⵋⵓ ⵟⵂⵢ ⵗⵓⵓⵏⴶⵢⵔ (ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵢⵋⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵓⴰⴷ) ⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⴰⴷ ⵛⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵢⵏ Iⵜⵣⴰ, ⵙⵛⴶⴰⵏ ⵛⵙⵉⵎ ⵛⵉⵓⴷⴰⴷ ⵔⵢⴰⵍ."
"Months passed, but no reinforcements arrived.","ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴰ."
"By 1535, all Spanish had been driven from the Yucatán Peninsula.","ⴷⴰⵗ 1535, ⵢⵙⴱⴰⴶⵏⵓⵍⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵛⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵉⵏⵉⵏⵙⵓⵍⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ."
"In 1860, Désiré Charnay surveyed Chichén Itzá and took numerous photographs that he published in Cités et ruines américaines (1863).","ⴷⴰⵗ 1860, ⴹⵉⵙⵉⵔⵉ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵏⴰⵉ ⵉⴾⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵉⴰⵂⵉⵏ Iⵜⵣⴰ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⵂⵓⵜⵓⴶⵔⴰⴷⵂⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵣⴰⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵉⵜⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵉⵛⵉⵔⵛⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ( 1863)."
"""Augustus Le Plongeon called it """"Chaacmol"""" (later renamed """"Chac Mool"""", which has been the term to describe all types of this statuary found in Mesoamerica).""","""ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⵓⵏⴶⵢⵓⵏ ⵢⵗⵔⴰⵉ """"ⵛⵂⴰⴰⵛⵎⵢⵍ"""" (ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ """"ⵛⵂⴰⵛ ⵎⵓⵓⵍ"""", ⵓⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵙⵓ-ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵉⵈⵓⵢ)""."
"In 1894 the United States Consul to Yucatán, Edward Herbert Thompson, purchased the Hacienda Chichén, which included the ruins of Chichen Itza.","ⴷⴰⵗ 1894, ⵢⵎⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵓⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ, ⵢⴷⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵂⵢⵔⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⵟⵂⵓⵎⴱⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⵏⵛⴰ ⵂⴰⵛⵉⵢⵏⴷⴰ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵉⵏ, ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵉⵛⵉⵔⵛⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⴰⵂⵉⵏ Iⵜⵣⴰ."
"Thompson is most famous for dredging the Cenote Sagrado (Sacred Cenote) from 1904 to 1910, where he recovered artifacts of gold, copper and carved jade, as well as the first-ever examples of what were believed to be pre-Columbian Maya cloth and wooden weapons.","ⵜⵂⵓⵎⴱⵙⵓⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵛⵢⵏⵓⵜⵢ ⵙⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⵓ ( ⵛⵢⵏⵓⵜⵢ ⵙⴰⵛⵔⵓ) ⵓⴰⵏ 1904 ⵂⴰⵔ 1910, ⵗⵓⵔ ⴶⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⴰⵗ, ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵉⵗⵔⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵂⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴾⵢⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵗⵢⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵉⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶ ⵆⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵗⵢⵔⴰⵏ."
"The Mexican Revolution and the following government instability, as well as World War I, delayed the project by a decade.","ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴾⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵆⵉⴾⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⴷⴰⴾⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴾ, ⵉⵓⴰⵗⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵢⵍⴰⵏ."
"At the same time, the Mexican government excavated and restored El Castillo (Temple of Kukulcán) and the Great Ball Court.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏⴷⴰⵗ, ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⵢⵆⵉⴾⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵍ ⵛⴰⵙⵜⵉⵍⵍⵓ (ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⵓⴾⵓⵍⴾⴰⵏ) ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
"Thompson, who was in the United States at the time, never returned to Yucatán.","ⵜⵂⵓⵎⴱⵙⵓⵏ, ⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⵜⴰⵜⵙ-ⵓⵏⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⴷⵉⵔⴾⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵗⵓⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ."
In 1944 the Mexican Supreme Court ruled that Thompson had broken no laws and returned Chichen Itza to his heirs.,"ⴷⴰⵗ 1944, ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵆⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⵢⵗⵔⴰ ⵟⵂⵓⵎⵢⵙⵢⵏ ⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵗⵛⵢⴷ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰ ⵛⵂⵉⴰⵂⵢⵏ Iⵜⵣⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵎⵓⴾⵓⵙⴰⵏⵢⵙ."
"The first was sponsored by the National Geographic, and the second by private interests.","ⵓⴰⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⵗⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵛ, ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵏⵢⵙ."
"The city was built upon broken terrain, which was artificially levelled in order to build the major architectural groups, with the greatest effort being expended in the levelling of the areas for the Castillo pyramid, and the Las Monjas, Osario and Main Southwest groups.","ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵈⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴾⵓⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⴱⵢⵏ ⵓⵗⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴶⵔⵢⵓⴱⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ, ⴰⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵉⴶⴷⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵆⴰⵙⵜⵉⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴶⵔⵓⵓⴷⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵏⵋⴰⵙ, Oⵙⴰⵔⵉⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⵓⵜⵂⵓⵢⵙⵜ."
"Many of these stone buildings were originally painted in red, green, blue and purple colors.","ⴰⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵜⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵉ ⵛⴰⵋⴰⵗⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵍⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"Just like gothic cathedrals in Europe, colors provided a greater sense of completeness and contributed greatly to the symbolic impact of the buildings.","ⴷⴰⴾ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴾⴰⵜⵂⵉⴷⵔⴰⵍⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵜⵂⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⵉⵉⴰ, ⵉⵏⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⵉⵔⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⴾⵓ ⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ."
"The Puuc-style building feature the usual mosaic-decorated upper façades characteristic of the style but differ from the architecture of the Puuc heartland in their block masonry walls, as opposed to the fine veneers of the Puuc region proper.","ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵛ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵢⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴶⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⴼⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⵍⴰⴶⵏⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵛ ⴰⵙ ⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵢⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵣⵆⵏ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⵏⴰ, ⴷⴰⵗ Iⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏⴰⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵛ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵢⵙ."
At the base of the balustrades of the northeastern staircase are carved heads of a serpent.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴾⵓⵏⴾⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵈⴰⴼⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵛⴰⵍⴰⵏ.
"After several false starts, they discovered a staircase under the north side of the pyramid.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴶⵉⵍⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ, ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴾⵓⵏⴾⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ."
"The Mexican government excavated a tunnel from the base of the north staircase, up the earlier pyramid's stairway to the hidden temple, and opened it to tourists.","ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵆⵉⴰⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵜⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴾⵓⵏⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ, ⵉⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵓⵏⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵓⵢⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⴰ ⵉⵢ ⵎⵓⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ."
"In one panel, one of the players has been decapitated; the wound emits streams of blood in the form of wriggling snakes.","ⵆⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵓⵙⵢⵏ, ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⴶⴰ; ⴰⵂⴰⵉⵓⴶ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴶⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵛⵏⵉ ⵏⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵍⵉⵍⵉⵉⵏⵢⵏ."
"At the south end is another, much bigger temple, but in ruins.","ⵜⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵉⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ, ⴰⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⵉⵔⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵢⵗⵛⴰⴷ."
"Inside there is a large mural, much destroyed, which depicts a battle scene.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵢⵉ ⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰ, ⵙⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵢⵗⵛⴰⴷ, ⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ."
"It is built in a combination Maya and Toltec styles, with a staircase ascending each of its four sides.","ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵈⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵉⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⵜⵉⵈⵓⵢ, ⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⴾⵉⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⵓⵣⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴶⵓⵢⵏ."
"In its interior archeologists discovered a collection of large cones carved out of stone, the purpose of which is unknown.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ, ⴰⵏⵓⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵍⴰⴱⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏ, ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵜⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉ."
"""Its name comes from a series of altars at the top of the structure that are supported by small carved figures of men with upraised arms, called """"atlantes.""""""","""ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⴰⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴾⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⵜ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵗⵔⵓⴼⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵍⴰⴱⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ, ⴰⵂⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵢⵏ """"ⴰⵜⵍⴰⵏⵜⵢⵙ""""."""
"This complex is analogous to Temple B at the Toltec capital of Tula, and indicates some form of cultural contact between the two regions.","ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⵜⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵓⵍⴰ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵏⵎⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⵓⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴶⴰⵔⵢⵙⴰⵏ."
This temple encases or entombs a former structure called The Temple of the Chac Mool.,ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴷⴰⴷⴰⵗⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵛ ⵎⵓⵓⵍ.
"To the south of the Group of a Thousand Columns is a group of three, smaller, interconnected buildings.","Ɣⵓⵔ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵓⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵓⴱⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵏⵏⵢⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ oⴶⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴷⵔⵉⵜ, ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⴼⵏⵢⵏ ⴶⴰⵔⵢⵙⴰⵏ."
A section of the upper façade with a motif of x's and o's is displayed in front of the structure.,ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ o ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⵜ.
The Temple of Xtoloc is a recently restored temple outside the Osario Platform is.,ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⵜⵓⵍⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ Oⵙⴰⵔⵉⵓ.
"Between the Xtoloc temple and the Osario are several aligned structures: The Platform of Venus, which is similar in design to the structure of the same name next to Kukulkan (El Castillo), the Platform of the Tombs, and a small, round structure that is unnamed.","ⵗⴰⵔ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⵜⵓⵍⵓⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵉⵓ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵢⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴾⴰⵏⴻⵏ : ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⵓⵙ, ⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵙⵉⴾⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆⵓⴾⵓⵍⴾⴰⵏ (ⵢI ⵛⴰⵙⵜⵉⵍⵍⵓ), ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵢⵎⴱⵢⴰⵓⵆ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵎ."
"""The Casa Colorada (Spanish for """"Red House"""") is one of the best preserved buildings at Chichen Itza.""","""ⵛⴰⵙⴰ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵔⴰⴷⴰ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵙⴱⴰⴶⵏⵢⵍ, """"ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵙⵂⴰⴶⴰⴱⴰⵏ"""") ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵍⵉⴼⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵉⵏ Iⵜⵣⴰ."""
"In 2009, INAH restored a small ball court that adjoined the back wall of the Casa Colorada.","ⴷⴰⵗ 2009, Iⵏⴰⵂ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵓⵂⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵙⴰ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵔⴰⴷⴰ."
"This building's name has been long used by the local Maya, and some authors mention that it was named after a deer painting over stucco that doesn't exist anymore.","ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵉⵢ ⵎⴰⵉⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵓⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵔⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⵜⵓⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
"""The Spanish named this complex Las Monjas (""""The Nuns"""" or """"The Nunnery""""), but it was a governmental palace.""","""ⴷⵙⴱⴰⴶⵏⵓⵍⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵉⵢ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵏⵋⴰⵙ (""ⵏⵓⵏⵏⵢⵜⴰⵏ"" ⵎⵢⵗ ""ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ""), ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ."""
These texts frequently mention a ruler by the name of Kʼakʼupakal.,ⴰⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⴰⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵆ'ⴰⴾ'ⵓⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ.
It gets its name from the stone spiral staircase inside.,ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⴰⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵉⵂⴰⴶⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏⴾⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵛⵓⵈⵓⵈⵔⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ.
"The long, western-facing façade has seven doorways.",ⵜⴰⵣⵉⴶⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴶ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⴰⵛⴼ ⵙⴰⴱⵔⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵛⴰⵔ.
The southern end of the building has one entrance.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵢⵎ.
"Inside one of the chambers, near the ceiling, is a painted hand print.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏⴰⴼⴰ, ⵉⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⴷⵔⵉⵛ ⵏⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⴶⴰⵏ."
The location of the cave has been well known in modern times.,ⴷⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵜⵢⴾⵔⴰⴾ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
E. Wyllys Andrews IV also explored the cave in the 1930s.,ⴷ.ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵢⵓⵙ 4 ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⵢⴾⴰⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ 1930.
"On 15 September 1959, José Humberto Gómez, a local guide, discovered a false wall in the cave.","ⴷⴰⵗ 15 ⵙⵓⴱⵜⵢⵎⴱⵔⵢ 1959, ⵋⵓⵙⵉ ⵂⵓⵎⴱⵢⵔⵜⵓ ⵗⵓⵎⵢⵣ, ⵢⵎⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⴱⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⴾⴰⵔⴰⴼⵜ."
"Even before the book was published, Benjamin Norman and Baron Emanuel von Friedrichsthal traveled to Chichen after meeting Stephens, and both published the results of what they found.","ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⵓⴶⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ, ⴱⵢⵏⵋⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵎⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵢⵎⴰⵏⵓⵢⵍ ⴱⵓⵏ ⴼⵔⵉⵢⴷⵔⵉⵛⵂⵙⵜⵂⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⵜⵢⴱⵂⵢⵏⵙ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⴾⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ."
"In 1923, Governor Carrillo Puerto officially opened the highway to Chichen Itza.","ⵢⴰⵗ 1923, ⵢⵎⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⴷ ⵛⴰⵔⵔⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⴱⵓⵢⵔⵜⵓ ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵔⵢⵜ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵢⵏ Iⵜⵣⴰ."
"In 1930, the Mayaland Hotel opened, just north of the Hacienda Chichén, which had been taken over by the Carnegie Institution.","ⴷⴰⵗ 1930, ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏⵢⵙ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵛⵉⵢⵏⴷⴰ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵉⵏ, ⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⵏⵛⴰ ⵛⴰⵔⵏⵢⴶⵉⵢ Iⵏⵙⵜⵉⵜⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏ."
"In 1972, Mexico enacted the Ley Federal Sobre Monumentos y Zonas Arqueológicas, Artísticas e Históricas (Federal Law over Monuments and Archeological, Artistic and Historic Sites) that put all the nation's pre-Columbian monuments, including those at Chichen Itza, under federal ownership.","ⴷⴰⵗ 1972, ⵎⵢⵆⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⵍⵢⵉ ⴼⵢⴷⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⴱⵔⵢ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⵎⵢⵏⵜⵓⵙ ⵉ ⵤⵓⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵈⵓⵢⵍⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵙ, ⴰⵔⵜíⵙⵜⵉⵛⴰⵙ ⵢ ⵂⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉⵛⴰⵙ (ⴰⵛⵉⵔⵉⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵔⵓ, ⵎⴰⵏⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵢⵏ) ⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⵍⵢⵎⴱⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵢⵏ Iⵜⵣⴰ, ⴷⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ."
"Tour guides will also demonstrate a unique the acoustical effect at Chichen Itza: a handclap before the in front of the staircase the El Castillo pyramid will produce by an echo that resembles the chirp of a bird, similar to that of the quetzal as investigated by Declercq.","ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵎⵓⵜⵓⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵢⵏ Iⵜⵣⴰ: ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏⴾⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵢⵍ ⵛⴰⵙⵜⵉⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵉⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴶⴷⴰⵜ, ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵈⵓⵢⵜⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵢⵛⵍⵢⵔⵛⵈ."
"INAH, which manages the site, has closed a number of monuments to public access.","ⵏⵏⴰⵂ, ⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ, ⵉⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵢⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵂⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ."
"Originally a project of real estate developer and former New York State Senator William H. Reynolds, the building was constructed by Walter Chrysler, the head of the Chrysler Corporation.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵂⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵂ. ⵔⵢⵉⵏⵓⵍⴷⵙ, ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵢⴾⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⵜⵢⵔ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵍⵢⵔ, ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵍⵢⵔ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵓⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ."
"An annex was completed in 1952, and the building was sold by the Chrysler family the next year, with numerous subsequent owners.","ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⴰ 1952, ⴰⴷ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵔⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵍⵢⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵔ ⵎⵉⵙⴰⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ."
The era was characterized by profound social and technological changes.,ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵣⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ.
"""The following year, Chrysler was named Time magazine's """"Person of the Year"""".""","""ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵍⵢⵔ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴰⴶⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⴰⵣⵉⵏⵢ ⵟⵉⵎⵢ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ""ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ""."
"Following the end of World War I, European and American architects came to see simplified design as the epitome of the modern era and Art Deco skyscrapers as symbolizing progress, innovation, and modernity.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴾ, ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⴷⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷoⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵔⵉⴶⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵙⵉⵔⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⴶⴱⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⴾⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ-ⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜ ⵢⵢⵛⵓ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵛⵉⴾⵢⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⴰⵙⴷⴰⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ."
"Prior to his involvement in planning the building, Reynolds was best known for developing Coney Island's Dreamland amusement park.","ⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏ, ⵜⵢⵉⵏⵓⵍⴷⵙ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵔⴰⴾⴰⴱ ⴰⵏ ⵢⵔⵢⴰⵎⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⵢⵉ Iⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷ."
"In 1927, after several years of delays, Reynolds hired the architect William Van Alen to design a forty-story building there.","ⴷⴰⵗ 1927, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⴶⵉⵜ, ⵔⵢⵉⵏⵓⵍⴷⵙ ⵉⵏⴰ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴶⵉ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵓⵣⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏ."
"Van Alen and Severance complemented each other, with Van Alen being an original, imaginative architect and Severance being a shrewd businessperson who handled the firm's finances.","ⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⴱⵢⵔⴰⵏⵛⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⴰⴾⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵢⵗⵢⵔⴰⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ Oⵗⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵂⴰⴷ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ."
"The proposal was changed again two weeks later, with official plans for a 63-story building.","ⵜⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵉⵏⵉⵉⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ, ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⵢⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ 63-ⵉⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ."
The adjacent 56-story Chanin Building was also under construction.,ⵛⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⵉⵏⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⵓⵂⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ 56 ⵉⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ.
These plans were approved in June 1928.,ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⵓⵉⵏ 1928.
"He instead devised an alternate design for the Reynolds Building, which was published in August 1928.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ, ⵉⴶⴰ ⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵢ ⵔⵢⵉⵏⵓⵍⴷⵙ ⴱⵓⵉⵍⴷⵉⵏⴶ, ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵓⵜ 1928"
"A contract was awarded on October 28, and demolition was completed on November 9.","ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 28 Oⵛⵜⵓⴱⵔⵢ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⵢⵔⴰⵣⵢ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⴰ 9 ⵏⵓⴱⵎⴱⵔⵢ."
"From late 1928 to early 1929, modifications to the design of the dome continued.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1928 ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ 1929, ⵜⴰⵎⵢⵜⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵢ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴾⴰⵏⵢⵏ."
"Lower down, the design was affected by Walter Chrysler's intention to make the building the Chrysler Corporation's headquarters, and as such, various architectural details were modeled after Chrysler automobile products, such as the hood ornaments of the Plymouth (see ).","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⵢⵔ, ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵏⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⵜⵢⵔ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵍⵢⵔ ⵉⵢ ⵉⴶⵉ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵍⵢⵔ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵓⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ, ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵗⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵍⵢⵔ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴶⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵢ ​ⴱⵍⵉⵎⵓⵓⵜⵂ (ⴰⵏⵂⵉⵉ)"
"Construction of the building proper began on January 21, 1929.",ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰ 21 ⵋⴰⵏⴱⵉⵢⵔ 1929.
"Despite a frantic steelwork construction pace of about four floors per week, no workers died during the construction of the skyscraper's steelwork.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⴱⴰⴷⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵍⵉⵉⴰⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵓⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⵣ ⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⴰ ⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ, ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔⵜⴰⴱⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵍⵉⵉⴰⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵔⴾⵉⵔ-ⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ."
"""40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building started competing for the distinction of """"world's tallest building"""".""","""40 ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⵍ ⵙⵜⵔⵢⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵍⵢⵔ ⴱⵓⵉⵍⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ """"ⵏⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⵉⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ""""."
"On October 23, 1929, one week after surpassing the Woolworth Building's height and one day before the catastrophic Wall Street Crash of 1929 started, the spire was assembled.","ⴷⴰⵗ 23 ⵓⴰⵜⵓⴱⵔⵢ 1929, ⴰⵙⴰ ⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴾⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⴱⴰⴷⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵓⵓⵍⵓⴰⵔⵜⵂ ⴱⵓⵉⵍⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵏⴰⵙⵓⵗⵙⵉⴷ ⵏⴰⵗⴰⵛⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⵍ ⵙⵜⵔⵢⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ 1929, ⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵢⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ."
"Even the New York Herald Tribune, which had virtually continuous coverage of the tower's construction, did not report on the spire's installation until days after the spire had been raised.","ⵏⵢⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵍⴷ ⵟⵔⵉⴱⵓⵏⵢ ⵢⵎⴰⵏⵢⵙ, ⵓⴰⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴰⵛⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⴰ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ, ⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴼ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ."
"""In the lobby of the building, a bronze plaque that read """"in recognition of Mr. Chrysler's contribution to civic advancement"""" was unveiled.""","""ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵍⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ, ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵉⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴾⵓ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ """"ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵣⵉⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎ.ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵍⵢⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ""""ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⴰⵏ."""
"The Chrysler Building was appraised at $14 million, but was exempt from city taxes per an 1859 law that gave tax exemptions to sites owned by the Cooper Union.","ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵍⵢⵔ ⴱⵓⵉⵍⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ 14 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⴷⵓ ⵏⴰⵗⵔⵎ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓⵙⴾⵓ ⵏⴰⵛⵉⵔⵉⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ 1859 ⵢⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵙⵉⴼⵉⵍ ⵍⴰⵎⴷⵓ ⵉⵢ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵓⴱⵢⵔ ⵓⵏⵉⵓⵏ."
Van Alen's satisfaction at these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chrysler's later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee.,ⵜⵉⴶⵉⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⴶⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵏⴶⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⵜⵢⵔ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵍⵓ ⵢⵔ ⵉⴰ ⴷⵉⵣⵉⵍ ⵂⴰⴷⵉ ⵏⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵏⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ.
"However, the lawsuit against Chrysler markedly diminished Van Alen's reputation as an architect, which, along with the effects of the Great Depression and negative criticism, ended up ruining his career.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏⴷⴰⵗ, ⴰⵛⵉⵔⵉⵗⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵍⵢⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙⴰ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵎⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵙ, ⴷⴰⵔ ⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵟⴰⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⵣⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ, ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⴰⵛⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ."
"In 1944, the corporation filed plans to build a 38-story annex to the east of the building, at 666 Third Avenue.","ⴷⴰⵗ 1944, ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵗⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵏ 38 ⵉⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ 666 ⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵙⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵉⵜ."
"The stone for the original building was no longer manufactured, and had to be specially replicated.",ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜo ⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⵢⵏ.ⵟⴰⵂⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⵢⵏ.
The family sold the building in 1953 to William Zeckendorf for its assessed price of $18 million.,ⵜⵢⵔⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵏⵛⴰⵂⵉⴷ ⵢⵂⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ 1953 ⵉⵢ ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵤⵢⴰⴾⵢⵏⴷⵓⵔⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵂⴰⴾ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ 18 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⵍⵍⴰⵔⵙ.
"At the time, it was reported to be the largest real estate sale in New York City's history.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⵉⵔⵢ ⵏⴰⵙⵓⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ."
"In 1961, the building's stainless steel elements, including the needle, crown, gargoyles, and entrance doors, were polished for the first time.","ⴷⴰⵗ 1961, ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉ ⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⵉⵛ ⵜⵢⵏⵢⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏ, ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵈ, ⵜⴰⴾⵓⵎⴱⵓⵜ, ⵉⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵔ ⵓⵉ ⵏⵓⴶⵉⵛ, ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ."
The company purchased the building for $35 million.,ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵏⵛⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ 35 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔⵙ.
The spire underwent a restoration that was completed in 1995.,ⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 1995.
The cleaning received the New York Landmarks Conservancy's Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award for 1997.,Iⴼⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⴰⵉ ⵗ. ⵎⵓⵙⵢⵙ ⴷⵔⵢⵙⵢⵔⵗⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵗⵢⵔⴾ ⵍⴰⵏⴷⵎⴰⵔⵜⴾⵙ ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵢⵔⴱⴰⵏⵛⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ 1997.
"In June 2008, it was reported that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was in negotiations to buy TMW's 75% economic interest, a 15% interest from Tishman Speyer Properties in the building, and a share of the Trylons retail structure next door for US$800 million.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⵓⵉⵏ 2008, ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⵏⵙⵢⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵓ ⵢⵂⴰⴱⵉ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵛⴰⵏⵛⵓ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ 75% ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵎⵓ, ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ 15% ⴰⵏ ⵟⵉⵛⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴷⵢⵉⵢⵢⵔ ⴷⵔⵓⴷⵢⵔⵜⵉⵢⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⴶⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⵏⵛⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵢⵏ ⵟⵔⵉⵍⵓⵏⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⴰⵏ 800 ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵍⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⵙ."
"This resulted in a 21% decrease in the building's total energy consumption, a 64% decrease in water consumption, and an 81% rate of waste being recycled.","ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵉⴰⵗⴰⵛⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ 21% ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ, ⵓⴰⵏ 64% ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ 81% ⵂⴰⴷⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵎⵓⵙⵓⵗⵉⵍ ⵏⵉⵏⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
"""The Ethics of Philosophical Practice.""""""","""""ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎⴰⵏ""""."
"""""""Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more or less systematic kind about the general nature of the world (metaphysics or theory of existence), the justification of belief (epistemology or theory of knowledge), and the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value).""","""""""ⴰⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵏⵉⵏⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵍⵎⴰⵆⵏⴰ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ (ⴰⵏⵉⵣⴶⴰⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ), ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⴱⴰⴷⴰⵜ (ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵓⵣⵓⵜ), ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵉⵗⵉⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ (ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵈⴰⵍ)."""""""
Metaphysics replaces the unargued assumptions embodied in such a conception with a rational and organized body of beliefs about the world as a whole.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵗⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⴰ ⵏⵉⴶⵉ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴰⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⴱⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ.
"In the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize.","ⴷⴰⵗ 19ⵢ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⴼⵉⵓⴰⴼ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵗⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵎⴰⵗⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵣⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⵏⵢⵙ."
"In Against the Logicians the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus detailed the variety of ways in which the ancient Greek philosophers had divided philosophy, noting that this three-part division was agreed to by Plato, Aristotle, Xenocrates, and the Stoics.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵙ ‘ⴰⴶⴰⵉⵏⵙⵜ ⵜⵂⵢ ⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⵉⴰⵏⵙ, ⵢⵏⴰⵎⵢⴶⵔⵉⴷ ⴷⵉⵔⵔⵂⵓⵏⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⵙⵢⵆⵜⵓⵙ Eⵎⴱⵉⵔⵉⵛⵓⵙ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵜəⵎⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⴷⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵉⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵓ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⵜⵢⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵢⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ, ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵢ, ⵆⵉⵏⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵓⵉⵛⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ."
"Other ancient philosophical traditions influenced by Socrates included Cynicism, Cyrenaicism, Stoicism, and Academic Skepticism.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⵏⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⴶⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢ, ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵂⵢⵜ ⴰⵉⵏⵉⵙⵎⵢ, ⴰⵉⵔⵉⵏⴰⵉⵛⵉⵙⵎⵢ, ⵙⵜⵉⵢⵛⵉⵙⵎⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵛⵢⴱⵜⵉⵛⵉⵙⵎⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ."
"Some key Medieval thinkers include St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Boethius, Anselm and Roger Bacon.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⵙⴰⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏ, ⵟⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵓⵉⵏ, ⴱⵓⵉⵛⵢ, ⴰⵏⵙⵢⵍⵎⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵓⴶⵢⵔ ⴱⵓⵛⵓⵏ."
"Major modern philosophers include Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant.","ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵢⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵎⵙⴱⵉⵏⵓⵣⴰ, ⵍⵢⵉⴱⵏⵉⵣ, ⵍⵓⵛⴾⵢ, ⴱⵢⵔⴾⵢⵍⵢⵉ, ⵂⵓⵎⵢⴰⴷ ⵆⴰⵏⵜ."
Babylonian astronomy also included much philosophical speculations about cosmology which may have influenced the Ancient Greeks.,ⴷⵎⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵉⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏⵓⵣⴶⴰⵎ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵣⴰⵍⵢⵗⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵛⴰⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵗⵔⵢⵛⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⵢⵏ.
"Later Jewish philosophy came under strong Western intellectual influences and includes the works of Moses Mendelssohn who ushered in the Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment), Jewish existentialism, and Reform Judaism.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⵉⵗⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵛⵉⵍⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵢⵙ ⵎⵢⵏⴷⵢⵍⵙⵙⵓⵂⵏ, ⵓⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍⴰⵂ (ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⵉⵗⵢⵜⴰⵏ), ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵓⵔⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⵉⴼⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵋⵓⴷⴰⵉⵙⵎⵢ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ."
Islamic philosophy is the philosophical work originating in the Islamic tradition and is mostly done in Arabic.,ⴰⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱ.
Early Islamic philosophy developed the Greek philosophical traditions in new innovative directions.,ⴰⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵓⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵢⴰⵈⵓⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⵢⵏ.
"The work of Aristotle was very influential among philosophers such as Al-Kindi (9th century), Avicenna (980 – June 1037) and Averroes (12th century).","ⴰⵛⵉⵗⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵢ ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵆⵉⵏⴷⵉ (9ⵢ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ), ⴰⵗⵉⴰⵉⵢⵏⵏⵢ (980 – ⵋⵓⵉⵏ 1037) ⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵢⵔⵔⵓⵉⵙ (12ⵢ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ)."
Ibn Khaldun was an influential thinker in philosophy of history.,Iⴱⵏ ⵆⵂⴰⵍⴷⵓⵓⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵏⴰⵣⴶⴰⵎ ⴰⵛⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴰⵙ.
"Indian philosophical traditions share various key concepts and ideas, which are defined in different ways and accepted or rejected by the different traditions.","ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴱⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ, ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⴷⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴷⴰⵓ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵓⵏⴶⵉⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⴷⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ."
Indian philosophy is commonly grouped based on their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in them.,ⴰⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵢⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴱⵢⴷⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ.
"""The schools which align themselves with the thought of the Upanishads, the so-called """"orthodox"""" or """"Hindu"""" traditions, are often classified into six darśanas or philosophies:Sānkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā and Vedānta.""","""ⵍⵉⴰⵓⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵏⵉⵛⴰⴷⵙ, ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⴰ """"ⵓⵔⵜⵂⵓⴷⵓⵆⵢⵙ"""" ⵎⵢⵗ """"ⵂⵉⵏⴷⵓⵓⵢⵙ"""", ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵜⵍⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⴰⵏⴰⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴾⵂⵉⴰ ⵗⵓⴶⴰ, ⵏⵉⴰⵉⴰ, ⴱⴰⵉⵛⵢⵛⵉⴾⴰ, ⵎⵉⵎⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵢⴷⴰⵏⵜⴰ."""
They also reflect a tolerance for a diversity of philosophical interpretations within Hinduism while sharing the same foundation.,ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵉⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⴼⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴱⵉⴷⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏⴷⵓⵓⵉⵙⵎⵢ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏⵉⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ.
"""There are also other schools of thought which are often seen as """"Hindu"""", though not necessarily orthodox (since they may accept different scriptures as normative, such as the Shaiva Agamas and Tantras), these include different schools of Shavism such as Pashupata, Shaiva Siddhanta, non-dual tantric Shavism (i.e. Trika, Kaula, etc.).""","""Iⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉ ⴷⵢⵈⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵍⵉⴰⵓⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ """"ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵓⵉⵙⵜⵢⵙ"""", ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵈⵢⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵉⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵜⵂⵓⴷⵓⵆⵢⵙ (ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴷⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴷⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵟⵔⴰⵏⵜⵔⴰⵙ ⵛⵉⵗⴰ), ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴷⵉ ⵍⵉⴰⵓⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵗⵉⵙⵎⵢ ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⴱⴰⵛⵓⴷⴰⵜⴰ, ⵙⵂⴰⵉⴱⴰ ⵙⵉⴷⴷⵂⴰⵏⵜⴰ, ⵙⵂⴰⴱⵉⵙⵎⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⵔⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ (ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵟⵔⵉⴾⴰ, ⵆⴰⵓⵍⴰ, ⵉⵉⴰⴷ)."""
"""The denial that a human being possesses a """"self"""" or """"soul"""" is probably the most famous Buddhist teaching.""","""ⵜⵉⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵉⵉⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ """"ⴰⵏⵢⵙ"""" ⵎⵢⵗ """"ⵜⵢⵍⵢ"""" ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵓⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⴷⴷⵂⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ."""
"""Jain philosophy is one of the only two surviving """"unorthodox"""" traditions (along with Buddhism).""","""ⴰⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ """"ⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵢⵍ ⵓⵔⵜⵂⵓⴷⵓⵆⵢⵙ"""" ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ (ⴷⴰⵔ ⴱⵓⵓⴷⴷⵂⵉⵙⵜⵢ)."""
"Jain thought holds that all existence is cyclic, eternal and uncreated.","ⴰⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴶⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵉⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵓⴶⵓ."
"In these regions, Buddhist thought developed into different philosophical traditions which used various languages (like Tibetan, Chinese and Pali).","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⴷⴷⵂⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴶⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴰⵂⴰⵆ ⴰⴶⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ( ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴱⵉⵜⴰⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⴰⵂⵉⵏⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵍⵉ)."
"The philosophy of the Theravada school is dominant in Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand.","ⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⴰⵓⵉ ⵟⵂⵢⵔⴰⴱⴰⴷⴰ ⵜⵓⴶⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵆ ⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ-ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⵏⴾⴰ, ⴱⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵟⵂⴰⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⵢ."
"After the death of the Buddha, various groups began to systematize his main teachings, eventually developing comprehensive philosophical systems termed Abhidharma.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⴷⵂⴰ, ⴶⵔⵓⴷⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ,ⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⴶⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵓⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⴱⵂⵉⴷⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰ."
"There were numerous schools, sub-schools, and traditions of Buddhist philosophy in ancient and medieval India.","Iⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵍⵉⴰⵓⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰⵓ ⵍⵉⴰⵓⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵆⵓⵔⴷⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵆ Iⵏⴷⵢ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵉⴷⵉⵉⴱⴰⵍⵢ."
"These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical, political and ethical theories such Tao, Yin and yang, Ren and Li.","ⵜⵉⵓⵙⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜⵢ ⴰⵙⴶⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴾⴰⵔⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ,ⴼⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴶⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵟⴰⵓ,ⵗⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵗⴰⵏⴶ, ⵔⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵉ."
"Neo-Confucianism came to dominate the education system during the Song dynasty (960–1297), and its ideas served as the philosophical basis of the imperial exams for the scholar official class.","ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵆⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵆⴰⵔⵢ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵉⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴶ ( 960-1297),ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴶⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵂⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵆⴰⵛⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵆⴰⵈⵓⵎ."
"During later Chinese dynasties like the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) as well as in the Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1897) a resurgent Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such as Wang Yangming (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought, and was promoted by the imperial state.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵢⵔⵓⵢ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵓⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷ-ⴷⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵢⵔⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⴶ (1368-1644)ⴰⴷ ⵜⵢⵔⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⵓⵏ (1392-1897),ⵓⵏ ⵏéⵓ-ⴾⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎⵢ ⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⴷ, ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵓⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵉ ⵣⵉⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎⵉⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏⴶ ⵗⴰⵏⴶⵎⵉⵏⴶ (1472-1529), ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵍⵉⴾⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"In the Modern era, Chinese thinkers incorporated ideas from Western philosophy.","ⵗⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵂⵔⴰⵉ, ⵉⵣⵉⵏⵓⵣⴶⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵓⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵙⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵣⴶⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ."
"For example, New Confucianism, led by figures such as Xiong Shili, has become quite influential.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ,ⵜⵉⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎⵢ,ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵢⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵆⵉⵓⵏⴶ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵉ, ⵢⵈⴰⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴶⵓⵍ."
"""Another trend in modern Japanese philosophy was the """"National Studies"""" (Kokugaku) tradition.""","""ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵋⴰⴷⵓⵏ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴶⵓⵣⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ""ⵜⵢⵈⴰⵔⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ"""" ( ⵆⵓⴾⵓⴶⴰⴾⵓ).(ⵆⵓⴾⵓⴶⴰⴾⵓ)ⵜⵉⴶⵓⵣⵙⵜ ""."
"During the 17th century, Ethiopian philosophy developed a robust literary tradition as exemplified by Zera Yacob.","Ɣⵓⵔ 17ⵢ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵓⴱⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵢⵣⵙⵜ ⵏⵉⴾⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵜ,ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵣⵓⵣⵉ ⵤⵢⵔⴰ ⵗⴰⴰⵓⴱ."
Another feature of the indigenous American worldviews was their extension of ethics to non-human animals and plants.,ⴷⴱⴰⴷⵉ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵜⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵢ ⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ.
The theory of Teotl can be seen as a form of Pantheism.,ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⵢⵓⵜⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⴰⵈⵉⵍ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵂⵉⵉⵙⵎⵢ.
"Nevertheless, U.S. Department of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that few women ended up in philosophy, and that philosophy is one of the least gender-proportionate fields in the humanities, with women making up somewhere between 17% and 30% of philosophy faculty according to some studies.","ⴰⵓⵢⵏⴷⴰⴾ, ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴰⴰⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 1990 ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ,ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ ⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏ, ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵋⴰⵔ 17% ⴰⴷ 30% ⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ."
"""See also """"Characteristics and Attitudes of Instructional Faculty and Staff in the Humanities.""""""",""" ⴰⵏⵂⵉⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ""""ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰⵜ."""""""
Its primary investigations include how to live a good life and identifying standards of morality.,ⵓⵎⴰⵗⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⴾ ⴰⴶⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵣⵉⵉ ⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ.
"Epistemologists examine putative sources of knowledge, including perceptual experience, reason, memory, and testimony.","ⴷⴱⵉⵙⵜⵓⵍⵓⴶⵓⵢⵙ ⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵂⴰ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵜ,ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⴾⵉⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⵓⵂⵢ."
"It arose early in Pre-Socratic philosophy and became formalized with Pyrrho, the founder of the earliest Western school of philosophical skepticism.","ⵜⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⵙⵂⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⴰⵔⴰⵜⵢ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵔⵔⵂⵓ,ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⴰⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⵢⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⴱⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ."
Empiricism places emphasis on observational evidence via sensory experience as the source of knowledge.,ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ.
"Rationalism is associated with a priori knowledge, which is independent of experience (such as logic and mathematics).","ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⵜ,ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⴼⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ( ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⵏⴰⵏ)."
"Metaphysics includes cosmology, the study of the world in its entirety and ontology, the study of being.","ⵎⵉⵜⴰⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵍⴰ ⴾⵓⵙⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵢ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵏⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⴾ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵏⵜⵓⵍⵢⴶⵉⵢ, ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ"
"Essence is the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity while accident is a property that the object has, without which the object can still retain its identity.","ⵎⴰⵏⵂⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⴷⵢ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴰⵙⴱⴰ ⵎⵓⵣⵉⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴾⵔⵉⵛⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ,ⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵉⴶⵓⵣ ⵎⵓⵣⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵢⵙⵙ."
"Because sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences, social sciences and humanities disciplines, logic became a formal science.","ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵛⴰⴷⵉⴶⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ,ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ."
New York: Oxford University Press.,ⵏⵢⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ : ⵓⵆⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵓⵏⵉⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉ ⴱⵔⵢⵙⵙ.
"However, most students of academic philosophy later contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics, business, or various arts.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏ,ⴰⵋⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵔⴰⵜ, ⵉⵢ ⵋⵓⵔⵏⴰⵍⵜⴰⵏ,ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰ,ⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ,ⵉⵢ ⴼⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉⴾ, ⵉⵢ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ."
"In analytic philosophy, philosophy of language investigates the nature of language, the relations between language, language users, and the world.","ⵢⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ,ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵜⵓ ⵢⵗⵔⴰ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵜⵓ,ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵋⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵜⵓ, ⵉⵎⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ."
"These writers were followed by Ludwig Wittgenstein (Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus), the Vienna Circle as well as the logical positivists, and Willard Van Orman Quine.","Iⵎⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵍⵓⴷⵓⵉⴶ ⵓⵉⴼⴶⵢⵏⵙⴼⵢⵉⵏ (ⵟⵔⴰⴰⵜⵓⵙ ⵍⵓⴶⵉⴰⵓ-ⴷⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴷⵂⵉⴰⵓⵙ),ⴰⴼⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ Ɣⵉⵢⵏⵏⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵔⴷ ⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢ."
He criticized conventionalism because it led to the bizarre consequence that anything can be conventionally denominated by any name.,ⵓⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵎ ⴾⵉⵍ.
"To do this, he pointed out that compound words and phrases have a range of correctness.","ⵗⵢ ⵉⴶⵓⵉ,ⵉⴶⴰ ⵙⵢⴶⵔⴰⵂ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔ ⴰⴶⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⵓⵜⵢ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏ."
"However, by the end of the Cratylus, he had admitted that some social conventions were also involved, and that there were faults in the idea that phonemes had individual meanings.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢ ⵢⵏ, ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷo ⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵍⵢ,ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⴷⴰⵓⵢⵏ əⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵉ-ⵂⴰⵏ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⵓⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⴱⵔⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ."
He separated all things into categories of species and genus.,ⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵙⴰⵜⵢⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ.
"""However, since Aristotle took these similarities to be constituted by a real commonality of form, he is more often considered a proponent of """"moderate realism"""".""","“ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏ,ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵢ ⵉⴶⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵜⵢⵜ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⵢⵗⴰⵜ,ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙ ⴰⵏ """"ⴰⵙⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ."""""
This lektón was the meaning (or sense) of every term.,ⵍⵢ ⴾⵜⵓⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ( ⵎⵢⵗ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵓ ) ⵉⵢ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴾⵓⵍ.
There were several noteworthy philosophers of language in the medieval period.,Iⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
"The scholastics of the high medieval period, such as Ockham and John Duns Scotus, considered logic to be a scientia sermocinalis (science of language).","ⵆⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵋⵉⵏⴰⵋ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ,ⵙⵓⵏⴷ Oⴰⴾⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵋⵢⴰⵏ ⴹⵓⵏⵙ ⵙⴰⵓⵜ,ⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵜⵉⴰ ⵙⵢⵔⵎⵓⵛⵉⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙ ( ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ )."
"The phenomena of vagueness and ambiguity were analyzed intensely, and this led to an increasing interest in problems related to the use of syncategorematic words such as and, or, not, if, and every.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏ, ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰƭ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⵉⵢⵜⴰⵔⴰⵈⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ, ⵎⵢⵗ, ⵓⴰⵔ, ⴰⴷ ⴾⵓⵍ."
The suppositio of a term is the interpretation that is given of it in a specific context.,ⵔⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⴻⵔⴰⵜ .
"Such a classification scheme is the precursor of modern distinctions between use and mention, and between language and metalanguage.","Iⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ,ⴰⴷ ⵋⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵋⴰⵏⴰⵋⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ."
"One part of the common sentence is the lexical word, which is composed of nouns, verbs, and adjectives.","ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵢⵔ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵟⴰⵏⵣⵓⵔⵜ,ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ,ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ."
Philosophical semantics tends to focus on the principle of compositionality to explain the relationship between meaningful parts and whole sentences.,ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵋⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵢⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰ ⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ.
It is possible to use the concept of functions to describe more than just how lexical meanings work: they can also be used to describe the meaning of a sentence.,ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵗⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵓⵔⵜ : ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵜⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔ.
"""A propositional function is an operation of language that takes an entity (in this case, the horse) as an input and outputs a semantic fact (i.e., the proposition that is represented by """"The horse is red"""").""",""" ⵔⵢⵎⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵏⴰⵂⴰⵋ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵣⵗⴰⵜ ( ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵢⵏ,ⵢⴱⴰⵋⵢ) ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ (ⴰⴷⴰⵗ-ⵜⵉ-ⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ """"ⵢⴱⴰⵋⵢ ⵙⴰⴶⴰⵗⴰⵏ"""")."""
Is language acquisition a special faculty in the mind?,ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵏⵉⴰⵜ?
"The first is the behaviorist perspective, which dictates that not only is the solid bulk of language learned, but it is learned via conditioning.","ⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ,ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵉⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⴰⴷⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ,ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ."
Nativist models assert that there are specialized devices in the brain that are dedicated to language acquisition.,Iⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵗⴰⴼ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ.
"""Linguists Sapir and Whorf suggested that language limited the extent to which members of a """"linguistic community"""" can think about certain subjects (a hypothesis paralleled in George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four).""","""ⵆⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⴰⴷ Wⵂⵓⵔⴼ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵣⴰⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵓⵉⵙ """"ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ""""ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵢ ⴱⴰⵜⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ( ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⴰⵛⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵙⵉⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⵓⵔⴶⵢ ⵓⵓⵓⵢⵍⵍ, ⵏⵉⵏⵢⵜⵢⵢⵏ Eⵉⴶⵂⵜⵉ-ⴼⵓⵓⵔ)."""
"The stark opposite to the Sapir–Whorf position is the notion that thought (or, more broadly, mental content) has priority over language.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵛⵔⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⵔ-Wⵂⵓⵔⴼ ⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵓⵣⴶⵓⵎ (ⵎⵢⵗ,ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵔⵓⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏⵢⵔ,ⵎⵢⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⴰⵜ) ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ."
Another argument is that it is difficult to explain how signs and symbols on paper can represent anything meaningful unless some sort of meaning is infused into them by the contents of the mind.,ⵜⵢⴷⵢⵜ ⵢⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴰⵈⵢ ⵏⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵜⵔⵎⵜⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵇⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⴰⵍⵇⴰⴷⴰⴷⵓⴱⵏⴰⵙⵙⵇⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⵔⵢⵙ ⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵍ ⵢⴳⵢⴼⵍ
Another tradition of philosophers has attempted to show that language and thought are coextensive – that there is no way of explaining one without the other.,ⵔⵉⴶⵣⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⴶⵔⵉ-ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵏⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ.
"To an extent, the theoretical underpinnings to cognitive semantics (including the notion of semantic framing) suggest the influence of language upon thought.","ⵢⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ (ⵜⵛⴰ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ) ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⴰⵂⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴶⵓⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴶⵓⵎ."
There are studies that prove that languages shape how people understand causality.,ⵔⵉⵗⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷⴰⵙⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵛⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ.
"""However, Spanish or Japanese speakers would be more likely to say """"the vase broke itself"""".""","""ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏ,ⴾⴰⵍ ⵢⵙⴷⴰⴶⵏⵓⵍⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵋⴰⴷⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ""ⴰⴰⵓⵙⵙ ⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⴻⵙⵙ""."""
Spanish and Japanese speakers did not remember the agents of accidental events as well as did English speakers.,ⴷⴷⴰⴶⵏⵓⵍⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵋⴰⴷⵓⵏⴰⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴾⴰⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵛⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵉⵏⴶⵍⵉⵙⵂⵜⴰⵏ.
In one study German and Spanish speakers were asked to describe objects having opposite gender assignment in those two languages.,"ⵢⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ,ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴶⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵢⵙⴷⴰⴶⵏⵓⵍⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵛⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵢⵏ."
"""To describe a """"bridge"""", which is feminine in German and masculine in Spanish, the German speakers said """"beautiful"""", """"elegant"""", """"fragile"""", """"peaceful"""", """"pretty"""" and """"slender"""", and the Spanish speakers said """"big"""", """"dangerous"""", """"long"""", """"strong"""", """"sturdy"""" and """"towering"""".""","ⵗⵢ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ""ⴰⴷⵎⴰⵔ,""ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ɗⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵎⴰⴶⵏⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⴷⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⵙɗⴰⴶⵏⵓⵍ, ⴶⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ""ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ"", ""ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵙⵢ"",""ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵎⴷⵢ"",""ⵢⵔⴰⵣⵉ"",""ⵉⴾⵏⴰ"", ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ""ⵙⴰⴷⵉⴷ"", ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵢⵙⴷⴰⴶⵏⵓⵍⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏ ""ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔ"", ""ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ"", ""ⵣⴰⴶⵔⴰⵜ "", ""ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ "", ""ⵂⴰⵔⵓ"" , ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ""ⴰⵛⴰⵂⴰⵛⴰⵍ ."""
Whether each alien was friendly or hostile was determined by certain subtle features but participants were not told what these were.,"ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵣⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵛⵉⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵣⵍⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⴷⵏⵢⵏ,ⵎⴰⵛⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴶⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵎⵢⴷⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵎ."
"For the rest, the aliens remained nameless.","ⵗⵢ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵛⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎ."
It was concluded that naming objects helps us categorize and memorize them.,ⴰⵜⴰⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎ ⵉⵢ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⵉⵢ ⵢⴱⴰɗⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ.
"Within this area, issues include: the nature of synonymy, the origins of meaning itself, our apprehension of meaning, and the nature of composition (the question of how meaningful units of language are composed of smaller meaningful parts, and how the meaning of the whole is derived from the meaning of its parts).","ⵢⴰⵗⴷⴰⵋ ⵓⵢⵏ,ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ,ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵢⵙ,ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ( ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵙⵙ)."
"The ideational theory of meaning, most commonly associated with the British empiricist John Locke, claims that meanings are mental representations provoked by signs.","ⵔⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵂⵓⵉⵜ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ,ⵢⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵢⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵏⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⵋⵓⵂⵏ Lⵓⴰⴾⵢ,ⴰⵗⵢⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵗⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵔⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⵍⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵜⴰⵔ."
(See also Wittgenstein's picture theory of language.),(ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴻ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⴼⴶⵢⵏⵙⵜⵢⵉⵏ) .
"Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.","ⵛⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴷⴶⵢ, Mⴰⵙⵙⴰⵛⵂⵓⵙⵢⵜⵜⵙ : ⵂⴰⵔⴱⴰⵔⴷ Uⵏⵉⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉ Pⵔⵢⵙⵙ."
"The reference theory of meaning, also known collectively as semantic externalism, views meaning to be equivalent to those things in the world that are actually connected to signs.","ⵔⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵣⵉⵢ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ,ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵋⴰⵜ,ⴷⴰⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⴶⵓⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ,ⵉⵋⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵢⵛⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
The traditional formulation of such a theory is that the meaning of a sentence is its method of verification or falsification.,ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵢⵔ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴾⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⵎⵜⵗ ⴰⵗⴰⵛⴰⴷ.
"In this version, the comprehension (and hence meaning) of a sentence consists in the hearer's ability to recognize the demonstration (mathematical, empirical or other) of the truth of the sentence.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⴰ,ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵜ (ⴰⴷ ⵜəⵏⵏⴰ) ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⴶⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ (ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ,ⵜⵉⵔⵎⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ)ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵢⵔⵜ."
A pragmatic theory of meaning is any theory in which the meaning (or understanding) of a sentence is determined by the consequences of its application.,ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ (ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵂⴰⵜ) ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⴰⵏ
Gottlob Frege was an advocate of a mediated reference theory.,ⵗⵓⵜⵜⵍⵓⴱ Fⵔⵢⴶⵢ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵎⴰⵔⵂ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵣⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵢⵉ.
"Such a thought is abstract, universal and objective.","ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔ,ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ."
Referents are the objects in the world that words pick out.,Iⵂⵓⴾ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵢⵔ.
"""He viewed proper names of the sort described above as """"abbreviated definite descriptions"""" (see Theory of descriptions).""",".""Iⵋⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⵙⴰⴼⴰⵍⴰ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ """"ⵉⵜⵓⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴶⴰⵣⴰⵍⴰⵏ).""ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵓⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉⵜⴰⵏ)."""
Such phrases denote in the sense that there is an object that satisfies the description.,ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵔⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴼⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ.
"On Frege's account, any referring expression has a sense as well as a referent.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⵢⴶⵢ, ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵏⵢⵂⴰⵍ."
"Despite the differences between the views of Frege and Russell, they are generally lumped together as descriptivists about proper names.","Ɣⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⵢⴶⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵢⵍⵍ,ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵗⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ."
"""Consider the name Aristotle and the descriptions """"the greatest student of Plato"""", """"the founder of logic"""" and """"the teacher of Alexander"""".""","""ⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵜⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵗⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ"""", ""ⵢⵎⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⴰⵔ"" ⴰⴷ""ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵢⵆⴰⵏⴷⵔⵢ ""."""""
He may have existed and not have become known to posterity at all or he may have died in infancy.,ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵎⵢⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔⵉⴶⵔⵢⵓ ⵎⵓⵣⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ.
But this is deeply counterintuitive.,ⵎⴰⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵣⴰⴶⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ.
Questions inevitably arise on surrounding topics.,ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵣⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵂⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵜⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵣⵏⵢⵏ.
David Kellogg Lewis proposed a worthy reply to the first question by expounding the view that a convention is a rationally self-perpetuating regularity in behavior.,ⴷⴰⵢⵉⴷ ⵆⵢⵍⵍⵓⴶⴶ ⵍⵢⵓⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵂⴰⵋⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵎⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵜⵢⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⵎⴰⵛⴰⵍⵜ.
"Noam Chomsky proposed that the study of language could be done in terms of the I-Language, or internal language of persons.","ⵏⴰⵎ ⴰⵂⵓⵎⵙⴾⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⴰⵂⴰⵋⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ,ⵎⵢⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ."
"One fruitful source of research involves investigation into the social conditions that give rise to, or are associated with, meanings and languages.","ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵜ ⵉⵢ ⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⴾⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⵋ ⵗⵓⵔ, ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ, ⵉⵍⴰⵗⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ."
The presumptions that prop up each theoretical view are of interest to the philosopher of language.,Iⵏⴰⵂⴰⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ.
"Rhetoric is the study of the particular words that people use to achieve the proper emotional and rational effect in the listener, be it to persuade, provoke, endear, or teach.","ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵢⵔ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵢ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵙⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⵎⴰⵙⴰⴶⴰⴷ,ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⵜ,ⵜⴰⴷⵍⴰⵎⵜ,ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⴰⵔ."
"It also has applications to the study and interpretation of law, and helps give insight to the logical concept of the domain of discourse.","ⵜⴰⵍⴰ ⴷⵜⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵜⵢⵜ ⵢⴷⴰⵋ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ."
"""The idea of language is often related to that of logic in its Greek sense as """"logos"""", meaning discourse or dialectic.""","ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵢⴰ ⴰⵏ """"ⵍⵍⵓⴶⵓⵙ"""", ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⴱⴰⵜⵓ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ."
Heidegger combines phenomenology with the hermeneutics of Wilhelm Dilthey.,ⵆⵢⵉⴷⵢⴶⴶⵢⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵍⵂⵢⵍⵎ ⵢⵉⵉⵍⵜⵓⵢⵉ.
"For example, Sein (being), the word itself, is saturated with multiple meanings.","ⵙⵓⵏⴷ, ⴷⴰⵗ ( ⵓⵗⴰⵍ),ⵜⵢⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵙⵙ,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰ ⵍⴰⵗⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ."
"""Heidegger claims writing is only a supplement to speech, because even readers construct or contribute their own """"talk"""" while reading.""","""ⵂⵢⵉⴷⵢⴶⴶⵢⵔ ⴰⵍⵉⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⴰⵜⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ, ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴶⴰⵗⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵢⵙⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⴰⵏⵉⴷ """"ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ"""" ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ."
"""In Truth and Method, Gadamer describes language as """"the medium in which substantive understanding and agreement take place between two people.""","""ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴾⴰⵔⵢ,ⵗⴰⴷⴰⵎⵢⵔ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ """" ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ""""."
"""Paul Ricœur, on the other hand, proposed a hermeneutics which, reconnecting with the original Greek sense of the term, emphasized the discovery of hidden meanings in the equivocal terms (or """"symbols"""") of ordinary language.""","ⴱⴰⵓⵍ ⵔⵉⵛⵓⵢⵓⵔ, ⵈⵓⴰⵏⵓⵉ, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵓⴰ, ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵢⴰ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔ, ⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ (ⵎⵢⵗ """"ⵢⵛⵓⴰⵍ"""") ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵉ""."
It allows them to take advantage of and effectively manipulate the external world in order to create meaning for themselves and transmit this meaning to others.,ⵜⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴾⴰⴱ ⵏⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴷⴷⴰⴼ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⵢ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉⵢ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵉⵢ ⵓⵉⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ.
"Some important figures in the history of semiotics, are Charles Sanders Peirce, Roland Barthes, and Roman Jakobson.","Iⵙⵙⴰⴾⵏⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵏⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵍⵢⵙ ⵙⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔⵙ ⴱⵉⵢⵔⵔⵢ, ⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵜⵂⵢⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⴾⵓⴱⵙⵓⵏ."
19th century romanticism emphasised human agency and free will in meaning construction.,ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜⵉⵙⵎⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ 19ⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵎⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ.
Humanistic views are challenged by biological theories of language which consider languages as natural phenomena.,Iⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ.
"In Neo-Darwinism, Richard Dawkins and other proponents of cultural replicator theories consider languages as populations of mind viruses.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵔⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴷ ⵢⴰⵓⴾⵉⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴷⵎⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵍⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⵉⴰⵜ.
"""Some have said that the expression stands for some real, abstract universal out in the world called """"rocks"""".""","""Iⵉⴰɗ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⵏⴰ """"ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵏ""""."
"""The issue here can be explicated if we examine the proposition """"Socrates is a Man"""".""","ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵈⴰ ⴷⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ""ⵙⵓⴰⵔⴰⵜⵢ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⴰⵙ""."""""
These two things connect in some way or overlap.,ⵆⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵈⵓⵙⴰⵏ.
"""Another perspective is to consider """"man"""" to be a property of the entity, """"Socrates"""".""",".""ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵏⵂⵓⵉ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ """"ⴰⵂⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙ"""" ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⴾⵔⴰⵛⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ, """"ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢ""."""""
"Some of the most prominent members of this tradition of formal semantics include Tarski, Carnap, Richard Montague and Donald Davidson.","ⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵋⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵜⵢⵜ ⵂⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵔⵙⴾⵉ, ⴰⴰⵔⵏⴰⴷ,ⵔⵉⴰⵂⴰⵔⴷ, ⵎⵓⵏⵜⴰⴶⵓⵢ, ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵏⴰⵍⴷ ⵢⴰⵗⵉⴷⵙⵓⵏ."
They did not believe that the social and practical dimensions of linguistic meaning could be captured by any attempts at formalization using the tools of logic.,ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵈⵢⵍ-ⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵔⵓⵎ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵣⴶⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ.
"Many of its ideas have been absorbed by theorists such as Kent Bach, Robert Brandom, Paul Horwich and Stephen Neale.","ⴰⵋⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵣⵋⴰⵎ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⴶⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵆⵢⵏⵜ ⴱⴰⴰⵂ, ⵔⵓⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓⵎ, ⴱⴰⵓⵍ ⵂⵓⵔⵓⵉⵛⵂ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵢⴱⵂⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⴰⵍⵢ."
"In Word and Object, Quine asks readers to imagine a situation in which they are confronted with a previously undocumented, group of indigenous people where they must attempt to make sense of the utterances and gestures that its members make.","ⴰⵗ ⵓⵢⵔⴷ ⴰⵏⴷ Oⴱⵋⵢⵛⵜ, ⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴰⴷ ⵣⴰⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⴷⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵋⴰⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵂⴰⴷ ⵉⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ'ⵢⵙⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵢ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵢⵙⵙ."
"All that can be done is to examine the utterance as a part of the overall linguistic behaviour of the individual, and then use these observations to interpret the meaning of all other utterances.","ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵢⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ."
"For Quine, as for Wittgenstein and Austin, meaning is not something that is associated with a single word or sentence, but is rather something that, if it can be attributed at all, can only be attributed to a whole language.","ⵗⵢ ⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵢ ⵓⵉⵜⵜⴶⵢⵏⵙⵜⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵈⵢⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ,ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵂⴰⴾ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵢⵜ ⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ."
"""The specific instances of vagueness that most interest philosophers of language are those where the existence of """"borderline cases"""" makes it seemingly impossible to say whether a predicate is true or false.""",""" Iⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵗⵢⴷ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵉⵢ """"ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴷⵓ""""ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ ⵉⵢ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵜⵢⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵂⴰⵓⴰⵜ""."
"The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of philosophy that studies the assumptions, foundations, and implications of mathematics.","ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵣⵢⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⵉⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰɗⵉⵏⴰⵏ."
"Today, some philosophers of mathematics aim to give accounts of this form of inquiry and its products as they stand, while others emphasize a role for themselves that goes beyond simple interpretation to critical analysis.","ⴰⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉ, ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵉⵢ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ"
Greek philosophy on mathematics was strongly influenced by their study of geometry.,ⵎⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵢⴰⵈⵓⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ.
"""Therefore, 3, for example, represented a certain multitude of units, and was thus not """"truly"""" a number.""",""" ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵓⵉ,ⵙⵓⵏⴷ, 3, ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵋⵉⵜⵏⵢⵏ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵈⵢⵍⵏⴰⵜ ""ⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏ""."
These earlier Greek ideas of numbers were later upended by the discovery of the irrationality of the square root of two.,Iⵏⴰⵣⵋⴰⵎ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵢⵛⵈⵓⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⵗⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ.
"According to legend, fellow Pythagoreans were so traumatized by this discovery that they murdered Hippasus to stop him from spreading his heretical idea.","Ɣⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵏⵙⵜ, ⴱⵉⵜⵂⴰⴶⵓⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵉⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵗⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵜⵜⴰⵙⵓⵙ ⵉⵢ ⴰⴷⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵋⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵢⵙⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉⴰⵏ."
"""It is a profound puzzle that on the one hand mathematical truths seem to have a compelling inevitability, but on the other hand the source of their """"truthfulness"""" remains elusive.""","""ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⴰⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⴰⵙ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ,ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⴷⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴶⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ,ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ,ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵔⴰⵜ """"ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ"""" ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵜⵓⴰⴼⴰⴼ""."
"Three schools, formalism, intuitionism, and logicism, emerged at this time, partly in response to the increasingly widespread worry that mathematics as it stood, and analysis in particular, did not live up to the standards of certainty and rigor that had been taken for granted.","ⵆⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵍⵉⴰⵓⵉⵜⵢⵏ, ⵉⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰ, ⵉⵍⵎⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⵓⵉⴰⵏ,ⵉⵣⴶⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵓⴷⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎⵢⵗⵜ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴷⵎⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ,ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⵜ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵢⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵎⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⴷ"
"As the century unfolded, the initial focus of concern expanded to an open exploration of the fundamental axioms of mathematics, the axiomatic approach having been taken for granted since the time of Euclid around 300 BCE as the natural basis for mathematics.","Ɣⵓⵔ ⵉⴾⵓⵉ ⵏⵢⵍⴰⵏ,ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⵓ ⵉⵢ ⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ, ⵉⵂⵓⵣ ⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⴰⵍⵉⴷⵢ, ⵉⴱⵔⵢⵜ 300 ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵋ.-ⴰ.ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ."
"In mathematics, as in physics, new and unexpected ideas had arisen and significant changes were coming.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵣⵉⴰⵜ ⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵏⴰⵣⵋⴰⵎ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
"""I do not think that the difficulties that philosophy finds with classical mathematics today are genuine difficulties; and I think that the philosophical interpretations of mathematics that we are being offered on every hand are wrong, and that """"philosophical interpretation"""" is just what mathematics doesn't need.""","."" ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵗⵢⵍⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵎⴰⵈⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵢⵛⴰⵍⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰɗⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ; ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵉⵣⵋⴰⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵗⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⴰⵎ ⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⵋ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ""ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ"" ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⴰⵔⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ""."
Many working mathematicians have been mathematical realists; they see themselves as discoverers of naturally occurring objects.,Iⵏⴰⵎⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ; ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ.
"Certain principles (e.g., for any two objects, there is a collection of objects consisting of precisely those two objects) could be directly seen to be true, but the continuum hypothesis conjecture might prove undecidable just on the basis of such principles.","ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ (ⵙⵓⵏⴷ, ⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⴻⵜ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ)ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵜⵏⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⴱⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ."
"Both Plato's cave and Platonism have meaningful, not just superficial connections, because Plato's ideas were preceded and probably influenced by the hugely popular Pythagoreans of ancient Greece, who believed that the world was, quite literally, generated by numbers.","ⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵜⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ Pⵍⴰⵜoⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ,ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴶⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵜⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵣⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴱⵉⵜⵂⴰⴶⵓⵔⵢ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⵔⵉⵛⵢ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵜ, ⴰⵗⵢⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
"This view bears resemblances to many things Husserl said about mathematics, and supports Kant's idea that mathematics is synthetic a priori.)","ⴷⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵂⵓⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵉⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵂⵓⵙⵙⵢⵔⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ)."
"Full-blooded Platonism is a modern variation of Platonism, which is in reaction to the fact that different sets of mathematical entities can be proven to exist depending on the axioms and inference rules employed (for instance, the law of the excluded middle, and the axiom of choice).","Iⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵍⴰⵍⵉ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⴷⴱⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴱⵔⵢⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ (ⵙⵓⵏⴷ, ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ)."
"Set-theoretic realism (also set-theoretic Platonism) a position defended by Penelope Maddy, is the view that set theory is about a single universe of sets.","ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ (ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ), ⵢⴷⴰⵋ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵢⵏⵢⵍⵓⴱⵢ ⵎⴰⴷⴷⵉ, ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵣⴰⵍⵢⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵢⵏ."
"""They attributed the paradox to """"vicious circularity"""" and built up what they called ramified type theory to deal with it.""","""ⴰⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⵉⵢ """"ⴰⵋⵍⴰⵍⵓⵉ ⵢⵗⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ"""" ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⴾⵔⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵙ ⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⴱⴰⴷⴰⴷ ""."
Even Russell said that this axiom did not really belong to logic.,ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵢⵍⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵢⵙⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵓⴰⴾⵔⴰⵛ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ.
"Frege required Basic Law V to be able to give an explicit definition of the numbers, but all the properties of numbers can be derived from Hume's principle.","ⴼⵔⴶⵢ ⵔⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ Ɣ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⵢ."
But it does allow the working mathematician to continue in his or her work and leave such problems to the philosopher or scientist.,ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴰ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵎ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵉⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵈⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴻ ⴰⵓ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵗ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ.
"""Hilbert aimed to show the consistency of mathematical systems from the assumption that the """"finitary arithmetic"""" (a subsystem of the usual arithmetic of the positive integers, chosen to be philosophically uncontroversial) was consistent.""","ⵂⵉⵍⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⵍⵜ """"ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⵓ """"ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⴷⴰⵏ (ⴷⴰⵓ-ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ,ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛ) ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ."
"Thus, in order to show that any axiomatic system of mathematics is in fact consistent, one needs to first assume the consistency of a system of mathematics that is in a sense stronger than the system to be proven consistent.","ⵙⵓⵏⴷ, ⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ,ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴷⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵙⵙoⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴾ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵉⵜ."
"Other formalists, such as Rudolf Carnap, Alfred Tarski, and Haskell Curry, considered mathematics to be the investigation of formal axiom systems.","ⵉⵏⴰⵙⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ,ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵔⵓⴷⵓⵍⴼ ⵛⴰⵔⵏⴰⴷ, ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵢⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵙⴾⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵙⴾⵢⵍⵍ ⵛⵓⵔⵔⵉ, ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ."
"The more games we study, the better.","ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ, ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
The main critique of formalism is that the actual mathematical ideas that occupy mathematicians are far removed from the string manipulation games mentioned above.,ⵜⵢⵣⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴰⵣⵋⴰⵎ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵉⴰⵏⵜⵉⴼⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⵣ
"Brouwer, the founder of the movement, held that mathematical objects arise from the a priori forms of the volitions that inform the perception of empirical objects.","ⴱⵔⵓⵓⵓⵢⵔ, ⵢⵎⴰⵏⴰⵂⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵓⵎⴰⵔ, ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⴰⵓⵢⵏ."
"The axiom of choice is also rejected in most intuitionistic set theories, though in some versions it is accepted.",ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵜ-ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵏⴾⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵎⵓⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵙⵆⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ -ⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵢⵔⴷⵓⵜ
"In this view, mathematics is an exercise of the human intuition, not a game played with meaningless symbols.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵂⵓⵉⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ, ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ,ⵉⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵛⵓⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴶⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ."
"Likewise all the other whole numbers are defined by their places in a structure, the number line.","ⵙⵓⵏⴷ, ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⵉⵉⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⵋ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⴷⴰⵋⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ."
"However, its central claim only relates to what kind of entity a mathematical object is, not to what kind of existence mathematical objects or structures have (not, in other words, to their ontology).","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏ, ⴰⵍⴰⵈⵉ ⵏⵢⵙⵙ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵢⵍ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏ, ⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵏⴰⵎⵢⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵋⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ)."
Structures are held to have a real but abstract and immaterial existence.,ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵜⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏ
Structures are held to exist inasmuch as some concrete system exemplifies them.,ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵈⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ.
"Like nominalism, the post rem approach denies the existence of abstract mathematical objects with properties other than their place in a relational structure.","ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ,ⵉⵂⴰⵣ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵔⵢⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⴰⵂⴰⵓ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⴷⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵜ."
"It is held that mathematics is not universal and does not exist in any real sense, other than in human brains.","ⵏⵢⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵈⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙⴰⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵔⵜⴰⵍⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵜⵢⵜ, ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ."
"However, the human mind has no special claim on reality or approaches to it built out of math.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏ, ⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜⵢ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵂⵣⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ-ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ."
"The most accessible, famous, and infamous treatment of this perspective is Where Mathematics Comes From, by George Lakoff and Rafael E. Núñez.","ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⵂⵢⵔⵢ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵛⵓⵎⵢⵙ ⴼⵔⵓⵎ, ⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⵓⵔⴶ ⵍⴰⴾⵓⴼⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵔⴰⴼⴰⵢⵍ . ⵏⵓⵏⵢⵣ. ."
"""Franklin, James (2014), """"An Aristotelian Realist Philosophy of Mathematics"""", Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke; Franklin, James (2021), """"Mathematics as a science of non-abstract reality: Aristotelian realist philosophies of mathematics,"""" Foundations of Science 25.""","."" ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾⵍⵉⵏ, ⵋⴰⵎⵢⵙ(2014), """"ⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵢⵍⵉⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ ⵓⴼ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ """", ⴱⴰⵍⴶⵔⴰⴱⵢ ⵎⴰⵛⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⴱⴰⵙⵉⵏⴶⵙⵜⵓⴾⵢ; ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾⵍⵉⵏ, ⵋⴰⵎⵢⵙ (2021), """"ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵓⴼ ⵏⵓⵏ-ⴰⴱⵙⵜⵔⴰⵛⵜ ⵔⵢⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉ: ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵢⵍⵉⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉⵢⵙ ⵓⴼ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ"", ""ⴼⵓⵓⵏⴷⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⵓⴼ ⵙⵛⵉⴱⵏⵛⵢ 25""."
The Euclidean arithmetic developed by John Penn Mayberry in his book The Foundations of Mathematics in the Theory of Sets also falls into the Aristotelian realist tradition.,ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⵛⵍⵉⴷ ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⴱⵢⵏⵏ ⵎⴰⵉⴱⵢⵔⵔⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵢⵙⵙ ⵜⵂⵢ ⴼⵓⵓⵏⴷⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⵓⴼ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵉⵏ ⵜⵂⵢ ⵜⵂⵢⵔⵉ ⵓⴼ ⵙⵢⵜⵙ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵓⵣ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢ.
"""Edmund Husserl, in the first volume of his Logical Investigations, called """"The Prolegomena of Pure Logic"""", criticized psychologism thoroughly and sought to distance himself from it.""","""ⴰⴷⵎⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⵓⵙⵙⵢⵔⵍ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵋⵓⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵗⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ, ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⴰ """"ⴱⵔⵓⵍⵢⴶⵓⵓⵎⵢⵏⵢⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵜ"", ⵜⵉⵣⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵍⴰⵈⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵎⵉⵋⴰⵋ""."
"That is, since physics needs to talk about electrons to say why light bulbs behave as they do, then electrons must exist.","ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⴰ, ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⵂⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⵜⴰⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵍⵢⴰⵜⵔⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴷⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⴰⵜⵔⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵍⴰⵏ."
"It argues for the existence of mathematical entities as the best explanation for experience, thus stripping mathematics of being distinct from the other sciences.","ⵜⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⵜⴰⴷⴶⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵉⴻ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⴻ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ."
This grew from the increasingly popular assertion in the late 20th century that no one foundation of mathematics could be ever proven to exist.,ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵣⵉⵉ ⴰⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ 20 ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴰ ⵏⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵙⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴾⵢⵎ ⴰⴷⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ.ⴰ
A mathematical argument can transmit falsity from the conclusion to the premises just as well as it can transmit truth from the premises to the conclusion.,ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓ ⵉⵢ ⵉⵂⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓ.
He gave a detailed argument for this in New Directions.,ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵓ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵜⵓ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵢⵉⵔⵢⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ.
"If mathematics is just as empirical as the other sciences, then this suggests that its results are just as fallible as theirs, and just as contingent.","ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⵔⵓⵎ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ, ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⴾⵓ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⵎⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵓⵉⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⴶⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴾⵓⵍ."
For a philosophy of mathematics that attempts to overcome some of the shortcomings of Quine and Gödel's approaches by taking aspects of each see Penelope Maddy's Realism in Mathematics.,"ⵗⵢ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵢⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵗⵓⴷⵢⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ, ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵢⵏⵢⵍⵓⴱⵢ ⵎⴰⴷⴷⵉ."
"""He started with the """"betweenness"""" of Hilbert's axioms to characterize space without coordinatizing it, and then added extra relations between points to do the work formerly done by vector fields.""",""" ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵋⴰⵔ-ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵗⵉⵍⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⵉⵢ ⵢⴱⴰⴷⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⵋ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓ,ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⴷⵉⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵓⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵋⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⴰⴷ""."
"By this account, there are no metaphysical or epistemological problems special to mathematics.","ⵉⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⴷⴰⵏ,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ."
"""However, while on an empiricist view the evaluation is some sort of comparison with """"reality"""", social constructivists emphasize that the direction of mathematical research is dictated by the fashions of the social group performing it or by the needs of the society financing it.""",""" ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏ, ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⴰ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏⵉⵎⵉⵋⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ """"ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ"""" ,ⵉⵎⵓⵗⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵢⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵍⴰⵜ""."
"But social constructivists argue that mathematics is in fact grounded by much uncertainty: as mathematical practice evolves, the status of previous mathematics is cast into doubt, and is corrected to the degree it is required or desired by the current mathematical community.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵗⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ : ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷ, ⵎⵓⵣⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵛ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ, ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵂⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉ."
The social nature of mathematics is highlighted in its subcultures.,ⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴰⵛ ⵎⴰⵏⵂⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵓ-ⵉⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ.
"""Social constructivists see the process of """"doing mathematics"""" as actually creating the meaning, while social realists see a deficiency either of human capacity to abstractify, or of human's cognitive bias, or of mathematicians' collective intelligence as preventing the comprehension of a real universe of mathematical objects.""","ⵉⵎⵓⵗⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ, ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵓⵜⴰ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ ⵓⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⴱⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⵢ ⵢⴱⴰⴷⵉ, ⵎⵓⵗ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵣⵉⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ,ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵉⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵋⵢⵜ əⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴶⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵗⵍⵓⵈ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵜⴻⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ."
More recently Paul Ernest has explicitly formulated a social constructivist philosophy of mathematics.,"ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉ, ⴱⴰⵓⵍ ⵔⵏⴻⵙⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ-ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵈⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ."
"For example, the tools of linguistics are not generally applied to the symbol systems of mathematics, that is, mathematics is studied in a markedly different way from other languages.","ⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ,ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷⴰⵔ-ⵜⵉ-ⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⴱⴰⴷⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⴶⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵉⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ."
"However, the methods developed by Frege and Tarski for the study of mathematical language have been extended greatly by Tarski's student Richard Montague and other linguists working in formal semantics to show that the distinction between mathematical language and natural language may not be as great as it seems.","ⴰⴶⵓⴷⵢⵏ,ⵜⵉⵎⴾⴰⵔⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴼⵔⵢⴶⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵙⴾⵉ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵔⵉⴰⵂⴰⵔⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⴰⴶⵓⴻ,ⴰⵜⴰⵍⵉⴱ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵙⴾⵉ, ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⴰ ⴰⵛⵢⵗⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵢⴱⴰⴷⵉ ⵋⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ."
"""The assertion that """"all"""" entities postulated in scientific theories, including numbers, should be accepted as real is justified by confirmation holism.""",""" ⴰⵍⴰⵆⵉ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ""ⴾⵓⵍⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ"" ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⴾⴰⵔⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ,ⴰⴷⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵍⴰⵈⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⵢⵏ""."
Field developed his views into fictionalism.,ⴼⵉⵢⵍⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵏⵂⵓⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴶⵓⵣⵙⵜ.
The argument hinges on the idea that a satisfactory naturalistic account of thought processes in terms of brain processes can be given for mathematical reasoning along with everything else.,ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵓⵉ ⵍⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⵔⴰⵣⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵓ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵓ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⴾⵓⵍ.
"Another line of defense is to maintain that abstract objects are relevant to mathematical reasoning in a way that is non-causal, and not analogous to perception.","ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵢⵜ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵓⵣ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴼⴰⵢⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵂⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⴰ, ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⴶⴷⵢⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ."
"By way of example, they provide two proofs of the irrationality of .","ⴱⵓⵔ ⵢⵗⴰⴼ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ, ⵂⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ."
"""Paul Erdős was well known for his notion of a hypothetical """"Book"""" containing the most elegant or beautiful mathematical proofs.""","« ⴱⴰⵓⵍ ⵢⵔⴷⴱⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵣⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵙⵙ """"ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ"""" ⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⴰⵉ""."
"By the same token, however, philosophers of mathematics have sought to characterize what makes one proof more desirable than another when both are logically sound.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ, ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ, ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⵢ ⵢⴱⴰⴷⵉ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵂⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵢⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ."
Philosophy of mind is a branch of philosophy that studies the ontology and nature of the mind and its relationship with the body.,ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⴰⵜ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵉⵏⵢⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ.
"Dualism and monism are the two central schools of thought on the mind–body problem, although nuanced views have arisen that do not fit one or the other category neatly.","ⴷⵓⴰⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵣⵎ ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⴰⵓⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ-ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ,ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵢⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ."
"""Hart, W.D. (1996) """"Dualism"""", in Samuel Guttenplan (org) A Companion to the Philosophy of Mind, Blackwell, Oxford, 265-7.""",""" ⵂⴰⵔⵜ,ⵓ.ⵢ. (1996)""ⵢⵓⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ"""", ⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵓⵢⵍ ⵗⵓⵜⵜⵢⵏⴱⵍⴰⵏ (ⵓⵔⴶ) ⴰ ⵛⵓⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⵓ ⵜⵂⵢ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ ⵓⴼ ⵎⵉⵏⴷ, ⴱⵍⴰⵛⴾⵓⵢⵍⵍ,Oⵆⴼⵓⵔⴷ,265-7""."
"Pinel, J. Psychobiology, (1990) Prentice Hall, Inc. LeDoux, J. (2002) The Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are, New York:Viking Penguin.","ⴱⵉⵏⵢⵍ, ⵋ. ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ (1990) ⴱⵔⵢⵏⵜⵉⵛⵢ ⵂⴰⵍⵍ,ⵉⵏⵛ. ⵍⵢⵢⵓⵓⵆ, ⵋ. (2002), ⵙⵉⵏⴰⴱⵜⵉⵛ ⵙⵢⵍⴼ: ⵉⵏⴷⵢⴾ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⵉⵍⴾⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ,ⵏⵢⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ: ⴱⵉⴾⵉⵏⴶ ⴱⵢⵏⴶⵓⵉⵏ."
"""Psychological Predicates"""", in W. H. Capitan and D. D. Merrill, eds.,""","ⵉⵂⵓⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓ. ⵂ. ⴰⴰⴷⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢ. ⵢ. ⵎⵢⵔⵔⵉⵍⵍ, ⴰⵣⵋⵓⵔ."
"Secondly, intentional states of consciousness do not make sense on non-reductive physicalism.","ⴱⵓⵔ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ, ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ."
"Someone's desire for a slice of pizza, for example, will tend to cause that person to move his or her body in a specific manner and in a specific direction to obtain what he or she wants.","ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵣⵣⴰ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ,ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵢ ⴰⴶⴰⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⴾⵓⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵓ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ."
"""Robinson, H. (1983): """"Aristotelian dualism"""", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 1, 123–44.""","ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵏⵙⵓⵏ, ⵂ. (1983) : """"ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵂⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵢ"""", Oⵆⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵙⵜⵓⴷⵉⵢⵙ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴷⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵉⴷⵂⵉ 1,123-44""."
"They would almost certainly deny that the mind simply is the brain, or vice versa, finding the idea that there is just one ontological entity at play to be too mechanistic or unintelligible.","ⵓⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⴱⵉⵂⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜⵢ, ⵎⵢⵗ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ,ⵜⵓⴶⴰⵣⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵔⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵗⵍⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ."
"So, for example, one can reasonably ask what a burnt finger feels like, or what a blue sky looks like, or what nice music sounds like to a person.","ⵙⵓⵏⴷ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴷⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙⵓⴼⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⴰⴷ ⵢⵔⵗⴰⵏ, ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ, ⵎⵢⵗ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⵢⵏ ⵉⵓ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵎ."
There are qualia involved in these mental events that seem particularly difficult to reduce to anything physical.,ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉ ⵈⵓⴰⵍⵉⴰ ⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵢ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵉⵓ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ.
Dualism must therefore explain how consciousness affects physical reality.,ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵆⴰⵜ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⵗⴰⵛⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ.
"Knowledge, however, is apprehended by reasoning from ground to consequent.",ⴷⵓⴰⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵣⵎ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵛ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ
"The basic idea is that one can imagine one's body, and therefore conceive the existence of one's body, without any conscious states being associated with this body.","ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵓⵎ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵙⵙⴰ."
"Others such as Dennett have argued that the notion of a philosophical zombie is an incoherent, or unlikely, concept.","ⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵏⵏⵢⴼ, ⴰⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵣⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵢⵏⴰⵎⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⵢⵓ, ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⴰⵜ."
"It is the view that mental states, such as beliefs and desires, causally interact with physical states.","ⴷⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵈⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙⵙⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙoⵂⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ."
"""Descartes' argument depends on the premise that what Seth believes to be """"clear and distinct"""" ideas in his mind are necessarily true.""","""ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵢⵙⴰⴰⵔⵜⵢⵙ ⵢⵈⴰⵍⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵢⵜⵂ ⴰⵗⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴰⵣⵋⴰⵎ """"ⴰⴷⵓⵜⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ"""" ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵢⵙⵙ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵜⵢⵜ""."
"Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (Bradford) For example, Joseph Agassi suggests that several scientific discoveries made since the early 20th century have undermined the idea of privileged access to one's own ideas.","ⵛⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴷⴶⵢ, ⵎⴰ : ⵎIⵜ ⴱⵔⵢⵙⵙ (ⴱⵔⴰⴷⴼⵓⵔⴷ) ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ,ⵋⵓⵣⴻⴼ ⴰⴶⴰⵙⵙⵉ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⴰⵏⵙ ⵉⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000 ⵉⴾⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴼⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ"
This view was most prominently defended by Gottfried Leibniz.,ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⵢⵈⴰ ⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵉⴶⴰⵣ ⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⴼⴼⵔⵉⵢⴷ ⵍⵢⵉⴱⵏⵉⵣ.
"These emergent properties have an independent ontological status and cannot be reduced to, or explained in terms of, the physical substrate from which they emerge.",ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵋⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵍⴰⵏ-ⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⴾⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵎⴷⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵙ.
Epiphenomenalism is a doctrine first formulated by Thomas Henry Huxley.,ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵗⵓⵉⵙ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵂⵢⵏⵔⵉ ⵂⵓⵆⵍⵢⵉ.
This view has been defended by Frank Jackson.,ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾ ⵋⴰⵛⴾⵙⵓⵏ.
"Panpsychism is the view that all matter has a mental aspect, or, alternatively, all objects have a unified center of experience or point of view.","ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵗⵍⵓⴾ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜⵢ, ⵎⵢⴰ, ⴰⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎ, ⴶⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⴰ ⵎⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵂⵓⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜ."
"""An example of these disparate degrees of freedom is given by Allan Wallace who notes that it is """"experientially apparent that one may be physically uncomfortable—for instance, while engaging in a strenuous physical workout—while mentally cheerful; conversely, one may be mentally distraught while experiencing physical comfort"""".""","ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ ⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴾⴼⴰⵜ ⵉⵓ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⵍⴰⴰⵢ,ⵉⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵂⵉⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ """"ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵙⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ-ⵙⵓⵏⴷ, ⵗⵓⵔ ⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵓ-ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⴷⴰⵓⵉⵜ; ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵍⵉ, ⵏⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵔⵓⵎ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵗⵙⵢ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵜ""""."
Mental states can cause changes in physical states and vice versa.,ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⵣⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ.
Experiential dualism is accepted as the conceptual framework of Madhyamaka Buddhism.,ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔⴷⴰ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵂⵉⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰ.
"In denying the independent self-existence of all the phenomena that make up the world of our experience, the Madhyamaka view departs from both the substance dualism of Descartes and the substance monism—namely, physicalism—that is characteristic of modern science.","ⴰⵙⴰⴱⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵗⵍⴰⴾ ⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ, ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵂⵉⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⴰⵛ ⴰⵋⵓⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵢⵙⵛⴰⵔⵜⵢⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ-ⴰⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵙⵙⴰ-ⵜⴰⴱⴷⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉ."
"Indeed, physicalism, or the idea that matter is the only fundamental substance of reality, is explicitly rejected by Buddhism.","ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ, ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵙⵙⴰ,ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ, ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴾⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰ."
"While the former commonly have mass, location, velocity, shape, size, and numerous other physical attributes, these are not generally characteristic of mental phenomena.","ⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵙⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵉⵜ, ⵢⴷⴰⴶ, ⴰⵜⵔⵓⴱ, ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ, ⵜⵢⵏⴰⴷⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⴷⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ, ⴰⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ."
The fundamentally disparate nature of reality has been central to forms of eastern philosophies for over two millennia.,ⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵂⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵏⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⴼⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ.
"Physicalistic monism asserts that the only existing substance is physical, in some sense of that term to be clarified by our best science.","ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵗⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ."
"Although pure idealism, such as that of George Berkeley, is uncommon in contemporary Western philosophy, a more sophisticated variant called panpsychism, according to which mental experience and properties may be at the foundation of physical experience and properties, has been espoused by some philosophers such as Alfred North Whitehead and David Ray Griffin.","ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⵢⵏ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⵓⵔⴶⵢ ⴱⵢⵔⴾⵢⵍⵢⵉ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵓⴶⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵉⵢⵏ,ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵗⵍⵓⴾ, ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ, ⴰⵜⵢⵓⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵢⴷ ⵏⵓⵔⵜⵂ ⵓⵂⵉⵜⵢⵂⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵗⵉⴷ ⵔⴰⵉ ⵗⵉⴼⴼⵔⵉⵏ."
A third possibility is to accept the existence of a basic substance that is neither physical nor mental.,ⵜⴰⴷⴱⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ-ⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ.
Introspective reports on one's own interior mental life are not subject to careful examination for accuracy and cannot be used to form predictive generalizations.,ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⴰ ⵋⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵉⵏⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵢ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ.
"Parallel to these developments in psychology, a philosophical behaviorism (sometimes called logical behaviorism) was developed.","ⵢⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵉⴷⵢⵗⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵋⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜⵢ,ⵜⵢⵎⵗⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ (ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⵔⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⵎⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴾⵏⴰⵜ) ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴰⵍ."
"These philosophers reasoned that, if mental states are something material, but not behavioral, then mental states are probably identical to internal states of the brain.","ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ, ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍⵜ, ⴰⴷⵉⵛ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵍⴾⴰⵍ."
"According to token identity theories, the fact that a certain brain state is connected with only one mental state of a person does not have to mean that there is an absolute correlation between types of mental state and types of brain state.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ,ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵉⵉⵜⵢ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⵙⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵢⵜ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵢⴷⴰⵋ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⵋ ⵏⴰⴾⴰⵍⴾⴰⵍ."
"Finally, Wittgenstein's idea of meaning as use led to a version of functionalism as a theory of meaning, further developed by Wilfrid Sellars and Gilbert Harman.","ⵢⴱⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴷⵓ, ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵜⵜⴶⵢⵏⵙⵜⵢⵉⵏ ⴰ-ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴰ-ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⴰ ⵓⵉⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵙⵢⵍⵍⴰⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵗⵉⵍⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⵂⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏ."
"Hence, the question arises whether there can still be a non-reductive physicalism.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ, ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⴰ-ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ -ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵏⵢⵣ."
"""Davidson uses the thesis of supervenience: mental states supervene on physical states, but are not reducible to them. """"""","ⴷⴰⴱⵉⴷⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵢⵔⴱⵉⵏⵉⵉⵏⵛⵉ: ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ."""""
The brain goes on from one moment of time to another; the brain thus has identity through time.,ⴰⴾⴰⵍⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ; ⴰⴾⴰⵍⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ.
An analogy of the self or the “I” would be the flame of a candle.,"ⴰⵙⴰⵎⴰⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ""ⵏⴰⴾ"" ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴰⴶⵍⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵣⵢⵓⵜ."
"The flame displays a type of continuity in that the candle does not go out while it is burning, but there is not really any identity of the flame from one moment to another over time.","ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴰⴶⵍⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎəⴾ ⵓⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⵣⵢⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵗⵢ ⵏⵢⵙⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⴰⵜ ⵎⵓⵣⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴰⴶⵍⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⵙⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ."
"Similarly, it is an illusion that one is the same individual who walked into class this morning.","ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ, ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⴰⵣⴰⵏⴰⴶⵓⵎⵉ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵎⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵛⴰⵎⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ"
This is analogous to physical properties of the brain giving rise to a mental state.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛ ⴰⵙoⵂⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ əⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍⴾⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⴾⴰⵏⵢ ⵢⴷⴰⵋ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ.
"The Churchlands often invoke the fate of other, erroneous popular theories and ontologies that have arisen in the course of history.",ⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵔⵛⵂⵉⵍⵍ ⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ oⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ.
Some philosophers argue that this is because there is an underlying conceptual confusion.,ⵆⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵢ ⵎⵉⵍⵂⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵓ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ.
"Rather it should simply be accepted that human experience can be described in different ways—for instance, in a mental and in a biological vocabulary.",ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵜ ⵜăⵔəⴷăⵓⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵔⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵓⴼⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ.
The brain is simply the wrong context for the use of mental vocabulary—the search for mental states of the brain is therefore a category error or a sort of fallacy of reasoning.,ⴰⴾⴰⵍⴾⴰⵍ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⵔⵏ oⵗⵢⴷ ⵉⵢ ⴰⴷⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ-ⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⵉⵢ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵍⵍ ⵢⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵎⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵢⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⵢⵏ.
"And it is characteristic of a mental state that it has some experiential quality, e.g. of pain, that it hurts.","Iⵣⴰⵔ ⵢⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⵎ, ⵙⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵢ, ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵏⴰⵏ."
"The existence of cerebral events, in and of themselves, cannot explain why they are accompanied by these corresponding qualitative experiences.",ⴷⵎⵢⵍ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰ-ⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ
This follows from an assumption about the possibility of reductive explanations.,"ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜⵢ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵏ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵎⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ."
"The 20th-century German philosopher Martin Heidegger criticized the ontological assumptions underpinning such a reductive model, and claimed that it was impossible to make sense of experience in these terms.","ⵎⴰⴶⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵢⵎⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⵏ 20ⵢ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ,ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⵀⵢⵉⴷⵢⴶⴶⵢⵔ,ⴱⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⴾⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ,ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵢⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵓⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔ."
This problem of explaining introspective first-person aspects of mental states and consciousness in general in terms of third-person quantitative neuroscience is called the explanatory gap.,ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵈⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⵢⵗⵢⵛⵜ ⵋⴰⵏⵢⵜ.
There are two separate categories involved and one cannot be reduced to the other.,Iⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⴼⵏⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ.
"For Nagel, science is not yet able to explain subjective experience because it has not yet arrived at the level or kind of knowledge that is required.","ⵗⵢ ⵏⴰⴶⵢⵍ, ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⵎ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵓⵢⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵎⵢ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵜ."
This property of mental states entails that they have contents and semantic referents and can therefore be assigned truth values.,ⵜⴰⴾⵔⵛⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵛ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵓⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵢⵗⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵋ ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ.
"But mental ideas or judgments are true or false, so how then can mental states (ideas or judgments) be natural processes?","ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉəⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ, ⴰⴷⵉⵛ ⴰⵏⴷⵢⴾ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ (ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴶⵓⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵜⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ)ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⵓⵙⴾⵢⵏ."
"If the fact is true, then the idea is true; otherwise, it is false.","ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵜⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ , ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ"
"Since mental processes are intimately related to bodily processes, the descriptions that the natural sciences furnish of human beings play an important role in the philosophy of mind.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴾⵓⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ, ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ"
"Within the field of neurobiology, there are many subdisciplines that are concerned with the relations between mental and physical states and processes: Sensory neurophysiology investigates the relation between the processes of perception and stimulation.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⴱⴷⵉⵙⵛⵉⴱⵍⵉⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜ-ⵜⵓ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵢⵏ : ⵙⵢⵏⵙⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵆⴼⵉⵣ"
"Lastly, evolutionary biology studies the origins and development of the human nervous system and, in as much as this is the basis of the mind, also describes the ontogenetic and phylogenetic development of mental phenomena beginning from their most primitive stages.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴻⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ,ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴻⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⵓⴶⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛ ⴷ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⴶⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⴻⵍⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ"
A simple example is multiplication.,ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵜⴼⴰⵙ
This question has been propelled into the forefront of much philosophical debate because of investigations in the field of artificial intelligence (AI).,ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⵉⴼⵉⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴻⵍⵍⵉⴶⵢⵏⵛⵢ (ⴰI)
"The objective of strong AI, on the contrary, is a computer with consciousness similar to that of human beings.",Iⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰI ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⵢⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵜ-ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
"The Turing test has received many criticisms, among which the most famous is probably the Chinese room thought experiment formulated by Searle.",ⴷⵔⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵓⵔⵉⵏⴶ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵋⵓⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵢⴰⵔⵍⵢ
Psychology investigates the laws that bind these mental states to each other or with inputs and outputs to the human organism.,ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵋⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⴻⵉⵏⵓⵏ ⵂⴰⵉⵉⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ
A law of the psychology of forms says that objects that move in the same direction are perceived as related to each other.,ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⵂⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⵉⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"It includes research on intelligence and behavior, especially focusing on how information is represented, processed, and transformed (in faculties such as perception, language, memory, reasoning, and emotion) within nervous systems (human or other animal) and machines (e.g. computers).","ⴷⵂⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴱⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵓⴱⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ, ⴰⵓⴰⵍ,ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⵓⵜ, ⴰⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ) ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⴼ (ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ) ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ (ⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ)"
"Nonetheless, Hegel's work differs radically from the style of Anglo-American philosophy of mind.",ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵂⵢⴶⵢⵍ ⵜ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴶⵍⵓ-ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ
"Phenomenology, founded by Edmund Husserl, focuses on the contents of the human mind (see noema) and how processes shape our experiences.",ⴱⵂⵢⵏⵓⵎⵢⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵢⵗⵏⴰ ⵢⴷⵎⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⵓⵙⵙⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ (ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷ ⵏⵓⵢⵎⴰ) ⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰⵗ
This is the case for materialistic determinists.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵜⵢⵔⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵉⵛ ⴷⵢⵜⵢⵔⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
Some take this reasoning a step further: people cannot determine by themselves what they want and what they do.,Iⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵂⵢⵏ: ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ
"""Those who adopt this position suggest that the question """"Are we free?""""""",“ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ “ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ?”
It is not appropriate to identify freedom with indetermination.,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵓⵙⴾⵉⵜ ⵍⴰⵎⵎⵓⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ
The most important compatibilist in the history of the philosophy was David Hume.,ⵛⵓⵎⴱⴰⵜⵉⴱⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⵂⵓⵎⴻ
"These philosophers affirm the course of the world is either a) not completely determined by natural law where natural law is intercepted by physically independent agency, b) determined by indeterministic natural law only, or c) determined by indeterministic natural law in line with the subjective effort of physically non-reducible agency.","ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵓⵉⵏⴾⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ) ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵋⴰⵔⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵆⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ,ⴱ) ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵛ) ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⵢⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ"
"They argue as follows: if our will is not determined by anything, then we desire what we desire by pure chance.",ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ: ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ
The idea of a self as an immutable essential nucleus derives from the idea of an immaterial soul.,ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴾⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵙⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ
"Mantranga, the principal governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, Chief Priest of the King.","ⵎⴰⵏⵜⵔⴰⵏⴶⴰ, ⴰⴱⴰⵔⵏⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ, ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵎⴱⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ"
"The Arthashastra provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler, policies for foreign affairs and wars, the system of a spy state and surveillance and economic stability of the state.","ⴰⵔⵜⵂⴰⵙⵂⴰⵙⵜⵔⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⴾⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⴾ ⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ, ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵓⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵋⴰⵙⵓⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵈⵔⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⴰⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ"
"The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, each had a political aspect to their philosophical schools.","ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ, ⵍⵢⴶⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ, ⵎⴰⵂⵉⵙⵎ, ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ, ⴷ ⵟⴰⵓⵉⵙⵎ, ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ"
Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws.,ⵍⴻⴶⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵜⵢⴱⴰⴷⴷⵢ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ
"""By the late ancient period, however, the """"traditionalist"""" Asharite view of Islam had in general triumphed.""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ, ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵂⵔⵉⵜⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ” ⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ”"
"However, in Western thought, it is generally supposed that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: al-Kindi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Abunaser), İbn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes).","ⵆⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ, ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⴼ ⵉ ⴼⵉⵍⵣⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ: ⴰⵍ-ⴾⵉⵏⴷⵉ (ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙ), ⴰⵍ-ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴱⵉ (ⴰⴱⵓⵏⴰⵙⵢⵔ), Iⴱⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴰ (ⴰⴱⵉⵛⵢⵏⵏⴰ), Iⴱⵏ ⴱⴰⵋⵋⴰⵂ (ⴰⴱⵢⵎⴱⴰⵛⵢ) ⴷ Iⴱⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵂⴷ (ⴰⴱⵢⵔⵔⵓⵢⵙ)"
"For example, the ideas of the Khawarij in the very early years of Islamic history on Khilafa and Ummah, or that of Shia Islam on the concept of Imamah are considered proofs of political thought.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵆⵂⴰⵓⴰⵔⵉⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵆⵂⵉⵍⴰⴼⴰ ⴷ Uⵎⵎⴰⵂ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ Iⵎⴰⵎⴰⵂ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ"
Aristotleanism flourished as the Islamic Golden Age saw rise to a continuation of the peripatetic philosophers who implemented the ideas of Aristotle in the context of the Islamic world.,ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜ ⴰⵏⴼⴰⵣ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵓ-ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵛⵂⴰⵓⴰⵏⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ
"""Other notable political philosophers of the time include Nizam al-Mulk, a Persian scholar and vizier of the Seljuq Empire who composed the Siyasatnama, or the """"Book of Government"""" in English.""","“ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵏⵉⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⵍ-ⵎⵓⵍⴾ , ⵢⵎⴰⵗⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵢⵔⵙⵢⵓ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵣⵉⵢⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵢⵍⵋⵓⵈ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵓⵢ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵉⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ” ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜ"
"Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe was St. Thomas Aquinas who helped reintroduce Aristotle's works, which had only been transmitted to Catholic Europe through Muslim Spain, along with the commentaries of Averroes.",ⴷⵂⴰⵎⵉⵛ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵓ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵟⵂⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵓⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵢ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴾ ⵙ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴰⴱⴻⵔⵔⵓⵢⵙ
"Others, like Nicole Oresme in his Livre de Politiques, categorically denied this right to overthrow an unjust ruler.",Iⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⴷ ⵏⵉⵛⵓⵍⵢ ⵓⵔⵢⵙⵎⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⵙⴱⴰⵂⴰⵓ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵢⴷ
"That work, as well as The Discourses, a rigorous analysis of classical antiquity, did much to influence modern political thought in the West.","ⴰ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⵉⵓⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵔⵉⵛⵂ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ"
"At any rate, Machiavelli presents a pragmatic and somewhat consequentialist view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end—i.e., the acquisition and maintenance of absolute power.","ⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⴼⵓⴾ, ⵎⴰⵛⵂⵉⴰⴱⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵍⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵜ ⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⴷ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⵉⵍⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵜ"
"These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be.","ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵢⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ: ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵏⴷⵢⴾ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ , ⵎⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ"
"""The term """"government"""" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound.""",“ Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ” ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵓⵓⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
It can also be understood as the free market idea applied to international trade.,ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
"The most outspoken critic of the church in France was François Marie Arouet de Voltaire, a representative figure of the enlightenment.","ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵀⵔⴰⵏⵛⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵓⵉⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵢ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⵢⵜ ⴷⵢ ⴱⵓⵍⵜⴰⵉⵔⵢ, ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵔ"
"""My one regret in dying is that I cannot aid you in this noble enterprise, the finest and most respectable which the human mind can point out.""""""","“ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵋⵔⵢⵙⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⴷ ⴰ ⴾⴰⵉ ⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ, ⵓⴰ ⵍⴰⵎⵎⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ””"
Locke stood to refute Sir Robert Filmer's paternally founded political theory in favor of a natural system based on nature in a particular given system.,ⵍⵓⵛⴾⵢ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴾⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵏⵋⵉⵉ ⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵔⵓⴱⵢⵜ ⴼⵉⵍⵎⵢⵔ ⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴷⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ
"Unlike Aquinas's preponderant view on the salvation of the soul from original sin, Locke believes man's mind comes into this world as tabula rasa.",ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵓⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⵛⴾⵢ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵜⵓⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵔⴰⵙⴰ
"Though one could be worried about restrictions on liberty by benevolent monarchs or aristocrats, the traditional worry is that when rulers are politically unaccountable to the governed they will rule in their own interests, rather than the interests of the governed.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵔⵎⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⴰⵔⴾ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵔⵉⵎⵎⵢⵈ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵆⴾⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵓⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ"
"Justice involves duties that are perfect duties—that is, duties that are correlated with rights.",ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ
"He uses, On Liberty to discuss gender equality in society.",ⵙ Oⵏ ⵍⵉⴱⵢⵔⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
"The Liberty of the Ancients was participatory republican liberty, which gave the citizens the right to directly influence politics through debates and votes in the public assembly.","ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵓⵓⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ , ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵓⵛ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵓⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵉⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
"Ancient Liberty was also limited to relatively small and homogenous societies, in which the people could be conveniently gathered together in one place to transact public affairs.",ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴾⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵛⵂⴰⵓⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"Instead, the voters would elect representatives, who would deliberate in Parliament on behalf of the people and would save citizens from the necessity of daily political involvement.",ⵆⵢⵍ ⵓⵓⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵓⵓⵜⵢ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴶⵉⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⴼⵓⴾ
"In Leviathan, Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foundation of states and legitimate governments and creating an objective science of morality.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⵢⴱⵉⴰⵜⵂⴰⵏ,ⵂⵓⴱⴱⵢⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵣⵂⴰⴱ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ"
"In that state, each person would have a right, or license, to everything in the world.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵏ, ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ"
"Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition.","Iⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1762, ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⵎⴷⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ"
"""Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they.""""""",“ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵓⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵢⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⴾⵔⵉⵛⵂ””
The industrial revolution produced a parallel revolution in political thought.,Iⵏⴷⵓⵙⵜⵔⵉⴰⵍ ⵔⵢⴱⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵜ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵍⵍⵢⵍ ⵔⵢⴱⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ
"In the mid-19th century, Marxism was developed, and socialism in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class.","ⴷⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 , ⵎⴰⵔⵆⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵈⴰⵓⵢⵏ"
"Unlike Marx who believed in historical materialism, Hegel believed in the Phenomenology of Spirit.",ⵆⴾⵢⴶⵢⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵂⵢⵏⵓⵎⵢⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰ -ⵉⵜⵢ ⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵆ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵀⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵜⵢⵔⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ
"In the Anglo-American world, anti-imperialism and pluralism began gaining currency at the turn of the 20th century.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴶⵍⵓ-ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ , ⴰⵏⵜⵉ-ⵉⵎⴱⵢⵔⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ ⴱⵍⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900"
"This was the time of Jean-Paul Sartre and Louis Althusser, and the victories of Mao Zedong in China and Fidel Castro in Cuba, as well as the events of May 1968, led to increased interest in revolutionary ideology, especially by the New Left.",ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵢⴰⵏ-ⴱⴰⵓⵍ ⵙⴰⵔⵜⵔⵢ ⴷ ⵈⵍⵓⵓⵉⵙ ⴰⵍⵜⵂⵓⵙⵙⵢⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵓ ⵤⵢⴷⵓⵏⴶ ⴷ Fⵉⴷⴻⵍ ⵛⴰⵙⵜⵔⵓ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵢ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵣⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1968 ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵍⵢⴼⵜ
Colonialism and racism were important issues that arose.,ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⴾⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ
"The rise of feminism, LGBT social movements and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as African Americans and sexual minorities in the developed world has led to feminist, postcolonial, and multicultural thought becoming significant.","ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴾⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵢⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵎ , ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵗⴱⵟ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴷ ⵙⵢⵆⵓⴰⵍ ⵎⵉⵏⵓⵔⵉⵜⵉⵢⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵢⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜ,ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ"
"Rawls used a thought experiment, the original position, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance.","ⵔⴰⵓⵍⵙ ⵢⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ , ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵉ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵢⴾⴰⵔⵛⵂⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵋⵓⵂⴰⵍⴰ"
"Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe, several new lines of philosophy directed at the critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴶⵍⵓ-ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ , ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ , ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵈ ⵉⵏⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1950 ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1980"
"""Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on structuralism and on a """"return to Hegel"""".""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ, ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵆⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ- ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ “ⵓⵗⵉⵍ ⵙ ⵍⵓⴶⵢⵍ”"
"Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel and Charles Taylor.","ⴰⴷⵉⵓⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⵉⵛⵂⴰⵢⵍ ⵓⴰⵍⵣⵢⵔ ⵎⵉⵛⵂⴰⵢⵍ ⵙⴰⵏⴷⵢⵍ ⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵍⵢⵙ ⵟⴰⵉⵍⵓⵔ,"
Communitarians tend to support greater local control as well as economic and social policies which encourage the growth of social capital.,ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⵉ ⵂⴰⴾⴾⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ
A pair of overlapping political perspectives arising toward the end of the 20th century are republicanism (or neo- or civic-republicanism) and the capability approach.,Iⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⴾⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ 1900 ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⵛⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ (ⵎⵢⵗ ⵏⵢⵓ- ⵎⵢⵗ ⵛⵉⴱⵉⵛ- ⵔⵢⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⵛⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ) ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
"To a republican the mere status as a slave, regardless of how that slave is treated, is objectionable.",ⵏⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⴱⵉⴱⵍⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⵍⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵔⵂⵓ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⵍ
Both the capability approach and republicanism treat choice as something which must be resourced.,ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵔⵢⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⵛⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵎⴰⵙⵔⵓⴼ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ
"Notable for the theories that humans are social animals, and that the polis (Ancient Greek city state) existed to bring about the good life appropriate to such animals.",I ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⵢⵋ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙ ⵓⵓⵏ (ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ) ⵉⵍⵍⴱ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⴻⵋ ⵓⵢⵏ
Burke was one of the biggest supporters of the American Revolution.,ⴱⵓⵔⴾⵢ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⴱⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏ
"Chomsky is a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy, neoliberalism and contemporary state capitalism, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and mainstream news media.","ⵛⵂⵓⵎⵙⴾⵉ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵎⵉⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ , ⵏⵢⵓⵍⵉⴱⵢⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ ⵆⴰⴱⵉⴰⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ , ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ Iⵣⵔⴰⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵍⴻⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"William E. Connolly: Helped introduce postmodern philosophy into political theory, and promoted new theories of Pluralism and agonistic democracy.",ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ E. ⵛⵓⵏⵏⵓⵍⵍⵉ: ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵓ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵙⵓⵂⴱⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵍⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ ⴷⵢⵎⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴾⴰⵜ ⵓⵏⴼⴰⵙ
Thomas Hill Green: Modern liberal thinker and early supporter of positive freedom.,ⵜⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵂⵉⵍⵍ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⵏ: ⵢⵎⴰⵗⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵉⴱⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ
His early work was heavily influenced by the Frankfurt School.,ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ
He advocated free-market capitalism in which the main role of the state is to maintain the rule of law and let spontaneous order develop.,ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⴰⵎⵎⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵉⵉⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴱⵜ
David Hume: Hume criticized the social contract theory of John Locke and others as resting on a myth of some actual agreement.,ⴷⵣⴱⵉⴷ ⵂⵓⵎⵢ: ⵂⵓⵎⵢ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵏ ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⵍⵓⵛⴾⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ
Most famous for the United States Declaration of Independence.,ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ
Argued that an international organization was needed to preserve world peace.,ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵢⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⵍⵉⵎ
"He departed from Hobbes in that, based on the assumption of a society in which moral values are independent of governmental authority and widely shared, he argued for a government with power limited to the protection of personal property.","ⵢⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⴱⴱⵢⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵋⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⵜ , ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⴾⴾⵢⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
One of the founders of Western Marxism.,Iⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵆⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ
Gave an account of statecraft in a realistic point of view instead of relying on idealism.,Iⵆⴼ-ⴰ ⴾⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵢⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ
"As a political theorist, he believed in separation of powers and proposed a comprehensive set of checks and balances that are necessary to protect the rights of an individual from the tyranny of the majority.","ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ , ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵂⵢⵛⴾⵙ ⴰⵏⴷ ⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏⵛⵢⵙ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
"""Introduced the concept of """"repressive desublimation"""", in which social control can operate not only by direct control, but also by manipulation of desire.""",“ ⵓⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⵔⵢⴱⵔⵙⵢⵙⵉⴱⵢ ⴷⵢⵙⵓⴱⵍⵉⵎⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ” ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵗⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵙ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴷⴻⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ “
Created the concept of ideology in the sense of (true or false) beliefs that shape and control social actions.,ⵢⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ (ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ) ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
"Mencius: One of the most important thinkers in the Confucian school, he is the first theorist to make a coherent argument for an obligation of rulers to the ruled.","ⵎⵢⵏⵛⵉⵓⵙ: Iⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵍⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵉⵛⵉⵓⵙ , ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ"
"""Montesquieu: Analyzed protection of the people by a """"balance of powers"""" in the divisions of a state.""",“ ⵎⵓⵏⵙⵜⵢⵈⵓⵉⵢⵓ: ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ “ ⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵓⴼ ⴱⵓⵓⵢⵔⵙ” ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ”
His interpreters have debated the content of his political philosophy.,ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵋⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ
Plato: Wrote a lengthy dialog The Republic in which he laid out his political philosophy: citizens should be divided into three categories.,ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓ: Iⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⴷⵉⵓⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⴻⵏ ⵔⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵢⵓⴼⵉ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵏⵢⵜ : ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ
Ayn Rand: Founder of Objectivism and prime mover of the Objectivist and Libertarian movements in mid-twentieth-century America.,ⴰⵉⵏ ⵔⴰⵏⴷ: ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴱⵋⴻⵛⵜⵉⴱⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⴱⵍⴰⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵋⵢⵛⵜⵉⵓⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵍⵉⴱⵢⵔⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⵏ 1900 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⴾ
The government was to be separated from economics the same way and for the same reasons it was separated from religion.,ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ
"""Adam Smith: Often said to have founded modern economics; explained emergence of economic benefits from the self-interested behavior (""""the invisible hand"""") of artisans and traders.""",“ⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵂ: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵢⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ; ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵣⴰⵋⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ (“”ⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴼⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏ) ⵏ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⵙⴰⴱⴱⵉⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ”
"Socrates: Widely considered the founder of Western political philosophy, via his spoken influence on Athenian contemporaries; since Socrates never wrote anything, much of what we know about him and his teachings comes through his most famous student, Plato.","ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ: ⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵂⵢⵏ; ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ, ⵉⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵏ-ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ,ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ"
Max Stirner: Important thinker within anarchism and the main representative of the anarchist current known as individualist anarchism.,ⵎⴰⵆ ⵙⵜⵉⵔⵏⵢⵔ: ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ ⵢⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵙⵎ
"Other forms of social philosophy include political philosophy and jurisprudence, which are largely concerned with the societies of state and government and their functioning.",ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵢⵂⵢⵜ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⵎⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴷⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"Pre-Socratic philosophy, also known as early Greek philosophy, is ancient Greek philosophy before Socrates.","ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵏ ⴶⵔⵢⴾ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ , ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵔⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ"
Their work and writing has been almost entirely lost.,ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵋⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"Pre-Socratic philosophy began in the 6th century BCE with the three Milesians: Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes.","ⴶⵉⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 600 ⴱⵛⵢⵎⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ: ⵟⵂⴰⵍⵢⵙ, ⴰⵏⴰⵆⵉⵎⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵆⵉⵎⵢⵏⵢⵙ"
Xenophanes is known for his critique of the anthropomorphism of gods.,ⵆⵢⵏⵓⴱⵂⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵎⵓⵔⴱⵂⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ
"The Eleatic school (Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, and Melissus) followed in the 5th century BCE.","ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⴰⵜⵉⴾ (ⴱⴰⵔⵎⵢⵏⵉⴷⵢⵙ, ⵌⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵍⵉⵙⵙⵓⵙ) ⵉⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 500 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ"
Anaxagoras and Empedocles offered a pluralistic account of how the universe was created.,ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵎⵓⵢⴷⴰⵛⵍⵢⵙ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
"""It was first used by the German philosopher J.A. Eberhard as """"vorsokratische Philosophie''' in the late 18th century.""","“ⴷⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵜⵉ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵋ.ⴰ ⵢⴱⵢⵔⵂⴰⵔⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ """"ⴱⵓⵔⵙⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉⵙⵛⵂⵢ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⵓⵂⵉⵢ'' ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1700”"
"The term comes with drawbacks, as several of the pre-Socratics were highly interested in ethics and how to live the best life.",Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴷⵔⴰⵓⴱⴰⵛⴾⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ
"According to James Warren, the distinction between the pre-Socratic philosophers and philosophers of the classical era is demarcated not so much by Socrates, but by geography and what texts survived.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵋⴰⵎⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵔⵔⵢⵏ, ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ"
"Scholar André Laks distinguishes two traditions of separating pre-Socratics from Socratics, dating back to the classical era and running through current times.",ⴷⵎⴰⵗⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⴾⵙ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵂⴰ
"Many of the works are titled Peri Physeos, or On Nature, a title probably attributed later by other authors.","ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵢⵔⵉ ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵢⵓⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⵢ , ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵉⴱⴰⵏ"
Adding more difficulty to their interpretation is the obscure language they used.,ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵜⵢⵔⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ
"Theophrastus, Aristotle's successor, wrote an encyclopedic book Opinion of the Physicists that was the standard work about the pre-Socratics in ancient times.","ⵜⵂⵢⵓⴱⵂⵔⴰⵙⵜⵓⵙ, ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍⵢ , ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵢⵏⵛⵉⵛⵍⵓⴱⵢⴷⵉⵛ ⵓⴱⵉⵏⵉⵓⵏ ⵓⴼ ⵜⵂⵢ ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⵉⵙⵜⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ"
Scholars now use this book to reference the fragments using a coding scheme called Diels–Kranz numbering.,Iⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⵉⵢⵍⵙ-ⵆⵔⴰⵏⵣ
"""After that is a code regarding whether the fragment is a testimonia, coded as """"A"""", or """"B"""" if is a direct quote from the philosopher.""","“ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴼⵔⵓⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏⵉⴰ, ⴰⴾⴾⵓⴷⵢⵏ ⵙ “”ⴰ”” ⵎⴻⵗ “”ⵓ”” ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ”"
"The pre-Socratic era lasted about two centuries, during which the expanding Persian Achaemenid Empire was stretching to the west, while the Greeks were advancing in trade and sea routes, reaching Cyprus and Syria.",ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ 200 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓ-ⵉⴷ ⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵢⵎⵢⵏⵉⴷ Eⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵙ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵛⵉⴱⵔⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴰ
"The Greeks revolted in 499 BCE, but ultimately were defeated in 494 BCE.",ⴳⵔⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 499 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 494 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ
Several factors contributed to the birth of pre-Socratic philosophy in Ancient Greece.,ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵢⵛⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ
"Another factor was the ease and frequency of intra-Greek travel, which led to the blending and comparison of ideas.",ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵗⵉⵙⴰⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵛⵢ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎⴰⵏ
The democratic political system of independent poleis also contributed to the rise of philosophy.,ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⵎⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⵢⵉⵙ ⵢⵆⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ
"The philosophers' ideas, were, to a certain extent, answers to questions that were subtly present in the work of Homer and Hesiod.",Iⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⵢⵔ ⴷ ⵂⵢⵙⵉⵓⴷ
They are considered predecessors of the pre-Socratics since they seek to address the origin of the world and to organize traditional folklore and legends systematically.,Iⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ
"The first pre-Socratic philosophers also traveled extensively to other lands, meaning that pre-Socratic thought had roots abroad as well as domestically.",ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⵓⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⴱⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴰⵎⴻⴷⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
The pre-Socratic philosophers shared the intuition that there was a single explanation that could explain both the plurality and the singularity of the whole – and that explanation would not be direct actions of the gods.,ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵢ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ
"Many sought the material principle (arche) of things, and the method of their origin and disappearance.",ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍ (ⴰⵔⵛⵂⴻ) ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵋⵋⵉⵍ
"In their effort to make sense of the cosmos they coined new terms and concepts such as rhythm, symmetry, analogy, deductionism, reductionism, mathematicazion of nature and others.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴰⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵔⵂⵉⵜⵂⵎ, ⵙⵉⵎⵎⵢⵜⵔⵉ ,ⴰⵏⴰⵢⴶⵉ, ⴷⴻⴷⵓⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏⵏⵉⵙⵎ, ⵔⵢⴷⵓⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏⵉⵙⵎ, ⵎⴰⵜⵂⴻⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⴰⵣⵉⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ"
It could mean the beginning or origin with the undertone that there is an effect on the things to follow.,ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⵢⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ
"This may have been because of a lack of instruments, or because of a tendency to view the world as a unity, undeconstructable, so it would be impossible for an external eye to observe tiny fractions of nature under experimental control.","ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵙ ⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ, ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ"
Systematic because they tried to universalize their findings.,ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉⴼⵓⴾⴾⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"The pre-Socratics were not atheists; however, they minimized the extent of the gods' involvement in natural phenomena such as thunder or totally eliminated the gods from the natural world.","ⵙⵔⵢ-ⵔⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵜⵂⵢⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ; ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵢⵏ , ⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰⴷⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵋⴰⵋ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⵎⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
"The first phase of pre-Socratic philosophy, mainly the Milesians, Xenophanes, and Heraclitus, consisted of rejecting traditional cosmogony and attempting to explain nature based on empirical observations and interpretations.","ⵜⵉⴾⴾⵢⵍⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏⵙ, ⵆⵢⵏⵓⴱⵂⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴷ ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ, ⵢⵂⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵋⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴻⵗⴰⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵢⵔⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ"
The Eleatics were also monists (believing that only one thing exists and everything else is just a transformation of it).,ⵜⵍⵢⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ (ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ)
"He is considered the first western philosopher since he was the first to use reason, to use proof, and to generalize.",Iⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵣ ⵏⵢⵜ
Thales may have been of Phoenician ancestry.,ⵜⵂⴰⵍⵢⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵉⵓⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴱⵂⵓⵢⵢⵏⵉⵛⵉⴰⵏ
"Thales, though, advanced geometry with his abstract deductive reasoning reaching universal generalizations.",ⵜⵂⴰⵍⵢⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⵢⴶⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
"Thales visited Sardis, as many Greeks then, where astronomical records were kept and used astronomical observations for practical matters (oil harvesting).",ⵜⵂⴰⵍⵢⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⴾⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵙⴰⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵉⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ( ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵙⵢⵏⵙ)
He attributed the origin of the world to an element instead of a divine being.,Iⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉ ⵗⴰⵏⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ
"He was a member of the elite of Miletus, wealthy and a statesman.","ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵜⵓⵙ , ⴾⵢⵍ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ"
"In response to Thales, he postulated as the first principle an undefined, unlimited substance without qualities (apeiron), out of which the primary opposites, hot and cold, moist and dry, became differentiated.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵟⵂⴰⵍⵢⵙ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⴱⵙⵜⴰⵏⵛⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⵣⴰⴾⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ (ⴰⴱⵢⵉⵔⵓⵏ) ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴾⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵙⴰⵎⵢⴷ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ"
He is also known for speculating on the origin of mankind.,Iⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵍ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
He also wrote a book on nature in prose.,ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵙ ⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
He was a well-traveled poet whose primary interests were theology and epistemology.,ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⵜⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⴷ ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ
"He famously said that if oxen, horses, or lions could draw, they would draw their gods as oxen, horses, or lions.","ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵙⵓⴰⵏ, ⵉⴱⵉⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵙⵓⴰⵏ, ⵉⴱⵉⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ"
"Xenophanes also offered naturalistic explanations for phenomena such as the sun, the rainbow and St. Elmo's fire.","ⵆⵢⵏⵓⴱⵂⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ, ⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵜ. ⵢⵍⵎⵓ"
"While Xenophanes was a pessimist about the capability of humans to reach knowledge, he also believed in gradual progress through critical thinking.","ⴰⵙ ⵆⵢⵏⵓⴱⵂⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵢⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵔⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴾⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ"
Heraclitus posited that all things in nature are in a state of perpetual flux.,ⵆⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ
Fire becomes water and earth and vice versa.,ⴷⴼⵢⵓ ⵢⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ
"There, Heraclitus claims we can not step into the same river twice, a position summarized with the slogan ta panta rhei (everything flows).","ⵆⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵢⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ, ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴾⵍⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵓ ⵜⴰ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵔⵂⵢⵉ ( ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉ)"
"Another key concept of Heraclitus is that opposites somehow mirror each other, a doctrine called unity of opposites.","ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⴾⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵜ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ , ⵎⴰⵣⵂⴰⴱ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⴾⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ"
Heraclitus' doctrine on the unity of opposites suggests that unity of the world and its various parts is kept through the tension produced by the opposites.,ⵎⴰⵣⵂⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴼⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⴾⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵜ ⵓⴶⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵜⵢⵏⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⴾⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ
"A fundamental idea in Heraclitus is logos, an ancient Greek word with a variety of meanings; Heraclitus might have used a different meaning of the word with each usage in his book.","ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵍⵓⴶⵓⵙ, ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴶⵔⵢⵢⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ; ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴾⴼ-ⵓ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵏⵢⵜ"
Some decades later he had to flee Croton and relocate to Metapontum.,ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵜⴰⴱⵓⵏⵜⵓⵎ
"They advanced his ideas, reaching the claim that everything consists of numbers, the universe is made by numbers and everything is a reflection of analogies and geometrical relations.","ⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵣⵋⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ,ⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴶⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⵜ"
"Their way of life was ascetic, restraining themselves from various pleasures and food.","Iⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵛⵢⵜⵉⵛ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵛⵂⴰ"
Other pre-Socratic philosophers mocked Pythagoras for his belief in reincarnation.,ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵙⵆⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵉⵜⵂⴰⴶⵓⵔⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴾⵔⴰ ⵢⵉⴰⵜ
"Pythagoreanism influenced later Christian currents as Neoplatonism, and its pedagogical methods were adapted by Plato.",ⴱⵉⵜⵂⵓⴶⵔⵢⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵓⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵉⴾⵏⵢⵏⴰⵜ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ
"According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, Xenophanes was Parmenides' teacher, and it is debated whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍⵢ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵓⴶⵢⵏⵢⵙ ⵍⴰⵢⵔⵜⵉⵓⵙ, ⵆⵢⵏⵓⴱⵂⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵎⴰⵙⴰⴱⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵎⵢⵏⵉⴷⵢⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵆⵢⵏⴱⵓⵂⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵢⵍⵢⴰⵜⵉⵛ"
He was the first to deduce that the earth is spherical.,ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⵛⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵗ
"Parmenides wrote a hard to interpret poem, named On Nature or On What-is, that substantially influenced later Greek philosophy.","ⴱⴰⵔⵎⵢⵏⵉⴷⵢⵙ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵓⵉⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵏ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⵢ ⵎⴻ ⵓⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵜ-ⵉⵙ, ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⴾ"
"The poem consists of three parts, the proem (i.e., preface), the Way of Truth and the Way of Opinion.","ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ , ⴱⵔⵓⵢⵎ ( ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴱⵔⵢⴼⴰⵛⵢ), ⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⴼ ⵟⵔⵓⵜⵂ ⴷ ⵟⵂⵢ ⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⴼ ⵓⵓⵉⵏⵉⵓⵏ"
"The Way of Truth was then, and is still today, considered of much more importance.",ⵜⵂⵢ ⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⴼ ⵟⵔⵓⵜⵂ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ
"Hence, all the things that we think to be true, even ourselves, are false representations.",ⴾⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵏⴰⴾⴾⴰⵏⴻⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ
"The goddess teaches Kouros to use his reasoning to understand whether various claims are true or false, discarding senses as fallacious.",ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⵆⵓⵔⵓ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓ-ⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ
Zeno and Melissus continued Parmenides' thought on cosmology.,ⵣⵢⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵍⵉⵙⵙⵓⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⴾⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵎⵢⵏⵉⴷⵢⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵆⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
He tried to explain why we think various non-existent objects exist.,ⴷⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵆⵍⵢⴾ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ
"Anaxagoras was born in Ionia, but was the first major philosopher to emigrate to Athens.",ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵓⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⵓⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⴰⵣⴰⴼ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵂⵢⵏ
Anaxagoras was also a major influence on Socrates.,ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ
Interpretations differ as to what he meant.,Iⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⴰ ⴰ ⵓⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"All objects were mixtures of various elements, such as air, water, and others.","ⵆⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵗⴰⵎⴱⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⵓ, ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ"
"Nous was also considered a building block of the cosmos, but it exists only in living objects.",ⵏⵓⵓⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⴾⴰⴷⴻⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ
"Anaxagoras advanced Milesian thought on epistemology, striving to establish an explanation that could be valid for all natural phenomena.","ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵙⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵜ ⵓ ⴰⵗⴱⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ"
"According to Diogenes Laertius, Empedocles wrote two books in the form of poems: Peri Physeos (On nature) and the Katharmoi (Purifications).","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴻⵉⵓⴶⵢⵏⵢⵙ ⵍⴰⵢⵔⵜⵉⵓⵙ, ⵢⵎⴱⵢⴷⵓⵛⵍⵢⵙ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⵉ: ⴱⵢⵔⵉ ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵢⵏⵙ (ⵓⵏ ⵏⴰⵓⵜⵔⵢ) ⴷ ⵆⴰⵜⵂⴰⵔⵎⴱⵉ (ⴱⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⴱⵏⵙ)"
"""He also continues Anaxagoras' thought on the four """"roots"""" (i.e., classical elements), that by intermixing, they create all things around us.""",“ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⴾⴰⵛⵂ ⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ “””ⵉⴾⵢⵓⴰⵏ” ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣ (ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ) ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵏⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵂⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗ”
"These two forces are opposite and by acting upon the material of the four roots unite in harmony or tear apart the four roots, with the resulting mixture being all things that exist.",ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⴾⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣ ⵉⴾⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⴱⴰⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⴰⵏⵎⵗⴰⵎⴱⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵏⵏ
"They are most famous for their atomic cosmology even though their thought included many other fields of philosophy, such as ethics, mathematics, aesthetics, politics, and even embryology.","Iⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⵛⵓⵙⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴾⵓⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ, ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ, ⴰⵢⵙⵜⵂⵢⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵎⴱⵔⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ"
"Democritus and Leucippus were skeptics regarding the reliability of our senses, but they were confident that motion exists.",ⴷⵢⵎⵓⵛⵔⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵍⵢⵓⵛⵉⴱⴱⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⵍⵍ
"Atoms move within the void, interact with each other, and form the plurality of the world we live in, in a purely mechanical manner.","ⴰⵜⵓⵎⵙ ⵛⵂⵉⵓⴰⵏⴾⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵜⵉⵍ , ⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⴾⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗ"
"Democritus concluded that since everything is atoms and void, several of our senses are not real but conventional.",ⴷⵢⵎⵓⵛⵔⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⵎⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⵎⵙ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵜⵉⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⵜⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ
"They attacked traditional thinking, from gods to morality, paving the way for further advances of philosophy and other disciplines such as drama, social sciences, mathematics, and history.","Iⴷⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⵔⴰⵎⴰ, ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⴻⵏⵛⵢⵙ, ⵎⴰⵜⵂⴻⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ"
The sophists taught rhetoric and how to address issues from multiple viewpoints.,ⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ
"Gorgias wrote a book named On Nature, in which he attacked the Eleatics' concepts of What-is and What-is-not.",ⵗⵓⵔⴶⵉⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵏ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴱⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵎ ⵢⵍⵢⴰⵛⵜⵉⴾⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵂⴰⵜ-ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵂⴰⵜ-ⵉⵙ-ⵏⵓⵜ
Antiphon placed natural law against the law of the city.,ⴰⵏⵉⴱⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⵛⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ-ⵉⵍⴾⴻⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ
He attempted to explain both the variety and unity of the cosmos.,ⴷⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
"Diogenes of Apollonia returned to Milesian monism, but with a rather more elegant thought.",ⴷⵉⵓⴶⵢⵏⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵍⵍⵉⵏⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ
"While Pythagoras and Empedocles linked their self-proclaimed wisdom to their divinely inspired status, they tried to teach or urge mortals to seek the truth about the natural realm—Pythagoras by means of mathematics and geometry and Empedocles by exposure to experiences.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵜⵂⴰⴶⵓⵔⵢ ⴷ ⴻⵎⴱⵢⴷⵓⵛⵍⵢⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ , ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵉⵔ ⵎⵢⵢⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴶⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ - ⴱⵉⵜⵂⴰⴶⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵎⴱⵢⴷⵓⵛⵍⵢⵙ ⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ"
"They attacked the traditional representations of gods that Homer and Hesiod had established and put Greek popular religion under scrutiny, initiating the schism between natural philosophy and theology.",Iⴷⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙ ⵂⵓⵎⵢⵔ ⴷ ⵂⵢⵙⵉⵓⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⴾ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴶⵣⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵛⵂⵉⵙⵎ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ
The theological thought starts with the Milesian philosophers.,ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏ
"Xenophanes set three preconditions for God: he had to be all good, immortal and not resembling humans in appearance, which had a major impact on western religious thought.","ⵆⵢⵏⵓⴱⵂⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ:Iⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴱⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ , ⵏ ⵓⵗⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⴱⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴱⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵗ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵢⵍⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴱⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴻⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ"
Anaxagoras asserted that cosmic intelligence (nous) gives life to things.,ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵛⵓⵙⵎⵉⵛ ⵉⵏⵜⵢⵍⵍⵉⴶⵢⵏⵛ (ⵏⵓⵓⵙ) ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⵓⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ
It was Hippocrates (often hailed as the father of medicine) who separated – but not completely – the two domains.,ⵆⵉⴱⴱⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ (ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵢⵛⵉⵏ) ⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
Ever-transforming nature is summarized by Heraclitus' axiom panta rhei (everything is in a state of flux).,ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⴾⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵜⵉ ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵆⵉⵓⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵔⵂⵢⵉ (ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉ)
"The pre-Socratics sought to understand the various aspects of nature by means of rationalism, observations, and offering explanations that could be deemed as scientific, giving birth to what became Western rationalism.","ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵙ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ, ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵉⵛⵢⵏⵜⵉⴼⵉⴾ, ⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ"
"Anaximander offered the principle of sufficient reason, a revolutionary argument that would also yield the principle that nothing comes out of nothing.","ⴰⵏⴰⵆⵉⵎⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵜ , ⴰⵎⵛⵂⵉⴾⴾⵉ ⵂ ⴰⴾⴼ-ⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ"
Xenophanes also advanced a critique of anthropomorphic religion by highlighting in a rational way the inconsistency of depictions of the gods in Greek popular religion.,ⵆⴻⵏⵓⴱⵂⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵎⵓⵔⴱⵂⵉⵛ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵓⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⵔⴻⵔⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵗⵔⴻⴻⴾ
"Other pre-Socratics also sought to answer the question of arche, offering various answers, but the first step towards scientific thought was already taken.","ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵢ, ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⵢⵍⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵛⴻⵜⵉⴼⵉⴾ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ"
"The philosophic thought produced by the pre-Socratics heavily influenced later philosophers, historians and playwrights.","ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⵔⴰⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ , ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴷ ⴱⵍⴰⵉⵓⵔⵉⴶⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"The naturalists impressed young Socrates and he was interested in the quest for the substance of the cosmos, but his interest waned as he became steadily more focused on epistemology, virtue, and ethics rather than the natural world.",ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵔⴰ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
"""Cicero analyzed his views on the pre-Socratics in his Tusculanae Disputationes, as he distinguished the theoretical nature of pre-Socratic thought from previous """"sages"""" who were interested in more practical issues.""",“ ⵛⵉⵛⵢⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵟⵓⵙⵛⵓⵍⴰⵏⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⴱⵓⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵢⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵢⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ “ⵙⴰⴶⵢⵙ” ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ”
"Aristotle discussed the pre-Socratics in the first book of Metaphysics, as an introduction to his own philosophy and the quest for arche.",ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵢⵜⴰⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⵂ
"Francis Bacon, a 16th-century philosopher known for advancing the scientific method, was probably the first philosopher of the modern era to use pre-Socratic axioms extensively in his texts.",ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙ ⴱⴰⵛⵓⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1600 ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵜⵉⴼⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵂⴰ-ⵎⵉⵛⵂ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴰⵆⵉⵓⵎⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ
"""Friedrich Nietzsche admired the pre-Socratics deeply, calling them """"tyrants of the spirit"""" to mark their antithesis and his preference against Socrates and his successors.""","“ ⴼⵔⵉⵢⴷⵔⵉⵛⵂ ⵏⵉⵢⵜⵣⵛⵂ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ,ⵢⵗⴰⵔⵔⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “”ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵏⵜⵙ oⴼ ⵜⵂ ⵙⴱⵉⵔⵉⵜ” ⵉ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵜⵂⵢⵙⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ”"
"According to his narrative, limned in many of his books, the pre-Socratic era was the glorious era of Greece, while the so-called Golden Age that followed was an age of decay, according to Nietzsche.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ , ⵢⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ , ⴰⵣⵣⴰⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵔⵢⵛ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵍⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵢ ⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴾⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵜⴰⵜ ⵏⵉⵢⵜⵣⵛⵂ"
"Even though this period – known in its earlier part as the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period – in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵗⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ - ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵛⵂⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵗⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵏⵉ, ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵗⵓⵍⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵢ ⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ"
"Taoism (also called Daoism), a philosophy which emphasizes the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility, while Taoist thought generally focuses on nature, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos; health and longevity; and wu wei (action through inaction).","ⵜⴰⵓⵉⵙⵎ (ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⵓⵉⵙⵢⴰⵓⵉⵙⵎ) , ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵓⵗ- ⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵟⴰⵓ: ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ,ⵜⴰⵣⵉⴼⵏⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵓⴰⴷⵉⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵓⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ, ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ : ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵓ ⵓⵢⵉ ( ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⴰⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ)"
"Agrarianism, or the School of Agrarianism, which advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism.",ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵜⵓⴱⵉⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⴰⵏⵍⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵢⴶⴰⵍⵉⵜⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ
"Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters and tacticians.","Iⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ , ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵍⵋⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴾⴾⵓⵔⵙⴰ"
"""The School of """"Minor-talks"""", which was not a unique school of thought, but a philosophy constructed of all the thoughts which were discussed by and originated from normal people on the street.""",“ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⵎⵉⵏⵓⵔ-ⵜⴰⵍⴾⵙ” ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵎⵓⵂⴰⵎ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵉⵜ”
"Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han Dynasty, whose greatest thinker was Dong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements.",ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵙⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵢⵎⴰⵗⵔⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⵓⵏⴶ ⵌⵂⵓⵏⴶⵙⵂⵓ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵉⵛⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵌⵂⵓⵏⴶⵙⵂⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ
"In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal.",ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵉⵛⵉⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰⴾ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵂⵢ ⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵍ
"Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the Northern and Southern, Sui and Tang Dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement.",ⴱⵓⴷⴷⵂⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴰ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 100 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵔⵢⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵉ ⴰⵏⴷ ⵟⴰⵏⴶ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵙⵜⵉⵢⵙ
This leads to the inquiry into the one being that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⵓⴾ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵢⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
"Seven Rishis — Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra.","ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵔⵉⵙⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ- ⴰⵜⵔⵉ, ⴱⵂⴰⵏⵔⴰⴷⵓⴰⵋⴰ, ⵗⴰⵓⵜⴰⵎⴰ, ⵋⴰⵎⴰⴷⴶⵏⵉ, ⵆⴰⵙⵉⴰⴱⴰ, ⴱⴰⵙⵉⵙⵂⵜⵂⴰ, ⴱⵉⵙⵓⴰⵎⵉⵜⵔⴰ"
"Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC, marking the end of the Greek Dark Ages.","ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵜ-ⵓⵏⴾⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵓⵜⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 600 ⴷⵓⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ,ⵢⵈⵈⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⴾⵓⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⵎⵓⵏⵓⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴾⵓⵓⵓⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ"
"It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, epistemology, mathematics, political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric and aesthetics.","ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵜⵢⵗⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵜⵔⴰ, ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ, ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ, ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ, ⵎⵢⵜⴰⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⵙ, ⵓⵏⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛ, ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⵔⵂⵢⵜⵓⵔⵉⵛ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵙⵜⵂⵢⵜⵉⵛⵙ"
"Clear, unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to Roman philosophy, Early Islamic philosophy, Medieval Scholasticism, the European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.","Iⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵂⵢⵍⵍⵢⵏⵉⵙⵜⵉⵛ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ, ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵢⴱⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵂⵓⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⵛⵉⵙⵎ, ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⵢⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵔ"
But they taught themselves to reason.,ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ
"""Thales inspired the Milesian school of philosophy and was followed by Anaximander, who argued that the substratum or arche could not be water or any of the classical elements but was instead something """"unlimited"""" or """"indefinite"""" (in Greek, the apeiron).""","“ ⵜⵂⴰⵍⵢⵙ ⵓⵔⴰⵎ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵆⵉⵎⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⴱⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵢ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ “ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴱⴷⴰⵜ’ ⵎⵢⵗ “ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ” ( ⴷⴰⵗ ⴶⵔⵢⴾ , ⴰⴱⵢⵉⵔⵓⵏ)"
"""Contrary to the Milesian school, which posits one stable element as the arche, Heraclitus taught that panta rhei (""""everything flows""""), the closest element to this eternal flux being fire.""","“ ⴰⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⵂ , ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵔⵂⵢⵉ ⵓⵢⵏ (“ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉ) , ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵜⵉ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ”"
"Being, he argued, by definition implies eternality, while only that which is can be thought; a thing which is, moreover, cannot be more or less, and so the rarefaction and condensation of the Milesians is impossible regarding Being; lastly, as movement requires that something exist apart from the thing moving (viz.","ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵓⵗⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ, ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵔ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴼⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵗⵉⵙⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵗⴰⵎⴰⵎ ⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵉ ,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵉⵛⵂⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵓⵉⵏⴾⵉ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵓⴰⵏⴾⵢⵏ (ⴱⵉⵣ"
"In support of this, Parmenides' pupil Zeno of Elea attempted to prove that the concept of motion was absurd and as such motion did not exist.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢ ,ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵌⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵎⵢⵏⵉⴷⵢ ⵢⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵓⵉⵏⴾⵉ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵓⵉⵏⴾⵉ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵆⵍⵢⴾ"
Leucippus also proposed an ontological pluralism with a cosmogony based on two main elements: the vacuum and atoms.,ⵍⵢⵓⵛⵉⴱⴱⵓⵙ ⵀⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴱⵍⵓⵔⴰⵉⵙⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ: ⴱⴰⵛⵓⵓⵎ ⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⵎⵙ
"""While philosophy was an established pursuit prior to Socrates, Cicero credits him as """"the first who brought philosophy down from the heavens, placed it in cities, introduced it into families, and obliged it to examine into life and morals, and good and evil.""""""","“ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ, ⵛⵉⵛⵢⵔⵓ ⵉⵋⵋ “ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⵋⵋⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵉⴷⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵢⴶⴰⵣⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰⵈ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵙ””"
"The fact that many conversations involving Socrates (as recounted by Plato and Xenophon) end without having reached a firm conclusion, or aporetically, has stimulated debate over the meaning of the Socratic method.",ⵆⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ( ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵆⵢⵏⵓⴱⵂⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ) ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵓⵢⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜ
"Socrates taught that no one desires what is bad, and so if anyone does something that truly is bad, it must be unwillingly or out of ignorance; consequently, all virtue is knowledge.","ⵔⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵙ ⴰⴷⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⴰⵏ ,ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜ ⵓⵜⵢⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵋⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ: ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ"
"The great statesman Pericles was closely associated with this new learning and a friend of Anaxagoras, however, and his political opponents struck at him by taking advantage of a conservative reaction against the philosophers; it became a crime to investigate the things above the heavens or below the earth, subjects considered impious.","ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴱⵢⵔⵉⵛⵍⵢⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵓⵙⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ, ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵆⴰⵙⴰⵎ ⵜⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴼoⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ; ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
"Socrates, however, is the only subject recorded as charged under this law, convicted, and sentenced to death in 399 BCE (see Trial of Socrates).","ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵗⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⵢⵏ , ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵔⵎⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 399 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ (ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ)"
"Plato casts Socrates as the main interlocutor in his dialogues, deriving from them the basis of Platonism (and by extension, Neoplatonism).","ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⵉⵓⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ , ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏⵉⵙⵎ ( ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ,ⵏⵢⵓⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏⵉⵙⵎ)"
Zeno of Citium in turn adapted the ethics of Cynicism to articulate Stoicism.,ⵣⵢⵏⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵜⵉⵓⵎ ⵉⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵏⵉⵛⵉⵙⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵙⵜⵓⵉⵛⵉⵙⵎ
"Along with Xenophon, Plato is the primary source of information about Socrates' life and beliefs and it is not always easy to distinguish between the two.","Iⴷ ⵓⴻⵏⵓⴱⵂⵓⵏ, ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⴻⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴻⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ"
"Although rule by a wise man would be preferable to rule by law, the wise cannot help but be judged by the unwise, and so in practice, rule by law is deemed necessary.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ , ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵗⴰⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ"
"Plato's dialogues also have metaphysical themes, the most famous of which is his theory of forms.","ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⵓⴷⵓⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵢⵜⴰⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⵙ, ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴱⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⴼ ⴼⵓⵔⵎⵙ"
"It likens most humans to people tied up in a cave, who look only at shadows on the walls and have no other conception of reality.",ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⵓⴾⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵛⵂⴷⵢⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ
"If these travelers then re-entered the cave, the people inside (who are still only familiar with the shadows) would not be equipped to believe reports of this 'outside world'.","ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⵂⴷⵢⵉⵜ , ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ (ⵓⵉ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵓⵢⵏ ) ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵔⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎ”"
"Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972).","ⴱⵢⵜⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵢⵍ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ (ⵏⵢⵓ ⵗⵓⵔ: ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵛⵂⵓⵜⵜⵢⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1972)"
"""He criticizes the regimes described in Plato's Republic and Laws, and refers to the theory of forms as """"empty words and poetic metaphors.""""""",“ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵔⵢⴶⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⴰⵎⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ‘”ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵜⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⴰⵍⵢⵏ”””
"Antisthenes was inspired by the ascetism of Socrates, and accused Plato of pride and conceit.",ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵙⵜⵂⵢⵏⵢⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵛⵢⵏⵜⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ
"It was founded by Euclides of Megara, one of the pupils of Socrates.","ⴷⵗⵏⴰⵉ Eⵓⵛⵍⵉⴷⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴶⴰⵔⴰ, ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ"
Pyrrhonism places the attainment of ataraxia (a state of equanimity) as the way to achieve eudaimonia.,ⴱⵉⵔⵔⵂⵓⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵆⵉⴰ (ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ) ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⴰⵉⵎⵓⵏⵉⴰ
"""His ethics were based on """"the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain"""".""",“ ⴷⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ “”ⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣ ⴷ ⴶⴰⴷⴷⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵔⵜ”’”
Their logical contributions still feature in contemporary propositional calculus.,ⵜⵉⴷⵂⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⴰⵍⵛⵓⵍⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ
"This skeptical period of ancient Platonism, from Arcesilaus to Philo of Larissa, became known as the New Academy, although some ancient authors added further subdivisions, such as a Middle Academy.","ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ, ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵔⵛⵢⵙⵉⵍⵍⴰⵓⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵔⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵏⵢⵓ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⵢⵎⵉ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵍ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⵢⵎⵉ"
"While the objective of the Pyrrhonists was the attainment of ataraxia, after Arcesilaus the Academic skeptics did not hold up ataraxia as the central objective.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵔⵂⵓⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵆⵉⴰ , ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵛⵢⵙⵉⵍⴰⵓⵙ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⵢⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⵙⴾⵢⴱⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴼ ⵙ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵆⵉⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ"
"In the Byzantine Empire Greek ideas were preserved and studied, and not long after the first major expansion of Islam, however, the Abbasid caliphs authorized the gathering of Greek manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⴻ ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵜ ⵓ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵂⵓⵋ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ , ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ,ⴰⴱⴱⴰⵙⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵍⵉⴼⴰ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵙⵉⵔ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ"
"Medieval philosophy is the philosophy that existed through the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century to the Renaissance in the 15th century.","ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵢⴱⴰⵍ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⵢⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵍ ⴰⴶⵢⵙ, ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 500 ⵂⴰⵔ ⵔⵢⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1500"
"With the possible exceptions of Avicenna and Averroes, medieval thinkers did not consider themselves philosophers at all: for them, the philosophers were the ancient pagan writers such as Plato and Aristotle.","ⴰⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵓⵉⵛⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵢⵔⵔⵓⵢⵙ , ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ; ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ, ⴼⵉⵍoⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍⴻ"
One of the most heavily debated things of the period was that of faith versus reason.,Iⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜ
"It is generally agreed that it begins with Augustine (354–430) who strictly belongs to the classical period, and ends with the lasting revival of learning in the late eleventh century, at the beginning of the high medieval period.",ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏ (354 ⵂⴰⵔ 430) ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴷⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴾⴾⵔⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵢⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵋⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1100 ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ
"In later periods, monks were used for training administrators and churchmen.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ, ⴱⵓⵎⴱⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴱ ⴷ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ"
Much of the work of Aristotle was unknown in the West in this period.,Iⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ Iⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ
Augustine is regarded as the greatest of the Church Fathers.,ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏⵢ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵔⵛⵂ ⴼⴰⵜⵂⵢⵔⵙ
"For over a thousand years, there was hardly a Latin work of theology or philosophy that did not quote his writing, or invoke his authority.","Iⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ 1000 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ , ⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴰⵆⵍⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ"
He became consul in 510 in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths.,ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 501 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⵓⴶⵓⵜⵂⵙ
"He wrote commentaries on these works, and on the Isagoge by Porphyry (a commentary on the Categories).",Iⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ Iⵙⴰⴶⵓⴶⵢ ⵙ ⴱⵓⵔⴱⵂⵉⵔⵉ ( ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ)
"Around this period several doctrinal controversies emerged, such as the question of whether God had predestined some for salvation and some for damnation.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵣⵂⴰⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵓⵉ ⵢⵗⵍⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵂⵢ ⵉⵣⴰⵈⵈⵉⵣⵣⴰⴱ
Is the host the same as Christ's historical body?,ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷⵉⴼⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ?
This period also witnessed a revival of scholarship.,ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⵓⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴾⴾⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⵙⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ
"Later, under St. Abbo of Fleury (abbot 988–1004), head of the reformed abbey school, Fleury enjoyed a second golden age.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ, ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴱⵓ ⵏ ⴼⵍⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ (ⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 988 ⵂⴰⵔ 1004) ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⴼⵓⵔⵎⵢⴷ ⴰⴱⴱⵢⵉ ⵙⵛⵂⵓⵓⵍ , ⴼⵢⵍⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴶⵓⵍⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ"
The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy.,ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1300 ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴶⵓⵂⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ
Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.,ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ Iⵜⴰⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵎⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ
"The universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the Church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life.",ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ
"The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy.",Iⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⴶⵏⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵟⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵓⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵙ ⴰⴾⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵣⵂⴰⴱ ⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ
"""Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the """"errors"""" of the Commentator Averroes.""","“ⴰⵈⵓⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵓⵛ ⵏ ⴰⵋⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵢⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ""ⵆⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ” ⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵙ”"
"The problem of evil: The classical philosophers had speculated on the nature of evil, but the problem of how an all-powerful, all-knowing, loving God could create a system of things in which evil exists first arose in the medieval period.","ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵛⵉⵍ: ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵛⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ, ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵗⵏⵓ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⵛⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ"
"However, from the fourteenth century onward, the increasing use of mathematical reasoning in natural philosophy prepared the way for the rise of science in the early modern period.","ⵆⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1400, ⴰⵜⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ"
"In the earlier period, writers such as Peter Abelard wrote commentaries on the works of the Old logic (Aristotle's Categories, On interpretation, and the Isagoge of Porphyry).","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⵓⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⴱⵢⵍⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⴷ ⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛ (ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍⵢ ⵛⴰⵜⵓⴶⵓⵔⵉⵢⵙ, ⵓⵏ Iⵏⵜ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴷ Iⵙⴰⴶⵓⴶⵢ ⵓⴼ ⵏⵓⵔⴱⵂⵉⵔⵉ)"
"(The word 'intentionality' was revived by Franz Brentano, who was intending to reflect medieval usage).",( Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵉⵔⵔⴰⴱ’ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵣ ⴱⵔⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏⵓ ⵓⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ- ⴰⵍⴰⵂ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵔⵓ)
"""The designation """"Renaissance philosophy"""" is used by scholars of intellectual history to refer to the thought of the period running in Europe roughly between 1355 and 1650 (the dates shift forward for central and northern Europe and for areas such as Spanish America, India, Japan, and China under European influence).""","“ Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⵔⵢⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵙ ⴱⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ” ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ Eⵎⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1355 ⵂⴰⵔ 1650 ( ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵢⵔⵓ ⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ, Iⵏⴷⵉⴰ, ⵋⴰⴱⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ )"
"The assumption that Aristotle's works were foundational to an understanding of philosophy did not wane during the Renaissance, which saw a flourishing of new translations, commentaries, and other interpretations of his works, both in Latin and in the vernacular.",ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⵏⵣⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵢⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ
"The latter, similar in some ways to modern debates, examined the pros and cons of particular philosophical positions or interpretations.","ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ, ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵢⵆⵆⴰⵉ ⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴱⵓⵓⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ"
"Plato, known directly only through two and a half dialogues in the Middle Ages, came to be known through numerous Latin translations in fifteenth century Italy, culminating in the hugely influential translation of his complete works by Marsilio Ficino in Florence in 1484.","ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵓ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵍ ⴰⴶⵢⵙ, ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ Lⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1500 ⵏ Iⵜⴰⵍⵉ ⵉⴾⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⵉⵍⵉⵓ ⴼⵉⵛⵉⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⵢⵏⵛⴻ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1484"
"Not all Renaissance humanists followed his example in all things, but Petrarch contributed to a broadening of his time's 'canon' (pagan poetry had previously been considered frivolous and dangerous), something that happened in philosophy as well.","ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵢⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴱⵢⵜⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵏⵢⵜ “ⵛⴰⵏⵓⵏ” (ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵓⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⴰⵏ), ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ"
Other movements from ancient philosophy also re-entered the mainstream.,ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ
"This position came under increasing strain in the Renaissance, as various thinkers claimed that Thomas's classifications were inaccurate, and that ethics were the most important part of morality.",ⴷⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵟⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵗⵢⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ
"As we have seen, they believed that philosophy could be brought under the wing of rhetoric.",ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵉⵍⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵂⵢⵜⵓⵔⵉⵛ
"In 1416–1417, Leonardo Bruni, the pre-eminent humanist of his time and chancellor of Florence, re-translated Aristotle's Ethics into a more flowing, idiomatic and classical Latin.","ⵜⴰⵗ ⴰⴰⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1416 ⵂⴰⵔ 1417, ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵔⴷⵓ ⴱⵔⵓⵏⵉ, ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⵏⵛⵢⵍⵍⵓⵔ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⴰⵏⵛ, ⵓⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ"
The driving conviction was that philosophy should be freed of its technical jargon so that more people would be able to read it.,ⴼⵢⵍⵍⴰⵂ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⴷⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵗ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴷⴰⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ
"Desiderius Erasmus, the great Dutch humanist, even prepared a Greek edition of Aristotle, and eventually those teaching philosophy in the universities had to at least pretend that they knew Greek.","ⴷⵢⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔⵉⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⵔⵙⵎⵓⵙ , ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵢⴰⵏⵢⵎⴰⵔⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⴷⵉⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵢⴾ"
"Once it had been determined, however, that Italian was a language with literary merit and that it could carry the weight of philosophical discussion, numerous efforts in this direction started to appear, particularly from the 1540s onward.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ , Iⵜⴰⵍⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⵉⵉ ⴰⵣⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵣⵋⵓⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1540"
"We know that debates about the freedom of the will continued to flare up (for instance, in the famous exchanges between Erasmus and Martin Luther), that Spanish thinkers were increasingly obsessed with the notion of nobility, that duelling was a practice that generated a large literature in the sixteenth century (was it permissible or not?).","ⵏⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵓ-ⴰⴷⴰⵏ (ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⵔⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵓⵜⵂⵢⵔ) ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ Eⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⵓⵋⴰⵗⴰ , ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⴾⵉ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⵜⵢⵔⴰⵜⵓⵔⵢ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1600 (ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⵓ?)"
"We must not forget that most philosophers of the time were at least nominal, if not devout, Christians, that the sixteenth century saw both the Protestant and the Catholic reformations, and that Renaissance philosophy culminates with the period of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648).","Iⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵂ ⵙ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ, ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1600 ⵔⵢⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵎⴱⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵢⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵆⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵓⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ (1618 ⵂⴰⵔ 1648)"
"In conclusion, like any other moment in the history of thought Renaissance philosophy cannot be considered to have provided something entirely new nor to have continued for centuries to repeat the conclusions of its predecessors.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ, ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⵎⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ"
Modern philosophy is philosophy developed in the modern era and associated with modernity.,ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵔⵏⵉⵜⵉ
"By the 17th and 18th centuries the major figures in philosophy of mind, epistemology, and metaphysics were roughly divided into two main groups.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1700 ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⴾⵢⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜ , ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵜⴰⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⵙ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ"
"""The """"Empiricists,"""" by contrast, held that knowledge must begin with sensory experience.""",“ⴷⵎⵏⵉⵔⵉⵛⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ”
Other important figures in political philosophy include Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.,ⵆⵢⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵢⵂⵢⵏ ⵟⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⴱⴱⵢⵙ ⴷ ⵋⵢⴰⵏ-ⵋⴰⵛⵈⵓⵢⵙ ⴱⵓⵓⵙⵙⵢⴰⵓ
"Kant sparked a storm of philosophical work in Germany in the early nineteenth century, beginning with German idealism.",ⵆⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⴾⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵍⵢⵎⴰⴶⵏⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵢⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ
"Karl Marx appropriated both Hegel's philosophy of history and the empirical ethics dominant in Britain, transforming Hegel's ideas into a strictly materialist form, setting the grounds for the development of a science of society.","ⵆⴰⵍⵔ ⵎⴰⵔⵆ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴷ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵢⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ , ⵉⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⴶⵢⵍ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵜⵢⵔⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴼⵓⵔⵎ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵢⵏⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ"
"Arthur Schopenhauer took idealism to the conclusion that the world was nothing but the futile endless interplay of images and desires, and advocated atheism and pessimism.",ⴰⵔⵜⵂⵓⵔ ⵙⵛⵂⵓⴱⵢⵏⵂⴰⵓⵢⵔ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵢⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵗⵔ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵂⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ ⴱⵢⵙⵙⵉⵎⵉⵙⵎ
Descartes argued that many predominant Scholastic metaphysical doctrines were meaningless or false.,ⴷⵢⵙⵛⴰⵔⵜⵢⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵣⵂⴰⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵛⵓⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵜⴰⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ
"He tries to set aside as much as he possibly can of all his beliefs, to determine what if anything he knows for certain.",ⴷⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴻⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵎⵉⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ
From this basis he builds his knowledge back up again.,ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ
"While historicism also acknowledges the role of experience, it differs from empiricism by assuming that sensory data cannot be understood without considering the historical and cultural circumstances in which observations are made.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵂⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉⵙⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ , ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵉⵙⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵆⵉⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ"
"""As such empiricism is first and foremost characterized by the ideal to let observational data """"speak for themselves"""", while the competing views are opposed to this ideal.""","“ Iⵛⵂⵎⴰⴷ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵉⵛⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵥⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵉⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ “ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ”, ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂⵓⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ”"
"In other words: Empiricism as a concept has to be constructed along with other concepts, which together make it possible to make important discriminations between different ideals underlying contemporary science.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ: ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵉⵙⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵢⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ
"Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, Iⴷⵢⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵙ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜ"
"It describes a process where theory is extracted from practice, and applied back to practice to form what is called intelligent practice.",ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴾⵉⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜ
Brian Leiter (2006) webpage “Analytic” and “Continental” Philosophy.,ⴱⵔⵉⴰⵏ ⵍⵢⵉⵜⵢⵔ (2006) ⵓⵢⴱⴱⴰⴶⵢ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ “ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ” ⴷ “ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⴻⵏⵜⴰⵍ”
Contemporary philosophy is the present period in the history of Western philosophy beginning at the early 20th century with the increasing professionalization of the discipline and the rise of analytic and continental philosophy.,ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000 ⵙ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ
Germany was the first country to professionalize philosophy.,ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ
"Furthermore, unlike many of the sciences for which there has come to be a healthy industry of books, magazines, and television shows meant to popularize science and communicate the technical results of a scientific field to the general populace, works by professional philosophers directed at an audience outside the profession remain rare.","ⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴶⴰⵣⵉⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⵉⵣⵉⵓⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ"
Each division organises a large annual conference.,ⴷⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ
"Among its many other tasks, the association is responsible for administering many of the profession's top honors.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⵢⵏ , ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ"
"""This development was roughly contemporaneous with work by Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell inaugurating a new philosophical method based on the analysis of language via modern logic (hence the term """"analytic philosophy"""").""",“ ⴷⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵜⵜⵍⵓⴱ ⴼⵔⵢⴶⵢ ⴷ ⴱⵢⵔⵜⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵢⵍ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵔⵏ ⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛ (ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ’’’)
"""Some philosophers, such as Richard Rorty and Simon Glendinning, argue that this """"analytic–continental"""" divide is inimical to the discipline as a whole.""",“” ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵔⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴷ ⵔⵓⵔⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⵗⵍⵢⵏⴷⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏⴶ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ “”ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ-ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ’’’ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵎⵢⴷⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⴼⵓⴾ
"Afterwards, analytic and continental philosophers differ on the importance and influence of subsequent philosophers on their respective traditions.",ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"Although, since analytic and continental philosophy have such starkly different views of philosophy after Kant, continental philosophy is also often understood in an extended sense to include any post-Kant philosophers or movements important to continental philosophy but not analytic philosophy.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵆⴰⵏⵜ, ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵢⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⵢⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵆⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉ ⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ"
"Thus continental philosophy tends toward historicism, where analytic philosophy tends to treat philosophy in terms of discrete problems, capable of being analyzed apart from their historical origins.","ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵂⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉⵛⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⴱⵂⵉⵍ ⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ ⵙ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣ ⵢⵓⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ"
The major orthodox schools arose sometime between the start of the Common Era and the Gupta Empire.,ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵜⵂⵓⴷⵓⵆ ⴰⵏⴾⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏ ⵢⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵗⵓⴱⵜⴰ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ
These religio-philosophical traditions were later grouped under the label Hinduism.,ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵢⵓ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵓ ⵍⴰⴱⵢⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏⴷⵓⵉⵣⵎ
"Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no single founder.",Iⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⴼⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵂⵉⵏⴷⵓⵉⵙⵣⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴷ ⴰⴾⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ
"Indian philosophers developed a system of epistemological reasoning (pramana) and logic and investigated topics such as Ontology (metaphysics, Brahman-Atman, Sunyata-Anatta), reliable means of knowledge (epistemology, Pramanas), value system (axiology) and other topics.","ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ Iⵏⴷⵉⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵔⵢⴰⵙⵓⵏⵉⵏⴶ (ⴱⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰ) ⴷ ⵎⵓⴷⵓⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵏⵜⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ (ⵎⴻⵜⴰⵏⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⵙ, ⴱⵔⴰⵂⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵎⴰⵏ, ⵙⵓⵏⵉⵜⴰ-ⴰⵏⴰⵜⵜⴰ) ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵙ (ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⴱⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵙ), ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ (ⴰⵆⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ) ⴷ ⵎⵓⴷⵓⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ"
Later developments include the development of Tantra and Iranian-Islamic influences.,ⴷⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵟⴰⵏⵜⵔⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ Iⵔⴰⵏ
"Nyāya traditionally accepts four Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).","ⵏⵉⴰⵉⴰ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣ ⴱⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ - ⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⴰⴾⵙⴰ (ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ), ⴰⵏⵓⵎⴰⵏⴰ (ⵉⵏⴼⵢⵔⵢⵏⵛⵢ), ⵓⴱⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰ (ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜ) ⴷ ⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰ ( ⵉⵙⵉⵎ, ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ)"
"This philosophy held that the universe was reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), which are indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and have a special kind of dimension, called “small” (aṇu).","ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓ (ⴰⵜⵓⵎⵙ) ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵔⴰⵣⵣⵢ (ⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⴰ), ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ , ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ‘ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ’’ (ⴰⵏⵓ)"
Later Vaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara and Udayana and Śivāditya) added one more category abhava (non-existence).,ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴱⴰⵉⵙⵢⵔⵉⴾⴰⵙ (ⵙⵔⵉⴷⵂⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⴷ Uⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⵏⴷ ⵙⵉⴱⴰⴷⵉⵜⵉⴰ) ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵂⴰⴱⴰ (ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ)
"Because of their focus on textual study and interpretation, Mīmāṃsā also developed theories of philology and the philosophy of language which influenced other Indian schools.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⴱⴰⵉⵙⵢⵙⵉⴾⴰⵙ (ⵙⵔⵉⴷⵂⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⴷ ⵓⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⵏⴷ ⴼⵉⴱⴰⴷⵉⵜⵉⴰ)ⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ,ⵎⵉⵎⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ Iⵏⴷⵉⴰ"
"The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy include a mind-body dualism, denial of a creative and omnipotent God, karma, an eternal and uncreated universe, non-violence, the theory of the multiple facets of truth, and morality based on liberation of the soul.","ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵋⴰⵉⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⵉⴾⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⴰⵙⴰⴱⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ, ⵆⴰⵔⵎⴰ, ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵢⵗⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵢⴾ, ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⴼⴰ, ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵢⵉⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ"
It has also been called a model of philosophical liberalism for its insistence that truth is relative and multifaceted and for its willingness to accommodate all possible view-points of the rival philosophies.,Iⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵍⵉⴱⵢⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵎⴷⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ
Cārvāka philosophers like Brihaspati were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time.,ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⴱⴰⴾⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⴷ ⴱⵔⵉⵂⴰⵙⴱⴰⵜⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ
It is the dominant philosophical tradition in Tibet and Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka and Burma.,ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵟⵉⴱⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ-ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⵏⴾⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵔⵎⴰ
Later Buddhist philosophical traditions developed complex phenomenological psychologies termed 'Abhidharma'.,ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴷⴷⵂⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵏⵂⵢⵏⵓⵎⵢⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵢⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ “ⴰⴱⵂⵉⴷⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰ”
"""This tradition contributed to what has been called an """"epistemological turn"""" in Indian philosophy.""",“ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ “ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵔⵏ”” ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵍ ⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ Iⵏⴷⵉⴰ
"Important exponents of Buddhist modernism include Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933) and the American convert Henry Steel Olcott, the Chinese modernists Taixu (1890–1947) and Yin Shun (1906–2005), Zen scholar D.T. Suzuki, and the Tibetan Gendün Chöphel (1903–1951).","Iⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴷⴷⵂⵉⵙⵜ ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵔⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴶⵔⵉⴾⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⴱⴰⵍⴰ (1864-1933) ⵂⵓⵏⵔⵉ ⵙⵜⵢⵢⵍ Oⵍⵛⵓⵜⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ Aⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ, ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵔⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵉⵆⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ (1890 ⵂⴰⵔ 1947) ⴷ ⵗⵉⵏ ⵙⵂⵓⵏ (1906 ⵂⴰⵔ 2005), Iⵎⴰⵗⵔⵉ ⵌⵢⵏ ⵢ.ⵟ ⵙⵓⵣⵓⴾⵉ ⴷ ⵗⴻⵏⴷⵓⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⴱⵂⵢⵍ (1903–1951) ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵉⴱⵢⵜ"
"Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures and societies, in both the present and past, including past human species.","ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⵢⵏⴷⵓⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⴱⵂⵢⵍ (1903–1951).ⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵢⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ, ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ, ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ"
Biological or physical anthropology studies the biological development of humans.,ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵗⴰⵔ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⴱⴰⵜ
Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed.,ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⵢⵛⵂ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴶⴰⵂ
"When slavery was abolished in France in 1848, the Société was abandoned.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⵉⵍⵓⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵔⴰⵏⵛⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1848, ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵢ ⵜ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵉⴰ"
"For them, the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵍⵢⵙ ⵢⴰⵔⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴱⵉⴱⵂⴰⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ"
There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences.,Iⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⵍ ⵢⵔⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢⵙ
"""His definition now became """"the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature"""".""",“ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ “”ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ”””
"He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called Broca's area after him.",Iⵙⴰⴼⴼⴰⴾⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴱⵔⵓⵛⴰ
The last two volumes were published posthumously.,ⴱⵢⵍⵓⵎⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ
"He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation.",ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⴷⴰⵓ ⵢⵔⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ
Waitz was influential among the British ethnologists.,ⵓⴰⵉⵜⵣ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ
"Representatives from the French Société were present, though not Broca.",Iⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵢ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵛⴰ
"Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist.",ⴷⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵢⵗⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰ-ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵜⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉⵙⵜ
"One notable exception was the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory (1869) founded by Rudolph Virchow, known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists.","ⴱⵢⵔⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵉ ⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ , ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵢⵂⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉ (1869) ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵔⵓⴷⵓⵍⵢⵂ ⴱⵉⵔⵛⵂⵓⵓ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵢⴱⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ"
The major theorists belonged to these organizations.,ⴷⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ
"Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene.","ⴱⵔⴰⵛⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⴷ, ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷoⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴼⵓⵔⵢⵏⵙⵉⵛ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⴰⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵉ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵢⵏⵢ"
"This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from Boas' arguments against 19th-century racial ideology, through Margaret Mead's advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of post-colonial oppression and promotion of multiculturalism.",ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵋⵉⵉⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⵉⵓⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵔⴰⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⵙ ⵜⵢⴱⴰⴷⴷⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵔⴶⴰⵔⵢⵜ ⵎⵢⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵋⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵗⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵍⵜⵉⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ
"In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of social anthropology tends to dominate.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏ ⴱⵢⴰⵍⵜⵂ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵔ"
"Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people make sense of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the relationships among individuals and groups.",ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵂⴰⵙ- ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ
"There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree.",ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⵙⵙoⵂⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⵢⴶⵔⵢ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ
This project is often accommodated in the field of ethnography.,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴼⵔⵓⵋⴻ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⵍⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵉⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ
Participant observation is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology.,ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ
"The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal.",ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⵜⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⵍⵉⵎ*
Ethnography views first-hand experience and social context as important.,Iⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ
"Ethnomusicology can be used in a wide variety of fields, such as teaching, politics, cultural anthropology etc.","ⴷⵜⵂⵏⵓⵎⵓⵙⵛⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ, ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ, ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ"
"Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange.",ⴷⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍ
"""The first of these areas was concerned with the """"pre-capitalist"""" societies that were subject to evolutionary """"tribal"""" stereotypes.""",“ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ“”ⴱⵔⵢⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ’’ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⵜ ‘’ⵜⵔⵉⴱⴰⵍ ⵙⵜⵢⵔⵢⵓⵜⵉⴱⵢⵙ””
Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer?,ⵎⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴾⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴷ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜ ⴻⴾⴼ-ⵓ?
Within kinship you have two different families.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴶⵉⴷⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ
"Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white feminists of Europe, America, and elsewhere.","ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵏ-ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵢⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵢⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ"
"""Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more """"complex"""" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena.""","“ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1960 ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ: ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ “ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ” ⵙ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵢⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ”"
"Secondly, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions).","ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵜⵢⵔⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ (ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⵜ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ)"
"It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometimes considered part of material culture.",ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜ-ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⵓⴱ ⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜ-ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⵙⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜ-ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ
It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today.,ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ
"""Various social processes in the Western World as well as in the """"Third World"""" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of """"specialists in 'other cultures'"""" closer to their homes.""",“ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴾⵉⵜⵓⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴱ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ “ⵟⵂⵉⵔⴷ ⵓⵓⵔⴷⵍ” (ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ) ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ “”ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ”” ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ”
"It is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine and zoology.","ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⵢⵜⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⵎⵢⴷⵢⵛⵉⵏⵢ, ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⴱⵢⵜⵢⵔⵉⵏⴰⵔⵉ ⵎⵢⴷⵢⵛⵉⵏⵢ ⴷ ⵣⵓⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ"
"It is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints.",ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵉⵔⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ
"In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the European Association of Social Anthropologists (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1989, ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⴱⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵛⵉⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵓⴼ ⵙⴰⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜⵙ (ⵢⴰⵙⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ"
"This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms.",ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⵢⵗ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⵋ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵗ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ
"Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists.",ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵣ ⴱⵓⴰⵙ ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵔⴰⴼ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⴰⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵆⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵛⵢⵏⵜⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
"At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies.","ⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ, ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⴱⵉⴷ H. ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⴷ Wⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵛⵂⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴱ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴷⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ"
Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association (AAA).,ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼ ⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴾⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ (ⴰⴰⴰ)
The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous.,ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂ ⵓⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⴰⵉⵓⵎ ⵓⵏⵉ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵓⵢⵍⴰⵜⵂ (ⴰⵙⴰ) ⵜⴰⵗⵔⴰ ⴱⵓⵔⵙⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⵏⵢⵏ
One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical.,ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵉⵛⴰⵍ
"These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.","IIⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ, ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ, ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⴰⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ"
"On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾoⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ, ⵉⴾⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵗⴰ-ⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵜⵔⵉ, ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵙⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵋⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵍⴼⵉⵙⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past.",I ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⵍⴷⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵎⵓⵓⵜⵢⵔⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵍⵢⴱⴰⵍⵍⵓⵉⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⴰⵢⵢⵍⵢⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵓⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ
"A cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.","ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⴾⴾⵢⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵗⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ; ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ , ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵙⵙⵢ, ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵉ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ"
"These include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing.","ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ, ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ, ⵜⴰⵈⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⴷ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ , ⴰⵏⵙⴰⵗ, ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⵙⴰⵏ"
The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been used to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies.,ⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵉⴱⵉⵍⵉⵣⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜ-ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⴰⵜ
Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century.,ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎoⵙ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000
"In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢⵙ, ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵜⵢⵔⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵆⴰⵍⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ"
"In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ, ⵎⵓⵍⵜⵉⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵢⵔ ⴷ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ"
"""In 1986, philosopher Edward S. Casey wrote, """"The very word culture meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere, 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and cultus, 'A cult, especially a religious one.'""","“ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1968, ⵢⴷⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵙ. ⵛⴰⵙⵢⵉ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ “ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵗⴰⴼ ⵏⵢⵜ: ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵍⵢ ⵢⵏⴶⵍⵉⵙⵂ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ Lⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⵢⵔⵢ, ‘ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ, ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ, ⵂⴰⵔ, ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵙ’ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ”"
"""Thus a contrast between """"culture"""" and """"civilization"""" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.""",“ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ “”ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ‘’ ⴷ ‘’ⵛⵉⴱⵉⵍⵉⵣⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ’’ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⵜⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⴰⵍⵜ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⴾ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ”
"This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago and is often thought to be unique to humans.",ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⵢⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴾⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵢⵂⴰⴱⵉⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵔⵏⵉⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ 50.000 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
"Rein Raud, building on the work of Umberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.","ⵔⵢⵉⵏ ⵔⴰⵓⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⵢⵔⵜⵓ ⵢⵛⵓ, ⴱⵉⵢⵔⵔⵢ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵢⵓ ⴷ ⵋⵢⴼⴼⵔⵢⵉ ⵛ. ⴰⵍⵢⵆⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵛⵍⴰⵉⵎⵙ ⴰⵏⴷ ⴱⵉⴷⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⵢⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ"
Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.,ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⴶⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
"Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action.",ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴷ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵗⴰⵍ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵓⴰⵜ
Environmental conditions may also enter as factors.,ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ
War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics.,ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴾⵎⵓ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
"""For example, Western restaurant chains and culinary brands sparked curiosity and fascination to the Chinese as China opened its economy to international trade in the late 20th-century. """"""","“ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⵢⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵆⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵣⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵋⴰⵔⵔⵓⵣⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ ⴰⵎⵎⵢⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000””"
"He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently.",ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵏⴰⵏⵗⵢ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔ ⵎⵓⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ
"""Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of Bildung: """"For Herder, Bildung was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people.""""""","“ⴾⵢⴷⵢⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵍⴷⵓⵏⴶ “”ⵉ ⵂⵢⵔⴷⵢⵔ, ⴱⵉⵍⴷⵓⵏⴶ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵂⴰⴾⴾⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ”””"
"According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups.","ⵜⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵉ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ"
He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements.,Iⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵈ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵙⴰⴾⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ
"""""""a particular way of life, whether of a people, period or a group.""""""","“””Iⵎⵉⴾ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ,ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ””"
"""In other words, the idea of """"culture"""" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.""","“” ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ “”ⴰⴶⵏⴰ’’ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⴷ 900 ⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⵉⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ””"
"According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ"
"Other 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵔⵉⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⵉⵏ 1900, ⵓⵙⵙⵢⴰⵓ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⵗⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵆⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵗ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
In 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1870 ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵢⴷⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵟⵉⵍⵢⵔ (1832 ⵂⴰⵔ 1917) ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ
"""For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to """"the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history.""""""","“ I ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵗⵢⵓⵔⴶ ⵙⵉⵎⵎⵢⵍ (1858 ⵂⴰⵔ 1918), ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ‘ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴶⵢⵏⵛⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵜⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ””"
"Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made.","ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵆⵍⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ,ⴰⵓⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⵓⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵋⵋ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ"
"""Cultural sociology was then """"reinvented"""" in the English-speaking world as a product of the """"cultural turn"""" of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science.""",“ ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ “”ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ” ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ “ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵔⵏ” ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1960 ⵜⵉⵉⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵎⵓⴷⵢⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵢ”
"""Culture"""" has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis.""",“”ⴰⴶⵏⴰ” ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⵉⴾⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵓⵏⵛⵢ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⴼⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
"They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.",Iⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵉⵋⵔⵣ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ
"It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall, who succeeded Hoggart as Director.",ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵗ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵜⵓⴰⵔⵜ ⵂⴰⵍⵍ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⴶⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵢⴾⵜⵢⵔ
These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television or eating out) in a given culture.,"ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ (ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⵉⵣⵉⵓⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ), ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⵏ"
"""Watching television to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends to """"fit in"""" certainly qualifies since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice.""",“ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⵉⵣⵉⵓⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⵢⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵓⵉⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ; ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⵉ ⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ” ⴰⴷ “”ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵋⴰⵏ” ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ”
"""Culture"""" for a cultural-studies researcher not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups) and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices.""",“ⴰⴶⵏⴰ” ⴰⵓ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ (ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ) ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ”
Scholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s.,Iⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵓⴰⵉⵓⵎ ⵓⵏⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1970
"The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded.","ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵉ"
The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning.,ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵜⵂⵓⴷⵓⵆ ⵎⴰⵔⵆⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ
"Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view.",ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵢⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵋⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ
"Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between emotions and culture, and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture.",ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵔⵢⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ
"On the other hand, some researchers try to look for differences between people's personalities across cultures.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴰⵔ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"For example, people who are raised in a culture with an abacus are trained with distinctive reasoning style.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵛⵓⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵓⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ"
"Basically, the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Diversity deal with the protection of culture.",ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵢⵔⴷⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵉⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⵢⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵢⵔⴷⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵢⵙⵛⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ
"Under international law, the UN and UNESCO try to set up and enforce rules for this.","ⵢⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ , ⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵢⵙⵛO ⵢⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ"
"The target of the attack is the identity of the opponent, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target.","Iⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵆⴰⵙⵉⵎ ,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ"
A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect of that community and its religion or cultures.,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
"Next to religion and folklore, a significant origin is agricultural.",ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵓⵉⵋⵋⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ
"Festivals often serve to fulfill specific communal purposes, especially in regard to commemoration or thanking to the gods, goddesses or saints: they're called patronal festivals.","ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵢⵔ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵜⵏ: Iⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"In Ancient Greece and Rome, festivals such as the Saturnalia were closely associated with social organisation and political processes as well as religion.","ⵢⴰⵗ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⵛⵢ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⴰⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰⵍⵉⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵗ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ"
"""In Middle English, a """"festival dai"""" was a religious holiday.""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵍ ⴷⵏⴶⵍⵉⵙⵂ, ‘“ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⴷⴰⵉ’’’ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ “"
"""The term """"feast"""" is also used in common secular parlance as a synonym for any large or elaborate meal.""",“” Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “”ⴰⵎⵓⴷ” ⵉⵏⵜ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⴾⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵙⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ”
"The most important religious festivals such as Christmas, Rosh Hashanah, Diwali, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha serve to mark out the year.","ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵂ ⵂⴰⵙⵂⴰⵏⴰⵂ, ⵢⵉⵓⴰⵍⵉ, ⵢⵉⴷ ⴰⵍ-ⴼⵉⵜⵔ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴷ ⴰⵍ-ⴰⴷⵂⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⵓⴰⵍ ⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ"
An early example is the festival established by Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Ramesses III celebrating his victory over the Libyans.,ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ Fⴰⵔⵗⴰⵓⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵔⴰⵎⵙⵢⵙ III ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⵢⵍ Lⵉⴱⵉⴰ
There are numerous types of festivals in the world and most countries celebrate important events or traditions with traditional cultural events and activities.,Iⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂ(ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵆⴰⴷⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ
Ancient Egyptian festivals could be either religious or political.,ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ
"The Sed festival, for example, celebrated the thirtieth year of an Egyptian pharaoh's rule and then every three (or four in one case) years after that.",ⵢⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵢⴷ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ 30 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⵗⴰⵓⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ (ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ) ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ
"In the Christian liturgical calendar, there are two principal feasts, properly known as the Feast of the Nativity of our Lord (Christmas) and the Feast of the Resurrection (Easter), but minor festivals in honour of local patron saints are celebrated in almost all countries influenced by Christianity.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⵓⴷⴷⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵍⴰⵏ , ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ (ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵜⵎⴰⵙ) ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵗⴰⵙ (Eⴰⵙⵜⵢⵔ) ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵢⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"Buddhist religious festivals, such as Esala Perahera are held in Sri Lanka and Thailand.",ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴷⴷⵂⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷⵢⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⴱⵢⵔⴰⵂⵢⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵔⵉ Lⴰⵏⴾⴰ ⴷ ⵟⵂⴰⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷ
"Film festivals involve the screenings of several different films, and are usually held annually.",ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ
"There are also specific beverage festivals, such as the famous Oktoberfest in Germany for beer.",ⵜ-ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵙⴰⵙⵢ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵎⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵍⵢⵎⴰⴶⵏⵢ
"Ancient Egyptians relied upon the seasonal inundation caused by the Nile River, a form of irrigation, which provided fertile land for crops.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜ ⵉⵗⴰⵛⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵍⵢ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵓⵉ ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵍⴰⵎⵎⵢⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵓⵜ
Dree Festival of the Apatanis living in Lower Subansiri District of Arunachal Pradesh is celebrated every year from July 4 to 7 by praying for a bumper crop harvest.,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵜⴰⵏⵉⵙ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⴱⴰⵏⵙⵉⵔⵉ ⵢⵉⵙⵜⵔⵉⵛⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵏⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⴰⴷⵢⵙⵂ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 4 ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ 7 ⵏ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⵓⵉⵍⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ
"A holiday is a day set aside by custom or by law on which normal activities, especially business or work including school, are suspended or reduced.",ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⴼⵓⵜ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵓⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴾⴾⴰⵔ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜ-ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ
"The degree to which normal activities are reduced by a holiday may depend on local laws, customs, the type of job held or personal choices.","ⴷⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⴼⵓⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ,ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ"
"In most modern societies, however, holidays serve as much of a recreational function as any other weekend days or activities.","ⵢⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ, ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⴼⵓⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ"
"In some cases, a holiday may only be nominally observed.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⴼⵓⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ"
The modern use varies geographically.,ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵙ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
"For example, Monkey Day is celebrated on December 14, International Talk Like a Pirate Day is observed on September 19, and Blasphemy Day is held on September 30.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ,ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵉⴰ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 14 ⵏ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴹⵉⵙⴰⵎⴱⴰⵔ, Iⵏⵜⵢⵔⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⵟⴰⵍⴾ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 19 ⵏ ⴰⵉoⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵜⴰⵎⴱⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵋⴷⵉⴼ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 30 ⵏ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵜⴰⵎⴱⴰⵔ"
"""Jehovah's Witnesses annually commemorate """"The Memorial of Jesus Christ's Death"""", but do not celebrate other holidays with any religious significance such as Easter, Christmas or New Year's.""","“ ⵆⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⴶⵓⵂⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵋⵢⵂⵓⴱⴰⵂ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ‘’Iⵙⵉⴾⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ”” ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⴼⵓⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵙⵜⵢⵔ, ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵜⵎⴰⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ””"
"Ahmadi Muslims additionally celebrate Promised Messiah Day, Promised Reformer Day, and Khilafat Day, but contrary to popular belief, neither are regarded as holidays.","Iⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⵎⴰⴷⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵎⵉⵙⵢⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰⵂ ⴹⴰⵉ, ⴱⵔⵓⵎⵉⵙⵢⴷ ⵙⵓⴼⵓⵔⵎⴻⵡⵢⵔ ⵢⴰⵉ ⴷ ⵆⵉⵍⴰⴼⴰ ⵢⴰⵉ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵗⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ , ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵉ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⴼⵓⵜ"
"Celtic, Norse, and Neopagan holidays follow the order of the Wheel of the Year.","Iⵛⵂⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⴼⵓⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⵢⵍⵜⵉⵛ, ⵎⵓⵔⵙⵢ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵓⴱⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵂⵢⵢⵍ ⵓⴼ ⵜⵂⵢ ⵗⵢⴰⵔ"
"Researchers in bioarchaeology combine the skill sets of human osteology, paleopathology, and archaeology, and often consider the cultural and mortuary context of the remains.","ⵆⵢⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵉⵓⴰⵔⵛⵂⴰⵢⵓⵍⵓⵓⴶⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⴱⴰⵍⵢⵓⴱⴰⵜⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⴰⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ"
Evolutionary psychology is the study of psychological structures from a modern evolutionary perspective.,ⴷⴱⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵔⵉ ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵙⴱⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ
"Human behavioral ecology is the study of behavioral adaptations (foraging, reproduction, ontogeny) from the evolutionary and ecologic perspectives (see behavioral ecology).","ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴱⵢⵂⴰⴱⵉⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ (ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵜⵢ,ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ) ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵛⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ( ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷ ⵢⵛⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ)"
"Paleoanthropology is the study of fossil evidence for human evolution, mainly using remains from extinct hominin and other primate species to determine the morphological and behavioral changes in the human lineage, as well as the environment in which human evolution occurred.",ⴱⴰⵍⵢⵓⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵓⵢⵏ
"The name is even relatively new, having been 'physical anthropology' for over a century, with some practitioners still applying that term.","Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉ , ⵉⵍⴰ “ⵢⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⴰⴶⵉ” ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵎⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵢⵏ"
"Some editors, see below, have rooted the field even deeper than formal science.","ⵢⴷⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷ ⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔ, ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵣⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ"
"This became the main system through which scholars thought about nature for the next roughly 2,000 years.",ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵉ 2000 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ
"He also wrote about physiognomy, an idea derived from writings in the Hippocratic Corpus.","ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⵓⵜⵓⴱ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵣⵉⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ, ⴰⵏⵓⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⵜⵓⴱⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⴱⴱⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⵆⵓⵔⴱⵓⵙ"
"In the 19th century, French physical anthropologists, led by Paul Broca (1824-1880), focused on craniometry while the German tradition, led by Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902), emphasized the influence of environment and disease upon the human body.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900, ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙ ⵙ ⴻⵡⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵓⵍ ⴱⵔⵓⵛⴰ ( ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1824 ⵂⴰⵔ 1880) ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⵍⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵛⵔⴰⵏⵉⵓⵎⵢⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵢⵎⴰⴶⵏⵢ ⵙ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵔⵓⴷⵓⵍⴼ ⴱⵉⵔⵛⵂⵓⵓ (ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1821 ⵂⴰⵔ 1902) ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ"
"He changed the focus from racial typology to concentrate upon the study of human evolution, moving away from classification towards evolutionary process.","Iⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵔⴰⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵜⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ , ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵏⴾⴰⵛⵂ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ"
A race is a grouping of humans based on shared physical or social qualities into categories generally viewed as distinct by society.,ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵙ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
"Modern science regards race as a social construct, an identity which is assigned based on rules made by society.","ⵙⵛⵉⵎⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ"
"Still others argue that, among humans, race has no taxonomic significance because all living humans belong to the same subspecies, Homo sapiens sapiens.","ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵍⴰⵂ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⵓ ⵙⴰⴱⵉⵢⵏⵙ"
"In South Africa, the Population Registration Act, 1950 recognized only White, Black, and Coloured, with Indians added later.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵓⵓⵜⵂ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵛⴰ, ⴱⵓⴱⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉⵓ ⵔⵢⴶⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴰⵛⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1950 ⵓⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ, ⵉⵎⵉⴾⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ Iⵏⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ"
"The United States Census Bureau proposed but then withdrew plans to add a new category to classify Middle Eastern and North African peoples in the U.S. Census 2020, over a dispute over whether this classification should be considered a white ethnicity or a separate race.",ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴷ Eⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ 2020 ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⵉⴾⴾⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵜ
"""The establishment of racial boundaries often involves the subjugation of groups defined as racially inferior, as in the one-drop rule used in the 19th-century United States to exclude those with any amount of African ancestry from the dominant racial grouping, defined as """"white"""".""",“ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵢⵂⵢ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⵉⵛⵂ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⵉ ⴰⵙⴾⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ “”ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ””
"""According to geneticist David Reich, """"while race may be a social construct, differences in genetic ancestry that happen to correlate to many of today's racial constructs are real.""""""",“ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵗⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛⵉⵙⵜ ⴹⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⵔⵢⵉⵛⵂ “”ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛ ⴰⵏⵛⵢⵙⵜⵔⵉ ⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ””
"Other dimensions of racial groupings include shared history, traditions, and language.","Iⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵢⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ"
"Socioeconomic factors, in combination with early but enduring views of race, have led to considerable suffering within disadvantaged racial groups.",ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⴾⵎⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ
"Racism has led to many instances of tragedy, including slavery and genocide.",ⴰⵏⵎⵉⴾⴰⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵛⵂⴰⴷ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⵉⵍⵓⵓⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵎⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
"Because in some societies racial groupings correspond closely with patterns of social stratification, for social scientists studying social inequality, race can be a significant variable.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵈⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵗⴰⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂ-ⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ, ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵓⵜ ⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ"
"For example, in 2008, John Hartigan, Jr. argued for a view of race that focused primarily on culture, but which does not ignore the potential relevance of biology or genetics.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ , ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2008, ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⵜⵉⴶⴰⵏ,ⵋⵔ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵓⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛⵙ"
"In this way the idea of race as we understand it today came about during the historical process of exploration and conquest which brought Europeans into contact with groups from different continents, and of the ideology of classification and typology found in the natural sciences.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵓⴾⴾⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵆⵢⵍ Eⵔⵢⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵈⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴾⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢⵙ
"A set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual, behavioral, and moral qualities.","ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵙⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴰⵔⵉⵙⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵋⴰⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ, ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴰⵔⵉⵙⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"The 1735 classification of Carl Linnaeus, inventor of zoological taxonomy, divided the human species Homo sapiens into continental varieties of europaeus, asiaticus, americanus, and afer, each associated with a different humour: sanguine, melancholic, choleric, and phlegmatic, respectively.","ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ 1735 ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵛⴰⵔⵍ Lⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵓⵙ, ⵢⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵤⵓⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵆⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵎⵓ ⵙⴰⴱⵉⵢⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰⵢⵓⵙ, ⴰⵙⵉⴰⵜⵉⵛⵓⵙ, ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏⵓⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴼⵓⴾⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ: ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵏⵉ, ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴼ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ"
"""Blumenbach also noted the graded transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups and suggested that """"one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them"""".""","“ ⴱⵍⵓⵢⵎⵢⵏⴱⴰⵛⵂ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ‘’’ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ, ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵔ ⵢⵙⵙⴰⵏ’’’"
"It was further argued that some groups may be the result of mixture between formerly distinct populations, but that careful study could distinguish the ancestral races that had combined to produce admixed groups.",ⴰⵜ ⵓ-ⴰ-ⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⵗⴰⵎⴱⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ
"New studies of culture and the fledgling field of population genetics undermined the scientific standing of racial essentialism, leading race anthropologists to revise their conclusions about the sources of phenotypic variation.",ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵢⵙⵙⵢⵏⵜⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵔⴰⵛⵢ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵣⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵂⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱⵉⵛ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ
"Studies of human genetic variation show that human populations are not geographically isolated, and their genetic differences are far smaller than those among comparable subspecies.",ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴾⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ
Andreasen cited tree diagrams of relative genetic distances among populations published by Luigi Cavalli-Sforza as the basis for a phylogenetic tree of human races (p. 661).,ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵢⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴰⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵋⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵍⵓⵉⴶⵉ ⵛⴰⴱⴰⵍⵍⵉ-ⵙⴼⵓⵔⵣⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵛⴾ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵋⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ (ⴱ.661)
"Marks, Templeton, and Cavalli-Sforza all conclude that genetics does not provide evidence of human races.","ⵎⴰⵔⴾⵙ, ⵟⵢⵎⴱⵍⵢⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵛⴰⴱⴰⵍⵍⵉ-ⵙⴼⵓⵔⵣⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
"For example, with respect to skin color in Europe and Africa, Brace writes:To this day, skin color grades by imperceptible means from Europe southward around the eastern end of the Mediterranean and up the Nile into Africa.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ , ⴱⵔⴰⵛⵢ ⵉⵍⴾⵜⴰⴱ: ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ, ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵜⵢⵔⵔⴰⵏⵏⵢⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵍⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ"
"""He further argued that one could use the term race if one distinguished between """"race differences"""" and """"the race concept"""".""",“ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ “””ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ”” ⴷ “”ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ”
"In short, Livingstone and Dobzhansky agree that there are genetic differences among human beings; they also agree that the use of the race concept to classify people, and how the race concept is used, is a matter of social convention.","ⵍⵉⴱⵉⵏⴶⵙⵜⵓⵏⵢ ⴷ ⵢⵓⴱⵣⵂⴰⵏⵙⴾ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ; ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵙⴾⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ,ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ"
"""As the anthropologists Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda Jackson observed, """"Discordant patterns of heterogeneity falsify any description of a population as if it were genotypically or even phenotypically homogeneous"""".""",“Iⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵔⴷ ⵍⵉⵢⴱⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵜⵉⵎⴰⵂ ⵍⵉⵏⴷⴰ ⵋⴰⵛⴾⵙⵓⵏ “”ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵢⴷ ⵏ ⵂⵢⵜⵢⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏⵢⵉⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ‘’
"""The mid-20th-century anthropologist William C. Boyd defined race as: """"A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard to the frequency of one or more of the genes it possesses.""","“ⵢⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000, ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵛ. ⴱⵓⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ: “”ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴶⵢⵏⵢ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵂ”"
"Moreover, the anthropologist Stephen Molnar has suggested that the discordance of clines inevitably results in a multiplication of races that renders the concept itself useless.",ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵙⵜⵢⴱⵂⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵍⵏⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵛⵍⵉⵏⵢⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵜⴼⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ
"Joanna Mountain and Neil Risch cautioned that while genetic clusters may one day be shown to correspond to phenotypic variations between groups, such assumptions were premature as the relationship between genes and complex traits remains poorly understood.","ⵋⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵓⵓⵏⵜⴰⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵉⵍ ⵔⵉⵙⵂ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛ ⵛⵍⵓⵙⵜⵢⵔⵙ ⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵂⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱⵉⵛ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ,ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵔⵢⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴶⵢⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵜ ⵓ ⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ"
"""Any category you come up with is going to be imperfect, but that doesn't preclude you from using it or the fact that it has utility.""""""",“ ⴷⴷⴰⴶ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵢⴷ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⴰⴶⴷⴰⵍ ⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ””
"This assumed three population groups separated by large geographic ranges (European, African and East Asian).","ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ (ⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ)"
"""Anthropologists such as C. Loring Brace, the philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther, and the geneticist Joseph Graves, have argued that while there it is certainly possible to find biological and genetic variation that corresponds roughly to the groupings normally defined as """"continental races"""", this is true for almost all geographically distinct populations.""","“” ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵛ. ⵍⵓⵔⵉⵏⴶ ⴱⵔⴰⵛⵢ , ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵏⴰⵜⵂⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⴱⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵔⴰⵙⵓⵙ ⵓⵉⵏⵜⵂⵢⵔ ⴷ ⴶⴻⵡⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛⵉⵙⵜ ⵊⵓⵙⵢⵢⵂ ⵗⵔⴰⴱⵢⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ “”ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⵢ ⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵔⴰⵛⵢⵙ””, ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⵓⵔⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ”"
"Weiss and Fullerton have noted that if one sampled only Icelanders, Mayans and Maoris, three distinct clusters would form and all other populations could be described as being clinally composed of admixtures of Maori, Icelandic and Mayan genetic materials.","ⵓⵢⵉⵙⵙ ⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵍⵢⵔⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ Iⵛⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵉⴰⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉⵙ, ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⵏⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵜ ⵓ ⴰⴼⴰⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⵗⴰⵎⴱⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵓ ⵓⵔⵉ, Iⵛⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵛ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵉⴰ"
"Moreover, the genomic data underdetermines whether one wishes to see subdivisions (i.e., splitters) or a continuum (i.e., lumpers).","ⵗⵢⵏⵢⵎⵉⵛ ⴹⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵉ ⴰⴷⵓⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ (ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ,ⵙⴱⵍⵉⵜⵜⵢⵔ) ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴾⵉ (ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ, ⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⵔⵙ"
"""Alongside empirical and conceptual problems with """"race"""", following the Second World War, evolutionary and social scientists were acutely aware of how beliefs about race had been used to justify discrimination, apartheid, slavery, and genocide.""","“ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ “ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ” ,ⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ, ⵢⴱⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵜⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵉⵂⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ,ⴰⴱⴰⵔⵜⵂⵢⵉⴷ, ⵜⴰⴾⴾⵉⵍⵓⵓⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵎⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ””"
Craig Venter and Francis Collins of the National Institute of Health jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome in 2000.,ⵛⵔⴰⵉⴶ ⵢⵏⵜⵢⵔ ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙ ⵛⵓⵍⵍⵉⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ Iⵏⵙⵜⵉⵜⵓⵜⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴾⵉⵔⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴶⵢⵏⵓⵎⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000
It's not a scientific one.,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵢ
"""Anthropologist Stephan Palmié has argued that race """"is not a thing but a social relation""""; or, in the words of Katya Gibel Mevorach, """"a metonym"""", """"a human invention whose criteria for differentiation are neither universal nor fixed but have always been used to manage difference.""""""","“ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵙⵜⵢⴱⵂⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵎⵉⵢ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ”” ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵢⵋ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ”” ⵎⵢⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⵉⴰ ⵗⵉⴱⵍ ⵎⵢⴱⵓⵔⴰⵛⵂ “”ⵜⴰⵏⴶⴰⵍⵜ” , ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵢⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴾⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ””"
"There, racial identity was not governed by rigid descent rule, such as the one-drop rule, as it was in the United States.",ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵆⴾⵢⵎ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵏⵉ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ
"These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and not one category stands significantly isolated from the rest.",Iⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴱⵢⴾⵜⵔⵓⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ
"New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc, 1984.","ⵏⵢⵓ ⵋⵢⵔⵙⵓⵉ: ⴱⵔⵢⵏⵜⵉⵛⵢ ⵂⴰⵍⵍ Iⵏⵛ, 1984"
"""In European context, historical resonance of """"race"""" underscores its problematic nature.""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ “ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ” ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵗ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ”"
"""The concept of racial origin relies on the notion that human beings can be separated into biologically distinct """"races"""", an idea generally rejected by the scientific community.""","“ Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ “ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ” ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⴾⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ, ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⴾⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ"
"In the United States most people who self-identify as African American have some European ancestors, while many people who identify as European American have some African or Amerindian ancestors.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵗⴰⵔⵔⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵢⵔⵢⴱⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵗⴰⵔⵔⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ
The criteria for membership in these races diverged in the late 19th century.,Iⵛⵂⵉⵔⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900
"""Amerindians continue to be defined by a certain percentage of """"Indian blood"""" (called blood quantum).""",“ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ “ⴰⵛⵂⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵏⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ” (ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵛⵂⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵈⵓⴰⵏⵜⵓⵎ)”
This rule meant that those that were mixed race but with some discernible African ancestry were defined as black.,ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴾⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ
"""The term """"Hispanic"""" as an ethnonym emerged in the 20th century with the rise of migration of laborers from the Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America to the United States.""",“ Iⵙⵉⵎ” ⵓⴰⵏ “”ⵂⵉⵙⵆⴱⴰⵏⵉⵛ”” ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⴱ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000 ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵉ”
"Three factors, country of academic education, discipline, and age, were found to be significant in differentiating the replies.","ⵆⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ , ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱⴰⵏ"
"In 2007, Ann Morning interviewed over 40 American biologists and anthropologists and found significant disagreements over the nature of race, with no one viewpoint holding a majority among either group.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2007, ⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ 40 ⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵢⵔⴷⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵗ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵜ"
"""While he can see good arguments for both sides, the complete denial of the opposing evidence """"seems to stem largely from socio-political motivation and not science at all"""".""","“ ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵢⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵗ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ, ⴰⵙⴰⴱⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⵉⴾⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ “”ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ””"
"In partial response to Gill's statement, Professor of Biological Anthropology C. Loring Brace argues that the reason laymen and biological anthropologists can determine the geographic ancestry of an individual can be explained by the fact that biological characteristics are clinally distributed across the planet, and that does not translate into the concept of race.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵗⵉⵍⵍ, ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵛ. ⵍⵓⵔⵉⵏⴶ ⴱⵔⴰⵛⵢ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵋⵓⵂⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵋⵓⵂⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ"
"Physical anthropology texts argued that biological races exist until the 1970s, when they began to argue that races do not exist.",Iⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1970 ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⵉⴾⴾⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⵢⵏⴰⵜⵆ
"""In February 2001, the editors of Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine asked """"authors to not use race and ethnicity when there is no biological, scientific, or sociological reason for doing so.""""""","“ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⴱⵔⴰⵉⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2001, ⵢⴷⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴱⵢⴷⵉⴰⵜⵔⵉⴾⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ“”ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵗⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ, ⵏ ⵙⵉⴰⵏⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵙⵉⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ””"
Morning (2008) looked at high school biology textbooks during the 1952–2002 period and initially found a similar pattern with only 35% directly discussing race in the 1983–92 period from initially 92% doing so.,ⵎⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏⴶ (ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2008) ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1952 ⵂⴰⵔ 2002 ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵙ 35% ⵗⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1983 ⵂⴰⵔ 1992 ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ 92% ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ
"In general, the material on race has moved from surface traits to genetics and evolutionary history.",ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⵏⴾⴰⵛⵂ ⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ
"""She notes, """"At best, one can conclude that biologists and anthropologists now appear equally divided in their beliefs about the nature of race.""""""",“ⵜⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵙ “ⴰⴷⴷⵢⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴾⴾⴰⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ ⴰ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ “””
33 health services researchers from differing geographic regions were interviewed in a 2008 study.,33 ⵏ ⵆⵢⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2008
"Many sociologists focused on African Americans, called Negroes at that time, and claimed that they were inferior to whites.",ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⴶⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ
"In 1910, the Journal published an article by Ulysses G. Weatherly (1865-1940) that called for white supremacy and segregation of the races to protect racial purity.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1910, ⵋⵓⵓⵔⵏⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ Iⵍⴼⵉⵙⵉⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵓⵍⵉⵙⵢⵙⵙ ⵗ. ⵓⵢⴰⵜⵂⵢⵔⵍⵉ (ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1865 ⵂⴰⵔ 1940) ⵢⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴷⵉⵋⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ"
"In his work, he contended that social class, colonialism, and capitalism shaped ideas about race and racial categories.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⵢⵔⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ, ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ, ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵛ ⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ"
"By 1978, William Julius Wilson (1935–) argued that race and racial classification systems were declining in significance, and that instead, social class more accurately described what sociologists had earlier understood as race.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1978, ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵋⵓⵍⵉⵓⵙ ⵓⵉⵍⵙⵓⵏ (1935-) ⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ"
"""Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Sociology professor at Duke University, remarks, """"I contend that racism is, more than anything else, a matter of group power; it is about a dominant racial group (whites) striving to maintain its systemic advantages and minorities fighting to subvert the racial status quo.""","“ ⴷⴷⵓⴰⵔⴷⵓ ⴱⵓⵏⵉⵍⵍⴰ-ⵙⵉⵍⴱⴰ , ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵗⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵓⴾⵢ, ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ,”” ⴰⵔⵢⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ, ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ;ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵋⴰⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ (ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ) ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵈⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ”"
"In clinical settings, race has sometimes been considered in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵗⵜⵓⵔ, ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵓ ⴰⵋⵔ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ"
There is an active debate among biomedical researchers about the meaning and importance of race in their research.,ⵉⵍⵍⵢⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
Members of the latter camp often base their arguments around the potential to create genome-based personalized medicine.,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵛⴰⴾⴾⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⴱⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴶⵢⵏⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵂⴰ
"They argue that overemphasizing genetic contributions to health disparities carries various risks such as reinforcing stereotypes, promoting racism or ignoring the contribution of non-genetic factors to health disparities.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰⴾⴾⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⴾⴾⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴻⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⴰⵍⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⵙⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵢⵔⴾ ⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵓⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ"
"""IC"""" stands for """"Identification Code;"""" these items are also referred to as Phoenix classifications.""","“”ⵉⵛ”” ⴰⵎⵓⵙ “”ⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⴷ”, “”ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴱⵂⵓⵢⵏⵉⵆ ⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ”"
"""In many countries, such as France, the state is legally banned from maintaining data based on race, which often makes the police issue wanted notices to the public that include labels like """"dark skin complexion"""", etc.""","“ ⴷⴰⴱ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵢ, ⵉⴶⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵗⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ “”ⵜⴰⴾⴾⴰⵓⴰⵍⵜ”” ⵢⵜⵛ”"
Many consider de facto racial profiling an example of institutional racism in law enforcement.,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ
"""Mass incarceration is also, """"the larger web of laws, rules, policies, and customs that control those labeled criminals both in and out of prison.""""""","“ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵙⵓ ⵉⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ “” ⵓⵢⴱ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵙⵓ””””"
Many research findings appear to agree that the impact of victim race in the IPV arrest decision might possibly include a racial bias in favor of white victims.,ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ
"Some studies have reported that races can be identified with a high degree of accuracy using certain methods, such as that developed by Giles and Elliot.",ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵜ ⵓ-ⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵉⵍⵢⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵍⵍⵉⵓⵜ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"""The study concluded that """"The apportionment of genetic diversity in skin color is atypical, and cannot be used for purposes of classification.""""""",“ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⵔⵓ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ “” ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏ””””
Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans.,ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵍⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
"In addressing this question, ethnologists in the 19th century divided into two schools of thought.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ, ⵓⵜⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"""Some of those who advocated """"independent invention"""", like Lewis Henry Morgan, additionally supposed that similarities meant that different groups had passed through the same stages of cultural evolution (See also classical social evolutionism).""","“ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏⵢⵏ” ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⴰⵍ”” ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⵢⵏⵔⵉ ⵎⵓⵔⴶⴰⵏ , ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴰⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ( ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵢⴱⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ)”"
"Morgan, like other 19th century social evolutionists, believed there was a more or less orderly progression from the primitive to the civilized.","ⵎⵓⴶⴰⵏ , ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900, ⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵙ ⵙⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⵓ-ⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵓ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵢⴱⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵜ"
"""Although 19th-century ethnologists saw """"diffusion"""" and """"independent invention"""" as mutually exclusive and competing theories, most ethnographers quickly reached a consensus that both processes occur, and that both can plausibly account for cross-cultural similarities.""","“ ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵢⴱⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵍⵓⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ “ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ “ ⴷ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⴰⵍ”” ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵂⵢⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵏ, ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵎⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⴾⴱⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ “”"
"""Boas first articulated the idea in 1887: """"...civilization is not something absolute, but ... is relative, and ... our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes.""""""",“ ⴱⵓⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1887 “”... ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵓ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ...ⴰⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵜⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵍⴰ”””””
Cultural relativism involves specific epistemological and methodological claims.,ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵔⵢⵍⴰⵜⵉⴱⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⵓⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⴱⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵜⵂⵓⴷⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ
Cultural relativism was in part a response to Western ethnocentrism.,ⵛⵓⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵔⵢⵍⴰⵜⵉⴱⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ
"This understanding of culture confronts anthropologists with two problems: first, how to escape the unconscious bonds of one's own culture, which inevitably bias our perceptions of and reactions to the world, and second, how to make sense of an unfamiliar culture.","ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵓⵈⵈⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ : ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵏⴷⵢⴾ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵂⵢ ⵉⴶⵎⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵔⴰⵉ ⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵂⴰⵎⵉⵛ ⵢⵗⵛⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ  ⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ , ⵉⵏⴷⵢⴾ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵂⵢⵉⵋⵔⵓ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⵢⵉⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ"
"One such method is that of ethnography: basically, they advocated living with people of another culture for an extended period of time, so that they could learn the local language and be enculturated, at least partially, into that culture.",ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ: ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵣⵓⵈ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴾⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ; ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵎⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵢ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵋⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ
"His approach was empirical, skeptical of overgeneralizations, and eschewed attempts to establish universal laws.","ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂ ⴷ ⵢⵔⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ"
"He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the natural sciences, were not possible.","Oⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⴾⴾⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵛⵢⵏⵛⵢⵙ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ"
"His first generation of students included Alfred Kroeber, Robert Lowie, Edward Sapir, and Ruth Benedict, who each produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures.","ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵢⴷ ⵆⵔⵓⵢⴱⵢⵔ, ⵔⵓⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⵍⵓⵓⵉⵢ, ⵢⴷⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵙⴱⵉⵔ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵜⵂ ⴱⵢⵏⵢⴷⵉⵛⵜ, ⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ"
The publication of Alfred Kroeber's textbook Anthropology (1923) marked a turning point in American anthropology.,ⴰⵣⴰⵋⵋⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵢⴷ ⵆⵔⵓⵢⴱⵢⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1923 ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ
"Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists including Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up.","ⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵙⵉⴶⵎⵓⵏⴷ ⴼⵔⵢⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵛⴰⵔⵍ ⵋⵓⵏⴶ, ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵂⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵗⵏⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⵉ ⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍ"
"Economic anthropology as influenced by Karl Polanyi and practiced by Marshall Sahlins and George Dalton challenged standard neoclassical economics to take account of cultural and social factors, and employed Marxian analysis into anthropological study.",ⴷⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵆⴰⵔⵍ ⴱⵓⴰⵏⵉⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⵂⴰⵍⵍ ⵙⴰⵂⵍⵉⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵗⵢⵓⵔⴶⵢ ⵢⴰⵍⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵆⵉⵢⵣⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵉ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵆ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵙⵜⵓⴷⵉ
"In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the Algerian War of Independence and opposition to the Vietnam War; Marxism became an increasingly popular theoretical approach in the discipline.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ, ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵢⵜ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴶⵢⵔⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵢⵜⵏⴰⵎ, ⵎⴰⵔⵆⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ"
"In the 1980s books like Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as Antonio Gramsci and Michel Foucault moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 1980 ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵏⵉⴰⵍ ⴻⵏⵛⵓⵓⵏⵜⵢⵔ ⵣⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵋⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵋⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵓⵏⵉⵓ ⵗⵔⴰⵎⵙⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵛⵂⵢⵍ ⴼⵓⵓⵛⴰⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵂⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
"These interpretations must then be reflected back to its originators, and its adequacy as a translation fine-tuned in a repeated way, a process called the hermeneutic circle.","ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵓ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⵜⵉⴾⴾⵢⵍⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵓⵜ"
David Schnieder's cultural analysis of American kinship has proven equally influential.,ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⵆⵂⵏⵉⵢⴷⵢⵔ ⵉ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵜ
"The method originated in the field research of social anthropologists, especially Bronislaw Malinowski in Britain, the students of Franz Boas in the United States, and in the later urban research of the Chicago School of Sociology.","Iⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ , ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵏⵉⵙⵍⴰⵓ ⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏⵓⵓⵙⴾⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵣ ⴱⵓⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⴰⴶⵓⵛⵂⵓⵓⵍ ⵓⴼ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ"
"Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.","ⵓⴰⵍⵏⵓⵜ ⵛⵔⵢⵢⴾ, ⵛⴰ: ⴰⵍⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰ ⴱⵔⵢⵙⵙ"
"To establish connections that will eventually lead to a better understanding of the cultural context of a situation, an anthropologist must be open to becoming part of the group, and willing to develop meaningful relationships with its members.","ⴷⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵣⴰ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ, ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⵉⴷⵓⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ"
"Before participant observation can begin, an anthropologist must choose both a location and a focus of study.","ⴷⵢⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴶ ⴷ ⵢⵣⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ"
This allows the anthropologist to become better established in the community.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ
The majority of participant observation is based on conversation.,ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵓⴰⵏⵏⵉ
"In some cases, ethnographers also turn to structured observation, in which an anthropologist's observations are directed by a specific set of questions he or she is trying to answer.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵋ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ"
"This helps to standardize the method of study when ethnographic data is being compared across several groups or is needed to fulfill a specific purpose, such as research for a governmental policy decision.",ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵜⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⴰ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ
"Who the ethnographer is has a lot to do with what he or she will eventually write about a culture, because each researcher is influenced by his or her own perspective.",ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵢⵔ ⵓⵂⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵂⵓ ⵉⴾⵜⵉⴱ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⵜⵉⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ
"However, these approaches have not generally been successful, and modern ethnographers often choose to include their personal experiences and possible biases in their writing instead.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵗⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵢⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
"An ethnography is a piece of writing about a people, at a particular place and time.","ⴷⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ"
"A typical ethnography will also include information about physical geography, climate and habitat.","ⴷⵜⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉ , ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ"
"Boas' students such as Alfred L. Kroeber, Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead drew on his conception of culture and cultural relativism to develop cultural anthropology in the United States.","ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴼⴼⵢⴷ L ⵆⵔⵓⵢⴱⵢⵔ, ⵔⵓⵜⵂ ⴱⵢⵏⵢⴷⵉⵛⵜ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⴶⴰⵔⵢⵜ ⵎⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵔⵢⵍⴰⵜⵉⴱⵉⵙⵎ ⵉ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷⴰⴱ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ"
Today socio-cultural anthropologists attend to all these elements.,ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⴷⵓⵈ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
"""American """"cultural anthropologists"""" focused on the ways people expressed their view of themselves and their world, especially in symbolic forms, such as art and myths.""",“”ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ”” ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴾⵏⵓⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⵢⵏ “
"Monogamy, for example, is frequently touted as a universal human trait, yet comparative study shows that it is not.",ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵎⵓⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ
"Through this methodology, greater insight can be gained when examining the impact of world-systems on local and global communities.","ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⵢⵏ, ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵋⵔⵓ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ"
"""For example, a multi-sited ethnography may follow a """"thing,"""" such as a particular commodity, as it is transported through the networks of global capitalism.""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵎ ⵉ “”ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ”” ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ”"
An example of multi-sited ethnography is Nancy Scheper-Hughes' work on the international black market for the trade of human organs.,"ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵛⵉ ⵙⵛⵂⵢⴱⵢⵔ-ⵂⵓⴶⵂⵢⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴾⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ, ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵎⵓⵗⴰⵜ"
"Research in kinship studies often crosses over into different anthropological subfields including medical, feminist, and public anthropology.","ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ, ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵎⵓⵗⴰⵜ"
"That is the matrix into which human children are born in the great majority of cases, and their first words are often kinship terms.",ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵍⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ
"There are stark differences between communities in terms of marital practice and value, leaving much room for anthropological fieldwork.",ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
"The marital practice found in most cultures, however, is monogamy, where one woman is married to one man.","ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵢⴾⵔⵉⵙⵜ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ"
There are similar foundational differences where the act of procreation is concerned.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⴻⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ
"The shift can be traced back to the 1960s, with the reassessment of kinship's basic principles offered by Edmund Leach, Rodney Neeham, David Schneider, and others.","ⴰⴷⵉⵔⵉⵛⵂ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1960, ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴾⵓⵍⵓⴾⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴻⴷⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⵎⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵢⴰⵛⵂ, ⵔⵓⴷⵏⵢⵉ ⵏⵢⵢⵂⴰⵎ, ⵢⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⵙⵛⵂⵏⵢⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ"
"This shift was progressed further by the emergence of second-wave feminism in the early 1970s, which introduced ideas of marital oppression, sexual autonomy, and domestic subordination.","ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵏⴾⴰⵛⵂ ⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵢⵏⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1970 ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵛⵂⵏⵢ ⴷ ⵢⵛⵂⵉⵏⵉⵛⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ"
"""At this time, there was the arrival of """"Third World feminism"""", a movement that argued kinship studies could not examine the gender relations of developing countries in isolation, and must pay respect to racial and economic nuance as well.""","“ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵢⵏ, ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ “ⵜⵂⵉⵔⴷ ⵓⵓⵔⵍⴷ ⴼⵢⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵎ”””, ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵈⵈⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵢⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ"
"In Jamaica, marriage as an institution is often substituted for a series of partners, as poor women cannot rely on regular financial contributions in a climate of economic instability.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⴰⵎⴰⵉⵛⴰ, ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵈⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵣⴶⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
"With this technology, questions of kinship have emerged over the difference between biological and genetic relatedness, as gestational surrogates can provide a biological environment for the embryo while the genetic ties remain with a third party.",ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⴾⴰⴾⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ
"There have also been issues of reproductive tourism and bodily commodification, as individuals seek economic security through hormonal stimulation and egg harvesting, which are potentially harmful procedures.",ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵗⵍⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⴱⵔⵓⴷⵓⵛⵜⵉⴱⵢ ⵜⵓⵓⵔⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵢⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵂⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏⴰⵍ ⵙⵜⵉⵎⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵓⵈⵈⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⴰⴾⵉⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⵏⵢⵏ
"One critique is that, as its inception, the framework of kinship studies was far too structured and formulaic, relying on dense language and stringent rules.","ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⵎⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ,ⵢⵣⴰⵔⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ"
Much of this development can be attributed to the rise in anthropologists working outside of academia and the increasing importance of globalization in both institutions and the field of anthropology.,ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴾⵔⵉⵛⵂ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⵢⵎⵉⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ
The two types of institutions defined in the field of anthropology are total institutions and social institutions.,ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
"Anthropology of institutions may analyze labor unions, businesses ranging from small enterprises to corporations, government, medical organizations, education, prisons, and financial institutions.","ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⴾⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵛⵂⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ , ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ, ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ, ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ, ⵜⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵙo ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ"
Institutional anthropologists may study the relationship between organizations or between an organization and other parts of society.,ⵆⵢⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵓⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
"More specifically, anthropologists may analyze specific events within an institution, perform semiotic investigations, or analyze the mechanisms by which knowledge and culture are organized and dispersed.","ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ, ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵎⵓⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵎⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵏⵉⴱⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ"
"This new era would involve many new technological developments, such as mechanical recording.",ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ
"Current Anthropology 43(Supplement):S5-17.Schieffelin, Bambi B. 2006.","ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ 43 (ⵙⵓⴱⴱⵍⵢⵎⵢⵏⵜ): ⵙ5-17. ⵙⵛⵂⵉⵢⴼⴼⵢⵍⵉⵏ , ⴱⴰⵎⴱⵉ ⴱ. 2006"
"""Woolard, in her overview of """"code switching"""", or the systematic practice of alternating linguistic varieties within a conversation or even a single utterance, finds the underlying question anthropologists ask of the practice—Why do they do that?—reflects a dominant linguistic ideology.""","“ ⵓⵓⵓⵍⴰⵔⴷ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ “”ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴾⵓⴷ””, ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ , ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ - ⵎⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ? - ⵢⵂⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵓ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ”"
"Other linguists have carried out research in the areas of language contact, language endangerment, and 'English as a global language'.","ⵆⵢⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ, ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵎⴰⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⵏⴶⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵍⵉⵎ”"
"The work of Joel Kuipers develops this theme vis-a-vis the island of Sumba, Indonesia.",ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⵢⵍ ⵆⵓⵉⴱⵢⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⵔⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵎⴱⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵏⵢⵙⵉⴰ
"He feels, in fact, that the exemplary center idea is one of linguistic anthropology's three most important findings.",Oⴼⵔⴰⵉ ⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ
"Therefore, after a couple generations these languages may no longer be spoken.",ⵉⵛⵂⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰ ⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵓ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ
"To follow best practices of documentation, these records should be clearly annotated and kept safe within an archive of some kind.","ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ , ⵉⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵗⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ"
Language revitalization is the practice of bringing a language back into common use.,ⴰⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ
The course aims to educate indigenous and non-indigenous students about the Lenape language and culture.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⴰⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵢⵏⴰⴱⵢ
"Encouraging those who already know the language to use it, increasing the domains of usage, and increasing the overall prestige of the language are all components of reclamation.","ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵍⵜ, ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ"
Social anthropology is the study of patterns of behaviour in human societies and cultures.,ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵈ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
British and American anthropologists including Gillian Tett and Karen Ho who studied Wall Street provided an alternative explanation for the financial crisis of 2007–2010 to the technical explanations rooted in economic and political theory.,ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵗⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵜⵜ ⴷ ⵆⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵂⵓ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⵍ ⵙⵜⵔⵢⵢⵜ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2007- 2010 ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ
This development was bolstered by Franz Boas's introduction of cultural relativism arguing that cultures are based on different ideas about the world and can therefore only be properly understood in terms of their own standards and values.,ⴷⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⴰⵙ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵣ ⴱⵓⴰⵙ ⵙ ⴱⵉⵙⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵔⵢⵍⴰⵜⵉⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ
"""In 1906, Congolese pygmy Ota Benga was put by American anthropologist Madison Grant in a cage in the Bronx Zoo, labelled """"the missing link"""" between an orangutan and the """"white race"""" — Grant, a renowned eugenicist, was also the author of The Passing of the Great Race (1916).""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1906, ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵉⵣⵣⵓⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴶⵓ Oⵜⴰ ⴱⵢⵏⴶⴰ ⵉⵋⵢ ⴰⵏⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾⴰⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴾⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵓⵏⵆ ⵤⵓⵓ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ “” ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵋⴰⵍⴰⵜ”” ⵋⵉⵔ ⵓⵔⴰⵏⴶⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ “ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ”” -ⵗⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵓⴶⵢⵏⵉⵛⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵓⵔⴰⵜ “(1916)”"
"Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history and by the end of the 19th century the discipline began to crystallize into its modern form - by 1935, for example, it was possible for T.K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled A Hundred Years of Anthropology.","ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⵉⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵓ ⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1935, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ , ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⵉ ⵜ. ⵆ ⴱⵢⵏⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵜⵉⴱ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ"
"""Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary """"living fossils"""" that could be studied in order to understand the European past.""",“ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ “” ⵉⴶⵍⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ”” ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵗⵉⵔ ⵉ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ”
"However, as Stocking notes, Tylor mainly concerned himself with describing and mapping the distribution of particular elements of culture, rather than with the larger function, and he generally seemed to assume a Victorian idea of progress rather than the idea of non-directional, multilineal cultural change proposed by later anthropologists.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵜⵓⵛⴾⵉⵏⴶ ⵏⵓⵜⵢⵙ, ⵜⴰⵉⵍⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⵍⵓⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⵜⵓⵔⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ, ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ"
"His comparative studies, most influentially in the numerous editions of The Golden Bough, analyzed similarities in religious belief and symbolism globally.","ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⵉⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵗⵓⵍⴷⵢⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⴶⵂ, ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵎⵓⵍ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ"
The findings of the expedition set new standards for ethnographic description.,ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵛ
"Other intellectual founders include W. H. R. Rivers and A. C. Haddon, whose orientation reflected the contemporary Parapsychologies of Wilhelm Wundt and Adolf Bastian, and Sir E. B. Tylor, who defined anthropology as a positivist science following Auguste Comte.","ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵓ. ⵂ. ⵔ ⵔⵉⴱⵢⵔⵙ ⴷ ⴰ. ⵛ ⵂⴰⴷⴷⵓⵏ, ⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵓⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵉⵍⵂⵢⵍⵎ ⵓⵓⵏⴷⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴷⵓⵍⴼ ⴱⴰⵙⵜⵉⴰⵏ , ⴷ ⵙⵉⵔ ⵢ ⴱ . ⵜⴰⵉⵍⵓⵔ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⴶⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴱⵉⵓⵙⵉⵜⵉⴱⵉⵙⵜ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜⵢ ⵛⵓⵎⵜⵓ."
A. R. Radcliffe-Brown also published a seminal work in 1922.,ⴰ. ⵔ. ⵔⴰⴷⵛⵍⵉⴼⴼⵢ-ⴱⵔⵓⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1922
"""This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for """"Social Anthropology"""" by teaching at universities across the British Empire and Commonwealth.""",“ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⵛⵍⵉⴼⴼⵢ-ⴱⵔⵓⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵏⵢⵜ “ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ”” ⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⵍⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵓⵢⴰⵍⵜⵂ”.
He believed that indigenous terms used in ethnographic data should be translated into Anglo-American legal terms for the benefit of the reader.,Oⵔⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴼⴰⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴶⵍⵓ-ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵔⵓⵛⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵗⴰⵔ
Departments of Social Anthropology at different Universities have tended to focus on disparate aspects of the field.,ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢ ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ
A people is any plurality of persons considered as a whole.,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵢⴷⴰ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ
"Four states — Massachusetts, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky — refer to themselves as the Commonwealth in case captions and legal process.","ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ - ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵛⵂⵓⵙⵙⵢⵜⵜⵙ, ⴱⵉⵔⴶⵉⵏⵉⴰ, ⴱⵢⵏⵏⵙⵉⵍⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵆⵢⵏⵜⵓⵛⴾⵉ ⵗⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵓⵢⴰⵍⵜⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ"
"In some parts of the world, ethnology has developed along independent paths of investigation and pedagogical doctrine, with cultural anthropology becoming dominant especially in the United States, and social anthropology in Great Britain.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉⵉⴰⴰⴷ, ⵢⵜⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵉⵋⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴷⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ, ⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ"
"""The 15th-century exploration of America by European explorers had an important role in formulating new notions of the Occident (the Western world), such as the notion of the """"Other"""".""",“ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1500 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ Iⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ( ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ) ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ “ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ”””
"""The progress of ethnology, for example with Claude Lévi-Strauss's structural anthropology, led to the criticism of conceptions of a linear progress, or the pseudo-opposition between """"societies with histories"""" and """"societies without histories"""", judged too dependent on a limited view of history as constituted by accumulative growth.""","“ ⴷⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵛⵍⴰⵓⴷⵢⵢ ⵍⴰⴱⵉ-ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵓⵙⵙ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⵜ ⴻⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵛⴰⴾⴾⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ‘’ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆⴰⵏ””” ⴷ “” ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆⴰⵏ””, ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ””"
"However, the claims of such cultural universalism have been criticized by various 19th- and 20th-century social thinkers, including Marx, Nietzsche, Foucault, Derrida, Althusser, and Deleuze.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⴱⵢⵔⵙⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⴷ ⴰⵏ 2000, ⵢⵂⴰ ⵎⴰⵔⵆ, ⵏⵉⵢⵜⵣⵙⵛⵂⵢ, ⴼⵓⵓⵛⴰⵓⵍⵜ, ⵢⵢⵔⵔⵉⴷⴰ, ⴰⵍⵜⵂⵓⵙⵙⵢⵔ ⴷ ⵢⵢⵍⴻⵓⵣⵓ."
"An ethnic group or ethnicity is a grouping of people who identify with each other on the basis of shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups such as a common set of traditions, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation, religion, or social treatment within their residing area.","ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ, ⵉⵓⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵓⴰⵍ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ, ⴰⴶⵏⴰ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ, ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ"
"Membership of an ethnic group tends to be defined by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry, origin myth, history, homeland, language, or dialect, symbolic systems such as religion, mythology and ritual, cuisine, dressing style, art, or physical appearance.","ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵓⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴰⵓⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ, ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ,ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵣⴰⵉⵏⴰ, ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵙⵙⵢ, ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ"
"By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, individuals or groups may over time shift from one ethnic group to another.","ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ, ⴰⵙⵓⵋⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰ, ⴰⴷⴾⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵜ"
"Whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis.","ⵋⵉⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⵣⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵆⴰⵔⵓⴾ , ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵜ ⴰⵓ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵢⵏⵢⵉⵙ"
"""In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan (in the sense of disparate """"nations"""" which did not yet participate in the Christian oikumene), as the Septuagint used ta ethne (""""the nations"""") to translate the Hebrew goyim """"the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews"""".""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴶⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900, ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵂⵢⴰⵜⵂⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰⴶⵔⵓ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ‘ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ’ ⵏ-ⵉⴱⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵢⵛⵂ ⵓⵉⴾⵓⵎⵢⵏⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ) ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵢⴱⵜⵓⴰⴶⵉⵏⵜ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ ⵢⵂⵏⵢ “ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ”” ⵉ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴶⵓⵉⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵔⵢⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ “”ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ”, ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵂⵢⴱⵔⵢⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵍⵉⴰⵂⵓⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ””"
"""In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of """"peculiar to a race, people or nation"""", in a return to the original Greek meaning.""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900, ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ “ⵉⵍⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵏⵉ , ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ “””, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵗⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵢⵢⴾ”"
"""ethnic, a. and n."""") Depending on context, the term nationality may be used either synonymously with ethnicity or synonymously with citizenship (in a sovereign state).""","“ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ, ⴰ ⴷ ⵏ “) ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ, ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵉⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ( ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴱⴰⵔⵉⴷ)”"
Whether ethnicity qualifies as a cultural universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used.,ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⴶⴰⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ
"According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵂⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵢⵔⵉⴾⵙⵓⵏ, ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⵓⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ"
"The instrumentalist approach, on the other hand, treats ethnicity primarily as an ad hoc element of a political strategy, used as a resource for interest groups for achieving secondary goals such as, for instance, an increase in wealth, power, or status.","ⵉⵏⵙⵜⵔⵓⵎⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴰⴱⴱⵔⵓⴰⵛⵂ, ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ, ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⴻⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵢⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵢⵗ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ"
"Constructivists view national and ethnic identities as the product of historical forces, often recent, even when the identities are presented as old.","ⵉ ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵉⴱⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ , ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ"
"This is in the context of debates over multiculturalism in countries, such as the United States and Canada, which have large immigrant populations from many different cultures, and post-colonialism in the Caribbean and South Asia.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⵓⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⴰ, ⴷ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵜⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵔⵉⴱⴱⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵓⵜⵂ ⴰⵙⵉⴰⴱ"
"Third, group formation resulted from the drive to monopolize power and status.","ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵔⵢⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ"
Barth went further than Weber in stressing the constructed nature of ethnicity.,ⵔⵆⴱⴰⵔⵜⵂ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵓⵢⴱⵢⵔ ⵓⵏⴾⴰⵛⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵗ ⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ
"""He wanted to part with anthropological notions of cultures as bounded entities, and ethnicity as primordialist bonds, replacing it with a focus on the interface between groups. """"""","“ ⴷⵔⵂⴰ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⴶⵉ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ,ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ”””"
"""He agrees with Joan Vincent's observation that (in Cohen's paraphrase) """"Ethnicity... can be narrowed or broadened in boundary terms in relation to the specific needs of political mobilization.""",“ ⴷⵔⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⵛⵢⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ (ⴰⵙⵓⵗⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵂⵢⵏ) “”ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ.. ⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⵔⴰⵣ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵂⵉⵔⴰⵋ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵗⵓⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ’’’
Ethnic groups came to be defined as social rather than biological entities.,ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ
"Examples of various approaches are primordialism, essentialism, perennialism, constructivism, modernism, and instrumentalism.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵎⵓⵔⴷⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ, ⵢⵙⵙⵢⵏⵜⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ, ⴱⵢⵔⵢⵏⵏⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ, ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵉⴱⵉⵙⵎ, ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵔⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵙⵜⵔⵓⵎⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ"
"""""""Essentialist primordialism"""" further holds that ethnicity is an a priori fact of human existence, that ethnicity precedes any human social interaction and that it is unchanged by it.""","“”ⴷⵙⵙⵢⵏⵜⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴱⵔⵉⵎⵓⵔⴷⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ”” ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ”"
"""""""Kinship primordialism"""" holds that ethnic communities are extensions of kinship units, basically being derived by kinship or clan ties where the choices of cultural signs (language, religion, traditions) are made exactly to show this biological affinity.""","“”””ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ’’’’’ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵗⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵏⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ (ⴰⵓⴰⵍ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ) ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾoⵜ”"
"""""""Geertz's primordialism"""", notably espoused by anthropologist Clifford Geertz, argues that humans in general attribute an overwhelming power to primordial human """"givens"""" such as blood ties, language, territory, and cultural differences.""","“”””ⴱⵔⵉⵎⵓⵔⴷⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⵢⵜⵣ, ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵛⵍⵉⴼⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵗⵢⵢⵜⵣ, ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ‘”ⵢⵂⴰⴾ””” ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵏⵉ , ⴰⵓⴰⵍ, ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ”"
"""Smith (1999) distinguishes two variants: """"continuous perennialism"""", which claims that particular nations have existed for very long periods, and """"recurrent perennialism"""", which focuses on the emergence, dissolution and reappearance of nations as a recurring aspect of human history.""","“”ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (1999) ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ “” ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⵓⵓⵓⵙ ⴱⵢⵔⵢⵏⵏⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ””” ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⵏⵢⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ “”ⵔⵢⵓⵔⵔⵢⵏⵜ ⴱⵢⵔⵢⵏⵏⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ””, ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ, ⴰⴼⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⵗⵍⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ”"
"This view holds that the concept of ethnicity is a tool used by political groups to manipulate resources such as wealth, power, territory or status in their particular groups' interests.","ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵉ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ, ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
"""""""Instrumentalist perennialism"""", while seeing ethnicity primarily as a versatile tool that identified different ethnics groups and limits through time, explains ethnicity as a mechanism of social stratification, meaning that ethnicity is the basis for a hierarchical arrangement of individuals.""","“””ⵉⵏⵙⵜⵔⵓⵎⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴱⵢⵔⵏⵏⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ”” , ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵛⵂⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵉⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ”"
"According to Donald Noel, ethnic stratification will emerge only when specific ethnic groups are brought into contact with one another, and only when those groups are characterized by a high degree of ethnocentrism, competition, and differential power.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵏⴰⵍⴷ ⵏⵓⵢⵍ,ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵂⵉⵍ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴰⵜⵢⵏ, ⵜⴰⴾⵔⵉⴾⵉⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ."
"Continuing with Noel's theory, some degree of differential power must be present for the emergence of ethnic stratification.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵢⵍ, ⴷⵢⴶⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ"
"The different ethnic groups must be competing for some common goal, such as power or influence, or a material interest, such as wealth or territory.","ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴾⵔⵉⴾⵉⵔⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ, ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ, ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
"It holds that ethnic groups are only products of human social interaction, maintained only in so far as they are maintained as valid social constructs in societies.","ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ, ⵜⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ"
They hold that prior to this ethnic homogeneity was not considered an ideal or necessary factor in the forging of large-scale societies.,ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⵗⵉⵎⴱⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⵢⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ
"Members of an ethnic group, on the whole, claim cultural continuities over time, although historians and cultural anthropologists have documented that many of the values, practices, and norms that imply continuity with the past are of relatively recent invention.","ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵊⵜ, ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵗⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴾⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ, ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵗⵍⵓⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ."
"""It is based on the notion of """"culture"""".""",“ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⴰⴶⵏⴰ”
This view arose as a way to justify enslavement of African Americans and genocide of Native Americans in a society that was officially founded on freedom for all.,ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴾⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵛⵉⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵛⴰⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ
Many of the foremost scientists of the time took up the idea of racial difference and found that white Europeans were superior.,ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵜⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ
"Instead of attributing the marginalized status of people of color in the United States to their inherent biological inferiority, he attributed it to their failure to assimilate into American culture.","ⴰⵙ ⵋⴰⵔⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵢⵔⵢⵙ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ, ⵉⴼⵂⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵔⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⴾⴰ"
They argue in Racial Formation in the United States that the ethnicity theory was exclusively based on the immigration patterns of the white population and did take into account the unique experiences of non-whites in the United States.,ⵎⵉⵛⵂⴰⴾⴾⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⴾⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⴰ
"Assimilationshedding the particular qualities of a native culture for the purpose of blending in with a host culturedid not work for some groups as a response to racism and discrimination, though it did for others.",ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵉⴱⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵜⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵆⴷⴻⵎ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ
"""They culminated in the rise of """"nation-states"""" in which the presumptive boundaries of the nation coincided (or ideally coincided) with state boundaries.""",“ ⵉⵓⵉ-ⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ “ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ-ⵙⵜⴰⵜⴻⵙ” ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴻⵂⴰ ⵎⵉⵛⵂ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵈⵈⵉⵙⴰⵏ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵈⵈⵉⵙⴰⵏ) ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ”
"Nation-states, however, invariably include populations who have been excluded from national life for one reason or another.","ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ-ⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢⵙ, ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ"
"Multi-ethnic states can be the result of two opposite events, either the recent creation of state borders at variance with traditional tribal territories, or the recent immigration of ethnic minorities into a former nation-state.",ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵗⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵆⵍⵓⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ
"""States such as the United Kingdom, France and Switzerland comprised distinct ethnic groups from their formation and have likewise experienced substantial immigration, resulting in what has been termed """"multicultural"""" societies, especially in large cities.""","“ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵏⵉⵜⵢⴷ ⵆⵉⵏⴶⴷⵓⵎ, ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵢ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵉⵜⵣⴻⵔⵍⵏⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ “ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ”ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ” ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈoⵔⵏⵢⵏ"
"Though these categories are usually discussed as belonging to the public, political sphere, they are upheld within the private, family sphere to a great extent.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ, ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵂⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ , ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ"
"Before Weber (1864–1920), race and ethnicity were primarily seen as two aspects of the same thing.",ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵓⵢⴱⵢⵔ (ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1864 ⵂⴰⵔ 1920) ⵉⵏⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜ=ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ
"According to this view, the state should not acknowledge ethnic, national or racial identity but rather instead enforce political and legal equality of all individuals.","ⴷⴰⴱ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵢⵏ , ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ,, ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ"
"The 19th century saw the development of the political ideology of ethnic nationalism, when the concept of race was tied to nationalism, first by German theorists including Johann Gottfried von Herder.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⵏⵉ ⴷ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ, ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴶⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵂⴰ ⵋⵓⵂⴰⵏⵏ ⵗⵓⵜⵜⵔⵉⵢⴷ ⴱⵓⵏ ⵂⵔⴷⵔ"
Each promoted the pan-ethnic idea that these governments were acquiring only lands that had always been inhabited by ethnic Germans.,ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵔⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴶⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ
"The colonization of Asia was largely ended in the 20th century, with national drives for independence and self-determination across the continent.",ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⵉⵎⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000 ⵙ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵆⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ
"A number of European countries, including France and Switzerland, do not collect information on the ethnicity of their resident population.",ⵓIⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵂⴰ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵢ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵉⵜⵣⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵙⵉⴷⵉⵓ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ
"During European colonization, Europeans arrived in North America.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ , ⵆⵢⵍ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ"
Digital ethnography allows for a lot more opportunities to look at different cultures and societies.,ⴷⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⵜ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⵢⵏ
Relational Ethnography articulates studying fields rather than places or processes rather than processed people.,ⵔⵢⵍⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ
The goal is to collect data in such a way that the researcher imposes a minimal amount of personal bias in the data.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵣⴰⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⵓ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ
"Interviews are often taped and later transcribed, allowing the interview to proceed unimpaired of note-taking, but with all information available later for full analysis.",ⵉⵎⵉⵋⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵜⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵔⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴰ ⵢⵋ ⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ
"Despite these attempts of reflexivity, no researcher can be totally unbiased.","ⴷⵔⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵢⴼⵍⵢⵆⵉⵜⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ , ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵓ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵋ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵏ"
"These informants are typically asked to identify other informants who represent the community, often using snowball or chain sampling.",ⵆⵢⵍ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜ ⵓ ⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰ ⵙⵏⵓⵓⴱⴰⵍⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵛⵂⴰⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴱⵍⵉⵏⴶ
2010) examine the ontological and epistemological presuppositions underlying ethnography.,2010) ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ
"""Critical theory researchers address """"issues of power within the researcher-researched relationships and the links between knowledge and power.""""""",“ⵆⴻⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ “”” ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴷ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⵉⴰ”””
"An image can be contained within the physical world through a particular individual's perspective, primarily based on that individual's past experiences.",ⵜⵍⴰⵉ ⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ
The idea of an image relies on the imagination and has been seen to be utilized by children in a very spontaneous and natural manner.,ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵋⵔⴰⵂ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵢⵔⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ
Cultural and social anthropologists today place a high value on doing ethnographic research.,ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵜⵜⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵛ
"""Ethnographies are also sometimes called """"case studies.""""""",“”ⴷⵜⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ“”Iⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ
"The fieldwork usually involves spending a year or more in another society, living with the local people and learning about their ways of life.","ⴷⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ , ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ"
Benedict's experiences with the Southwest Zuni pueblo is to be considered the basis of her formative fieldwork.,ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵢⵏⵢⴷⵉⵛⵜⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵤⵓⵏⵉ ⴱⵓⵢⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ
"A typical ethnography attempts to be holistic and typically follows an outline to include a brief history of the culture in question, an analysis of the physical geography or terrain inhabited by the people under study, including climate, and often including what biological anthropologists call habitat.","ⴷⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵜ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵂⵢ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵎⵢⵓ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵂⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ ⵂⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵜ"
"Kinship and social structure (including age grading, peer groups, gender, voluntary associations, clans, moieties, and so forth, if they exist) are typically included.","ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ (ⵢⵂⴰ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ, ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍ, ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵉ ⵙⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵍⵍⴰⵂ, ⵉⵙⴾⵓⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ) ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ"
"Rites, rituals, and other evidence of religion have long been an interest and are sometimes central to ethnographies, especially when conducted in public where visiting anthropologists can see them.","ⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵛⵂⴰⵗⴰ-ⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵢⵂⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵢⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"For example, if within a group of people, winking was a communicative gesture, he sought to first determine what kinds of things a wink might mean (it might mean several things).","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵋ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵜ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵋ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ( ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ)"
"""Geertz, while still following something of a traditional ethnographic outline, moved outside that outline to talk about """"webs"""" instead of """"outlines"""" of culture.""","“ⵗⵢⵔⵜⵣ, ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵛ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ, ⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ “””ⵓⵢⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ””” ⵓⵂⵓⵏ “””ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ “”” ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ"
"Writing Culture helped bring changes to both anthropology and ethnography often described in terms of being 'postmodern,' 'reflexive,' 'literary,' 'deconstructive,' or 'poststructural' in nature, in that the text helped to highlight the various epistemic and political predicaments that many practitioners saw as plaguing ethnographic representations and practices.","ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⴻⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⴱⵂⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴼⵉⵙⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ “ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵎⵓⴷⴻⵔⵎ” ⵔⴻⴼⵍⴻⵆⵉⴱⴻ” ⵍⵉⵜⴻⵔⴰⵔⵉ”, ⵉⴼⴰⵜⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ” ⵎⴻⵗ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ” ⵙ ⴰⵗⴰⵏⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ , ⴷⴰⴱ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴼⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴻⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ"
"In regards to this last point, Writing Culture became a focal point for looking at how ethnographers could describe different cultures and societies without denying the subjectivity of those individuals and groups being studied while simultaneously doing so without laying claim to absolute knowledge and objective authority.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ, ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴻⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⴰⴱⵂⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴻⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵂⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ"
"As the purpose of ethnography is to describe and interpret the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviors, beliefs, and language of a culture-sharing group, Harris, (1968), also Agar (1980) note that ethnography is both a process and an outcome of the research.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⵢⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵜ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ,ⵂⴰⵔⵔⵉⵙ, (ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1968), ⴷ ⴰⴶⴰⵔ ( ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1980) ⵉⵜⴾⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⴾⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ"
"""Sociologist Sam Ladner argues in her book, that understanding consumers and their desires requires a shift in """"standpoint,"""" one that only ethnography provides.""","“ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵙⴰⵎ ⵍⴰⴷⵏⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ “”ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⴷⴷⵢ”” , ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⴾⴾⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ”"
"""By assessing user experience in a """"natural"""" setting, ethnology yields insights into the practical applications of a product or service.""",“ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵉⴰⵣ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ “ⴰⵜⵜⴰⴱⵉⵗⴰⵏ “ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴰⴱⵍⵉⴾⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ
The Ethnographic Praxis in Industry (EPIC) conference is evidence of this.,ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵛ ⴱⵔⴰⵆⵉⵙ ⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵜⵔⵉ (ⵢⴱIⵛ) ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ
"""Jaber F. Gubrium and James A. Holstein's (1997) monograph, The New Language of Qualitative Method, discusses forms of ethnography in terms of their """"methods talk.""""""","“” ⵎⵓⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂ ⵓⵏ ⵋⴰⴱⵢⵔ ⴼ. ⵗⵓⴱⵔⵉⵓ ⴷ ⵋⴰⵎⵢⵙ ⴰ. ⵂⵓⵍⵙⵜⵢⵉⵏⵙ”ⵙ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1997) , ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵓⴰⵍⵉⵜⴰⵉⴱⵢ ⵎⵢⵜⵂⵓⴷ, ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ”” ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
"""Essentially, Fine maintains that researchers are typically not as ethical as they claim or assume to be — and that """"each job includes ways of doing things that would be inappropriate for others to know"""".""",“ⴼⵉⵏⵢ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴾⵢⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵈⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵗⵉⵍⴰⵏ - ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ “ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⵢⵗ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ””
"""He maintains that """"illusions"""" are essential to maintain an occupational reputation and avoid potentially more caustic consequences.""",“ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵙ “” ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ “” ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⵏⵢⵏ”
"The code of ethics notes that anthropologists are part of a wider scholarly and political network, as well as human and natural environment, which needs to be reported on respectfully.",ⴰⵍⵈⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⴱⵉⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵔⵂⴰⵏⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ
Researchers take near-fictions and turn them into claims of fact.,ⵆⵢⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵔⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ
"In reality, an ethnographer will always miss some aspect because of lacking omniscience.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ, ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵢⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴾⵎⴰⵍⴰⵜ"
"Indigenous peoples, also referred to as first people, aboriginal people, native people, or autochthonous people, are culturally distinct ethnic groups who are native to a place which has been colonised and settled by another ethnic group.","ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ"
"""Peoples are usually described as """"indigenous"""" when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with a given region.""",“” ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ”” ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ”
"Indigenous peoples continue to face threats to their sovereignty, economic well-being, languages, ways of knowing, and access to the resources on which their cultures depend.","ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⵎⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵆⵢⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
Estimates of the total global population of Indigenous peoples usually range from 250 million to 600 million.,ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ Iⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴼⵓ ⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ 250 ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵂⴰⵔ 600 ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵓⵏ
"As a reference to a group of people, the term Indigenous first came into use by Europeans who used it to differentiate the Indigenous peoples of the Americas from enslaved Africans.","ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⵜ , ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵢⴶⵢⵏⵉⵓⵓⵙ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵍⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏⵢⵏ"
"In the 1970s, the term was used as a way of linking the experiences, issues, and struggles of groups of colonized people across international borders.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1970, ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⵙ ⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ, ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ"
"This situation can persist even in the case where the Indigenous population outnumbers that of the other inhabitants of the region or state; the defining notion here is one of separation from decision and regulatory processes that have some, at least titular, influence over aspects of their community and land rights.","ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜ-ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵓⵉⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴷⵉⵂⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
"A 2009 United Nations report published by the Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues stated: For centuries, since the time of their colonization, conquest or occupation, Indigenous peoples have documented histories of resistance, interface or cooperation with states, thus demonstrating their conviction and determination to survive with their distinct sovereign identities.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⴷⵢ ⵏ 2009 Oⵏⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵙⵢⵛⵔⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ: ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ , ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ , ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⵓⵜⵉ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵍⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵣⵓⵈ ⵜⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
"These people were seen by ancient writers either as the ancestors of the Greeks, or as an earlier group of people who inhabited Greece before the Greeks.",ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵜⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵓⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴶⵔⵢⵢⵛⵢ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ
The Crusades (1096-1271) were based on this ambition of a holy war against who the church saw as infidels.,ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ (1096 ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ 1271) ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⴱⴱⵢⴷⵉⵔⴰⵏ
"However, the council upheld that conquests could 'legally' occur if non-Christians refused to comply with Christianization and European natural law.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⵛⵓⵓⵏⵛⵉⵍ ⵢⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ “ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ” ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⴱⵉⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ"
"In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Indigenous peoples of what are now referred to as the Canary Islands, known as Guanches (who had lived on the islands since the BCE era) became the subject of colonizers' attention.","ⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1400 ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ1500, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵛⴰⴱⴰⵔⵉ Iⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷⵙ ( ⵓⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ Iⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵛⵢ) ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⵉⵔⴰⵏ"
"In 1402, the Spanish began efforts to invade and colonize the islands.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1402, ⵆⵢⵍ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵜⴰⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵏ Iⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"The invaders brought destruction and diseases to the Guanche people, whose identity and culture disappeared as a result.",ⴰⵍⵗⵓⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵗⴰⵛⵂⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⵓⴰⵏⵛⵂ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ
"""As stated by Robert J. Miller, Jacinta Ruru, Larissa Behrendt, and Tracey Lindberg, the doctrine developed over time """"to justify the domination of non-Christian, non-European peoples and the confiscations of their lands and rights.""""""","“ ⴱⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵔⵓⴱⴻⵔⵜ ⵋ. ⵋⴰⵛⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵔⵓⵔⵓ, ⵍⴰⵔⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⴱⴻⵂⵔⴻⵏⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⵛⴻⵔⵉ ⵍⵉⵏⴷⴱⴻⵔⴶ, ⵎⴰⵜⵂⴰⴱ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ “”ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴾⴼⵓ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴻⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵎⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ””” ⵏ"
"Spanish King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella hired Christopher Columbus, who was dispatched in 1492, to colonize and bring new lands under the Spanish crown.",ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴼⵢⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏⴷ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵜ Iⵙⴰⴱⵢⵢⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⴱⵂⵢⵔ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1492 ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ
"""Alexander granted Spain any lands that it discovered as long as they had not been """"previously possessed by any Christian owner.""""""",“ ⴰⵍⵢⵆⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ “ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ”””
"Many conquistadors apparently feared that, if given the option, Indigenous peoples would actually accept Christianity, which would legally not permit invasion of their lands and the theft of their belongings.","ⵛⵓⵏⵈⵓⵉⵙⵜⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵢⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵙⵓ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵉⴱⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴱⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
"Being Catholic countries in 1493, England as well as France worked to 're-interpret' the Doctrine of Discovery to serve their own colonial interests.",1493 ⵢⵏⴶⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵢ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵛⵜⵔⵉⵏⴻ ⵓⴼ ⴹⵉⵙⵛⵓⴱⵢⵔⵉ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵏⴼⵓ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ
"""Land claims were made through symbolic """"rituals of discovery"""" that were performed to illustrate the colonizing nation's legal claim to the land.""",“ⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙ “ⵔⵉⵜⵓⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⴼ ⴷⵉⵙⵛⵓⴱⵢⵔⵉ” ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵗⵎⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵢⵔⴰⵗⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ”
"In 1774, Captain James Cook attempted to invalidate Spanish land claims to Tahiti by removing their marks of possession and then proceeding to set up English marks of possession.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1774, ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵉⵏ ⵋⴰⵎⵢⵙ ⵛⵓⵓⴾ ⵢⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵔⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⵉⵜⵉ ⵉ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵙ ⵉⴷⵉⵔⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⵢⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⵔⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ"
This concept formalized the idea that lands which were not being used in a manner that European legal systems approved of were open for European colonization.,ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵢ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ Eⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⵢⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ Eⵔⵓⴱⴰ
"As the 'rules' of colonization became established into legal doctrine agreed upon by between European colonial powers, methods of laying claims to Indigenous lands continued to expand rapidly.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴼⴰ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ , ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵓ-ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵎⵓⴷ"
"Precise estimates for the total population of the world's Indigenous peoples are very difficult to compile, given the difficulties in identification and the variances and inadequacies of available census data.","Iⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⵣⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ"
"This includes at least 5,000 distinct peoples in over 72 countries.",ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ 5.000 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ 72 ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ
Some have also been assimilated by other populations or have undergone many other changes.,ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵋⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ
"The highly diverse and numerous ethnic groups that comprise most modern, independent African states contain within them various peoples whose situation, cultures and pastoralist or hunter-gatherer lifestyles are generally marginalized and set apart from the dominant political and economic structures of the nation.","ⵜⵉⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵏⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵉⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵂⵓⵉⵉ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ"
"The impacts of historical and ongoing European colonization of the Americas on Indigenous communities have been in general quite severe, with many authorities estimating ranges of significant population decline primarily due to disease, land theft and violence.","ⴷⵉⵔⵛⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰ ⵙⴰⵎⵓⵎⴰⵏ , ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴰⵛⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ , ⵜⵉⴾⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ"
"In the southern states of Oaxaca (65.73%) and Yucatán (65.40%), the majority of the population is Indigenous, as reported in 2015.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ Oⴰⵆⴰⵛⴰ (65.73%) ⴷ ⵗⵓⵛⴰⵜⴰⵏ (65.40%), ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 2015"
"""The descriptors """"Indian"""" and """"Eskimo"""" have fallen into disuse in Canada.""",“ⴷⵢⵙⵛⵔⵉⴱⵜⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ” ⵉⵏⴷⵉⴰⵏ” ⴷ “ⵢⵙⴾⵉⵎⵓ”” ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ”
"Most notable was the change of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AANDC) to Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) in 2015, which then split into Indigenous Services Canada and Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Development Canada in 2017.","ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⵔⵉ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵔⵉⴶⵉⵏⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⴼⴰⵉⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵏⵓⵔⵜⵂⵢⵔⵏ ⵢⵢⴱⵢⵍⵓⴱⴱⵢⵎⵢⵏⵜ ⴱⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ (ⴰⴰⵏⵢⵛ) ⵙ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⴶⵢⵏⵓⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵏⵓⵔⵜⵂⵢⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⴼⴰⵉⵔⵙ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ (ⵉⵏⴰⵛ) ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2015, ⵓⴰ ⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴷⵢⴶⵢⵏⵓⵓⵙ ⵙⵢⵔⴱⵉⵛⵢⵙ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵔⵓⵓⵏ-ⵉⵏⴷⵢⴶⵢⵏⵓⵓⵙ ⵔⵢⵍⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵏⵓⵔⵜⵂⵢⵔⵏ ⵢⵢⴱⵢⵍⵓⴱⴱⵢⵎⵢⵏⵜ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2017"
"First Nations peoples signed 11 numbered treaties across much of what is now known as Canada between 1871 and 1921, except in parts of British Columbia.",ⴼⵉⵔⵙⵜ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⴱⵢⵓⴱⵍⵢⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵢⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 11 ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1871 ⴷ 1921 ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵂⵢⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⵉⵙⵂ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵉⴰ
"The autonomous territory of Greenland within the Kingdom of Denmark is also home to a recognised Indigenous and majority population of Inuit (about 85%) who settled the area in the 13th century, displacing the Indigenous Dorset people and Greenlandic Norse.","Iⴾⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⴰⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵢⵏⵎⴰⵔⴾ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴱⵂⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵉⵜ (ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ 85%) ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1300, ⵙ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⵙⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵛ ⵏⵓⵔⵙⵢ"
"In Spanish or Portuguese speaking countries, one finds the use of terms such as índios, pueblos indígenas, amerindios, povos nativos, povos indígenas, and, in Peru, Comunidades Nativas (Native Communities), particularly among Amazonian societies like the Urarina and Matsés.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⵙⵂ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⵓⵔⵜⵓⴶⵢⵙⵢ, ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵗⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⵓⵙ, ⴱⵓⵢⴱⵍⵓⵙ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⴶⵢⵏⴰⵙ, ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵏⴷⵉⵓⵙ, ⴱⵓⴱⵓⵙ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ, ⴱⵓⴱⵓⵙ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⴶⵢⵏⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵢⵔⵓ, ⵛⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉⴷⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⴱⴰⵙ (ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ), ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵜⵙⴰⵙ."
"Indigenous peoples are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although the majority of them live in Indian reservations in the North and Center-Western part of the country.",ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵎⴰⵜⵙⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵣⵉⵍ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗ ⴷⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰ-ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ
There are currently more Armenians living outside their ancestral homeland because of the Armenian genocide of 1915.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵎⵢⵊⵢⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵎⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵢⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1915
"The argument entered the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in the 1990s, with Palestinians claiming Indigenous status as a pre-existing population displaced by Jewish settlement, and currently constituting a minority in the State of Israel.","ⴰⵎⵛⴰⴾⴾⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵣⵔⴰⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵍⵢⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1990, ⴰⵙ ⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⴰⵍⵢⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴰⵂⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⴱⴱⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⴰⵂⵓⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ Iⵣⵔⴰⵉⵍ"
"""In Russia, definition of """"indigenous peoples"""" is contested largely referring to a number of population (less than 50 000 people), and neglecting self-identification, origin from indigenous populations who inhabited the country or region upon invasion, colonization or establishment of state frontiers, distinctive social, economic and cultural institutions.""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ, ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ “”ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ”” ⴰⵎⵛⵢⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ (ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵉ 50000 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ) ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵔⴰⴶ ⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵎⵉⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⴷⴱⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ, ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ, ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ”"
The Tibetans are indigenous to Tibet.,ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵜ
"In Hong Kong, the indigenous inhabitants of the New Territories are defined in the Sino-British Joint Declaration as people descended through the male line from a person who was in 1898, before Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵓⵏⴶ ⵆⵓⵏⴶ, ⵉⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵎⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵏⵓ-ⴱⵔⵉⵜⵉⵙⵂ ⵋⵓⵉⵏⵜ ⵢⵢⵛⵍⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⵉⵛⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1898, ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⴼⵉⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⴾⵉⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵏⴶ ⵆⵂⵏⴶ"
The Cham are the indigenous people of the former state of Champa which was conquered by Vietnam in the Cham–Vietnamese wars during Nam tiến.,ⵆⵢⵍ ⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵎⴱⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴱⵉⵢⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵢⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⴰⵏ
The Khmer Krom are the indigenous people of the Mekong Delta and Saigon which were acquired by Vietnam from Cambodian King Chey Chettha II in exchange for a Vietnamese princess.,ⵆⵂⵎⵢⵔ ⵆⵔⵓⵎ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴾⵓⵏⴶ ⵢⵢⵍⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴰⵉⴶⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⴱⵉⵢⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵎⴱⵓⴷⵉⴰ ⵛⵂⵢⵉ ⵛⵂⵢⵜⵜⵂⴰ II ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵢⵜⵏⴰⵎ
This problem is shared by many other countries in the ASEAN region.,ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰⵏ
"The indigenous peoples of Mindanao are the Lumad peoples and the Moro (Tausug, Maguindanao Maranao and others) who also live in the Sulu archipelago.","ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⴷⴰⵏⴰⵓ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵍⵓⵎⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵔⵓ (ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵓⴶ, ⵎⴰⴶⵓⵉⵏⴷⴰⵏⴰⵓ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏⴰⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⴱⵢⵍⴰⴶⵓ"
These groups are often together spoken of as Indigenous Australians.,ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
"During the 20th century, several of these former colonies gained independence and nation-states formed under local control.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵢⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ"
"The remains of at least 25 miniature humans, who lived between 1,000 and 3,000 years ago, were recently found on the islands of Palau in Micronesia.",ⴰ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ 25 ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ 1000 ⴷ 3000 ⵜ ⴰⵓ-ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵍⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵛⵔⵓⵏⵢⵙⵉⴰ.
"According to the 2013 census, New Zealand Māori make up 14.9% of the population of New Zealand, with less than half (46.5%) of all Māori residents identifying solely as Māori.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ 2013,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵤⵢⴰⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜ 14.9% ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵤⵢⴰⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⵏ (46.5%) ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵓⵔⵉ"
"Many Māori national leaders signed a treaty with the British, the Treaty of Waitangi (1840), seen in some circles as forming the modern geo-political entity that is New Zealand.","ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵛⵂⵢⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏⴶⵉ ( ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1840) , ⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵤⵢⴰⵍⴰⵏⴷ"
"These issues include cultural and linguistic preservation, land rights, ownership and exploitation of natural resources, political determination and autonomy, environmental degradation and incursion, poverty, health, and discrimination.","ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ, ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴾⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ , ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ, ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰⵈⵓⵓⴰ , ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⵓⵏⵣⵉⵈ"
"The situation can be further confused when there is a complicated or contested history of migration and population of a given region, which can give rise to disputes about primacy and ownership of the land and resources.","ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⵔⴱⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴷⵢⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵋⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
"Despite the diversity of indigenous peoples, it may be noted that they share common problems and issues in dealing with the prevailing, or invading, society.",ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴶⴷⵢⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵗⵓⵜⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵋⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵜ
"Notable exceptions are the Sakha and Komi peoples (two northern indigenous peoples of Russia), who now control their own autonomous republics within the Russian state, and the Canadian Inuit, who form a majority of the territory of Nunavut (created in 1999).",ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⴾⵂⴰ ⴷ ⴾⵓⵎⵉ ( ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ) ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵋⴰⵎⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵓⵉⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵢⴷ ⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵏⴰⴱⵓⵜ ( ⵢⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⴰⵏ 1999)
This rejection ended up recognizing that there was a pre-existing system of law practised by the Meriam people.,ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵔ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴷⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⵔⵉⴰⵎ
Retrieved on 11 October 2011.,ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 11 ⵏ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵙⵙⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2011
"Hindus and Chams have both experienced religious and ethnic persecution and restrictions on their faith under the current Vietnamese government, with the Vietnamese state confiscating Cham property and forbidding Cham from observing their religious beliefs.","ⵂⵉⵏⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵢⵜⵏⴰⵎ, ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵢⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⵜ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⵢⵋ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ"
"In 2012, Vietnamese police in Chau Giang village stormed into a Cham Mosque, stole the electric generator, and also raped Cham girls.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2012, ⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵢⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵓ ⵗⵉⴰⵏⴶ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣⵋⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⵓⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵜⵢⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵛⵂⴰⵎ"
"In 2012, Indonesia stated that ‘The Government of Indonesia supports the promotion and protection of indigenous people worldwide ... Indonesia, however, does not recognize the application of the indigenous peoples concept ... in the country’.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2012, ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵏⴻⵙⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ‘ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵏⴻⵙⵉⴰ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ...ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵏⴻⵙⵉⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ... ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ"
"The Vietnamese were originally centered around the Red River Delta but engaged in conquest and seized new lands such as Champa, the Mekong Delta (from Cambodia) and the Central Highlands during Nam Tien.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ,ⵆⴻⵍ ⴱⵉⴻⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴻⴻⵍⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴻⴷ ⵔⵉⴱⴻⵔ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⵎⴱⴰ, ⵎⵢⴾⵓⵏⴶ ⴹⵢⵍⵜⴰ ( ⵏ ⵛⴰⵎⴱⵓⴷⵉⴰ) ⴷ ⵂⵉⴶⵂⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⵢⵏ"
The tremendous scale of Vietnamese Kinh colonists flooding into the Central Highlands has significantly altered the demographics of the region.,ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵗⵎⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵆⵉⵏⵂ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵢⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵂⵉⴶⵂⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵎⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ
And no elimination of one culture by another.”,ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ””
"Indigenous peoples have been denoted primitives, savages or uncivilized.","ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵔⵓ, ⴰⴱⵓⴷⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ"
"""Some philosophers, such as Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), considered indigenous people to be merely """"savages"""".""","“”ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵂⵓⴱⴱⵢⵙ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1588 ⵂⵔ 1679), ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ “ⴰ ⴰⴱⵓⴷⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ”"
Retrieved from Internet Archive 13 December 2013.,ⵉⵜ-ⴰⵓ-ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⵢⵔⵏⵢⵜ  ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 13 ⵏ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵙⴰⵎⴱⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2013
"The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, adopted by the General Assembly in 2007, established indigenous peoples' right to self-determination, implying several rights regarding natural resource management.","ⵓⵏ ⵢⵛⵍⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵎⴱⵍⵉ ⵓⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2007 ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵆⴾⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
Oil drilling could destroy thousands of years of culture for the Gwich'in.,ⴷⵏⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵙⵢⵏⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵛⵂⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵗⵓⵉⵛⵂ’ⵉⵏ
"Development projects such as dam construction, pipelines and resource extraction have displaced large numbers of indigenous peoples, often without providing compensation.","ⴼⵔⵓⵋⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵆⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⴱⵉⴱ ⴷ ⵉⴾⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ"
These women also become economically dependent on men when they lose their livelihoods.,ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⵢⵋ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵏ
For example the Munduruku people in the Amazon rainforest are opposing the building of Tapajós dam with the help of Greenpeace.,ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⴷⵓⵔⵓⴾⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵋⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵗⵔⵢⵏⴱⵢⴰⵛ
"Two main scenarios are proposed, an early expansion to Central Africa, and a single origin of the dispersal radiating from there, or an early separation into an eastward and a southward wave of dispersal, with one wave moving across the Congo basin towards East Africa, and another moving south along the African coast and the Congo River system towards Angola.","ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⴾⵉⵛⵂ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⵉⵣⵣⴰⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵏⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⵉⵣⵣⴰⴾ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵜⵢⵏⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵗⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴶⵓ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙ Aⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵜⴻⵎ ⵋⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴶⵓ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵏⴶⵓⵍⴰ"
"Cattle terminology in use amongst the relatively few modern Bantu pastoralist groups suggests that the acquisition of cattle may have been from Central Sudanic, Kuliak and Cushitic-speaking neighbors.","ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵜⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵜⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵢⵏⵜⵔⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵛ, ⵆⵓⵍⵉⴰⴾ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵓⵙⵂⵉⵜⵉⵛ"
"Not far from the Mutirikiwi river, the Monomatapa kings built the Great Zimbabwe complex, a civilisation ancestral to the Kalanga people.","ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵋⵉⵋ ⵢⵋⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵜⵔⵉⴾⵉⵓⵉ , ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰⴱⴰ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵌⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵓⵢ , ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏⴶⴰ"
"The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the many Afro-Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people.",ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴰⵂⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴶⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵙⵓⴰⵂⵉⵍⵉ
"""After World War II, the National Party governments adopted that usage officially, while the growing African nationalist movement and its liberal allies turned to the term """"African"""" instead, so that """"Bantu"""" became identified with the policies of apartheid.""","“ ⵢⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ, ⴱⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵓⵓⵜⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⵏ “ⵆⵢⵍ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ”” ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ “ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵓ” ⴰ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⵂⵢⵉⴷ"
"""Again association with apartheid discredited the term, and the South African government shifted to the politically appealing but historically deceptive term """"ethnic homelands"""".""",“ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⵜⵂⵢⵉⴷ ⵢⵗⵛⵂⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴶ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴷⵉⵔⵜ “ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ””
In Swati the stem is -ntfu and the noun is buntfu.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⴰⵔⵉ ⵜⵢⴾⴰⵓⵜ ⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ -ⵏⵜⴼⵓ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴱⵓⵏⵜⴼⵓ
Not all Basques are Basque-speakers.,ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⵢⵙ ⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓ
"""modern Basque esan) and the suffix -(k)ara (""""way (of doing something)"""").""",“” ⴱⴰⵙⵈ ⵢⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ) ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⴼⴼⵉⵆ -(ⴾ)ⴰⵔⴰ (‘’ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ (ⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ””)
He records the name of the Basque language as enusquera.,ⴷⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⴽ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵏⵓⵙⵈⵓⵢⵔⴰ
"Although they are genetically distinctive in some ways due to isolation, the Basques are still very typically European in terms of their Y-DNA and mtDNA sequences, and in terms of some other genetic loci.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴾⵓⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ , ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⵢⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵗ-ⵢⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵜⵢⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ"
"However, studies of the Y-DNA haplogroups found that on their direct male lineages, the vast majority of modern Basques have a common ancestry with other Western Europeans, namely a marked predominance of Indo-European Haplogroup R1b-DF27 (70%).","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵗ-ⵢⵏⴰ ⵂⴰⴱⵍⵓⴶⵔⵓⵓⴱⵙ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⴰⵋⵓⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ, ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴱⴰ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵢⵉⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵆⵢⵍ ⵉⵏⴷⵓ-ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵂⴰⴱⵍⵓⴶⵔⵓⵓⴱ ⵔ1ⴱ-ⴻⴼ27 (70%)"
"""In spite of its high frequency in Basques, Y-STR internal diversity of R1b-DF27 is lower there, and results in more recent age estimates"""", implying it was brought to the region from elsewhere.""","“ⵆⵓⴷ ⵢⵔⵂⴰ ⵉⵋⵉⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⵢⵙ, ⵗ-ⵙⵜⵔ ⵉⵋⵉⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵔ1ⴱ-ⵢⴼ27 ⵉ ⴷⴰⵔⵓⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ” ⵢⵂⵢ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ”"
The collection of mtDNA and Y-DNA haplogroups sampled there differed significantly compared to their modern frequencies.,ⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵎⵜⵢⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵗ-ⵢⵏⴰ ⵂⴰⴱⵍⵓⴶⵔⵓⵓⴱⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ
"Rather, some 4500 years ago almost all Y-DNA heritage from Iberian admixture of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and Neolithic farmers was replaced by the R1b lineage of Indo-European herders from the steppe, and the Basque genetic distinctiveness is a result of centuries of low population size, genetic drift, and endogamy.","ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ 4500 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗ-ⵢⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵢⵔⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵂⵓⵉⴰ-ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⵙⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵋⴰⵙ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵜⵉ ⵔ1ⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⵓⴶⴰⵣ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵂⵉⵏⴷⵓ-ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ , ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴷ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜ"
"Mattias Jakobsson from Uppsala University in Sweden analysed genetic material from eight Stone Age human skeletons found in El Portalón Cavern in Atapuerca, northern Spain.",ⵋⴰⵜⵜⵉⴰⵙ ⵋⵓⴾⵓⴱⵙⵙⵓⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⴱⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⵉⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵢⴷⵢ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⵉⵔⵢⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵍ ⴱⵓⵔⵜⴰⵍⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⴱⵓⵢⵔⵛⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ ⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ
The findings were published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States.,ⵉⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⵢⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⴰ
"This admixed group was also found to be ancestral to other modern-day Iberian peoples, but while the Basques remained relatively isolated for millennia after this time, later migrations into Iberia led to distinct and additional admixture in all other Iberian groups.","ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵜⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵔⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ Iⴱⵢⵔⵉⴰ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵈⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ Iⴱⵢⵔⵉⴰ"
There is enough evidence to support the hypothesis that at that time and later they spoke old varieties of the Basque language (see: Aquitanian language).,ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⵉⴾⴱⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓ ( ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷ: ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵓⵉⵜⵏⵉⴰⵏ)
"The Kingdom of Pamplona, a central Basque realm, later known as Navarre, underwent a process of feudalization and was subject to the influence of its much larger Aragonese, Castilian and French neighbours.","ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵎⴱⵍⵓⵏⴰ, ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⵉⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴱⴰⵔⵔ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵔⴰⴶⵓⵏⵢⵙⵢ, ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙ"
"Weakened by the Navarrese civil war, the bulk of the realm eventually fell before the onslaught of the Spanish armies (1512–1524).","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵏⴰⴱⴰⵔⵔⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ , ⵉⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵋⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ (1512 ⵂⴰⵔ 1524)"
"Nevertheless, the Basques enjoyed a great deal of self-government until the French Revolution (1790) and the Carlist Wars (1839, 1876), when the Basques supported heir apparent Carlos V and his descendants.","ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣ ⵂⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴾⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1790) ⴷ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵉⵙⵜ (1839, 1876), ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵓⵙ ⴱ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ"
"The autonomous community (a concept established in the Spanish Constitution of 1978) known as Euskal Autonomia Erkidegoa or EAE in Basque and as Comunidad Autónoma Vasca or CAV in Spanish (in English: Basque Autonomous Community or BAC), is made up of the three Spanish provinces of Álava, Biscay and Gipuzkoa.","ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ( ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1978) ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⵓⵙⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵜⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⴰ ⵢⵔⴾⵉⴷⵢⴶⵓⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⴰⵢⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⵜⵓⵏⵓⵎⴰ ⴱⴰⵙⵛⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⵉⵉⵙⵉⵜ: ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⴰⵛ), ⵜⵉⵋⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ, ⴱⵉⵙⵛⴰⵉ, ⵗⵉⴱⵓⵣⴾⵓⴰ"
"""It is sometimes referred to simply as """"the Basque Country"""" (or Euskadi) by writers and public agencies only considering those three western provinces, but also on occasions merely as a convenient abbreviation when this does not lead to confusion in the context.""",“ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵗⴰⵔ ⵉⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “”ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⵢ”” (ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⵓⵙⴾⴰⴷⵉ) ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵋⵔⵉⵓ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⵗⵏⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⴼ
"""In particular in common usage the French term Pays Basque (""""Basque Country""""), in the absence of further qualification, refers either to the whole Basque Country (""""Euskal Herria"""" in Basque), or not infrequently to the northern (or """"French"""") Basque Country specifically.""",“”ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵜ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ (“”ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⵢ””)ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⵢⵜ (‘’ⵢⵓⵙⴾⴰⵍ ⵂⵢⵔⵔⵉⴰ”” ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ) ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ (ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵜ”) ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ”
"""Note that in historical contexts Navarre may refer to a wider area, and that the present-day northern Basque province of Lower Navarre may also be referred to as (part of) Nafarroa, while the term """"High Navarre"""" (Nafarroa Garaia in Basque, Alta Navarra in Spanish) is also encountered as a way of referring to the territory of the present-day autonomous community.""","“ ⵉⵍⵎⵉⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵏ ⵏⴰⴱⴰⵔⵔⴻ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵏ ⵏⴰⴱⴰⵔⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴼⴰⵔⵔⵓⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “”ⵏⴰⴱⴰⵔⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ “”” (ⵏⴰⴼⴰⵔⵔⵓⴰ ⵗⴰⵔⴰⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ, ⴰⵍⵜⴰ ⵏⴰⴱⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ) ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ"
Knowledge of Spanish is compulsory under the Spanish constitution (article no.,ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ
"Knowledge of Basque, after declining for many years during Franco's dictatorship owing to official persecution, is again on the rise due to favorable official language policies and popular support.","ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵓⵉⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵔⵂⵓ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
"Only Spanish is an official language of Navarre, and the Basque language is only co-official in the province's northern region, where most Basque-speaking Navarrese are concentrated.",ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⵙⵂ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⴱⴰⵔⵔⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓ ⵓⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⴶ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⵢ
"Much of this population lives in or near the Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz (BAB) urban belt on the coast (in Basque these are Baiona, Angelu and Miarritze).","ⵉⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵛⵎⵉⵏⵜⵉⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⵓⵏⵏⵢ-ⴰⵏⴶⵍⵢⵜ-ⴱⵉⴰⵔⵔⵉⵜⵣ (ⴱⴰⴱ) ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⵓⵏⴰ, ⴰⵏⴶⵢⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵎⵉⴰⵔⵔⵉⵜⵣ)"
"Millions of Basque descendants (see Basque American and Basque Canadian) live in North America (the United States; Canada, mainly in the provinces of Newfoundland and Quebec), Latin America (in all 23 countries), South Africa, and Australia.","ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵜⴰⵏ (ⵉⴾⵉⵉⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵆⴰⵏⴰⴷⵉⵢⵏ) ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ (ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ, ⴾⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⴼⵓⵓⵏⴷⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵢⴱⴱⵛ), ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⴰ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ 23 ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ), ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵓⵜⵂ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵛⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴰ"
Estimates range between 2.5 - 5 million Basque descendants live in Chile; the Basque have been a major if not the strongest influence in the country's cultural and economic development.,"Iⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ 2.5 ⵂⴰⵔ 5 ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵍⵢ, ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ"
It consisted mostly of the area which is today the states of Chihuahua and Durango.,ⴷⵂⵢ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵂⵓⴰⵂⵓⴰ ⴷ ⴷⵓⵔⴰⵏⴶo
"In Guatemala, most Basques have been concentrated in Sacatepequez Department, Antigua Guatemala, Jalapa for six generations now, while some have migrated to Guatemala City.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵓⴰⵜⵢⵎⴰⵍⴰ, ⴱⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵛⴰⵜⵢⴱⵢⵈⵓⵢⵣ, ⴰⵏⵜⵉⴶⵓⴰ ⵗⵓⴰⵜⵢⵎⴰⵍⴰ, ⵋⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⴰⵜⵢⵎⴰⵍⴰ"
"Bambuco, a Colombian folk music, has Basque roots.","ⴱⴰⵎⴱⵓⵛⵓ, ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵗ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵉⴰ,ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"Elko, Nevada, sponsors an annual Basque festival that celebrates the dance, cuisine and cultures of the Basque peoples of Spanish, French and Mexican nationalities who have arrived in Nevada since the late 19th century.","ⵢⵍⴾⵓ, ⵏⵢⴱⴰⴷⴰ, ⵙⴰⵔⵔⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⴱⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵜ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ, ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵣⴰⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵆⵉⵛⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⴱⴰⴷⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900"
"Some of North America's largest ranches, which were founded under these colonial land grants, can be found in this region.","ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⴰⵏⵛⵂ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ , ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⵢⵏ"
"There is a history of Basque culture in Chino, California.","ⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴶⴰ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵓ, ⵛⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵉⴰ"
They are mostly descendants of settlers from Spain and Mexico.,ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵆⵉⵛⵓ
This sense of Basque identity tied to the local language does not only exist in isolation.,ⴰⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴾⵢⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ
"As with many European states, a regional identity, be it linguistically derived or otherwise, is not mutually exclusive with the broader national one.","ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ, ⴾⵓⴷ ⵢⵔⵂⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ , ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵙⴾⵢⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ"
I have friends who are involved in the political side of things but that is not for me.,ⵉⵍⵍⵢⵗ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵉ ⵉⵜⵉⵋ
There are extremely few Basque monolingual speakers: essentially all Basque speakers are bilingual on both sides of the border.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ: ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵔⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ
"The Basque language is thought to be a genetic language isolate in contrast with other European languages, almost all of which belong to the broad Indo-European language family.","ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵈⵓ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵓ-ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ"
Home in this context is synonymous with family roots.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂ
"As in other cultures, the fate of other family members depended on the assets of a family: wealthy Basque families tended to provide for all children in some way, while less-affluent families may have had only one asset to provide to one child.","ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ, ⵙⴰⵏⴷⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂ: ⵉⴶⵉⴷⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵇ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵣⵣⵢⵋⴰⵔⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴶⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵈⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ"
"Mostly after the advent of industrialisation, this system resulted in the emigration of many rural Basques to Spain, France or the Americas.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⵉⵏ, ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⴰ"
Some scholars and commentators have attempted to reconcile these points by assuming that patrilineal kinship represents an innovation.,ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵢⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵈⴱⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ
They emerged from the Franco regime with a revitalized language and culture.,ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ
The region has been a source of missionaries like Francis Xavier and Michel Garicoïts.,ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙ ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵢⵔ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵛⵂⵢⵍ ⵗⴰⵔⵉⵛⵓⵉⵜⵙ
Lasuén was the successor to Franciscan Padre Junípero Serra and founded 9 of the 21 extant California Missions along the coast.,ⵍⴰⵙⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙⵛⵉⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴷⵔⵢ ⵋⵓⵏⵉⴱⵢⵔⵓ ⵙⵢⵔⵔⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵗⵏⴰ 9 ⴷⴰⵗ 21 ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵉⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ
"By the time Henry III of Navarre converted to Catholicism in order to become king of France, Protestantism virtually disappeared from the Basque community.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⴰⵛ ⵂⴻⵏⵔⵉ III ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⴱⴰⵔⵔⴻ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ , ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⴻⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵋⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⴻ"
"Nowadays, according to one single opinion poll, only slightly more than 50% of Basques profess some kind of belief in God, while the rest are either agnostic or atheist.","ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ , 50 ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰ-ⵓⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴶⵏⵓⵙⵜⵉⴾ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵏⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵎ"
"According to one, Christianity arrived in the Basque Country during the 4th and 5th centuries but according to the other, it did not take place until the 12th and 13th centuries.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 400 ⵂⵔ 500 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⴻ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1200 ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1300"
"""In this sense, Christianity arrived """"early"""".""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴻⵏ,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⴷ “”ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ””"
"According to one tradition, she travelled every seven years between a cave on Mount Anboto and one on another mountain (the stories vary); the weather would be wet when she was in Anboto, dry when she was in Aloña, or Supelegor, or Gorbea.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵛⴰⴱⴻ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴱⵓⵜⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰ ( ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ); ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵜⵉⴱⵋⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⴱⵓⵜⵓ , ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⵏⴰ, ⵎⴻⵗ ⵙⵓⴱⴻⵍⴻⴶⴻⵔ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵗⵓⵔⴱⴻⴰ"
"It's said that when they gathered in the high caves of the sacred peaks, they engendered the storms.","ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴻⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⴻⵔⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴻⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏⴰ"
"Legends also speak of many and abundant genies, like jentilak (equivalent to giants), lamiak (equivalent to nymphs), mairuak (builders of the cromlechs or stone circles, literally Moors), iratxoak (imps), sorginak (witches, priestess of Mari), and so on.","ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵛⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵋⴻⵏⵜⵉⵍⴰⴾ, (ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴶⵉⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ), ⵍⴰⵎⵉⴰⴾ (ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵉⵎⴱⵂ ⵜⴰⵏ),ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵓⴰⴾ (ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵔⵓⵎⵍⴻⵛⵂⵙ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵍⵉⵓⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⴾⴰⴷⴻⵉⵜ, ⵎⵓⵓⵔⵙ) , ⵉⵔⴰⵜⵆⵓⴰⴾ (ⵉⵎⴱⵙ), ⵙⵓⵔⴶⵉⵏⴰⴾ (ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⵓⴰⵜⴻⵏ, ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵎⴱⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ) ⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ"
"""There is a trickster named San Martin Txiki (""""St Martin the Lesser"""").""",ⴹⴳ“ⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⵜⵔⵉⵛⴾⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵆⵉⴾⵉ (“”” ⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵂⴻ ⵍⴻⵙⵙⴻⵔ””)
"The jentilak ('Giants'), on the other hand, are a legendary people which explains the disappearance of a people of Stone Age culture that used to live in the high lands and with no knowledge of iron.","ⵋⴻⵏⵜⵉⵍⴰⴾ (ⴶⵉⴰⵏⵜⵙ), ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ , ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⴾⴾⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵏⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉ"
"For more than a century, scholars have widely discussed the high status of Basque women in law codes, as well as their positions as judges, inheritors, and arbitrators through ante-Roman, medieval, and modern times.","ⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴻⴷⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ , ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⴷⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵗⵜⴰⵙⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴾⴾⵓⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵂⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⴻ-ⵔⵓⴰⵏ, ⵎⴻⴷⵉⴻvⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ"
"Navarre has a separate statute of autonomy, a contentious arrangement designed during Spanish transition to democracy (the Amejoramiento, an 'upgrade' of its previous status during dictatorship).","ⵏⴰⴱⴰⵔⵔⴻ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ , ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴼⴻⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴻⵎⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉ ( ⴰⵎⴻⵋⵓⵔⴰⵎⵉⴻⵏⵜⵓ, ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵛⵜⴰⵜⵓⵔⵙⵂⵉⴱ)"
"Questions of political, linguistic and cultural allegiance and identity are highly complex in Navarre.","ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ, ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⴱⴰⵔⵔⴻ"
The majority of schools under the jurisdiction of the Basque education system use Basque as the primary medium of teaching.,ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⴻ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ
"In contrast, the desire for greater autonomy or independence is particularly common among leftist Basque nationalists.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉ, ⴷⴻⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⴻⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵍⴻⴼⵜⵉⵙⵜ ⴱⴰⵙⵈⵓⴻ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵙ"
They regard themselves as culturally and especially linguistically distinct from their surrounding neighbours.,ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ
Miguel de Unamuno was a noted novelist and philosopher of the late 19th and the 20th century.,ⵎⵉⴶⵓⴻⵍ ⴷⴻ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵓ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴾⵜⵉⴱ ⴷ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵙⵓⴱⵂⴻⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⴷ 2000
He also founded the Chilean Trade Union Association to promote a union movement based on the social teachings of the Catholic Church.,Oⵍⴰⵙ ⴻⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴷⴻ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵉ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴾ
The historical presence of the San in Botswana is particularly evident in northern Botswana's Tsodilo Hills region.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⴻⵎⴻⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵓⵜⵙⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⴻⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⴷⵉⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ
"From the 1950s through to the 1990s, San communities switched to farming because of government-mandated modernisation programs.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1950 ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1990, ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵋⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ"
"""Certain San groups are one of 14 known extant """"ancestral population clusters""""; that is, """"groups of populations with common genetic ancestry, who share ethnicity and similarities in both their culture and the properties of their languages"""".""","“ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ 14 ⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⵓⴰ “””ⵜⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⵔⵓ” ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ “”ⵜⴰⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵓⵉ ⵓⵂⴰⵔ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜ ⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵔⵉⵣⴻⵋⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ””"
Representatives of San peoples in 2003 stated their preference of the use of such individual group names where possible over the use of the collective term San.,ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2003 ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵜ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ
"I continued to use Bushman, and I was publicly corrected several times by the righteous.",ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵂⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⴰⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵂⵉ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰ
"""Instead, the San Council's representative was adamant that no hurt or harm was caused to them or the San community with the manner in which (Die Burger) published the word 'boesman'.""""""",“ⴷⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵙ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⵗ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ (ⴻⴻ ⴱⵓⵔⴶⴻⵔ) ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ‘ⴱⵓⴻⵙⵎⴰⵏ”””
"San kinship is comparable to Eskimo kinship, with the same set of terms as in European cultures, but also uses a name rule and an age rule.","ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵙⴾⵉⵎⵓ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ"
"Children have no social duties besides playing, and leisure is very important to San of all ages.",ⵉⵍⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⴰⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉ ⵉ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ
They make important family and group decisions and claim ownership of water holes and foraging areas.,ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴶⵉⴷⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴻⵏⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
Droughts may last many months and waterholes may dry up.,ⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋ ⵉ ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⴱⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵗⵓⵔ
Into this hole is inserted a long hollow grass stem.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴱⴰⵋ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴻⵜ ⵜⴻⵣⴰⵓⵜ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⴻⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⵎⵓⵣ
"Early spring is the hardest season: a hot dry period following the cool, dry winter.","ⵗⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵂⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ: ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴾⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⴻⴷⴰⵜ ,ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ"
"Women gather fruit, berries, tubers, bush onions, and other plant materials for the band's consumption.","ⴷⴻⴷⴻⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵛⵂⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴱⴻⵔⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⵓⴱⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ,ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾ ⵉ ⵜⴻⵜⴰⵜⴻ"
"Depending on location, the San consume 18 to 104 species, including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, moths, butterflies, and termites.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ, ⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜ-ⵉⵏ 18 ⵂⴰⵔ 104 ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⴾⵉⵏⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵓⴻⵏ, ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴻⵏ, ⴼⵉⵔⴰⵛⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵓⴼ"
"These haplogroups are specific sub-groups of haplogroups A and B, the two earliest branches on the human Y-chromosome tree.","ⵂⴰⴱⵍⵓⴶⵔⵓⵓⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵂⴰⴱⵍⵓⴶⵔⵓⵓⴱⵙ ⴰ ⴷ ⴱ , ⵉⵍⵉⴾⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗ-ⵛⵂⵔⵓⵎⵓⵙⵓⵎⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ"
"The most divergent (oldest) mitochondrial haplogroup, L0d, has been identified at its highest frequencies in the southern African San groups.","ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⴱⵍⵓⴶⵔⵓⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ (ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰⵉ), ⵍ0ⴷ, ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ"
The San have been particularly affected by encroachment by majority peoples and non-indigenous farmers onto land traditionally occupied by San people.,ⵆⴻⵍ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ-ⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵋⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ
"Loss of land is a major contributor to the problems facing Botswana's indigenous people, including especially the San's eviction from the Central Kalahari Game Reserve.",ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵜⵙⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴻⵏⵜⵔⴰⵍ ⵆⴰⵍⴰⵂⴰⵔⵉ ⵗⴰⵎⴻ ⵔⴻⵙⴻⵔⴱⴻ
This would award royalties to the San for the benefits of their indigenous knowledge.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴻⴾⴼ-ⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
"Van der Post grew up in South Africa, and had a respectful lifelong fascination with native African cultures.","ⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⵔ ⴱⵓⵙⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵓⵜⵂ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ, ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵋⴰⵔⵓⵣⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵏⵉⵉⴰ ⵙⴻⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
"""Driven by a lifelong fascination with this """"vanished tribe"""", Van der Post published a 1958 book about this expedition, entitled The Lost World of the Kalahari.""","“ ⴻⵔⴾⴰⴱ ⵋⴰⵔⵔⵓⵣⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ “ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵋⴰⵍⴰⵜ’’, ⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⴻⵔ ⴱⵓⵙⵜ ⵉⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1958 ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴻⵗⴰⴼ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵂⴻ ⵍⵓⵙⵜ ⵓⵓⵔⵍⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵍⴰⵂⴰⵔⵉ”"
"His early film The Hunters, released in 1957, shows a giraffe hunt.","ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵂⴻ ⵂⵓⵏⵜⴻⵔⵙ,ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1957, ⵉⵙⴰⴾⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵉⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⵗ"
"His sister Elizabeth Marshall Thomas wrote several books and numerous articles about the San, based in part on her experiences living with these people when their culture was still intact.",ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴻⵍⵉⵣⴰⴱⴻⵜⵂ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⵂⴰⵍⵍ ⵜⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵉⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"""This was reviewed by Lawrence Van Gelder for the New York Times, who said that the film """"constitutes an act of preservation and a requiem"""".""",“ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉ ⵍⴰⵓⵔⴻⵏⵛⴻ ⴱⴰⵏ ⵗⴻⵍⴷⴻⵔ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵉ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ ⵜⵉⵎⴻⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ “”ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵔⴻⵈⵓⵉⴻⵎ””
The BBC's The Life of Mammals (2003) series includes video footage of an indigenous San of the Kalahari desert undertaking a persistence hunt of a kudu through harsh desert conditions.,ⵙⴻⵔⵉⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵂⴻ ⵍⵉⴼⴻ ⵓⴼ ⵎⴰⵎⵎⴰⵍⵙ (2003) ⵏ ⴱⴱⵛ ⴻⵂⴰⵉ ⴱⵉⴷⴻⵓ ⴼⵓⵓⵜⴰⴶⴻ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵆⴰⵍⴰⵂⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵉⵉ ⴰⵙⵙoⵂⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵓⴷⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⴻⵏ
"Because of their similarities, the San works may illustrate the reasons for ancient cave paintings.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ"
"The film was directed by Jamie Uys, who returned to the San a decade later with The Gods Must Be Crazy, which proved to be an international hit.","ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵋⴰⵎⴻⵙ ⵓⵉⵙ, ⵉⴷ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵂⴻ ⵗⵓⴷⵙ ⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⴱⵔ ⵛⵔⴰⵣⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵔⵔⵉⵣⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ"
"James A. Michener's The Covenant (1980), is a work of historical fiction centered on South Africa.","ⵋⴰⵎⴻⵙ ⴰ. ⵎⵉⵛⵂⴻⵏⴻⵔ’ⵙ ⵜⵂⴻ ⵛⵓⵏⴱⴻⵏⴰⵏⵜ (1980) , ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵓⵜⵂ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵛⴰ"
Norman Rush's 1991 novel Mating features an encampment of Basarwa near the (imaginary) Botswana town where the main action is set.,Iⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1991 ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⵗ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓⴰ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵜⵙⵓⴰⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ
"In 2007, David Gilman published The Devil's Breath.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2007, ⴻⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⵗⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵜⵂⴻ ⴻⴻⴱⵉⵍ’ⵙ ⴱⵔⴻⴰⵜⵂ"
The fiancé of the protagonist of The No.,ⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵓ
The Germanic peoples were a historical group of people living in Central Europe and Scandinavia.,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵙⵛⴰⵏⴷⵉⵏⴰⴱⵉⴰ
"In discussions of the Roman period, the Germanic peoples are sometimes referred to as Germani or ancient Germans, although many scholars consider the second term problematic, since it suggests identity with modern Germans.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵗⵔⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ, ⴾⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ"
"In contrast, Roman authors first described Germanic peoples near the Rhine at the time the Roman Empire established its dominance in that region.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ, ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵔⵂⵉⵏⴻ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⴻ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵔⴻⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴻⵏ"
"Roman efforts to integrate the large area between Rhine and Elbe ended around 16 CE, following the major Roman defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 CE.",ⴻⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵙⵂⵉⵏⴻ ⴷ ⴻⵍⴱⴻ ⵉⵎⴷⴰ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ 16 ⵛE ⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴻⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⵓⵜⵓⴱⵓⵔⴶ ⴷⴰⵗ 9 ⵛE
"In the 3rd century the Germanic-speaking Goths dominated the Pontic Steppe, outside Germania, and launched a series of sea expeditions into the Balkans and Anatolia as far as Cyprus.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 300 ⵗⵓⵜⵂ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵓⵏⵜⵉⵛ ⵙⵜⴻⴱⴱⴻ, ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴱⴰⵍⴾⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵛⵉⴱⵔⵓⵙ"
Archaeology instead shows a complex society and economy throughout Germania.,ⴰⵔⴾⴻⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵙⴰⴾⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴻⵜ
"Traditionally, the Germanic peoples have been seen as possessing a law dominated by the concepts of feuding and blood compensation.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⵜ ⴰⵓ ⴰⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⵏⵉ"
"The ancient Germanic-speaking peoples probably shared a common poetic tradition, alliterative verse, and later Germanic peoples also shared legends originating in the Migration Period.","ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ , ⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⵏⵉ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ"
"Even the language from which it derives is a subject of dispute, with proposals of Germanic, Celtic, and Latin, and Illyrian origins.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴻⵗ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵗⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵛ, ⵛⴻⵍⵜⵉⵛ, ⴷ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ , ⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵔⵉⴰⵏ"
"Regardless of its language of origin, the name was transmitted to the Romans via Celtic speakers.","ⴰ ⵉⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ, ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⴻⵍⵜⵉⵛ"
"By late antiquity, only peoples near the Rhine, especially the Franks, and sometimes the Alemanni, were called Germani by Latin or Greek writers.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⴷⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵔⵂⵉⵏⴻ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴻⵎⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵗⴰⵔ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵗⵔⴻⴻⴾ"
"While Roman authors did not consistently exclude Celtic speaking-people, or treat the Germanic peoples as the name of a people, this new definition, by using Germanic language as the main criterion, understood the Germani as a people or nation with a stable group identity linked to language.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵜⵓⴾⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⴾⴻⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⴻⵍⵜⵉⵛ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ , ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ , ⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⴾⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ"
"""Some scholars studying the Early Middle Ages now stress the question of whether the Germanic peoples saw themselves as an ethnic unity, while others point to the existence of Germanic languages as a historical fact that can be used to identify Germanic peoples, regardless of whether they saw themselves as """"Germanic"""".""",“ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴻⴰⵔⵍⵉ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵍⴻ ⴰⴶⴻⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴻⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ “”ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵛ””
"""For such reasons, Goffart argues that the term Germanic should be avoided entirely in favor of """"barbarian"""" except in the linguistic sense, and historians such as Walter Pohl have also called for the term to be avoided or used with careful explanation.""","“ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ , ⵗⵓⴼⴼⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⵓⴼⴰ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⵍⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ “””ⴱⴰⵔⴱⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏ”” ⴰⵔ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵍⴰⵜⴻⵔ ⴱⵓⵂⵍ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴻⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ”"
"In Caesar's account, the clearest defining characteristic of the Germani people was that they lived east of the Rhine, opposite Gaul on the west side, an observation he made with historical digressions in his writing.","ⵙ ⵛⴰⴻⵙⴰⵔ, ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴰⴼⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵂⵉⵏⴻ, ⴰⵎⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵗⴰⵓⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ, ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ"
"Tacitus was at times unsure whether a people were Germanic or not, expressing his uncertainty about the Bastarnae, who he says looked like Sarmatians but spoke like the Germani, about the Osi and the Cotini, and about the Aesti, who were like Suebi but spoke a different language.","ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⴾⴻⵙ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⵏⵉⵛ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴱⵓ,ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵙⵜⴰⵎⴰⴻ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵙⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵓⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ , ⴼⴰⵍ Oⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴻⵙⵜⵉ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵓⴻⴱⵉ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ"
The Upper Danube served as a southern border.,ⵓⴱⴱⴻⵔ ⴻⴰⵏⵓⴱⴻ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ
"It is unclear if these Germani spoke a Germanic language, and they may have been Celtic speakers instead.",ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵋⴻⵔ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵗⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⴻⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵛⴻⵍⵜⵉⵛ
"Tacitus continues to mention Germanic tribes on the west bank of the Rhine in the period of the early Empire, such as the Tungri, Nemetes, Ubii, and the Batavi.","ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵔⵂⵉⵏⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⴶⵔⵉ, ⵏⵢⵎⵢⵜⵢⵙ, ⵓⴱⵉⵉ, ⴷ ⴱⴰⵜⴰⴱⵉ"
"Inspired by this, these three groups are also sometimes used in older modern linguistic terminology, attempting to describe the divisions of later Germanic languages.)","Iⴾⴼⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ, ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ , ⵢⵔⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ)"
"Herminones or Hermiones in the interior, included the Suevi, the Hermunduri, the Chatti, the Cherusci according to Pliny.","ⵂⵢⵔⵎⵉⵏⵓⵏⵢⵙ ⵎⵢⵢⵗ ⵂⵢⵔⵎⵉⵓⵏⵢⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵙⵓⵢⴱⵉ, ⵂⵢⵎⵓⵏⴷⵓⵔⵉ, ⵛⵂⴰⵜⵜⵉ, ⵛⵂⵢⵔⵓⵙⵛⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⵍⵉⵏⵉ"
"""On the other hand, Tacitus wrote in the same passage that some believe that there are other groups which are just as old as these three, including """"the Marsi, Gambrivii, Suevi, Vandilii"""".""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶⴶ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵂⴰ “”ⵎⴰⵔⵙⵉ, ⵗⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴱⵉⵍⵉ, ⴱⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍⵉⵉ”””"
"""Strabo, who focused mainly on Germani between the Elbe and Rhine, and does not mention the sons of Mannus, also set apart the names of Germani who are not Suevian, in two other groups, similarly implying three main divisions: """"smaller German tribes, as the Cherusci, Chatti, Gamabrivi, Chattuarii, and next the ocean the Sicambri, Chaubi, Bructeri, Cimbri, Cauci, Caulci, Campsiani"""".""","“ⵙⵜⵔⴰⴱⵓ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵢⵍⴱⵢ ⴷ ⵔⵂⵉⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵗⵔⴰ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵏⵓⵙ , ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵙⴾⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵙⵓⵢⴱⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ , “”ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵂⵢⵔⵓⵙⵛⵉ, ⵛⵂⴰⵜⵉ, ⵛⴰⵎⴰⴱⵔⵉⴱⵉ, ⵛⵂⴰⵜⵜⵓⴰⵔⵉⵉ, ⴷ ⵢⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵛⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉ, ⵛⵂⴰⵓⴱⵉ, ⴱⵔⵓⵛⵜⵢⵔⵉ,ⵛⵉⵎⴱⵔⵉ, ⵛⴰⵓⵛⵉ, ⵛⴰⵓⵍⵛⵉ, ⵛⴰⵎⴱⵙⵉⴰⵏⵉ””"
"During the Pre-Germanic linguistic period (2500–500 BCE), the proto-language has almost certainly been influenced by linguistic substrates still noticeable in the Germanic phonology and lexicon.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵛ (ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2500 ⵂⴰⵔ 500 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ), ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ"
"There is also a great deal of influence in vocabulary from the Celtic languages, but most of this appears to be much later, with most loanwords occurring either before or during the sound shift described by Grimm's Law.",ⵜⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⵢⵍⵜⵉⵛ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏⵜ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙⵜⵉ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵗⵔⵉⵎⵎ’ⵙ ⵍⴰⵓ
"Although Proto-Germanic is reconstructed without dialects via the comparative method, it is almost certain that it never was a uniform proto-language.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓ-ⴶⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⴾ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⴾⴰⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⴶⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ"
"The earliest attested runic inscriptions (Vimose comb, Øvre Stabu spearhead), initially concentrated in modern Denmark and written with the Elder Futhark system, are dated to the second half of the 2nd century CE.","ⵉⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵏⵛ (ⴱⵉⵎⵓⵙⵢ ⵛⵓⵎⴱ, ⵓⴱⵔⵢ ⵙⵜⴰⴱⵓ ⵙⴱⵢⴰⵔⵂⵢⴰⴷ) ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵜⵂⴰⵔⴾ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 200 ⵛⴹ"
"However, the merging of unstressed Proto-Germanic vowels, attested in runic inscriptions from the 4th and 5th centuries CE, also suggests that Primitive Norse could not have been a direct predecessor of West Germanic dialects.","ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ, ⴰⵣⴰⵋⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓ-ⴶⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴷⴰⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵏⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 400 ⴷ 500 ⵛⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴱⵔⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴱⵢ ⵏⵓⵔⵙⵢ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵢ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴱ"
"""By the late 3rd century CE, linguistic divergences like the West Germanic loss of the final consonant -z had already occurred within the """"residual"""" Northwest dialect continuum.""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 300 ⵛE, ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵤ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ‘’ ⵔⵢⵙⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍ’ ⵏⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ ⴷⴰⵗⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ"
"The inclusion of the Burgundian and Vandalic languages within the East Germanic group, while plausible, is still uncertain due to their scarce attestation.",ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴶⵓⵏⴷⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations.",ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜ-ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ . ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
Societies construct patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or speech as acceptable or unacceptable.,ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵈ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ
"Insofar as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would otherwise be difficult on an individual basis; both individual and social (common) benefits can thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap.","ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵂⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⵓ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ; ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰⵓⵢⵏ (ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ) ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴷⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵉⵛⵂⵔⵉⵉⴰⵏ"
"""This was in turn from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun socius (""""comrade, friend, ally""""; adjectival form socialis) used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil.""","“ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵙ (“””ⴰⵏⴰⵔⵂⴰⵋ, ⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉ, ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍ””; ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵋⵢⴾⵜⵉⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙ) ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵓⴰⵜⵉⵏ”"
"""In the 1630s it was used in reference to """"people bound by neighborhood and intercourse aware of living together in an ordered community"""".""",“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1630 ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵔⵋⴰⵗ ⵉ ‘”ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴰⵗ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⴷ ⵋⵉⵎⴰⵗ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵜ”””
"These structures may have varying degrees of political power, depending on the cultural, geographical, and historical environments that these societies must contend with.","Iⴷⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⵢⴶⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵉⵍⴾⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ , ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵂⵉⵏⵣⵓⵣⴰⵗ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵈ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ"
Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige.,ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵈ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ
This cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community.,ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⵎⴰ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ
Cities turned into city-states and nation-states.,ⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵛⵉⵜⵉ-ⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ-ⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢⵙ
"Conversely, members of a society may also shun or scapegoat any members of the society who violate its norms.",ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ
Some societies bestow status on an individual or group of people when that individual or group performs an admired or desired action.,ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⴾⴾⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ
"Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history, anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as resources, prestige, or power.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⵔⵢⵆ, ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⴾⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵙ ⴷⵢⴶⵔⵢ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⴷ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵙⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ"
"However, some hunting and gathering societies in areas with abundant resources (such as people of tlingit) lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical social structures such as chiefdom.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ , ⵉⵂⵓⵉⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ (ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵍⵉⵏⴶⵉⵜ) ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⵉⵍⴰ"
"Statuses within the tribe are relatively equal, and decisions are reached through general agreement.",ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ
"There are no political offices containing real power, and a chief is merely a person of influence, a sort of adviser; therefore, tribal consolidations for collective action are not governmental.","ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⵢⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵜⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ, ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ"
"Because their food supply is far more reliable, pastoral societies can support larger populations.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵙⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ , ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵈ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵂⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱⴰⵏ"
"For example, some people become craftworkers, producing tools, weapons, and jewelry, among other items of value.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ , ⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ, ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵔⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ"
These families often gain power through their increased wealth.,ⵉⴶⵉⴷⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵔⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⵉⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"The wild vegetation is cut and burned, and ashes are used as fertilizers.",ⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵢⵔⴰⵣ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵣⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵓⵎⴰⵏ
They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again.,ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ
The size of a village's population depends on the amount of land available for farming; thus villages can range from as few as 30 people to as many as 2000.,ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵗⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵋⴰⵙ; ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵔⵎⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ 30 ⵂⴰⵔ 2000
"Sociologists use the phrase agricultural revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as 8,500 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals.","ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵆⴰⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵔⵉⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵔⵢⴱⵍⵓⵜⵉoⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ 8,500 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴶⴰⵉⴰⴾ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵋⵓⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⵢⵋ"
Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agrarian societies.,ⴷⵢⴶⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴾⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵈⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏ
"However, as food stores improved and women took on lesser roles in providing food for the family, they increasingly became subordinate to men.",ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴶⴰⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵙⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⵉⵏⴰⵛ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵎⵢⴷⴷⴰⵏ
A system of rulers with high social status also appeared.,ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⵢⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵣⴰⵋⵓⵔ
Europe's exploration of the Americas served as one impetus for the development of capitalism.,ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵛⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ
This produced further dramatic increases in efficiency.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵍⵗⴰⵓ
This larger surplus caused all of the changes discussed earlier in the domestication revolution to become even more pronounced.,ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵓⵎⵢⵙⵜⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵔⵢⴱⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴱ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ
"However, inequality became even greater than before.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵓⴰ"
"Geographically, it covers at the very least the countries of Western Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉ, ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵙⴰⵂ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ, ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵛⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ, ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵤⵢⴰⵍⴰⵏⴷ"
One of the European Union's areas of interest is the information society.,ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵓⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⵢⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
"Some academic, professional, and scientific associations describe themselves as societies (for example, the American Mathematical Society, the American Society of Civil Engineers, or the Royal Society).","ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ, ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ (ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵉ, ⵜⵂⵢ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵉ ⵓⴼ ⵛⵉⴱⵉⵍ ⵢⵏⴶⵉⵏⵢⴽⵢⵢⵔⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵔⵓⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵉ"
"A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as norms, religion, values, customs, or identity.","ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ (ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ) ⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ, ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ"
"In this sense it is synonymous with the concept of an ancient settlement - whether a hamlet, village, town, or city.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ -ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ"
Most reconstructions of social communities by archaeologists rely on the principle that social interaction in the past was conditioned by physical distance.,Iⴷⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵔⴾⵢⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ oⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜ- ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵋⵉⵋ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ
No group is exclusively one or the other.,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ
"Socialization is influenced primarily by the family, through which children first learn community norms.",ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍⵉⵣⴰⵣⵉⵓⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵛ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵍⴰⵎⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ
Community development practitioners must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions.,ⵎⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⴽⵢⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ
At the intersection between community development and community building are a number of programs and organizations with community development tools.,ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵈⵈⵢⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵋⵓ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ
"Emptiness: Moves beyond the attempts to fix, heal and convert of the chaos stage, when all people become capable of acknowledging their own woundedness and brokenness, common to human beings.","ⴷⵜⴰⵗⴰⵙ: ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵔⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⵗⵏⵢ , ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵉⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
"""The three basic types of community organizing are grassroots organizing, coalition building, and """"institution-based community organizing,"""" (also called """"broad-based community organizing,"""" an example of which is faith-based community organizing, or Congregation-based Community Organizing).""","“ⵆⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ, ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ (ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ “”ⴰⴾⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ)”"
"Retrieved on: June 22, 2008.",ⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ 22 ⵏ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵣⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2008
Community organizing can focus on more than just resolving specific issues.,ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ
Such groups facilitate and encourage consensus decision-making with a focus on the general health of the community rather than a specific interest group.,ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵗⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⴼⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ
"Identity-based Communities: range from the local clique, sub-culture, ethnic group, religious, multicultural or pluralistic civilisation, or the global community cultures of today.","ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ: Iⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⴼ, ⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ, ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵉⴱⵉⵍⵉⵣⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ"
Relationships among members in a virtual community tend to focus on information exchange about specific topics.,ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵋⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴰ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ
"""Scholars in the humanities are """"humanities scholars"""" or humanists.""",“ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵢⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵢⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
"The humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras.","ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵢⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ, ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ , ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵆⴰⴷⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"Anthropology (like some fields of history) does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains.",ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ (ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ) ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⴰⵜⵢⴶⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⴾⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ
"""The word anthropos (άνθρωπος) is from the Greek word for """"human being"""" or """"person"""".""",“ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵙ (ⴰⴱθρωπος) ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ”
"This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they always keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic and cultural aspects of any problem.","ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ, ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵓⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ, ⴰⵓⴰⵍ, ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵔⵢⵆ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⴼⵓⴾ"
"The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and linguistic data alongside direct observation of contemporary customs.","ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⴶⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛ, ⴰⵔⵛⵂⴰⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ"
Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities.,ⴰⵔⴾⵢⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵙⵉⴰⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴷ ⵢⵍⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ
"A good deal of twentieth-century and twenty-first-century philosophy has been devoted to the analysis of language and to the question of whether, as Wittgenstein claimed, many of our philosophical confusions derive from the vocabulary we use; literary theory has explored the rhetorical, associative, and ordering features of language; and historical linguists have studied the development of languages across time.","ⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000 ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵜⵜⴶⵢⵏⵙⵜⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵗⵏⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⴼⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ, ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵢⵗⵏⴰ, ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ; ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ"
"""It has been defined as a """"system of rules"""", as an """"interpretive concept"""" to achieve justice, as an """"authority"""" to mediate people's interests, and even as """"the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction"""".""","“ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙ “ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ””, ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ”” ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ “ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ” ⵉⵙⴰⵏⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴼⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ “ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⴾⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵔⵗⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴰⵏⵜ”"
"Laws are politics, because politicians create them.",ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵗⵏⴰⵏ
"""As Immanuel Kant noted, """"Ancient Greek philosophy was divided into three sciences: physics, ethics, and logic."""")""","“ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵏⵓⵢⵍ ⵆⴰⵏⵜ “ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ: ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⵙ, ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ, ⴷ ⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛ””)"
"Shinto, Daoism, and other folk or natural religions do not have ethical codes.","ⵙⵂⵉⵏⵜⵓ, ⵢⴰⵓⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
"Belief systems imply a logical model that religions do not display because of their internal contradictions, lack of evidence, and falsehoods. .","ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⵢ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ"
They are necessary for understanding the human predicament.,ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⴰⴷⵓⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵜ
"The non-founder religions are Hinduism, Shinto, and native or folk religions.","ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏⴷⵓⵉⵙⵎ, ⵙⵂⵉⵏⵜo, ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
"When traditional religions fail to address new concerns, then new religions will emerge.",ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵙ-ⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵗⵓⵜⴰⵔ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴾⵉⵔⴰⵏ
"Performing arts are also supported by workers in related fields, such as songwriting and stagecraft.",ⴷⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵔⴰⵆ
This is called Performance art.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⴷⴰ-ⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ
"Dance is also used to describe methods of non-verbal communication (see body language) between humans or animals (bee dance, mating dance), and motion in inanimate objects (the leaves danced in the wind).","ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵋⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵎ (ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ) ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵣⵢⵋⴰⵏ (ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵏⵙⵉⵉ) ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ (ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵏⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵓ)"
"In Byzantine and Gothic art of the Middle Ages, the dominance of the church insisted on the expression of biblical and not material truths.","ⴷⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵗⵓⵜⵂⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵍⵢ ⴰⴶⵢⵙ , ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵏⵋⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ"
A characteristic of this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline (a contemporary equivalent is the cartoon).,ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵗⵢⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ (ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵛⴰⵔⵜⵓⵓⵏ
"It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface.",ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵢⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⴰⴷ-ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ
"However, when used in an artistic sense it means the use of this activity in combination with drawing, composition and other aesthetic considerations in order to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵔⴰⵙⵉⵎ , ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵉ"
"Black is associated with mourning in the West, but elsewhere white may be.",ⵜⴰⴾⴾⴰⵓⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴱⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵉ ⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ
"""The word """"red"""", for example, can cover a wide range of variations on the pure red of the spectrum.""","“ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⵜⴰⵛⵂⵓⵗⵢ” ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵍⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵛⵂⵓⵗⵢⵏⵣⴰⴷⴷⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴱⵢⵛⵜⵔⵓⵎ”"
This began with cubism and is not painting in strict sense.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵛⵓⴱⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⵍⵢⵋ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ
"Consequently, many spend the first few years after graduation deciding what to do next, resulting in lower incomes at the start of their career; meanwhile, graduates from career-oriented programs experience more rapid entry into the labour market.","ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⵉⵎⵎⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵂⵢ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ, ⵂⴰⵙ-ⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵔⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ, ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵋⴰⵔⵔⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵎⵓⴷ"
"However, the empirical evidence also shows that humanities graduates still earn notably higher incomes than workers with no postsecondary education, and have job satisfaction levels comparable to their peers from other fields.","ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⴾⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵢⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵋⴰⵔⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵔⵔⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵙ-ⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ"
"As a percentage of the type of degrees awarded, however, the humanities seem to be declining.","ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ, ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵢⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ"
Federal funding represents a much smaller fraction of funding for humanities than other fields such as STEM or medicine.,ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵓⴼ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵢⵙ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵎⵢⴷⵢⵛⵉⵏⵢ
"This understanding, they claimed, ties like-minded people from similar cultural backgrounds together and provides a sense of cultural continuity with the philosophical past.",ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⴼ -ⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ
"Apart from its societal application, narrative imagination is an important tool in the (re)production of understood meaning in history, culture and literature.","ⴰⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ, ⴰⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵆ, ⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ"
"Poststructuralism has problematized an approach to the humanistic study based on questions of meaning, intentionality, and authorship.","ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ , ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴱⴰ"
"Furthermore, critical thinking, while arguably a result of humanistic training, can be acquired in other contexts.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ,ⴰⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵢ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵜ-ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ"
Such pleasure contrasts with the increasing privatization of leisure and instant gratification characteristic of Western culture; it thus meets Jürgen Habermas' requirements for the disregard of social status and rational problematization of previously unquestioned areas necessary for an endeavor which takes place in the bourgeois public sphere.,"ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵗⵓⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⴼⵉⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⴼⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ, oⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵋⵓⵔⴶⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⴱⵢⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵉ ⴰⵏⴾⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵆⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵓⵢⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵗ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⵢⵓⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ"
Despite many humanities based arguments against the humanities some within the exact sciences have called for their return.,ⴰⵎⵛⴰⴾⴾⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵢⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵢⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵆⴰⵛⵜ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢⵙ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⵗⵍⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
It’s good to know the history of philosophy.”,ⵉ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ
"""Communication (from Latin communicare, meaning """"to share""""or """"to be in relation with"""") is """"an apparent answer to the painful divisions between self and other, private and public, and inner thought and outer word.""""""","“ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ( ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵉⵛⵔⵢ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ‘’ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ’ ⵎⵢⵗ ‘ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵉⴷ ‘) ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ‘ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ , ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ’’’"
Message composition (further internal or technical elaboration on what exactly to express).,ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵢⵙⴰⵋ (ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵉⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵂⵢ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ)
Noise sources such as natural forces and in some cases human activity (both intentional and accidental) begin influencing the quality of signals propagating from the sender to one or more receivers.,ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵜⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ( ⵜⴰ ⵓⵜⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵜⵢⵙ) ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴶⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵏⴰⴼⴼⴰⵣⵏⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⵔⵙⴰⵍⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ
Interpretation and making sense of the presumed original message.,ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴻⵙⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ
"Examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating.",ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵋ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵜ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵢ
"Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, the spatial arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey emotion.","ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵙ , ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵎⵓⵜⵉⵛⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ"
"Some of the functions of nonverbal communication in humans are to complement and illustrate, to reinforce and emphasize, to replace and substitute, to control and regulate, and to contradict the denotative message.","ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ , ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍ, ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⵏⵉⵎⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ , ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⴱⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⵏ ⵎⵢⵙⴰⵋ"
"To have total communication, all non-verbal channels such as the body, face, voice, appearance, touch, distance, timing, and other environmental forces must be engaged during face-to-face interaction.","ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ , ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵎ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ, ⵓⴷⵉⵎ, ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵍⵉ,ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜ, ⵢⴷⵢⵙ, ⵓⵋⵉⵋ, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ, ⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ"
"""""""Non-verbal behaviours may form a universal language system.""""""",“” ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵢⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵎ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ “””ⴰ
Language learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood.,ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ
"Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages.","ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵙⴱⵢⵔⴰⵏⵜⵓ, ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵓⵎⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴱⴷⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵔⵉⵣⵣⵢⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
The properties of language are governed by rules.,ⵉⵔⵉⵣⵣⵢⵋⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵢⵆⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
"Contrary to popular belief, signed languages of the world (e.g., American Sign Language) are considered to be verbal communication because their sign vocabulary, grammar, and other linguistic structures abide by all the necessary classifications as spoken languages.","ⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ , ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ (ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ) ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵍ, ⴶⵔⴰⵎⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵉⴷⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴾⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵋⵔⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ"
Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an attempt to create shared understanding.,ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵢⵔⵢⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ
"A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission.",ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴶⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ
"A destination, where the message arrives.",ⴷⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⵉⴷ ⵎⵢⵙⴰⵋ
No allowance for differing purposes.,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ
No allowance for situational contexts.,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ
"These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication.","ⵜⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵔⵉⵛⵂ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵉⵉⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ"
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols).,ⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵛⵜⵉⵛ ( ⵉⵔⵉⵣⵣⴻⵋⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵔⴰⵎⴰⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ)
"In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed a transactional model of communication.","ⴷ ⴰⵗ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ, ⴱⴰⵔⵏⵍⵓⵏⴷ (2008) ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ"
"This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted.",ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵙⴰⵋ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵜ ⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ
"The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents.","ⴼⵉⵍⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⵔⵙⴰⵍⵉⵉⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ, ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵋⴰⵏⵙⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵢⵙⴰⵋ"
"Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴾⵢ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ , ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ , ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵗⵓⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ"
"Companies with limited resources may choose to engage in only a few of these activities, while larger organizations may employ a full spectrum of communications.",ⵆⵓⵎⴱⴰⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵓⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵙⴱⵢⵛⵜⵔⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ
"The information environment is the aggregate of individuals, organizations, and systems that collect, process, disseminate, or act on information.","ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ , ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓ ⵏⵢⵏ, ⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⴰⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵢⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ"
In verbal interpersonal communication there are two types of messages being sent: a content message and a relational message.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵢⵙⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴶⴰⵍⵍⵉⵏⵢⵏ: ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵙⴰⵋ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵙⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ
This is the study of how individuals explain what causes different events and behaviors.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ- ⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ
Open and honest communication creates an atmosphere that allows family members to express their differences as well as love and admiration for one another.,ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⴷⵉⵍ ⵢⵗⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴶⵢⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
Researchers develop theories to understand communication behaviors.,ⵆⵢⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ
"""This also includes a lack of expressing """"knowledge-appropriate"""" communication, which occurs when a person uses ambiguous or complex legal words, medical jargon, or descriptions of a situation or environment that is not understood by the recipient.""","“ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ “ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵜ”” ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⴼ, ⵜⴰⵏⴶⴰⵍⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⵂⵢⵎ ⵎⵓⵆⴰⵜⵜⴰⴱ”"
"Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of management to introduce new technology, may also cause problems.","ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵉ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ , ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰⵔ ⵉ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ"
Examples might include an organizational structure which is unclear and therefore makes it confusing to know whom to communicate with.,ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷoⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵜ ⵓ ⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⵗⵏⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⴼ ⵉ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ
It is better if such words are avoided by using alternatives whenever possible.,ⵉ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ
"However, research in communication has shown that confusion can lend legitimacy to research when persuasion fails.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⴰ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⵗⵏⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵜ ⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴾ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙ"
It is when the sender is expressing a thought or a word but the receiver gives it a different meaning.,ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⵔⵙⴰⵍⵉⵉⴰ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⵢ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ
"This has, in turn, led to a notable change in the way younger generations communicate and perceive their own self-efficacy to communicate and connect with others.",ⴰⵓⵢⵢⵏ ⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵢⵏ
Fear of being criticized – This is a major factor that prevents good communication.,ⵜⵉⴾⵙⵉⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ
This will not only boost your confidence but also improve your language and vocabulary.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵓⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⴰⴾ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⴾ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ
Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult.,ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵗⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰ
"The act of disambiguation regards the attempt of reducing noise and wrong interpretations, when the semantic value or meaning of a sign can be subject to noise, or in presence of multiple meanings, which makes the sense-making difficult.",Iⴾⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⵗⵏⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⴼ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⵔⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵢⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵎⵓⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵋⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⴰⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ
"For example: words, colours and symbols have different meanings in different cultures.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ: ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ , ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ"
Understanding cultural aspects of communication refers to having knowledge of different cultures in order to communicate effectively with cross culture people.,ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
It also includes sounds from throat and all these are greatly influenced by cultural differences across borders.,ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⴶⵓⵔⵙⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
This concept differs from culture to culture as the permissible space varies in different countries.,ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
"Some issues explaining this concept are pauses, silences and response lag during an interaction.",ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷ ; ⵉⵙⵓⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵂⵓⵋⵉ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍ
"In different countries, the same gestures and postures are used to convey different messages.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ, ⵉⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵓ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵢⵙⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"Plant roots communicate with rhizome bacteria, fungi, and insects within the soil.","ⵉⴾⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾ ⵙⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵔⵂⵉⵣⵓⵎⵢ ⴱⴰⵛⵜⵢⵔⵉⴰ, ⴱⵉⴼⴼⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
In parallel they produce other volatiles to attract parasites which attack these herbivores.,ⵜ-ⴰⵔⴰⵓ-ⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵔⴰⴾⴰⴱ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⵣⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵍⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⵎⵓⵣ
"The biochemicals trigger the fungal organism to react in a specific manner, while if the same chemical molecules are not part of biotic messages, they do not trigger the fungal organism to react.","ⴱⵉⵓⵛⵂⵢⵎⵉⵛⴰⵍⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⴼⴼⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵢⵎⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵢⵙⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵜⵉⵛ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵏⴶⴰⵍ ⵓⵔⴶⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ"
"Through quorum sensing, bacteria can sense the density of cells, and regulate gene expression accordingly.","ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵈⵓⵓⵔⵓⵎ, ⴱⴰⵛⵜⵢⵔⵉⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵙⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵗⵉⴷ ⴶⵢⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⵢⵏ"
"Information, in a general sense, is processed, organised and structured data.","ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ , ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⴰⵏⵙⴰⴾⵢⵏ , ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
Information is associated with data.,ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ
"Information can be transmitted in time, via data storage, and space, via communication and telecommunication.",ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵙ ⴰⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵍⵢⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ
"Information can be encoded into various forms for transmission and interpretation (for example, information may be encoded into a sequence of signs, or transmitted via a signal).","ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⴷⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴾⵉ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ (ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⴷⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵎⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴾⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴶⴰⵏⵜ)"
Uncertainty is inversely proportional to the probability of occurrence.,ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⴾⴰ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ
"Furthermore, Latin itself already contained the word īnfōrmātiō meaning concept or idea, but the extent to which this may have influenced the development of the word information in English is not clear.",ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵏⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵓ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ
In modern Greek the word Πληροφορία is still in daily use and has the same meaning as the word information in English.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ Πληρⵓφⵓρίⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜ
"The field was fundamentally established by the works of Harry Nyquist and Ralph Hartley in the 1920s, and Claude Shannon in the 1940s.",ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⵏⵉⵈⵓⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵔⴰⵍⵔⵂ ⵂⴰⵔⵜⵍⵢⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1920 ⴷ ⵛⵍⴰⵓⴷⵢ ⵙⵂⴰⵏⵏⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1940
Entropy quantifies the amount of uncertainty involved in the value of a random variable or the outcome of a random process.,ⴷⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵉ ⴷ-ⴰⴾⴾⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵜ- ⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ
"Important sub-fields of information theory include source coding, algorithmic complexity theory, algorithmic information theory, and information-theoretic security.","ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⴰⴷⴰⵔⵉ, ⴰⵍⴶⵓⵔⵉⵜⵂⵎ ⵛⵓⵎⵔⵍⵢⵆⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ, ⴰⵍⴶⵓⵔⵉⵜⵂⵎ ⵉⵏⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ-ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⵙⵢⵛⵓⵔⵉⵜⵉ"
In his book Sensory Ecology biophysicist David B. Dusenbery called these causal inputs.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙⵢⵏⵙⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⵛⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴱⵉⵓⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⵉⵙⵜ ⵢⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⴱ. ⵢⵓⵙⵢⵏⴱⵢⵔⵉ ⵢⵗⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ
"In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or system.",ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵜⵉⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵉⴱⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵗⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵋⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ
The sequence of nucleotides is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind.,ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵏⵓⴾⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵓⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵓⵍⴰ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵔⴰⵉⵜ
"In other words, it can be said that information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵗⵏⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⵙⴰⴾⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵓⵢⵏ"
Whether the answer provides knowledge depends on the informed person.,ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ
This is the informational equivalent of almost 61 CD-ROM per person in 2007.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ 61 ⵛⵢ-ⵔⵓⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2007
Sound records management ensures that the integrity of records is preserved for as long as they are required.,ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵗⵍⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ
Beynon-Davies explains the multi-faceted concept of information in terms of signs and signal-sign systems.,ⴱⵢⵉⵏⵓⵏ-ⵢⴰⵉⴱⵢⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙ ⵏⵢⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴶⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵏⵢⵂⴰⵍ
Pragmatics is concerned with the purpose of communication.,ⴱⵔⴰⴶⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ
"In other words, pragmatics link language to action.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ, ⴱⵔⴰⴶⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵜ ⵓⵙⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵜ"
Semantics is the study of the meaning of signs - the association between signs and behaviour.,ⵙⵢⵎⴰⵏⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ - ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵏⵢⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ
Syntax as an area studies the form of communication in terms of the logic and grammar of sign systems.,ⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⴾⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵂⴰⵍ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴶⵔⴰⵎⵢⵔ
"He introduces the concept of lexicographic information costs and refers to the effort a user of a dictionary must make to first find, and then understand data so that they can generate information.",ⴰⵣⵓⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵆⵉⵛⵓⴶⵔⴰⵔⵂⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵢⵋ ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎ ⵙ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵔ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵔⵓ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴷⴰⴱⵢⵏ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ
In a communicative situation intentions are expressed through messages that comprise collections of inter-related signs taken from a language mutually understood by the agents involved in the communication.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵜ ⵓ ⴰⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵎⵢⵙⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵗ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵎⵉⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵏ
"Information visualization (shortened as InfoVis) depends on the computation and digital representation of data, and assists users in pattern recognition and anomaly detection.",ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ (ⵉⵏⴼⵓⴱⵉⵙ) ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⵓⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⵂⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵙ
The term is generally employed in sociology and the other social sciences as well as in philosophy and bioethics.,ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵓⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ
"In developing societies it may be mainly based on kinship and shared values while more developed societies accumulate various theories as to what contributes to a sense of solidarity, or rather, social cohesion.",ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜⵜ ⴰ ⵢⵋ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⴷⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵋⵉⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
Durkheim introduced the terms mechanical and organic solidarity as part of his theory of the development of societies in The Division of Labour in Society (1893).,ⴷⵓⵔⴾⵂⵢⵉⵎ ⴰⵣⵓⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵉⵢⵉⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵓⴼ ⵍⴰⴱⵓⵓⵔ ⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵉ (ⴷⴰⴱ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1893)
"Collins Dictionary of Sociology, p405-6.","ⵛⵓⵍⵍⵉⵏⵙ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⵔ405 ⵂⴰⵔ 406"
Definition: it is social cohesion based upon the dependence which individuals have on each other in more advanced societies.,ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ : ⵟⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉ ⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ
Early ancient philosophers such as Socrates and Aristotle discuss solidarity as a virtue ethics framework because in order to live a good life one must perform actions and behave in a way that is in solidarity with the community.,ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵢ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵎⴰⵔⴾⵢⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
The modern practice of bioethics is significantly influenced by Immanuel Kant's concept of the Categorical Imperative.,ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵢⵜⵉⴾⵙ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵏⵓⵢⵍ ⴾⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵜⵢⴶⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ
Foreign-area studies were virtually nonexistent.,ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⵢⵏⴰⵜ
"The former became area-studies advocates, the latter proponents of modernization theory.",ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵔⵏⵉⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ
From 1953 to 1966 it contributed $270 million to 34 universities for area and language studies.,ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1953 ⵂⴰⵔ 1966 ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵙ 270 ⴷⵍⴰⵔ 34 ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ
Other large and important programs followed Ford's.,ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴼⵓⵔⴷ
"Others insisted, however, that once they were established on university campuses, area studies began to encompass a much broader and deeper intellectual agenda than the one foreseen by government agencies, thus not American centric.","Iⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ , ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵆⵓⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵜⴰ ⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵛⵢⵏⵜⵔⵉⵛ"
"Other interdisciplinary research fields such as women's studies, gender studies, disability studies, LGBT studies and ethnic studies (including African American studies, Asian American studies, Latino studies, Chicano studies and Native American studies) are not part of area studies but are sometimes included in discussion along with it.","ⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ , ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵋⴰⵏⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⴱ , ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵗⴱⵟ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ (ⵢⵂⴰ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ, ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ, ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵓ, ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⴰⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ) ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵂⵢⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⵉⵓⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ"
"Demography (from prefix demo- from Ancient Greek δῆμος (dēmos) meaning 'the people', and -graphy from γράφω (graphō) meaning 'writing, description or measurement') is the statistical study of populations, especially human beings.","ⴷⵢⵎⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ (ⵗⵓⵔ ⴱⵔⵢⴼⵉⵆ ⴷⵢⵎⵓ-ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ δῆμος (ⴷⵢⵎⵓⵙ) ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ “” ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ” ⴷ ⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵗⴱⴰφⵓ (ⴶⵔⴰⵔⵂⵓ) ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ “ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ, ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⴾⵢⵜ) ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴷⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
"Patient demographics form the core of the data for any medical institution,such as patient and emergency contact information and patient medical record data.",ⴱⴰⵜⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴷⵢⵎⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⵍⵂ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏ
The term Demography refers to the overall study of population.,ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⵢⵜ
"In the Middle ages, Christian thinkers devoted much time in refuting the Classical ideas on demography.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵍⵢ ⴰⴶⵢⵙ, ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴷⵢⵎⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ"
"One of the earliest demographic studies in the modern period was Natural and Political Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortality (1662) by John Graunt, which contains a primitive form of life table.",ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴷⵢⵎⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵓⴱⵙⵢⵔⴱⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵉⵍⵍⵙ ⵓⴼ ⵎⵓⵔⵜⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉ (1662) ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⵗⵔⴰⵓⵏⵜ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ
"His work influenced Thomas Robert Malthus, who, writing at the end of the 18th century, feared that, if unchecked, population growth would tend to outstrip growth in food production, leading to ever-increasing famine and poverty (see Malthusian catastrophe).","ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵟⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵍⵜⵓⵙ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⵙⵓⴷ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ, ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵗⴰⵎ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵣⴰ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵈⵓⵓⴰ (ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⵜⵓⵙⵉⴰⵏ)"
A census is the other common direct method of collecting demographic data.,ⵜⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⵢⵎⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ
Analyses are conducted after a census to estimate how much over or undercounting took place.,ⵉⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⵔⴾ ⵎⵢⴷⴰⵏ
"Other indirect methods in contemporary demography include asking people about siblings, parents, and children.","ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵢⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵢⵎⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵂⵢⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵏ , ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ"
"They include models of mortality (including the life table, Gompertz models, hazards models, Cox proportional hazards models, multiple decrement life tables, Brass relational logits), fertility (Hernes model, Coale-Trussell models, parity progression ratios), marriage (Singulate Mean at Marriage, Page model), disability (Sullivan's method, multistate life tables), population projections (Lee-Carter model, the Leslie Matrix), and population momentum (Keyfitz).","ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ (ⵢⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ, ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵗⵓⵎⴱⵢⵔⵜⵣ, ⵂⴰⵣⴰⵔⴷⵙ ⵎⵓⴷⵍⵢⵙ, ⵛⵓⵆ ⴱⵔⵓⴱⵓⵔⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵣⴰⵔⴷⵙ, ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ, ⴱⵔⴰⵙⵙ ⵔⵢⵍⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜⵙ), ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵎⵓⵜ (ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⵔⵏⵢⵙ, ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⵓⴰⵍⵢ-ⵟⵔⵓⵙⵙⵢⵍ, ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵜⵉ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⵢⵙⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵙ), ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ (ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⴰⵏ, ⴱⴰⴶⵢ ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵍ), ⴰⵍⵗⵉⴱ (ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵍⵉⴱⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ), ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ (ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵢ-ⵛⴰⵔⵜⵢⵔ, ⵍⵢⵙⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵜⵔⵉⵆ) ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ)"
"The age-specific fertility rates, the annual number of live births per 1,000 women in particular age groups (usually age 15–19, 20-24 etc.)","ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵢⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ, ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ 1000 ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ (ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ 15 ⵂⴰⵔ 19, 20 ⵂⴰⵔ 24)"
"The expectation of life (or life expectancy), the number of years that an individual at a given age could expect to live at present mortality levels.",ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ
"A stationary population, one that is both stable and unchanging in size (the difference between crude birth rate and crude death rate is zero).",ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴾⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ( ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ)
Note that the crude death rate as defined above and applied to a whole population can give a misleading impression.,ⴰⵍⵎⵉⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵆⴰⵔⵓⴾ
Individuals who change their ethnic self-labels or whose ethnic classification in government statistics changes over time may be thought of as migrating or moving from one population subcategory to another.,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵂⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⴾⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰ ⵉⴼⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ
"The figure in this section shows the latest (2004) UN projections of world population out to the year 2150 (red = high, orange = medium, green = low).","ⴷⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ (2004) ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2150 (ⵜⴰⵛⵂⵓⵗⵢ=ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ, ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵗⵢ= ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ= ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ)"
"Mortality is the study of the causes, consequences, and measurement of processes affecting death to members of the population.","ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⴾⵎⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ"
Migration researchers do not designate movements 'migrations' unless they are somewhat permanent.,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏ “”ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ” ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵢⵗⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ
"Demography is today widely taught in many universities across the world, attracting students with initial training in social sciences, statistics or health studies.","ⴷⵢⵎⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ,ⵔⴰⴾⴾⴰⴱ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵍⴰ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢⵙ, ⵎⴻⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ"
"""In this respect, one can see information science as a response to technological determinism, the belief that technology """"develops by its own laws, that it realizes its own potential, limited only by the material resources available and the creativity of its developers.""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵓⵢⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵛⵂⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴷⵢⵜⵢⵔⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵎ, ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⵛⵂⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ “”ⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ”"
"It is concerned with that body of knowledge relating to the origination, collection, organization, storage, retrieval, interpretation, transmission, transformation, and utilization of information.","ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ , ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ, ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ, ⴰⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏ,ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⵛⵂⴰⵛⵂ, ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ, ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵉ, ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ"
This is especially true when related to the concept developed by A. I. Mikhailov and other Soviet authors in the mid-1960s.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰ. ⵉ. ⵎⵉⴾⵂⴰⵉⵍⵓⴱ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵓⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵉⵢⵜⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1960
Definitions reliant on the nature of the tools used for deriving meaningful information from data are emerging in Informatics academic programs.,ⵉⴼⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵗ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴾⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ
It can be used to reason about the entities within that domain and may be used to describe the domain.,ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵓⵢⵏ
"Traditionally, their work has been with print materials, but these skills are being increasingly used with electronic, visual, audio, and digital materials.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ, ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵓⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵓ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⴾⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⴾ, ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ, ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵍ"
"Institutionally, information science emerged in the 19th century along with many other social science disciplines.",ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⴰⵏⵙ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵢⵏⵙ ⵙoⵙⵉⴰⵍ
"In 1731, Benjamin Franklin established the Library Company of Philadelphia, the first library owned by a group of public citizens, which quickly expanded beyond the realm of books and became a center of scientific experiment, and which hosted public exhibitions of scientific experiments.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1731, ⴱⵢⵏⵋⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⴰⵉ Lⵉⴱⵔⴰⵔⵉ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⴰⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⴷⴰⵢⵍⴱⵂⵉⴰ , ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵏⴼⴰⵣ -ⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵎⵓⴷ ⵙⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵛⵢⵏⵛⵓ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵓⴾⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵓⵏⵛⵢ"
"In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a punched card system to control operations of the cloth weaving loom in France.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1801, ⵋⵓⵙⵢⴱⵂ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵢ ⵀⴰⵛⵈⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵢⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⴻ"
"By 1843 Richard Hoe developed the rotary press, and in 1844 Samuel Morse sent the first public telegraph message.",ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1843 ⵔⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴷ ⵂⵓⵢ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵔⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴱⵔⵢⵙⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1844 ⵙⴰⵎⵓⵢⵍ ⵎⵓⵔⵙⵢⵉⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⵎⵢⵙⴰⵋ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵍⵢⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ
In 1860 a congress was held at Karlsruhe Technische Hochschule to discuss the feasibility of establishing a systematic and rational nomenclature for chemistry.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1860 ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵆⴰⵔⵍⵙⵔⵓⵂⵢⵢⵟⵢⵛⵂⵏⵉⵙⵛⵂⵢ ⵂⵓⵛⵂⵙⵛⵂⵓⵍⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵏⵓⵎⵢⵏⴾⵍⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵛⵉⵎⵉ
The following year the Royal Society began publication of its Catalogue of Papers in London.,ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⵣⵉⵣⵋⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵜⴰⵍⵓⴶⵓⵢⵢⵓⴼ ⴱⴰⵔⵢⵔⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵔⵢ.
Many information science historians cite Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine as the fathers of information science with the founding of the International Institute of Bibliography (IIB) in 1895.,ⵆⵢⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢⵢⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵓⵍ Oⵜⵍⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵂⵢⵏⵔⵉ ⵍⴰ ⴼⵓⵏⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢ ⵙ ⴰⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⵢⵔⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵙⵉⵜⵓⵜⵢ ⵓⴼ ⴱⵉⴱⵍⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⵂⵉ (ⵉⵉⴱ) ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1895
Documentalists emphasized the utilitarian integration of technology and technique toward specific social goals.,ⴷⵓⵛⵓⵎⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵉⴾ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
"Otlet and Lafontaine established numerous organizations dedicated to standardization, bibliography, international associations, and consequently, international cooperation.","Oⵜⵍⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵍⴰⴼⵓⵏⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵗⵉⴷ , ⴱⵉⴱⵍⵉⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉ, ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ"
This collection involved standardized paper sheets and cards filed in custom-designed cabinets according to a hierarchical index (which culled information worldwide from diverse sources) and a commercial information retrieval service (which answered written requests by copying relevant information from index cards).,ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵉⵣⵢⴷ ⵔⴰⵔⵢⵔ ⵙⵂⵢⵢⵜⵙ ⴷ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵏⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵢⵔⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴷⵢⵆ (ⵓⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵙⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ) ⴷ ⵙⴰⵔⵓⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ (ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⴶⴱⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵢⵆ ⵛⴰⵔⴷⵙ)
"Additionally, traditional boundaries among disciplines began to fade and many information science scholars joined with other programs.",ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵔⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ
The 1980s also saw the emergence of numerous special interest groups to respond to the changes.,ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1980 ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ
"Zhang, B., Semenov, A., Vos, M. and Veijlainen, J. (2014).","ⵌⵂⴰⵏⴶ. ⴱ, ⵙⵢⵎⵢⵏⵓⴱ, ⴰ. ⴱⵓⵙ ? ⴷ ⴱⵢⵉⵋⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ, ⵋ (2014)"
"""Sharing through social media has become so influential that publishers must """"play nice"""" if they desire to succeed.""",“ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵎ ⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⵙⵂⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ “”ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ” ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ”
"""It is for this reason that these networks have been realized for the potential they provide. """"""",“ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ”””
What about assigning privileges and restricting access to unauthorized users?,ⵉⵏⴷⵢⴾ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴶⴷⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⵢⵓ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ?
It is an emerging discipline and community of practice focused on bringing together principles of design and architecture to the digital landscape.,ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⵜⵉⵗⵂⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵙ ⴷⵉⴶⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵍⴰⵏⴷⵙⵛⴰⵔⵢ
"""Automated information retrieval systems are used to reduce what has been called """"information overload"""".""",“ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵜ- ⵓ-ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰ-ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ “”ⴰⵣⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ”
An information retrieval process begins when a user enters a query into the system.,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⵢⵔ ⴰⵣⵓⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ
"Instead, several objects may match the query, perhaps with different degrees of relevancy.","ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ , ⵢⵂⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷⴰ"
"Depending on the application the data objects may be, for example, text documents, images, audio, mind maps or videos.","Iⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴱⵍⵉⴾⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ , ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵓⵢⵏ,ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵍⵉ, ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⵉⴷⵢⵉⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"Information seeking is related to, but different from, information retrieval (IR).",ⵉⵉⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ (Iⵔ)
Logic is used to supply formal semantics of how reasoning functions should be applied to the symbols in the KR system.,ⵎⴰⵏⵜⵉⵈ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵍ ⵙⵢⵎⴰⵏⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵔⴰⵎⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⵔ
"It was also a common belief that natural disasters such as famine and flood were divine retributions bearing signs of Heaven's displeasure with the ruler, so there would often be revolts following major disasters as the people saw these calamities as signs that the Mandate of Heaven had been withdrawn.","ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵋⵉ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⴾ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵓⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ,ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴾⵔⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵜⵢ ⵓⴼ ⵂⴰⴱⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵔⴾⴰⴱ"
"The concept is in some ways similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings; however, unlike the European concept, it does not confer an unconditional right to rule.","ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵙ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵆⵢⵍ Eⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⴾ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵉ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ"
"The Mandate of Heaven was often invoked by philosophers and scholars in China as a way to curtail the abuse of power by the ruler, in a system that had few other checks.",ⵜⵂⵢ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵜⵢ ⵓⴼ ⵂⵢⴰvⵢⵏ ⵗⴰⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢⵢⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⴾⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵛⵂⵢⵛⴾⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ
"Notably, the dynasty lasted for a considerable time during which 31 kings ruled over an extended period of 17 generations.",ⵙⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ 31 ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ 17 ⵏ ⵋⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ
"As time went on, however, the rulers' abuse of the other social classes led to social unrest and instability.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ,ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵈⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴾⵔⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴶⴰⵓⵜ"
They created the Mandate of Heaven to explain their right to assume rule and presumed that the only way to hold the mandate was to rule well in the eyes of Heaven.,ⴰⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵜⵢ ⵓⴼ ⵂⵢⴰvⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵜⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ
"However, in order to appease some of the citizens, they allowed some Shang beneficiaries to continue governing their small kingdoms in compliance with Zhou rules and regulations.","ⵉⴰⵙⵉⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵎⵓⵙⵜⴰⴼⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵂⴰⵏⴶ ⵉ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵉⵋⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵌⵂⵓⵓ"
"They also excelled in shipbuilding, which, coupled with their discovery of celestial navigation, made them excellent mariners.","ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵗⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ,ⵢⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⵓⴾⴾⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵛⵢⵍⵢⵙⵜⵉⴰⵍ ⵏⴰvⵉⴶⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ,ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ"
Most of these works are commentaries on the progress and political movement of the dynasty.,ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜ
"Their works primarily stressed the importance of the ruling class, respect, and their relationship with the lower class.","ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ , ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵈⴰⵓⵢⵏ"
"Within these districts were administrators who were appointed by the government, in return, they had to maintain their allegiance to the main internal government.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ,ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵆⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ"
"Finally, when the Zhou dynasty's power decreased, it was wiped out by the State of Qin, which believed that the Zhou had become weak and their rule unjust.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵌⵂⵓⵓ ⵜⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ, ⵉⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵏ ⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵌⵂⵓⵓ ⵉⴱⴰⵙ ⵜⵉ ⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴾⵢⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ"
"During this reformation, administrative changes were made and a system of legalism was developed which stated that the law is supreme over every individual, including the rulers.","ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ, ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⵍⵢⴶⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⵗⵏⴰ,ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ"
The establishment of the Han dynasty marked a great period in China’s history marked by significant changes in the political structure of the country.,ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵉⵂⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ
A major purpose was to establish justification for the transference of the Mandate of Heaven through these five dynasties and thus to the Song dynasty.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⵓⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵜⵢ ⵓⴼ ⵂⵢⴰvⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵙⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴶ
They also held considerably more territory than any of the other Chinese states that had existed conterminously in the south.,ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ
"The brutal behavior of Zhu Wen and the Later Liang was a source of considerable embarrassment, and thus there was pressure to exclude them from the Mandate.","ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵙⴰⵎⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵌⵂⵓ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵍⵉⴰⵏⴶ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜⵢⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⴶⵉⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵙⴾⵓⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰ,ⴷⴰⵜⵢ"
"However, Kublai Khan was the only indifferent ruler when he claimed the Mandate of Heaven over the Yuan Dynasty since he had a sizable military and was part of the Khitan people, as with many others from the same background since they did not have the same traditions and culture as their Chinese adversaries.",ⵆⵓⴱⵍⴰⵉ ⵆⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵜⵢ ⵓⴼ ⵂⵢⴰⴱⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵢⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵆⵂⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵆⴰⵙⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ
It was solely politics from beginning to end and an attempt from the emperor to maintain a favorable act towards Heaven.,ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵔⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜ
The Right of Rebellion is not coded into any official law.,ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⴷⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ
"""Since the winner is the one who determines who has obtained the Mandate of Heaven and who has lost it, some Chinese scholars consider it to be a sort of Victor's justice, best characterized in the popular Chinese saying """"The winner becomes king, the loser becomes outlaw"""" (Chinese: “成者爲王，敗者爲寇”).""","“ Iⵛⵂⵎⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵜⵢ ⵓⴼ ⵂⵢⴰⴱⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵜ ⴰⴱⴰ, ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴱⵉⵛⵜⵓⵔ’ⵙ ⵋⵓⵙⵜⵉⵛⵢ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ “”ⴼⴰ-ⵉⵣ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ, ⵆⴰⵙⵉⵔⵓ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵙⵋⴰⴼⴰ””” (ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢⵙⵢ: “成者爲王，敗者爲寇”)."""
"The kingdom of Silla is also said to be adopted the Mandate of Heaven, but the earliest records are from Joseon Dynasty, which made the Mandate of Heaven an enduring state ideology.",ⵃⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵜ ⵓ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵓⵓⵜⵢ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵜⵢ ⵓⴼ ⵂⵢⴰⴱⵓⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⵙⵢⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵜⵢⵢⵓⴼ ⵂⵢⴰⴱⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ
"The later and more centralized Vietnamese dynasties adopted Confucianism as the state ideology, which led to the creation of a Vietnamese tributary system in Southeast Asia that was modeled after the Chinese Sinocentric system in East Asia.",ⵙⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵢⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵢⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵏⵓⵛⵢⵏⵜⵔⵉⵛ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ
"In later times, this need was obviated because the Imperial House of Japan claimed to be descended in an unbroken line from the Japanese sun goddess, Amaterasu.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ, ⴷⴻⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵉⵉⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ Iⵎⴱⵢⵔⵉⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⵓⵙⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⴱⵓⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵔⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵢⵔⴰⵙⵓ"
"Even after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, when the emperor was placed back in the center of the political bureaucracy, the throne itself had very little power vis-à-vis the Meiji oligarchy.","ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵉⵋⵉ ⵔⵢⵙⵜⵓⵔⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1868, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵉⵋⴰⵛ ⴰⵎⵎⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ, ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵎⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵉⵋⵉ"
"Media studies is a discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history, and effects of various media; in particular, the mass media.","ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵆⵜⴰⵓⵉ , ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⴰⵋⵓⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ"
"Media studies in Australia was first developed as an area of study in Victorian universities in the early 1960s, and in secondary schools in the mid 1960s.",ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⵜⵓⵔⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1960 ⴷ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢⵏ 1960
"In secondary schools, an early film studies course first began being taught as part of the Victorian junior secondary curriculum during the mid 1960s.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵗⵉⵔ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵂⵉⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵛⵜⵓⵔⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1960"
"It has since become, and continues to be, a strong component of the VCE.",ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵈⴰⵓⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵛE
Media studies does not appear to be taught in the state of New South Wales at a secondary level.,ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ-ⴰⵓⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵙⵓⵓⵜⵂ ⵓⴰⵍⵢⵙ
Harold Innis and Marshall McLuhan are famous Canadian scholars for their contributions to the fields of media ecology and political economy in the 20th century.,ⵂⴰⵔⵓⵍⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⵂⴰⵍⵍ ⵎⵂⴰⵔⵓⵍⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⵂⴰⵍⵍ ⵎⵛⵍⵓⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵔⵋⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵢⵛⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000ⵛⵍⵓⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵔⵋⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵢⵛⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ
"Carleton University and the University of Western Ontario, 1945 and 1946 prospectively, created Journalism specific programs or schools.",ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵢⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵙⵜⴱⵔⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵔⵉⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1945 ⴷ 1946 ⴰⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵋⵓⵓⵔⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ
"Today, most universities offer undergraduate degrees in Media and Communication Studies, and many Canadian scholars actively contribute to the field, among which: Brian Massumi (philosophy, cultural studies), Kim Sawchuk (cultural studies, feminist, ageing studies), Carrie Rentschler (feminist theory), and François Cooren (organizational communication).","ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ, ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴰⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵋⴰⵎⵉⵗⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ:ⴱⵔⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⵎⵉ (ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ, ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ), ⵆⵉⵎ ⵙⴰⵓⵛⵂⵓⴾ (ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ , ⴼⵢⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜ, ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴰⵔⵢ), ⵛⴰⵔⵔⵉⵢ ⵔⵢⵏⵜⵛⵂⵍⵢⵔ (ⴼⵢⵎⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ) ⴷ ⴼⵢⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵛⵓⵓⵔⵢⵏ (ⵓⵔⴶⴰⵏⵉⵣⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ)"
A medium is anything that mediates our interaction with the world or other humans.,ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ
McLuhan says that the “technique of fragmentation that is the essence of machine technology” shaped the restructuring of human work and association and “the essence of automation technology is the opposite”.,ⵎⵛⵍⵓⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ‘’ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵣⴰⵓ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴱⴰⵏⵣⵉⵏⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢⵢⵜⵢⵛⵂⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ” ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⵣⵉⵏⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⵢⵛⵂⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵗⴰⴾⴰⵙ”
The characteristic of all media means the “content” of any medium is always another medium.,ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ “ ⵎⵓⵈⴰⵓⵉⵏⴰⵜ “ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵓⵎ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵓⵎ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ
If the electric light is used for Friday night football or to light up your desk you could argue that the content of the electric light is these activities.,ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵢⵂⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵣⵓⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵍⴰⵓⵍⴰⵓ ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⴾ ⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⴷ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵈⴰⵓⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ
It is not until the electric light is used to spell a brand name that it is recognized as medium.,ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵜ ⵓ-ⴰⴾⴼⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵏⴰⵎⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵓⵎ
The effect of the medium is made strong because it is given another media “content”.,ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵓⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵎⵓⵈⴰⵓⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ
Hot media are low in participation and cool media are high in participation.,ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵙ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ
"Communication University of China, formerly known as the Beijing Broadcasting Institute, that dates back to 1954.",ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵢⵓⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴱⵢⵉⵋⵉⵏⴶ ⴱⵔⵓⴰⴷⵛⴰⵙⵜⵉⵏⴶ ⵉⵏⵙⵜⵉⵜⵓⵜⵢ ⵜ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1954
"Bourdieu's analysis is that television provides far less autonomy, or freedom, than we think.",ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵢⵓ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴹⴳⵉⵣⵉⵓⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵉⵍ
"Within the field of Film Studies, again, both Frankfurt and Berlin were dominant in the development of new perspectives on moving image media.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ, ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⴱⵢⵔⵍⵉⵏ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"One of the early publications in this new direction is a volume edited by Helmut Kreuzer, Literature Studies - Media Studies (Literaturwissenschaft – Medienwissenschaft), which summarizes the presentations given at the Düsseldorfer Germanistentag 1976.","ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵂⵉⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⵆⵔⵢⵓⵣⵢⵔ, ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵉⵜⵢⵔⴰⵜⵓⵔⵢ, ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ((ⵍⵉⵜⵢⵔⴰⵜⵓⵔⵓⵉⵙⵙⵢⵏⵙⵛⵂⴰⴼⵜ – ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵢⵏⵓⵉⵙⵙⵢⵏⵙⵛⵂⴰⴼⵜ) ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵈⴷⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢüⵙⵙⵢⵍⴷⵓⵔⴼⴻⵔ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵙⵜⵢⵏⵜⴰⴶ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1976."
"The German Institute for Media and Communication Policy, founded in 2005 by media scholar Lutz Hachmeister, is one of the few independent research institutions that is dedicated to issues surrounding media and communications policies.",ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴻⵎⴰⴶⵏⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⵜⵣ ⵂⴰⵛⵂⵎⵢⵉⵙⵜⵢⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2005 ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ
"Medienwissenschaften is currently one of the most popular courses of study at universities in Germany, with many applicants mistakenly assuming that studying it will automatically lead to a career in TV or other media.",ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵢⵏⵓⵉⵙ ⵢⵙⵢⵏⵙⵛⵂⴰⴼⵜⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵍⵢⵎⴰⴶⵏⵢⵢ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴼⵓ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵟⴰⵍⴰⴱⵉⵣⵉⵓⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ
It offers a five-year integrated programme and a two-year programme in Electronic Media.,ⴷⵂⴰⴾ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵍⵢⵛⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⵛ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ
"Whereas communication sciences focuses on the way people communicate, be it mediated or unmediated, media studies tends to narrow the communication down to just mediated communication.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵏⵛⵢⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍ, ⵋⵉⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵗⴰⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵗⴰⵙ , ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴾⵔⴰⵣ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ"
"Communication sciences (or a derivative thereof) can be studied at Erasmus University Rotterdam, Radboud University, Tilburg University, University of Amsterdam, University of Groningen, University of Twente, Roosevelt Academy, University of Utrecht, VU University Amsterdam and Wageningen University and Research Centre.","ⵙⵉⴰⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵜ ⵜ-ⴰⵓ-ⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵔⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⵏⵉⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵔoⵜⵜⵢⵔⴷⴰⵎ, ⵔⴰⴷⴱⵓⵓⴷ ⵓⵏⵉvⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵢ, ⵟⵉⵍⴱⵓⵔⴶ ⵓⵏⵉⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵢ, ⵓⵏⵉⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵜⵢⵔⴷⴰⵎ, ⵓⵏⵉⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵓⵏⵉⵏⴶⵢⵏ, ⵓⵏⴱⵉⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⵓⵢⵏⵜⵢ, ⵓⵓⵙⵢⴱⵢⵍⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⴷⴻⵎⵉ, ⵓⵏⵉⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⵢⵛⵂⵜ, ⴱⵓ ⵓⵏⵉⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵢⴱⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵜⵢⵔⴷⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴰⴶⵢⵏⵉⵏⴶⵢⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵢ ⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ"
University of the Punjab Lahore is the oldest department.,ⵓⵏⵉⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵏⵋⴰⴱ ⵍⴰⵂⵓⵔⵢ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ
Media Studies is now taught all over the UK.,ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵙⵜⵓⴷⵉⵢⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵓⴰⵉⵓⵎ ⵓⵏⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⵢⵜ
"However, the focus of such programs sometimes excludes certain media—film, book publishing, video games, etc.","ⵜⴰⵔⴾⵉⵣ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ - ⴼⵉⵍⵎ, ⴱⵓⵓⴾ ⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⵙⵂⵉⵏⴶ , ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵉⴷⵢⵉⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"This is partly thanks to the acquisition of Professor Siva Vaidhyanathan, a cultural historian and media scholar, as well as the Inaugural Verklin Media Policy and Ethics Conference, endowed by the CEO of Canoe Ventures and UVA alumnus David Verklin.","ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵉⴰ ⵉ ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⵙⵉⴱⴱⴰⵉⴷⵂⵉⴰⵏⴰⵜⵂⴰⵏ , ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵢⵔⴾⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵢⵔⵢⵏⵛⵢⵜⴰ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵛⵢⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⵓⵢ ⴱⵢⵏⵜⵓⵔⵢⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴱⴰ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⴱⵢⵔⴾⵍⵉⵏ"
"A media studies major at Radford still means someone concentrating on journalism, broadcasting, advertising or Web production.)","ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⴰⴷⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵍ ⵋⵓⵓⵔⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ, ⴱⵔⵓⴰⵛⴰⵜⵉⵏⴶ , ⴰⴷⴱⵢⵔⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴶ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⵢⴱ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⵓⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏ)"
"Bergson contrasted an open society with what he called a closed society, a closed system of law, morality or religion.","ⴱⵢⵔⴶⵙⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵔⴰⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵗⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵛⵍⵓⵙⵢⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵉ , ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ,ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵢⵗⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ"
"""Soros, George, """"The Age of Fallibility,"""" Public Affairs (2006).""","“ⵙⵓⵔⵓⵙ, ⵗⵢⵓⵔⴶⵢ - “” ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ””, ⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⵛ ⴰⴼⴼⴰⵉⵔⵙ (2006)"
Totalitarianism forced knowledge to become political which made critical thinking impossible and led to the destruction of knowledge in totalitarian countries.,ⵜⵓⵜⴰⵍⵉⵉⵜⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⴰⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵗⴰⵛⵂⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⴰⵍⵉⵔⵉⴰⵏ
"In the closed society, claims to certain knowledge and ultimate truth lead to the attempted imposition of one version of reality.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵍⵓⵙⵢⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵉ, ⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⴾⵎⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ"
"Because the electorate's perception of reality can easily be manipulated, democratic political discourse does not necessarily lead to a better understanding of reality.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵓⵓⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵓⵙ , ⵉⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴷⵢⵎⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ"
"Popper however, did not identify the open society either with democracy or with capitalism or a laissez-faire economy, but rather with a critical frame of mind on the part of the individual, in the face of communal group think of whatever kind.",ⴱⵓⴱⴱⵢⵔ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴷⵢⵎⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵍⴰⵉⵙⵙⵢⵣ-ⴼⴰⵉⵔⵢ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⴼⵓⴾ
Regulatory colleges are legal entities charged with serving the public interest by regulating the practice of a profession.,ⵔⵢⴶⵓⵍⴰⵜⵓⵔⵉ ⵛⵓⵍⵍⵢⴶⵢⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵎ ⵉ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ
"For example, no worker in Ontario may work in a compulsory trade without membership in the Ontario College of Trades.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ , ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ Oⵏⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵂⴰ Oⵏⵜⴰⵔⵉⵓ ⵛⵓⵍⵍⵢⴶⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"For Weber, sociology is the study of society and behavior and must therefore look at the heart of interaction.","ⵉ ⵓⵢⴱⵢⵔ, ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵍⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ"
"""The term is more practical and encompassing than Florian Znaniecki's """"social phenomena"""", since the individual performing social action is not passive, but rather active and reactive.""",“ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ “”ⵙⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⴱⵂⵢⵏⵓⵎⵢⵏⴰ”” ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⵉⴰⵏ ⵤⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵛⴾ ⵉⵛⵂⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴱⵢⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⵢⵎ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵋⴰⴱⴰ””
This is also considered alternative means when secondary consequences have ended.,ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵗⴰⵈⵉⴱⴰⵜⴰⵏ
"If the student chooses not to do well in college, they know that it will be difficult to get into law school and ultimately achieve the goal of being a lawyer.","ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ, ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵢ ⵉⵔⵗⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵙ-ⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⵓⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⴻ ⴰⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⵎ"
Value Relation is divided into the subgroups commands and demands.,ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ
These demands have posed several problems even legal formalism has been put to the test.,ⵉⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵢ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵍⵢⴶⴰⵍ ⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵔⴰⵎ
"To the extent that there are many religious firms competing against each other, they will tend to specialize and cater to the particular needs of some segments of religious consumers.",ⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵔⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵋⵓⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ
"It is well known that strict churches are strong and growing in the contemporary United States, whereas liberal ones are declining.",ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵉⴱⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣ ⵏⴰⵜ
"Affectual action (also known as emotional actions): actions which are taken due to 'one's emotions, to express personal feelings.",ⴰⴼⴼⵢⵛⵜⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏ (ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵉⵜ): ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ
In uncontrolled reaction there is no restraint and there is lack of discretion.,ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵋⴰⴱⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⴷⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⵓⵢⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵔ
When aspirations are not fulfilled there is internal unrest.,ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴾⴾⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⵢⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴶⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ
A common example is behavioral and rational choice assumptions.,ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵂⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵏⴻⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ
These six concepts were identified by Aristotle and are still the topic of several talks.,ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵢⵢⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵎⵓⴷⵓⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ
Micrological theories of economy consider acts of a group of individuals.,ⵎⵉⵛⵔⵓⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵗⵜⴰⴱⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
By doing this it causes providers to be competitive and therefore creates order in the economy.,ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵉ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴷⴰⴱⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵛⵂⴰⵓⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵗⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ
"Rational choice theory although increasingly colonized by economist, it does differ from microeconomic conceptions.","ⵓⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵉⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ"
"Traditional actions: actions which are carried out due to tradition, because they are always carried out in a particular manner for certain situations.",ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ : ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵂⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ
A custom is a practice that rests among familiarity.,ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵂⴰⵜ ⵓⵍⵎⴰⴷ
A habit is a series of steps learned gradually and sometimes without conscious awareness.,ⵍⴰⵎⵎⵓⴷⴰⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵙⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵂ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ
The idea of Cooley's looking glass self is that our sense of self develops as we observe and reflect upon others and what they may think of our actions.,ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵓⵍⵢⵉ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ
"""Social capital is """"the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively"""".""","“”ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ” ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ , ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ “”"
"In the first half of the 19th century, de Tocqueville had observations about American life that seemed to outline and define social capital.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900, ⴷⵢ ⵟⵓⵛⵈⵓⵢvⵉⵍⵍⵢⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ"
"The community as a whole will benefit by the cooperation of all its parts, while the individual will find in his associations the advantages of the help, the sympathy, and the fellowship of his neighbours.","ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵢⵔⴷⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵔⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ, ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ"
"""In the words of Stein (1960:1): """"The price for maintaining a society that encourages cultural differentiation and experimentation is unquestionably the acceptance of a certain amount of disorganization on both the individual and social level.""""""",“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵜⵢⵉⵏ (1960:1) “” ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⴰ ⵂⴰⴾⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ””
All of these reflections contributed remarkably to the development of the social capital concept in the following decades.,ⵉⵏⵉⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵋⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ
"Robert D. Putnam (1993) suggested that social capital would facilitate co-operation and mutually supportive relations in communities and nations and would therefore be a valuable means of combating many of the social disorders inherent in modern societies, for example crime.","ⵔⵓⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⵢ. ⴱⵓⵜⵏⴰⵎ (1993) ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵗⴰⵙ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵢⵔⴷⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴱⵜⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵔⵂⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ, ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ"
"""Nan Lin's concept of social capital has a more individualistic approach: """"Investment in social relations with expected returns in the marketplace.""""""",“ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵏⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂⵜ : “”ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵗⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ””
"The term capital is used by analogy with other forms of economic capital, as social capital is argued to have similar (although less measurable) benefits.",ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜ-ⴰⵓ-ⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵜ-ⴰⵓ- ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⵢⵏ (ⴾⵓⵓⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ)
"Robison, Schmid, and Siles (2002) reviewed various definitions of social capital and concluded that many did not satisfy the formal requirement of a definition.","ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵙⵓⵏ, ⵙⵛⵂⵎⵉⴷ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵢⵙ (2002) ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴾⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ"
They propose that social capital be defined as sympathy: the object of another's sympathy has social capital; those who have sympathy for others provide social capital.,ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ: ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ; ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⵔⵉⵜⴰⵍ
Social capital is also distinguished from the economic theory social capitalism.,ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ
"""It """"creates value for the people who are connected, and for bystanders as well.""""""",“ ⴷⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵜⴰⴼⴰⵔⵉⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ “”
"""According to Robert D. Putnam, social capital refers to """"connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them.""""""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵔⵓⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⵢ. ⴱⵓⵜⵏⴰⵎ, ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ “ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ - ⵔⵢⵣo ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴰⴷⵓⵈ ⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵓⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ”””"
This is seen in lower levels of trust in government and lower levels of civic participation.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵓⵙⵏⵢⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵓⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
"Putnam also suggests that a root cause of the decline in social capital is women's entry the workforce, which could correlate with time restraints that inhibit civic organizational involvement like parent-teacher associations.",ⴱⵓⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴾⵢⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵙⵉⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵋⵓⵛ ⵉ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⵓⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⵎⵗⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵓⵛ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ
"Fukuyama suggests that while social capital is beneficial for development, it also imposes cost on non-group members with unintended consequences for general welfare.","ⴼⵓⴾⵓⵉⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵙⵉⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵉ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ , ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ-ⵏ-ⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵈⵉⴱⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⵢⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ"
"This dimension focuses on the advantages derived from the configuration of an actor's, either individual or collective, network.",ⵆⴰⵋⴰⵎ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵉⴶⵓⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵓⴼ ⴰⵛⵜⵓⵔ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵏ ⴰ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ
This is best characterized through trust of others and their cooperation and the identification an individual has within a network.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵢⵔⴷⵓⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ
"Research by Sheri Berman and Dylan Riley, as well as economists Shanker Satyanath, Nico Voigtländer, and Hans-Joachim Voth, have linked civic associations to the rise of fascist movements.","ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵂⵢⵔⵉ ⴱⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷⵏⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵂⴰⵏⴾⵢⵔ ⵙⴰⵜⵉⴰⵏⴰⵜⵂ, ⵏⵉⵛⵓ ⴱⵓⵉⴶⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔ ⴷ ⵂⴰⵏⵙ -ⵋⵓⴰⵛⵂⵉⵎ ⴱⵓⵜⵂ, ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵙⵛⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ"
The negative consequences of social capital are more often associated with bonding vis-à-vis bridging.,ⵗⴰⵈⵉⴱⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⴷ ⴱⵔⴷⵉⴶⵉⵏⴶ
"Bonding and bridging social capital can work together productively if in balance, or they may work against each other.",ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵉⴷⴶⵉⵏⴶ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵣⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
The strengthening of insular ties can lead to a variety of effects such as ethnic marginalization or social isolation.,ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ
"""Germans threw themselves into their clubs, voluntary associations, and professional organizations out of frustration with the failures of the national government and political parties, thereby helping to undermine the Weimar Republic and facilitate Hitler's rise to power.""""""","“ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵍⵓⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵜⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵂⴰⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵙ ⵓⴶⵂⵛⵂⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵉⵎⴰⵔ ⵔⵢⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⵛ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵗⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵀⵉⵜⵍⵢⵔ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ”””"
They were very introverted in the Weimar Republic.,ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵢⵉⵎⴰⵔ ⵔⵢⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⵛ
"Robert Putnam, in his later work, also suggests that social capital, and the associated growth of public trust are inhibited by immigration and rising racial diversity in communities.",ⵔⵓⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⴱⵓⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉ-ⵓⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴶⴷⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴶⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ
"Lack of homogeneity led to people withdrawing from even their closest groups and relationships, creating an atomized society as opposed to a cohesive community.","ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵣⵋⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⵢⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⵜⵓⵎⵉⵣⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ"
"Human capital, a private resource, could be accessed through what the previous generation accumulated through social capital.","ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⵓⵔⵉⴷ ⵆⴰⵙ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⵓ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ"
"Even though Coleman never truly addresses Pierre Bourdieu in his discussion, this coincides with Bourdieu's argument set forth in Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵛⵓⵍⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉ ⴱⵉⵢⵔⵔⵢ ⴱⵓⵓⴷⵉⵢⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⵉⵓⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵣⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵢⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵢⴱⵔⵓⴷⵓⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵢⴷⵓⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ, ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⵢ"
"Thus, it is the social platform, itself, that equips one with the social reality they become accustomed to.",ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ
"To illustrate this, we assume that an individual wishes to better his place in society.","ⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ"
Is Civil Society an Adequate Theory?,ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵜ?
"Typical examples are that criminal gangs create bonding social capital, while choirs and bowling clubs (hence the title, as Putnam lamented their decline) create bridging social capital.",ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵉⵔⵙ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵓⵍⵉⵏⴶ ⵛⵍⵓⴱⵙ (ⵢⵗⴰⴼ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵙⵏⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴱⵓⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ) ⴰⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⴷⴶⵉⵏⴶ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ
"Aldrich also applies the ideas of social capital to the fundamental principles of disaster recovery, and discusses factors that either aid or impede recovery, such as extent of damage, population density, quality of government and aid.","ⴰⵍⴷⵔⵉⵛⵂ ⵉⵋⴰ ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵙⵉⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵜⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵛⵓⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴶⴷⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵛⵓⴷ; ⵉⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵋⴰⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ"
"People who live their life this way feel that these are norms of society and are able to live their lives free of worry for their credit, children, and receive charity if needed.","ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵔⵢⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵙⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⴰⵙ, ⵉⵍⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵓⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ"
"""All forms of """"capital"""" were, for Marx, possessed only by capitalists and he emphasized the basis of labour in capitalist society, as a class constituted by individuals obliged to sell their labour power, because they lacked sufficient capital, in any sense of the word, to do otherwise.""",“ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ “ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ”” ⴰⵎⵙ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵔⵆ ⴰ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵉ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏⵛⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵆⵍⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ ⵂⴰⵙ-ⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ”
Portes mentions the donation of a scholarship to a member of the same ethnic group as an example of this.,ⴱⵓⵔⵜⵢⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⵙⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ
"Bonding and bridging sub-scales are proposed, which have been adopted by over 300 scholarly articles.",ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵉⴷⴶⵉⵏⴶ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ- ⴰⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ 300 ⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⵉⴾⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ
"However, there is no one quantitative way of determining the level of cohesiveness, but rather a collection of social network models that researchers have used over the decades to operationalize social capital.",ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ
"Groups with higher membership (such as political parties) contribute more to the amount of capital than groups with lower membership, although many groups with low membership (such as communities) still add up to be significant.",ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ (ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ) ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵉⵏⵢⵏ ( ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ) ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵜ
"How a group relates to the rest of society also affects social capital, but in a different manner.",ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⵙⴱⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ
"Recognizing that one may not be able to influence the sympathy of others, persons seeking to belong may act to increase their own sympathy for others and the organizations or institutions they represent.","ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵉⴾⵔⵉⵛⵂ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵉⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵙⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ"
"According to such authors as Walzer (1992), Alessandrini (2002), Newtown, Stolle & Rochon, Foley & Edwards (1997), and Walters, it is through civil society, or more accurately, the third sector, that individuals are able to establish and maintain relational networks.","ⴷⴰ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵜⴾⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵍⵣⵢⵔ (1992), ⴰⵍⵙⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉⵏⵉ (2002), ⵊⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ, ⵙⵜⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵛⵂⵓⵏ, ⴼⵓⵍⵢⵉ ⴷ ⵢⴷⵓⴰⵔⴷⵙ (1997) ⴷ ⵓⴰⵍⵜⵢⵔⵙ, ⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ , ⵜⵂⵉⵔⴷ ⵙⵢⵛⵜⵓⵔ, ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⵉⵣⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ"
"Not only has civil society been documented to produce sources of social capital, according to Lyons' Third Sector (2001), social capital does not appear in any guise under either the factors that enable or those that stimulate the growth of the third sector.","ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵓⵏⵙ’ ⵟⵂⵉⵔⴷ ⵙⵢⵛⵜⵓⵔ (2001), ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵉⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⴾⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵂⵉⵔⴷ ⵙⴻⵛⵜⵔ"
"""The goal is to reintegrate those marginalised from the rewards of the economic system into """"the community.""""""",“ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ”
"""Alessandrini agrees, saying that, """"in Australia in particular, neo-liberalism has been recast as economic rationalism and identified by several theorists and commentators as a danger to society at large because of the use to which they are putting social capital to work.""""""","“ ⴰⵍⵢⵙⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂ , ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ “” ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴰ, ⵏⵢⵓⵍⵉⴱⵢⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⴱⵙⴰⵉ ⵙ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵢⵋⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ””"
"In international development, Ben Fine (2001) and John Harriss (2001) have been heavily critical of the inappropriate adoption of social capital as a supposed panacea (promoting civil society organisations and NGOs, for example, as agents of development) for the inequalities generated by neoliberal economic development.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴱⵢⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵢ (2001) ⴷ ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⵔⵉⵙⵙ (2001) ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵢⴷ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ ( ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴷ Oⵏⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵉⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ) ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⵢⵓⵍⵉⴱⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⴷⵢⵓⵢⵍⵓⴱⵎⵢⵏⵜ"
"However, higher levels of social capital led to higher support for democracy.",ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴷⵢⵎⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉ
Careful evaluation of these fundamental factors often suggests that women do not vote at similar levels as men.,ⴷⴾⵢⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⴷⵢⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵗⴰⵎⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵙ ⴷⵢⴷⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵢ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵓⵜⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵢⴷⴷⴰⵏ
Social capital offers a wealth of resources and networks that facilitate political engagement.,ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵓⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵔⵢⵣo ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ
Women are more likely to organize themselves in less hierarchical ways and to focus on creating consensus.,ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵢⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵋⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ
"For example, a person who is sick with cancer may receive information, money, or moral support he or she needs to endure treatment and recover.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ , ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⵛⵢⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ , ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ, ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵜ"
"Furthermore, neighbourhood social capital may also aid in buffering health inequities amongst children and adolescents.",ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ
The relationships and networks that are maintained by an ethnic minority population in a geographical area where a high percentage of residents belong to the same ethnic group may lead to better health outcomes than would be expected based on other individual and neighbourhood characteristics.,ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⴶⴰⵣ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵣⵗⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴻⵆⴰⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ
"For example, results from a survey given to 13- to 18-year-old students in Sweden showed that low social capital and low social trust are associated with higher rates of psychosomatic symptoms, musculoskeletal pain, and depression.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ , ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ 13 ⵂⴰⵔ 18 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵢⴷⵢ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵜⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⵙⵓⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⵙⵉⵎⴱⵜⵓⵎⵙ, ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵉⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ"
"In one study, informational uses of the Internet correlated positively with an individual's production of social capital, and social-recreational uses were negatively correlated (higher levels of these uses correlated with lower levels of social capital).","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ , ⵉⵏⵜⵢⵔⵏⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵢⵔⵙ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⵢⵔⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ-ⵔⵢⵛⵔⵢⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵢⵔⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵗⵢⴷⴰⵏ (ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ)"
"This means that individuals can selectively connect with others based on ascertained interests, and backgrounds.",ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ
"This argument continues, although the preponderance of evidence shows a positive association between social capital and the Internet.",ⴰⴷⵉⵓⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⵢⵔⵏⵢⵜ
"Recent research, conducted in 2006, also shows that Internet users often have wider networks than those who access the Internet irregularly or not at all.",ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2006 ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⵢⵔⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵏⵜⵢⵔⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⵔ ⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴼⴰⵓ
"Other research shows that younger people use the Internet as a supplemental medium for communication, rather than letting the Internet communication replace face-to-face contact.",ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⵢⵔⵏⵢⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵉⵉⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⵢⵔⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵈⵈⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"They criticise Coleman, who used only the number of parents present in the family, neglected the unseen effect of more discrete dimensions such as stepparents' and different types of single-parent families.","ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵍⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂ , ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵂ ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵆⴰⵋⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴷⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴶⵉⴷⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴶⵢ-ⴱⴰⵔⵢⵏⵜ"
Morgan and Sorensen (1999) directly challenge Coleman for his lacking of an explicit mechanism to explain why Catholic schools students perform better than public school students on standardised tests of achievement.,ⵎⵓⵔⴶⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵔⵢⵏⵙⵢⵏ (1999) ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⴰⵜⴰⵆⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵛⵓⵍⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴶⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵍⵓⵓⴾⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⴰⵣⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
"It is found that while social capital can bring about positive effect of maintaining an encompassing functional community in norm-enforcing schools, it also brings about the negative consequence of excessive monitoring.","ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵂ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵍⴰ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⵉ ⵗⴰⵈⵉⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ"
"These schools explore a different type of social capital, such as information about opportunities in the extended social networks of parents and other adults.",ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵓⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ
The similarity of these states is that parents were more associated with their children's education.,ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"Without social capital in the area of education, teachers and parents who play a responsibility in a students learning, the significant impacts on their child's academic learning can rely on these factors.","ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ, ⵉⵎⴰⵙⴰⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵗⴰⵎⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ"
"""As Tedin and Weiher (2010) state, """"one of the most important factors in promoting student success is the active involvement of parents in a child's education.""""""",“ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵟⵢⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵉⵂⵢⵔ (2010) “” ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵆ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ “”
"Supportive networks, as a form of social capital, is necessary for activating the cultural capital the newly arrived students possessed.",ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ
Ethnic solidarity is especially important in the context where immigrants just arrive in the host society.,ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵜⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
Ethnic support provides impetus to academic success.,ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⵣⴰⵆⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ
His main argument for classifying social capital as a geographical concept is that the relationships of people is shaped and molded by the areas in which they live.,ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⴾⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⵓⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ
"In his studies, he does not look at the individual participants of these structures, but how the structures and the social connections that stem from them are diffused over space.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏⵢⵜ , ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵉⵉⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵗⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
Another area where social capital can be seen as an area of study in geography is through the analysis of participation in volunteerism and its support of different governments.,ⵜⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵓⵍⵓⵏⵜⵢⵢⵔⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ
There is a significant connection between leisure and democratic social capital.,ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵣⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⵎⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉ
"In a later study, Kislev (2020) shows the relation between romantic relationships desire and singleness.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ, ⵆⵉⵙⵍⵢⴱ (2020) ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⴱⵉⵉⵉⴰ"
Similar results were revealed in a cross-sectional study run by Sarker in Bangladesh.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⴰⵔⴾⵢⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵏⴶⵍⴰⴷⵢⵙⵂ
Epo did this by comparing the welfare outcomes of the entrepreneurs who both had access and no access.,ⴷⴱⵓ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵢⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵈⴰⵓⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⵢⵓ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ
Group cohesiveness (also called group cohesion and social cohesion) arises when bonds link members of a social group to one another and to the group as a whole.,ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ (ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ) ⵉⵏⴾⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵜⴻⵎⴻⴷⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⵢⵜ
Cohesion can be more specifically defined as the tendency for a group to be in unity while working towards a goal or to satisfy the emotional needs of its members.,ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜ-ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴾⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
Its dynamic nature refers to how it gradually changes over time in its strength and form from the time a group is formed to when a group is disbanded.,ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵗ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⴷⴰⵏ
This definition can be generalized to most groups characterized by the group definition discussed above.,ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵂⵉⵔ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ
"In a study, they asked the group members to identify all their good friends and calculated the ratio of ingroup choices to outgroup choices.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵗⴼⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ"
"Group cohesion is similar to a type of group-level attraction which, according to Hogg, is known as social attraction.",ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵋⴰⵣⵉⴱⵉⵉⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵂⵓⴶⴶ ⴰ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
"Lott and Lott (1965) who refer to interpersonal attraction as group cohesiveness conducted an extensive review on the literature and found that individuals' similarities in background (e.g., race, ethnicity, occupation, age), attitudes, values and personality traits have generally positive association with group cohesiveness.","ⵍⵓⵜⵜ ⴷ ⵍⵓⵜⵜ (ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1965) ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵍⵉⵜⵢⵔⴰⵜⵓⵔⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ (ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ, ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ) ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ, ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ"
"In addition, similar background makes it more likely that members share similar views on various issues, including group objectives, communication methods and the type of desired leadership.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ, ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ,ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵆⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ"
"This is often caused by social loafing, a theory that says individual members of a group will actually put in less effort, because they believe other members will make up for the slack.","ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵍⵓⴰⴼⵉⵏⴶ , ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜ-ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ"
Most meta-analyses (studies that have summarized the results of many studies) have shown that there is a relationship between cohesion and performance.,ⵎⵢⵜⴰ-ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ (ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴾⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ) ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵋⴰⵆ
"When it is defined as task commitment, it is also correlated with performance, though to a lesser degree than cohesion as attraction.",ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵋⴰⵆ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⵔⴰⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏ
"However, some groups may have a stronger cohesion-performance relationship than others.",ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜ-ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ-ⴰⵏⴰⵋⴰⵆ ⵓⵍⴰⵈⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻ
There is some evidence that cohesion may be more strongly related to performance for groups that have highly interdependent roles than for groups in which members are independent.,ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴾⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵋⴰⵆ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"Furthermore, groups with high performance goals were extremely productive.",ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵋⴰⵆ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ
Members in cohesive groups also are more optimistic and suffer less from social problems than those in non-cohesive groups.,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴾⴰⵏⵣⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ
It was found that the masons and carpenters were more satisfied when they worked in cohesive groups.,ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵛⴰⵔⴱⵢⵏⵜⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙ-ⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⴻⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ
"One study showed that cohesion as task commitment can improve group decision making when the group is under stress, more than when it is not under stress.",ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ
The study found that teams with low cohesion and high urgency performed worse than teams with high cohesion and high urgency.,ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵢⵗ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵓⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ
The theory of groupthink suggests that the pressures hinder the group from critically thinking about the decisions it is making.,ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵓⵓⴱⵜⵂⵉⵏⴾ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵔⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⴶⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ
"Another reason is because people value the group and are thus, more willing to give into conformity pressures to maintain or enhance their relationships.",ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵣⴰⴶⴶⵉ-ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵙⵉⵎⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
The degree of member liking was presumed to indicate group cohesiveness.,ⴷⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴷⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵎⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
"According to the government-commissioned, State of the English Cities thematic reports, there are five different dimensions of social cohesion: material conditions, passive relationships, active relationships, solidarity, inclusion and equality.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⵏⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ, ⵜⴰⵈⵔⵉⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ , ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴾⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ, ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ, ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⴻⴷⵏⴻⵏ, ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵜⴰⴾⵓⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴷⵂⴰⵍ, ⴰⵍⵉⴷⵎⴰⵋ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ"
These basic necessities of life are the foundations of a strong social fabric and important indicators of social progress.,ⵉⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
"""The third dimension refers to the positive interactions, exchanges and networks between individuals and communities, or """"active social relationships"""".""","“ ⴷⴾⵢⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵗⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ, ⵉⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ “”ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵎⵉⵜⴰⴾⵓⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ””"
"It also includes people's sense of belonging to a city and the strength of shared experiences, identities and values between those from different backgrounds.","ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ , ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ"
"On a societal level Albrekt Larsen defines social cohesion 'as the belief—held by citizens in a given nation state—that they share a moral community, which enables them to trust each other'.",ⴰⵍⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⵍⴰⵔⵙⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵍⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⴷ ⴰⵎⴻⴷⵔⴰⵏ - ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴻⵜ ⵂⴰⵙ-ⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ”
"Social formation is a Marxist concept (synonymous with 'society') referring to the concrete, historical articulation between the capitalist mode of production, maintaining pre-capitalist modes of production, and the institutional context of the economy (disambiguation).","ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵆ (ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ “”ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ”) ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵍⴰⴼⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ , ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ"
"In the social sciences, social structure is the patterned social arrangements in society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of individuals.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢⵙ , ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
"""It contrasts with """"social system"""", which refers to the parent structure in which these various structures are embedded.""",“ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ “ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ” ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ””
It determines the norms and patterns of relations between the various institutions of the society.,ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
"It is also important in the modern study of organizations, as an organization's structure may determine its flexibility, capacity to change, etc.","ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴻⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵔⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵜ, ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ"
"On the meso scale, it concerns the structure of social networks between individuals or organizations.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵙⵓ, ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⴻⵣⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⴻⵏ"
"""For example, John Levi Martin has theorized that certain macro-scale structures are the emergent properties of micro-scale cultural institutions (i.e., """"structure"""" resembles that used by anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss).""","“ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ , ⵋⵓⵂⵏ ⵍⴻvⵉ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴻⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⵂⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵜⴰⵈ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ (ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ “ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ” ⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵛⵍⴰⵓⴷⴻ ⵍⴻvⵉ-ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵓⵙⵙ)"
"""Alexis de Tocqueville was supposedly the first to use the term """"social structure"""".""",“ⴰⵍⴻⵆⵉⵙ ⴷⴻ ⵟⵓⵛⵈⵓⴻvⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴻⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ “ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ”
"One of the earliest and most comprehensive accounts of social structure was provided by Karl Marx, who related political, cultural, and religious life to the mode of production (an underlying economic structure).","ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⵓ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵆⴰⵔⵍ ⵎⴰⵔⵆ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ, ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵜⴰⵋ ( ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ)"
"Émile Durkheim, drawing on the analogies between biological and social systems popularized by Herbert Spencer and others, introduced the idea that diverse social institutions and practices played a role in assuring the functional integration of society through assimilation of diverse parts into a unified and self-reproducing whole.","ⴷⵎⵉⵍⵓⵓ ⵢⵓⵔⴾⵂⵢⵉⵎ , ⵉⵛⵂⵢⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜⵓ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⵔⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⵙⴱⵢⵏⵛⵢⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⴰⵣⵓⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵙ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵎⴰⵋ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ"
Others follow Lévi-Strauss in seeking logical order in cultural structures.,ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵍⵉⴱⵉ-ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵓⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ
The most influential attempts to combine the concept of social structure with agency are Anthony Giddens' theory of structuration and Pierre Bourdieu's practice theory.,ⴷⵔⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵓⵏⵉ ⵗⵉⴷⴷⵢⵏⵙ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵢⵔⵔⵓ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵢⵓ
"Giddens's analysis, in this respect, closely parallels Jacques Derrida's deconstruction of the binaries that underlie classic sociological and anthropological reasoning (notably the universalizing tendencies of Lévi-Strauss's structuralism).",ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵉⴷⴷⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴻⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵛⵈⵓⴻⵙ ⴻⴻⵔⵔⵉⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⴰⵔⵉⴻⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ( ⵎⴰ-ⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵍⵉvⵉ-ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵓⵙⵙ ⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ)
This was studied by Jacob L. Moreno.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵋⴰⵛⵓⴱ ⵍ. ⵎⵓⵔⵢⵏⵓ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜ
Sociobiology is a field of biology that aims to examine and explain social behavior in terms of evolution.,ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⴶⵣⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵜ
"Sociobiology investigates social behaviors such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and the hive society of social insects.","ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵓⵓⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴰⵂⵓⵉⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ"
It predicts that animals will act in ways that have proven to be evolutionarily successful over time.,ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⵢⵋ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵋⴰⵆ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ
Behavior is therefore seen as an effort to preserve one's genes in the population.,ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴶⵢⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵛⵂⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ
"""Altmann developed his own brand of sociobiology to study the social behavior of rhesus macaques, using statistics, and was hired as a """"sociobiologist"""" at the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center in 1965.""",“ ⴰⵍⵜⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵏ ⵔⵂⵢⵙⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵈⵓⵢⵙ ⵙ ⵎⵢⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ “”ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ” ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵢⵔⴾⵢⵙ ⵔⵢⴶⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵉⵎⴰⵜⵢ ⵔⵢⵙⵢⴰⵔⵛⵂ ⵛⵢⵏⵜⵢⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1965”
"""Once a specialist term, """"sociobiology"""" became widely known in 1975 when Wilson published his book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, which sparked an intense controversy.""",“ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⴻⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴱⴻⵛⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ “””ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ””ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1975 ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉⵍⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ: ⵟⵂⴻ ⵏⴻⵓ ⵙⵉⵏⵜⵂⴻⵙⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴻⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴻⵜ”
"However, the influence of evolution on behavior has been of interest to biologists and philosophers since soon after the discovery of evolution itself.",ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴼⵓⴾⴾⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ
"""Edward H. Hagen writes in The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology that sociobiology is, despite the public controversy regarding the applications to humans, """"one of the scientific triumphs of the twentieth century."""" """"""",“” ⴷⴷⵓⵔⴷ ⵂ. ⵂⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵟⵂⵢ ⵂⴰⵏⴷⴱⵓⵓⴾ ⵓⴼ ⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵔⵉ ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ‘’ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵔⴰⴱⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴷⴰⵏ””” ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ-ⴰⵏ
"""Therefore, these traits were probably """"adaptive"""" in the environment in which the species evolved.""",“ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ “ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ” ⵉ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ”
"Thus, they are often interested in instinctive, or intuitive behavior, and in explaining the similarities, rather than the differences, between cultures.",ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵔⵉⵣⵉⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⴱ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵓⵂⵓ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
This parental protection would increase in frequency in the population.,ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵓ-ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ
E.O. Wilson argued that evolution may also act upon groups.,ⵢⵓ ⵓⵉⵍⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ
"If altruism is genetically determined, then altruistic individuals must reproduce their own altruistic genetic traits for altruism to survive, but when altruists lavish their resources on non-altruists at the expense of their own kind, the altruists tend to die out and the others tend to increase.","ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵜⵔⵓⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴻⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ, ⴷⵉⵂⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴻⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵔⵓⵛⵂⴰⵏ, ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵓ-ⴰⴷⴰⵏ."
"Within sociobiology, a social behavior is first explained as a sociobiological hypothesis by finding an evolutionarily stable strategy that matches the observed behavior.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ , ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⴾⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ"
Altruism between social insects and littermates has been explained in such a way.,ⴰⵍⵜⵔⵓⵉⵙⵎ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵉⵜⵜⴻⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⴼⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⵢⵏ
"In general, females with more bearing opportunities may value offspring less, and may also arrange bearing opportunities to maximize the food and protection from mates.",ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵗⴰⵎ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ
"Studies of human behavior genetics have generally found behavioral traits such as creativity, extroversion, aggressiveness, and IQ have high heritability.","ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ, ⴻⵆⵜⵔⵓⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⵓⵏ, ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ ⴷ Iⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ"
"Thus, when FEV is genetically deleted from the mouse genome, male mice will instantly attack other males, whereas their wild-type counterparts take significantly longer to initiate violent behaviour.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵢⴱ ⵉⵎⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵓⵙⵢ ⴶⵢⵏⵓⵎⵢ, ⴰⴾⵓⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵔⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ"
"During a 1976 meeting of the Sociobiology Study Group, as reported by Ullica Segerstråle, Chomsky argued for the importance of a sociobiologically informed notion of human nature.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1976 ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵙⵉⵓⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰ-ⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵓⵍⵍⵉⵛⴰ ⵙⴻⴶⵢⵔⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⴻ, ⵛⵂⵓⵎⵙⴾⵉ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵙⵉⵓⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ"
"Wilson has claimed that he had never meant to imply what ought to be, only what is the case.","ⵓⵉⵍⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵜⵢⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰ , ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵓⵜⴰⵙ"
Business is the activity of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services).,ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵛⵂⴻ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵙ ⵏⴰⵜⴰⵋ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ (ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ)
"If the business acquires debts, the creditors can go after the owner's personal possessions.","ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵛⵂⵓ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏⵛⵂ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ ,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⴰⵙ"
The term is also often used colloquially (but not by lawyers or by public officials) to refer to a company.,ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ (ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵗⴰⵔ ⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵆⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ) ⵙ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ
"A privately owned, for-profit corporation is owned by its shareholders, who elect a board of directors to direct the corporation and hire its managerial staff.",ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵎⵓⵙⴰⵂⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⴾⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵢ
"A cooperative differs from a corporation in that it has members, not shareholders, and they share decision-making authority.","ⵛⵓⵓⴱⵢⵔⴰⵜⵉⴱⵢ ⵜⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ,ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⴰⵂⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ"
"Limited liability companies (LLC), limited liability partnerships, and other specific types of business organization protect their owners or shareholders from business failure by doing business under a separate legal entity with certain legal protections.","ⵍⵉⵎⵉⵜⵢⴷ ⵍⵉⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⴰⵏⵉⴻⵙ (ⵍⵍⵛ) , ⵍⵉⵎⵉⵜⵢⴷ ⵍⵉⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉ ⴱⴰⵔⵜⵏⵢⵔⵙⵂⵉⴱⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵛⵂⵢ ⵗⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵉⵙⵙⴰⵓⵉⵙ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵎⵓⵙⴰⵂⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵛⵂⵓ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵛⵂⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ"
"The members guarantee the payment of certain (usually nominal) amounts if the company goes into insolvent liquidation, but otherwise, they have no economic rights in relation to the company.",ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵓ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ
"This type of company may no longer be formed in the UK, although provisions still exist in law for them to exist.",ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴾⵢⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵓⴰⵉⵓⵎ ⵓⵏⵉ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵆⵣⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵉ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵂⴰⵙ-ⴰⵏ
"""Note that """"Ltd after the company's name signifies limited company, and PLC (public limited company) indicates that its shares are widely held.""""""",“ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⴷ ⴰⵙ “ ⵍⵟⴹ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵍⵉⵎⵉⵜⵢⴷ ⴾⵓⵎⴱⴰⵏⵉ ⴷ ⴱⵍⵛ (ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵎⵓⵗⴰⵜ) ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴰⵎⵓⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵉⵜ”
"In a company limited by guarantee, this will be the guarantors.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⴰⵏⵉ ⵍⵉⵎⵉⵜⵢⴷ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ"
"Private companies do not have publicly traded shares, and often contain restrictions on transfers of shares.",ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵙⵢⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵂⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ
Entertainment companies and mass media agencies generate profits primarily from the sale of intellectual property.,ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵎⵢⴷⵉⴰ ⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ
"They include tangible goods such as cars, buses, medical devices, glass, or aircraft.","ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴼⵢⵏ, ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ, ⵜⵉⵙⵢⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵉⵔⵛⵔⴰⴼⵜ"
Most stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers.,ⵎⴰⵏⴶⴰⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴾⴰⵜⴰⵍⵓⴶ ⵏ ⴾⵓⵎⴱⴰⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⵢⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ
They make their profits by selling goods and services that are sports related.,ⵆⴰⵔⵔⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵉⴶ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⵉ
The modern field was established by the Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli in 1494.,ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⴻⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵉⵢⵏ ⵍⵓⵛⴰ ⴱⴰⵛⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1494
Finance can also be defined as the science of money management.,ⴼⵉⵏⴰⵏⵛⵢ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵙⵉⵛⵢⵏⵛⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ
"Owners may manage their businesses themselves, or employ managers to do so for them.",ⵆⵢⵍ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵓⵛⵂⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰ-ⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ
Business process management (BPM) is a holistic management approach focused on aligning all aspects of an organization with the wants and needs of clients.,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⵉⴷ ⵛⴰⵓⴰⵔⴰ (ⴱⴱⵎ) ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵗⵓⵜⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵣⴰⴱⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ
Many businesses are operated through a separate entity such as a corporation or a partnership (either formed with or without limited liability).,ⵜⵉⵗⵓⵛⵂⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵓⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⴰⵔⵜⵏⵢⵔⵙⵂⵉⴱ (ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⵎⵉⵜⵢⴷ ⵍⵉⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉ)
"""Generally speaking, shareholders in a corporation, limited partners in a limited partnership, and members in a limited liability company are shielded from personal liability for the debts and obligations of the entity, which is legally treated as a separate """"person"""".""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ,ⵎⵓⵙⴰⵂⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵓⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ, ⵍⵉⵎⵉⵜⵢⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵜⵏⵢⵔⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⵉⵎⵉⵜⵢⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵜⵢⵔⵙⵂⵉⴱ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵍⵉⵎⵉⵜⵢⴷ ⵍⵉⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵢⵔⵙⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⵍⵉⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵓⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵜ-ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ “”ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ” ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ"
"The terms of a partnership are partly governed by a partnership agreement if one is created, and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located.","ⴷⵉⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⴾⴰ ⵢⵆⴾⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵢⵔⴷⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⴾⴰ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴻⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⴾⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⵜⴼⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵎⵉⵙⵙⴰⵓⵉⵙ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴾⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵂⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ"
"In some tax systems, this can give rise to so-called double taxation, because first the corporation pays tax on the profit, and then when the corporation distributes its profits to its owners, individuals have to include dividends in their income when they complete their personal tax returns, at which point a second layer of income tax is imposed.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⵜⴼⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵎⵉⵙⵙⴰⵓⵉⵙ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴾⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵂⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ"
"""""""Going public"""" through a process known as an initial public offering (IPO) means that part of the business will be owned by members of the public.""",“”ⵉⴾⴾⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ’ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ Iⵏⵉⵜⵉⴰⵍ ⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⵛ Oⴼⴼⵢⵔⵉⵏⴶ (ⵉⴱo) ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵛⵂⴱⵢ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴾⵔⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜ
"The Code of Hammurabi dates back to about 1772 BC for example and contains provisions that relate, among other matters, to shipping costs and dealings between merchants and brokers.",ⵛⵓⴷⵢⵓⴼ ⵂⴰⵎⵎⵓⵔⴰⴱⵉ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ 1772 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴱⵉⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⵙⴰⴱⴱⵉⴱ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
Local jurisdictions may also require special licenses and taxes just to operate a business.,ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵛⵂⵢ
Most countries with capital markets have at least one.,ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵔⴾⵢⵜⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
Other western nations have comparable regulatory bodies.,ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⵏⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ
The proliferation and increasing complexity of the laws governing business have forced increasing specialization in corporate law.,ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵗⵓⵛⵂⵢ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵓⵔⴰⵜⵢⵍⴰⵓ
"Most businesses have names, logos, and similar branding techniques that could benefit from trademarking.","ⵜⵉⵗⵓⵛⵂⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ, ⵍⵓⴶⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⴷⵢⵎⴰⵔⴾⵉⵏⴶ"
"Economics is the social science that studies how people interact with value; in particular, the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.","ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ, ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ, ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ"
"He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth: how wealth is created (production), distributed, and consumed; and how wealth can grow.","ⵉⵙⴰⴷⵓⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵗⵓⵔⵜ , ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵗⵓⵔⵜ (ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ), ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵓ-ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵗⵓⵔⵜ"
"If the war is not winnable or if the expected costs outweigh the benefits, the deciding actors (assuming they are rational) may never go to war (a decision) but rather explore other alternatives.","ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⴾⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴾⵢⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ (ⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔⴰ) ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴷⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ “ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵏ ⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵢⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⵙⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⵉ ⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵙⵉⵓⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵜ “”ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ”"
"""Economic precepts occur throughout the writings of the Boeotian poet Hesiod and several economic historians have described Hesiod himself as the """"first economist"""".""",“ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵏ ⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵢⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⵙⵉⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⵉ ⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⵙⵉⵓⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ “”ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ”
"""Two groups, who later were called """"mercantilists"""" and """"physiocrats"""", more directly influenced the subsequent development of the subject.""","“ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ “”ⵎⵢⵔⵛⴰⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜ”^ⴷ “”ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵙ”, ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵏ”"
It held that a nation's wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver.,ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵗⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ
"Physiocrats, a group of 18th-century French thinkers and writers, developed the idea of the economy as a circular flow of income and output.","ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵙ, ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ"
Physiocrats advocated replacing administratively costly tax collections with a single tax on income of land owners.,ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵙ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
"Smith discusses potential benefits of specialization by division of labour, including increased labour productivity and gains from trade, whether between town and country or across countries.",ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵂ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
The force of a rapidly growing population against a limited amount of land meant diminishing returns to labour.,ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵙ ⵢⵔⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ
"While Adam Smith emphasized the production of income, David Ricardo (1817) focused on the distribution of income among landowners, workers, and capitalists.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵂ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ , ⵢⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⵔⵉⵛⴰⵔⴷⵓ (1817) ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"Ricardo was the first to state and prove the principle of comparative advantage, according to which each country should specialize in producing and exporting goods in that it has a lower relative cost of production, rather relying only on its own production.","ⵔⵉⵛⴰⵔⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⴷⵓⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ, ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ ⵢⵋ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴼⵢⵍⵍⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ"
Mill pointed to a distinct difference between the market's two roles: allocation of resources and distribution of income.,ⵎⵉⵍⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵓⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ: ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ
"""Smith wrote that the """"real price of every thing ... is the toil and trouble of acquiring it"""".""",“ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵂ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵙ “ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵜⵢⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⵢⵜ””
"""Say's definition has prevailed up to our time, saved by substituting the word """"wealth"""" for """"goods and services"""" meaning that wealth may include non-material objects as well.""","“”ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ, ⵢⵗⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔ “”ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵗⵓⵔⵜ”” ⵙ “”ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ” ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵗⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ””"
"""For Robbins, the insufficiency was solved, and his definition allows us to proclaim, with an easy conscience, education economics, safety and security economics, health economics, war economics, and of course, production, distribution and consumption economics as valid subjects of the economic science.""""""","“”ⵉ ⵔⵓⴱⴱⵉⵏⵙ, ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵢⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴷⵓⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ , ⵙⴰⴼⵢⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵢⵛⵓⵔⵉⵜⵉ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ , ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ, ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ, ⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ, ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ”””"
"Although far from unanimous, most mainstream economists would accept some version of Robbins' definition, even though many have raised serious objections to the scope and method of economics, emanating from that definition.","ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ, ⵢⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⴱⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵔⵓⴱⴱⵉⵏⵙ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ"
"""The term """"economics"""" was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall as a concise synonym for """"economic science"""" and a substitute for the earlier """"political economy"""".""",“ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ “”ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ”” ⵉⴾⴼⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵢⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⵂⴰⵍⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ “”ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ”” ⴷ ⴰ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ “”ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ””
It dispensed with the labour theory of value inherited from classical economics in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.,ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵍⴰⴱⵓⵓⵔ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ
"An immediate example of this is the consumer theory of individual demand, which isolates how prices (as costs) and income affect quantity demanded.",ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵓⵎⵢⵔ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⵉⴷⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ
"Modern mainstream economics builds on neoclassical economics but with many refinements that either supplement or generalize earlier analysis, such as econometrics, game theory, analysis of market failure and imperfect competition, and the neoclassical model of economic growth for analysing long-run variables affecting national income.","ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵓⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴾⴰⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⴻⵜⵔⵉⵛⵙ, ⴶⴰⵎⴻ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ, ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ"
"There exists an economic problem, subject to study by economic science, when a decision (choice) is made by one or more resource-controlling players to attain the best possible outcome under bounded rational conditions.",ⵉⵍⵍⵜ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ (ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ) ⵉⵋⵋⵢ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ
The book focused on determinants of national income in the short run when prices are relatively inflexible.,ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⴱⴱⵢⴰⵏ
Keynesian economics has two successors.,ⵆⵢⵏⵢⵉⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵆⴰⵍⵉⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ
It is generally associated with the University of Cambridge and the work of Joan Robinson.,Oⵙⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴷⴶⵢⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵏⵙⵓⵏ
"Ben Bernanke, former Chairman of the Federal Reserve, is among the economists today generally accepting Friedman's analysis of the causes of the Great Depression.","ⴱⵢⵏ ⴱⵢⵔⵏⴰⵏⴾⵢ ,ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴼⵢⴷⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵔⵢⵙⵢⵔⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵢⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⵉⵢⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴹⵢⴱⵔⵢⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ"
"When creating theories, the objective is to find ones which are at least as simple in information requirements, more precise in predictions, and more fruitful in generating additional research than prior theories.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⴰⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴶⵎⴰⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ"
"Early macroeconomic models focused on modelling the relationships between aggregate variables, but as the relationships appeared to change over time macroeconomists, including new Keynesians, reformulated their models in microfoundations.","ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴶⴶⵔⵢⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⴰⴱⵍⵢⵙ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵆⵢⵉⵏⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵛⵔⵓⴼⵓⵓⵏⴷⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ"
"Sometimes an economic hypothesis is only qualitative, not quantitative.",ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵉⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ
"However, the field of experimental economics is growing, and increasing use is being made of natural experiments.",ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣⴰⵏ
"By such means, a hypothesis may gain acceptance, although in a probabilistic, rather than certain, sense.","ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ, ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵗⴱⴰⵍ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⵗⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⵉⴾⴾⵉ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ"
"Criticisms based on professional standards and non-replicability of results serve as further checks against bias, errors, and over-generalization, although much economic research has been accused of being non-replicable, and prestigious journals have been accused of not facilitating replication through the provision of the code and data.","ⵏⴰⵈⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵏⵓⵏ-ⵔⵢⴱⵍⵉⵛⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵂⵢⵛⴾⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵆⴰⵉⵓⵣ, ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵔⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⵓⵏ-ⵔⵢⴱⵍⵉⵛⴰⴱⵍⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵋⵓⵓⵔⵏⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵔⵗⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⴱⵍⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵓⴷⵢ ⵓⴼ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ"
"In applied economics, input–output models employing linear programming methods are quite common.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴱⵍⵉⵢⴷ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ , ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵓⵜ-ⵓⵓⵜⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵋⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵍⵉⵏⵢⴰⵔ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎⵎⵉⵏⴶ ⵎⵢⵜⵂⵓⴷⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
This has reduced the long-noted distinction of economics from natural sciences because it allows direct tests of what were previously taken as axioms.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⵔⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵆⵉⵓⵎⵙ
Similar empirical testing occurs in neuroeconomics.,ⵉⵋⵉⵔⵔⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⵢⵓⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ
"In perfectly competitive markets, no participants are large enough to have the market power to set the price of a homogeneous product.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵓⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵉ ⵢⵗⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ"
Microeconomics studies individual markets by simplifying the economic system by assuming that activity in the market being analysed does not affect other markets.,ⵎⵉⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⴾⵎⴰ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵢⵏ
General-equilibrium theory studies various markets and their behaviour.,ⵗⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ-ⵢⵈⵓⵉⵍⵉⴱⵔⵓⵉⵎ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵗⴰⵔ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
Choices must be made between desirable yet mutually exclusive actions.,ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ
"Part of the cost of making pretzels is that neither the flour nor the morning are available any longer, for use in some other way.",ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵢⵜⵣⵢⵍⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⵆⵓⵈ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵓⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ
"Inputs used in the production process include such primary factors of production as labour services, capital (durable produced goods used in production, such as an existing factory), and land (including natural resources).","ⵉⵏⴱⵓⵜⵙ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵗⴰⵎⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ, ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ (ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵋⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ Iⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ) ⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ( ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ)"
"""Efficiency is improved if more output is generated without changing inputs, or in other words, the amount of """"waste"""" is reduced.""",“ ⴼⴰⵗⴰⵍⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜ-ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵢⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ “ⵓⵗⵛⵂⴰⴷ”” ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ””
"""In the simplest case an economy can produce just two goods (say """"guns"""" and """"butter"""").""",“ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵈⵉⵜⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ (ⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ “”ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵔⵓⴷⴰⵏ” ⴷ “”ⵓⴷⵉ””)
Scarcity is represented in the figure by people being willing but unable in the aggregate to consume beyond the PPF (such as at X) and by the negative slope of the curve.,ⵏⴰⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⵜ-ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⵢⵔⵏ ⵙ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⴶⵔⵢⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴱⴱⴼ ( ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵆ) ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴶⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵢ
The slope of the curve at a point on it gives the trade-off between the two goods.,ⴷⴶⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵢ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵢⵔⴷⵓⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ
"Along the PPF, scarcity implies that choosing more of one good in the aggregate entails doing with less of the other good.",ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴱⴰⴼ ⵏⴰⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⴶⵔⵢⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ
"A point inside the curve (as at A), is feasible but represents production inefficiency (wasteful use of inputs), in that output of one or both goods could increase by moving in a northeast direction to a point on the curve.","ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵢ (ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰ), ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ (ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵗⵛⵂⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ), ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵎⵂⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ-ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴱ ⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵢ"
"It has been observed that a high volume of trade occurs among regions even with access to a similar technology and mix of factor inputs, including high-income countries.",ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵗⴰⵎⴱⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
"Among each of these production systems, there may be a corresponding division of labour with different work groups specializing, or correspondingly different types of capital equipment and differentiated land uses.","ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ"
"Theory and observation set out the conditions such that market prices of outputs and productive inputs select an allocation of factor inputs by comparative advantage, so that (relatively) low-cost inputs go to producing low-cost outputs.",ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵓⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵓⵙⵏⵢⵏ
"In microeconomics, it applies to price and output determination for a market with perfect competition, which includes the condition of no buyers or sellers large enough to have price-setting power.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ,ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵉ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏⵛⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ"
"Demand theory describes individual consumers as rationally choosing the most preferred quantity of each good, given income, prices, tastes, etc.","ⴷⵢⵎⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ,ⵔⵉⴱⴰ,ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⵢⵎⴱⵢ"
"The law of demand states that, in general, price and quantity demanded in a given market are inversely related.",ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵂⵢⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ
"In addition, purchasing power from the price decline increases ability to buy (the income effect).","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ, ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⵛⵂ (ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ)"
Supply is the relation between the price of a good and the quantity available for sale at that price.,ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⴰ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ
"Supply is typically represented as a function relating price and quantity, if other factors are unchanged.","ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ , ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵗⴰⵏⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ"
"Just as on the demand side, the position of the supply can shift, say from a change in the price of a productive input or a technical improvement.","ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ , ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ, ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵉⴾ"
"Market equilibrium occurs where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, the intersection of the supply and demand curves in the figure above.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵣⴰⵏⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ, ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⵈⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⴰⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ"
"At a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded.","ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵣⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ"
"The most obvious kinds of firms are corporations, partnerships and trusts.","ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ -ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ , ⵛⴰⵔⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵉⵈⴰ-ⵜⴰⵏ"
"In perfectly competitive markets studied in the theory of supply and demand, there are many producers, none of which significantly influence price.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ , ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵉⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ"
"Common market structures studied besides perfect competition include monopolistic competition, various forms of oligopoly, and monopoly.","ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙⵜⵉⵛ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⵢⵜⵉⵜⵉⵓⵏ, ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⴶⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉ"
"Given its different forms, there are various ways of representing uncertainty and modelling economic agents' responses to it.","ⵉⴷ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ,ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵎⵢⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ"
"In behavioural economics, it has been used to model the strategies agents choose when interacting with others whose interests are at least partially adverse to their own.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵢⵂⴰⴱⵉⵓⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ, ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
"It has significant applications seemingly outside of economics in such diverse subjects as formulation of nuclear strategies, ethics, political science, and evolutionary biology.","ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴱⵍⵉⴾⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵙⵓⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵓⴾⵍⴻⴰⵔ ,ⴰⵆⵍⴰⵈⵉⵉⴰ, ⵙⵉⴰⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ"
"It also analyses the pricing of financial instruments, the financial structure of companies, the efficiency and fragility of financial markets, financial crises, and related government policy or regulation.","ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵉⵉⵣ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ, ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ, ⴾⴰⴼⴰⵗⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ, ⴰⵣⵓⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵍⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ"
"""Customers without knowledge of whether a car is a """"lemon"""" depress its price below what a quality second-hand car would be.""",“ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵎⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴼⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ “”ⵍⴻⵎⵓⵏ” ⵉⴼⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵣⵉⵓⵏ “”
"""Both problems may raise insurance costs and reduce efficiency by driving otherwise willing transactors from the market (""""incomplete markets"""").""",“ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵏⵉⵣⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴼⴰⵗⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ( “”ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ””)
"Information asymmetries and incomplete markets may result in economic inefficiency but also a possibility of improving efficiency through market, legal, and regulatory remedies, as discussed above.","ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵎⵢⵜⵔⵉⵢⵙ ⴷ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴾⴰⴼⴰⵗⴰ ⵙ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ, ⵉⵙⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ"
Public goods are goods which are under-supplied in a typical market.,ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵓⵢⵏ
"For example, air pollution may generate a negative externality, and education may generate a positive externality (less crime, etc.).","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ,ⵎⴰⵔⴾⴰⵂⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵢⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵆⵜⵢⵔⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ (ⴰⴼⵏⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ)"
"In many areas, some form of price stickiness is postulated to account for quantities, rather than prices, adjusting in the short run to changes on the demand side or the supply side.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ, ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ"
Examples of such price stickiness in particular markets include wage rates in labour markets and posted prices in markets deviating from perfect competition.,ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⴻⵂⴰⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵜ
"Such aggregates include national income and output, the unemployment rate, and price inflation and subaggregates like total consumption and investment spending and their components.","ⴰⴶⴶⵔⵢⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵙⵓⴱⴰⴶⴶⵔⵢⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵗⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⴾⴰⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ"
This has addressed a long-standing concern about inconsistent developments of the same subject.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵢⵂⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵓⴷⵓⵗ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ
"Keynes contended that aggregate demand for goods might be insufficient during economic downturns, leading to unnecessarily high unemployment and losses of potential output.",ⵆⵢⵉⵢⵙ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⴶⵔⵢⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ
"New classical macroeconomics, as distinct from the Keynesian view of the business cycle, posits market clearing with imperfect information.","ⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⵢⵉⵏⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵛⵂⵢ ,ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵢⴷ"
The labour force only includes workers actively looking for jobs.,ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⵢⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ
Classical models of unemployment occurs when wages are too high for employers to be willing to hire more workers.,ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓ-ⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ
Large amounts of structural unemployment can occur when an economy is transitioning industries and workers find their previous set of skills are no longer in demand.,ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ
"Money has general acceptability, relative consistency in value, divisibility, durability, portability, elasticity in supply, and longevity with mass public confidence.","ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⵍ ⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ, ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ, ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵋⵉⵜ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵉ, ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ"
"""In the words of Francis Amasa Walker, a well-known 19th-century economist, """"Money is what money does"""" (""""Money is that money does"""" in the original).""","“ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰ ⵓⴰⵍⴾⴻⵔ , ⴻⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 “”ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ”” (ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ”” ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ)”"
Its economic function can be contrasted with barter (non-monetary exchange).,ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵜⵢⵔ ( ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ)
"When aggregate demand falls below the potential output of the economy, there is an output gap where some productive capacity is left unemployed.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴶⵔⵢⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⵓⴷⴰ ⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ, ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵢⵜⴰⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ"
"For example, unemployed home builders can be hired to expand highways.","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ , ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⵢⵎ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⵔⴰⴾ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ"
The effects of fiscal policy can be limited by crowding out.,ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ
Some economists think that crowding out is always an issue while others do not think it is a major issue when output is depressed.,ⴷⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ
"The latter, an aspect of public choice theory, models public-sector behaviour analogously to microeconomics, involving interactions of self-interested voters, politicians, and bureaucrats.","ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ, ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵉⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵓⵓⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ,ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ"
It also concerns the size and distribution of gains from trade.,ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ
"""It is often stated that Carlyle gave economics the nickname """"the dismal science"""" as a response to the late 18th century writings of The Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus, who grimly predicted that starvation would result, as projected population growth exceeded the rate of increase in the food supply.""",“”ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵉⵍⵢ ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ “”ⴷⵉⵙⵎⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ” ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵔⵢⵓⵢⵔⵢⵏⴷ ⵟⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵔⵓⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵍⵜⵂⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵗⵉⴱ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵗⴰⵎ”
"The close relation of economic theory and practice with politics is a focus of contention that may shade or distort the most unpretentious original tenets of economics, and is often confused with specific social agendas and value systems.",ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵂⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⴾⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴱⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴶⵣⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙ-ⵏ-ⴰⵗⴰⵎⴱⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⴻⵏⴷⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ
Some academic economic journals have increased their efforts to gauge the consensus of economists regarding certain policy issues in hopes of effecting a more informed political environment.,ⵋⵓⵓⵔⵏⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵂⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ
"Issues like central bank independence, central bank policies and rhetoric in central bank governors discourse or the premises of macroeconomic policies (monetary and fiscal policy) of the state, are focus of contention and criticism.","ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴶⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵙⴰⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ (ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ) ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⵉⴾⴾⵉ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ"
"The field of information economics includes both mathematical-economical research and also behavioural economics, akin to studies in behavioural psychology, and confounding factors to the neoclassical assumptions are the subject of substantial study in many areas of economics.",ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⴷ ⴱⴻⵂⴰⴱⵉⵓⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵢⵂⴰⴱⵉⵓⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵗⴰⵏⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵛⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⴷⵓⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ
"""Joskow had a strong feeling that the important work in oligopoly was done through informal observations while formal models were """"trotted out ex post"""".""",“ ⵋⵓⵙⴾⵓⵓ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴻⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵍⵉⴶⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ “ⵜⵔⵓⵜⵜⵢⴷ ⵓⵓⵜ ⴻⵆ ⴱⵓⵙⵜ”
"Another major theme is evolution, which explains the unity and diversity of life.",ⵎⵓⴷⵓⵗ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ
"His works such as History of Animals were especially important because they revealed his naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life.",ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⵢⵋ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⴼⵓⴾⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵍⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏⴶⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ
"Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought, especially in upholding a fixed hierarchy of life.",ⵎⵢⴷⵢⵛⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ
Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.,ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵓⴰⵎⵎⵢⵔⴷⴰⵎ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵏⵜⵓⵎⵓⵍⵓⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⵉⵛⵂⵉ ⵙ ⵎⵉⵛⵔⵓⵙⵛⵓⴱⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ
"Then, in 1838, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1838, ⵙⵛⵂⵓⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵙ (1) ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ (2) ⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴾⵢⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ (3) ⵉⵣⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ"
"Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in use ever since), and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species.",ⵛⴰⵔⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵓⵙ ⵉⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵆⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1735 (ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ) ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1750 ⴰⵣⵓⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵛⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
"Lamarck believed that these acquired traits could then be passed on to the animal's offspring, who would further develop and perfect them.",ⵍⴰⴰⵔⵛⴾ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⵢⵋ ⵂⵓ ⵉⴷⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵗⵉⴷ ⵜⴰ
"""The basis for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel, who presented his paper, """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""""), in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.""","“” ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵋⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵜ-ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴶⴰⵔ ⵎⵢⵏⴷⴻⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾ ⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ “””ⴱⵢⵔⵙⵓⵛⵂⵢ ⵓⴱⵢⵔ ⴱⴼⵍⴰⵏⵣⴻⵏⵂⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵢⵏ"""" (‘’’’ⵉⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵣⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵛⵛⵢ) ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1865 ⵓ-ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵜⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵋⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ”"
"A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics.",ⵜⴰⵔⴾⵉⵣ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵛⵜⵢⵔⵉⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⴼⵓⴾⴾⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵓⴱⵍⵢ-ⵂⵢⵍⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵏⴰⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵋⴰⵎⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵜⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙ ⵛⵔⵉⵛⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1953 ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⴰⵔ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛⵙ
"Finally, the Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 with the goal of mapping the general human genome.",ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⵏⵓⵎⴻ ⴱⵓⵔⵋⵢⵛⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1990 ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴶⵢⵏⵓⵎⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ
Life on Earth began from water and remained there for about three billions years prior to migrating onto land.,ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎ ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
The nucleus is made of one or more protons and a number of neutrons.,ⵏⵓⵛⵍⵢⵓⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ
"The atom of each specific element contains a unique number of protons, which is known as its atomic number, and the sum of its protons and neutrons is an atom's mass number.",ⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵗⴰⵏⵙⴰⵔ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⵢⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵎ
"Carbon, for example, can exist as a stable isotope (carbon-12 or carbon-13) or as a radioactive isotope (carbon-14), the latter of which can be used in radiometric dating (specifically radiocarbon dating) to determine the age of organic materials.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ,ⵛⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵓⴱⵢ (ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜ-12 ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜ 13) ⵎⵢⵗ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⵓⴰⵛⵜⵉⴱⵢ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵓⴱⴻ (ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜ -14), ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⵓⵎⵢⵜⵔⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵜⵉⵏⴶ (ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⵓⵛⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⵉⵏⴶ) ⵉ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ"
"Ionic bonding involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, or between two atoms with sharply different electronegativities, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds.",ⵉⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⴱⴰⵏⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⵢⵍⵢⵛⵜⵔⵓⵙⵜⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴰⵜⵜⵔⴰⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⵛⵜⵔⵓⵏⵢⴶⴰⵜⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉⵢ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵏⵉⵛ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⵓⵓⵏⴷⵙ
"Unlike ionic bonds, a covalent bond involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.",ⵛⵓⴱⴰⵍⵢⵏⵜ ⴱⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⵛⵜⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⵓⵏⵉⵛ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵙ
A ubiquitous example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules.,ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏ ⴱⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵜ ⴰⵓ ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵜⴻⵔ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ
"Water is important to life because it is an effective solvent, capable of dissolving solutes such as sodium and chloride ions or other small molecules to form an aqueous solution.","ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓⵜⵢⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵓⴷⵉⵓⵎⴱⴷ ⵛⵂⵍⵓⵔⵉⴷⵢ ⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵢⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ"
"Because the O–H bonds are polar, the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the two hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge.","ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ O-H ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵈⵓⵜⴱⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ,ⵓⵆⵉⴶⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⵢⴶⴰⵜⵉⴱⵢ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⴶⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵉⵜⵉⴱⵜ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⴶⴻ"
Water is also adhesive as it is able to adhere to the surface of any polar or charged non-water molecules.,ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵜⵜⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵜⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵈⵓⵜⴱⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵔ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ
"The lower density of ice compared to liquid water is due to the lower number of water molecules that form the crystal lattice structure of ice, which leaves a large amount of space between water molecules.",ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵢⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴱⴰⴱ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴾⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵢⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ
"Thus, a large amount of energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to convert liquid water into gas (or water vapor).",ⴰⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⵓⴷ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵔⴰⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵙ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵙ ⴶⴰⵣ (ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵂⵓⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ)
"With the exception of water, nearly all the molecules that make up each organism contain carbon.","ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⵂⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜ"
"For example, a single carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds such as in methane, two double covalent bonds such as in carbon dioxide, or a triple covalent bond such as in carbon monoxide (CO).","ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵛⵓⴱⴰⵍⵢⵏⵜⵙ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⵜⵂⴰⵏⵢ , ⵛⵓⴱⴰⵍⵢⵏⵜⵙ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵙ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⴼⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⵓⵆⵉⴷⵢ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵛⵓⴱⴰⵍⵢⵏⵜ ⴱⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⵜⴼⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⵆⵉⴷⵢ (ⵛO)"
"A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted by other elements such as oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), which can change the chemical behavior of that compound.","ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⵛⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵗⴰⵏⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵆⵉⴶⵢⵏ (O) , ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏ (ⵂ), ⴱⵂⵓⵙⴱⵂⵓⵔⵓⵙ (ⴱ), ⴷ ⵙⵓⵍⴼⵓⵔ (ⵙ) ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵛⵂⵢⵎⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴱⵢⵂⴰⴱⵉⵓⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⵢⵏ"
"When two monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose are linked together, they can form a disaccharide such as sucrose.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⵙⴰⵛⵛⵂⴰⵔⵉⴷⵢⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴶⵍⵓⵛⵓⵙⴱⵢ ⴷ ⴼⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵙⵢⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ , ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵙⴰⵛⵛⵂⴰⵔⵉⴷⵢ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⵓⵙⵢ"
These lipids are organic compounds that are largely nonpolar and hydrophobic.,ⵍⵉⴱⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵈⵓⵜⴱⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴱⵂⵓⴱⵉⵛ
The glycerol and phosphate group together constitute the polar and hydrophilic (or head) region of the molecule whereas the fatty acids make up the nonpolar and hydrophobic (or tail) region.,ⵗⵍⵉⵛⵢⵔⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴱⵂⵓⵙⴱⵂⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵈⵓⵜⴱⵉ ⴷ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴱⵂⵉⵍⵉⵛ ( ⵎⵢⵗ ⴻⵗⴰⴼ) ⵏ ⵎⵓⵍⴻⵛⵓⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔ-ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵈⵓⵜⴱⵉ ⴷ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴱⵂⵓⴱⵉⵛ
"Proteins are the most diverse of the macromolecules, which include enzymes, transport proteins, large signaling molecules, antibodies, and structural proteins.","ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⵔⵓⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⵏⵣⵉⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴶⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵏⵜⵉⴱⵓⴷⵉⵢⵙ ⴷ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵢⵉⵏⵙ"
The polarity and charge of the side chains affect the solubility of amino acids.,ⵔⴰⵜⴱⵉⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴾⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵋⴰ ⵉⴷⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⵛⵉⴷⵙ
The primary structure consists of a unique sequence of amino acids that are covalently linked together by peptide bonds.,ⴷⴷⵢⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⵛⵉⴷⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴱⵢⴱⵜⵉⴷⵓ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ
The folding of alpha helices and beta sheets gives a protein its three-dimensional or tertiary structure.,ⴰⵏⴰⵜⴼⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵂⴰ ⵂⵢⵍⵉⵛⵢⵙ ⴷ ⴱⵢⵜⴰ ⵙⵂⵢⵢⵜⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵢⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵈⴰⵉⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵢⵔⵜⵉⴰⵔⵉ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⵢ
"The purines include guanine (G) and adenine (A) whereas the pyrimidines consist of cytosine (T), uracil (U), and thymine (T).","ⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⵢⵏ ⴶⵓⴰⵏⵉⵏⵓ (ⵗ), ⴷ ⴰⴷⵢⵏⵉⵏⵢ (ⴰ) ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⵢⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵜⵓⵙⵉⵏⴻ (ⵟ), ⵓⵔⴰⵛⵉⵍ (ⵓ) ⴷⵜⵂⵉⵎⵉⵏⵢ (ⵟ)"
"A cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, including cholesterols that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures.","ⵛⵍⵍ ⵎⵢⵎⴱⵔⴰⵏⵓ ⵢⵂⵢⵜ ⵍⵉⴱⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵍⴰⵉⵢⵔ, ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵍⵢⵙⵜⵢⵔⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴱⵂⵓⵙⵂⵓⵍⵉⴱⵉⴷⵙ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ"
"Cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as cell adhesion, storing electrical energy, and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a cell wall, glycocalyx, and cytoskeleton.","ⵛⵢⵍⵍ ⵎⵢⵎⴱⵔⴰⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵜⵓⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ, ⴰⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ ⴷ ⵛⵢⵍⵍ ⵙⵉⴶⵏⴰⵍⵍⵉⵏⴶ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵆⵜⵔⴰⵛⵢⵍⵍⵓⵍⴰⵔ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⵢⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵢⵍⵍⵢ ⵓⴰⵍⵍ, ⴶⵍⵉⵛⵓⵛⴰⵍⵉⵆ ⴷ ⵛⵉⵜⵓⵙⴾⵢⵍⵢⵜⵓⵏ"
"""The Alberts text discusses how the """"cellular building blocks"""" move to shape developing embryos.""",“ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵢⵔⵜⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ “” ⵛⵢⵍⵍⵓⵍⴰⵔ ⴱⵓⵉⵍⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⴱⵍⵓⵛⴾⵙ”” ⵛⵂⴰⵏⴾⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵏⴰⵗ “
"Plant cells have additional organelles that distinguish them from animal cells such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell, chloroplasts that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and vacuoles that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds.","Iⵣⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴶⴰⵏⵢⵍⵍⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵢⵍⵍ ⵓⴰⵍⵍ ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾ, ⵛⵂⵍⵓⵔⵓⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵙ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵛⵓⵓⵍⵢⵙ ⵂⴰⴾⴾⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵗⵛⵂⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾ"
"According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy is conserved, i.e., cannot be created or destroyed.","ⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵂⵢⵔⵎⵓⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⵛⵙ , ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⵢⵗⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⵗⵛⵂⴰⴷ"
"As a result, an organism requires continuous input of energy to maintain a low state of entropy.",ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵜ-ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵏ ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵉ
"Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy.",ⵆⴰⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵣⵓⵣⵋⵓⵔ ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⵉⵜⵓⵜ ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ
"The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are redox reactions.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⵢⵍⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵛⵂⵢⵎⵉⵛⵙ, ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵔⵢⴷⵓⵆ"
"Acetyl-Coa enters the citric acid cycle, which takes places inside the mitochondrial matrix.",ⴰⵛⵢⵜⵉⵍ-ⵛⵓⴰ ⵉⵜ ⴰⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵛⵉⵜⵔⵉⵛ ⴰⵛⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵜⵔⵉⵆ
"Oxidative phosphorylation comprises the electron transport chain, which is a series of four protein complexes that transfer electrons from one complex to another, thereby releasing energy from NADH and FADH2 that is coupled to the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (chemiosmosis), which generates a proton motive force.","Oⵆⵉⴷⴰⵜⵉⴱⵢ ⴱⵂⵓⵙⴱⵂⵓⵔⵉⵍⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⵛⵜⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⵛⵜⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵣⴰⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵏⴰⵢⵂ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵢⵂ2 ⵢⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ (ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏ ⵉⵓⵏⵙ) ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵉⵜⴱⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵎⴱⵔⴰⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ (ⵛⵂⵢⵎⵉⵓⵙⵎⵓⵙⵉⵙ) ⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵉⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ"
"If oxygen were not present, pyruvate would not be metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation.","ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵓⵆⵉⴶⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ , ⴱⵉⵔⵓⴱⴰⵜⵢ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵢⵆⵆⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵓⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵈⵓⴰⵜ"
Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis.,ⵜⵉⵈⵓⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⴾⵙⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵏⴰⵢⵂ ⵙ ⵏⴰⵢ+ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴶⵍⵉⵛⵓⵍⵉⵙⵉⵙ
"In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵗⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⴷ ⵍⴰⴾⵜⵉⴾ"
"During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate.","ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵢⵔⵓⴱⵉⵛ ⴶⵍⵉⵛⵓⵍⵉⵙⵉⵙ, ⵏⵢⴰ+ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⴾⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⵓⴱⴰⵜⴻ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵛⵜⴰⵜⵢ"
"During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP.","ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵆⵉⴶⵢⵏ, ⵏⵢⴰ+ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵍⴰⵛⵜⴰⵜⵓ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴱ"
"In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⵓⵆⵉⴶⴻⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⴻⵗⵛⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ"
This is analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration.,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⴰⵍ ⵎⴻⵎⴱⵔⴰⵏⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵏⴼⴰⵙ
"In autocrine signaling, the ligand affects the same cell that releases it.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴶⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵜⵓⵛⵔⵉⵏⴻ, ⵍⵉⴶⴰⵏⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵣⴰⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ"
"In eukaryotes (i.e., animal, plant, fungal, and protist cells), there are two distinct types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.","ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵓⴾⴰⵔⵉⵓⵜⵢⵙ (ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ , ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ, ⴰⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾ, ⴱⵉⴼⴼⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜ ⵛⵢⵍⵍⵙ), ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ: ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵙⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵉⵓⵙⵉⵙ"
"After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle.","ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ, ⵜⴰⵍⵉⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ"
Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle.,ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
"Unlike the processes of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes, binary fission takes in prokaryotes takes place without the formation of a spindle apparatus on the cell.","ⴰⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵙⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵉⵓⵙⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵓⴾⴰⵔⵉⵓⵜⵢⵙ, ⴱⵉⵏⴰⵔⵉ ⴼⵉⵙⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵓⴾⴰⵔⵉⵓⵜⵢⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵙⴱⵉⵏⴷⵍⵓ ⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⵓⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ"
"Mendelian inheritance, specifically, is the process by which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring.",ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵏⴷⵢⵍ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵙ ⴶⵢⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ
"The first is that genetic characteristics, which are now called alleles, are discrete and have alternate forms (e.g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf), each inherited from one of two parents.","ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⵔⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵢⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ( ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ: ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏⴶⴰⵍⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵉ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ,ⵜⴰⴾⴾⵉⵏⴷⵉⵎⵜ)"
"Mendel noted that during gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene, which is stated by his law of segregation.","ⵎⵢⵏⴷⵢⵍ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵏⴰⵗ, ⴰⵍⵍⵢⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴶⵢⵏⵢ ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵏⵣⴰⵗ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵗ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⵍⵍⵢⵍⵢ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵉ ⴶⵢⵏⵢ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ"
"The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone.",ⵏⵓⴾⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵏⵓⴾⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵓⵙⴼⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵛⴰⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⵓⵔ-ⴼⵓⵙⴼⴰⵜ
The bases are divided into two groups: pyrimidines and purines.,ⴱⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ : ⵉⴱⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏⵏ.
DNA is replicated once the two strands separate.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴱⴹⵓⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.
A chromosome is an organized structure consisting of DNA and histones.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵀⵉⵙⵜⵓⵏⵏ.
"In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.","ⵖⵔ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⵜ ⵎ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⴽⵍⵢⵓⴷ."
"The genetic information stored in DNA represents the genotype, whereas the phenotype results from the synthesis of proteins that control an organism's structure and development, or that act as enzymes catalyzing specific metabolic pathways.","ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⵡⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴽⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ."
"Under the genetic code, these mRNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation, which occurs in ribosomes.","ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵖⵍⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵕⵉⴱⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ."
Sequencing and analysis of genomes can be done using high throughput DNA sequencing and bioinformatics to assemble and analyze the function and structure of entire genomes.,ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴼⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ.
"The genomes of prokaryotes are small, compact, and diverse.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ, ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵣⵏ, ⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
"There are four key processes that underlie development: Determination, differentiation, morphogenesis, and growth.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ : ⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ."
Stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell.,ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴳⴳⴰⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⴳⴰⵏⵜ.
"Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, also occurs during morphogenesis, such as the death of cells between digits in human embryonic development, which frees up individual fingers and toes.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⴱⵓⴱⵟⵓⵥ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⴰⵡⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴹⵓⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⵓⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴷⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ."
"These toolkit genes are highly conserved among phyla, meaning that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
"Hox genes determine where repeating parts, such as the many vertebrae of snakes, will grow in a developing embryo or larva.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵓⴽⵙ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵟⵟⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵖⵔⵉⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⴽⴽⴰ."
"A toolkit gene can be expressed in a different pattern, as when the beak of Darwin's large ground-finch was enlarged by the BMP gene, or when snakes lost their legs as Distal-less (Dlx) genes became under-expressed or not expressed at all in the places where other reptiles continued to form their limbs.","ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⵓⵖⵏⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵅⵅⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ BMP, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵖⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴷⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍ-ⵍⵉⵙ (Dlx) ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⵓⵔⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
This perspective holds that evolution occurs when there are changes in the allele frequencies within a population of interbreeding organisms.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ.
"When selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies are equally likely to drift upward or downward at each successive generation because the alleles are subject to sampling error.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵃⵍⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵔⵖⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ."
Reproductive isolation also tends to increase with genetic divergence.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵃⴰⵕⴰⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵡⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ.
"When a lineage divides into two, it is represented as a node (or split) on the phylogenetic tree.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴱⴹⵓ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵙⵔⵔⵉⴼⵜ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ) ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ."
"Within a tree, any group of species designated by a name is a taxon (e.g., humans, primates, mammals, or vertebrates) and a taxon that consists of all its evolutionary descendants is a clade, otherwise known as a monophyletic taxon.","ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ, ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ) ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴽⵍⴰⵢⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏⵏ."
"A species or group that is closely related to the ingroup but is phylogenetically outside of it is called the outgroup, which serves a reference point in the tree.","ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⴼⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ."
"Based on the principle of Parsimony (or Occam's razor), the tree that is favored is the one with the fewest evolutionary changes needed to be assumed over all traits in all groups.","ⵉⴳ ⵏⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏⵉⵢ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵎⵙ), ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵜⵓⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ."
"Based on this system, each species is given two names, one for its genus and another for its species.","ⵉⴳ ⵏⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Biologists regard the ubiquity of the genetic code as evidence of universal common descent for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵥⵥⵄ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⴳⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⵎⵍⵜⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵜⵏ, ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ."
"Later, around 1.7 billion years ago, multicellular organisms began to appear, with differentiated cells performing specialised functions.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1.7 ⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵢⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ."
Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the Late Devonian extinction event.,ⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵖⵉⵣ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷⵉⴼⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ.
"During the recovery from this catastrophe, archosaurs became the most abundant land vertebrates; one archosaur group, the dinosaurs, dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵄⴷⵔⵉⵇ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵕⴽⵓⵚⵓⵕⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵄⴱⵓⴱⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ; ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵕⴽⵓⵚⵓⵕⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵢⵏⴰⵚⵓⵕⵏ, ⵜⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵊⵓⵕⴰⵙⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵕⵉⵟⴰⵚⵉ."
"Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep biosphere of the earth's crust.","ⵜⴷⴷⵔ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⴱ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵟⵟⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ, ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴹ ⴰⵙⴼⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴱⵓⴹ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"Archaea constitute the other domain of prokaryotic cells and were initially classified as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebacteria kingdom), a term that has fallen out of use.","ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ, ⵜⵓⵙⵢ ⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ( ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ), ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ."
"Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although a few archaea have very different shapes, such as the flat and square cells of Haloquadratum walsbyi.","ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵍⵓⴽⴰⴷⵔⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵡⴰⵍⵙⴱⵢⵉ."
"Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from organic compounds, such as sugars, to ammonia, metal ions or even hydrogen gas.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ : ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵏⴰⴼⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵯⴰⵔ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵢⴰ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⴷⴷⴰⵃ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ."
"The first observed archaea were extremophiles, living in extreme environments, such as hot springs and salt lakes with no other organisms.","ⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵥⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵟⵟⵓⵕⴼⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵖⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ."
Archaea are a major part of Earth's life.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
"Five of these clades are also collectively known as protists, which are mostly microscopic eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, fungi, or animals.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
"Most protists are unicellular, which are also known as microbial eukaryotes.","ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ."
Dinoflagellates are photosynthetic and can be found in the ocean where they play a role as primary producers of organic matter.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵊⵉⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵏⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵏⴰⴼⵜ.
Ciliates are alveolates that possess numerous hair-like structure called cilia.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵎ ⵉⵃⴱⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵃⴱⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ.
The excavates are groups of protists that began to diversify approximately 1.5 billion years ago shortly after the origin of the eukaryotes.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵣ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1.5 ⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ.
"Stramenopiles, most of which can be characterized by the presence of tubular hairs on the longer of their two flagella, include diatoms and brown algae.","ⵉⵙⵜⵕⴰⵎⵉⵏⵓⴱⵉⵍⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵊⵄⴱⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵊⵊⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵏ, ⵉⴷⵢⴰⵜⵓⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵎⴰⵏⵏ."
"The rhizarians comprise three main groups: cercozoans, foraminiferans, and radiolarians.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵕⴰⵢⵥⴰⵕⵢⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ : ⴰⵙⵉⵕⴽⵓⵣⵡⴰⵏ, ⴰⴼⵓⵕⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⴼⵕⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵕⴰⴷⵢⵓⵍⴰⵕⵢⴰⵏ."
"Algae comprise several distinct clades such as glaucophytes, which are microscopic freshwater algae that may have resembled in form to the early unicellular ancestor of Plantae.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵓⵣⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴳⵍⵓⴽⵓⴼⵉⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⵕⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵔⵡⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ."
Land plants (embryophytes) first appeared in terrestrial environments approximately 450 to 500 million years ago.,ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵅⵍⴰ (ⵉⵃⵛⵍⴰⴼⵏ) ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 450 ⴰⵔ 500 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.
"In contrast, the other three clades are nonvascular plants as they do not have tracheids.","ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵃⵓⵔⵙⵉⵜⵏ."
They tend to be found in areas where water is readily available.,ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵜⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵀⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
"Most nonvascular plants are terrestrial, with a few living in freshwater environments and none living in the oceans.","ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ, ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍ."
"Gymnosperms includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes.","ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵉⵃⴷⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵉⴽⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ, ⴰⵊⵉⵏⴽⵓ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ."
They do so through a process called absorptive heterotrophy whereby they would first secrete digestive enzymes that break down large food molecules before absorbing them through their cell membranes.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵔⵥⵥⵎⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵕⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵇⵛⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵔⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵎⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵉⵅⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ.
"Fungi, along with two other lineages, choanoflagellates and animals, can be grouped as opisthokonts.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ, ⵟⵟⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⴽⵡⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵊⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵙⵜⵓⴽⵓⵏⵜⵙ."
"Multicellular fungi, on the other hand, have a body called mycelium, which is composed of a mass of individual tubular filaments called hyphae that allows for nutrient absorption to occur.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵄⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵙⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵄⴱⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎⵏ ⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ."
"With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development.","ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵙⴽⵏⴼⴰⵏ, ⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵔⵡ, ⵜⴳⵎⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔⵉⵎⴰ, ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ."
Animals can be distinguished into two groups based on their developmental characteristics.,ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵙⵏⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"In protostomes, the blastopore gives rise to the mouth, which is then followed by the formation of the anus.","ⴳ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎⵏ, ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵓⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵖⴷⴰⵏ."
"The bodies of most animals are symmetrical, with symmetry being either radial or bilateral.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⴽⵙⵉⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⴽⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵔⴰⵏ."
"Finally, animals can be distinguished based on the type and location of their appendages such as antennae for sensing the environment or claws for capturing prey.","ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴹⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵅⴱⴰⵛⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵔ."
"The majority (~97%) of animal species are invertebrates, which are animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a backbone or spine), derived from the notochord.","ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ (~97%) ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ."
Many invertebrate taxa have a greater number and variety of species than the entire subphylum of Vertebrata.,ⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ.
"More than 6,000 virus species have been described in detail.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 6,000 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉ."
"When not inside an infected cell or in the process of infecting a cell, viruses exist in the form of independent particles, or virions, consisting of the genetic material (DNA or RNA), a protein coat called capsid, and in some cases an outside envelope of lipids.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵙⵜ ⵢⵓⴹⵏⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵢⵓⵏⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ (DNA ⵏⵖⴷ RNA), ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⴱⵙⵉⴷ, ⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴹⵕⵥ."
The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—while others may have evolved from bacteria.,ⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ : ⵉⵖⵢ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵓⵍⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵎⵉⴷⵏ -- ⵉⵇⵛⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ -- ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ.
Viruses can spread in many ways.,ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵖⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ.
"Norovirus and rotavirus, common causes of viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the faecal–oral route, passed by hand-to-mouth contact or in food or water.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵏⵓⵕⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵜⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵣⵡⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵅⴷⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"The shoot system is composed of stem, leaves, and flowers.",ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵟ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵖⴰⵎⵓ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ.
The direction of water movement across a semipermeable membrane is determined by the water potential across that membrane.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵥⵉⴹⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ.
"Most plant seeds are usually dormant, a condition in which the seed's normal activity is suspended.","ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴹⴰⵡ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ."
"Imbibition is the first step in germination, whereby water is absorbed by the seed.","ⵉⵙⵙⵡⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵖⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"These monomers are obtained from the hydrolysis of starch, proteins, and lipids that are stored in either the cotyledons or endosperm.",ⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵓⵎⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴳⵯⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵉⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵓⵜⵉⵍⴷⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴹⵓⵙⴱⵉⵔⵎ.
"Their flowers are organs that facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs.","ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⵀⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵖⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢ."
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different individual of the same species.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵜⴽⴽⵯⴰⵕ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵢ ⵓⵅⵓⵍⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ.
"These changes may be affected by genetic, chemical, and physical factors.",ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵏ.
"The photoreceptor proteins relay information such as whether it is day or night, duration of the day, intensity of light available, and the source of light.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴹⵓⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴹ, ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵥⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ."
"Many flowering plants bloom at the appropriate time because of light-sensitive compounds that respond to the length of the night, a phenomenon known as photoperiodism.","ⴷⴰ ⵕⵥⵥⵎⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ."
Animals can be classified as either regulators or conformers.,ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ.
"In contrast, animals such as fishes and frogs are conformers as they adapt their internal environment (e.g., body temperature) to match their external environments.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⴰ ⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵛⵉⵛⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ( ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ) ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷⴷ ⵢⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Mice, for example, are able to consume three times more food than rabbits in proportion to their weights as the basal metabolic rate per unit weight in mice is greater than in rabbits.","ⵉⵖⵔⴹⴰⵢⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵛⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⴰⵍ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵖⵔⴹⴰ ⵢⵓⴳⵔ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵓⵍ."
"However, the relationship is non-linear in animals that swim or fly.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵄⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ."
"At low flight speeds, a bird must maintain a high metabolic rates to remain airborne.","ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵍⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⵣⵏ, ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵃⴹⵓ ⵓⴳⴹⵉⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⵢⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢ."
"Finally, freshwater animals have body fluids that are hyperosmotic to fresh water.","ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵃⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵓ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ."
"If an animal were to consume food that contains an excess amount of chemical energy, it will store most of that energy in the form of lipids for future use and some of that energy as glycogen for more immediate use (e.g., meeting the brain's energy needs).","ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵃⴹⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵕⵥ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵖⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵍⵉⴽⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴷⵖⵢⴰⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴷⵉⵡⴰⵊⴱ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ)."
"In addition to their digestive tracts, vertebrate animals have accessory glands such as a liver and pancreas as part of their digestive systems.","ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵎ, ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵉⵡⵍⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏⴽⵕⵢⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⴰⵍⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵎ."
"Upon leaving the stomach, food enters into the midgut, which is the first part of the intestine (or small intestine in mammals) and is the principal site of digestion and absorption.","ⴳ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵅⴷⵉⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵎ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ, (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ) ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎⵎ."
"Gas exchange in the lungs occurs in millions of small air sacs; in mammals and reptiles these are called alveoli, and in birds they are known as atria.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵛⵛⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ; ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⵓⵔⴷⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵛⵏⴱⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⴷ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⵏ."
"These enter the lungs where they branch into progressively narrower secondary and tertiary bronchi that branch into numerous smaller tubes, the bronchioles.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⴽⵛⵛⵎ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵃⵓⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴰⵔ ⴱⵟⵟⵓⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵄⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵃⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
There are two types of circulatory systems: open and closed.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ: ⵜⴰⵎⵕⵥⵓⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵇⵇⵓⵏⵜ.
Circulation in animals occur between two types of tissues: systemic tissues and breathing (or pulmonary) organs.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵔⵓ ⵓⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ: ⵜⵉⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ).
"In birds and mammals, the systemic and pulmonary systems are connected in series.","ⴳ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵡⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ."
Skeletal muscle contractions are neurogenic as they require synaptic input from motor neurons.,ⵉⴽⵔⴰⵔⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵙⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
"The contraction produced can be described as a twitch, summation, or tetanus, depending on the frequency of action potentials.","ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵔⵔⴰⵎ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴳⴰⴳⴰⵢⵜ, ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴱⵓⴽⵔⵓⵙ, ⵉⴳ ⵏⵙⵏⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵚⴹⴼⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵉⴹⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ."
The mechanisms of contraction are similar in all three muscle tissues.,ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵔⵔⴰⵎ ⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵓⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ.
"Other animals such as mollusks, and nematodes, possess obliquely striated muscles, which contain bands of thick and thin filaments that are arranged helically rather than transversely, like in vertebrate skeletal or cardiac muscles.","ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵖⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴼⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⴹ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵙⵙⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ."
They can transmit or receive information at sites of contacts called synapses.,ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵎⵍⴰⵇⵇⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ.
Cells such as neurons or muscle cells may be excited or inhibited upon receiving a signal from another neuron.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⵕⵕⴰⵛⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⵥⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"In vertebrates, the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves that connect the CNS to every other part of the body.","ⴳ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ (CNS), ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵅⴷⴷⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⵍⴰⴳⴰⵍ (PNS), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ."
"The PNS is divided into three separate subsystems, the somatic, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems.","ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⵍⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ, ⴰⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔⵜⵉⵔⴰⵜ, ⴰⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ."
"The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⴱⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵜⴽⵓⵔ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⴰⵕⴰⵙⵉⵎⴱⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵙⴳⵓⵏⴼⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
Nerves that exit directly from the brain are called cranial nerves while those exiting from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves.,"ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵓⵅⴷⴷⵓ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏⵏ."
"In humans specifically, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands.","ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵜⵉⵡⵍⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⴼⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵍⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵥⵍⵉⵏ."
"Hormones can be amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵀⵓⵕⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔⵡⵉⴷⵏ, ⵉⴽⵓⵙⴰⵏⵡⵉⴷⵏ, ⵉⵍⵓⴽⵓⵜⵔⵉⵢⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵙⵜⴰⴳⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵏⵏ."
They produce haploid gametes by meiosis.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⵍⵖⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵢⵢⵓⵥ.
"In most cases, a third germ layer, the mesoderm, also develops between them.","ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ, ⴰⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ."
"Gastrulation occurs, whereby morphogenetic movements convert the cell mass into a three germ layers that comprise the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⵙⵜⵕⵓⵍⴰⵙⵢⵓⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵕⴼⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵜⵓⴷⵉⵕⵎⵏ, ⴰⵎⵉⵙⵓⴷⵉⵔⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴷⵓⴷⵉⵔⵎ."
"Cellular differentiation is influenced by extracellular signals such as growth factors that are exchanged to adjacent cells, which is called juxtracrine signaling, or to neighboring cells over short distances, which is called paracrine signaling.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵟⵟⵕⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⴽⵙⵜⵔⴰⴽⵔⵉⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⴽⵔⵉⵏ."
The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵎⵉⵍⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ.
Bacteria have a rudimentary immune system in the form of enzymes that protect against virus infections.,ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵉⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⴳⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ.
"Jawed vertebrates, including humans, have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms, including the ability to adapt to recognize pathogens more efficiently.","ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵃⵉⵡⴰⵛ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵥⵜ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⴹⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
"Fixed action patterns, for instance, are genetically determined and stereotyped behaviors that occur without learning.","ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ."
"The community of living (biotic) organisms in conjunction with the nonliving (abiotic) components (e.g., water, light, radiation, temperature, humidity, atmosphere, acidity, and soil) of their environment is called an ecosystem.","ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ (ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜⵏ) ⵙ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵔⵏ (ⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ) (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ, ⵉⵣⵏⵣⵕ, ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ, ⵜⴰⵍⵓⵖⵉ, ⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ, ⴰⵙⵎⴻⵎ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ) ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏ."
"By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system.","ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ."
The Earth's physical environment is shaped by solar energy and topography.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵎⴽⴰⵍ.
"Weather is the day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the long-term average of weather, typically averaged over a period of 30 years.","ⴰⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵓ ⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵕ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵏⵣⵡⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴽⴽⴰ 30 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
"As a result, wet environments allow for lush vegetation to grow.","ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴳⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵎⵉⵏ."
"Population growth during short-term intervals can be determined using the population growth rate equation, which takes into consideration birth, death, and immigration rates.","ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ."
A biological interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together in a community have on each other.,ⵜⴰⵙⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ.
A long-term interaction is called a symbiosis.,ⵜⴰⵙⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ.
"There are different trophic levels within any food web, with the lowest level being the primary producers (or autotrophs) such as plants and algae that convert energy and inorganic material into organic compounds, which can then be used by the rest of the community.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴷⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ (ⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ) ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ."
And those that eat secondary consumers are tertiary consumers and so on.,ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
In some cycles there are reservoirs where a substance remains or is sequestered for a long period of time.,ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ.
"The largest driver of warming is the emission of greenhouse gases, of which more than 90% are carbon dioxide and methane.","ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵖⵓⴼⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 90%."
"Biodiversity affects the functioning of ecosystems, which provide a variety of services upon which people depend.","ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵉⵚ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ."
"Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress.","ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴱⵍⴷⵉ, ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⵕ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ."
"Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance.","ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔⵏ, ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴼ."
These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants.,ⵙⵙⵓⵀⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
"In the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately.","ⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20, ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜⴰⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓⵎⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
"""Modern botany traces its roots back to Ancient Greece specifically to Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BCE), a student of Aristotle who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the scientific community as the """"Father of Botany"""".""","""ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵇⴷⵉⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⵢⵓⴼⵔⴰⵙⵜⵓⵙ (371-287 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ """"ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ""""."""
"De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years.","ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰ ⴷⵉ ⵎⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵎⵉⴷⵉⴽⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 1,500 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
"In the mid-16th century, botanical gardens were founded in a number of Italian universities.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 16, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject.,ⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉ ⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢ.
"Throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⵜⵣⴷⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴼ."
Bock created his own system of plant classification.,ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴱⵓⴽ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification (diagnostic keys) or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys.,ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⵕ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵥⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ (ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵢⵉⴽⵣ) ⵏⵖ ⵜⵣⴷⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⵓⴱⵜⵉⴽⵢⵉⵏ.
This established a standardised binomial or two-part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus.,ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ.
"Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy, morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus.",ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉ ⴰⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵏⴰⵢⵓⵙ.
The work of Katherine Esau (1898–1997) on plant anatomy is still a major foundation of modern botany.,ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵜⵔⵉⵏ ⵄⵉⵙⵓ (1898–1997) ⴳ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.
"The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles, Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements.",ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴼⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴹⴼⵕ ⴰⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉ ⵜⵛⴰⵏⴷⵍⵕ ⴽⴰⵡⵍⵥ ⴷ ⴰⵕⵜⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⴷ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⴽⵍⵉⵎⵏⵜⵙ.
The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals.,ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵓⵕⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵜ V. ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ 1948 ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ.
"20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis, such as spectroscopy, chromatography and electrophoresis.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴱⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱⵉ, ⴰⴽⵔⵓⵎⴰⵜⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⴼⵓⵔⵉⵙⵉⵙ."
"These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in bioreactors to synthesise pesticides, antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals, as well as the practical application of genetically modified crops designed for traits such as improved yield.","ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵥⵥⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵥⵥⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵔⵢⴰⴽⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵙⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷⵏ, ⴰⵏⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵀⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ."
Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover phylogenetic relationships between plants.,ⵜⵔⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
"As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration.","ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵕⵥⵥⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⴰⵖⵔⵙⴰⵏ."
"Historically, all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
"""The strictest definition of """"plant"""" includes only the """"land plants"""" or embryophytes, which include seed plants (gymnosperms, including the pines, and flowering plants) and the free-sporing cryptogams including ferns, clubmosses, liverworts, hornworts and mosses.""","""ⵓⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ """"ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ"""" ⵢⵓⵎⵥ """"ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ"""" ⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ (ⵉⵊⵉⵎⵏⵓⵙⴱⵉⵔⵎⵏ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴳⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⴰⵏⵏ) ⴷ ⵉⴽⵔⵉⴱⵜⵓⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵙⴱⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ, ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰ, ⵉⵀⵓⵕⵏⵡⵓⵕⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵏ."""
"The sexual haploid phase of embryophytes, known as the gametophyte, nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life, even in the seed plants, where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte.","ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⴳⴰⵎⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵛⵜⵜⵛⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵖⵉⵜ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴹⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴱⵄⴷⴰ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵛⵜⵜⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵉⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵖⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ."
Palaeobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants.,ⴷⴰ ⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵖⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
This is what ecologists call the first trophic level.,ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ.
"Botanists also study weeds, which are a considerable problem in agriculture, and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems.","ⴷⴰ ⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ, ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ."
The light energy captured by chlorophyll a is initially in the form of electrons (and later a proton gradient) that's used to make molecules of ATP and NADPH which temporarily store and transport energy.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵓⴽⵍⵓⵕⵓⴼⵉⵍ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏⵏ (ⵖⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓⵏⵏ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵇⵛⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ATP ⴷ NADPH ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ.
Some of the glucose is converted to starch which is stored in the chloroplast.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵉⴽⵓⵥ ⵙ ⴰⴳⵯⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ.
"Unlike in animals (which lack chloroplasts), plants and their eukaryote relatives have delegated many biochemical roles to their chloroplasts, including synthesising all their fatty acids, and most amino acids.","ⴳⵜⵓⴳⴷⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ (ⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ), ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵥⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ."
"Vascular land plants make lignin, a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress.","ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵎⵕ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵉⴳⵉⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵊⵄⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵔⴷⵍⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⵍⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"Others, such as the essential oils peppermint oil and lemon oil are useful for their aroma, as flavourings and spices (e.g., capsaicin), and in medicine as pharmaceuticals as in opium from opium poppies.","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵄⵏⴰⵄ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵉⴹⴼⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⴰⵔ (ⴰⵎ ⵍⴽⴰⴱⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ), ⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵢⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵅⵛⵅⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵢⵓⵏ."
"For example, the pain killer aspirin is the acetyl ester of salicylic acid, originally isolated from the bark of willow trees, and a wide range of opiate painkillers like heroin are obtained by chemical modification of morphine obtained from the opium poppy.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵙⴱⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵃⵃⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⵉⵙⵉⵍⵉⴽ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴼⵚⴰⴼ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⴹⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴼⵙⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵃⵃⴰⴹ ⴰⴼⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵀⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵅⵛⵅⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵢⵓⵏ."
Native Americans have used various plants as ways of treating illness or disease for thousands of years.,ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵏⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ.
"Sugar, starch, cotton, linen, hemp, some types of rope, wood and particle boards, papyrus and paper, vegetable oils, wax, and natural rubber are examples of commercially important materials made from plant tissues or their secondary products.","ⵙⵙⴽⵔ, ⴰⴳⵯⵔⵏ, ⵍⵇⴹⵏ, ⵍⴽⵜⵜⴰⵏ, ⵍⵇⵏⵏⴱ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴰⴱⵔⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵔⵉⵇⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵛⵛⵎⵄ, ⴷ ⵍⴽⴰⵡⴰⵜⵛⵓ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏ."
"Products made from cellulose include rayon and cellophane, wallpaper paste, biobutanol and gun cotton.","ⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⵣ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵕⴰⵢⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵓⴼⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵍⵖⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⵉⵇⵉⵏ, ⴰⴱⵢⵓⴱⵉⵜⴰⵏⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵍⵇⴹⵏ."
Some ecologists even rely on empirical data from indigenous people that is gathered by ethnobotanists.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵏⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
Plants depend on certain edaphic (soil) and climatic factors in their environment but can modify these factors too.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵣⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ.
"They interact with their neighbours at a variety of spatial scales in groups, populations and communities that collectively constitute vegetation.",ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⵊⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴳⵍ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ.
Gregor Mendel discovered the genetic laws of inheritance by studying inherited traits such as shape in Pisum sativum (peas).,ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⴳⵔⵉⴳⵓⵔ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴳ ⴱⵉⵙⵓⵎ ⵙⴰⵜⵉⴼⵓⵎ (ⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⴰ).
"Nevertheless, there are some distinctive genetic differences between plants and other organisms.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra-specific crosses between wild species and their hybrids.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴷⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ.
In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals.,"ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵖⵉⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ."
The formation of stem tubers in potato is one example.,ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴱⴰⵟⴰⵟⴰ.
"Apomixis can also happen in a seed, producing a seed that contains an embryo genetically identical to the parent.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⴱⵓⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⴷ, ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ."
An allopolyploid plant may result from a hybridisation event between two different species.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴱⵓ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ.
"Some otherwise sterile plant polyploids can still reproduce vegetatively or by seed apomixis, forming clonal populations of identical individuals.","ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵍⵉⴱⵍⵡⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵣⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⴽⵙⵉⵎⵉⵙ, ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵍⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ."
Common dandelion is a triploid that produces viable seeds by apomictic seed.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⵉⵙⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⴱⵓ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵎⵉⵜⵉⴽ.
"The sequencing of some other relatively small genomes, of rice (Oryza sativa) and Brachypodium distachyon, has made them important model species for understanding the genetics, cellular and molecular biology of cereals, grasses and monocots generally.","ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ, ⵙⴳ ⵕⵕⵓⵣ (ⵓⵕⵉⵣⴰ ⵙⴰⵜⵉⴼⴰ) ⴷ ⵓⴱⵕⴰⵛⵉⴱⵓⴷⵢⵓⵎ ⴷⵉⵙⵜⴰⵛⵢⵓⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵓⴽⵓⵙⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
"Spinach, peas, soybeans and a moss Physcomitrella patens are commonly used to study plant cell biology.","ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵉⵏⴰⵛ, ⵜⴰⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴱⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴷⴷⵍ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ.
"Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be heritable, while others are reset in the germ cells.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵥⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ."
"Unlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the parenchyma, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⵓⵏⵛⵉⵎⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏⵜ ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵣⵎⵔⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ."
"The algae are a polyphyletic group and are placed in various divisions, some more closely related to plants than others.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
The Charophyte class Charophyceae and the land plant sub-kingdom Embryophyta together form the monophyletic group or clade Streptophytina.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵕⵓⴼⵢⵜ ⴰⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵕⵓⴼⵉⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵎⴱⵕⵢⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙⵜⵔⵉⵃⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏⴰ ⴽⵍⴰⴷ.
Pteridophytic vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free-living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late Silurian and early Devonian.,ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵀⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⴱⵜⵉⵔⵉⴷⵓⴼⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵍⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⵓⵕⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵓⵔⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷⵉⴼⵓⵏⵉⵢ.
"Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the spore-producing organs (megasporangia) of the sporophyte, a condition known as endospory.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵍⵖⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴳⵣⵍⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵥⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ (ⵎⵉⴳⴰⵙⴱⵓⵕⴰⵏⵊⵢⴰ) ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴷⵓⵙⴱⵓⵔⵉ."
The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷⵉⴼⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ.
"Chemicals obtained from the air, soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism.","ⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
"Heterotrophs including all animals, all fungi, all completely parasitic plants, and non-photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues.","ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ, ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⴰⵥⵉⵟⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵚⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"Subcellular transport of ions, electrons and molecules such as water and enzymes occurs across cell membranes.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⴰⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴰⵖⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⵏ, ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ."
"Examples of elements that plants need to transport are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.","ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵙⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵜⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⴰⴼⵓⵙⴼⵓⵕ, ⴰⴱⵓⵜⴰⵙⵢⵓⵎ, ⴰⴽⴰⵍⵙⵢⵓⵎ, ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⴰⵏⵉⵣⵢⵓⵎ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵍⴼⵓⵕ."
This compound mediates the tropic responses of shoots and roots towards light and gravity.,ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵕⵓⴱⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵉⵣⵖⴰ.
"The natural cytokinin zeatin was discovered in corn, Zea mays, and is a derivative of the purine adenine.","ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⵜⵓⴽⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵓⵕⵏ, ⵣⵢⴰ ⵎⴰⵢⵙ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ."
"They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy-breaking in seeds, in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵖⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵕⵓⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵣⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵎⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ."
It was so named because it was originally thought to control abscission.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵉⵄⴰⵢⴷ.
"Another class of phytohormones is the jasmonates, first isolated from the oil of Jasminum grandiflorum which regulates wound responses in plants by unblocking the expression of genes required in the systemic acquired resistance response to pathogen attack.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵓⵕⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵊⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏⴰⵜⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵙⵎⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴳⵔⴰⴷⵉⴼⵍⵓⵕⵉⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵄⵟⵟⵉⴱⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵄⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵏⴼ."
"Non-vascular plants, the liverworts, hornworts and mosses do not produce ground-penetrating vascular roots and most of the plant participates in photosynthesis.","ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ, ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰ, ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵀⵇⴰⵕⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵀⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ."
Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots.,ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴷⴷⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ.
"In the event that one of the systems is lost, the other can often regrow it.","ⵉⴳ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴳⵎ."
"In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots.","ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ, ⴰⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵍⵓⵡⵉⵎ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵡⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵖⴷⴷⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ."
Leaves gather sunlight and carry out photosynthesis.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ.
Angiosperms are seed-producing plants that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds.,ⵜⵉⵎⵖⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ.
"Some plants reproduce sexually, some asexually, and some via both means.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ."
Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy.,ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ.
"While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ."
"The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and administered by the International Botanical Congress.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ, ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ (ICN) ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
"The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus, resulting in a single worldwide name for each organism.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵓⴷⵔ."
The combination is the name of the species.,ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
The evolutionary relationships and heredity of a group of organisms is called its phylogeny.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"As an example, species of Pereskia are trees or bushes with prominent leaves.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵙⴽⵉⵢⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵯⵍⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ."
"Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care, since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵉⴱⴹⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵚⴽⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴷ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ."
"Only derived characters, such as the spine-producing areoles of cacti, provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor.","ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵉⵍ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⵔ."
"The difference is that the genetic code itself is used to decide evolutionary relationships, instead of being used indirectly via the characters it gives rise to.","ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵔⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ."
Genetic evidence suggests that the true evolutionary relationship of multicelled organisms is as shown in the cladogram below – fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ ⴽⵍⴰⴷⵓⴳⵔⴰⵎ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ – ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants.,ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ.
"Although humans have always been interested in the natural history of the animals they saw around them, and made use of this knowledge to domesticate certain species, the formal study of zoology can be said to have originated with Aristotle.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ, ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵜⴳⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ."
"Modern zoology has its origins during the Renaissance and early modern period, with Carl Linnaeus, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Robert Hooke, Charles Darwin, Gregor Mendel and many others.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⵢⵓⵙ, ⴰⵏⵜⵓⵏⵉ ⴼⴰⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏⵀⵓⴽ, ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵀⵓⴽ, ⵛⴰⵕⵍⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ, ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"There are cave paintings, engravings and sculptures in France dating back 15,000 years showing bison, horses and deer in carefully rendered detail.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ 15,000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵉⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ."
"Ancient knowledge of wildlife is illustrated by the realistic depictions of wild and domestic animals in the Near East, Mesopotamia and Egypt, including husbandry practices and techniques, hunting and fishing.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵎⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵢⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ."
"Aristotle, in the fourth century BC, looked at animals as living organisms, studying their structure, development and vital phenomena.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ, ⵉⵖⵔ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
"Four hundred years later, Roman physician Galen dissected animals to study their anatomy and the function of the different parts, because the dissection of human cadavers was prohibited at the time.","ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⴼⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵏⴼ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵔ ⵉⴼⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ."
"In Europe, Galen's work on anatomy remained largely unsurpassed and unchallenged up until the 16th century.","ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵎ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 16."
"Having previously been the realm of gentlemen naturalists, over the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline.","ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ 18, 19 ⴷ 20, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵜⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ."
"These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection; in this Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by explaining the processes by which it can occur, and providing observational evidence that it had done so.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴹ 1859 ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ; ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵕⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵕⵕⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Darwin gave a new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic evolution.","ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ: ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"An early necessity was to identify the organisms and group them according to their characteristics, differences and relationships, and this is the field of the taxonomist.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ."
His ideas were centered on the morphology of animals.,ⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴼⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ.
These groupings have since been revised to improve consistency with the Darwinian principle of common descent.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ.
"Homo is the genus, and sapiens the specific epithet, both of them combined make up the species name.","ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⴰⵙⴰⴱⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ."
The dominant classification system is called the Linnaean taxonomy.,ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ.
Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences.,ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ.
"It focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ."
"Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied.","ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ."
"For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, herpetology, or entomology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⵓⵔⴷⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ."
Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the evolution of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of natural selection.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
"While researchers practice techniques specific to molecular biology, it is common to combine these with methods from genetics and biochemistry.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜ."
"Biological systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time.","ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ."
"Phylogenetic trees of species and higher taxa are used to study the evolution of traits (e.g., anatomical or molecular characteristics) and the distribution of organisms (biogeography).","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵉⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ) ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ (ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵏⵜ)."
Biological systematics classifies species by using three specific branches.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"Experimental systematics identifies and classifies animals based on the evolutionary units that comprise a species, as well as their importance in evolution itself.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵜⵜⵉ ⵜⵎⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ."
Explaining the biodiversity of the planet and its organisms.,ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ.
Taxonomy is that part of Systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ (a) ⴰⵔ (d).
"However, in modern usage, they can all be considered synonyms of each other.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵏⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵏⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ."
"Some claim systematics alone deals specifically with relationships through time, and that it can be synonymous with phylogenetics, broadly dealing with the inferred hierarchy of organisms.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵙⵎⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ."
Scientific classifications are aids in recording and reporting information to other scientists and to laymen.,"ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵡⴹ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ."
"In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ, ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ."
"In addition, paleontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined.","ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵕⵓⵏⵓⵙⴱⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⴷⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⴰⵣ."
"""All species (except viruses) are given a two-part name, a """"binomial"""".""","""ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ (ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ) ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ, """"ⵎ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⴰⵡⵏ""""."""
"For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the genus Boa, with constrictor being the species's epithet.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴱⵡⴰ ⴽⵓⵏⵙⵜⵔⵉⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵡⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⴱⵓⵜⵜⵍ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ."
"Also, among organisms that reproduce only asexually, the concept of a reproductive species breaks down, and each clone is potentially a microspecies.","ⴰⵡⴷ, ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵇⵇⵓ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢ."
"Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed categories that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being.",ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 18 ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ.
That understanding was greatly extended in the 20th century through genetics and population ecology.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.
"Ernst Mayr emphasised reproductive isolation, but this, like other species concepts, is hard or even impossible to test.","ⵉⵕⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵢⵕ ⵢⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵎ."
"""This method was used as a """"classical"""" method of determining species, such as with Linnaeus early in evolutionary theory.""","""ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ """"ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ"""" ⵉ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⵎ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏⴰⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓ""ⵍⵓ."""
"As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that kinds of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by DNA-DNA hybridisation to decide if they belong to the same species or not.","ⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴳⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵢ, ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵛⵢⴰⵜⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ RNA ⴰⵕⵉⴱⵓⵣⵓⵎⵉ 16S ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 97% ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⵙⵏ ⵣⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎ ⵏ DNA-DNA ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵓⵀⵓ."
Modern approaches compare sequence similarity using computational methods.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵟⵟⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
"A database, Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD), contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ, ⴱⴰⵕⴽⵓⴷ ⵓⴼ ⵍⴰⵢⴼ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵉⵎ (BOLD), ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵙⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵕⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ DNA ⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 190,000 ⵏ ⵡⵏⴰⵡ."
"For example, in a study done on fungi, studying the nucleotide characters using cladistic species produced the most accurate results in recognising the numerous fungi species of all the concepts studied.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ, ⵜⵓⵡⵉ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⴽⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⴷⵉⵙⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ."
"""Yet others defend this approach, considering """"taxonomic inflation"""" pejorative and labelling the opposing view as """"taxonomic conservatism""""; claiming it is politically expedient to split species and recognise smaller populations at the species level, because this means they can more easily be included as endangered in the IUCN red list and can attract conservation legislation and funding.""","""ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ """"ⴰⴱⵣⵣⵓⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ"""" ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵓⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ """"ⵜⴰⵙⵃⴹⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ""""; ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵛⵛⴽ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵍⴷⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ."""
"If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet.","ⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵓⴱⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ."
"As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be corroborated or refuted.","ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵡⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴳⵉ."
"Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called splitting.","ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ."
The term quasispecies is sometimes used for rapidly mutating entities like viruses.,ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵣⵉⵙⴱⴱⵉⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ.
"In ring species, when members of adjacent populations in a widely continuous distribution range interbreed successfully but members of more distant populations do not.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵅⵕⵚⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵟⵟⵔⴼ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵄⵔⵇⵇⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ."
Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation.,ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵅⵕⵚⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ.
"Speciation depends on a measure of reproductive isolation, a reduced gene flow.","ⵢⵓⴳⵍ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ."
"Bacteria can exchange plasmids with bacteria of other species, including some apparently distantly related ones in different phylogenetic domains, making analysis of their relationships difficult, and weakening the concept of a bacterial species.","ⵜⵖⵉ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴱⵍⴰⵙⵎⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ."
"Mass extinctions had a variety of causes including volcanic activity, climate change, and changes in oceanic and atmospheric chemistry, and they in turn had major effects on Earth's ecology, atmosphere, land surface and waters.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵛⵛⴽⵉ ⴰⵎⴳⵔⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⴱⵓⵕⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵓ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
Some observers claim that there is an inherent conflict between the desire to understand the processes of speciation and the need to identify and to categorise.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ.
One of the classic cases in North America is that of the protected northern spotted owl which hybridises with the unprotected California spotted owl and the barred owl; this has led to legal debates.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵃⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵕⵇⵇⵟ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵃⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵕⵇⵇⵟ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵕⵏⵢⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵃⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵕⴰⵕⵜ; ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ.
"A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, the young inheriting any variations they might have from their parents.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵎⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
He established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.,ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ.
"Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in a radical departure from Aristotelian thinking.","ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵊⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵜⵉⵙⵜ ⵍⴰⵎⴰⵕⴽ, ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1809, ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴳ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ."
Genus (plural genera) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses.,ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ (ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ) ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙ!ⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵖⴰⵣ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ.
E.g. Panthera leo (lion) and Panthera onca (jaguar) are two species within the genus Panthera.,ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵉⵕⴰ ⵍⵢⵓ (ⵉⵣⵎ) ⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵉⵕⴰ ⵓⵏⴽⴰ (ⴰⴽⵙⵉⵍ) ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵉⵕⴰ.
"A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus, a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵀⵉⴱⵉⵙⴽⵓⵙ ⴰⵕⵏⵓⵜⵢⴰⵏⵓⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵢⵉⵙⴽ ⵎⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵀⴰⵡⴰⵢ."
"""Available names are those published in accordance with the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and not otherwise suppressed by subsequent decisions of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN); the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the """"valid"""" (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question.""","""ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⴰⵎⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ (ICZN); ⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ) ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎ """"ⵉⵙⵖⵣⵏⵏ"""" (ⵏⵖⴷ, ⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰ) ⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ."""
"In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ (ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵅⴰⵙ) ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
A name that means two different things is a homonym.,ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ.
"However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ) ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles, which have about 1180 genera, the most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⵓⵔⴷⵏ (ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1180 ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ (>300) ⴷⵉⴳⵙ 1 ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷⴰⵢ, ~360 ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵏ 2 ⴷ 4 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, 260 ⴷⵉⴳⵙ 5–10 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ~200 ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ 11–50 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴷ 27 ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 50 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ."
Which species are assigned to a genus is somewhat arbitrary.,ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵜⵜⴼ.
What belongs to a family—or if a described family should be recognized at all—are proposed and determined by practicing taxonomists.,ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ—ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ—ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ.
"Often there is no exact agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position.","ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵣ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵅⵓⵍⴼⵏ."
Michael Novacek (1986) inserted them at the same position.,ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⵏⵓⴼⴰⵙⴽ (1986) ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ.
"There are no objective rules for describing a class, but for well-known animals there is likely to be consensus.","ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ."
"In botany, classes are now rarely discussed.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏⵏ."
"Informally, phyla can be thought of as groupings of organisms based on general specialization of body plan.","ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷⵜ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ."
So phyla can be merged or split if it becomes apparent that they are related to one another or not.,ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⵉⵙ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵀⵓ.
"By Budd and Jensen's definition, a phylum is defined by a set of characters shared by all its living representatives.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵏⵙⵏⵙ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ."
"However, as it is character based, it is easy to apply to the fossil record.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ, ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣ."
"However, proving that a fossil belongs to the crown group of a phylum is difficult, as it must display a character unique to a sub-set of the crown group.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵜⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵓⵎ, ⴳ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵓⵎ."
"""The table below follows the influential (though contentious) Cavalier-Smith system in equating """"Plantae"""" with Archaeplastida, a group containing Viridiplantae and the algal Rhodophyta and Glaucophyta divisions.""","""ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⴰⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵓⵚ (ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴰⵏ) ⵏ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵢⵉ-ⵙⵎⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵙⵍ ⵏ """"ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰ"""" ⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⴰⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴼⵉⵔⵉⴷⵉⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵓⴹⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴳⵍⵓⴽⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ."""
"The division Pinophyta may be used for all gymnosperms (i.e. including cycads, ginkgos and gnetophytes), or for conifers alone as below.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵎ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵍⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴽⴰⴷⵙⵏ, ⴳⵉⵏⴽⴳⵓⵙ ⴷ ⴳⵏⵉⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜⵙ), ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵃⴷⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴷ."
"Protista is a polyphyletic taxon, which is less acceptable to present-day biologists than in the past.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ."
"Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) laid the foundations for modern biological nomenclature, now regulated by the Nomenclature Codes, in 1735.","ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⵢⵓⵙ (1707–1778) ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ, ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1735."
"""In 1937 Édouard Chatton introduced the terms """"prokaryote"""" and """"eukaryote"""" to differentiate these organisms.""","""ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1937, ⵉⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⵛⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ """"ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ"""" ⴷ """"ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ"""" ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ."""
Robert Whittaker recognized an additional kingdom for the Fungi.,ⵉⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵡⵉⵜⴰⴽⵕ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ.
"The remaining two kingdoms, Protista and Monera, included unicellular and simple cellular colonies.","ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵕⴰ, ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ."
"In other systems, such as Lynn Margulis's system of five kingdoms, the plants included just the land plants (Embryophyta), and Protoctista has a broader definition.","ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⴳⵓⵍⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ (ⵓⵎⴱⵕⵢⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ), ⴷ ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓⴽⵜⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ."
Technological advances in electron microscopy allowed the separation of the Chromista from the Plantae kingdom.,ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰⵢ.
"Finally, some protists lacking mitochondria were discovered.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⵓⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉ."
"This superkingdom was opposed to the Metakaryota superkingdom, grouping together the five other eukaryotic kingdoms (Animalia, Protozoa, Fungi, Plantae and Chromista).","ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⵢⵓⵜⴰ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ (ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵢⴰ, ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓⵣⵡⴰ, ⴼⵓⵏⴳⵉ, ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵛⵔⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜⴰ)."
Cavalier-Smith no longer accepted the importance of the fundamental Eubacteria–Archaebacteria divide put forward by Woese and others and supported by recent research.,ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵢⵉⵔ-ⵙⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵓⴱⴰⵛⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ–ⴰⵔⵛⴰⵢⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵡⵓⵢⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵜⵜⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵡⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ.
"""Cavalier-Smith does not accept the requirement for taxa to be monophyletic (""""holophyletic"""" in his terminology) to be valid.""","""ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵢⵉⵔ-ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵜ ⴰⵛⵔⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴱⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ (""""ⵀⵓⵍⵓⴼⵉⵍⵜⵉⴽ"""" ⴳ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ) ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵣⵏ."""
"The advances of phylogenetic studies allowed Cavalier-Smith to realize that all the phyla thought to be archezoans (i.e. primitively amitochondriate eukaryotes) had in fact secondarily lost their mitochondria, typically by transforming them into new organelles: Hydrogenosomes.","ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵢⵉⵔ-ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵓⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⵜⵏ) ⵜⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⵓⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ: ⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵙⵓⵎⵙ."
"""Based on such RNA studies, Carl Woese thought life could be divided into three large divisions and referred to them as the """"three primary kingdom"""" model or """"urkingdom"""" model.""","ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵔⵉⴱⵉⵢ RNA, ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵡⵓⵥ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ, """"ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ"""" ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ """"ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ""""."""
"Woese divided the prokaryotes (previously classified as the Kingdom Monera) into two groups, called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, stressing that there was as much genetic difference between these two groups as between either of them and all eukaryotes.","ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵡⵓⵥ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵕⴰ) ⵅⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⴰⵢⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ."
"""They held that only monophyletic groups should be accepted as formal ranks in a classification and that – while this approach had been impractical previously (necessitating """"literally dozens of eukaryotic 'kingdoms) – it had now become possible to divide the eukaryotes into """"just a few major groups that are probably all monophyletic"""".""","""ⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ– ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ (ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵖⵏ """"ⵉⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ) – ⵉⵖⵢ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ """"ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ""""."""
"""It divided the eukaryotes into the same six """"supergroups"""".""","""ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ """"ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ""""."""
Plants are thought to be more distantly related to animals and fungi.,ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ.
The ten arguments against include the fact that they are obligate intracellular parasites that lack metabolism and are not capable of replication outside of a host cell.,ⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵕⴰⵥⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵛⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉⵏ.
"The first two are all prokaryotic microorganisms, or mostly single-celled organisms whose cells have a distorted or non-membrane bound nucleus.","ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵎⵉⵉⴼⵔⵖ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵣⴷⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵜ."
"Halophiles, organisms that thrive in highly salty environments, and hyperthermophiles, organisms that thrive in extremely hot environments, are examples of Archaea.","ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⴰⵍⵓⴼⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵖⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵢⴰ."
Cyanobacteria and mycoplasmas are two examples of bacteria.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵏⵊⴰⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⵓⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ.
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.,ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴹⴼⴰⵔⵏ.
"Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection (including sexual selection) and genetic drift act on this variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more common or rare within a population.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ (ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ) ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
The scientific theory of evolution by natural selection was conceived independently by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the mid-19th century and was set out in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵕⴰⵙⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵚ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 19 ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
"Thus, in successive generations members of a population are more likely to be replaced by the progenies of parents with favourable characteristics that have enabled them to survive and reproduce in their respective environments.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵙⵏ."
"The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, to fossilised multicellular organisms.","ⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ, ⵙ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱⵉⵢ, ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ."
It sought explanations of natural phenomena in terms of physical laws that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order.,ⵉⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵕⴱⴱⴰⵏⵉⵢ.
"The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognised the hierarchical nature of species relationships, but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan.","ⵉⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⵢⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1735 ⵙ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵕⴱⴱⵉ."
These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support.,ⵜⵜⵓⵏⴽⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ.
"""Partly influenced by An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) by Thomas Robert Malthus, Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a """"struggle for existence"""" in which favourable variations prevailed as others perished.""","""ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚ ⵛⵡⵉⵢⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⵥⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ (1798) ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵍⵜⵓⵙ, ⵉⵙⵏⵄⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ """"ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ"""" ⴳ ⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."""
"""Darwin developed his theory of """"natural selection"""" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his """"big book"""" on the subject when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858.""","""ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ """"ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ"""" ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1838 ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵓ """"ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ"""" ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⵣⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵕⴰⵙⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1858."""
"Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis.","ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵟⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ."
"To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries.","ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴷⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵅⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵟⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙ."
The publication of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick with contribution of Rosalind Franklin in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance.,ⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1953 ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ.
"""In 1973, evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky penned that """"nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution,"""" because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent explanatory body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet.""","""ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1973, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⴷⵓⵙⵢⵓⵙ ⴷⵓⴱⵣⴰⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ """"ⴰⵡⴷ ⵃⴰⵃ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ,"""" ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵥⵕ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."""
The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its phenotype.,ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵥⵕ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ.
"For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children.","ⵙⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵢⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵓⵏⵣⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ; ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵓⵣⵏⵣⵍ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ."
DNA is a long biopolymer composed of four types of bases.,ⴰⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵢⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⵎⵔ ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ.
Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes; different genes have different sequences of bases.,ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵇⵛⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ DNA ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ; ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵙⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ.
"If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles.","ⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ."
"However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by quantitative trait loci (multiple interacting genes).","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵎⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ (ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ)."
"DNA methylation marking chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by RNA interference and the three-dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level.","ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ DNA ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵅⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵀⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵓⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ RNA ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⵢⵓⵏⵏ) ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ."
"For example, ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is identical in all individuals of that species.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ."
A substantial part of the phenotypic variation in a population is caused by genotypic variation.,ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ.
Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of fixation—when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely.,ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵛⴽⴰ ⵉⵖ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵣⵣⴳⵓ—ⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴹⵕ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ.
"When mutations occur, they may alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning, or have no effect.","ⵉⴳ ⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵙⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ."
Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve.,ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⵖⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ.
New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function.,ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ.
"The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated, with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
"Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles.","ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳ ⴰⵙⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ."
The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young.,"ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵙⵢ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵏ."
Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms.,"ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ."
Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer.,ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ.
Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean weevil Callosobruchus chinensis has occurred.,ⵉⵊⵕⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵛⴰⵕⵓⵎⵉⵙⵉⵣ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴼⵉⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷⵣⵓⴽⵉ ⴽⴰⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵕⵓⵛⵓⵙ ⵛⵉⵏⵉⵏⵙⵉⵙ.
Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness).,ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵜ (ⴰⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ).
"Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on their traits to the next generation than those with traits that do not confer an advantage.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ."
The central concept of natural selection is the evolutionary fitness of an organism.,ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ.
"For example, if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵡ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⴼⵕⵕⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵣⵏ."
Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased fecundity.,ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ.
"However, even if the direction of selection does reverse in this way, traits that were lost in the past may not re-evolve in an identical form (see Dollo's law).","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴷⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵡⵉⵜ (ⵥⵕ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵓ)."
"The first is directional selection, which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time—for example, organisms slowly getting taller.","ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵏⵉⴷⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ—ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ."
"Finally, in stabilising selection there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in variance around the average value and less diversity.","ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵟⵟⵓⵕⴼⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ."
"This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection.",ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
"However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation).","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵣ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ (ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ)."
A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a haplotype.,ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ.
"This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population or replacing the other alleles entirely.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵏⵏⵅⵜⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵣⴳⴰ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵛⴽⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ."
The neutral theory of molecular evolution proposed that most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of neutral mutations by genetic drift.,ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⵅⵜⵎ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ.
"However, a more recent and better-supported version of this model is the nearly neutral theory, where a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵕⵡⵉ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
"The number of individuals in a population is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size.","ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵣⵖⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵕⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
The presence or absence of gene flow fundamentally changes the course of evolution.,ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ.
"This opposing-pressures argument was long used to dismiss the possibility of internal tendencies in evolution, until the molecular era prompted renewed interest in neutral evolution.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴼ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴽⵉ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵙⵍⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏ."
"For instance, mutation biases are frequently invoked in models of codon usage.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⴷⵓⵏ."
Different insertion vs. deletion biases in different taxa can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes.,ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ.
Contemporary thinking about the role of mutation biases reflects a different theory from that of Haldane and Fisher.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵛⵉⵔ.
"Organisms can also respond to selection by cooperating with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial symbiosis.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⴷⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ."
"Macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, in particular speciation and extinction; whereas microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes within a species or population, in particular shifts in allele frequency and adaptation.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⴰⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵛⵛⴽⵉ; ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵎⴹⴼⵕ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ."
"However, in macroevolution, the traits of the entire species may be important.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏⵜ."
"""A common misconception is that evolution has goals, long-term plans, or an innate tendency for """"progress"""", as expressed in beliefs such as orthogenesis and evolutionism; realistically however, evolution has no long-term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity.""","""ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ """"ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ"""", ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ; ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ."""
"Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival.","ⴰⵡⴷ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⵜ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ."
An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵜ.
"Other striking examples are the bacteria Escherichia coli evolving the ability to use citric acid as a nutrient in a long-term laboratory experiment, Flavobacterium evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by-products of nylon manufacturing, and the soil bacterium Sphingobium evolving an entirely new metabolic pathway that degrades the synthetic pesticide pentachlorophenol.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ, ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵉⵛⵢⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵔⵉⴽ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵜⵛⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⴰⴽⵯⴰⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⴼⵓⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵢⵍⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⴼⵉⵏⴳⵓⴱⵢⵓⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵏⵜⴰⴽⵍⵓⵔⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵉⵙⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵓⴼⵜ."
"Consequently, structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ."
"However, since all living organisms are related to some extent, even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such as arthropod, squid and vertebrate eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function; this is called deep homology.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵕⵜⵕⵓⴱⵓⴷⵏ, ⵉⵙⴽⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵜⵕⵓⴱⵓⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵏⴷⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ; ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴻⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵄⵓⴱⵏ."
"Examples include pseudogenes, the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish, wings in flightless birds, the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes, and sexual traits in organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction.","ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵙⵓⴷⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵄⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵖⵔⵉⵡⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵡⵙⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ."
"One example is the African lizard Holaspis guentheri, which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵇⵇⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵜ ⵀⵓⵍⴰⵙⴱⵉⵙ ⴳⵉⵏⵜⵓⵔⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⴰⵎⵣⵓⵔ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴼⴼⵔ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵅⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵏⵉⵥⵉⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵖⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
Another example is the recruitment of enzymes from glycolysis and xenobiotic metabolism to serve as structural proteins called crystallins within the lenses of organisms' eyes.,ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵔⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴽⵯⵕ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵉⵚⵟⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵍⵉⵏⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ.
"These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the middle ear in mammals.","ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵙⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴳⵊⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⵓⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ."
"These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first species.","ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ."
"For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the mycorrhizal fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⵎⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved.,ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ.
"Here, somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow, remain as they are, or die.","ⵖⵉⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⴰⴷⵎⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜ."
"""There are multiple ways to define the concept of """"species.""""""","""ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴽⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ """"ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ."""""""
"Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ: ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ, ⴰⵢⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ."
"Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like others is not without controversy, for example because these concepts cannot be applied to prokaryotes, and this is called the species problem.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵉⴳⴰ BSC ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new genetic variants also to the other populations.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵥⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⴰⵇⵇⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⵜⵉⵏ."
Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory conditions (see laboratory experiments of speciation) and in nature.,ⵉⵜⵡⴰⴽⵣ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ (ⵥⵕ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⵯⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ) ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ.
"The most common in animals is allopatric speciation, which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by habitat fragmentation or migration.","ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵍⵓⴱⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵓⵖⵕⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵓⵖⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ."
"The second mode of speciation is peripatric speciation, which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment.","ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ."
The third mode is parapatric speciation.,ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵔⵡⵉⵙ.
Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species' habitat.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ.
"Selection against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal-resistant plants, which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation.","ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵇⴷⴷⴰⵃ ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵇⴷⴷⴰⵃ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⴷ."
This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population.,ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴽⴽⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.
This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile.,ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵢⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ.
"This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis, since each parent's chromosomes are represented by a pair already.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⵓⵣ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰ."
"Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵏⵓⴹⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵣⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴹⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⵓⴹⵏ."
"Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct, and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species.","ⵯⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⵛⴽⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵛⵛⴽⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
"Despite the estimated extinction of more than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, about 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⵉⵛⵛⴽⵉ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 99 ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1 ⵜⵔⵉⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⴼⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ."
"The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵣⵏ ⵉ 3.5 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵢⴰⵕⵛⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵕⴰ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵀⴰⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵉⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ."
"""Commenting on the Australian findings, Stephen Blair Hedges wrote, """"If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe.""""""","""ⴷ ⴰⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⴱⵍⵉⵕ ⵀⵉⴷⴳⵙ, """"ⵉⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵙⵄ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⵖ ⵉⵖⵣⵔ."""""""
"Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date, leaving at least 80 percent not yet described.","ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵓⴳⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ 10 ⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ 14 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1.9 ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ 1.6 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ 80 ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ."
"The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ: ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
"Fourth, organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups, similar to a family tree.","ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ, ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏ, ⵟⵟⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ."
This view dates back to an idea briefly mentioned by Darwin but later abandoned.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ.
"By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, palaeontologists can infer the lineages of those species.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵛⵛⴽⴰⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ."
"More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ."
The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 and 2.7 billion years ago.,ⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ 1.6 ⴷ 2.7 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.
Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.,ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⵓⵚⵕⴰⴹ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
"In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.","ⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵔ 2016, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 800 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ GK-PID ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴱⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ."
"Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis.","ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⵎⴱⴰⵔⵉⵢ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ."
Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms.,ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵅⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ.
Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for example modified enzymes and new antibodies) in a process called directed evolution.,ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ) ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵡⴰⴷⵙ.
"Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves.","ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵓⴽⴰⴹ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴹⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵣⵎⵔⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ."
It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵕⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵥⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵄⵓⴱⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
He used evolution strategies to solve complex engineering problems.,ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵜⵕⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵡⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ.
"In some countries, notably the United States, these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation–evolution controversy, a religious conflict focusing on politics and public education.","ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵓⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵢⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ."
"The Scopes Trial decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation, but it was gradually re-introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968 Epperson v. Arkansas decision.","ⵜⵙⵎⵏⵜⵍ ⵜⵖⵜⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵚⵉⵔⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵙⴽⵓⴱⵙ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1925 ⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵢⴱⵔⵙⵓⵏ v. ⴰⵕⴽⴰⵏⵙⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1968."
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype.,ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ.
Variation exists within all populations of organisms.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ.
"The environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell, other cells, other individuals, populations, species, as well as the abiotic environment.","ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ."
Natural selection is a cornerstone of modern biology.,ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵥⵕⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.
"The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, science had yet to develop modern theories of genetics.","ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⵚⵃⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ."
"The classical arguments were reintroduced in the 18th century by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and others, including Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin.","ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 18 ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴱⵢⵉⵔ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⵎⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴱⴱⴰⵃⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵕⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ."
"The success of this theory raised awareness of the vast scale of geological time and made plausible the idea that tiny, virtually imperceptible changes in successive generations could produce consequences on the scale of differences between species.",ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴷⵊ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵃⴹⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
"""He was in the process of writing his """"big book"""" to present his research when the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace independently conceived of the principle and described it in an essay he sent to Darwin to forward to Charles Lyell.""","""ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰ """"ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ"""" ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵕⴰⵙⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵣⵏ ⵉ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵢⴰⵣⵏ ⵉ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⵍⵉⵍ."""
"In the 3rd edition of 1861 Darwin acknowledged that others—like William Charles Wells in 1813, and Patrick Matthew in 1831—had proposed similar ideas, but had neither developed them nor presented them in notable scientific publications.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 3 ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1861 ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ—ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⵡⵉⵍⵍ ⴳ 1813, ⴷ ⵃⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽ ⵎⴰⵜⵢⵓ ⴳ 1831—ⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⵙⵏⴽⵉⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ."
"""In a letter to Charles Lyell in September 1860, Darwin regretted the use of the term """"Natural Selection"""", preferring the term """"Natural Preservation"""".""","""ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⵍⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵛⵓⵏⴰⵜⴱⵉⵔ 1860, ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ """"ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ"""", ⵢⴰⴼ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ """"ⴰⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ""""."""
"""However, natural selection remained controversial as a mechanism, partly because it was perceived to be too weak to explain the range of observed characteristics of living organisms, and partly because even supporters of evolution balked at its """"unguided"""" and non-progressive nature, a response that has been characterised as the single most significant impediment to the idea's acceptance.""","""ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ """"ⴰⵔⴰⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ"""" ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵡⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⴽⴽⵛⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ."""
"With the early 20th century integration of evolution with Mendel's laws of inheritance, the so-called modern synthesis, scientists generally came to accept natural selection.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"""J. B. S. Haldane introduced the concept of the """"cost"""" of natural selection.""","""ⵉⵙⵏⴽⴷ J. B. S. ⵀⴰⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ """"ⴰⵜⵉⴳ"""" ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ."""
"""However, natural selection is """"blind"""" in the sense that changes in phenotype can give a reproductive advantage regardless of whether or not the trait is heritable.""","""ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵀⴰⵜ """"ⵉⵄⵎⴰ"""" ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴽⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵜ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵎⵉⴷ ⵓⵀⵓ."""
"If the traits that give these individuals a reproductive advantage are also heritable, that is, passed from parent to offspring, then there will be differential reproduction, that is, a slightly higher proportion of fast rabbits or efficient algae in the next generation.","ⵉⵖ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⴰⵍ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ."
"This gives the appearance of purpose, but in natural selection there is no intentional choice.","ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵅⴰⵙ."
"This gave dark-coloured moths a better chance of surviving to produce dark-coloured offspring, and in just fifty years from the first dark moth being caught, nearly all of the moths in industrial Manchester were dark.","ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴼⴽⵉⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵎⵉ ⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵎⵔ ⵓⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙⵜⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
"If an organism lives half as long as others of its species, but has twice as many offspring surviving to adulthood, its genes become more common in the adult population of the next generation.","ⵉⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⴰⴳ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ."
"""A distinction must be made between the concept of """"survival of the fittest"""" and """"improvement in fitness"""". """"""","ⵉⵅⵙⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⵉⵔⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ """" ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵚⵍⵃⵏ """" ⴷ """""" ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵙⵙⵉ""""""."
"""Haldane called this process """"substitution"""" or more commonly in biology, this is called """"fixation"""".""","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵀⴰⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ """" ⴰⵎⵙⴱⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍ """" ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ """"ⴰⵙⵜⵜⵎⵔ""""."
The probability of a beneficial mutation occurring on some member of a population depends on the total number of replications of that variant.,ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴹⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⴰⴷ.
"""In this experiment, """"improvement in fitness"""" depends on the number of replications of the particular variant for a new variant to appear that is capable of growing in the next higher drug concentration region.""","""ⴳ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⴷ, """"ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ"""" ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⵍⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ."""
"""Richard Lenski's classic E. coli long-term evolution experiment is an example of adaptation in a competitive environment, (""""improvement in fitness"""" during """"survival of the fittest"""").""","""ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ E. ⴽⵓⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵕⵉⵛⴰⵕⴷ ⵍⵉⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ, (""""ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ"""" ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ """"ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ"""")."""
"The uncommon disruptive selection also acts during transition periods when the current mode is sub-optimal, but alters the trait in more than one direction.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵜⵢ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵔⵙⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ."
"Some biologists recognise just two types: viability (or survival) selection, which acts to increase an organism's probability of survival, and fecundity (or fertility or reproductive) selection, which acts to increase the rate of reproduction, given survival.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ: ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ (ⵉⵇⵉⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵍⵙⵉ (ⵜⵉⴱⵍⵙⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵉⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ."
"In kin selection and intragenomic conflict, gene-level selection provides a more apt explanation of the underlying process.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ."
"Ecological selection is natural selection via any means other than sexual selection, such as kin selection, competition, and infanticide.","ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵖⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵅ."
"However, in some species, mate choice is primarily by males, as in some fishes of the family Syngnathidae.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⵖⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵏⴳⵏⴰⴷⵉⴷⴰⵜⵏ."
"Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928, antibiotics have been used to fight bacterial diseases.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵏⵉⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1928, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ."
"Genetic variation is the result of mutations, genetic recombinations and alterations in the karyotype (the number, shape, size and internal arrangement of the chromosomes).","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ, ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ (ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵖⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵯⵏⵙ)."
"However, many mutations in non-coding DNA have deleterious effects.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵏⴰⴳⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ."
Changes in these often have large effects on the phenotype of the individual because they regulate the function of many other genes.,ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"When such mutations result in a higher fitness, natural selection favours these phenotypes and the novel trait spreads in the population.","ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ."
"However, it is intrinsic to the concept of a species that hybrids are selected against, opposing the evolution of reproductive isolation, a problem that was recognised by Darwin.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵉ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵇⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ."
Phenotype is determined by an organism's genetic make-up (genotype) and the environment in which the organism lives.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ (ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ) ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ.
"An example is the ABO blood type antigens in humans, where three alleles govern the phenotype.","ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ABO ⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ."
This process can continue until the allele is fixed and the entire population shares the fitter phenotype.,ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⴽⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ.
"Stabilizing selection conserves functional genetic features, such as protein-coding genes or regulatory sequences, over time by selective pressure against deleterious variants.","ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵜⵎⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵇⵇⵉⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⵕⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵍⴷ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ."
"Some forms of balancing selection do not result in fixation, but maintain an allele at intermediate frequencies in a population.","ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⵜⵎⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ."
"Maintenance of allelic variation can also occur through disruptive or diversifying selection, which favours genotypes that depart from the average in either direction (that is, the opposite of over-dominance), and can result in a bimodal distribution of trait values.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵃⵢⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵍⵍⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ), ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ."
"However, after a period with no new mutations, the genetic variation at these sites is eliminated due to genetic drift.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ."
"The exact outcome of the two processes depends both on the rate at which new mutations occur and on the strength of the natural selection, which is a function of how unfavourable the mutation proves to be.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ."
The chance that such a reshuffle occurs between two alleles is inversely related to the distance between them.,ⴰⵣⵎⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵅⴰⵍⴰⴼ.
A strong selective sweep results in a region of the genome where the positively selected haplotype (the allele and its neighbours) are in essence the only ones that exist in the population.,ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ (ⴰⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⵊⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ) ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.
Background selection is the opposite of a selective sweep.,ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⴽⵕⵓⵡⵏⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢ.
"""In the words of the philosopher Daniel Dennett, """"Darwin's dangerous idea"""" of evolution by natural selection is a """"universal acid,"""" which cannot be kept restricted to any vessel or container, as it soon leaks out, working its way into ever-wider surroundings.""","""ⵏⵉⵍ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴼ ⴷⴰⵏⵢⵉⵍ ⴷⵉⵏⵉⵜⵜ, """"ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ"""" ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ """"ⴰⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ,"""" ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ ⵉⵏⵏⵖⵍ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."""
"These conditions are: heritability, variation of type, and competition for limited resources.","ⵜⵉⴼⵉⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ: ⴰⵙⵓⴽⴽⵙ, ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ."
"Herbert Spencer and the eugenics advocate Francis Galton's interpretation of natural selection as necessarily progressive, leading to supposed advances in intelligence and civilisation, became a justification for colonialism, eugenics, and social Darwinism.","ⵉⵎⵣⵖ ⵀⵉⵕⴱⵔⵜ ⵙⵃⴰⵏⵙⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵣⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵍⵜⵓⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⵓⵍⵍⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ, ⵢⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵄⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵢ, ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⴽⵙ, ⵜⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ."
"""The racial idea as the basis of our state has already accomplished much in this respect.""""""","""ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ."""""""
"The most prominent example of evolutionary psychology, notably advanced in the early work of Noam Chomsky and later by Steven Pinker, is the hypothesis that the human brain has adapted to acquire the grammatical rules of natural language.","ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵄⵓⵎ ⵛⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉ ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵙ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⴽⵔ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴳⵎ ⵜⴰⵊⵕⵕⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ."
"""He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete """"units of inheritance"""".""","""ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ (ⵜⴰⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⵜ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴽⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ """"ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ""""."""
"Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism (e.g. dominance), and within the context of a population.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⴱⴹ) ⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
"Genetic processes work in combination with an organism's environment and experiences to influence development and behavior, often referred to as nature versus nurture.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵟⵟⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ."
"The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, began with the work of the Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century.","ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵀⵀⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⵚⵟⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴳⵕⵉⴳⵓⵕ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 19."
His second law is the same as what Mendel published.,ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ.
"A popular theory during the 19th century, and implied by Charles Darwin's 1859 On the Origin of Species, was blending inheritance: the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents.","ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⵜ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1859 ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵡⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ: ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵉⵡⵀⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"""In his paper """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""""), presented in 1865 to the Naturforschender Verein (Society for Research in Nature) in Brünn, Mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically.""","""ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ""""), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1865 ⵉ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴼⵓⵕⵛⵓⵏⴷⵔ ⴼⵉⵔⵢⵉⵏ (ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ) ⴳ ⴱⵕⵓⵏ, ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."""
"""William Bateson, a proponent of Mendel's work, coined the word genetics in 1905 (the adjective genetic, derived from the Greek word genesis—γένεσις, """"origin"""", predates the noun and was first used in a biological sense in 1860).""","""ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⴱⴰⵜⵙⵓⵏ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ, ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1905 (ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ—γένεσις, """"ⴰⵥⵓⵕ"""", ⵜⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1860)."""
"Over the next 11 years, she discovered that females only had the X chromosome and males had both X and Y chromosomes.","ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ 11 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ X ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ X ⴷ Y."
"James Watson and Francis Crick determined the structure of DNA in 1953, using the X-ray crystallography work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins that indicated DNA has a helical structure (i.e., shaped like a corkscrew).","ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⵉⵙ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ DNA ⴳ 1953, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏⴷⴰ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵔⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵍⴽⵉⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ DNA ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵍⴰⵍⵜ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜ)."
"The structure also suggested a simple method for replication: if the strands are separated, new partner strands can be reconstructed for each based on the sequence of the old strand.","ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ: ⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ."
"In the following years, scientists tried to understand how DNA controls the process of protein production.","ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴰⴹ DNA ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
With the newfound molecular understanding of inheritance came an explosion of research.,"ⵉⵊⵕⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ, ⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ."
One important development was chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏDNA ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1977 ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⵙⴰⵏⵊⵉⵔ.
"In his experiments studying the trait for flower color, Mendel observed that the flowers of each pea plant were either purple or white—but never an intermediate between the two colors.",ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵇⵇⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ—ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ.
"Many species, including humans, have this pattern of inheritance.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ."
"When organisms are heterozygous at a gene, often one allele is called dominant as its qualities dominate the phenotype of the organism, while the other allele is called recessive as its qualities recede and are not observed.","ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⵏⴱⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⴱⴹⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴳⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏⵜ."
"""Often a """"+"""" symbol is used to mark the usual, non-mutant allele for a gene.""","""ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ """"+"""" ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ """
One of the common diagrams used to predict the result of cross-breeding is the Punnett square.,ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵏⵟ.
"Some genes do not assort independently, demonstrating genetic linkage, a topic discussed later in this article.)","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵜ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⵓⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ.)"
"Another gene, however, controls whether the flowers have color at all or are white.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵏⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵍⵓⵏ ⵎⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ."
Many traits are not discrete features (e.g. purple or white flowers) but are instead continuous features (e.g. human height and skin color).,ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵊⵏⵊⴰⵕⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ) ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⴰⵏ.)
The degree to which an organism's genes contribute to a complex trait is called heritability.,ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⵙⵜ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵙⴰ.
"DNA is composed of a chain of nucleotides, of which there are four types: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⴽⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ : ⴰⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ (A), ⵙⵉⵜⵓⵣⵉⵏ (C), ⴳⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ (G), ⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⵎⵉⵏ (T)."
"Viruses cannot reproduce without a host and are unaffected by many genetic processes, so tend not to be considered living organisms.","ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵔⵡⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵏⴳ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance: DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand.,ⴰⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ : ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ.
"These DNA strands are often extremely long; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million base pairs in length.","ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ 247 ⵏⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⵉⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ."
"DNA is most often found in the nucleus of cells, but Ruth Sager helped in the discovery of nonchromosomal genes found outside of the nucleus.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵕⵓⵟ ⵚⴰⵊⵉⵕ ⵜⵓⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴰⵣⵓⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ."
"While haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are diploid, containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene.","ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ."
"In humans and many other animals, the Y chromosome contains the gene that triggers the development of the specifically male characteristics.","ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ Y ⴰⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵊⵉⵎⵓⵎ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ."
"This process, called mitosis, is the simplest form of reproduction and is the basis for asexual reproduction.","ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏⵜ."
Eukaryotic organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⵓⵔⴽⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ.
"Some bacteria can undergo conjugation, transferring a small circular piece of DNA to another bacterium.","ⵜⵖⵢ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⴰⵎ, ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵢ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵇⵛⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
In this way new combinations of genes can occur in the offspring of a mating pair.,"ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ."
"During crossover, chromosomes exchange stretches of DNA, effectively shuffling the gene alleles between the chromosomes.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ."
The first cytological demonstration of crossing over was performed by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in 1931.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵕⵢⵉⵜ ⴽⵕⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵕⴱⴰⵕⴰ ⵎⴽⵍⵉⵏⵟⵓⴽ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1931.
"For an arbitrarily long distance, the probability of crossover is high enough that the inheritance of the genes is effectively uncorrelated.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵉⵍⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵎⵇⵡⵉ."
"The specific sequence of amino acids results in a unique three-dimensional structure for that protein, and the three-dimensional structures of proteins are related to their functions.","ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵎ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
"Protein structure is dynamic; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood.",ⴰⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽⵉ; ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⵏⵏⵓ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵀⵉⵎⵓⴳⵍⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵛⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵢⵉⴼⴼⴰⵏ.
"For example, sickle-cell anemia is a human genetic disease that results from a single base difference within the coding region for the β-globin section of hemoglobin, causing a single amino acid change that changes hemoglobin's physical properties.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵍⴰⵏⴻⵎⴻ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⵓⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴴⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵍⴰ ⴱⵢⵜⴰ ⴳⵍⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵎⵓⴳⵍⵓⴱⵉⵏ, ⴰⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵎⵓⴳⵍⵓⴱⵉⵏ."
Some DNA sequences are transcribed into RNA but are not translated into protein products—such RNA molecules are called non-coding RNA.,"ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵯⵣⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵍ ⴰⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⵓⵔⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵔⵉⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵖⵎⴽⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵓⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵏⵉⵢ."
An interesting example is the coat coloration of the Siamese cat.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⴼ ⵉⵎⵓⵛⵛⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵢⴰⵎⵡⴰ.
"But these dark hair-producing proteins are sensitive to temperature (i.e. have a mutation causing temperature-sensitivity) and denature in higher-temperature environments, failing to produce dark-hair pigment in areas where the cat has a higher body temperature.","ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵃⴱⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵍⵃⵎⴰ ( ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵍⵃⵎⴰ ) ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵍⵃⵎⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵃⴱⵛⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵃⵎⵎⵓ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵛⵛ."
"After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages, but was preserved in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age.","ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵟⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴽⵯⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵢⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ (400 ⴰⵔ 1000 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ) ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ."
"Modern science is typically divided into three major branches that consist of the natural sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics), which study nature in the broadest sense; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies; and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which deal with symbols governed by rules.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵙⵉ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ; ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ; ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⵓⵏⵏ."
New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.,ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⴼⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵥⴻⵥⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ.
"In particular, it was the type of knowledge that people can communicate to each other and share.","ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵛⵛⵓⵔⵏ."
"However, no consistent conscious distinction was made between knowledge of such things, which are true in every community, and other types of communal knowledge, such as mythologies and legal systems.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵣⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏⵏ."
"They even developed an official calendar that contained twelve months, thirty days each, and five days at the end of the year.","ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ, ⴷ ⴽⵕⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
"""For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish """"nature"""" and """"convention.""""""","‘’ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵡ ‘’ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ’’ ⴷ ‘’ⵜⵎⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ’’."
"In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature (artifice or technology, Greek technē) was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for artisans of lower social class.","ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵥⵕⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴹⴼⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ (ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵏⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ, ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵜ) ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ."
The theory of atoms was developed by the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his student Democritus.,ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵍⵢⵓⵙⵉⴱⴱⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵜⵓⵙ.
The Socratic method as documented by Plato's dialogues is a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵈⵕⴰⵟ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵜⵚⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ: ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ.
Socrates criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism.,ⵉⴼⵔⵏ ⵙⵓⵈⵔⴰⵟ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ.
"Aristotle later created a systematic programme of teleological philosophy: Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, according to what types of things they are.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵔⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵔⵣⴰⵏⵜ: ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵓⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ."
The Socratics also insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being (a study Aristotle divided into ethics and political philosophy).,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵚⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ (ⵜⴰⵣⵔⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ).
Aristarchus's model was widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴳⵉ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵔⴽⵓⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵕⵥⵥⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ.
"John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar in the 500s, questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⴱⵏⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ 500 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""Aristotle's four causes prescribed that the question """"why"""" should be answered in four ways in order to explain things scientifically.""",‘’ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵙⴷⵙⵉ ⴰⴷ ‘’ⵎⴰⵅ’’ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ’’.
"However, Aristotle's original texts were eventually lost in Western Europe, and only one text by Plato was widely known, the Timaeus, which was the only Platonic dialogue, and one of the few original works of classical natural philosophy, available to Latin readers in the early Middle Ages.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵓⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ, ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵎⵓⵔⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ. ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⵔⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ."
Many Syriac translations were done by groups such as the Nestorians and Monophysites.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵖⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⵢⴰⵍⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵜⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⵢⵏ.
"""p. 465: """"only when the influence of ibn al-Haytam and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm's claim that ibn al-Haytam was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated.""""""",‘’ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰ 465: ‘’ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵕⴰⵎ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵎⴻⵎⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵀⴰⵢⵜⵎ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵣⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵎⴻⵎⵎⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵣ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ’’.
"Avicenna's canon is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and they both contributed significantly to the practice of experimental medicine, using clinical trials and experiments to back their claims.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵔⵓⵛⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⴼⵖⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ, ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵡⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⴽⵓⵍⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"In addition, classical Greek texts started to be translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin, giving a higher level of scientific discussion in Western Europe.","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵄⵔⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ."
"Manuscript copies of Alhazen's Book of Optics also propagated across Europe before 1240, as evidenced by its incorporation into Vitello's Perspectiva.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ‘’ⵍ ⴰⵀⵣⴰⵏ’’ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1240, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵛⵛⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⴱⵉⵔⵟⵓ ⴼⵉⵜⵉⵍⵍⵓ."
"The influx of ancient texts caused the Renaissance of the 12th century and the flourishing of a synthesis of Catholicism and Aristotelianism known as Scholasticism in western Europe, which became a new geographic center of science.","ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 12 ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⵓⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⵡⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
A model of vision later known as perspectivism was exploited and studied by the artists of the Renaissance.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ.
"This was based on a theorem that the orbital periods of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy's model.","ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴱⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵟⵓⵍⵎⵉ."
He found that all the light from a single point of the scene was imaged at a single point at the back of the glass sphere.,ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵊⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ.
Kepler did not reject Aristotelian metaphysics and described his work as a search for the Harmony of the Spheres.,ⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⴳⵉ ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵓⵕ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓⵇⵔⴰⵜⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ.
"""Galileo had used arguments from the Pope and put them in the voice of the simpleton in the work """"Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems"""", which greatly offended Urban VIII.""","‘’ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓ ⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ’’ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ’’, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵍⵃⴰⴹⵕ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵜⴰⵎ’’."
Descartes emphasized individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used in order to study nature.,ⵉⴷⵓⵣ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵡⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ.
"""This new science began to see itself as describing """"laws of nature"""".""",‘’ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ‘’ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ’’.
"In the style of Francis Bacon, Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes for each type of thing.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⵏ, ⵉⴼⴰ ⵍⴰⴱⴱⵉⵏⵣ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"""In Bacon's words, """"the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches"""", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond """"the fume of subtle, sublime, or pleasing speculation"""".""","‘’ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⵏ, ‘’ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ’’, ⵙⵡⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴼⴽⵉ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ‘’ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵅⵏⴷⴷⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵓⵏⴼⵓ’’."
Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ.
"Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors – Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of nature and natural law to every physical and social field of the day.","ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⵯⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ-- ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓ, ⴱⵡⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ-- ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵉⴽⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ."
"""Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a """"science of man"""", which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity.""","‘’ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵀⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ‘’ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ’’, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⵡⵍⵏ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⴱⵓⵔⵏⵉⵜ, ⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⴼⵉⵔⵖⵙⵓⵏ, ⵊⵓⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⴰⵕ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵔⴱⵔⵓⵜⵙⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ’’."
Both John Herschel and William Whewell systematized methodology: the latter coined the term scientist.,ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵀⵉⵔⵛⵍ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵡⵉⵡⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ: ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ.
"""Separately, Gregor Mendel presented his paper, """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""""), in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.""","‘’ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵊⵔⵉⵊⵓⵔ ⵎⵉⵏⴷⵍ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ‘’ⴼⵔⵉⵙⵓⵛ ⵓⴱⵔ ⴱⵉⴼⵍⴰⵏⵣⵉⵏⵀⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ‘’(‘’ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵀⵉⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ’’), ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1865, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵜⵉⵢ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ."
The phenomena that would allow the deconstruction of the atom were discovered in the last decade of the 19th century: the discovery of X-rays inspired the discovery of radioactivity.,ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵕⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ 19: ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵏⵥⴰⵔ.
"In addition, the extensive use of technological innovation stimulated by the wars of this century led to revolutions in transportation (automobiles and aircraft), the development of ICBMs, a space race, and a nuclear arms race.","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴷⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ (ⵜⵉⵀⵉⵔⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ), ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ (ICBM), ⴷ ⴰⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵏⵏⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ."
The discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964 led to a rejection of the Steady State theory of the universe in favor of the Big Bang theory of Georges Lemaître.,ⵜⵉⵡⵉ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1964 ⵙ ⵡⴰⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵕⵚⵚⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴱⴹⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵔⵊ ⵍⵉⵎⴰⵜⵔ.
"Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with communications satellites led to a revolution in information technology and the rise of the global internet and mobile computing, including smartphones.","ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵉⵢⵢⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20 ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵛⵡⴰⵏ."
"Both natural and social sciences are empirical sciences, as their knowledge is based on empirical observations and is capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.","ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ."
"For example, physical science can be subdivided into physics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth science.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⴰⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"It includes mathematics, systems theory, and theoretical computer science.","ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕ."
"The formal sciences are therefore a priori disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they actually constitute a science.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ."
"Engineering itself encompasses a range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, science, and types of application.",ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⵉⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ. ⵇⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵙⵏ.
"""he responded: """"Sir, what is the use of a new-born child?"""".""","ⵉⵔⴰⵔ: ‘’ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵉⵏⵓ, ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ?’’."
This new explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions that are testable by experiment or observation.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ.
"This is done partly through observation of natural phenomena, but also through experimentation that tries to simulate natural events under controlled conditions as appropriate to the discipline (in the observational sciences, such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might take the place of a controlled experiment).","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⴹⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵖⵍⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴹⴰⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ (ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵍⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ)."
"If the hypothesis survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory, a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena.","ⵎⴽ ⵜⵏⵊⵎ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵏⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏⴳ ⴰⴳⴰⵏⵣⴰ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"This can be achieved by careful experimental design, transparency, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results as well as any conclusions.","ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴼⴰⵡⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵇⵇⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵓⵜⵏ."
"Statistics, a branch of mathematics, is used to summarize and analyze data, which allow scientists to assess the reliability and variability of their experimental results.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵉ ⵓⵙⴳⵣⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ."
"It can be contrasted with anti-realism, the view that the success of science does not depend on it being accurate about unobservable entities such as electrons.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵍⵡⵉⵜ, ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵅⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵄⴷⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵢⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ."
There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of science.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
"This is necessary because the number of predictions those theories make is infinite, which means that they cannot be known from the finite amount of evidence using deductive logic only.","ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵓ ⴷⴰⵢ."
"Critical rationalism is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper.","ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵖⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵙⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ."
Popper proposed replacing verifiability with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories and replacing induction with falsification as the empirical method.,ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵀⵓⴱⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ.
"Another approach, instrumentalism, emphasizes the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵓⵣ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Close to instrumentalism is constructive empiricism, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵏ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⵏ."
"Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations.",ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵥⴰⵕⵚ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm.","ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⵏⵓ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ."
Its main point is that a difference between natural and supernatural explanations should be made and that science should be restricted methodologically to natural explanations.,"ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵍⴰⵣⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⵉⴷⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ."
"That is, no theory is ever considered strictly certain as science accepts the concept of fallibilism.",ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵜⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴳⵍⵜ.
New scientific knowledge rarely results in vast changes in our understanding.,ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵖ.
Knowledge in science is gained by a gradual synthesis of information from different experiments by various researchers across different branches of science; it is more like a climb than a leap.,"ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵍⴽⵉⵎⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ."
"""Philosopher Barry Stroud adds that, although the best definition for """"knowledge"""" is contested, being skeptical and entertaining the possibility that one is incorrect is compatible with being correct.""","ⵉⵙⴰⴷⴼ ‘’ⴰⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴱⴰⵔⵉ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⴷ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ’’, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵎⵔⵅⵉⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵣⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⴰⵏ’’."
"This is especially the case in the more macroscopic fields of science (e.g. psychology, physical cosmology).","ⵎⴽⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢ)."
Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased.,"ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵉⵖⵍⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰ."
"Although the journals are in 39 languages, 91 percent of the indexed articles are published in English.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ 39 ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ 91% ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ."
"Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie, and Scientific American cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research.","ⵜⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵇⵇⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵣⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢ ⵉ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⵣⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵎⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ."
"Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories.","ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵖⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⴱⴰⴱⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵅⵏⴷⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵜ."
"Many scientists pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit organizations.",ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣ.
"""For example, Christine Ladd (1847–1930) was able to enter a Ph.D. program as """"C. Ladd""""; Christine """"Kitty"""" Ladd completed the requirements in 1882, but was awarded her degree only in 1926, after a career which spanned the algebra of logic (see truth table), color vision, and psychology.""","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⴷ (1930-1847) ⴰⴷ ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ‘""""C. Ladd""""; ⵜⵙⵎⴷ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ‘’ⴽⵉⵢⵜⵉ’’ ⵍⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1882, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵟⵓⵎⵉⵥ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ 1926, ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵊⴱⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ (ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⵜ), ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⵉⵍⵙⵏⵜ’’."
"In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of institutional discrimination on the basis of sex greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remain in some fields; in the early 21st century over half of the new biologists were female, while 80% of PhDs in physics are given to men.","ⴳ ⵉⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ; ⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 21 ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ 80% ⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ."
"Membership may be open to all, may require possession of some scientific credentials, or may be an honor conferred by election.","ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵕⵥⵎ ⵜⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵏⵉⵏ."
Science policy thus deals with the entire domain of issues that involve the natural sciences.,"ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵟⵟⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"Prominent historical examples include the Great Wall of China, completed over the course of two millennia through the state support of several dynasties, and the Grand Canal of the Yangtze River, an immense feat of hydraulic engineering begun by Sunshu Ao (孫叔敖 7th cent.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵖⵓⵔ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⴷ ⵢⵉⴼⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵏⴽⵜ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏⵖⵉⵜⵙⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵍⵉⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙⵓⵏⵛⵓ ⴰ (7%)."
"Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds.","ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⴷⴱⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ."
"The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities.","ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵢⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵟⵟⴰⵎⵥ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"Many factors can act as facets of the politicization of science such as populist anti-intellectualism, perceived threats to religious beliefs, postmodernist subjectivism, and fear for business interests.","ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴰⴷⴼⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵎ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵉⴷⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ."
An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵓⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵕⵥⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ.
"Experiments can raise test scores and help a student become more engaged and interested in the material they are learning, especially when used over time.","ⵣⵎⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵃⴷⴰⵕ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵓ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵍⵎⴰⴷ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ."
"Experiments typically include controls, which are designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the single independent variable.",ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.
Researchers also use experimentation to test existing theories or new hypotheses to support or disprove them.,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵕⵕⵥⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ.
"If an experiment is carefully conducted, the results usually either support or disprove the hypothesis.","ⵎⴽ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴹⴼⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵕⵥⵥⴰ."
"In medicine and the social sciences, the prevalence of experimental research varies widely across disciplines.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ."
"A single study typically does not involve replications of the experiment, but separate studies may be aggregated through systematic review and meta-analysis.","ⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⵛⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ."
We may in this way eventually come to the truth that gratifies the heart and gradually and carefully reach the end at which certainty appears; while through criticism and caution we may seize the truth that dispels disagreement and resolves doubtful matters.,"ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵏⵍⴽⵎ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⵡⵉⵣⵏ ⵓⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵍⴽⴽⵎ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⵕⵚⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⴰⵃ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵏⵣⵉⵣ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"""In this process of critical consideration, the man himself should not forget that he tends to subjective opinions—through """"prejudices"""" and """"leniency""""—and thus has to be critical about his own way of building hypotheses.""","‘’ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ - ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵉⵏ’’ ⴷ ‘’ⵎⵔⵅⵉⵡⵜ’’- ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ’’."
"Bacon wanted a method that relied on repeatable observations, or experiments.","ⵉⵔⴰ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
"For example, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) accurately measured time and experimented to make accurate measurements and conclusions about the speed of a falling body.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵉ (1564-1642) ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜ."
"In some disciplines (e.g., psychology or political science), a 'true experiment' is a method of social research in which there are two kinds of variables.","ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ), ‘’ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ’’ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ."
A good example would be a drug trial.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵀⴷⵓⵜⵏ.
"The results from replicate samples can often be averaged, or if one of the replicates is obviously inconsistent with the results from the other samples, it can be discarded as being the result of an experimental error (some step of the test procedure may have been mistakenly omitted for that sample).","ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵎⴽ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵓ ⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵡ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵍⵏ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴳⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ (ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵇⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴽⴽⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⴳⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ)."
A negative control is known to give a negative result.,ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴼ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵙⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵜ.
"""Most often the value of the negative control is treated as a """"background"""" value to subtract from the test sample results.""",‘’ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⴳⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵉⵕⵉⵟⵟ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉ’’ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴷⵉⵏ’’ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ’’.
Students might be given a fluid sample containing an unknown (to the student) amount of protein.,ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵟⵟⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ (ⵉⵎⵃⴹⴰⵕⵏ).
Students could make several positive control samples containing various dilutions of the protein standard.,ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴼ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ.
The assay is a colorimetric assay in which a spectrophotometer can measure the amount of protein in samples by detecting a colored complex formed by the interaction of protein molecules and molecules of an added dye.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⴳⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵕⵉ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵍ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵯⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵟⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼⵏ.
"In this case, the experiment begins by creating two or more sample groups that are probabilistically equivalent, which means that measurements of traits should be similar among the groups and that the groups should respond in the same manner if given the same treatment.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴷⴷⵖ, ⴰⴳ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵓⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵎⴽ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⴳⵯⵓ."
"Once equivalent groups have been formed, the experimenter tries to treat them identically except for the one variable that he or she wishes to isolate.","ⵅⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⵢ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ."
This ensures that any effects on the volunteer are due to the treatment itself and are not a response to the knowledge that he is being treated.,ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴳⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵅⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴷⵡⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵊⵉⵊⵊⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⴳⴳⵓ.
"These hypotheses suggest reasons to explain a phenomenon, or predict the results of an action.","ⴰⵔ ⴰⵖ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ."
The null hypothesis is that there is no explanation or predictive power of the phenomenon through the reasoning that is being investigated.,ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵉ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓ.
"To the degree possible, they attempt to collect data for the system in such a way that contribution from all variables can be determined, and where the effects of variation in certain variables remain approximately constant so that the effects of other variables can be discerned.","ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵖ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ, ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⴰⴼⵕⵕⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵚⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
"Usually, however, there is some correlation between these variables, which reduces the reliability of natural experiments relative to what could be concluded if a controlled experiment were performed.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵓ ⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴰⴹⵏ."
"""For example, in astronomy it is clearly impossible, when testing the hypothesis """"Stars are collapsed clouds of hydrogen"""", to start out with a giant cloud of hydrogen, and then perform the experiment of waiting a few billion years for it to form a star.""","‘’ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴹⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵜ ⵉⴹⵀⵔⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⴳⵓⵎ, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵎ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ‘’ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴳⵏⵡ ⴷ ⵉⴹⵕⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ’’, ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⴳⵏⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⵄⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵏⵢ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵚⴽⵓ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ’’."
"For this reason, field experiments are sometimes seen as having higher external validity than laboratory experiments.","ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵥⵕⵕⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵎⴰⵙ."
"In these situations, observational studies have value because they often suggest hypotheses that can be tested with randomized experiments or by collecting fresh data.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵉ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ."
"In addition, observational studies (e.g., in biological or social systems) often involve variables that are difficult to quantify or control.",ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵉ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ) ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⴳⵉⵙ.
"Without a statistical model that reflects an objective randomization, the statistical analysis relies on a subjective model.","ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ, ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ."
"For example, epidemiological studies of colon cancer consistently show beneficial correlations with broccoli consumption, while experiments find no benefit.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⴹⵀⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵍⵇⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵓⵍⵉⵙ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ."
"For any randomized trial, some variation from the mean is expected, of course, but the randomization ensures that the experimental groups have mean values that are close, due to the central limit theorem and Markov's inequality.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵖⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵎⵅⴰⵎⵎⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵎⴰⵔⴽⵓⴼ."
"To avoid conditions that render an experiment far less useful, physicians conducting medical trials—say for U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval—quantify and randomize the covariates that can be identified.","ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ -ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ- ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ."
"It is also generally unethical (and often illegal) to conduct randomized experiments on the effects of substandard or harmful treatments, such as the effects of ingesting arsenic on human health.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ (ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ) ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵏⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵅⵛⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴹⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵉⵔⵏⵉⵊ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, while a metallurgy laboratory could have apparatus for casting or refining metals or for testing their strength.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵚⵕⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵊⴷⵉⵎ, ⴳ ⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵖⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵢⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴽⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Scientists in other fields will use still other types of laboratories.,ⵇⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎⵏ.
"""Despite the underlying notion of the lab as a confined space for experts, the term """"laboratory"""" is also increasingly applied to workshop spaces such as Living Labs, Fab Labs, or Hackerspaces, in which people meet to work on societal problems or make prototypes, working collaboratively or sharing resources.""","‘’ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ‘’ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵎ’’ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵣⴰⵢⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵡⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵏ ⴼⴰⴱ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵀⴰⴽⵔⵙⴱⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⵙⴱⴹⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ."
This laboratory was created when Pythagoras conducted an experiment about tones of sound and vibration of string.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵕⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵖⵏⵏⵉⵊⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵉ.
A 16th century underground alchemical laboratory was accidentally discovered in the year 2002.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⴰⴽⵉⵎⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵜⵓⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 16 ⵙ ⵜⵣⴳⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2002.
"Laboratory hazards might include poisons; infectious agents; flammable, explosive, or radioactive materials; moving machinery; extreme temperatures; lasers, strong magnetic fields or high voltage.","ⵇⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵀⵉⴷⴷⵊ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵔⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵖⵓⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴱⴹⴰⵢ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴷⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵍⵍⵉⵣⵔ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⵟⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ."
"The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the United States, recognizing the unique characteristics of the laboratory workplace, has tailored a standard for occupational exposure to hazardous chemicals in laboratories.","ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⴳⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵉⵎⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏ."
"In determining the proper Chemical Hygiene Plan for a particular business or laboratory, it is necessary to understand the requirements of the standard, evaluation of the current safety, health and environmental practices and assessment of the hazards.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⴰⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵎⵙ, ⵉⵇⵇⵏⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ."
"""Additionally, third party review is also used to provide an objective """"outside view"""" which provides a fresh look at areas and problems that may be taken for granted or overlooked due to habit.""","‘’ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⴱⴰⵕ ‘’ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ’’ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵉⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵛⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ’’."
Training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ.
"For example, one research group has a schedule where they conduct research on their own topic of interest for one day of the week, but for the rest they work on a given group project.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵜⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
"A Locator is an employee of a Laboratory who is in charge of knowing where each member of the laboratory currently is, based on a unique signal emitted from the badge of each staff member.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ."
"Through ethnographic studies, one finding is that, among the personnel, each class (researchers, administrators...) has a different degree of entitlement, which varies per laboratory.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵢⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⵣⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ (ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍⵏ) ⴷⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ."
"By looking at the various interactions among staff members, we can determine their social position in the organization.","ⴳ ⵓⵔⴰⵄⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ, ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ."
"So a consequence of this social hierarchy is that the Locator discloses various degrees of information, based on the staff member and their rights.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵢ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Social hierarchy is also related to attitudes towards technologies.,ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⴽⴽⵎ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵥⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ.
"For example, a receptionist would view the badge as useful, as it would help them locate members of staff during the day.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵄⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵓⴷⴰ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ."
"Staff members feel ill at ease when changing patterns of entitlement, obligation, respect, informal and formal hierarchy, and more.","ⴰⵔ ⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⵡⵣ ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵍⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵡⵇⵇⵔ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
"""Nature, in the broadest sense, is the natural, physical, material world or universe. """"""","‘’ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ."
"Although humans are part of nature, human activity is often understood as a separate category from other natural phenomena.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
"The concept of nature as a whole, the physical universe, is one of several expansions of the original notion; it began with certain core applications of the word φύσις by pre-Socratic philosophers (though this word had a dynamic dimension then, especially for Heraclitus), and has steadily gained currency ever since.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ, ⴰⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵅⵉⵜⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ (φύσις) ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ (ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴷⴷⵖ ⵎⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵀⵉⵔⴰⴽⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ), ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⴰⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⴰ."
"However, a vitalist vision of nature, closer to the presocratic one, got reborn at the same time, especially after Charles Darwin.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ."
"""It is often taken to mean the """"natural environment"""" or wilderness—wild animals, rocks, forest, and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention, or which persist despite human intervention.""","‘’ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ’’ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ-ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ, ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴷⵊⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"Its most prominent climatic features are its two large polar regions, two relatively narrow temperate zones, and a wide equatorial tropical to subtropical region.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⴰ."
"The remainder consists of continents and islands, with most of the inhabited land in the Northern Hemisphere.","ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵊⵊⴰ ⵏⵜⴰⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢⵜ."
"The interior remains active, with a thick layer of plastic mantle and an iron-filled core that generates a magnetic field.","ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵡⴰⴳⵏⵙ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵍⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⴽⵯⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ."
Rock units are first emplaced either by deposition onto the surface or intrude into the overlying rock.,ⴰⵔ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵣⵔⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵙⵡⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵓⵍⵍⵣ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ.
Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere.,ⵉⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⵡⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ.
"Continents formed, then broke up and reformed as the surface of Earth reshaped over hundreds of millions of years, occasionally combining to make a supercontinent.","ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵏⵏ ⴱⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵎⵏⵥⵡ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ."
"During the Neoproterozoic era, freezing temperatures covered much of the Earth in glaciers and ice sheets.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⵢⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵔⵓⵣⵓⵎⵉ, ⴷⵍⵏ ⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵛⵎⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ."
"The last mass extinction occurred some 66 million years ago, when a meteorite collision probably triggered the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but spared small animals such as mammals.","ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⵓⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴳⵔⵓ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ 66 ⵏ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵢⵣⴰⴽ ⴰⴷ ⵍⴰⵃ ⵉⴹⵉⵏⵓⵥⵓⵕⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵁⵎⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵏⵊⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵟⵟⴷⵏ."
"The subsequent advent of human life, and the development of agriculture and further civilization allowed humans to affect the Earth more rapidly than any previous life form, affecting both the nature and quantity of other organisms as well as global climate.","ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ."
The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by gravity.,ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ.
The ozone layer plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵣⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵣⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵉⵏⵉⴱⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵍⴽⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵊⵏⵏⴰ.
"Terrestrial weather occurs almost exclusively in the lower part of the atmosphere, and serves as a convective system for redistributing heat.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⴷⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵏⵏⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ."
"Also, without the redistributions of heat energy by the ocean currents and atmosphere, the tropics would be much hotter, and the polar regions much colder.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵜⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴱⵓⵏⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
"Surface vegetation has evolved a dependence on the seasonal variation of the weather, and sudden changes lasting only a few years can have a dramatic effect, both on the vegetation and on the animals which depend on its growth for their food.","ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵥⵥⵓⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ, ⴷ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Based on historical records, the Earth is known to have undergone drastic climate changes in the past, including ice ages.","ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⵎⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ."
"There are a number of such regions, ranging from the tropical climate at the equator to the polar climate in the northern and southern extremes.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙⵏ."
This exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵅⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⵓⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵡⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⵕⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ.
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface.,ⴷⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ 71% ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
"Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays and other names.",ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵅⵍⵉⵊⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.
"It is not known if Titan's lakes are fed by rivers, though Titan's surface is carved by numerous river beds.","ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵢⵍⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵛⵜⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵇⴰⵛⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ."
"A wide variety of man-made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water gardens designed for aesthetic ornamentation, fish ponds designed for commercial fish breeding, and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴼⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵚⴽⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵡⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴼⴼⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ."
"Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill; there is no general rule that defines what can be called a river.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵔⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ, ⵍⵅⵓⵕ, ⴷ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⴽ, ⴷ ⵔⵔⵉⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵔⵔⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴳⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵙⵙⵍⵖ ⴰⵙⵉⴼ."
The structure and composition is determined by various environmental factors that are interrelated.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ.
Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms interact with every other element in their local environment.,ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⴰ ⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⵓⴳⴳⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ.
Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms.,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵎⵔⵅⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ.
"However, not every definition of life considers all of these properties to be essential.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵏ."
"From the broadest geophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere (rocks), hydrosphere (water), and atmosphere (air).","ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵢⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⵡⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰⴼⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⴳⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ."
"More than 2 million species of plant and animal life have been identified to date, and estimates of the actual number of existing species range from several million to well over 50 million.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 2 ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵜⵍⴽⴰⵎⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 50 ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ."
Species that were unable to adapt to the changing environment and competition from other life forms became extinct.,ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵎⴽⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.
When basic forms of plant life developed the process of photosynthesis the sun's energy could be harvested to create conditions which allowed for more complex life forms.,"ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴽⴽⵙ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
"Microorganisms are single-celled organisms that are generally microscopic, and smaller than the human eye can see.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴱⵖⵉⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵜⵉⵟⵟ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵜⵥⵕ."
Their reproduction is both rapid and profuse.,ⴷ ⵜⵍⵉⵙⴰⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵜ.
"Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵉⴼⴰⵡ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵟⴰ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵍⴰⵃ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ, ⵜⵡⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
"Among the many ways of classifying plants are by regional floras, which, depending on the purpose of study, can also include fossil flora, remnants of plant life from a previous era.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵖⵣⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵜⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
"""Some types of """"native flora"""" actually have been introduced centuries ago by people migrating from one region or continent to another, and become an integral part of the native, or natural flora of the place to which they were introduced.""","''ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ''ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ''ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷ ⴽⵛⵎⵏ''."
Animals as a category have several characteristics that generally set them apart from other living things.,ⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ.
"They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls.",ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵍⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵍⵎⵉⴽⵜⵉⵏ.
There is also typically an internal digestive chamber.,ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵚⵕⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵏⵙ.
"A 2020 study published in Nature found that anthropogenic mass (human-made materials) outweighs all living biomass on earth, with plastic alone exceeding the mass of all land and marine animals combined.","ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2020 ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ (ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵯⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ) ⵜⵓⴳⵔ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⵡⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴽ ⵉⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ."
"In spite of this progress, however, the fate of human civilization remains closely linked to changes in the environment.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ."
"Humans have contributed to the extinction of many plants and animals, with roughly 1 million species threatened with extinction within decades.","ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴱⵓⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴷⴰⵔ 1 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴱⵓⵢ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵔⵉⵏ."
This distorts market pricing of natural resources and at the same time leads to underinvestment in our natural assets.,ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵄⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⴰⵎⵏ.
Governments have not prevented these economic externalities.,ⵓⵔ ⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ.
"Some activities, such as hunting and fishing, are used for both sustenance and leisure, often by different people.","ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵏ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵊⴱⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊ."
"That nature has been depicted and celebrated by so much art, photography, poetry, and other literature shows the strength with which many people associate nature and beauty.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⵙ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⴰⴼⵓⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⵢⴰⵣⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴹⵀⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷⵡⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ."
Nature and wildness have been important subjects in various eras of world history.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵔⵔⴰ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ.
"Although natural wonders are celebrated in the Psalms and the Book of Job, wilderness portrayals in art became more prevalent in the 1800s, especially in the works of the Romantic movement.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵙⴰⵍⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⴷⵡⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ 1800, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⵙⵉⵢⵜ."
"""For this reason the most fundamental science is generally understood to be """"physics""""—the name for which is still recognizable as meaning that it is the """"study of nature"""".""","''ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ''ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ''- ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ''ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ''."
The visible components of the universe are now believed to compose only 4.9 percent of the total mass.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⴷⴰⵔ 9.4% ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ.
The behaviour of matter and energy throughout the observable universe appears to follow well-defined physical laws.,ⵉⴹⵀⵕ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴹⴼⴼⵓⵕ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
"There is no discrete boundary between Earth's atmosphere and space, as the atmosphere gradually attenuates with increasing altitude.","ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵊⵏⵏⴰ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴼⵙⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⴰⵔ."
"There is also some gas, plasma and dust, and small meteors.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴹⵕⵓⵕ, ⴷ ⵓⴹⵓ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ."
"Although Earth is the only body within the solar system known to support life, evidence suggests that in the distant past the planet Mars possessed bodies of liquid water on the surface.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⵛⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵔⵔⵉⵅ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"If life exists at all on Mars, it is most likely to be located underground where liquid water can still exist.","ⵎⴽ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵍⵎⵔⵔⵉⵅ, ⵜⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵜⴰⵏ."
Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source.,"ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵓⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵉⴽⵔⵓⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ."
"The use of measurement developed to allow recording and comparison of observations made at different times and places, by different people.",ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⵙ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
In measurement the number of standard units which is equal to the observation is counted.,"ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⵚⵉⵟⵏⵜ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ."
"Scientific instruments were developed to aid human abilities of observation, such as weighing scales, clocks, telescopes, microscopes, thermometers, cameras, and tape recorders, and also translate into perceptible form events that are unobservable by the senses, such as indicator dyes, voltmeters, spectrometers, infrared cameras, oscilloscopes, interferometers, geiger counters, and radio receivers.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴹⴰⴼⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴰⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⴰⴳⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱⴱⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴰⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ, ⴷ ⵍⴽⴰⵎⵉⵕⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴼⵉⴼⵉⵏ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵖⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵛⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵍⵜⵎⵉⵜⵔ."
"For example, it is not normally possible to check the air pressure in an automobile tire without letting out some of the air, thereby changing the pressure.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵡⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⴽⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵔⵔⵉⵜ ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵓⵔⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⵔ."
"For example, in the twin paradox one twin goes on a trip near the speed of light and comes home younger than the twin who stayed at home.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵡⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ."
"""Quantum mechanics: In quantum mechanics, which deals with the behavior of very small objects, it is not possible to observe a system without changing the system, and the """"observer"""" must be considered part of the system being observed.""","''ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ: ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵏⵏⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ, ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ''ⵓⵏⴹⴰⴼ'' ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ’’"
"Human perception occurs by a complex, unconscious process of abstraction, in which certain details of the incoming sense data are noticed and remembered, and the rest forgotten.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵜⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵖⵉⵎⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵜⵜⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
"""Later when events are remembered, memory gaps may even be filled by """"plausible"""" data the mind makes up to fit the model; this is called reconstructive memory.""","''ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⴷ ⵏⴽⵜⵢ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜ ''ⵉⵖⵣⴰⵏ'' ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ''."
"In psychology, this is called confirmation bias.",ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ.
"For example, let us suppose that an observer sees a parent beat their child; and consequently may observe that such an action is either good or bad.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴷⵊ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⴹⴰⴼⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⴱⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉ."
"""Research is """"creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge"""".""",''ⵉⴳⴰ ''ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ'' ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ''
"To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.","ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵥⵍⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ, ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ."
This material is of a primary-source character.,ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ.
"In experimental work, it typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or in the field, documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers a novel interpretation of previous results.","ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⵎ, ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵍⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals and usually established by means of peer review.,ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵔⵉⵏⵏ.
This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world.,ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ.
Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.,ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴱⴹⵓ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵜⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙ.
"Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead, explore the issues and details that surround it.","ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⵉⴳⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ."
"Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past.","ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⴻⵣⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵖⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ, ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.,ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ.
"Generally, a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ."
This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ.
"As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction.","ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ."
"""Artistic research has been defined by the School of Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushögskolan, DOCH), Stockholm in the following manner – """"Artistic research is to investigate and test with the purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines.""",‘’ⵜⵜⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴽⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴽ ⴳ ⵙⵜⵓⴽⵀⵓⵍⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ: ‘’ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ’’.
Artistic research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of the arts.,ⴷⴰ ⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ.
"""According to artist Hakan Topal, in artistic research, """"perhaps more so than other disciplines, intuition is utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive modalities"""".""","ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵀⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴱⴰⵍ, ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ, ‘’ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⵉⵏ’’."
"Background research could include, for example, geographical or procedural research.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⵅⴼⴰⵏ."
The literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵓⴹⴻⴹ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴱⴰⵢⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵛⵓⵛⵛⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ.
The research question may be parallel to the hypothesis.,ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ.
"The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as empirical research.","ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴷⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵏⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ."
"""However, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings and discussion of them, moving """"up"""" to identification of a research problem that emerges in the findings and literature review.""","''ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴳⴰⵍ: ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵜⵢ ⵙ ''ⵓⵙⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴹⵀⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ''."
Qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses.,ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⵛⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏ.
Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism.,ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⵛⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰ.
Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⵛⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ.
"If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.","ⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ."
"Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research.","ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵉⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵊⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ."
This method has benefits that using one method alone cannot offer.,ⵙ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.
Non-empirical research is not an absolute alternative to empirical research because they may be used together to strengthen a research approach.,ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ.
The management of research ethics is inconsistent across countries and there is no universally accepted approach to how it should be addressed.,ⵜⴰⵎⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵥⴹⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵖⵣⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Regardless of approach, the application of ethical theory to specific controversial topics is known as applied ethics and research ethics can be viewed as a form of applied ethics because ethical theory is applied in real-world research scenarios.","ⵙ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵔⴰ ⵜⴳⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴹⴼⵓⵕ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ."
"Research ethics is most developed as a concept in medical research, the most notable Code being the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki.","ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵏⴰⴼ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵓⵍⵖⵓ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1964."
"Meta-research concerns itself with the detection of bias, methodological flaws, and other errors and inefficiencies.","ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵇⵓⴹⴻⴹ."
Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and linguicism in research and academic publication.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴱⴰⵢⴹⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢ.
"For comparative politics, Western countries are over-represented in single-country studies, with heavy emphasis on Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴹⴰ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ."
"Studies with a narrow scope can result in a lack of generalizability, meaning that the results may not be applicable to other populations or regions.","ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
"Usually, the peer review process involves experts in the same field who are consulted by editors to give a review of the scholarly works produced by a colleague of theirs from an unbiased and impartial point of view, and this is usually done free of charge.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵏ ⵜⵜⵛⴰⵡⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⵯⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵏⵏⴰⵏ."
"For instance, most indigenous communities consider that access to certain information proper to the group should be determined by relationships.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ."
"The system varies widely by field and is also always changing, if often slowly.","ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ, ⵎⴽ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵙⵍⵃⵉⵍ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ."
These forms of research can be found in databases explicitly for theses and dissertations.,ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⴰ.
"The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields, from the print to the electronic format.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⴼⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵕⵕⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴳⵣ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢ."
Business models are different in the electronic environment.,ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵍⵉⵍⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ.
Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds.,ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ) ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵓⵛⵏ.
The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable practitioners in previous centuries).,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 17 (ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ).
"These are principles of the scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises.","ⵡⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question.",ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ.
"There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however.",ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴱⴰⵢⴹⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ.
"""The term """"scientific method"""" emerged in the 19th century, when a significant institutional development of science was taking place and terminologies establishing clear boundaries between science and non-science, such as """"scientist"""" and """"pseudoscience"""", appeared.""","''ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ''ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ'' ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵡ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ''ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ'' ⴷ ''ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ''."
"Gauch 2003, and Tow 2010 disagree with Feyerabend's claim; problem solvers, and researchers are to be prudent with their resources during their inquiry.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢ ⵊⵓⵜⵛ 2003 ⴷ ⵜⵓ 2010 ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⵔⴰⴱⵏⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Philosophers Robert Nola and Howard Sankey, in their 2007 book Theories of Scientific Method, said that debates over scientific method continue, and argued that Feyerabend, despite the title of Against Method, accepted certain rules of method and attempted to justify those rules with a meta methodology.","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵔⵓⴱⵔⵜ ⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵀⴰⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⴽⵉ, ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2007 ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ, ⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵢⵔⴰⴱⵏⴷ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵉⵔⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵢⴰⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵉⵎⵛⴰⵛⵛⵓⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ."
The ubiquitous element in the scientific method is empiricism.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ.
"The scientific method counters claims that revelation, political or religious dogma, appeals to tradition, commonly held beliefs, common sense, or currently held theories pose the only possible means of demonstrating truth.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵡⵛ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴼⵉⴽⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ."
"From the 16th century onwards, experiments were advocated by Francis Bacon, and performed by Giambattista della Porta, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 16 ⵙ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵊⵢⴰⵎⴱⴰⵜⵙⵉⴽⴰ ⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⴱⵓⵔⵜⴰ, ⵢⵓⵀⴰⵏⵙ ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵔ, ⴷ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵉ."
"As in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous knowledge and develop a more sophisticated understanding of its topics of study over time.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ (ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ) ⴰⴷ ⵜⵚⴽⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ."
"""This model can be seen to underlie the scientific revolution.: """"""",‘’ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ''.
"One conjecture might be that a new drug will cure the disease in some of the people in that population, as in a clinical trial of the drug.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⴰ ⵉⵊⵊⵓⵊⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ."
These predictions are expectations for the results of testing.,ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ.
The difference between expected versus actual indicates which hypothesis better explains the resulting data from the experiment.,ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ.
"Depending on the complexity of the experiment, iteration of the process may be required to gather sufficient evidence to answer the question with confidence, or to build up other answers to highly specific questions, to answer a single broader question.","ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ, ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ."
"""X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA by Florence Bell in her Ph.D. thesis (1939) were similar to (although not as good as) """"photo 51"""", but this research was interrupted by the events of World War II.""","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ''ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵣⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⵉⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⵏⵙ ⴱⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ (1939) ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ''ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ 51'' (ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵃⵍⵉ), ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴷⴷⵖⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ''."
"""June 1952 — Watson had succeeded in getting X-ray pictures of TMV showing a diffraction pattern consistent with the transform of a helix.: """"""","''ⴳ ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ 1952, ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵡⴰⵟⵚⵓⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⵏ (TMV) ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵍⵀⵉⵍⵉⴽⵙ''."
"This prediction was a mathematical construct, completely independent from the biological problem at hand.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"""DNA is not a helix.""""""",''ⴰⵃⵉⵎⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⴽⵙ''.
"For example, the number of strands in the backbone of the helix (Crick suspected 2 strands, but cautioned Watson to examine that more critically), the location of the base pairs (inside the backbone or outside the backbone), etc.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⴷⵢ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⴽⵙ (ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⴳ 2 ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⵣⴰⵖ ⵡⴰⵟⵙⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴱⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵔⵉⵜ), ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ (ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴷⵢ ⵏⵖ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴷⵢ), ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
"""But Wilkins agrees to do so only after Franklin's departure.: """"""",ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵡⵉⵍⴽⵏⵣ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵅⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⴷⵓ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽ ⵍⵉⵏ''.
"He and Crick then produced their model, using this information along with the previously known information about DNA's composition, especially Chargaff's rules of base pairing.:","ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵉⵎⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵊⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ."
"For significant or surprising results, other scientists may also attempt to replicate the results for themselves, especially if those results would be important to their own work.","ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵍⴽⵎⵜ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⵢ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴽ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Peer review does not certify the correctness of the results, only that, in the opinion of the reviewer, the experiments themselves were sound (based on the description supplied by the experimenter).","ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ (ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ)."
These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of experimental sciences than social sciences.,ⴷⴰ ⴼⵔⵔⵖⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴼⵉⵔⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"""The elements above are often taught in the educational system as """"the scientific method"""".""",ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ''ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ''.
"For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's Principia.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵉⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵡⵉⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵇⵙ ⴳ ⴱⵔⵉⵏⵙⵢⴰ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ."
"The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between pseudo-sciences, such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology.","ⴰⵔ ⴱⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵊⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ."
Uncertainties may also be calculated by consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities used.,ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵥⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⵙ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵥⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵡⵍⵉⵡⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ.
"""The operational definition of a thing often relies on comparisons with standards: the operational definition of """"mass"""" ultimately relies on the use of an artifact, such as a particular kilogram of platinum-iridium kept in a laboratory in France.""","''ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴷⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ: ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ''ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ'' ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴽⵉⵍⵓⴳⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ-ⵉⵔⵉⴷⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵃⴼⵓⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⴳ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⴰ."
Scientific quantities are often characterized by their units of measure which can later be described in terms of conventional physical units when communicating the work.,ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⴼⵉⵔⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ.
"It took thousands of years of measurements, from the Chaldean, Indian, Persian, Greek, Arabic, and European astronomers, to fully record the motion of planet Earth.","ⵜⵉⵡⵉ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴽⵉⵍⴷⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵀⵏⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵓⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ."
The observed difference for Mercury's precession between Newtonian theory and observation was one of the things that occurred to Albert Einstein as a possible early test of his theory of General relativity.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⵓⵔⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⴱⵔⵟ ⴰⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ.
"Scientists are free to use whatever resources they have – their own creativity, ideas from other fields, inductive reasoning, Bayesian inference, and so on – to imagine possible explanations for a phenomenon under study.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ-ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵣⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵢⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ- ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵡⵍⴼⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ."
Scientists often use these terms to refer to a theory that is following the known facts but is nevertheless relatively simple and easy to handle.,ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴹⴼⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵜⵔⵅⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵀⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ.
It is essential that the outcome of testing such a prediction be currently unknown.,ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ.
"If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis is not yet testable and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense.","ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴽⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ."
This implied that DNA's X-ray diffraction pattern would be 'x shaped'.,ⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵉⵎⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ''ⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ (x).
Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed when compared to a crucial experiment.,ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴷⵉ.
"This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples, or observations, or populations, under differing conditions, to see what varies or what remains the same.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⴱⴱⴰⵄ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ."
Factor analysis is one technique for discovering the important factor in an effect.,ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ.
Even taking a plane from New York to Paris is an experiment that tests the aerodynamical hypotheses used for constructing the plane.,ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⵙⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵔⴽ ⵙ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵣ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ.
Franklin immediately spotted the flaws which concerned the water content.,ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject under consideration.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ.
Other scientists may start their own research and enter the process at any stage.,ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴽⵛⵛⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ.
"Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community.",ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"The better an explanation is at making predictions, the more useful it frequently can be, and the more likely it will continue to explain a body of evidence better than its alternatives.","ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵢⵓⴼ ⴰⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴽⴰ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ."
"Scientific models vary in the extent to which they have been experimentally tested and for how long, and in their acceptance in the scientific community.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⵜⵜⵓ, ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"If such evidence is found, a new theory may be proposed, or (more commonly) it is found that modifications to the previous theory are sufficient to explain the new evidence.","ⵉⵖ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴼⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰ ⵜⵜⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵏⵉⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵏⵥⵉ ⵉⵙⵀⵢⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵅ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ."
"For example, Newton's laws explained thousands of years of scientific observations of the planets almost perfectly.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ."
"Since new theories might be more comprehensive than what preceded them, and thus be able to explain more than previous ones, successor theories might be able to meet a higher standard by explaining a larger body of observations than their predecessors.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰ ⵜⵉⵜⵍⵉ ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵓⴼⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵔⵏⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ."
"""Once a structurally complete and closed system of opinions consisting of many details and relations has been formed, it offers enduring resistance to anything that contradicts it"""".""","ⵅⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵔⵓⴼ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵙⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵎⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
Its successes can shine but tend to be transitory.,"ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⴰⵢⴷ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰ ⵜⴷⵣⵔⵉ."
"""The method of the a priori – which promotes conformity less brutally but fosters opinions as something like tastes, arising in conversation and comparisons of perspectives in terms of """"what is agreeable to reason.""""""","ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵍⵉ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴹⵉⵜⵏ."
"That is a destination as far, or near, as the truth itself to you or me or the given finite community.","ⵖⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ, ⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵏⵏⵉ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⴽ ⵏⵉⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵡⵎⵓⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⵙⴼⴽⵉ."
"From abduction, Peirce distinguishes induction as inferring, based on tests, the proportion of truth in the hypothesis.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵣ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⵎ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵢ, ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ."
"Oftenest, even a well-prepared mind guesses wrong.",ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵛⵡⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ.
"""Peirce, Charles S. (1902), Carnegie application, see MS L75.329330, from Draft D of Memoir 27: """"Consequently, to discover is simply to expedite an event that would occur sooner or later, if we had not troubled ourselves to make the discovery.""","''ⴱⵉⵔⵙ, ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵙ (1902), ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵔⵏⵉⵊⵉⵢⵜ (MS L75.329330) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ 27: ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵎⵔⵅⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⴰ, ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵣⵣⵉⵡⵣ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵅ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ.’’"
"""Consequently, the conduct of abduction, which is chiefly a question of heuretic and is the first question of heuretic, is to be governed by economical considerations.""""""","''ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵚⵚⴹⵚⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵟⵟⵏⵥ, ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ."
"The hypothesis, being insecure, needs to have practical implications leading at least to mental tests and, in science, lending themselves to scientific tests.","ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵍⵙⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵃⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"""Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) One may say """"the eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility.""""""",''ⵉⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵕⵟ (1936-1956) ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵓⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ.
These assumptions from methodological naturalism form a basis on which science may be grounded.,ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴱⵉⴷⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ.
His observations of science practice are essentially sociological and do not speak to how science is or can be practiced in other times and other cultures.,ⵜⴰⵏⵏⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.
"""He opens Chapter 1 with a discussion of the Golgi bodies and their initial rejection as an artefact of staining technique, and a discussion of Brahe and Kepler observing the dawn and seeing a """"different"""" sunrise despite the same physiological phenomenon.""","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ 1 ⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵖⵓⵍⵊⵉ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵀⵉ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴹⴰⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵥⵕⵕⴰⵏ ''ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵏ'' ⵏ ⵉⵏⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵙⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ."
"In essence, he says that for any specific method or norm of science, one can find a historic episode where violating it has contributed to the progress of science.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵅⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵜⵉⵕⵕⵥⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
The postmodernist critiques of science have themselves been the subject of intense controversy.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ.
"Models, in both science and mathematics, need to be internally consistent and also ought to be falsifiable (capable of disproof).","ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴷⴷⵖ, ⴳ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ (ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵉ ⵜⵕⵓⵥⵉ)."
"For example, the technical concept of time arose in science, and timelessness was a hallmark of a mathematical topic.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵇⵇⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵖ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵛⵛⵃⴰⵃⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"Eugene Wigner's paper, The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences, is a very well-known account of the issue from a Nobel Prize-winning physicist.","ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵊⵏⵕ, ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⴰⵔⵖⵡⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵖ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵖ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵓⴱⵍ."
"In Proofs and Refutations, Lakatos gave several basic rules for finding proofs and counterexamples to conjectures.","ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵍⴰⴽⴰⵜⵓⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵣ"
This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky.,ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵎⴰⵅⵅ ⵍⵍⵉⵖⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵖ ⵜⵓⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵃⵢⴰⵏⵏ
"Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.",ⵎⴰⵀⵡⴰⵀ ⵏⵊ: ⵍⵓⵔⴰⵏⵙ ⵉⵔⵍⴱⴰⵓⵎ ⵉⵎⵛⵛⵔⴽⵏ.
"""This is what Nassim Nicholas Taleb calls """"Anti-fragility""""; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of human error, human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile).""","« ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵟⴰⵍⴱ ⴽⴰⵍⵍⵙ » «ⴰⵙⵏⴽⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⴽⴹ” ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⴽⵓⴽⴹⵏ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵚⴰⵃⴰ ⵖ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴽⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ."
These unexpected results lead researchers to try to fix what they think is an error in their method.,ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵜⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world and universe that has been repeatedly tested and verified in accordance with the scientific method, using accepted protocols of observation, measurement, and evaluation of results.","ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵖ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵉⵣ ⵔⵣⵣⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⴽⵓⵍ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵏⵥⴹⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵍ ⵏⵥⵕ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and embody scientific knowledge.,ⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ.
"""Stephen Jay Gould wrote that """"...facts and theories are different things, not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty.""","ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⵊⴰⵢ ⴳⵓⵍⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ « ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵖ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ."
The meaning of the term scientific theory (often contracted to theory for brevity) as used in the disciplines of science is significantly different from the common vernacular usage of theory.,ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ( ⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵃⵛⴰⵏ ⵖ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ) ⵎⴽ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⴰⵡⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵖ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ.
"In everyday speech, theory can imply an explanation that represents an unsubstantiated and speculative guess, whereas in science it describes an explanation that has been tested and is widely accepted as valid.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵜ, ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵟⵟⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵏⵇⵇⴷⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⴼ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⵛ ⵖ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏⵚⵚⵃⵓⵜ ⵏⵣⵍⵓⵣⵓⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⴷ."
"Some theories are so well-established that they are unlikely ever to be fundamentally changed (for example, scientific theories such as evolution, heliocentric theory, cell theory, theory of plate tectonics, germ theory of disease, etc.).","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ (ⵙ ⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⴽⵜⵓⵏⵢⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵅⵛⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ)."
Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions.,ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ.
"The defining characteristic of all scientific knowledge, including theories, is the ability to make falsifiable or testable predictions.","ⴷ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴳⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ."
"It is well-supported by many independent strands of evidence, rather than a single foundation.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ."
"""The theory of biological evolution is more than """"just a theory"""".""",‘’ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ''ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ''.
This provides evidence either for or against the hypothesis.,ⵖⵉⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏⵙⵡⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ.
"This can take many years, as it can be difficult or complicated to gather sufficient evidence.","ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⴽ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⴰⵏ."
"The strength of the evidence is evaluated by the scientific community, and the most important experiments will have been replicated by multiple independent groups.","ⴰⵔ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵍⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ."
"In chemistry, there are many acid-base theories providing highly divergent explanations of the underlying nature of acidic and basic compounds, but they are very useful for predicting their chemical behavior.","ⴳ ⵓⴽⵉⵎⵉ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵃⵉⵎⴹⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵃⵉⵎⴹⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ."
"Acceptance of a theory does not require that all of its major predictions be tested, if it is already supported by sufficiently strong evidence.","ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵃⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ, ⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⴳⵔⴰ."
"Solutions may require minor or major changes to the theory, or none at all if a satisfactory explanation is found within the theory's existing framework.","ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴽ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ."
"If modifications to the theory or other explanations seem to be insufficient to account for the new results, then a new theory may be required.","ⵎⴽ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⵉⴷⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵃⵜⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ."
"This is because it is still the best available explanation for many other phenomena, as verified by its predictive power in other contexts.","ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"After the changes, the accepted theory will explain more phenomena and have greater predictive power (if it did not, the changes would not be adopted); this new explanation will then be open to further replacement or modification.","ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ (ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ); ⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵃⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵏ."
"For example, electricity and magnetism are now known to be two aspects of the same phenomenon, referred to as electromagnetism.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵀⵕⵓⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵉ."
"This was resolved by the discovery of nuclear fusion, the main energy source of the Sun.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ, ⴰⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ."
"By omitting from special relativity the luminiferous aether, Einstein stated that time dilation and length contraction measured in an object in relative motion is inertial—that is, the object exhibits constant velocity, which is speed with direction, when measured by its observer.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵉⴱⴷⵔ ⵉⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵇⵓⴹⴻⴹ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ- ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⵉⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⵉⴽⵍ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⵉⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ, ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ."
"Einstein sought to generalize the invariance principle to all reference frames, whether inertial or accelerating.","ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵉⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵢⵓⵣⵣⵍⴰⵏ."
"""Even massless energy exerts gravitational motion on local objects by """"curving"""" the geometrical """"surface"""" of 4D space-time.""",ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ''ⵉⵃⵓⴷⵔⵏ'' ''ⴰⵣⵓⵔ'' ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ 4ⴷ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ.
"However, scientific laws are descriptive accounts of how nature will behave under certain conditions.",ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ/ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵟⵟⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ.
A common misconception is that scientific theories are rudimentary ideas that will eventually graduate into scientific laws when enough data and evidence have been accumulated.,ⵙⴳ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵎⵏ.
Both theories and laws could potentially be falsified by countervailing evidence.,ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏⵙ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵔⵔⴰⵣⵏ.
First-order logic is an example of a formal language.,ⴷ ⵓⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ.
"The phenomena explained by the theories, if they could not be directly observed by the senses (for example, atoms and radio waves), were treated as theoretical concepts.","ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ/ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴼⵏⵓⵣⵜⴰⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⴰⵢ), ⵜⵓⵖⴰ ⵜⵏⵜ (ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ) ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵏ."
"""The phrase """"the received view of theories"""" is used to describe this approach.""",“ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ “ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ “ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⴷ’’.
"One can use language to describe a model; however, the theory is the model (or a collection of similar models), and not the description of the model.","ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ (ⵏⵉⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ) ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"The model parameters, e.g., Newton's Law of Gravitation, determine how the positions and velocities change with time.","ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏⵜ ⵍⴱⴰⵕⴰⵎⵉⵜⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ."
"""The word """"semantic"""" refers to the way that a model represents the real world.""",‘’ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ''ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ'' ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ''.
"""Engineering practice makes a distinction between """"mathematical models"""" and """"physical models""""; the cost of fabricating a physical model can be minimized by first creating a mathematical model using a computer software package, such as a computer aided design tool.""","ⴷⴰ “ ⵜⴱⴹⴹⵓ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴳⵔ “ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵏⵓⵏⵜ “ ⴷ “ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ “, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵇⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏ."
Certain assumptions are necessary for all empirical claims (e.g. the assumption that reality exists).,ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵣⴰⵣⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ).
"This may be as simple as observing that the theory makes accurate predictions, which is evidence that any assumptions made at the outset are correct or approximately correct under the conditions tested.","ⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ, ⵡⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⵓⵍⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ."
"The theory makes accurate predictions when the assumption is valid, and does not make accurate predictions when the assumption is not valid.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵓⵎⵔⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ."
"""The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and online Wiktionary indicate its Latin source as assumere (""""accept, to take to oneself, adopt, usurp""""), which is a conjunction of ad- (""""to, towards, at"""") and sumere (to take).""","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵜⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ ⵓⴽⵙⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵡⵉⴽ ⵅⴼ (OED) ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⴷⵓ (“ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ”), ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴽ ⵉ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴳⵔ (“ⵖⵔ”, “ⵙ” ⴷ (ⵙⵓⵎⵉⵔⵉ)."
"""The term was originally employed in religious contexts as in """"to receive up into heaven"""", especially """"the reception of the Virgin Mary into heaven, with body preserved from corruption"""", (1297 CE) but it was also simply used to refer to """"receive into association"""" or """"adopt into partnership"""".""","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵔⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ « ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ », ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ « ⴰⵙⵏⵓⴱⴳ ⵏ ⵎⵔⵢⴰⵎ ⵍⵄⴰⴷⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵃⴹⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ », (1297) ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ « ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ » ⵏⵉⵖ « ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ »."
"Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions; that is to say, if, unenlightened by the theory in question, we should have expected an event which was incompatible with the theory—an event which would have refuted the theory.","ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵟⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵅⵙ ⵎⴽ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵢⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵥⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ, ⵜⵓⵖⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴷⵎⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵣⵣⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ - ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵏⵜ."
A theory which is not refutable by any conceivable event is non-scientific.,"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ."
"Some genuinely testable theories, when found to be false, might still be upheld by their admirers—for example by introducing post hoc (after the fact) some auxiliary hypothesis or assumption, or by reinterpreting the theory post hoc in such a way that it escapes refutation.","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⴼⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⵙⵎⵏⵜ- ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ (ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ), ⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵓⵍⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴽⵜⴰⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ."
"""Popper summarized these statements by saying that the central criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its """"falsifiability, or refutability, or testability"""".""","ⵉⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ «ⴰⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ «ⵎⵉ ⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵔⵊⴰⵏ, ⵏⵉⵖ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ."
"""Several philosophers and historians of science have, however, argued that Popper's definition of theory as a set of falsifiable statements is wrong because, as Philip Kitcher has pointed out, if one took a strictly Popperian view of """"theory"""", observations of Uranus when first discovered in 1781 would have """"falsified"""" Newton's celestial mechanics.""","ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵅⵙ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ ⵡⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⴱ ⴽⵉⵜⵛⵉⵔ, ⵎⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵟⵟ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵏⵓⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1781 ⵇⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵉ « ⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ’’."
"""Fecundity: """"A great scientific theory, like Newton's, opens up new areas of research….""","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ, ⵜⴰⵏⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ."
"At any time, it raises more questions than it can currently answer.","ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵖⵉ."
"Like other definitions of theories, including Popper's, Kitcher makes it clear that a theory must include statements that have observational consequences.","ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴽⵉⵜⵛⵉⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵉ."
"It may be set out on paper as a system of rules, and it is the more truly a theory the more completely it can be put down in such terms.","ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ."
"""The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory are termed """"laws of electromagnetism,"""" reflecting the level of consistent and reproducible evidence that supports them.""","ⴷⴰ ⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉ « ⵉⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ-ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵚⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ » ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵙⵏⵜⵉ-ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵚⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ."
An example of the latter might be the radiation reaction force.,ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵥⵏⵥⵕ.
A scientist is a person who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest.,ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ.
"Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the social norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well.","ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ (ⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵣⴰⴳⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ) ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⴰⵍⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴼⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ-ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⵙⵏ- ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ."
"Many proto-scientists from the Islamic Golden Age are considered polymaths, in part because of the lack of anything corresponding to modern scientific disciplines.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴰⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴱⵉⵍⵓⵎⵜⵔⴰⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵡⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality.,ⵉⵙⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴽⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.
Descartes was not only a pioneer of analytic geometry but formulated a theory of mechanics and advanced ideas about the origins of animal movement and perception.,"ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⴽⵉ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵕⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
He provided a comprehensive formulation of classical mechanics and investigated light and optics.,ⵉⴼⴽ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵍⵉⵏ.
He discovered that a charge applied to the spinal cord of a frog could generate muscular spasms throughout its body.,ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵖⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⴱⴰⵊⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ.
Lazzaro Spallanzani is one of the most influential figures in experimental physiology and the natural sciences.,ⵍⴰⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵙⴱⵍⴰⵏⵣⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵙⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ.
"However, there is no formal process to determine who is a scientist and who is not a scientist.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵏ."
"A little over half of the respondents wanted to pursue a career in academia, with smaller proportions hoping to work in industry, government, and nonprofit environments.","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴹⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⵟⵟ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵟⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⴰ."
They exhibit a strong curiosity about reality.,ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.
"Some scientists have a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of people's health, the nations, the world, nature, or industries (academic scientist and industrial scientist).","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ (ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ)."
"These include cosmology and biology, especially molecular biology and the human genome project.",ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵙⵙⵓⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.
The figure included twice as many men as women.,ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵍ.
"Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars, blazars, pulsars, and cosmic microwave background radiation.","ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵓⴱⵉⵔ ⵏⵓⵖⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⵔⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵇⵇⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴽⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵕⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵔⴰⵏ."
Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences.,ⵜⴰⵙⵟⵔⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ.
"In the past, astronomy included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, and the making of calendars.","ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵟⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⴰⵢ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⴼⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵟⵔⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵙⵉ."
Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects.,ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵟⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵏ
These two fields complement each other.,ⴷ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ .
"""Based on strict dictionary definitions, """"astronomy"""" refers to """"the study of objects and matter outside the Earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties,"""" while """"astrophysics"""" refers to the branch of astronomy dealing with """"the behavior, physical properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena"""".""","‘’ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵓⵇⵊⵉⵔ'' ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ''ⴰⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ'' ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵉⵎⴰⵡⵉ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ''ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜ."
"Some fields, such as astrometry, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics.","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ."
"From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon and the Earth in the Universe were explored philosophically.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵥⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ."
"A particularly important early development was the beginning of mathematical and scientific astronomy, which began among the Babylonians, who laid the foundations for the later astronomical traditions that developed in many other civilizations.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵢⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵉⵏ."
"Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena.",ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ.
"Hipparchus also created a comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars, and most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy.","ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵀⵉⴱⴰⵕⵛⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ 1020 ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ."
Georg von Peuerbach (1423–1461) and Regiomontanus (1436–1476) helped make astronomical progress instrumental to Copernicus's development of the heliocentric model decades later.,ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⴼⵓⵏ ⴱⵉⵕⵓⴱⴰⵅ (1423-1461) ⴷ ⵕⵉⵊⵢⵓ ⵎⵓⵏⵟⴰⵏⵓⵙ(1436-1476) ⴰⴷ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴱⵔⵏⵉⴽⵓⵚ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ.
"In 964, the Andromeda Galaxy, the largest galaxy in the Local Group, was described by the Persian Muslim astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi in his Book of Fixed Stars.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 964, ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵙⵍⵎ ⵄⴰⴱⴷ ⵕⵕⴰⵃⵎⴰⵏ ⵚⵚⵓⴼⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⵕⵓⵎⵉⴷⴰ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
Astronomers during that time introduced many Arabic names now used for individual stars.,ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵄⵕⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴷⵉⵢⵏ.
Songhai historian Mahmud Kati documented a meteor shower in August 1583.,ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵏⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵙⵓⵏⵖⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵃⵎⵓⴷ ⴽⴰⵜⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵢⵣⴰⴽ ⴳ ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1583.
Kepler was the first to devise a system that correctly described the details of the motion of the planets around the Sun.,ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵕ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ.
"The English astronomer John Flamsteed catalogued over 3000 stars, More extensive star catalogues were produced by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille.","ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵊⵍⵉⵣⵉ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⴼⵍⴰⵎⵙⵜⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 3000 ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ, ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵚ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⴷⵓ ⵍⴰⴽⴰⵢ."
"This work was further refined by Joseph-Louis Lagrange and Pierre Simon Laplace, allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations.",ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷⵊⵓⵥⵉⴼ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⵍⴰⴳⵔⴰⵏⵊ ⴷ ⴱⵢⵉⵕ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⵍⴰⴱⵍⴰⵚ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
"Stars were proven to be similar to the Earth's own Sun, but with a wide range of temperatures, masses, and sizes.","ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵉⵏⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵖⵍⵜ, ⴰⵏⴷⴷⵓⵔ, ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ."
"Theoretical astronomy led to speculations on the existence of objects such as black holes and neutron stars, which have been used to explain such observed phenomena as quasars, pulsars, blazars, and radio galaxies.","ⵜⵉⵡⵢ ⵜⵚⵟⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵉⴽⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⴳⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵢⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵊⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴽⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵣⴰⵕⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵥⵍⴰⵡ ⴰⵕⴰⴷⵢⵓ."
Observational astronomy may be categorized according to the corresponding region of the electromagnetic spectrum on which the observations are made.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵉⵜⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵎⴰⵊⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵏⵏⵇ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢ.
"Although some radio waves are emitted directly by astronomical objects, a product of thermal emission, most of the radio emission that is observed is the result of synchrotron radiation, which is produced when electrons orbit magnetic fields.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴰⴷⵢⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⴰⵕⴰⴷⵢⵓ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵓⴽⵕⵓⵜⵕⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⴹ ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵉ."
Observations from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) have been particularly effective at unveiling numerous galactic protostars and their host star clusters.,ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵉⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵖⵉ ⵉⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵕⴱⵥⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉⵏ.
Images of observations were originally drawn by hand.,ⵙⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵉⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ.
Ultraviolet astronomy is best suited to the study of thermal radiation and spectral emission lines from hot blue stars (OB stars) that are very bright in this wave band.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⴽⵥⴰⵢ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⵔⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⴰ.
Gamma rays may be observed directly by satellites such as the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory or by specialized telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⵕⵏ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⴹⴰⴼ ⴽⵓⵎⴱⵜⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵖⵕⵕⵓⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵛⵉⵕⵓⵏⴽⵓⴼ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵏⵓⵜ.
Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging field of astronomy that employs gravitational-wave detectors to collect observational data about distant massive objects.,ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴷⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴷⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ.
"Historically, accurate knowledge of the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars has been essential in celestial navigation (the use of celestial objects to guide navigation) and in the making of calendars.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⴼⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ( ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵔⵉⵟ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴼⴽⴰ) ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⴽⵓⴷⵜ."
The measurement of stellar parallax of nearby stars provides a fundamental baseline in the cosmic distance ladder that is used to measure the scale of the Universe.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵊⴱⴱⵕ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⴰⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⴰⵙⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ.
Analytical models of a process are better for giving broader insight into the heart of what is going on.,ⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⴰⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵅⴼ ⵎⵓⵎⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵚⵕⵓⵏ.
The observation of a phenomenon predicted by a model allows astronomers to select between several alternate or conflicting models as the one best able to describe the phenomena.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ ⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵎⵎⵔⴽⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ.
"In some cases, a large amount of inconsistent data over time may lead to the total abandonment of a model.","ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵉⵊⵊ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ."
"Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.","ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵡⵔⵉⵡ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵀⵕⵓⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ"
"""The word """"astrochemistry"""" may be applied to both the Solar System and the interstellar medium.""",“ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ““ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ”” ⵅⴼ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ.”
The term exobiology is similar.,ⵢⴰⵖ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰ (exobiology).
"Observations of the large-scale structure of the Universe, a branch known as physical cosmology, have provided a deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos.","ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵣⵡⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵖⵓⴱ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ."
A hierarchical structure of matter began to form from minute variations in the mass density of space.,ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⴰⵡⵍⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴳⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ.
"Gravitational aggregations clustered into filaments, leaving voids in the gaps.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⵣⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵅⴱⵢⵉⵏ."
Various fields of physics are crucial to studying the universe.,ⵛⵉⵍⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ.
"Finally, the latter is important for the understanding of the large-scale structure of the cosmos.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ."
"As the name suggests, an elliptical galaxy has the cross-sectional shape of an ellipse.","ⵉⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵉ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴳⵣⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"Elliptical galaxies are more commonly found at the core of galactic clusters, and may have been formed through mergers of large galaxies.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ."
Spiral galaxies are typically surrounded by a halo of older stars.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵀⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ.
"About a quarter of all galaxies are irregular, and the peculiar shapes of such galaxies may be the result of gravitational interaction.","ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ."
"A radio galaxy is an active galaxy that is very luminous in the radio portion of the spectrum, and is emitting immense plumes or lobes of gas.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵕⴰⴷⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⵏⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵕⴰⴷⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ, ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵔⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ."
The large-scale structure of the cosmos is represented by groups and clusters of galaxies.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ.
"In the center of the Milky Way is the core, a bar-shaped bulge with what is believed to be a supermassive black hole at its center.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⴽⴼⴼⴰⵢ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵣⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵖⴱⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"The disk is surrounded by a spheroid halo of older, population II stars, as well as relatively dense concentrations of stars known as globular clusters.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹ ⵜⵀⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵓⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⵙⵙⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵙⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵓⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
"These begin as a compact pre-stellar core or dark nebulae, which concentrate and collapse (in volumes determined by the Jeans length) to form compact protostars.","ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴷ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⵡⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⵎⵎⵥⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵍⵍⵓⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵔⴷⴰⵍ ( ⵙ ⵉⴽⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵏⵣ) ⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⵎⵎⵥⵏ."
"These clusters gradually disperse, and the stars join the population of the Milky Way.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴼⵣⵣⴰⵄⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴽⴼⴼⴰⵢ."
"7–18 Star formation occurs in dense regions of dust and gas, known as giant molecular clouds.","7–18 ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵏⵖⵔ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴳⵏⵉⵡ ⵉⵏⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⵕⵓⴹⵏ."
Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were created inside the cores of stars.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ.
"Over time, this hydrogen fuel is completely converted into helium, and the star begins to evolve.","ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴰⵀⵉⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ."
The ejection of the outer layers forms a planetary nebula.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵥⵥⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴳⵏⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ.
This is an 11-year oscillation in sunspot number.,ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵣ ⵏ 11 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵉⵄⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ.
The Sun has also undergone periodic changes in luminosity that can have a significant impact on the Earth.,ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⴰⵜⵜⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⴽⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
Above this layer is a thin region known as the chromosphere.,ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵓⵕⵓⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵔ.
"Above the core is the radiation zone, where the plasma conveys the energy flux by means of radiation.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵜⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵜ."
"A solar wind of plasma particles constantly streams outward from the Sun until, at the outermost limit of the Solar System, it reaches the heliopause.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵓⴹ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵙ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⴹ,ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵉ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ."
The planets were formed 4.6 billion years ago in the protoplanetary disk that surrounded the early Sun.,ⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ 4.6 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ.
"The planets continued to sweep up, or eject, the remaining matter during a period of intense bombardment, evidenced by the many impact craters on the Moon.","ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⵉⵜ, ⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴱⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ."
"This process can form a stony or metallic core, surrounded by a mantle and an outer crust.","ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵓ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ, ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢ ⵓⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ."
Some planets and moons accumulate enough heat to drive geologic processes such as volcanism and tectonics.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵢⵓⵊⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵣⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⴽⵜⵓⵏⵉⵜ.
Astrostatistics is the application of statistics to astrophysics to the analysis of a vast amount of observational astrophysical data.,ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⵔ.
"Cosmochemistry is the study of the chemicals found within the Solar System, including the origins of the elements and variations in the isotope ratios.","ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ."
Astronomy clubs are located throughout the world and many have programs to help their members set up and complete observational programs including those to observe all the objects in the Messier (110 objects) or Herschel 400 catalogues of points of interest in the night sky.,"ⵎⴼⵣⵣⴰⵄⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵙⵢⵉ (110 ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉ) ⵏⵖ ⵀⵉⵔⵛⵍ 400 ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵜⴰⵍⵓⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹ."
"Most amateurs work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢⵏ."
A number of amateur astronomers use either homemade telescopes or use radio telescopes which were originally built for astronomy research but which are now available to amateurs (e.g. the One-Mile Telescope).,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱⵏ ⵉⵕⴰⴷⵢⴰⵡⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⵙⵓⵜⵏ (ⴰⵎ ⵓⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍ).
"Answers to these may require the construction of new ground- and space-based instruments, and possibly new developments in theoretical and experimental physics.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ."
A deeper understanding of the formation of stars and planets is needed.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⵓⵔⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
"If so, what is the explanation for the Fermi paradox?","ⵎⴽ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⴰ, ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵎⵉ?"
What is the nature of dark matter and dark energy?,ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⵓⵙⵏ?
How did the first galaxies form?,ⵎⴰ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ?
"Astrobiology, formerly known as exobiology, is an interdisciplinary scientific field that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe.","ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⵖⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ."
The origin and early evolution of life is an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵥⵖⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ.
"Biochemistry may have begun shortly after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago, during a habitable epoch when the Universe was only 10–17 million years old.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⴹⵉⵇⵇⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ 13.8 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵕⵡⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵡⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵏ 10-17 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵢⵢ."
"Nonetheless, Earth is the only place in the universe humans know to harbor life.","ⵎⵖⴰⵔ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ."
The term exobiology was coined by molecular biologist and Nobel Prize winner Joshua Lederberg.,ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜⵏ (exobiology) ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵓⴱⵍ ⵊⵓⵛⵡⴰ ⵍⵉⴷⵔⴱⵉⵔⴳ.
"""The term xenobiology is now used in a more specialized sense, to mean """"biology based on foreign chemistry"""", whether of extraterrestrial or terrestrial (possibly synthetic) origin.""","“ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ, ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ““ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜ””, ⵙⵡ ⵉⵍⵍ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵥⵖⵕ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ (ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ).”"
"Though once considered outside the mainstream of scientific inquiry, astrobiology has become a formalized field of study.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ."
"In 1959, NASA funded its first exobiology project, and in 1960, NASA founded an Exobiology Program, which is now one of four main elements of NASA's current Astrobiology Program.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1959, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ (NASA) ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1960, ⵜⵙⴽⴰ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ."
"Advancements in the fields of astrobiology, observational astronomy and discovery of large varieties of extremophiles with extraordinary capability to thrive in the harshest environments on Earth, have led to speculation that life may possibly be thriving on many of the extraterrestrial bodies in the universe.","ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⴼ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵡⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ."
Missions specifically designed to search for current life on Mars were the Viking program and Beagle 2 probes.,ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⴽⵉⵏⴳ ⴷ ⴱⵉⴳⵍ 2.
"In late 2008, the Phoenix lander probed the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars, and researched the history of water there.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2008, ⵉⵔⵣⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵀⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ, ⵜⵔⴻⵓ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ."
"In November 2011, NASA launched the Mars Science Laboratory mission carrying the Curiosity rover, which landed on Mars at Gale Crater in August 2012.","ⴳ ⵏⵓⵡⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 2011, ⵜⵕⵥⵎ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⴰⵥⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ ⵢⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜ ⴽⵓⵔⵢⵓⵙⵉⵜⵉ (Curiosity), ⵉⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ ⴳ ⴳⵉⵍ ⴽⵔⵉⵜⵔ (Gale Crater) ⴳ ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 2012."
"One is the informed assumption that the vast majority of life forms in our galaxy are based on carbon chemistries, as are all life forms on Earth.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ, ⴰⵎ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
The fact that carbon atoms bond readily to other carbon atoms allows for the building of extremely long and complex molecules.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
A third assumption is to focus on planets orbiting Sun-like stars for increased probabilities of planetary habitability.,ⴰⵙⵓⵔⴷ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
"To that end, a number of instruments designed to detect Earth-sized exoplanets have been considered, most notably NASA's Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) and ESA's Darwin programs, both of which have been cancelled.","ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵔ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵙⴳ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ (Terrestrial Planet Finder) (TPF) ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵕⵡⵉⵏ ESA, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⵙⵏ."
"Drake originally formulated the equation merely as an agenda for discussion at the Green Bank conference, but some applications of the formula had been taken literally and related to simplistic or pseudoscientific arguments.","ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⴷⵔⵉⴽ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡ (Green Bank), ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ."
"The discovery of extremophiles, organisms able to survive in extreme environments, became a core research element for astrobiologists, as they are important to understand four areas in the limits of life in planetary context: the potential for panspermia, forward contamination due to human exploration ventures, planetary colonization by humans, and the exploration of extinct and extant extraterrestrial life.","ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵔⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ: ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴱⴰⵏⵙⴱⵉⵔⵎⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴼ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"Even life in the ocean depths, where sunlight cannot reach, was thought to obtain its nourishment either from consuming organic detritus rained down from the surface waters or from eating animals that did.","ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⵏⵓⴹ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵥⵉⵏⵥⵕ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⵙ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⵕⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ."
This chemosynthesis revolutionized the study of biology and astrobiology by revealing that life need not be sun-dependent; it only requires water and an energy gradient in order to exist.,ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ; ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵜⵔ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.
"Ten hardy organisms selected for the LIFE project, by Amir Alexander Deinococcus radiodurans, Bacillus subtilis, yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, seeds from Arabidopsis thaliana ('mouse-ear cress'), as well as the invertebrate animal Tardigrade.","ⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⴰⵎⵉⵔ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔ ⴷⵉⵏⵓⴽⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵓ ⵍⴰⵢⴼ (LIFE), ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴷⴰⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵓⵏⵜ (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⵉⴷⵓⴱⵙⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵔⴱⵓⵅⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴷⵉⴳⵔⴰⴷ (Tardigrade)."
"Jupiter's moon, Europa, and Saturn's moon, Enceladus, are now considered the most likely locations for extant extraterrestrial life in the Solar System due to their subsurface water oceans where radiogenic and tidal heating enables liquid water to exist.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵣⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵓⵛⵜⴰⵔⵉ, ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵣⵓⵃⴰⵍ , ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵍⴰⴷⵓⵙ, ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴱⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⵏⵓⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵔⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵎⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵟⵟⵉⵜⵏ."
"""The cosmic dust permeating the universe contains complex organic compounds (""""amorphous organic solids with a mixed aromatic-aliphatic structure"""") that could be created naturally, and rapidly, by stars.""",“ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵏⵖⵔ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵎⵔⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ (““ⵜⵉⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵓⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⴽⵙⵏ””) ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⵙⴽⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ.”
"PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵅⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵉⵇⵇⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ, ⵎⵣⵍⵍⴰⵄⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ, ⵜⵣⴷⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵣⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜⵉⵏ."
"Experimental astroecology investigates resources in planetary soils, using actual space materials in meteorites.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⵢⵣⴰⴽⵏ."
"On the largest scale, cosmoecology concerns life in the universe over cosmological times.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵏ."
"Specializations include cosmochemistry, biochemistry and organic geochemistry.",ⵙⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ.
"Some regions on Earth, such as the Pilbara in Western Australia and the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica, are also considered to be geological analogs to regions of Mars, and as such, might be able to provide clues on how to search for past life on Mars.","ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵍⴱⴰⵕⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴽⵎⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⴷⵔⴰⵢ ⴼⴰⵍⵍⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵔⴽⵜⵉⴽⴰ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵕⵚ."
"Indeed, it seems likely that the basic building blocks of life anywhere will be similar to those on Earth, in the generality if not in the detail.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Only two of the natural atoms, carbon and silicon, are known to serve as the backbones of molecules sufficiently large to carry biological information.","ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⴰⴽⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⴽⵓⵏ, ⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵅⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ."
"The four most likely candidates for life in the Solar System are the planet Mars, the Jovian moon Europa, and Saturn's moons Titan and Enceladus.","ⵉⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷⵏ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⵊⵓⴼⵢⴰⵏⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⴷ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵣⵉⵃⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵙⵉⵍⴰⴷⵓⵙ."
"At the Martian low temperatures and low pressure, liquid water is likely to be highly saline.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵢⴰⵣⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴷⵔ ⵢⴰⵣⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵣⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵖⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"""On 11 December 2013, NASA reported the detection of """"clay-like minerals"""" (specifically, phyllosilicates), often associated with organic materials, on the icy crust of Europa.""","“ⴳ 11 ⴷⵓⵊⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 2013, ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵡⴹ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ““ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴹ”” (ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵍ, ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵉⵍⵉⴽⴰⵜⵙ), ⵜⵣⴷⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵏⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ.”"
Some scientists think it possible that these liquid hydrocarbons might take the place of water in living cells different from those on Earth.,ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵟⵟⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴹⵕⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
There are no known abiotic processes on the planet that could cause its presence.,ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Yamato 000593, the second largest meteorite from Mars, was found on Earth in 2000.","ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵢⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ 000593, ⴰⵏⴰⵢⵣⴰⴽ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ, ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2000."
"On 5 March 2011, Richard B. Hoover, a scientist with the Marshall Space Flight Center, speculated on the finding of alleged microfossils similar to cyanobacteria in CI1 carbonaceous meteorites in the fringe Journal of Cosmology, a story widely reported on by mainstream media.","ⴳ 5 ⵎⴰⵕⵚ 2011, ⵉⴷⵎⴰ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⴱ. ⵀⵓⴼⵔ, ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ, ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⵢⵣⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏⵉⵜⵏ CI1 ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⵍⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
"Evidence of perchlorates have been found throughout the solar system, and specifically on Mars.","ⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴽⵍⵓⵕⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ, ⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵥⵓⵢⵖ."
"Improved detection methods and increased observation time will undoubtedly discover more planetary systems, and possibly some more like ours.","ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴼ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ; ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ, ⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
The aim is to detect those organisms that are able to survive space travel conditions and to maintain the proliferating capacity.,"ⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ; ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ, ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ."
"These stress responses could also allow them to survive in harsh space conditions, although evolution also puts some restrictions on their use as analogues to extraterrestrial life.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵊⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵏⴰ; ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
The formation of spores allows for it to survive extreme environments while still being able to restart cellular growth.,"ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴷⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⴳⵎ ⵜⵉⵍⵎⵉⴽⵜ."
"The two landers were identical, so the same tests were carried out at two places on Mars' surface; Viking 1 near the equator and Viking 2 further north.","ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵓⵢⵖⵏ Viking 1 ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⴳⵙ, ⴷ Viking 2 ⴳ ⵢⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ."
"In astronomy, extinction is the absorption and scattering of electromagnetic radiation by dust and gas between an emitting astronomical object and the observer.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ, ⵓⴼⵓⴹ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵜⵜⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⴷ ⵍⴳⴰⵣ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵃⴹⵓ."
"For stars that lie near the plane of the Milky Way and are within a few thousand parsecs of the Earth, extinction in the visual band of frequencies (photometric system) is roughly 1.8 magnitudes per kiloparsec.","ⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵊⴽⵔⵉⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴽⵉⵍⵓⵎⵉⵟⵕ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⴹ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⵓⴳⵓⵍⵏ ( ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ), ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1.8 ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⵯⵔ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⴱⴰⵔⵙⴽ."
Reddening occurs due to the light scattering off dust and other matter in the interstellar medium.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵜⵣⵓⵖⵉ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵄ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ.
In most photometric systems filters (passbands) are used from which readings of magnitude of light may take account of latitude and humidity among terrestrial factors.,"ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⴽⵉⴷⵉⵏ ( ⵉⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵙⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵍⵓⵖⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"Broadly speaking, interstellar extinction is strongest at short wavelengths, generally observed by using techniques from spectroscopy.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵇⵙⴰⵃ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵣⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⵍⴰⴼ."
The amount of extinction can be significantly higher than this in specific directions.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵍⵢ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⵯⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⴹ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"As a result, when computing cosmic distances it can be advantageous to move to star data from the near-infared (of which the filter or passband Ks is quite standard) where the variations and amount of extinction are significantly less, and similar ratios as to R(Ks): 0.49±0.02 and 0.528±0.015 were found respectively by independent groups.","ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵜⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ Ks ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ), ⴰⵔⴷ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵍ, ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴽⵙⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ R(Ks): 0.49±0.02 ⴷ 0.528±0.015 ⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"This feature was first observed in the 1960s, but its origin is still not well understood.","ⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵜⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ 1960, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ."
"In the SMC, more extreme variation is seen with no 2175 Å and very strong far-UV extinction in the star forming Bar and fairly normal ultraviolet extinction seen in the more quiescent Wing.","ⴳ SMC ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ 2175 Å, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⴰⵢⵜ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⴹ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰ."
Finding extinction curves in both the LMC and SMC which are similar to those found in the Milky Way and finding extinction curves in the Milky Way that look more like those found in the LMC2 supershell of the LMC and in the SMC Bar has given rise to a new interpretation.,"ⵢⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴼⵔⵖⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⴳ LMC ⴷ SMC ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵊⴽⵔⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴼⵔⵖⵏ ⵢⴰⴼⵓⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵊⴽⵔⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ LMC2 supershell, ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ LMC ⴷ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ SMC, ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ."
"This extinction has three main components: Rayleigh scattering by air molecules, scattering by particulates, and molecular absorption.","ⵓⴼⵓⴹ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ: ⴰⴼⵣⵣⵄ ⵏ ⵔⴰⵢⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵣⵣⵄ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ."
The amount of such extinction is lowest at the observer's zenith and highest near the horizon.,ⴰⵙⵓⴳⵯⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⵃⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ.
The Drake equation speculates about the existence of sapient life elsewhere in the universe.,ⵜⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵔⴰⴽ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ.
"This encompasses a search for current and historic extraterrestrial life, and a narrower search for extraterrestrial intelligent life.","ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⵢⵉⵎⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵖⵉⵙⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"Over the years, science fiction communicated scientific ideas, imagined a wide range of possibilities, and influenced public interest in and perspectives of extraterrestrial life.","ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⵏⴳⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"According to this argument, made by scientists such as Carl Sagan and Stephen Hawking, as well as notable personalities such as Winston Churchill, it would be improbable for life not to exist somewhere other than Earth.","ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵙⴰⵊⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⵀⵓⴽⵉⵏⴳ, ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵕⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⵛⵔⵛⵍ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
Life may have emerged independently at many places throughout the universe.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ.
"At each level of the organism there will be mechanisms in place to eliminate conflict, maintain cooperation, and keep the organism functioning.","ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔ ."
"Life based on ammonia (rather than water) has been suggested as an alternative, though this solvent appears less suitable than water.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵢⴰ ( ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ), ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵙⵙⵉ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"About 95% of living matter is built upon only six elements: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur.","ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 95% ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵙⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ: ⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓ, ⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⵏⵉⵟⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⴼⵓⵚⴼⵓⵕ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴼⵔⵉⵜ."
"The carbon atom has the unique ability to make four strong chemical bonds with other atoms, including other carbon atoms.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ."
"""According to NASA's 2015 Astrobiology Strategy, """"Life on other worlds is most likely to include microbes, and any complex living system elsewhere is likely to have arisen from and be founded upon microbial life.""","ⵙ ⵜⵙⵜⵔⴰⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2015, ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ, “ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ."
"""Rick Colwell, a member of the Deep Carbon Observatory team from Oregon State University, told the BBC: """"I think it’s probably reasonable to assume that the subsurface of other planets and their moons are habitable, especially since we’ve seen here on Earth that organisms can function far away from sunlight using the energy provided directly from the rocks deep underground"""".""","ⵔⵉⴽ ⴽⵓⵍⵡⵉⵍ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⵉⵖⴱⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⴳⵓⵏ, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉ BBC; ⵖⴰⵍⵖ ⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⵓⴼⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖ, ⵏⵓⵎⵕ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵄⵔⴰⵇ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴱⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
The panspermia hypothesis proposes that life elsewhere in the Solar System may have a common origin.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵙⴱⵉⵔⵎⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ.
"In the 19th century it was again revived in modern form by several scientists, including Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1834), Kelvin (1871), Hermann von Helmholtz (1879) and, somewhat later, by Svante Arrhenius (1903).","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵊⴰⴽⵓⴱ ⴱⵔⵣⵍⵢⵓⵙ (1834), ⴽⵉⵍⴼⵉⵏ (1871), ⵀⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵎⵀⵓⵍⵜⵣ (1879) ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵙⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔⵀⵓⵏⵢⵓⵙ (1903)."
"""One of the early scientific inquires into the topic appeared in an 1878 Scientific American article entitled """"Is the Moon Inhabited?""""""",ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⵙⵔⵜ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ Scientific American ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1878 ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ “ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵢⵜ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ?”.
Warm and pressurized regions in the Moon's interior might still contain liquid water.,ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵇⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵓⵍⵍⵉⵏ.
"There is evidence that Mars had a warmer and wetter past: dried-up riverbeds, polar ice caps, volcanoes, and minerals that form in the presence of water have all been found.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⴳⴰⵖⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⵣⵓⵢⵖ, ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵇⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ, ⴷ ⵉⴽⵙⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵓⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
The vapor could have been produced by ice volcanoes or by ice near the surface sublimating (transforming from solid to gas).,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵔⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴽⵙⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⴰⴼ (ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵍⴳⴰⵣ).
It is also possible that Europa could support aerobic macrofauna using oxygen created by cosmic rays impacting its surface ice.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⴼⴰⴼ.
"""On 11 December 2013, NASA reported the detection of """"clay-like minerals"""" (specifically, phyllosilicates), often associated with organic materials, on the icy crust of Europa.""","ⴳ 11 ⴷⵓⵊⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 2013, “ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⵉⵣⵓⵖⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴹ (ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ phyllosilicates), ⵇⴰⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⵍⵖ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵇⵛⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
Some claim to have identified evidence that microbial life has existed on Mars.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵥⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵓⵢⵖ.
"In 1996, a controversial report stated that structures resembling nanobacteria were discovered in a meteorite, ALH84001, formed of rock ejected from Mars.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1996 ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵡⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵏⴰⵢⵣⴰⴽ ALH84001, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵓⵢⵖ."
"NASA officials soon distanced NASA from the scientists' claims, and Stoker herself backed off from her initial assertions.","ⵉⵏⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ; ⵄⵔⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵙⵜⵓⴽⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
It is designed to assess the past and present habitability on Mars using a variety of scientific instruments.,"ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵀⵢⵢⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵓⵢⵖ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵙⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"However, significant advances in the ability to find and resolve light from smaller rocky worlds near their stars are necessary before such spectroscopic methods can be used to analyze extrasolar planets.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ."
"In August 2011, findings by NASA, based on studies of meteorites found on Earth, suggest DNA and RNA components (adenine, guanine and related organic molecules), building blocks for life as we know it, may be formed extraterrestrially in outer space.","ⴳ ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 2011, ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵥⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵢⴰⵥⵉⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵖⵔ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ DNA ⴷ RNA (ⴰⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ), ⵉⴼⴳⴳⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵙⵙⵏ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ."
"In August 2012, and in a world first, astronomers at Copenhagen University reported the detection of a specific sugar molecule, glycolaldehyde, in a distant star system.","ⴳ ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 2012, ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓⴱⵏⵀⴰⴳⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵙⴽⴽⴰⵔ ⴳⵍⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵍⴷⵀⵉⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵄⵕⵇⵏ."
"The Kepler space telescope has also detected a few thousand candidate planets, of which about 11% may be false positives.","ⵢⴰⴼ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱ ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ 11% ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ."
"The most massive planet listed on the NASA Exoplanet Archive is DENIS-P J082303.1-491201 b, about 29 times the mass of Jupiter, although according to most definitions of a planet, it is too massive to be a planet and may be a brown dwarf instead.","ⵜⴰⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵥⴰ, ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ DENIS-P J082303.1-491201 b, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 29 ⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵓⵛⵜⴰⵔⵉ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵏⵉⵡⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ."
"One sign that a planet probably already contains life is the presence of an atmosphere with significant amounts of oxygen, since that gas is highly reactive and generally would not last long without constant replenishment.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵍⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵜ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ."
"Even if it is assumed that only one out of a billion of these stars has planets supporting life, there would be some 6.25 billion life-supporting planetary systems in the observable universe.","ⵎⴽ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵉⴼⴹⵉⴳⵏⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 6.25 ⵏ ⵉⴼⴹⵉⴳⵏⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ."
The earliest recorded assertion of extraterrestrial human life is found in ancient scriptures of Jainism.,ⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵣ ⵉⵡⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵣⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵢⵏⵉⵣⵎ.
Medieval Muslim writers like Fakhr al-Din al-Razi and Muhammad al-Baqir supported cosmic pluralism on the basis of the Qur'an.,ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴼⴰⵅⵔ ⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵕⵕⴰⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵃⵎⵎⴰⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⵇⵕ; ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵇⵕⴰⵏ.
"Once it became clear that Earth was merely one planet amongst countless bodies in the universe, the theory of extraterrestrial life started to become a topic in the scientific community.","ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
The possibility of extraterrestrials remained a widespread speculation as scientific discovery accelerated.,"ⵜⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⴱⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"The idea of life on Mars led British writer H. G. Wells to write the novel The War of the Worlds in 1897, telling of an invasion by aliens from Mars who were fleeing the planet's desiccation.","ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵓⵢⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⵜⵛ ⵊⵉ ⵡⵉⵍⵣ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1897, ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵓⵢⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵓⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ."
"""Belief in extraterrestrial beings continues to be voiced in pseudoscience, conspiracy theories, and popular folklore, notably """"Area 51"""" and legends.""","ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵓⴼⴼⵓⵍⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵄⵏⵡⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵓⵣ, ⴷ ⵍⴼⵓⵍⴽⵍⵓⵕ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ 51, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⵢ."
Ward and Brownlee are open to the idea of evolution on other planets that is not based on essential Earth-like characteristics (such as DNA and carbon).,ⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⵡⵏⵍⵉ ⵔⵣⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ DNA ⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ).
"""If aliens visit us, the outcome would be much as when Columbus landed in America, which didn't turn out well for the Native Americans"""", he said.""","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ “ⵉⴳⵏⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵏⵖ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵣ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓⵙ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ, ⴷ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵥⵖⵓⵕⴰⵏ."
COSPAR also provides guidelines for planetary protection.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴽⵓⵙⴱⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⴼⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ.
"""Also, according to the response, there is """"no credible information to suggest that any evidence is being hidden from the public's eye.""""""","ⴰⵡⴷ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ."
Top: Light sources of different magnitudes.,"ⴳ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵉⵙⴳⵯⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"Comet Borrelly, the colors show its brightness over the range of three orders of magnitude (right).","ⴽⵓⵎⵉⵜ ⴱⵓⵔⵍⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⴱⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵔⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ (ⴰⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ)."
"The scale is logarithmic and defined such that each step of one magnitude changes the brightness by a factor of the fifth root of 100, or approximately 2.512.","ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉ 100, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 2.512."
Astronomers use two different definitions of magnitude: apparent magnitude and absolute magnitude.,"ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ: ⴰⵙⴳⵯⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴰⵔⵉⴼ."
"The absolute magnitude describes the intrinsic luminosity emitted by an object and is defined to be equal to the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were placed at a certain distance from Earth, 10 parsecs for stars.","ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴼⵍⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ, ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⴳ ⵓⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⵙ ⵖⴼ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, 10 ⴼⵔⵙⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ."
The development of the telescope showed that these large sizes were illusory—stars appeared much smaller through the telescope.,ⵉⵙⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴽⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵏⴷⴰⵡⵜ-ⴰⴳⴷ ⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱ.
"The more negative the value, the brighter the object.",ⴽⵓ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡ.
"Stars that have magnitudes between 1.5 and 2.5 are called second-magnitude; there are some 20 stars brighter than 1.5, which are first-magnitude stars (see the list of brightest stars).","ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳⵔ 1.5 ⴷ 2.5 ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 20 ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ 1.5 ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ( ⵥⵕ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ)."
Absolute magnitudes for solar system objects are frequently quoted based on a distance of 1 AU.,ⴷⴰⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⵯⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ 1 AU.
The simplest form of technology is the development and use of basic tools.,ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ.
It has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class.,"ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ( ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ), ⵢⴰⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎⵙⵓⵜ."
"Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics.","ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵥⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
"""The term's meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into """"technology.""""""","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⵔⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⴱⵍⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵖⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉⴽ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵢⴰ."
"""In 1937, the American sociologist Read Bain wrote that """"technology includes all tools, machines, utensils, weapons, instruments, housing, clothing, communicating and transporting devices and the skills by which we produce and use them.""""""","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1937, ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉ ⵔⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ; ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵛⵓⵛⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵍⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ."
"""More recently, scholars have borrowed from European philosophers of """"technique"""" to extend the meaning of technology to various forms of instrumental reason, as in Foucault's work on technologies of the self (techniques de soi).""","ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵎⵥⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⴰⵏⴽⴽⵉⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵓⴽⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ."
"""to invent useful things or to solve problems"""" and """"a machine, piece of equipment, method, etc.,""","ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ, ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵡ, ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ."
"The term is often used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics, rather than technology as a whole.","ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵄⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
"In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems.",ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵜⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ.
"""W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a similarly broad way as """"a means to fulfill a human purpose.""""""","ⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⴱⵔⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵖⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""When combined with another term, such as """"medical technology"""" or """"space technology,"""" it refers to the state of the respective field's knowledge and tools. """"""","ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵓⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵣⴰⵣⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼⵜ”, ⵏⵖⴷ “ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ”, ⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ."
"Additionally, technology is the application of mathematics, science, and the arts for the benefit of life as it is known.","ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"Engineering is the goal-oriented process of designing and making tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena for practical human means, often (but not always) using results and techniques from science.","ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⴷ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ (ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵀⴰ) ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ."
"For example, science might study the flow of electrons in electrical conductors by using already-existing tools and knowledge.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ."
"The exact relations between science and technology, in particular, have been debated by scientists, historians, and policymakers in the late 20th century, in part because the debate can inform the funding of basic and applied science.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⵥⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
"Early humans evolved from a species of foraging hominids which were already bipedal, with a brain mass approximately one third of modern humans.","ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵛ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ."
The invention of polished stone axes was a major advance that allowed forest clearance on a large scale to create farms.,"ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵓⵇⵇⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴳⵔⵣⴰ."
The earliest known use of wind power is the sailing ship; the earliest record of a ship under sail is that of a Nile boat dating to the 8th-millennium BCE.,"ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵜⴳⴰⵜ “ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ”, ⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴼⵍⵓⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 8 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ."
"According to archaeologists, the wheel was invented around 4000 BCE probably independently and nearly simultaneously in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central Europe.","ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵣ, ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 4000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴳ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ( ⵍⵄⵉⵕⴰⵇ ⴷⵖⵉ), ⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵍⵇⵓⵇⴰⵣ ( ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵓⴱ), ⴷ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ."
"More recently, the oldest-known wooden wheel in the world was found in the Ljubljana marshes of Slovenia.","ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⵖ, ⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⵣⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⴱⵍⵢⴰⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵙⵍⵓⴼⵉⵏⵢⴰ."
The ancient Sumerians used the potter's wheel and may have invented it.,"ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵙⵓⵎⵉⵔⵢⵢⵓⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵇⵇⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ."
The first two-wheeled carts were derived from travois and were first used in Mesopotamia and Iran in around 3000 BCE.,"ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ travois, ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⴳⵔ-ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵕⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 3000 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ."
A bathtub virtually identical to modern ones was unearthed at the Palace of Knossos.,ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵛⵓⴼ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵏⵓⵙⵓⵙ.
The primary sewer in Rome was the Cloaca Maxima; construction began on it in the sixth century BCE and it is still in use today.,"ⴰⵇⵇⴰ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵕⵓⵎⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ Cloaca Maxima, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵉⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ."
"Medieval technology saw the use of simple machines (such as the lever, the screw, and the pulley) being combined to form more complicated tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills and clocks, and a system of universities developed and spread scientific ideas and practices.","ⵜⵥⵕ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ( ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵍⵊⵕⵕⴰⵕⵜ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⴹⴼⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⴹⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⵔⴰⴳⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴻⵏ."
"Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution was a period of great technological discovery, particularly in the areas of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, metallurgy, and transport, driven by the discovery of steam power and the widespread application of the factory system.","ⵙⴳ ⵍⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 18, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ, ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵜⴽⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⴽⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ."
The rise in technology has led to skyscrapers and broad urban areas whose inhabitants rely on motors to transport them and their food supplies.,"ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴰⴱⵔⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵎⵛⵜⴰⴳⵏ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
The 20th century brought a host of innovations.,ⵢⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 20 ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ.
"Information technology subsequently led to the birth in the 1980s of the Internet, which ushered in the current Information Age.","ⵜⵓⵡⵢ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ 1980, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵔⵃⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ."
"Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and organizations are needed to make and maintain some of the newer technologies, and entire industries have arisen to support and develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools.","ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵀⵢⵢⵓ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⵍ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜ."
"Transhumanists generally believe that the point of technology is to overcome barriers, and that what we commonly refer to as the human condition is just another barrier to be surpassed.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ “ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ” ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵖⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⴹⵡ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵏⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⴻⵏⴹⵡ."
They suggest that the inevitable result of such a society is to become evermore technological at the cost of freedom and psychological health.,ⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ; ⵜⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⵓⴽⵍⵉⵙⵜ.
"He hopes to reveal the essence of technology in a way that 'in no way confines us to a stultified compulsion to push on blindly with technology or, what comes to the same thing, to rebel helplessly against it.'","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽ ⵢⴰⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴽ ⵎⴰⵎⵏⴽ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵜⴽⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵇⵏ-ⵡⴰⵍⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵉⵖⵡⵡⵖ ⵙ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ."
"Some of the most poignant criticisms of technology are found in what are now considered to be dystopian literary classics such as Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange, and George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four.","ⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⵉⵇⵏⴹⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴷⵓⵙ ⵀⵉⴽⵙⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵏⵉ ⴱⵓⵔⴳⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵏⴱⵓⵄⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵓⵕⵡⵉⵍ."
"""The late cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and from what he called """"technopolies,"""" societies that are dominated by the ideology of technological and scientific progress to the exclusion or harm of other cultural practices, values, and world-views.""","ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⴼⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ; ⵏⵉⵍ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ, ⵉⵖⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵜⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵄⵔⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵔⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
"Nikolas Kompridis has also written about the dangers of new technology, such as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, synthetic biology, and robotics.","ⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴽⵓⵎⴱⵔⵉⴷⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ."
"Another prominent critic of technology is Hubert Dreyfus, who has published books such as On the Internet and What Computers Still Can't Do.","ⴰⴼⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵀⵓⴱⵉⵔ ⴷⵔⴰⵢⴼⵓⵣ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵔⵏ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴳ ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵔⵜⴰ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ."
"In his article, Jared Bernstein, a Senior Fellow at the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, questions the widespread idea that automation, and more broadly, technological advances, have mainly contributed to this growing labor market problem.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⵏⵛⵜⴰⵢⵏ, ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⵯⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⵜⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ, ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴰⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⴼⴹⴹⵏ."
He uses two main arguments to defend his point.,ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"""Indeed, automation threatens repetitive jobs but higher-end jobs are still necessary because they complement technology and manual jobs that """"requires flexibility judgment and common sense"""" remain hard to replace with machines.""","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵉⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⵓⵜⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵃⵙⵙⵉ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ."
"""Technology is often considered too narrowly; according to Hughes, """"Technology is a creative process involving human ingenuity"""".""","ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵀⵢⵓⵣ “ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵜⵏⵏⴹⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ."
They have often supposed that technology is easily controllable and this assumption has to be thoroughly questioned.,"ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ."
Solutionism is the ideology that every social issue can be solved thanks to technology and especially thanks to the internet.,ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵜⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵢⵢⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ: ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵓⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ.
Benjamin R. Cohen and Gwen Ottinger also discussed the multivalent effects of technology.,ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⴱⵏⵢⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵔ.ⴽⵓⵀⵏ ⴷ ⴳⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵜⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ.
The use of basic technology is also a feature of other animal species apart from humans.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ.
The ability to make and use tools was once considered a defining characteristic of the genus Homo.,ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.
"""In 2005, futurist Ray Kurzweil predicted that the future of technology would mainly consist of an overlapping """"GNR Revolution"""" of genetics, nanotechnology and robotics, with robotics being the most important of the three.""","“ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2005, ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵓⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵔⴰⵢ ⴽⵓⵍⵣⵡⵉⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⴳ “ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ GNR” ⵉⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ.”"
Humans have already made some of the first steps toward achieving the GNR revolution.,ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ; ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ “ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ GNR”.
Some believe that the future of robotics will involve a 'greater than human non-biological intelligence.',ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ.
"""This future shares many similarities with the concept of planned obsolescence, however, planned obsolescence is seen as a """"sinister business strategy.'""","ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ “ⵜⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ”, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵖⵔ “ⵜⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ” ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵅⵛⵏ."
"Genetics have also been explored, with humans understanding genetic engineering to a certain degree.",ⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ.
Others think that genetic engineering will be used to make humans more resistant or completely immune to some diseases.,ⵡⵉⵢⴹ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
It is believed by futurists that nanobot technology will allow humans to 'manipulate matter at the molecular and atomic scale.',ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵓⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵊ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ.
"""In this context, now obsolete, an """"engine"""" referred to a military machine, i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult).""","“ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⴹⵓ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ “ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙ”, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ( ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴷⵉ).”"
The six classic simple machines were known in the ancient Near East.,"ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵙⴹⵉⵚ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ, ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵎⵎⵓⴹ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕ."
"The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was used in a simple balance scale, and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology.","ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 5000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⴰⴳⵎⵎⵓⴹ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵛⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ."
"The screw, the last of the simple machines to be invented, first appeared in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period (911-609) BC.",ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵓⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⵛⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ (911-609) ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ.
"As one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵄⴰⵡⵏ, ⵣⵓⵙⵉⵔ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵣⵓⵙⵔ (ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵕⵊⴰⵏⵉⵏ), ⴳ ⵙⴰⵇⴰⵕⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 2630-2611 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ."
Kushite ancestors built speos during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC.Bloomeries and blast furnaces were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush.,"ⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵓⵛⵢⵢⵓⵏ speos, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴱⵔⵓⵏⵣⵉ ⴳⵔ 3700 ⴷ 3250 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵕⵕⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 7 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴳ ⴽⵓⵛ."
"Some of Archimedes' inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.","ⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵅⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ Antikythera, ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵀⵢⵢⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⵙ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵓⵢⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
"The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning jenny, which was a key development during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.","ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⴳⵏⴷⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵏⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵏⴽⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 18."
"He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine, where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.","ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵓⴳⵏⵏⴰⴳ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⵏⵏⴳⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵊⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵅⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵏⵏⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology.","ⵉⴳ ⵏⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ."
Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution.,"ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴷⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⵉⴹⵓⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ.
Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the Newcomen steam engine.,ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ Newcomen.
"Samuel Morland, a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that Thomas Savery read.","ⵚⴰⵎⵡⵉⵍ ⵎⵓⵕⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⴽⵢⵉⵏ, ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵓⴽⵙⵀⵓⵍ ⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⴽⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⴳⴳⵯⴰⵓ, ⵉⵖⵔⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⴼⵔⵉ."
"Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen, who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training.","ⴰⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵓⴽⵓⵎⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1712, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical.","ⵙⵙⴷⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵓⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵢⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⴳⵯⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
"With the development of the high pressure steam engine, the power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵢⵉⴷⵔ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴼⵍⵓⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ."
"The Industrial Revolution created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several machine tools.","ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵔⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵖⵓⵔⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ."
Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th century.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴳⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19.
"""The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of """"engineer"""" for the first time with a count of 2,000.""","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⵟⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ 1850, ⵢⵓⵎⵣ ⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ 2000."
"In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1890, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ 6000 ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕⵜ."
"The foundations of electrical engineering in the 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⴳ 1800, ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔⵓ ⴼⵓⵍⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵓⵎ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴳⵔⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵣⴰⵕⵓⵕⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1816 ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1872."
Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design.,"ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⵓⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ."
"Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches.",ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵖⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ.
"As a result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers.","ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ."
"It is generally insufficient to build a technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵇⴹⵉ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"""Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of """"low-level"""" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.""","“ⵉⵏⵏⴰ Genrich Altshuller ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴷⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ, ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵓⴳⴳⴰⵣ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵍⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ, “ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⵣ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ “, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ.”"
Testing ensures that products will perform as expected.,ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵜⵏ ⵏⴷⵎⴰ.
As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications (computer-aided technologies) specifically for engineering.,"ⵙ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ (ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ), ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ."
"It enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs.","ⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ 3 ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ 2 ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵚⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of product data management software.,"ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵓⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴱⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ."
"By its very nature engineering has interconnections with society, culture and human behavior.",ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ.
Engineering projects can be subject to controversy.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖ.
Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human development.,ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ.
"There are many negative economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ."
"Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ."
"First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵎⴼⴽⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ."
The former equates an understanding into a mathematical principle while the latter measures variables involved and creates technology.,ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ.
A physicist would typically require additional and relevant training.,ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ.
"An example of this is the use of numerical approximations to the Navier–Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of the Finite element method to calculate the stresses in complex components.","ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⴼⵢⵉⵔ ⵙⵜⵓⴽⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏⵜ ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵉⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ."
Engineers stress innovation and invention.,ⵙⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵍⵥⴰⵡⵏ.
"Since a design has to be realistic and functional, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data defined.","ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Thus they studied mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics.",ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ.
"Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ; ⵜⵓⵥⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵡⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ."
Both fields provide solutions to real world problems.,ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ.
"""Engineering management or """"Management engineering"""" is a specialized field of management concerned with engineering practice or the engineering industry sector.""","ⵜⴰⵎⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⴰ, ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ."
Engineers specializing in change management must have in-depth knowledge of the application of industrial and organizational psychology principles and methods.,"ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ, ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ."
"Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence demonstrated by machines, as opposed to the natural intelligence displayed by humans or animals.","ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ (ⵛⵜ) ⵉⴳⴰ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵙⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
"AI research has tried and discarded many different approaches during its lifetime, including simulating the brain, modeling human problem solving, formal logic, large databases of knowledge and imitating animal behavior.","ⵓⵔⵎⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴹⵡ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⵏ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ, ⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴹⴼⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ."
"The traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.","ⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵖⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ,ⴷ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⴰⵜⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵛⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"AI also draws upon computer science, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, and many other fields.",ⵜⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"""The study of mechanical or """"formal"""" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity.""",ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ.
"The Church-Turing thesis, along with concurrent discoveries in neurobiology, information theory and cybernetics, this led researchers to consider the possibility of building an electronic brain.","ⵜⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵕⵜ ⵏⵜⵛⵓⵔⵛ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ, ⵙ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏⵉ."
"Attendees Allen Newell (CMU), Herbert Simon (CMU), John McCarthy (MIT), Marvin Minsky (MIT) and Arthur Samuel (IBM) became the founders and leaders of AI research.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵍ (CMU), ⴷ ⵀⴰⵔⴱⵔⵜ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ (CMU), ⴷ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵎⴽⴰⵔⵜⵉ ( ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵜⵛⵓⵙⵜⵛ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ), ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⴼⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⵙⴽⵉ ( ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵜⵛⵓⵙⵜⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ), ⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⵔ ⵚⴰⵎⵡⵉⵍ (IBM), ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
"""AI's founders were optimistic about the future: Herbert Simon predicted, """"machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do"""".""",ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ: ⵉⴷⵎⴰ ⵀⵔⴱⵔⵜ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ “ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ”.
"Progress slowed and in 1974, in response to the criticism of Sir James Lighthill and ongoing pressure from the US Congress to fund more productive projects, both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in AI.","ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1974, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵔ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵍⴰⵢⵜⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⴽⵓⵏⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽ, ⵜⵙⴱⴷⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⴳ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
"By 1985, the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars.","ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1985, ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴹ ⵉⴳⵏⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ."
"Faster computers, algorithmic improvements, and access to large amounts of data enabled advances in machine learning and perception; data-hungry deep learning methods started to dominate accuracy benchmarks around 2012.","ⵓⵡⵉⵏⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵔⴱⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ; ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵉⵖⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 2012."
AI research divided into competing sub-fields that often failed to communicate with each other.,"ⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵎⵛⴰⵃⴰⴷⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ."
"The research was centered in three institutions: Carnegie Mellon University, Stanford, and MIT, and as described below, each one developed its own style of research.","ⵉⵙⵎⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ: ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⵏⵊⵉ ⵎⵉⵍⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵔⴷ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵜⵛⵓⵙⵜⵛ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⴰⵙ, ⵜⴱⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴽⵓ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ."
"They called their work by several names: e.g. embodied, situated, behavior-based or developmental.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ: ⵣⵓⵏⴷ, ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⴰ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵍⵉⵜ."
"The shared mathematical language permitted a high level of collaboration with more established fields (like mathematics, economics or operations research).",ⵜⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵔⴰⵏ (ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ).
"Nowadays results of experiments are often rigorously measurable, and are sometimes (with difficulty) reproducible.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ( ⵙ ⵛⵇⵇⵉⵢⵜ) ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ."
"""These algorithms proved to be insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experienced a """"combinatorial explosion"""": they became exponentially slower as the problems grew larger.""","“ⵙⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵎⵔⵔⵜⵏⵜ ⵙ “ⵓⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ”, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ.”"
"Among the things a comprehensive commonsense knowledge base would contain are: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects; situations, events, states and time; causes and effects; knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know); and many other, less well researched domains.","ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⵜ: ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ; ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ, ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ( ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵙⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ), ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ."
"For example, if a bird comes up in conversation, people typically picture a fist-sized animal that sings and flies.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴳⴹⵉⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵎⵉⵥⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ."
Almost nothing is simply true or false in the way that abstract logic requires.,ⴰⵡⴷ ⵎⴰⵄⵍⵎ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵣⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵜⵔ ⵡⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ.
"Research projects that attempt to build a complete knowledge base of commonsense knowledge (e.g., Cyc) require enormous amounts of laborious ontological engineering—they must be built, by hand, one complicated concept at a time.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⵜ ( ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ Cyc), ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵏ - ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ, ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ."
"""They need a way to visualize the future—a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it—and be able to make choices that maximize the utility (or """"value"""") of available choices.""","“ⵜⵅⵚⵚⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ - ⴰⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⴳⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵎⵏⴽ ⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⴰⵕⵙ - ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵙⵜ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ), ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ.”"
This calls for an agent that can not only assess its environment and make predictions but also evaluate its predictions and adapt based on its assessment.,"ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Classification is used to determine what category something belongs in, and occurs after a program sees a number of examples of things from several categories.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⴷⴰⵕⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ."
"Computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample complexity (how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization.","ⵜⵖⵢ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ (ⴰⵙⴳⵯⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏ), ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ."
"""Many current approaches use word co-occurrence frequencies to construct syntactic representations of text. """"""",“ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵉⴳⵍⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴽⵓⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵊⵕⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚ.”
"Modern statistical NLP approaches can combine all these strategies as well as others, and often achieve acceptable accuracy at the page or paragraph level.","ⵜⵖⵉ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴷⵔⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ."
"A modern mobile robot, when given a small, static, and visible environment, can easily determine its location and map its environment; however, dynamic environments, such as (in endoscopy) the interior of a patient's breathing body, pose a greater challenge.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵛⵜⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵡⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⵍⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ (ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏ), ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⴼⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴹⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵕⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ."
"For example, some virtual assistants are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate human–computer interaction.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵍⵀⴹⵕⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴹⵚⴰ, ⴷⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵣⵔⵉⵜ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉ ⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵃⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ."
"Can intelligent behavior be described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic or optimization)?",ⵉⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵖⵉⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⴳⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ).
"""Or do we use algorithms that can only give us a """"reasonable"""" solution (e.g., probabilistic methods) but may fall prey to the same kind of inscrutable mistakes that human intuition makes?""","“ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴰⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ “ⴰⵎⵏⵍⵍⵉ” (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ), ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ?”"
"""Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig observe that most AI researchers """"don't care about the strong AI hypothesis—as long as the program works, they don't care whether you call it a simulation of intelligence or real intelligence.""""""","ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵙⵜⵉⵡⴰⵔⵜ ⵔⴰⵙⵍ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵜⵔ ⵏⵓⵔⴼⵉⵊ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ; ⵓⵔ ⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ - ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ, ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⵓⵔⵜⵏ ⵉⵀⵡⵡⵉⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
The new intelligence could thus increase exponentially and dramatically surpass humans.,"ⵉⵡⴰ, ⵜⵛⵢ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵔⵏⵓ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
The relationship between automation and employment is complicated.,ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵏⵡⵡⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵔⵡⵢ.
"""Subjective estimates of the risk vary widely; for example, Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey estimate 47% of U.S. jobs are at """"high risk"""" of potential automation, while an OECD report classifies only 9% of U.S. jobs as """"high risk"""".""","ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⵓⵣⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⴱⵉⵏⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴼⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵙ 47% ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ “ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ” ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ 9% ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ."
"In the long-term, the scientists have proposed to continue optimizing function while minimizing possible security risks that come along with new technologies.","ⴷⴰⴷⵖ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ, ⵙⵓⵎⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
"In his book Superintelligence, philosopher Nick Bostrom provides an argument that artificial intelligence will pose a threat to humankind.",ⵉⴽⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵏⵉⴽ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵔⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ Superintelligence; ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴰⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.
Bostrom also emphasizes the difficulty of fully conveying humanity's values to an advanced AI.,ⵉⵙⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵔⵓⵎ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ.
"In his book Human Compatible, AI researcher Stuart J. Russell echoes some of Bostrom's concerns while also proposing an approach to developing provably beneficial machines focused on uncertainty and deference to humans, possibly involving inverse reinforcement learning.","ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵜⵉⵡⴰⵔⵜ ⵊ.ⵔⴰⵙⵍ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⵙⵙⵓⴹⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵔⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵡⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴽ ⵜⴰⵢⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵉ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵏⵏⵓ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⴹ."
"The opinion of experts within the field of artificial intelligence is mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superhumanly-capable AI.","ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵛⵛⴰⵔ, ⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⴽ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⴽ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⴰ."
"""Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg believes AI will """"unlock a huge amount of positive things,"""" such as curing disease and increasing the safety of autonomous cars.""","ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⵎⴰⵔⴽ ⵣⵓⴽⵔⴱⵉⵔⴳ ⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⵙⴱⵓⴽ; ⵉⵙⴷ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵥⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵃⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
"""Musk also funds companies developing artificial intelligence such as DeepMind and Vicarious to """"just keep an eye on what's going on with artificial intelligence.""",ⵉⵙⵙⵥⵕⴰⴼ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⴽ ⵜⵉⴷⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⵉⴱⵎⴰⵏⴷ ⴷ ⴼⵉⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵃⴹⵓ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ.
"Research in this area includes machine ethics, artificial moral agents, friendly AI and discussion towards building a human rights framework is also in talks.","ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⴷ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⴷⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰⵍ."
The time has come for adding an ethical dimension to at least some machines.,"ⵜⴳⵓⵍⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴱⵄⴷⴰ."
Research in machine ethics is key to alleviating concerns with autonomous systems—it could be argued that the notion of autonomous machines without such a dimension is at the root of all fear concerning machine intelligence.,"ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ: ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ - ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⴰⴹ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ."
"Humans should not assume machines or robots would treat us favorably because there is no a priori reason to believe that they would be sympathetic to our system of morality, which has evolved along with our particular biology (which AIs would not share).","ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴽⴰ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵓⵜⴰⵜ ⵀⴰⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵏⵖ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵣⴰⵕⵏⵖ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ( ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵛⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ)."
One proposal to deal with this is to ensure that the first generally intelligent AI is 'Friendly AI' and will be able to control subsequently developed AIs.,"ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵎⵔⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ; ⴰⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵛⵡⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ, ⵉⵛⵡⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⵯⵍ, ⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ."
"""I think the worry stems from a fundamental error in not distinguishing the difference between the very real recent advances in a particular aspect of AI and the enormity and complexity of building sentient volitional intelligence.""""""","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵣⵄⴰⴼ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⴳⵎ."
Regulation is considered necessary to both encourage AI and manage associated risks.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵏⴱⵣⴰⵣ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵔⵇⴱ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵏ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵙⵍⵖⵏ.
"A common trope in these works began with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, where a human creation becomes a threat to its masters.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⵍⵡⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵛⵉⵍⵉⵢⵣ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽⵏⵙⵜⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""Isaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many books and stories, most notably the """"Multivac"""" series about a super-intelligent computer of the same name.""","ⵉⴽⴰ ⵉⵙⵃⴰⵇ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⵓⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵔⵓⴱⵓⵜⴰⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⵢⵓⴼⵜ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ “ⵎⵓⵍⵜⵉⴼⴰⴽ”, ⵖⴼ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵛⵡⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ."
"""In the 1980s, artist Hajime Sorayama's Sexy Robots series were painted and published in Japan depicting the actual organic human form with lifelike muscular metallic skins and later """"the Gynoids"""" book followed that was used by or influenced movie makers including George Lucas and other creatives.""","ⴳ 1980, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵓⴱⵓⵢⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ, ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵀⴰⵊⵉⵎⵉ ⵙⵓⵔⴰⵢⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⴳ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵊⵊ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ, ⵉⴹⴼⵓⵕⵜⵉⴷ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ “ⵊⵉⵏⵡⵉⴷ” ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵊⵓⵔⵊ ⵍⵓⴽⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"Biotechnology is a broad area of biology, involving the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products.","ⴱⵢⵓ-ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ, ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"The American Chemical Society defines biotechnology as the application of biological organisms, systems, or processes by various industries to learning about the science of life and the improvement of the value of materials and organisms such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and livestock.","ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ."
"Bioengineering is the application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells and molecules.",ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵎⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ.
"Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best-suited crops, having the highest yields, to produce enough food to support a growing population.","ⵙⴳ ⴱⵉⵄⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ, ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵖⴷ ⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵡⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ."
These processes also were included in early fermentation of beer.,ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵅⵎⵕ ⵣⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵍⴱⵉⵔⵔⴰ.
"In this process, carbohydrates in the grains broke down into alcohols, such as ethanol.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⴼⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵍⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⴷⵉ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵍⴰⵍⴽⵓⵍ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵏⵓⵍ."
"Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur's work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵅⵎⵕ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⴱⴰⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1857, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴱⵢⵓ-ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
These accounts contributed to Darwin's theory of natural selection.,ⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ.
"In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1928, ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔ ⴼⵍⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵖⵓⵍ Penicillium."
The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959.,"ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ MOSFET (ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵣⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⵓⴹⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵖⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵉⵏ), ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⵓⵃⵎⵎⴰⴷ ⵎ, ⵄⴰⵟⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵀ, ⴷ ⴷⴰⵡⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⵊ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1959."
"The first BioFET was the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET), invented by Piet Bergveld in 1970.","BioFET ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵣⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⴱⵓ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⴹ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ, ⵉⵎⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵜ (ISFET), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⴱⵉⵢ ⴱⵉⵔⴼⵉⵍⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1970."
"By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the gas sensor FET (GASFET), pressure sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET).","ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1980, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ BioFETs ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵎⵙⵃⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵍⴳⴰⵣ FET (GASFET), ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵣⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔ, ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ (ChemFET), ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ISFET (REFET), ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵍⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎ FET (ENFET), ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴼⴰⵍ FET (IMFET)."
"Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⴳ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵜⴰⵏⵓⵍ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵍⴱⵉⵟⵔⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵢⵓⵡⴹⵏ ⴰⵔ 30% ⴷⴰⴷⵖ ⵙ 2030."
"TCE: The Chemical Engineer, (816), 26–31.","TCE: ⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ, (816), 26–31."
Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals.,ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ) ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵉⵎⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ.
"On the other hand, some of the uses of green biotechnology involve microorganisms to clean and reduce waste.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⴰⴽⵓⵛⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⵣⴷⴳ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴷⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴰⴹⵏ."
"As well as the development of hormones, stem cells, antibodies, siRNA and diagnostic tests.",ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵍⵀⵓⵔⵎⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵍⵎⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴷ siRNA ⴷ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴽⴰⵣⵏ.
"One application is the creation of enhanced seeds that resist extreme environmental conditions of arid regions, which is related to the innovation, creation of agriculture techniques and management of resources.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⴰⵎⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵍⵊⴰⴼⴰⴼ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵍⵖⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ."
"The purpose of pharmacogenomics is to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with respect to the patients' genotype, to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal adverse effects.","ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⴰⵔⵜ ⵊⵉⵏⵉ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵊⵓⵊⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ, ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵚⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ; ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵖⵍⵉⵏ.
"Genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's ancestry.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵣ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵀⵛⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ (ⵎⵎⴰ ⴷ ⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰ) ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ."
"Most of the time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders.","ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵄⵣⵄ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⵓ."
Biotechnology firms can contribute to future food security by improving the nutrition and viability of urban agriculture.,"ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵉⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ."
10% of the world's crop lands were planted with GM crops in 2010.,ⵜⵢⴰⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ 10% ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴽⵓⵙⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2010.
These techniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control over a food's genetic structure than previously afforded by methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.,"ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴳⵎ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⴰⵖⵓⴼⴼⴰⵏ."
These have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and better nutrient profiles.,ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵏⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉⵜⵏ.
"Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ, ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
"However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴽⵚⵓⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴽⵙ ⵍⴰⵥ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⴰⴹ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ."
"There are differences in the regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation within the EU and approval for import and processing.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵢⵉⵡⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ.
Each successful application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed.,"ⴷⴰ ⵓⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵥⵕⴼ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⵄⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔⵜ."
"Cloning is the process of producing individual organisms with either identical or virtually identical DNA, either by natural or artificial means.","ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵙ DNA ⴰⵎⵙⵉⵙⴽⵍ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ."
It is used in a wide array of biological experiments and practical applications ranging from genetic fingerprinting to large scale protein production.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ.
"Initially, the DNA of interest needs to be isolated to provide a DNA segment of suitable size.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ DNA ⵏⵉⵍ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴷⵊ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ DNA ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ."
Following ligation the vector with the insert of interest is transfected into cells.,"ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵖⵔⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵍⵎⵉⴽⵜ."
A useful tissue culture technique used to clone distinct lineages of cell lines involves the use of cloning rings (cylinders).,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵚⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴼⵍⵓ ⵓⵙⵓⴼ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵅⵕⵚⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵓ (ⵜⵓⴳⴷⵉⵎⵜ).
"""This process is also called """"research cloning"""" or """"therapeutic cloning"""".""","“ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ “ⴰⵙⵙⴳⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ”, ⵏⵖⴷ “ⴰⵙⵙⴳⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ”.”"
Therapeutic cloning is achieved by creating embryonic stem cells in the hopes of treating diseases such as diabetes and Alzheimer's.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵢⴰⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴽⴽⵯⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵀⴰⵢⵎⵕ.
The reason why SCNT is used for cloning is because somatic cells can be easily acquired and cultured in the lab.,ⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⴹ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵡⵉⵙⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵥ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ.
"The oocyte will react to the somatic cell nucleus, the same way it would to a sperm cell's nucleus.","ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵖⵓⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
The somatic cells could be used immediately or stored in the laboratory for later use.,"ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴼⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵜ."
This creates a one-cell embryo.,ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ.
"The successfully developed embryos are then placed in surrogate recipients, such as a cow or sheep in the case of farm animals.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵍⵇⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉⵜⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵏⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵍⴰⵖ."
Another benefit is SCNT is seen as a solution to clone endangered species that are on the verge of going extinct.,ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴽⴽⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵛⵛⴽ.
"Only three of these embryos survived until birth, and only one survived to adulthood.","ⵓⴳⵔⵏⴷ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ, ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⴽⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⴳ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎ."
"However, by 2014 researchers were reporting cloning success rates of seven to eight out of ten and in 2016, a Korean Company Sooam Biotech was reported to be producing 500 cloned embryos per day.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2014; ⵄⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵙⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2016; ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵄⵍⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵙⵡⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴱⵢⵓ-ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ 500 ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵙ."
"Asexual reproduction is a naturally occurring phenomenon in many species, including most plants and some insects.","ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵅⵅⴰⵛ."
"As an example, some European cultivars of grapes represent clones that have been propagated for over two millennia.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴹⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ."
"Many trees, shrubs, vines, ferns and other herbaceous perennials form clonal colonies naturally.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵖ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⵍⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⴼ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⵙⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"In plants, parthenogenesis means the development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg cell, and is a component process of apomixis.","ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵍⴰⵙⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ apomixis."
Such clones are not strictly identical since the somatic cells may contain mutations in their nuclear DNA.,ⵉⵙⵏⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⵏⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ DNA ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ.
"Artificial embryo splitting or embryo twinning, a technique that creates monozygotic twins from a single embryo, is not considered in the same fashion as other methods of cloning.","ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⵉⵡⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡⵏ ⵎⵎ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵣⵉⵊⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
Dolly's embryo was created by taking the cell and inserting it into a sheep ovum.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍⵍⵉ.
She was cloned at the Roslin Institute in Scotland by British scientists Sir Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell and lived there from her birth in 1996 until her death in 2003 when she was six.,"ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵣⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴽⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ; ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵉⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵉⵜ ⴽⴰⵎⴱⵍ, ⵜⴷⴷⵔ ⴷⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵍⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1996 ⴰⴳ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2003 ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ."
"Dolly was publicly significant because the effort showed that genetic material from a specific adult cell, designed to express only a distinct subset of its genes, can be redesigned to grow an entirely new organism.","ⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵍ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵕⵉⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"The first mammalian cloning (resulting in Dolly the sheep) had a success rate of 29 embryos per 277 fertilized eggs, which produced three lambs at birth, one of which lived.","ⵉⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴹⴻⴹⵉⵏ (ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵉ), ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ 29 ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵓ 277 ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵍⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵏⵓⴳⵓⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏ."
"Notably, although the first clones were frogs, no adult cloned frog has yet been produced from a somatic adult nucleus donor cell.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉ ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵓ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ."
"However, other researchers, including Ian Wilmut who led the team that successfully cloned Dolly, argue that Dolly's early death due to respiratory infection was unrelated to problems with the cloning process.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵎⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵉⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⵣⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵏⴼⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ."
"""Soviet scientists Chaylakhyan, Veprencev, Sviridova, and Nikitin had the mouse """"Masha"""" cloned.""","ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴼⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵛⴰⵢⵍⴰⵅⵢⴰⵏ, ⴼⵉⴱⵔⵉⵏⴽⵉⴼ, ⵙⴼⵉⵔⵉⴷⵓⴼⴰ, ⴷ ⵏⵉⴽⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⴷⴰ “ⵎⴰⵛⴰ” ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ."
More akin to artificial formation of twins.,ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴱ ⵡⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡⵏ.
"Dog: Snuppy, a male Afghan hound was the first cloned dog (2005).","ⵉⴳⴷⵉ: ⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵉ, ⴰⵇⵣⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵖⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ (2005)."
Water buffalo: Samrupa was the first cloned water buffalo.,ⴰⵎⵓⴳⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ: ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵎⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴳⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ.
"Camel: (2009) Injaz, is the first cloned camel.","ⴰⵍⵖⵎ: (2009) ⵉⵏⵊⴰⵣ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ."
Goat: (2001) Scientists of Northwest A&F University successfully cloned the first goat which use the adult female cell.,"ⵜⴰⵖⴰⴹⵜ: (2001) ⵎⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ Northwest A&F, ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎⵜ."
"Conducted in China in 2017, and reported in January 2018.","ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2017, ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏⴰⵢⵔ 2018."
"Black-footed ferret: (2020) In 2020, a team of scientists cloned a female named Willa, who died in the mid-1980s and left no living descendants.","ⵉⵣⵉⵔⴷⵉ ⴱⵓ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍⵏ: (2020) ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2020, ⵜⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵜⵎⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵡⵉⵍⴰ, ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ 1980, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵊⵉ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ."
It does not refer to the natural conception and delivery of identical twins.,ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵏⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ.
"As of right now, scientists have no intention of trying to clone people and they believe their results should spark a wider discussion about the laws and regulations the world needs to regulate cloning.","ⵙⴳ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵇⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵔⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⴽⴰⵕ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ."
"While many of these views are religious in origin, the questions raised by cloning are faced by secular perspectives as well.","ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴷⴰⵜⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"Opponents of cloning have concerns that technology is not yet developed enough to be safe and that it could be prone to abuse (leading to the generation of humans from whom organs and tissues would be harvested), as well as concerns about how cloned individuals could integrate with families and with society at large.","ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵚⵚⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ; ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵅⵛⵏ ( ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴽⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ), ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
"""This is also referred to as """"Conservation cloning"""".""",ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵣⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ “ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉ”.
These successes provided hope that similar techniques (using surrogate mothers of another species) might be used to clone extinct species.,"ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵉⵏ (ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ), ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⵓⵛⵛⴽⴰⵏ."
"In 2002, geneticists at the Australian Museum announced that they had replicated DNA of the thylacine (Tasmanian tiger), at the time extinct for about 65 years, using polymerase chain reaction.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2002, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ DNA ⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ (ⴰⵖⵉⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏⵉ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵇⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 65 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵍⴱⵉⵍⵎⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔ."
"In 2003, for the first time, an extinct animal, the Pyrenean ibex mentioned above was cloned, at the Centre of Food Technology and Research of Aragon, using the preserved frozen cell nucleus of the skin samples from 2001 and domestic goat egg-cells.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2003, ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵉⵏⵜⵍⵏ, ⵖⴼ ⵍⴱⵔⴰⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴱⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵔⴰⴳⵓⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵉⴳⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2001 ⴷ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵖⴰⴹ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"""""""Когда вернутся мамонты"""" (""""When the Mammoths Return""""), 5 February 2015 (retrieved 6 September 2015) Another problem is the survival of the reconstructed mammoth: ruminants rely on a symbiosis with specific microbiota in their stomachs for digestion.""","""""""Когда вернутся мамонты"""" ( ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵍⵎⴰⵎⵓⵜ), 5 ⴼⴱⵕⴰⵢⵕ 2015 ( ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵓⵔⴰⴷ ⴳ 6 ⵛⵓⵜⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 2015), ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵎⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ: ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱⵢⵓⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵥⴰⵥ.”"
"Because of this, some posited she may have aged more quickly than other naturally born animals, as she died relatively early for a sheep at the age of six.","ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵉⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⴳ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⵣⵉⴽ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵍⵇⵄ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ."
"However, early pregnancy loss and neonatal losses are still greater with cloning than natural conception or assisted reproduction (IVF).","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵜⵉⵣⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵃⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙⵜ (IVF)."
"The concept of cloning, particularly human cloning, has featured a wide variety of science fiction works.","ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ, ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"Many works depict the artificial creation of humans by a method of growing cells from a tissue or DNA sample; the replication may be instantaneous, or take place through slow growth of human embryos in artificial wombs.","ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ DNA, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵉⵢⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ."
Science fiction films such as The Matrix and Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones have featured scenes of human foetuses being cultured on an industrial scale in mechanical tanks.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ: ⵜⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ - ⴰⵙⵓⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵣⴷⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵔⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴳⵔⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴷⴱⴱⴰⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵢⵉⵏ.
"A Number was adapted by Caryl Churchill for television, in a co-production between the BBC and HBO Films.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⴽ ⵓⵣⵡⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴰⵔⵢⴰⵍ ⵜⵛⵉⵔⵛⵍ, ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ BBC ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵙ ⵏ HBO."
"She grew up always doubtful about the love from her mother, who looked nothing like her and who died nine years before.","ⵜⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ."
"In the 1976 Ira Levin novel The Boys from Brazil and its 1978 film adaptation, Josef Mengele uses cloning to create copies of Adolf Hitler.","ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵕⴰ ⵍⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1976 ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⴰⵣⵉⵍ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⵓⵎⴽⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ 1978, ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵊⵓⵣⵉⴼ ⵎⵉⵏⵊⵍ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵍⴼ ⵀⵉⵜⵍⵉⵕ."
"""In Doctor Who, an alien race of armour-clad, warlike beings called Sontarans was introduced in the 1973 serial """"The Time Warrior"""".""","ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ""ⵓⴷⵓⴽⵟⵓⵕ ⵀⵓ"", ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⴱⴱⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⵜⵕⴰⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1973 ""ⴰⵎⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴽⵓⴷⴰⵏ""."""
"""The concept of cloned soldiers being bred for combat was revisited in """"The Doctor's Daughter"""" (2008), when the Doctor's DNA is used to create a female warrior called Jenny.""","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵄⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵄⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⴽⵟⵓⵕ"" (2008), ⴽⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ""."
"The 2005 Kazuo Ishiguro novel Never Let Me Go and the 2010 film adaption are set in an alternate history in which cloned humans are created for the sole purpose of providing organ donations to naturally born humans, despite the fact that they are fully sentient and self-aware.","ⴳ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵣⵓⵡⵓ ⵉⵛⵓⴳⵓⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2005 ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵓⵃⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵏⵓⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ 2010 ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴼⵛⵛⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"""In the futuristic novel Cloud Atlas and subsequent film, one of the story lines focuses on a genetically-engineered fabricant clone named Sonmi~451, one of millions raised in an artificial """"wombtank"""", destined to serve from birth.""","ⴳ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⵍⴰⵙ ⴽⵍⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵏⴹⴼⴰⵕ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵏⵖⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⵙⵓⵏⵎⵉ~451, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ""wombtank"", ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"In the film Us, at some point prior to the 1980s, the US Government creates clones of every citizen of the United States with the intention of using them to control their original counterparts, akin to voodoo dolls.","ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵓⵣ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1980 ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⴷⵙⵉⵃ, ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵖⵍ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵉⵢ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵓⴷⵓ ⴷⵓⵍⵙ."
"In the present day, the clones launch a surprise attack and manage to complete a mass-genocide of their unaware counterparts.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⵙⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴽⵏ."
"Genes have been transferred within the same species, across species (creating transgenic organisms), and even across kingdoms.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ (ⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ), ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
"Genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism and combine it with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and often a selectable marker.","ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵓⵓⵙⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⴰⴷⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵔⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰ ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵇⴱⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ."
"Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen made the first genetically modified organism in 1973, a bacterium resistant to the antibiotic kanamycin.","ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵀⴰⵕⴱⵕⵜ ⴱⵓⵢⵕ ⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⵍⵉ ⴽⵓⵀⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵙⵍⴽⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1973, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵣⴱⴱⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵙⵉⵏ."
The first genetically modified animal to be commercialized was the GloFish (2003) and the first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use was the AquAdvantage salmon in 2015.,ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵎ ⵏ ⴳⵍⵓⴼⵉⵛ (2003) ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵓⵙⵓⵢ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵓⵙⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴰⵍⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2015.
Fungi have been engineered with much the same goals.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ.
There are proposals to remove the virulent genes from viruses to create vaccines.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵄⴰⵡⵔⴹⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵉⵏ.
The majority are engineered for herbicide tolerance or insect resistance.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ.
Animals are generally much harder to transform and the vast majority are still at the research stage.,ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴱⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ.
"Livestock is modified with the intention of improving economically important traits such as growth rate, quality of meat, milk composition, disease resistance, and survival.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵢⴷⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⵎⵉ, ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵓⵎ, ⴰⴽⵯⴼⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵣⴱⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴹⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ."
"Although human gene therapy is still relatively new, it has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, and Leber's congenital amaurosis.","ⵡⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷⵓⵔⵖ ⴷⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵛⵛⴰⵔⵜ ⵢⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴽⵎⵎⵓⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵓⵙⵉⵙ."
"Other concerns are the objectivity and rigor of regulatory authorities, contamination of non-genetically modified food, control of the food supply, patenting of life and the use of intellectual property rights.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵇⵊⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⵍⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⵓⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵖⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ."
Countries have adopted regulatory measures to deal with these concerns.,ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ.
"""A broad definition of genetic engineering also includes selective breeding and other means of artificial selection."""",""","ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⴳⵔⵉ.,"""
"For example, the grain crop triticale was fully developed in a laboratory in 1930 using various techniques to alter its genome.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵎⴰ ⵜⵔⵉⵜⵉⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1930 ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""Modern biotechnology is further defined as """"In vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family.""""""","ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⵔⵓ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴷⵢⵓⴽⵙⵉⵔⵉⴱⵓⵏⵓⵢⵉⴽ (ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⵔⵔⵉⴱⵓⵣⵉ ⴰⵎⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ) ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵉⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ."""""
"The definitions focus on the process more than the product, which means there could be GMOS and non-GMOs with very similar genotypes and phenotypes.","ⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ GMOS ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ-GMOS ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ."
It also poses problems as new processes are developed.,ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ.
Genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism.,ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴽⵓⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ.
"The gene is then combined with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and a selectable marker.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵙⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ."
"DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵉⵎⴽⵕⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵜⵜⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ."
In plants this is accomplished through tissue culture.,ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ.
Traditionally the new genetic material was inserted randomly within the host genome.,ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵛⴰⵎ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵍⵓⴳⵏ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵏⴰⵢ.
"There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR).","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ: ⵜⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵥⵥⵏⴽ, ⵜⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵥⵣⵏⴽ, ⵜⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵍ (TALENs), ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ Cas9-guideRNA (ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵙⴳ CRISPR)."
In 1972 Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecule when he combined DNA from a monkey virus with that of the lambda virus.,ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⵙⵏ 1972 ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴱⵓⵍ ⴱⵉⵔⴳ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵔⵉⴱⵓⵣⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵖⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⴱⴰⴷⴰ.
The bacteria that had successfully incorporated the plasmid was then able to survive in the presence of kanamycin.,ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴼⵏ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴷⴷⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵛⵉⵏ.
"In 1974 Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1974 ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵕⵓⴷⵍⵓⴼ ⴷⵊⵉⵏⵉⵛ ⴰⵖⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵉⵊⵉ ⵙ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
Mice with genes removed (termed a knockout mouse) were created in 1989.,ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1989 ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⵔⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵍⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴽⴽⵙⵏ (ⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ).
"In 1983 the first genetically engineered plant was developed by Michael W. Bevan, Richard B. Flavell and Mary-Dell Chilton.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1983 ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⴳⵉ ⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⵡ. ⴱⵉⴼⵏ, ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⴱ.ⴼⴰⵍⴱⵍ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵔⵉ-ⴷⵉⵍⵍ ⵛⵉⵍⵟⵓⵏ."
"In 2000, Vitamin A-enriched golden rice was the first plant developed with increased nutrient value.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2000, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵕⵕⵓⵣ ⴰⵡⵔⵖ ⴰⵙⴱⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵏⵓⵜⵛⵉ."
"The insulin produced by bacteria, branded humulin, was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration in 1982.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1982, ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵕⵥⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵀⵓⵎⵓⵍⵉⵏ."
"In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the Flavr Savr tomato, the first genetically modified food.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1994 ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴽⴰⵍⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵟⵎⵟⴰⵎ ⴼⵍⴰⴼⵕ ⵙⴰⴼⵕ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵓⵜⵛⵓ ⵓⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ."
"In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute announced that they had created the first synthetic bacterial genome.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2010, ⵙⵙⵓⴹⵔⴻⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵀ ⴳⵔⵉⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵜⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⴳⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ."
It was released to the US market in 2003.,"ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵖ ⵖⵔ ⴰⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ""ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ"" ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2003."
Genes and other genetic information from a wide range of organisms can be added to a plasmid and inserted into bacteria for storage and modification.,ⵉⵥⴰⴹ ⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏⵜ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ
A large number of custom plasmids make manipulating DNA extracted from bacteria relatively easy.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⴰ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⴷⴷ.
Scientists can easily manipulate and combine genes within the bacteria to create novel or disrupted proteins and observe the effect this has on various molecular systems.,ⵥⴷⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵄⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⵚ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵢⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵏ.
"Bacteria have been used in the production of food for a long time, and specific strains have been developed and selected for that work on an industrial scale.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⵜⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⵓⴳⵔⵉ."
"Most food-producing bacteria are lactic acid bacteria, and this is where the majority of research into genetically engineering food-producing bacteria has gone.","ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⴰⴽⵜⵉⴽⵉ, ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴳ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⵊⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ."
"The majority are produced in the US and even though regulations are in place to allow production in Europe, as of 2015 no food products derived from bacteria are currently available there.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ""ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ"" ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴹⴼⵕⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⵓⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2015 ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ."
The bacteria are then harvested and the desired protein purified from them.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⵏ.
"Many of these proteins are impossible or difficult to obtain via natural methods and they are less likely to be contaminated with pathogens, making them safer.","ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏⵜⵏⵖ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵡⴹⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵡⵓⵍⵓⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴹⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
Outside of medicine they have been used to produce biofuels.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴱⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵓⵏⴷⵉⵔ.
"Ideas include altering gut bacteria so they destroy harmful bacteria, or using bacteria to replace or increase deficient enzymes or proteins.","ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵅⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵣⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵙ."
"Enabling the bacteria to form a colony could provide a more long-term solution, but could also raise safety concerns as interactions between bacteria and the human body are less well understood than with traditional drugs.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵉ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵚⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴷⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⴽⵚⵚⴰⴹ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵜⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵙⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ."
For over a century bacteria have been used in agriculture.,ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ.
"With advances in genetic engineering, these bacteria have been manipulated for increased efficiency and expanded host range.","ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⴳⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡ."
Pseudomonas strains of bacteria cause frost damage by nucleating water into ice crystals around themselves.,ⵜⴰⴷⴼⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵖⵛⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵛⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Other uses for genetically modified bacteria include bioremediation, where the bacteria are used to convert pollutants into a less toxic form.","ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴽⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵎⵍⵓⴼⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵓ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ."
"In the 1980s artist Jon Davis and geneticist Dana Boyd converted the Germanic symbol for femininity (ᛉ) into binary code and then into a DNA sequence, which was then expressed in Escherichia coli.","ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1980 ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵜ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⴼⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵏⴰ ⴱⵓⵢⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵜⵎⵜ (ᛉ) ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵓⵎⴷ ⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴷⴼⴼⵔ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵉⵛⵢⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵉ""."
"Researchers can use this to control for various factors; including the target location, insert size, and duration of gene expression.","ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ; ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ."
"Although primarily still at trial stages, there has been some successes using gene therapy to replace defective genes.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ, ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
"As of 2018, there are a substantial number of clinical trials underway, including treatments for hemophilia, glioblastoma, chronic granulomatous disease, cystic fibrosis and various cancers.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2018, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴽⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵀⵉⵎⵓⴼⵓⵍⵉⵢⴰ, ⴳⵍⵉⵢⵓⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵓⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⴹⵕⴹⵓⵕ ⵉⵅⵛⵏⵏ, ⵙⵢⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⴰⴼⵉⴱⵔⵓⵙⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵏ."
"Herpes simplex viruses make promising vectors, having a carrying capacity of over 30kb and providing long term expression, although they are less efficient at gene delivery than other vectors.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵀⴰⵔⴱⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵀⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵥⵉⴹⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ 30 ⴽⵉⵍⵓⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵅⴰⵜⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵡⴹ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"Other viruses that have been used as vectors include alphaviruses, flaviviruses, measles viruses, rhabdoviruses, Newcastle disease virus, poxviruses, and picornaviruses.","ⵙⴳ ⵍⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⴰⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵉⵏ : ⴰⵍⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ, ⵍⴼⵍⴰⴼⵉⵔⵉⵙ, ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖ, ⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵀⴰⴱⴷⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ, ⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⴽⴰⵙⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵉⴽⵔⵓⵏⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ."
"This does not affect the viruses infectivity, invokes a natural immune response and there is no chance that they will regain their virulence function, which can occur with some other vaccines.","ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵓⵚ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵏⴰⵙⵎⴷ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⴳⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵡⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵥⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"The most effective vaccine against Tuberculosis, the Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine, only provides partial protection.","ⴰⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⴰⴽⵉⵍⵓⵙ ⴽⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⵜ-ⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ (BCG), ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴰⴳⵣⵎⴰⵏ."
Other vector-based vaccines have already been approved and many more are being developed.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴳⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"In 2004, researchers reported that a genetically modified virus that exploits the selfish behaviour of cancer cells might offer an alternative way of killing tumours.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2004, ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⵅⴼ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵎⵏⵖⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
The virus was injected into orange trees to combat citrus greening disease that had reduced orange production by 70% since 2005.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⵜⵛⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴼⴰⵏⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⵜⵛⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ 70% ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2005.
Genetically modified viruses that make the target animals infertile through immunocontraception have been created in the laboratory as well as others that target the developmental stage of the animal.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⴰⵏⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵚⵍⵃⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⵏ.
Genetic modification of the myxoma virus has been proposed to conserve European wild rabbits in the Iberian peninsula and to help regulate them in Australia.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵓⵎⴰ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ.
It is possible to engineer bacteriophages to express modified proteins on their surface and join them up in specific patterns (a technique called phage display).,ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵓⵔⵢⵓⴼⴰⵊ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ (ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵊ).
"For industrial applications, yeasts combine the bacterial advantages of being a single-celled organism that is easy to manipulate and grow with the advanced protein modifications found in eukaryotes.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵙⵓⴽⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵉ ⵜⵎⵜⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵇⴷⴷⵛ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜⵉⵙ."
"One has increased malolactic fermentation efficiency, while the other prevents the production of dangerous ethyl carbamate compounds during fermentation.","ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴷⴷⵍ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⴱⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵢ."
"Unlike bacteria and viruses they have the advantage of infecting the insects by contact alone, although they are out competed in efficiency by chemical pesticides.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵟⵟⵚⵏⵜ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵙⵔⵉ ⵉⴽⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ."
"An attractive target for biological control are mosquitos, vectors for a range of deadly diseases, including malaria, yellow fever and dengue fever.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴱⵉⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ, ⴰⵎⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵔⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴹⵏⴳ."
Another strategy is to add proteins to the fungi that block transmission of malaria or remove the Plasmodium altogether.,ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴳⵔⵙⴰⵍⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵉⵔⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵓⴱⵓ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵙⵎⵓⴷⵢⵓⵎ.
"Many plants are pluripotent, meaning that a single cell from a mature plant can be harvested and under the right conditions can develop into a new plant.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵜⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⴳⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ."
Major advances in tissue culture and plant cellular mechanisms for a wide range of plants has originated from systems developed in tobacco.,ⵉⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵡⴰⵏ ⴼ ⵓⵏⴱⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵙⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⵖⵖⴰ.
Another major model organism relevant to genetic engineering is Arabidopsis thaliana.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⴱⵉⴷⵓⴱⵙⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ.
"In research, plants are engineered to help discover the functions of certain genes.","ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ."
"Unlike mutagenisis, genetic engineering allows targeted removal without disrupting other genes in the organism.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵣⵉⵙ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵓⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ."
"Other strategies include attaching the gene to a strong promoter and see what happens when it is overexpressed, forcing a gene to be expressed in a different location or at different developmental stages.","ⵜⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵉⵍⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⴽⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ."
The first genetically modified ornamentals commercialized altered color.,ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ.
Other genetically modified ornamentals include Chrysanthemum and Petunia.,ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵍⴷⵊⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⵔⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵓⵏⵢⴰ.
The papaya ringspot virus devastated papaya trees in Hawaii in the twentieth century until transgenic papaya plants were given pathogen-derived resistance.,ⵉⵅⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⵎⵜ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵀⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵣⴱⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵖⵏⴽⴰ.
"The second generation of crops aimed to improve the quality, often by altering the nutrient profile.","ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵏⴰⵢⵢⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ."
"GM crops contribute by improving harvests through reducing insect pressure, increasing nutrient value and tolerating different abiotic stresses.","ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵏⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵎⵎⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵙ ⵙⵓⵙⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵎⵎⵉ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"The majority of GM crops have been modified to be resistant to selected herbicides, usually a glyphosate or glufosinate based one.","ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵙⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⴳⵍⵓⴼⵓⵣⵢⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴳⵍⵓⴼⵓⵣⵉⵏⴰⵜ."
A few use the genes that encode for vegetative insecticidal proteins.,ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⵔⵔⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
"Less than one percent of GM crops contained other traits, which include providing virus resistance, delaying senescence and altering the plants composition.","ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵙ ⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⴰⵣⴱⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵓⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⴰⵄⵟⵟⵕ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
"Plants and plant cells have been genetically engineered for production of biopharmaceuticals in bioreactors, a process known as pharming.","ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵔⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔⵜ."
Many drugs also contain natural plant ingredients and the pathways that lead to their production have been genetically altered or transferred to other plant species to produce greater volume.,ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙⴳⵯⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.
They also pose less risk of being contaminated.,ⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵖⵏ.
"Vaccines are expensive to produce, transport, and administer, so having a system that could produce them locally would allow greater access to poorer and developing areas.","ⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ, ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷⴼ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵉⵥⵍⴹⵏ ⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ."
"Being stored in plants reduces the long-term cost as they can be disseminated without the need for cold storage, don't need to be purified, and have long term stability.","ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵇⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⴳⴰⴳⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵓⵣⵣⵔⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵉⴹ, ⵓⵔ ⵓⵙⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⴳⵏ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⴳⴰⴳⵜ."
"As of 2018 only three genetically modified animals have been approved, all in the USA.","ⵙⴳ 2018 ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Canada: Brainwaving The first transgenic mammals were produced by injecting viral DNA into embryos and then implanting the embryos in females.,ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ: ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴹⴻⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵅⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ.
"The development of the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing system as a cheap and fast way of directly modifying germ cells, effectively halving the amount of time needed to develop genetically modified mammals.","ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ CRISPR-Cas9 ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵔⵅⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵓⵔⵜⵓⵎⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴼⵏⴰⵥⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴹⴻⴹⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵀ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Genetically modified mice have been the most common mammals used in biomedical research, as they are cheap and easy to manipulate.","ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ CRISPR-Cas ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵔⵅⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵓⵔⵜⵓⵎⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴼⵏⴰⵥⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴹⴻⴹⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵀ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"In 2009, scientists announced that they had successfully transferred a gene into a primate species (marmosets) for the first time.","ⴳ 2009, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵎⴰⵜ (ⵎⴰⵔⵎⵓⵣⵉ)."
"Stable expression has been accomplished in sheep, pigs, rats and other animals.","ⵜⴰⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⴰⵎⴰⵔⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
Human alpha-1-antitrypsin is another protein that has been produced from goats and is used in treating humans with this deficiency.,ⴰⵍⴼⴰ -1-ⵎⴳⴰⵍⵜⵔⵉⴱⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⵟⵟⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴰ.
Pig lungs from genetically modified pigs are being considered for transplantation into humans.,ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵍⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵓⵓⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ.
"Animals have been engineered to grow faster, be healthier and resist diseases.",ⵏⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵅⵉⵜⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
A GM pig called Enviropig was created with the capability of digesting plant phosphorus more efficiently than conventional pigs.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⵏⴱⵉⵔⵓⴱⵉⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵥⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵙⴼⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ.
This could potentially benefit mothers who cannot produce breast milk but want their children to have breast milk rather than formula.,"ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵎⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⴰⴽⵯⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵎⵎⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴽⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⵯⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵎⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴽⵯⴼⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵏ."
There have been suggestions that genetic engineering could be used to bring animals back from extinction.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵓⴱⵓ.
"It has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, and Leber's congenital amaurosis.",ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵥⵜ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵓⵔⵜⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵎⵖⵏⴰⵏ.
"Germline gene therapy results in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⵊⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"Aquaculture is a growing industry, currently providing over half the consumed fish worldwide.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴽⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵛⵛⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
Several groups have been developing zebrafish to detect pollution by attaching fluorescent proteins to genes activated by the presence of pollutants.,ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⵙⵍⵎ-ⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉⵍ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⵛⴰⵟⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴽⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
"It was originally developed by one of the groups to detect pollution, but is now part of the ornamental fish trade, becoming the first genetically modified animal to become publicly available as a pet when in 2003 it was introduced for sale in the USA.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴽⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵔ, ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵏⵣⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ 2003."
"Zebrafish are model organisms for developmental processes, regeneration, genetics, behaviour, disease mechanisms and toxicity testing.","ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵉⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ, ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ, ⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄ, ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵣⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴷⵊ."
GM fish have been developed with promoters driving an over-production of growth hormone for use in the aquaculture industry to increase the speed of development and potentially reduce fishing pressure on wild stocks.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵓⵔⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴼⵏⵥⵏ ⴰⵥⵎⵎⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⵯⵎⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⵢⴰⵔⵏ.
"It obtained regulatory approval in 2015, the first non-plant GMO food to be commercialized.","ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴳ 2015, ⴰⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ GMO ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵖⴰⵢ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵣⵣⴰⵏ."
"Drosophila have been used to study genetics and inheritance, embryonic development, learning, behavior, and aging.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵓⴼⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ, ⴰⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ, ⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵔⵜ."
Malaria-resistant mosquitoes have been developed in the laboratory by inserting a gene that reduces the development of the malaria parasite and then use homing endonucleases to rapidly spread that gene throughout the male population (known as a gene drive).,"ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵔⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⵔⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⵏⵥⵏ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵔⵢⴰ, ⵓⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵅⵅⵓ ⴰⵏⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵥⴰⵥ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵓⵣⵣⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⵏ (ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ)."
"Another approach is to use a sterile insect technique, whereby males genetically engineered to be sterile out compete viable males, to reduce population numbers.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵜⴽⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵅⵅⵓ ⴰⵎⵔⴷⵉⴷ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵏⵥ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
"The approach is similar to the sterile technique tested on mosquitoes, where males are transformed with a gene that prevents any females born from reaching maturity.","ⵜⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⴽⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴷⵉⴷⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⴱⵉⴱⴰ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴷⴷⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵏⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵍⴽⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ."
In this case a strain of pink bollworm that were sterilized with radiation were genetically engineered to express a red fluorescent protein making it easier for researchers to monitor them.,"ⴳ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵥⵖⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵛⵛⵉⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴷⵉⴷⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵙⴷⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴰⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵎⴰⴹⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴰⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵏⵏⵙ."
There is also potential to use the silk producing machinery to make other valuable proteins.,ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵛⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵟⵟⴰⵍⵚⵓ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵖⵍⴰⵏ.
"A GM chicken that produces the drug Kanuma, an enzyme that treats a rare condition, in its egg passed US regulatory approval in 2015.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⴰⵥⵉⴹ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵙⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⵓⵎⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵥⵉⵎ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵊⵓⵊⵊⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ 2015."
There are proposals to use genetic engineering to control cane toads in Australia.,ⴰⵔ ⵏⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴹⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵓⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ.
It is also relatively easy to produce stable transgenic nematodes and this along with RNAi are the major tools used in studying their genes.,ⵉⵍⵎⴹ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⴳⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⴽ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵔ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵢ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
"Transgenic nematodes have been used to study viruses, toxicology, diseases, and to detect environmental pollutants.","ⵏⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⴳⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵀⵉⴷⵊ, ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ."
Flatworms have the ability to regenerate themselves from a single cell.,ⵉⵡⴽⴽⵉⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ.
"The bristle worm, a marine annelid, has been modified.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵡⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵟⵟⴰⵍⵚⵓ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵃⵜⵉⵢⵜ."
"The development of a regulatory framework concerning genetic engineering began in 1975, at Asilomar, California.","ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1975, ⴳ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵓⵎⴰⵔ, ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵉⵔⵏⵢⴰ."
"It is an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of genetically modified organisms.","ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ, ⴰⵇⴷⴷⵛ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Many experiments also need permission from a national regulatory group or legislation.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼⵜ.
There is a near-universal system for assessing the relative risks associated with GMOs and other agents to laboratory staff and the community.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵇⵇⵏⵏ ⵙ GMOs ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⵍⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ.
Different countries use different nomenclature to describe the levels and can have different requirements for what can be done at each level.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ.
"For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙⵖⵓⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ."
Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research using GMOs.,ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ GMO.
While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing.,"ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ GMO ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴼⵜ, ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⴷ GMO ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ."
"The US policy does not focus on the process as much as other countries, looks at verifiable scientific risks and uses the concept of substantial equivalence.","ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵣⵉⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⴻⴷⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ."
One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled.,ⵉⵊⵊ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ.
"The dispute involves consumers, producers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists.","ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ, ⵉⵎⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⵉⴹⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴱⵉⴹⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ"
Most concerns are around the health and environmental effects of GMOs.,ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ GMO ⵖⴼ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ.
"Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.",ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵥⴹⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
"Gene flow between GM crops and compatible plants, along with increased use of broad-spectrum herbicides, can increase the risk of herbicide resistant weed populations.","ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⵍⵓ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
In order to address some of these concerns some GMOs have been developed with traits to help control their spread.,"ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵙⴽⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ GMO ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴹⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵣⵣⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Other environmental and agronomic concerns include a decrease in biodiversity, an increase in secondary pests (non-targeted pests) and evolution of resistant insect pests.","ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵏⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⴰⵙⴳⵉⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵟⵟⵕⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵜ (ⵟⵟⵕⵓⵕⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⴰⵙⵏ) ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵟⵟⵕⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ."
The impact of Bt crops on beneficial non-target organisms became a public issue after a 1999 paper suggested they could be toxic to monarch butterflies.,ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ Bt ⵖⴼ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ 1999 ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⵀⵉⴷⵊⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵏ.
"With the ability to genetically engineer humans now possible there are ethical concerns over how far this technology should go, or if it should be used at all.","ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"October 2006 the rigor of the regulatory process, consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs, exaggeration of the benefits of genetic modification, or concerns over the use of herbicides with glyphosate.","ⴽⵟⵓⴱⵕ 2006 ⵜⴰⴽⵕⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵉⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼⵜ, ⴰⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵀⴰⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵣⵣⵏⵣⴰⵏⵜ GMO, ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴳⵍⵉⴼⵓⵣⴰⵜ."
"GMOs arrived on the scene as the public confidence in food safety, attributed to recent food scares such as Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and other scandals involving government regulation of products in Europe, was low.","ⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏ GMO ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴳⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵏⵙⵉⴼⴰⵍⵓⴱⴰⵜⵉ ⵙⴱⵓⵏⵊⵉⴼⵓⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⴽⴰⵛⴰⴼⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⴰⴼ ⵓⵏⴱⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴼⵜ."
"Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology.","ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵇⴷⴷⵛ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵇⴷⴷⴰⵛ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ."
A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵓⴱⴳ.
"The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome.","ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵢⵢⵓⵙⴽⵎⵛ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ."
Rudolf Jaenisch created the first GM animal when he inserted foreign DNA into a mouse in 1974.,ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵔⵓⴷⵓⵍⴼ ⵊⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵏⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ 1974.
"Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994, with the release of the Flavr Savr tomato.","ⵉⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵣⵣⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ 1994, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵜⵎⵉⵟⴰⵛⵜ ⴼⵍⴰⴱⵔ ⵙⴰⴱⵔ."
In 2016 salmon modified with a growth hormone were sold.,"ⴳ 2016, ⵏⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵙⴰⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵀⵓⵔⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ."
By knocking out genes responsible for certain conditions it is possible to create animal model organisms of human diseases.,"ⵙ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ."
"The rise of commercialised genetically modified crops has provided economic benefit to farmers in many different countries, but has also been the source of most of the controversy surrounding the technology.","ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⵢⴰⴽⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ."
"Gene flow, impact on non-target organisms, control of the food supply and intellectual property rights have also been raised as potential issues.","ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ, ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⴰⵙⵏ, ⵜⵉⴹⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"This is much faster, can be used to insert any genes from any organism (even ones from different domains) and prevents other undesirable genes from also being added.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⴳ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ (ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ) ⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴷⴷⵍ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ."
"Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them.","ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ, ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism.,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⴽⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴽⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⴽⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ.
"If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic.","ⵉⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵓⴱⴳ, ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
In 1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism by inserting antibiotic resistance genes into the plasmid of an Escherichia coli bacterium.,"ⴳ 1973, ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵀⵉⵔⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⴱⵡⴰⵢⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⵍⵉ ⴽⵓⵀⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴱⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵛⵉⵢⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵉ."
"In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company, was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and a year later the company produced a human protein (somatostatin) in E.coli.","ⴳ 1976, ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ, ⴳⵉⵏⵉⵏⵜⵉⵛ, ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵀⵉⵔⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⴱⵡⴰⵢⵉ ⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ, ⵜⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏ (ⵙⵓⵎⴰⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵜⵉⵏ) ⴳ ⵉⴽⵓⵍⵉ."
The insulin produced by bacteria was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1982.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵜ ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴳ 1982.
"The People's Republic of China was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992.","ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⵏⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ, ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴱⴰⵖⵖⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⴷⴰⵍ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ 1992."
"In 1995, Bt Potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US.","ⴳ 1995,ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⴱⴰⵟⴰⵟⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵉ ⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ, ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵙ ⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⴳⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵏⴱⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ."
Genetic screens can be carried out to determine potential genes and further tests then used to identify the best candidates.,ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ.
These segments can then be extracted through gel electrophoresis.,ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵍ ⴰⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⴼⵓⵔⵓⵣⵉⵙ.
Once isolated the gene is ligated into a plasmid that is then inserted into a bacterium.,ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⵉⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⴷⵉⴼⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ.
"These include a promoter and terminator region, which initiate and end transcription.","ⵢⵓⵎⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜ."
"This ability can be induced in other bacteria via stress (e.g. thermal or electric shock), which increases the cell membrane's permeability to DNA; up-taken DNA can either integrate with the genome or exist as extrachromosomal DNA.","ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴼ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⵉⵙⵙ (ⵙ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵜⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ), ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ; ⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ."
"In plants the DNA is often inserted using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, taking advantage of the Agrobacteriums T-DNA sequence that allows natural insertion of genetic material into plant cells.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵛⴰⵎ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⴳⵔⵓⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⵓⵎ-ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⴰⵏⴳⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⵓⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⵓⵎ T-DNA ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵡ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
In plants this is accomplished through the use of tissue culture.,"ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵓ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵙⵜ."
Selectable markers are used to easily differentiate transformed from untransformed cells.,ⵉⵎⵔⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ.
These tests can also confirm the chromosomal location and copy number of the inserted gene.,ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵙ ⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵎⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⴼⵏ.
The new genetic material can be inserted randomly within the host genome or targeted to a specific location.,ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷⴼ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵓⵏⴱⴳ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷ.
The frequency of gene targeting can be greatly enhanced through genome editing.,ⴰⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵢⵢⵛ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵕⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ.
TALEN and CRISPR are the two most commonly used and each has its own advantages.,ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⴱⵔ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
Most commercialised GMOs are insect resistant or herbicide tolerant crop plants.,ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵣⵣⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⵔⴰⴼ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
"Mouse hybridomas, cells fused together to create monoclonal antibodies, have been adapted through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴰⵎⵉ ⵓⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵀⵊⵊⴰⵏⵏ, ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴼⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ, ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ."
Genetic engineering is also used to create animal models of human diseases.,ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ.
Potential cures can be tested against these mouse models.,ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵓⵊⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵔⵎⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢⵏ.
"In 2015 a virus was used to insert a healthy gene into the skin cells of a boy suffering from a rare skin disease, epidermolysis bullosa, in order to grow, and then graft healthy skin onto 80 percent of the boy's body which was affected by the illness.","ⴳ 2015, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⵎⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵎ, ⵉⴱⵉⴷⵉⵔⵎⵓⵍⵉⵣⵉⵙ ⴱⵓⵍⵓⵣⴰ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⵎ, ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵛⵛ ⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ 80% ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ."
"There are also concerns that the technology could be used not just for treatment, but for enhancement, modification or alteration of a human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character or behavior.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵓ ⵓⵊⵓⵊⵊⵉ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ, ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⴼⵔⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵀⴰⵕ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵢⵜⵜⵉ, ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"He said that twin girls, Lulu and Nana, had been born a few weeks earlier.","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⴱⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵏⴰⵏⴰ, ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ."
"Currently, germline modification is banned in 40 countries.","ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴷⵍ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵊⵉⵔⵉ ⴳ 40 ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ."
"Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, clonal, multiply quickly, relatively easy to transform and can be stored at -80 °C almost indefinitely.","ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⵔⵅⵙⵏ, ⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ, ⵓⵀⵏⴻⵏⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴷ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⵎⵏ ⴳ -80 °C ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ."
"This could be the effect on the phenotype of the organism, where the gene is expressed or what other genes it interacts with.","ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ, ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴽⵉⴷⵙ."
In a simple knockout a copy of the desired gene has been altered to make it non-functional.,"ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵢⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ , ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵉ."
This allows the experimenter to analyse the defects caused by this mutation and thereby determine the role of particular genes.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵙⵔⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"""The simplest method, and the first to be used, is """"alanine scanning"""", where every position in turn is mutated to the unreactive amino acid alanine.""","ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ""ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⵖⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⴰⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ."""
"The process is much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or inducing synthesis of the protein more frequently.","ⵜⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵜⵣⵉⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⵙⵍⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the wild-type gene with a reporting element such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) that will allow easy visualisation of the products of the genetic modification.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⵢⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ 'ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ', ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⵢⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡ (GFP) ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵉⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ."
Expression studies aim to discover where and when specific proteins are produced.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⵢⵢⴰⵛⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"Some genes do not work well in bacteria, so yeast, insect cells or mammalians cells can also be used.","ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⵍⵉⵃ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵡⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵓⵏⵜ, ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴹⴻⴹⵏ ⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏⵜ."
"Certain genetically modified microbes can also be used in biomining and bioremediation, due to their ability to extract heavy metals from their environment and incorporate them into compounds that are more easily recoverable.","ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴽⵍ ⵓⵏⴷⵉⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⴰⵍⴷⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵥⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵎⴹⵉ."
Fungal and virus resistant crops have also been developed or are in development.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴱⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ.
In 2016 Salmon have been genetically modified with growth hormones to reach normal adult size much faster.,ⴳ 2016 ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⴰⵍⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵀⵓⵔⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵔⵓⴳ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ.
Soybeans and canola have been genetically modified to produce more healthy oils.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵙⵓⵊⴰ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.
Gene transfer through viral vectors has been proposed as a means of controlling invasive species as well as vaccinating threatened fauna from disease.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵓⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ.
Applications of genetic engineering in conservation are thus far mostly theoretical and have yet to be put into practice.,ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵉⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ.
The Asilomar meeting recommended a set of voluntary guidelines regarding the use of recombinant technology.,ⵜⵡⵚⵚⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵅⴰⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ.
One hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the Protocol and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations.,ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⴽⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research.,ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵙⵙⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ.
"Emily Marden, Risk and Regulation: U.S. Regulatory Policy on Genetically Modified Food and Agriculture, 44 B.C.L. Rev. 733 (2003) The European Union by contrast has possibly the most stringent GMO regulations in the world.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵔⴷⵏ, ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ : ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵍⴰⵃⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, 44 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ. Rev. 733 (2003), ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵉⵇⵊⴻⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled.,ⵉⵊⵊ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ.
"These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in some countries.","ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⵉⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⴰⵔⴼⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵏⵣⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵓⵢⵢⵉⵜⵏ,ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵣⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵣⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ."
"Although doubts have been raised, economically most studies have found growing GM crops to be beneficial to farmers.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ,ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵜⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ."
Many of the environmental impacts regarding GM crops may take many years to be understood and are also evident in conventional agriculture practices.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵟⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ.
"Few films have informed audiences about genetic engineering, with the exception of the 1978 The Boys from Brazil and the 1993 Jurassic Park, both of which made use of a lesson, a demonstration, and a clip of scientific film.","ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ,ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓ 1978 ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵔⴰⵥⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵔⴰⵙⵉ ⴱⴰⵔⴽ 1993 ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵉⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵣ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"Nanotechnology, also shortened to nanotech, is the use of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale for industrial purposes.","ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓⵜⵉⴽ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ."
"This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum-realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special properties of matter which occur below the given size threshold.","ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⵟⵓⵎ ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵖⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵓⵛⵏ ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ."
"The associated research and applications are equally diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale.","ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵟⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⵔ,ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵣⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵕⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ, ⵖⵔ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ."
"""The term """"nano-technology"""" was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, though it was not widely known.""","ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⴳⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ “ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵓ” ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1974, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"The emergence of nanotechnology as a field in the 1980s occurred through convergence of Drexler's theoretical and public work, which developed and popularized a conceptual framework for nanotechnology, and high-visibility experimental advances that drew additional wide-scale attention to the prospects of atomic control of matter.","ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1980 ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵔⵉⴽⵙⵍⵔⵙ,ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵣⵣⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴱⴹ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
The microscope's developers Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.,ⵜⵓⵡⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜ ⵊⵉⵔⴷ ⴱⵉⵏⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵀⴰⵢⵏⵉⵛ ⵔⵓⵀⵔⴻⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵣⵢⵓⵔⵉⵅ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵓⴱⵍ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1986.
C60 was not initially described as nanotechnology; the term was used regarding subsequent work with related carbon nanotubes (sometimes called graphene tubes or Bucky tubes) which suggested potential applications for nanoscale electronics and devices.,ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵙ60 ⴳ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ; ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵉⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ (ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵍⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴳⵕⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⴱⵓⴽⵉ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ.
"Decades later, advances in multi-gate technology enabled the scaling of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) devices down to nano-scale levels smaller than 20 nm gate length, starting with the FinFET (fin field-effect transistor), a three-dimensional, non-planar, double-gate MOSFET.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜ, ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵣⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵖⵓⵔ, ⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵏⴰⵡⴹ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ; ⵙⴳ 20 ⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵜ,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⴼⵜ (ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵣⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵣⴰⵄⵏⴰⴼⵉ),ⴱⵓ ⴽⵔⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵙⵜ."
"Controversies emerged regarding the definitions and potential implications of nanotechnologies, exemplified by the Royal Society's report on nanotechnology.","ⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⵉⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ."
These products are limited to bulk applications of nanomaterials and do not involve atomic control of matter.,ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴹ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ.
It was based on gate-all-around (GAA) FinFET technology.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵖⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴼⴰⵢⵏⴼⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ.
This covers both current work and concepts that are more advanced.,ⵢⵓⵎⵣ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
"The lower limit is set by the size of atoms (hydrogen has the smallest atoms, which are approximately a quarter of a nm kinetic diameter) since nanotechnology must build its devices from atoms and molecules.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵡⴰⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ (ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵜⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴽⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵓⵎ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ), ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ."
"To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a marble to the size of the earth.","ⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⵙ ⵍⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵛⵛⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"""In the """"bottom-up"""" approach, materials and devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition.""","“ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ””ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ”, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ."
"One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials.",ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⴰⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ.
The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential risks in their interaction with biomaterials.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵔⵥⵥⵎ ⵓⵥⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵎ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵕⵓ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ.
The concept of molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific configuration or arrangement is favored due to non-covalent intermolecular forces.,"ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⴷⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ."
"Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices in parallel and be much cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases.","ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰ, ⵜⴳ ⴱⴰⵟⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵣⴷⵔ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⴽⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏ."
"Manufacturing in the context of productive nanosystems is not related to, and should be clearly distinguished from, the conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⴽⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ."
"It is hoped that developments in nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some other means, perhaps using biomimetic principles.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ."
"In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as one has to position atoms on other atoms of comparable size and stickiness.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ, ⵉⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵉⵢⴹ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ."
This led to an exchange of letters in the ACS publication Chemical & Engineering News in 2003.,ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⴼⵖ “ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ” ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ “ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜ” ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2003.
"They have constructed at least three distinct molecular devices whose motion is controlled from the desktop with changing voltage: a nanotube nanomotor, a molecular actuator, and a nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator.","ⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ: ⴰⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵍⴻⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵏⴼⵓ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ."
Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also to nanoionics and nanoelectronics.,ⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ.
Nanoscale materials such as nanopillars are sometimes used in solar cells which combats the cost of traditional silicon solar cells.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⴽⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ.
"More generally, molecular self-assembly seeks to use concepts of supramolecular chemistry, and molecular recognition in particular, to cause single-molecule components to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation.","ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵏⴰⵖ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ."
"Giant magnetoresistance-based hard drives already on the market fit this description, as do atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques.","ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⴰⵕⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵇⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴽⵎⵜ (ALD)."
"Focused ion beams can directly remove material, or even deposit material when suitable precursor gasses are applied at the same time.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⴹⴼⵜ; ⴰⴷ ⴽⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵍⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⵕⴹⵍ, ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ."
These could then be used as single-molecule components in a nanoelectronic device.,ⵏⵖⵢ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ.
"Molecular nanotechnology is a proposed approach which involves manipulating single molecules in finely controlled, deterministic ways.",ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵍⵓⴽⵓⵍⵉⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵢⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴷⴼⵜ.
There are hopes for applying nanorobots in medicine.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵕⵕⵓⴱⵓⵡⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔ.
"Because of the discrete (i.e. atomic) nature of matter and the possibility of exponential growth, this stage is seen as the basis of another industrial revolution.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴱⴹⵉⵜ ( ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵜ), ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"With the decrease in dimensionality, an increase in surface-to-volume ratio is observed.","ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ,ⵏⵥⵕⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⴰⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ."
"Although conceptually similar to the scanning confocal microscope developed by Marvin Minsky in 1961 and the scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) developed by Calvin Quate and coworkers in the 1970s, newer scanning probe microscopes have much higher resolution, since they are not limited by the wavelength of sound or light.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵙⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵔⴼⵏ ⵎⵉⵙⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1961, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴼⴼⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ (SAM) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⴰⵍⴼⵏ ⴽⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ 1970, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴼⴼⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔ, ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ."
"However, this is still a slow process because of low scanning velocity of the microscope.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⵓⵣ ⵜⴰⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ."
"Another group of nanotechnological techniques include those used for fabrication of nanotubes and nanowires, those used in semiconductor fabrication such as deep ultraviolet lithography, electron beam lithography, focused ion beam machining, nanoimprint lithography, atomic layer deposition, and molecular vapor deposition, and further including molecular self-assembly techniques such as those employing di-block copolymers.","ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ, ⴰⵕⵛⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵥⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵖⴱⴰⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵕⵛⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵖⴹⴹⴼⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵕⵛⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵔⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵍⴽⵎⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵔⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵍⴱⴱⵓⵍⵉⵎⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ."
Scanning probe microscopy is an important technique both for characterization and synthesis of nanomaterials.,ⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ.
"By using, for example, feature-oriented scanning approach, atoms or molecules can be moved around on a surface with scanning probe microscopy techniques.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵛⵛⵜⴳ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱⵉ."
"These techniques include chemical synthesis, self-assembly and positional assembly.",ⵙⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⴰⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉ.
Researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories like John R. Arthur.,ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵓⵏ ⴱⵉⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵔ.ⴰⵔⵜⵔ.
"MBE allows scientists to lay down atomically precise layers of atoms and, in the process, build up complex structures.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵢⴰ; ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵉⵏⵖⴷⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ."
Bandages are being infused with silver nanoparticles to heal cuts faster.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵊⵢ ⵓⵄⵟⵟⵉⴱ ⵣⵉⴽ.
Nanotechnology may have the ability to make existing medical applications cheaper and easier to use in places like the general practitioner's office and at home.,"ⵜⵖⵢ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵏⴼ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵟⵍ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵀⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⵎⵉ."
Platinum is currently used as the diesel engine catalyst in these engines.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵍⵢⴰⵢⵣ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ.
Next the oxidation catalyst oxidizes the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide and water.,"ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵓⵢⴰⴽⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓ-ⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴽⵙⵉⴷ-ⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⴽⵙⵉⴷ-ⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
Danish company InnovationsFonden invested DKK 15 million in a search for new catalyst substitutes using nanotechnology.,ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵔⵡ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⴼⴰⵙⵢⵓⵏ ⴼⵓⵏⴷⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵔⴽⵢⵢⴰ 15 ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⴷⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵔⵓⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵔⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ.
"If the catalyst's surface area that is exposed to the exhaust fumes is maximized, efficiency of the catalyst is maximized.","ⴰⵔ ⵎⴽ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔ."
"Thus, creating these nanoparticles will increase the effectiveness of the resulting diesel engine catalyst—in turn leading to cleaner exhaust fumes—and will decrease cost.","ⵉⵡⴰ, ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⴽⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵍⵢⴰⵢⵣ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ-ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ-ⵇⴰⴷⵉⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ."
"When designing scaffolds, researchers attempt to mimic the nanoscale features of a cell's microenvironment to direct its differentiation down a suitable lineage.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵊⵢⴰⵍⵏ, ⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵖⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵎⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ."
"TSMC began production of a 7 nm process in 2017, and Samsung began production of a 5 nm process in 2018.","ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ “ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵟⴰⵢⵡⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵣⵏⴰⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏ”; ⵜⵉⵀⵢⵢⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ 7 ⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⴳ 2017, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙⴰⵎⵙⵓⵏⴳ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ 5 ⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⴳ 2018."
"For these reasons, some groups advocate that nanotechnology be regulated by governments.","ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⴳⴳⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ."
Some nanoparticle products may have unintended consequences.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵡⴰⴷⵙⵏ.
"Inhaling airborne nanoparticles and nanofibers may lead to a number of pulmonary diseases, e.g. fibrosis.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴽⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵡⴰⴹⵓ; ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ,ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵖⵛⵜ."
"""A major study published more recently in Nature Nanotechnology suggests some forms of carbon nanotubes – a poster child for the """"nanotechnology revolution"""" – could be as harmful as asbestos if inhaled in sufficient quantities.""","“ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⴷⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ Nature Nanotechnology, ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵢⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ- ⵜⵉⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⵏ “ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜ”” - ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵡⴰⵖⵉ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴱⵉⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴹⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ”."
Davies (2008) has proposed a regulatory road map describing steps to deal with these shortcomings.,ⵉⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⴷⵉⵖⵉⵣ (2008) ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵜⴼⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵥⵏ ⴰⴷ.
"As a result, some academics have called for stricter application of the precautionary principle, with delayed marketing approval, enhanced labelling and additional safety data development requirements in relation to certain forms of nanotechnology.","ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵉⵇⵊⵕⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⵀⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵣⵉⵡⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵣⵍⵖ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ."
Nuclear technology is technology that involves the nuclear reactions of atomic nuclei.,ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ.
"He, Pierre Curie and Marie Curie began investigating the phenomenon.","ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵢⵉⵔ ⴽⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴽⵓⵔⵉ, ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ."
"Some of these kinds of radiation could pass through ordinary matter, and all of them could be harmful in large amounts.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵅⵛⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵓⴷⵉⵢ."
"Gradually it was realized that the radiation produced by radioactive decay was ionizing radiation, and that even quantities too small to burn could pose a severe long-term hazard.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵏⵥⵕ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴽⵎⴹ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ."
"As the atom came to be better understood, the nature of radioactivity became clearer.","ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵥⵕ ⵚⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"Alpha decay is when a nucleus releases an alpha particle, which is two protons and two neutrons, equivalent to a helium nucleus.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⴰⵍⴼⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⵔⵥⵎ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵓⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ."
This type of radiation is the most dangerous and most difficult to block.,ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵥⵕ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷ.
"The average number of neutrons released per nucleus that go on to fission another nucleus is referred to as k. Values of k larger than 1 mean that the fission reaction is releasing more neutrons than it absorbs, and therefore is referred to as a self-sustaining chain reaction.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ k. ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ k ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ 1; ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵢ ⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵥⵥⵎ ⵉ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ."
"If there are enough immediate decays to carry on the chain reaction, the mass is said to be prompt critical, and the energy release will grow rapidly and uncontrollably, usually leading to an explosion.","ⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴹ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵢ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴽⵎⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴱⴰⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⴰⵎⵥ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ."
"During the project, the first fission reactors were developed as well, though they were primarily for weapons manufacture and did not generate electricity.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵅⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⴼ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ."
"However, if the mass is critical only when the delayed neutrons are included, then the reaction can be controlled, for example by the introduction or removal of neutron absorbers.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵎⴽ ⵜⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ."
"When the resulting nucleus is lighter than that of iron, energy is normally released; when the nucleus is heavier than that of iron, energy is generally absorbed.","ⵉⴳ ⵜⴼⵙⵙⵓⵙ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵏⴰⵕⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵣⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
"The remaining abundance of heavy elements, from nickel to uranium and beyond, is due to supernova nucleosynthesis, the R-process.","ⵜⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴹⵚⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵏⵏⵉⴽⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵔⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵙ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵕⴹⵍ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ-ⵔ."
"Hydrogen bombs obtain their enormous destructive power from fusion, but their energy cannot be controlled.","ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⴱⴷ."
"However, both of these devices operate at a net energy loss.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⴳⵜ."
"Nuclear fusion was initially pursued only in theoretical stages during World War II, when scientists on the Manhattan Project (led by Edward Teller) investigated it as a method to build a bomb.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴹⴼⵕ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⴼ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵀⴰⵟⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵃⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵕⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵔ), ⵙ ⵜⵖⵓⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵔⵜ."
"Even small nuclear devices can devastate a city by blast, fire and radiation.",ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵅⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⵔⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ.
"Such a weapon must hold one or more subcritical fissile masses stable for deployment, then induce criticality (create a critical mass) for detonation.","ⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⴰ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⵛⵇⵇⵉⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵀⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵛⵇⵇⵉⵜ (ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵛⵇⵇⵉⵜ), ⵉ ⵓⵙⴱⴱⴰⵇⵉ."
"One isotope of uranium, namely uranium-235, is naturally occurring and sufficiently unstable, but it is always found mixed with the more stable isotope uranium-238.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏⵢⵓⵎ, ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵍⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏⵢⵓⵎ-235, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰ , ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵛⵛⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⵡⴰⵢ ⵍⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏⵢⵓⵎ-238 ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⴳⴰⵏ."
"Alternatively, the element plutonium possesses an isotope that is sufficiently unstable for this process to be usable.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⵔⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⴱⵍⵓⵜⵓⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷⵊ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ."
"""They detonated the first nuclear weapon in a test code-named """"Trinity"""", near Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945.""","“ⵙⴱⴱⴰⵇⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ “ⵜⵔⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉ””, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⵓⴳⵓⵔⴷⵓ, ⵏⵢⵓ ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵓ, ⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ 16 ⵢⵓⵍⵢⵓⵣ 1945."
"In the wake of unprecedented devastation and casualties from a single weapon, the Japanese government soon surrendered, ending World War II.","ⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵡⴰⵜ,ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵢ ⴰⵛⵏⵢⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⵍⵉⵍ,ⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ."
"Just over four years later, on August 29, 1949, the Soviet Union detonated its first fission weapon.","ⴷⴰⵕⵜ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ 29 ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1949, ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⵇⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵢⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵛⵇ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ."
A radiological weapons is a type of nuclear weapon designed to distribute hazardous nuclear material in enemy areas.,ⵉⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵏⵥⵕⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵜⵜⵓⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵏⴳⵯⴰ.
"While considered useless by a conventional military, such a weapon raises concerns over nuclear terrorism.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵡⵉⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⴼ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ."
The treaty permitted underground nuclear testing.,ⵜⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⴹⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
"After signing the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996 (which had as of 2011 not entered into force), all of these states have pledged to discontinue all nuclear testing.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⴹ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴱⵓⵢ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1996 (ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵙⴳ 2011),ⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ."
"Throughout the Cold War, the opposing powers had huge nuclear arsenals, sufficient to kill hundreds of millions of people.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵓⴽⵔⵉⵎ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⴰⵔ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⴱⴻⴱ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ."
"Currently nuclear power provides approximately 15.7% of the world's electricity (in 2004) and is used to propel aircraft carriers, icebreakers and submarines (so far economics and fears in some ports have prevented the use of nuclear power in transport ships).","ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 15.7% ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ( ⴳ 2004), ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵜⴽⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⵉⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴽⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⴳⴰⴹⵉⵏ (ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⵜⵙⵏⴼⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵜⵉⵙⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵜⵉ)."
Medical and dental x-ray imagers use of cobalt-60 or other x-ray sources.,"ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⵍⴼ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴱⴰⵍⵜ 60, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ."
Both contain a small source of 241Am that gives rise to a small constant current.,"ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵖⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⵥⵢⴰⵏ 241 ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⵢⵓⵎ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ."
"Another use in insect control is the sterile insect technique, where male insects are sterilized by radiation and released, so they have no offspring, to reduce the population.","ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵅⵅⵓⵛⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵣⴷⴳ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵅⵅⵓⵛⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⴷⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵅⵅⵓⵛⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⵡⴰ ⵏⵕⵥⵎ ⴰⵙ, ⵉⵡⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
"The radiation sources used include radioisotope gamma ray sources, X-ray generators and electron accelerators.",ⵙⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ; ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵉⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵚⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵔⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏ.
"As such it is also used on non-food items, such as medical hardware, plastics, tubes for gas-pipelines, hoses for floor-heating, shrink-foils for food packaging, automobile parts, wires and cables (isolation), tires, and even gemstones.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵍⵎⵉⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵢⵓⵡⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴳⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵓⴷⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵙⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵓⵜⴰ (ⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢ), ⴷ ⵕⵕⵡⴰⵢⴹ, ⴷ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵉⴽⴽⵉⵜⵏ."
Microorganisms can no longer proliferate and continue their malignant or pathogenic activities.,ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⴽⵓⵛⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵅⵛⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
Plants cannot continue the natural ripening or aging process.,ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵙⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵔⵜ ⵏⵙⵏ.
"The specialty of processing food by ionizing radiation is the fact, that the energy density per atomic transition is very high, it can cleave molecules and induce ionization (hence the name) which cannot be achieved by mere heating.","ⵜⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵏⵥⵕ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⴱⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏ ( ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵏⵔⵖⵉ."
"However, the use of the term, cold pasteurization, to describe irradiated foods is controversial, because pasteurization and irradiation are fundamentally different processes, although the intended end results can in some cases be similar.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ “ ⴰⵙⵙⵃⵎⵓ ⴰⵏⴽⵔⴰⵎ “ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵥⵕⵏ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵜⴰⵇⵇⵓⵔⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⵃⵎⵓ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵥⵕ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵙⵉⵍⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ."
Marie Curie died from aplastic anemia which resulted from her high levels of exposure.,"ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴽⵓⵕⵉ ⵙ ⵥⵥⵍⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵍⵎⵉⴽⴰ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ."
Approximately half of the deaths from Hiroshima and Nagasaki died two to five years afterward from radiation exposure.,ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵀⵉⵔⵓⵛⵉⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵏⴰⴳⴰⵣⴰⴽⵉ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵢⴷⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⵥⵏⵥⵕ.
A nuclear meltdown refers to the more serious hazard of releasing nuclear material into the surrounding environment.,ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵅⵅⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⴼⵛⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ.
Military reactors that experienced similar accidents were Windscale in the United Kingdom and SL-1 in the United States.,"ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⴼ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⵉ; ⵡⵉⵏⴷⵙⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵜ,ⴷ ⵙⵍ-1 ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵜ."
"Another topic of transhumanist research is how to protect humanity against existential risks, such as nuclear war or asteroid collision.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ, ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙ ⵏⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ,ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
"The assertion would lay the intellectual groundwork for the British philosopher Max More to begin articulating the principles of transhumanism as a futurist philosophy in 1990, and organizing in California a school of thought that has since grown into the worldwide transhumanist movement.","ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⴽⵙ ⵎⵓⵔ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ 1990, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵕⵏⵢⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⵏⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ."
"In the Discourse, Descartes envisioned a new kind of medicine that could grant both physical immortality and stronger minds.","ⴳ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ, ⵉⴽⴰ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴽ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ."
St. Leon may have provided inspiration for his daughter Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein.,ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⴼⵓⵥⵥⵔ ⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽⵉⵏⵛⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵛⵉⵍⵉ.
"In particular, he was interested in the development of the science of eugenics, ectogenesis (creating and sustaining life in an artificial environment), and the application of genetics to improve human characteristics, such as health and intelligence.","ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⴹⴼ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵢ ( ⵜⵉⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ), ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⵡⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵓⵍⵍⵙ."
These ideas have been common transhumanist themes ever since.,ⵜⵉⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ.
"""In the Material and Man section of the manifesto, Noboru Kawazoe suggests that:After several decades, with the rapid progress of communication technology, every one will have a """"brain wave receiver"""" in his ear, which conveys directly and exactly what other people think about him and vice versa.""","ⴳ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵍⵖⵓ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵏⵓⴱⵓⵔⵓ ⴽⵡⴰⵣⵓ: ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⴷⵖ ⵙ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵉⴳⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ , ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵉⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵜ, ⴽⵓ ⵉⵊⵊ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵏⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⵓⵖⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ,ⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⵢⴰⵡⵢ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎ."
"""In 1966, FM-2030 (formerly F. M. Esfandiary), a futurist who taught """"new concepts of the human"""" at The New School, in New York City, began to identify people who adopt technologies, lifestyles and world views transitional to posthumanity as """"transhuman"""".""","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1966, ⴼⵎ-2030(ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢⴰⵔⵉ) ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ “ⵉⵙⵙⵖⵔⴰ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ”, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵔⴽ, ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ."
"FM-2030 and Vita-More soon began holding gatherings for transhumanists in Los Angeles, which included students from FM-2030's courses and audiences from Vita-More's artistic productions.","ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴼⵎ-2030 ⴷ ⴼⵉⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⵊⵍⵓⵙ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵎ-2030,ⴷ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵜ."
A particular concern is the equal access to human enhancement technologies across classes and borders.,ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ.
This left the World Transhumanist Association as the leading international transhumanist organization.,ⴰⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ.
The Mormon Transhumanist Association was founded in 2006.,ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ “ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵔⵎⵓ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2006.
"""Transhumanism stresses the evolutionary perspective, including sometimes the creation of a highly intelligent animal species by way of cognitive enhancement (i.e. biological uplift), but clings to a """"posthuman future"""" as the final goal of participant evolution.""","ⵜⵙⵙⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵛⵡⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ (ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ), ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⵣ ⴳ “ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ”, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵖⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ."
"""While such a """"cultural posthumanism"""" would offer resources for rethinking the relationships between humans and increasingly sophisticated machines, transhumanism and similar posthumanisms are, in this view, not abandoning obsolete concepts of the """"autonomous liberal subject"""", but are expanding its """"prerogatives"""" into the realm of the posthuman.""","ⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ” ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⴳⵎ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⵡⴰ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ “ⴰⵏⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ”, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ “ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵟ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ”."
"However, other progressives have argued that posthumanism, whether it be its philosophical or activist forms, amounts to a shift away from concerns about social justice, from the reform of human institutions and from other Enlightenment preoccupations, toward narcissistic longings for a transcendence of the human body in quest of more exquisite ways of being.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ , ⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵡⴹ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵙⴼⵉⵡ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵖⵔ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⵊⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ."
"Many transhumanists actively assess the potential for future technologies and innovative social systems to improve the quality of all life, while seeking to make the material reality of the human condition fulfill the promise of legal and political equality by eliminating congenital mental and physical barriers.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵀⵢⵢⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵢⵢⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⴽⵍ ⴰⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵉⵜ."
"Some theorists such as Ray Kurzweil think that the pace of technological innovation is accelerating and that the next 50 years may yield not only radical technological advances, but possibly a technological singularity, which may fundamentally change the nature of human beings.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵣⵡⵉⵕ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⵜⴰⵣⵍⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ 50 ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵓⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴻⵍ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ."
"For example, Bostrom has written extensively on existential risks to humanity's future welfare, including ones that could be created by emerging technologies.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵕⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵟⵕⵕⵃ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ."
"To counter this, Hawking emphasizes either self-design of the human genome or mechanical enhancement (e.g., brain-computer interface) to enhance human intelligence and reduce aggression, without which he implies human civilization may be too stupid collectively to survive an increasingly unstable system, resulting in societal collapse.","ⵉ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⵀⵓⴽⵉⵏⴳ ⵙⵡⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ( ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵇⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ), ⵉ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴷⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵏⴳⵯⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜ; ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⴱⵓⵀⵍⵍⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵇⵉⵎ ⵜⴷⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ."
These thinkers argue that the ability to discuss in a falsification-based way constitutes a threshold that is not arbitrary at which it becomes possible for an individual to speak for themselves in a way that is not dependent on exterior assumptions.,"ⵜⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖⵜ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⴽⴰⵕ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵔⵊⵓⵏ, ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵍⵄⴷⴼⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵇⴷⴷⵛⵜ, ⴰⵔⴷ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵢⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ."
"""In keeping with this, many prominent transhumanist advocates, such as Dan Agin, refer to transhumanism's critics, on the political right and left jointly, as """"bioconservatives"""" or """"bioluddites"""", the latter term alluding to the 19th century anti-industrialisation social movement that opposed the replacement of human manual labourers by machines.""","“ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ: ⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⵎⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵛⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ “ ⵉⵎⵃⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ”, ⵏⵖⴷ “bioluddites” ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵢⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ, ⵢⵓⴳⵢ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⴻⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ.”"
The same scenario happens when people have certain neural implants that give them an advantage in the work place and in educational aspects.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⴰⵕⵢⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⵥⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ.
"Immortalism, a moral ideology based upon the belief that radical life extension and technological immortality is possible and desirable, and advocating research and development to ensure its realization.","ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ, ⵜⴰⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴷⵉⴽⴰⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵇⵇⴰⵕ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Mathematics (from Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), structure (algebra), space (geometry), and change (analysis).","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ (ⵙⴳ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵢⴰ) ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ (ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ), ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ (ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ), ⴰⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ (ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ), ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ (ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ)."
"When mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, mathematical reasoning can be used to provide insight or predictions about nature.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴰⴽⵉⵢ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴽ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ."
The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry.,ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏ.
"Mathematics developed at a relatively slow pace until the Renaissance, when mathematical innovations interacting with new scientific discoveries led to a rapid increase in the rate of mathematical discovery that has continued to the present day.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ, ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⵉⴼⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵖⵔ ⵜⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ."
"As evidenced by tallies found on bone, in addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples may have also recognized how to count abstract quantities, like time—days, seasons, or years.","ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵖⵚⴰⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⴳ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ- ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ."
"Beginning in the 6th century BC with the Pythagoreans, with Greek mathematics the Ancient Greeks began a systematic study of mathematics as a subject in its own right.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 6 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵉⵖⵔⵉⵇ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
The greatest mathematician of antiquity is often held to be Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC) of Syracuse.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⴷ ⴰⵔⵅⵎⵉⵙⴷ (287-212 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ) ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ.
"The Hindu–Arabic numeral system and the rules for the use of its operations, in use throughout the world today, evolved over the course of the first millennium AD in India and were transmitted to the Western world via Islamic mathematics.","ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉ-ⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱ; ⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ, ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵉⴼⴹ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ , ⴰⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵢ ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎⵜ."
The most notable achievement of Islamic mathematics was the development of algebra.,ⴰⵙⵙⴹⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ.
"During the early modern period, mathematics began to develop at an accelerating pace in Western Europe.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ, ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ."
"Perhaps the foremost mathematician of the 19th century was the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, who made numerous contributions to fields such as algebra, analysis, differential geometry, matrix theory, number theory, and statistics.","ⵉⵖ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ “ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵔⵉⵜⵛ ⴷⵊⴰⵡⵙ” ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ, ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ, ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ."
Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today.,ⵜⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⵙⵙ.
"""In particular, mathēmatikḗ tékhnē meant """"the mathematical art.""""""",“ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⵜⵉⵅⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ.””
"In English, the noun mathematics takes a singular verb.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ, ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⴳ ⴰⵎⵢⵓⵡⵏ."
"""However, Aristotle also noted a focus on quantity alone may not distinguish mathematics from sciences like physics; in his view, abstraction and studying quantity as a property """"separable in thought"""" from real instances set mathematics apart.""","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⴰⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ, “ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳ”, ⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳⵔⴰⵙ."
A peculiarity of intuitionism is that it rejects some mathematical ideas considered valid according to other definitions.,ⵜⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ; ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴳⵢ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.
"""Haskell Curry defined mathematics simply as """"the science of formal systems"""".""",“ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵀⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴽⴰⵔⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ””.
"""Popper also noted that """"I shall certainly admit a system as empirical or scientific only if it is capable of being tested by experience.""""""",“ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵜⵔ ⴱⵓⴱⴱⵔ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ “ ⵙⵙⵏⵖ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ””.
Intuition and experimentation also play a role in the formulation of conjectures in both mathematics and the (other) sciences.,ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵖⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"For example, the physicist Richard Feynman invented the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics using a combination of mathematical reasoning and physical insight, and today's string theory, a still-developing scientific theory which attempts to unify the four fundamental forces of nature, continues to inspire new mathematics.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵕⴷ ⴼⴰⵢⵏⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵛⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⴼⵉⴽⵉⴽ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ, ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ."
A distinction is often made between pure mathematics and applied mathematics.,ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ.
"As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientific age has led to specialization: there are now hundreds of specialized areas in mathematics and the latest Mathematics Subject Classification runs to 46 pages.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ, ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⵓⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⵏⵡⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⴱⵓ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ 46 ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰ."
"Many mathematicians talk about the elegance of mathematics, its intrinsic aesthetics and inner beauty.",ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⴷⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵃⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⴰⵏ.
"G. H. Hardy in A Mathematician's Apology expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics.","ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽ “ⴳⵓⴷⴼⵔⵉ ⵀⴰⵕⵓⵍⴷ ⵀⴰⵔⴷⵉ “, ⵖⴼ ⵓⴼⴼⵓⵍⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵢ ; ⵖⴼ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜ."
A theorem expressed as a characterization of the object by these features is the prize.,"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵉ, ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ."
Euler (1707–1783) was responsible for many of the notations in use today.,"ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ “ⵓⵡⵉⵍⵔ (1707-1783)”, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ."
"Unlike natural language, where people can often equate a word (such as cow) with the physical object it corresponds to, mathematical symbols are abstract, lacking any physical analog.","ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⴽⵙⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵏⴰⵙⵜ) ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⴳ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⵏⵉⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⴼⵉⴽⵉⵣ."
Mathematical language also includes many technical terms such as homeomorphism and integrable that have no meaning outside of mathematics.,"ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⵔⵡⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"""Mathematicians refer to this precision of language and logic as """"rigor"""".""",“ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⵏ “”ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵣⵜ””.
"""This is to avoid mistaken """"theorems"""", based on fallible intuitions, of which many instances have occurred in the history of the subject.""","“ⴰⵢⴰ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴽⴽ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵉ “”ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ“”, ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵡⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵥⵍⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ.”"
Misunderstanding the rigor is a cause for some of the common misconceptions of mathematics.,ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵊⴰⵕ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ.
"On the other hand, proof assistants allow verifying all details that cannot be given in a hand-written proof, and provide certainty of the correctness of long proofs such as that of the Feit–Thompson theorem.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⴳⵯ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵏ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⵏ."
"In addition to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions dedicated to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to other fields: to logic, to set theory (foundations), to the empirical mathematics of the various sciences (applied mathematics), and more recently to the rigorous study of uncertainty.","ⵙ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵍⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ: ⵙ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ (ⵉⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ), ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ (ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵔⴰⵏⵜ), ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵏⵖⴷⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵟⵟⵉⴼⵏ ⴰⵙⵍⴽⵏ."
Some disagreement about the foundations of mathematics continues to the present day.,ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ.
"As such, it is home to Gödel's incompleteness theorems which (informally) imply that any effective formal system that contains basic arithmetic, if sound (meaning that all theorems that can be proved are true), is necessarily incomplete (meaning that there are true theorems which cannot be proved in that system).","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵎⵉ ⵏ “ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵣⴰⵏ” ⵏ ⵊⵓⴷⵍ ( ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ), ⴰⵔ ⴰⵖ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵏⵙⵉⴱ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ( ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵜⵍⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ), ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴷ ( ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵜⵍⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ."
"Modern logic is divided into recursion theory, model theory, and proof theory, and is closely linked to theoretical computer science, as well as to category theory.","ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵡⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ."
"Computability theory examines the limitations of various theoretical models of the computer, including the most well-known model—the Turing machine.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⴽⴰⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ; “ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ”."
"""Consideration of the natural numbers also leads to the transfinite numbers, which formalize the concept of """"infinity"""".""","“ⴰⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ “ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ” ⴷ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ.”"
"Thus one can study groups, rings, fields and other abstract systems; together such studies (for structures defined by algebraic operations) constitute the domain of abstract algebra.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ( ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵀⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⴱⵔⵉⵢⵉⵏ), ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ."
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with relationships between the sides and the angles of triangles and with the trigonometric functions.,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ.
Convex and discrete geometry were developed to solve problems in number theory and functional analysis but now are pursued with an eye on applications in optimization and computer science.,"ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴱⴹⵓ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵙⵖⵏⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⵙⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⵍⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ."
"Lie groups are used to study space, structure, and change.",ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ.
Functions arise here as a central concept describing a changing quantity.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵖⵉⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ.
One of many applications of functional analysis is quantum mechanics.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵙⵖⵏⴰⵏ.
"""Statisticians (working as part of a research project) """"create data that makes sense"""" with random sampling and with randomized experiments; the design of a statistical sample or experiment specifies the analysis of the data (before the data becomes available).""","ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜⵏ (ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ), ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ( ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ)."
Numerical analysis studies methods for problems in analysis using functional analysis and approximation theory; numerical analysis includes the study of approximation and discretisation broadly with special concern for rounding errors.,"ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵖⵔⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵏ."
The Chern Medal was introduced in 2010 to recognize lifetime achievement.,"ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ “ⵜⵛⵉⵔⵏ” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2010, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ."
"This list achieved great celebrity among mathematicians, and at least nine of the problems have now been solved.","ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵓⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ."
The value of Pi was first calculated by him.,ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉ “ⴱⵉ” ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ.
"""It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term """"mathematics"""", and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins.""",“ⴽⵔⵏ ⵍⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵢⵢⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ “ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ” ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⴰⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴷⵓⵏⵙ.”
"Because of a political dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked and scraping off her skin with clamshells (some say roofing tiles).","ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⵎⵔⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴳ ⵍⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵢⵢⴰ, ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ, ⵜⵢⴰⴽⵙⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵃⵔⵓⵢⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵓⴱⴹⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵎ (ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵜ)."
"Funding for translation of scientific texts in other languages was ongoing throughout the reign of certain caliphs, and it turned out that certain scholars became experts in the works they translated and in turn received further support for continuing to develop certain sciences.","ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⴼⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⵙⵓⵖⵍⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
A notable feature of many scholars working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths.,ⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴰⵏⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ; ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"During this period of transition from a mainly feudal and ecclesiastical culture to a predominantly secular one, many notable mathematicians had other occupations: Luca Pacioli (founder of accounting); Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (notable engineer and bookkeeper); Gerolamo Cardano (earliest founder of probability and binomial expansion); Robert Recorde (physician) and François Viète (lawyer).","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵜⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵖⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜ, ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵍⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵍⵓⴽⴰ ⴱⴰⵙⵢⵓⵍⵉ (ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ), ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓ ⴼⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⴳⵍⵉⵢⴰ (ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ), ⵊⵉⵔⵓⵍⴰⵎⵓ ⴽⴰⵔⴷⴰⵏⵓ ( ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ), ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵔⵉⴽⵓⵔⴷ (ⴰⵎⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ), ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵡⴰ ⴼⵢⵉⵜ (ⴰⵎⵙⵜⴰⵏ)."
"British universities of this period adopted some approaches familiar to the Italian and German universities, but as they already enjoyed substantial freedoms and autonomy the changes there had begun with the Age of Enlightenment, the same influences that inspired Humboldt.","ⵙⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵖⴼ ⵀⵎⴱⵓⵍⵜ."
Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content.,"ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ."
"Mathematicians and applied mathematicians are considered to be two of the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) careers.","ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ( ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ, ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ)."
"Actuaries also address financial questions, including those involving the level of pension contributions required to produce a certain retirement income and the way in which a company should invest resources to maximize its return on investments in light of potential risk.","ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴽⵜⵉⵡⴰⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⵡⵉⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵔⴰⴼ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵓⴷⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⴰⵖⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ."
"The hieroglyphic system for Egyptian numerals, like the later Roman numerals, descended from tally marks used for counting.","ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵖⵍⴰⴼⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵚⵕⵉⵢⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ, ⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ."
"Early number systems that included positional notation were not decimal, including the sexagesimal (base 60) system for Babylonian numerals, and the vigesimal (base 20) system that defined Maya numerals.","ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵚⴹⵉⵚ-ⵎⵔⴰⵡ (ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ 60), ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ vigesimal ( ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ 20), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ."
"Prior to the works of Euclid around 300 BC, Greek studies in mathematics overlapped with philosophical and mystical beliefs.","ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ 300 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵎⵎⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵎⵏ."
"The ancient Greeks lacked a symbol for zero until the Hellenistic period, and they used three separate sets of symbols as digits: one set for the units place, one for the tens place, and one for the hundreds.","ⵉⵖⵔⵉⵇ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜⵉⴽ, ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ."
"Their long division algorithm was the same, and the digit-by-digit square root algorithm, popularly used as recently as the 20th century, was known to Archimedes (who may have invented it).","ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵜⵉⵎⴱⴹⵉⵜ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵣⴰⵔⵚⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵏⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⴷⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵔⵅⵎⵉⴷⵙ (ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⵏ)."
"The ancient Chinese had advanced arithmetic studies dating from the Shang Dynasty and continuing through the Tang Dynasty, from basic numbers to advanced algebra.","ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴳ, ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳ, ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ."
"For the hundreds place, they then reused the symbols for the units place, and so on.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ, ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ, ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏ."
"The ancient Chinese were the first to meaningfully discover, understand, and apply negative numbers.","ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏ, ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴱⴰⵡⵏ."
"""His contemporary, the Syriac bishop Severus Sebokht (650 AD) said, """"Indians possess a method of calculation that no word can praise enough.""",ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵔⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵙⵉⴱⵓⵅⵜ (650 ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ): ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵏⴰⵍⵖ ⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ.
The Arabs also learned this new method and called it hesab.,"ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⵡⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ “ⵃⵉⵙⴰⴱ”."
"The flourishing of algebra in the medieval Islamic world, and also in Renaissance Europe, was an outgrowth of the enormous simplification of computation through decimal notation.","ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵊⵉⴱⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ."
Arithmetic expressions must be evaluated according to the intended sequence of operations.,ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵔⴰ.
"For example, digital computers can reuse existing adding-circuitry and save additional circuits for implementing a subtraction, by employing the method of two's complement for representing the additive inverses, which is extremely easy to implement in hardware (negation).","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵙⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵏⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ, ⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵏⵓⵏ, ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ (ⵜⵉⴱⴰⵡⵜ)."
"Multiplication also combines two numbers into a single number, the product.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ."
"If the numbers are imagined as lying in a line, multiplication by a number greater than 1, say x, is the same as stretching everything away from 0 uniformly, in such a way that the number 1 itself is stretched to where x was.","ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵖⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ, ⴰⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ “1”, ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ “ⴽ” ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵖⵔ “0” ⵙ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ, ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ “1” ⵖⵔ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ “ⴽ”."
Any dividend divided by zero is undefined.,ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ; ⵀⴰⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ.
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic was first proven by Carl Friedrich Gauss.,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⴳⵯⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵔⵉⵛ ⴳⴰⵡⵙ.
"""Positional notation (also known as """"place-value notation"""") refers to the representation or encoding of numbers using the same symbol for the different orders of magnitude (e.g., the """"ones place"""", """"tens place"""", """"hundreds place"""") and, with a radix point, using those same symbols to represent fractions (e.g., the """"tenths place"""", """"hundredths place"""").""","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ “ⴰⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵙⴰⵏ” (ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ “ⴰⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵕⴰⵏ”), ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ, ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ), ⴷ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴷⵔ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ)."
"The use of 0 as a placeholder and, therefore, the use of a positional notation is first attested to in the Jain text from India entitled the Lokavibhâga, dated 458 AD and it was only in the early 13th century that these concepts, transmitted via the scholarship of the Arabic world, were introduced into Europe by Fibonacci using the Hindu–Arabic numeral system.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ 0 ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⴼⵕⴹⵉⵙ ⴰⴹⴼⴰⵕ, ⵉⵡⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵙ Jain ⵙⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ Lokavibhâga ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⴽⵓⴷ 458 ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵙⵉⵙⵙ 13, ⵜⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱ, ⵜⵢⴰⴽⵛⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴼⵉⴱⵓⵏⴰⵜⵛⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉ-ⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱ."
"The result is calculated by the repeated addition of single digits from each number that occupies the same position, proceeding from right to left.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵏⵏⵓ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵣⵍⵎⴰⴹ."
"The rightmost digit is the value for the current position, and the result for the subsequent addition of the digits to the left increases by the value of the second (leftmost) digit, which is always one (if not zero).","ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵍⵎⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ (ⴰⵣⵍⵎⴰⴹ), ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ (ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ)."
A multiplication table with ten rows and ten columns lists the results for each pair of digits.,"ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ."
Similar techniques exist for subtraction and division.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ.
"In mathematical terminology, this characteristic is defined as closure, and the previous list is described as .","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵡⵉⵔⵜ ⵙ."
The total in the pence column is 25.,ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵏⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ 25.
"This operation is repeated using the values in the shillings column, with the additional step of adding the value that was carried forward from the pennies column.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵛⵉⵍⵏⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵉⵏⵙⴰⵜ."
"""One typical booklet that ran to 150 pages tabulated multiples """"from one to ten thousand at the various prices from one farthing to one pound"""".""","ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ 150 ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵊⵉⵏⵉⵀ."
This study is sometimes known as algorism.,ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ: “ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵣⵎ”.
"Also, arithmetic was used by Islamic Scholars in order to teach application of the rulings related to Zakat and Irth.",ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵓⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵙⵉⵜ.
"Addition (usually signified by the plus symbol ) is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic, the other three being subtraction, multiplication and division.","ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ ( ⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ), ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ, ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ; ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⴰⴽⴼⵓⴷ, ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ."
"In algebra, another area of mathematics, addition can also be performed on abstract objects such as vectors, matrices, subspaces and subgroups.","ⴳ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ, ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵔⵏⵓ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ."
"""Using the gerundive suffix -nd results in """"addend"""", """"thing to be added"""".""","“ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴹⴼⵓⵕⵜ “ⵊⵉⵔⵓⵏⴷⵉⴼ”, ⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ “ⴰⴷⴷⵏⴷ”, ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵔⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵔⵏⵓ.”"
"""""""Sum"""" and """"summand"""" derive from the Latin noun summa """"the highest, the top"""" and associated verb summare.""","“ⵉⴼⴼⵖⴷ “ ⵙⵓⵎ”, ⴷ “ⵙⵓⵎⵎⴰⵏⴷ”, ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉ “ⵙⵓⵎⵎⴰ” ⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⴰⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳ ⵓⴳⵉⵍ.”"
"""The later Middle English terms """"adden"""" and """"adding"""" were popularized by Chaucer.""",“ⵜⵉⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ “ⴰⴷⴷⵏ” ⴷ “ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ” ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ “ⴽⵓⵙⵔ”.”
"As an example, should the expression a + b + c be defined to mean (a + b) + c or a + (b + c)?","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙ ⵉⵏⵎ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ; ” ⴰ + ⴱ + ⵙ ”, ⵇⴰⴷ ⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵉⴽ “ ( ⴰ + ⴱ ) + ⵙ “, ⵏⵖⴷ “ ⴰ + ( ⴱ + ⵙ )?"
"Even some nonhuman animals show a limited ability to add, particularly primates.","ⴰⵡⴷ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵜ , ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"""With additional experience, children learn to add more quickly by exploiting the commutativity of addition by counting up from the larger number, in this case, starting with three and counting """"four, five.""""""","“ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵏⴼⴽ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ; ⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ “ⴽⴽⵓⵥ, ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ.””"
"Zero: Since zero is the additive identity, adding zero is trivial.","ⴰⵎⵢⴰ: ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵔⵏⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ."
"One aligns two decimal fractions above each other, with the decimal point in the same location.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"If the addends are the rotation speeds of two shafts, they can be added with a differential.","ⵎⴽ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴱⵢ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ."
It made use of a gravity-assisted carry mechanism.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴷⴰⵢⵜ.
"To subtract, the operator had to use the Pascal's calculator's complement, which required as many steps as an addition.","ⵉ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⵎⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ “ⴱⴰⵙⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜ”."
Both XOR and AND gates are straightforward to realize in digital logic allowing the realization of full adder circuits which in turn may be combined into more complex logical operations.,"XOR ⴷ AND gates ⵡⵀⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ adder ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ."
"Many implementations are, in fact, hybrids of these last three designs.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ , ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵛⵓⵔⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ."
Unanticipated arithmetic overflow is a fairly common cause of program errors.,"ⴰⴳⵯⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴳⵉ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ."
"Taken literally, the above definition is an application of the recursion theorem on the partially ordered set N2.","ⵎⴽ ⵏⵓⵙⵢ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵎⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ “ ⵏ 2 “, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ."
"If either a or b is zero, treat it as an identity.","ⵎⴽ ⴷ a ⵏⵖⴷ b ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ, ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ “."
"Here, the semigroup is formed by the natural numbers and the group is the additive group of integers.",ⴷⴰⴷⵖ ⴰⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵏ.
"The commutativity and associativity of real addition are immediate; defining the real number 0 to be the set of negative rationals, it is easily seen to be the additive identity.","ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴷⵖⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵜⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ “0” ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵜ, ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ."
"One must prove that this operation is well-defined, dealing with co-Cauchy sequences.","ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵛⵉ."
"""The set of integers modulo 2 has just two elements; the addition operation it inherits is known in Boolean logic as the """"exclusive or"""" function.""","ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, “ⵎⵓⴷⵓⵍ 2”, ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵜⴽⵓⵙⴰ, ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ “ ⵜⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ” ⵏⵖ “ ⵜⴰⵖⵍⵉⴼⵜ”."
These give two different generalizations of addition of natural numbers to the transfinite.,"ⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵜ."
There are even more generalizations of multiplication than addition.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⵜ.
"In fact, if two nonnegative numbers a and b are of different orders of magnitude, then their sum is approximately equal to their maximum.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ, ⵎⴽ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴱⴰⵡⵏ “ⴰ” ⴷ “ⴱ”, ⵖⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔ"
"It includes the idea of the sum of a single number, which is itself, and the empty sum, which is zero.","ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ."
"""Integration is a kind of """"summation"""" over a continuum, or more precisely and generally, over a differentiable manifold.""","“ⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ “ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵣⵍ” ⵙ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵓⵖⵜ.”"
"Linear combinations are especially useful in contexts where straightforward addition would violate some normalization rule, such as mixing of strategies in game theory or superposition of states in quantum mechanics.","ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵕⵥⵥⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵛⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ."
"Division is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic, the ways that numbers are combined to make new numbers.","ⵜⴰⴱⴹⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⵎ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ."
Those in which a Euclidean division (with remainder) is defined are called Euclidean domains and include polynomial rings in one indeterminate (which define multiplication and addition over single-variabled formulas).,"ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ “ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴱⴹⵓ” (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵓⵔ), ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⵔⵚⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵢⵏ ( ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ “ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ”)."
"This division sign is also used alone to represent the division operation itself, as for instance as a label on a key of a calculator.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴷⵖ ⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵅⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴷⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ."
Distributing the objects several at a time in each round of sharing to each portion leads to the idea of 'chunking' a form of division where one repeatedly subtracts multiples of the divisor from the dividend itself.,"ⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ “ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ”, ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵍⴰⴳ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴱⴹⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵢⵓⵍⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ."
"A person can use logarithm tables to divide two numbers, by subtracting the two numbers' logarithms, then looking up the antilogarithm of the result.","ⵉⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ “ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ” ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴹⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⵏ “ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ” ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ “ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ” ⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ."
"Some programming languages, such as C, treat integer division as in case 5 above, so the answer is an integer.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ: “ⵙ”, ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 5, ⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴷ “ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ”."
"Similarly, right division of b by a (written ) is the solution y to the equation .","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵏ “ⴱ” ⵅⴼ “ⴰ” ( ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ), ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ “ⵢ” ⴳ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ."
Examples include matrix algebras and quaternion algebras.,ⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⴷⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴱⵓⴽⴽⵓⵥ.
Entry of such an expression into most calculators produces an error message.,ⴰⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴷⴰⵖⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ.
"Since this replacement reduces the larger of the two numbers, repeating this process gives successively smaller pairs of numbers until the two numbers become equal.","ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ, ⴰⵖⴼ ⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⵉⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⴽⵙⵉⵍⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ."
The fact that the GCD can always be expressed in this way is known as Bézout's identity.,"ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⴼ “ⴰⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ” ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ “ⴱⵉⵣⵓⵜ”."
"With this improvement, the algorithm never requires more steps than five times the number of digits (base 10) of the smaller integer.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵜⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ (ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ 10), ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ."
The Euclidean algorithm has many theoretical and practical applications.,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵅⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴰⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ.
"The Euclidean algorithm may be used to solve Diophantine equations, such as finding numbers that satisfy multiple congruences according to the Chinese remainder theorem, to construct continued fractions, and to find accurate rational approximations to real numbers.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵅⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ “ⴷⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ”, ⵣⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ “ⵜⵓⴳⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ”, ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴼ ⴰⴷⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ."
"The greatest common divisor is often written as gcd(a, b) or, more simply, as (a, b), although the latter notation is ambiguous, also used for concepts such as an ideal in the ring of integers, which is closely related to GCD.","ⴰⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⵙ “ⴰ,ⵎ,ⵅ”(ⴰ, ⴱ), ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ (ⴰ, ⴱ), ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⵉ ⵓⵎⴻⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ: “ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ”, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵟⴼⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ."
"For example, neither 6 nor 35 is a prime number, since they both have two prime factors: 6 = 2 × 3 and 35 = 5 × 7.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵎⵉⴹ 6 ⵓⵍⴰ 35; ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ: 6 = 2 × 3 ⴷ 35 = 5 × 7."
"Factorization of large integers is believed to be a computationally very difficult problem, and the security of many widely used cryptographic protocols is based upon its infeasibility.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓⴽⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ."
"The set of all integral linear combinations of a and b is actually the same as the set of all multiples of g (mg, where m is an integer).","ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ “ⴰ” ⴷ “ⴱ”, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵍⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵏ “ⴳ” (“ⵎ,ⴳ”, ⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ “ⵎ” ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ)."
"In other words, multiples of the smaller number rk−1 are subtracted from the larger number rk−2 until the remainder rk is smaller than rk−1.","ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵍⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴹ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ “ⵔⴽ-1” ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ “ⵔⴽ-2”, ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵖⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ “ⵔⴽ” ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ ⵖⴼ “ⵔⴽ-1”."
"Therefore, c divides the initial remainder r0, since r0 = a − q0b = mc − q0nc = (m − q0n)c.","ⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓ “ⵙ” ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ “ⵔ0”, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ “ⵔ0” = ⴰ - ⵇ0ⴱ = ⵎⵙ - ⵇ0ⵏⵙ = (ⵎ - ⵇ0ⵏ)ⵙ."
"We first attempt to tile the rectangle using b-by-b square tiles; however, this leaves an r0-by-b residual rectangle untiled, where r0 < b. We then attempt to tile the residual rectangle with r0-by-r0 square tiles.","ⴷⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴽⴽ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵏⵣⵉⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ, “ⴱ-ⴱⵢ-ⴱ” ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰⵖⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵖ “ⵔ0-ⴱⵢ-ⴱ” ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⵔ0” ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ ⵅⴼ “ⴱ”. ⴷⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵏⵣⵉⵖ ⴷ ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵍⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ “ⵔ0-ⴱⵢ-ⵔ0”."
The theorem which underlies the definition of the Euclidean division ensures that such a quotient and remainder always exist and are unique.,"ⵜⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴼⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵓⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵀⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ."
"At the end of the loop iteration, the variable b holds the remainder rk, whereas the variable a holds its predecessor, rk−1.","ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵅⵔⵙⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ “ⴱ” ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵔⵓ “ⵔⴽ”, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵀⵟⵟⵓ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ “ⴰ” ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, “ⵔⴽ-1”."
The mathematician and historian B. L. van der Waerden suggests that Book VII derives from a textbook on number theory written by mathematicians in the school of Pythagoras.,"ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ “ⴱ.ⵍ.ⴼⴰⵏ .ⴷⵉⵔ. ⵡⵉⵔⴷⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙ."
"Centuries later, Euclid's algorithm was discovered independently both in India and in China, primarily to solve Diophantine equations that arose in astronomy and making accurate calendars.","ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ “ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵍⵉⴷ” ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⴷ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⴷⵏ."
"The Euclidean algorithm was first described numerically and popularized in Europe in the second edition of Bachet's Problèmes plaisants et délectables (Pleasant and enjoyable problems, 1624).","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ “ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵓⵇⵍⵉⴷⵏ” ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ, ⵜⴰⵖ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ “ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴽⵉⵜⵙ ⵉⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊⵏ ⵉⴹⴼⵉⵜⵏ”( ⵉⵎⵢⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵏ, ⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊⵏ 1624)."
"In the 19th century, the Euclidean algorithm led to the development of new number systems, such as Gaussian integers and Eisenstein integers.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⵜⵓⵡⵢ “ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ” ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵙⵢⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵛⵜⴰⵢⵏ."
Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet seems to have been the first to describe the Euclidean algorithm as the basis for much of number theory.,"ⴱⵉⵜⵔ ⴳⵓⵙⵜⴰⴼ ⵍⵉⴳⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⵔⵉⵜⵛⵍⵉⵜ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍⵏ “ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ” ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ."
"For example, Dedekind was the first to prove Fermat's two-square theorem using the unique factorization of Gaussian integers.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⵉⴷⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵥⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ “ⴼⵉⵔⵎⴰ” ⵎⵎ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ “ⴳⵓⵙⵢⴰⵏ” ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ."
Other applications of Euclid's algorithm were developed in the 19th century.,"ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ “ⵉⴽⵍⵉⴷⵙ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ”, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19."
"Several novel integer relation algorithms have been developed, such as the algorithm of Helaman Ferguson and R.W. Forcade (1979) and the LLL algorithm.",ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ “ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ” ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵔⴳⵓⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵔ.ⵡ.ⴼⵓⵔⴽⴰⴷ (1979) ⴷ ⵍⵍⵍ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ.”
The players take turns removing m multiples of the smaller pile from the larger.,ⵓⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴼⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ.
"By allowing u to vary over all possible integers, an infinite family of solutions can be generated from a single solution (x1, y1).","ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵔⵓⴼ ⵏ “ⵓ” ⵙ ⵓⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ” ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⴼⴹⴹⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ (ⴽ1, ⵢ1)."
"In this field, the results of any mathematical operation (addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division) is reduced modulo 13; that is, multiples of 13 are added or subtracted until the result is brought within the range 0–12.","ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ( ⵜⴰⵔⵏⵓⵜ, ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⴰⴽⴼⵓⴷ, ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ) ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ 13, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵏⵓ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ 13, ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵊⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴰⵙⴳⵔⴰⵔ 0 - 12."
Now assume that the result holds for all values of N up to M − 1.,ⵎⵔⴷ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ “ⵏ” ⴰⵔ “ⵎ - 1”.
"For illustration, the probability of a quotient of 1, 2, 3, or 4 is roughly 41.5%, 17.0%, 9.3%, and 5.9%, respectively.","ⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⴼⵉⵡ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴼ ⵜⵉⴱⴹⵓⵜ ⵏ 1, 2, 3, ⵏⵖⴷ 4 ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ 41.5%, 17.0%, 9.3%, ⴷ 5.9%, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ."
One inefficient approach to finding the GCD of two natural numbers a and b is to calculate all their common divisors; the GCD is then the largest common divisor.,"ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ GCD ⵉ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ a ⴷ b, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵛⵛⵓⵔ ⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ, ⴷ GCD ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵛⵛⵓⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ."
"As noted above, the GCD equals the product of the prime factors shared by the two numbers a and b. Present methods for prime factorization are also inefficient; many modern cryptography systems even rely on that inefficiency.","ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⴷⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ GCD ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ a ⴷ b. ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵜⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⵓ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵖⴼ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ."
Lehmer's GCD algorithm uses the same general principle as the binary algorithm to speed up GCD computations in arbitrary bases.,"ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ Lehmer's GCD, ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⴱⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ GCD ⴳ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵅⵔⴱⵇⵏ."
The Euclidean algorithm can be used to solve linear Diophantine equations and Chinese remainder problems for polynomials; continued fractions of polynomials can also be defined.,"ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ."
"Any Euclidean domain is a unique factorization domain (UFD), although the converse is not true.","ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ (UFD), ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ."
"A Euclidean domain is always a principal ideal domain (PID), an integral domain in which every ideal is a principal ideal.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ (PID), ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ."
"Numerators and denominators are also used in fractions that are not common, including compound fractions, complex fractions, and mixed numerals.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵛⵛⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ."
The term was originally used to distinguish this type of fraction from the sexagesimal fraction used in astronomy.,"ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵚⴹⵉⵙⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ."
This was explained in the 17th century textbook The Ground of Arts.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏ “ⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 17.
"The product of a fraction and its reciprocal is 1, hence the reciprocal is the multiplicative inverse of a fraction.","ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ 1, ⵅⴼ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ."
The remainder becomes the numerator of the fractional part.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵓⵔ ⴰⵏⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ.
"Since 5×17 (= 85) is greater than 4×18 (= 72), the result of comparing is .","ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ 5×17 (= 85) ⵢⵓⴳⵔ 4× 18 (= 72), ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ."
"Since one third of a quarter is one twelfth, two thirds of a quarter is two twelfth.","ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ."
Sometimes an infinite repeating decimal is required to reach the same precision.,"ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ ⵢⵓⵍⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵡⴹ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ."
The Egyptians used Egyptian fractions  BC.,ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵚⵕⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵚⵕⵉⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ.
Their methods gave the same answer as modern methods.,ⵜⴽⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.
"A modern expression of fractions known as bhinnarasi seems to have originated in India in the work of Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ “ⴱⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉ” ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ “ⴰⵔⵢⴰⴱⴰⵜⴰ”, “ⴱⵔⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜⴰ”, ⴷ “ⴱⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⴰ”"
"""In mathematics, modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers """"wrap around"""" when reaching a certain value, called the modulus.""","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴰⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵓⵡⴹⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ; ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ."
A very practical application is to calculate checksums within serial number identifiers.,ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵔⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵛⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ.
RSA and Diffie–Hellman use modular exponentiation.,"“ⵔ,ⵙ,ⴰ” ⴷ “ ⴷⵉⴼⵉ ⵀⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏ” ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ."
"It is used by the most efficient implementations of polynomial greatest common divisor, exact linear algebra and Gröbner basis algorithms over the integers and the rational numbers.",ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴱⴹⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ ⴷ “ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ” ⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ.
"The modulo operation, as implemented in many programming languages and calculators, is an application of modular arithmetic that is often used in this context.","ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ."
The method of casting out nines offers a quick check of decimal arithmetic computations performed by hand.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ; ⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⵔⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵉ “ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ” ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ.
"A linear system of congruences can be solved in polynomial time with a form of Gaussian elimination, for details see linear congruence theorem.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ “ⴳⵓⵙⵢⴰⵏ”, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⵣⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵉⵕ “ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ”."
"The multiplication of integers (including negative numbers), rational numbers (fractions) and real numbers is defined by a systematic generalization of this basic definition.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ( ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ), ⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ (ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ), ⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ."
The product of two measurements is a new type of measurement.,ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ.
The inverse operation of multiplication is division.,ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⴹⵉⵜ.
The division of a number other than 0 by itself equals 1.,ⵜⵓⴱⴹⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ “0” ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ “1”.
"This implicit usage of multiplication can cause ambiguity when the concatenated variables happen to match the name of another variable, when a variable name in front of a parenthesis can be confused with a function name, or in the correct determination of the order of operations.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵓⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⴰⵡⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ, ⵉⴳ ⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴽⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⵏⵏⵉⴷⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"""The numbers to be multiplied are generally called the """"factors"""".""",ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ”.
"""Also as the result of a multiplication does not depend on the order of the factors, the distinction between """"multiplicand"""" and """"multiplier"""" is useful only at a very elementary level and in some multiplication algorithms, such as the long multiplication.""","“ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ “ ⵓⵙⴼⵜⴰⵢ” ⴷ “ⵓⵎⵙⴼⵜⴰⵢ” ⵓⴱⵖⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ “ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ” ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ”."
The result of a multiplication is called a product.,ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ.
The slide rule allowed numbers to be quickly multiplied to about three places of accuracy.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵣⵔⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵕⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⵉ.
The general theory is given by dimensional analysis.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵍⵟ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ.
The complex numbers do not have an ordering.,ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ.
"Here we have identity 1, as opposed to groups under addition where the identity is typically 0.","ⴷⴰⴷⵖ ⵖⴰⵔⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ 1, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ 0."
"To see this, consider the set of invertible square matrices of a given dimension over a given field.","ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⴷ ⵖⴰⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏⵏⴽ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴹⵓⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ."
Another fact worth noticing is that the integers under multiplication is not a group—even if we exclude zero.,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⵙ ⵏⴽ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ; ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⴽⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ.
"""In mathematics, a percentage (from Latin per centum """"by a hundred"""") is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100.""","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ (ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ “ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ”) ⵜⴳⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ 100."
Computation with these fractions was equivalent to computing percentages.,"ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏⵜ."
"Whenever communicating about a percentage, it is important to specify what it is relative to (i.e., what is the total that corresponds to 100%).","ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⴽⵣ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ (ⵉ.ⴻ., ⴰⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ 100%)."
"""When speaking of a """"10% rise"""" or a """"10% fall"""" in a quantity, the usual interpretation is that this is relative to the initial value of that quantity.""","“ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ “”ⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ 10%” ⵏⵖⴷ “ⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ 10%” ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ, ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ; ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ."
"The same confusion between the different concepts of percent(age) and percentage points can potentially cause a major misunderstanding when journalists report about election results, for example, expressing both new results and differences with earlier results as percentages.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵡⵓⵛⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ (ⴰⵡⵜⴰⵢ) ⴷ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⴹ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⵏⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ; ⴰⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
The term has been attributed to Latin per centum.,ⵉⵙⵓⵏⵏⴹ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ.
Grammar and style guides often differ as to how percentages are to be written.,ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
"""When interest rates are very low, the number 0 is included if the interest rate is less than 1%, e.g. """"% Treasury Stock"""", not """"% Treasury Stock"""".)""","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴳⵣⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 0, ⵎⴽ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ 1%, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ “% ⵏ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵖⵉ” ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ “% ⵏ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵖⵉ”."
"Likewise, the winning percentage of a team, the fraction of matches that the club has won, is also usually expressed as a decimal proportion; a team that has a .500 winning percentage has won 50% of their matches.","ⵣⵓⵏⴷ, ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵢⵓⵡⴹⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⵙ 500 ⵀⴰⵜ ⵉⵔⵣⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ 50% ⴳ ⵉⵃⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Subtraction also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations, such as addition and multiplication.","ⵜⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⵙⴰ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ."
Performing subtraction on natural numbers is one of the simplest numerical tasks.,ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⵙⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ.
"Formally, the number being subtracted is known as the subtrahend, while the number it is subtracted from is the minuend.","ⵙ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⵣⴷⴰⵔ."
"""Subtraction"""" is an English word derived from the Latin verb subtrahere, which in turn is a compound of sub """"from under"""" and trahere """"to pull"""".""","“ⵙⵓⴱⵙⵜⵔⴰⴽⵛⵏ” ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳ ⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉ “ⵙⴰⴱⵜⵔⵀⵉⵔ”, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ “ⵙⴰⴱ” ⵙⴳ “ⴰⵏⴷⵔ” ⴷ ⵜⵓⴹⴼⵕⵜ ⵏ “ ⵜⵓ ⴱⵓⵍ”."
"From position 3, it takes no steps to the left to stay at 3, so .","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ 3, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵥⵍⵎⴰⴹ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵔ 3, ⵖⵎⴽⴰⵏⵏ."
"To represent such an operation, the line must be extended.","ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ."
"""The leading digit """"1"""" of the result is then discarded.""",“ ⴰⴽⴽⵓⴷⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ “1” ⵙⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ.
"In the ten's place, 0 is less than 1, so the 0 is increased by 10, and the difference with 1, which is 9, is written down in the ten's place.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ, 0 ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵅⴼ 1, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ 0 ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴳⵯⵔ ⵏ 10, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ 1 ⵉⴳⴰⵜ 9, ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ."
"The subtraction then proceeds in the hundreds place, where 6 is not less than 5, so the difference is written down in the result's hundred's place.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹ, ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴽ ⵡⴰⵜ ⵏ 6 ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵏ 5, ⵄⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹ."
Rather it increases the subtrahend hundred's digit by one.,ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴽⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴳⵯⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ.
"The answer is 1, and is written down in the result's hundred's place.","ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ 1, ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹ."
"This theorem was first conjectured by Pierre de Fermat in 1637 in the margin of a copy of Arithmetica, where he claimed that he had a proof that was too large to fit in the margin.",ⵜⵡⴰⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ “ⴱⵢⵉⵔ ⴷⵉ ⴼⵉⵔⵎⴰ ⴳ 1637 ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ “ⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎⵉⵜⵉⴽⴰ” ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ.
"The five color theorem, which has a short elementary proof, states that five colors suffice to color a map and was proven in the late 19th century; however, proving that four colors suffice turned out to be significantly harder.","ⵜⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⴳⵣⵉⵍ, ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵎ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵜⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ."
It was the first major theorem to be proved using a computer.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ.
"Additionally, any map that could potentially be a counterexample must have a portion that looks like one of these 1,936 maps.","ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ, ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ 1,936 ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ."
"It was originally formulated in 1908, by Steinitz and Tietze.",ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔⵜ “ⵛⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜⵣ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵣ” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1908.
"A variety V over a finite field with q elements has a finite number of rational points, as well as points over every finite field with qk elements containing that field.","ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ “ⴼ” ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ “ⵇ” ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵉⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵜⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ “ⵇⴽ” ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴷ."
"Originally conjectured by Henri Poincaré, the theorem concerns a space that locally looks like ordinary three-dimensional space but is connected, finite in size, and lacks any boundary (a closed 3-manifold).","ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ “ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉ ⴱⵡⴰⵏⴽⴰⵔⵉ” ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵢⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵎⵎⵙⵍⴰⵖⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰ ( ⵓⵖⵓⵏ ⵏ 3 ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ)."
"After nearly a century of effort by mathematicians, Grigori Perelman presented a proof of the conjecture in three papers made available in 2002 and 2003 on arXiv.",ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ “ⴳⵔⵉⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏ” ⴰⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ 2002 ⴷ 2003 ⴳ “ⴰⵔⵅⴰⵢⴼ” (ⵜⴰⵍⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜ ⴳ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ).
Perelman completed this portion of the proof.,ⵉⵙⵎⴷ “ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏ” ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.
"Informally, it asks whether every problem whose solution can be quickly verified by a computer can also be quickly solved by a computer; it is widely conjectured that the answer is no.","ⵙ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⵉⴳⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⵔⵔⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵖⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵀⵓ."
"It has not been proven which one is false, but it is widely believed that the first conjecture is true and the second one is false.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ, ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍ."
"For instance, the Collatz conjecture, which concerns whether or not certain sequences of integers terminate, has been tested for all integers up to 1.2 × 1012 (over a trillion).","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ “ⴽⵓⵍⴰⵜⵣ” ⵢⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵙ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ; ⴷⴰ ⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓ ⵎⵉⴷ ⵓⵀⵓ, ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⵔ 1.2 × 1012 ( ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵍⵢⵓⵏ)."
"That evidence may be of various kinds, such as verification of consequences of it or strong interconnections with known results.","ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴳⵉⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"""One method of proof, applicable when there are only a finite number of cases that could lead to counterexamples, is known as """"brute force"""": in this approach, all possible cases are considered and shown not to give counterexamples.""","“ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ, ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵓ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ “ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵜⵜⵍ” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵖⵔ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ."
"The continuum hypothesis, which tries to ascertain the relative cardinality of certain infinite sets, was eventually shown to be independent from the generally accepted set of Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms of set theory.","ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴱⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⵀⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵣⵉⵔⵎⵉⵍⵓ-ⴼⵔⵉⵏⴽⵍ, ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
Few number theorists doubt that the Riemann hypothesis is true.,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵏⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵥⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵓⵜ ⵏ “ⵔⵉⵎⴰⵏ”.
"The logistic map is a polynomial mapping, often cited as an archetypal example of how chaotic behaviour can arise from very simple non-linear dynamical equations.","ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵊⵉⵙⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵔⵓⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
Kepler proved that it is the limit of the ratio of consecutive Fibonacci numbers.,ⵉⵙⵡⵔ “ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵔ” ⵉⴷ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ “ⴼⵉⴱⵓⵏⴰⵜⵛⵉ” ⵉⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ.
For two reasons this representation may cause problems.,"ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ."
"For example, the two representations 0.999... and 1 are equivalent in the sense that they represent the same number.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ 0.999... ⴷ 1 ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ."
"Using computers and supercomputers, some of the mathematical constants, including π, e, and the square root of 2, have been computed to more than one hundred billion digits.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵟⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ “π” ⴷ “ⴻ” ⴷ ⵓⵥⵖⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ 2 ⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴹ ⵉⴳⵏⴷⴰⴷ."
Some constants differ so much from the usual kind that a new notation has been invented to represent them reasonably.,"ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ."
"Sometimes, the symbol representing a constant is a whole word.","ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ."
"0 (zero) is a number, and the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals.","0 (ⴰⵎⵢⴰ) ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⴻⵏ."
"""Names for the number 0 in English include zero, nought (UK), naught (US; ), nil, or—in contexts where at least one adjacent digit distinguishes it from the letter """"O""""—oh or o.""","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ 0 ⴳ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ “ⴰⵎⵢⴰ”, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵡⵡⴷ (ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ), ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵡⴷⵃⴰⵃ (ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⵓⵏⵏ), ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵡⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍ “ⵓ” (ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ) ⵏⵖⴷ “ⵓ” (ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ)."
"For the simple notion of lacking, the words nothing and none are often used.",ⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵡⵜⵃⴰⵃ.
It is often called oh in the context of telephone numbers.,ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ “ⵓⵀ” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵓⵏ.
"The symbol nfr, meaning beautiful, was also used to indicate the base level in drawings of tombs and pyramids, and distances were measured relative to the base line as being above or below this line.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ “ⵏⴼⵔ”, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵄⵜ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⴷ."
"The Babylonian placeholder was not a true zero because it was not used alone, nor was it used at the end of a number.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵓⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ."
"By AD 150, Ptolemy, influenced by Hipparchus and the Babylonians, was using a symbol for zero in his work on mathematical astronomy called the Syntaxis Mathematica, also known as the Almagest.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵡⴹ 150 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵉⵙⵏⵏⴷ “ⴱⴰⵟⵍⵉⵎⵓⵙ” ⵖⵔ “ⴱⵀⵉⴱⴰⵔⵅⵓⵙ” ⴷ “ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵢⵢⵉⵏ” ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ “ⵜⴰⵊⵕⵕⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ”, ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ “ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵊⵉⵙⵜ”."
"""This use was repeated in AD525 in an equivalent table, that was translated via the Latin nulla or """"none"""" by Dionysius Exiguus, alongside Roman numerals.""","“ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 525 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵙⵍ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵖⵍⵜ ⵙ “ⵓⵎⵢⴰ” ⴷⵢⵓⵏⵉⵙⵢⵓⵙ ⵉⴽⵙⵉⵊⵓⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵎⵎⵙⵍⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ”."
"The Lokavibhāga, a Jain text on cosmology surviving in a medieval Sanskrit translation of the Prakrit original, which is internally dated to AD 458 (Saka era 380), uses a decimal place-value system, including a zero.","“ⵍⵓⴽⴰⴼⵉⴱⴰⴳⴰ” ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴹⵕⵉⵚ ⵏ “ⵊⴰⵢⵏ” ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵖⵣⵡⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵏ “ⵙⴰⵏⵙⴽⵔⵉ” ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ “ⴱⵔⴰⴽⵔⵉ”, ⵙⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⴽⵓⴷ 458 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ( ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵙⴰⴽⴰ 380), ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ “ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ” ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ."
"""In 813, al-Khwarizmi used the Hindu numerals in his astronomical tables.""""""","“ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 813, ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ “ⴰⵍⵅⴰⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎ” ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵡⵜⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ.”"
This book was later translated into Latin in the 12th century under the title Algoritmi de numero Indorum.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 12 ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ “ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵔⵓⵎ”.
I pursued my study in depth and learned the give-and-take of disputation.,"ⵙⵎⴷⵖ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵏⵡ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵔⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⵍⵎⴷⵖ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ."
"I have striven to compose this book in its entirety as understandably as I could, dividing it into fifteen chapters.","ⴳⵉⵖ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵣⴹⴰⵕⵖ, ⴷ ⴱⴹⵉⵖⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ."
The nine Indian figures are: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1.,ⵜⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⴷⵉⵜⵏ: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1.
"254–255 include 0 as a natural number, in which case it is the only natural number that is not positive.","254-255 ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵏ 0 ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴹⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ."
"As a value or a number, zero is not the same as the digit zero, used in numeral systems with positional notation.","ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, “ⴰⵎⵢⴰ” ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⴰⵡⵜⵃⴰⵃ”, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵟⵟⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ."
"The number 0 may or may not be considered a natural number, but it is an integer, and hence a rational number and a real number (as well as an algebraic number and a complex number).","ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 0 ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ (ⴷ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⴱⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ)."
"It cannot be prime because it has an infinite number of factors, and cannot be composite because it cannot be expressed as a product of prime numbers (as 0 must always be one of the factors).","ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵏⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ( ⵉⵎⴽ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵉⴳ 0 ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ)."
"These rules apply for any real or complex number x, unless otherwise stated.",ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⴼ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ “ⴽ” ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⴽⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ.
"The cardinality function, applied to the empty set, returns the empty set as a value, thereby assigning it 0 elements.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵢ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ, ⵜⴳ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ 0 ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ."
"In abstract algebra, 0 is commonly used to denote a zero element, which is a neutral element for addition (if defined on the structure under consideration) and an absorbing element for multiplication (if defined).","ⴳ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ 0 ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ; ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ (ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ), ⴷ ⵓⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ (ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ)."
"For some quantities, the zero level is naturally distinguished from all other levels, whereas for others it is more or less arbitrarily chosen.","ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵇⴷⴷⵛⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
It has been shown that a cluster of four neutrons may be stable enough to be considered an atom in its own right.,"ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵡⵔ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⵣⴳⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴽⵎⵜ."
"For example, the elements of an array are numbered starting from 0 in C, so that for an array of n items the sequence of array indices runs from 0 to .","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵇⴹⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ “0” ⴳ “ⵙ”, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ 0 ⴰⵔ ."
"In databases, it is possible for a field not to have a value.","ⴳ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ."
For text fields this is not blank nor the empty string.,"ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ, ⵡⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵅⵡⵉ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ."
Any computation including a null value delivers a null result.,ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ.
"In Formula One, if the reigning World Champion no longer competes in Formula One in the year following their victory in the title race, 0 is given to one of the drivers of the team that the reigning champion won the title with.","ⴳ “ⵍⴼⵓⵔⵎⵓⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵏ” ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵓⵏⴱⵔⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ “ⵍⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵏ” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ 0 ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵔⵜ."
Typewriters originally made no distinction in shape between O and 0; some models did not even have a separate key for the digit 0.,ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⴳⵔ “O” ⴷ “0” ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 0.
"The digit 0 with a dot in the center seems to have originated as an option on IBM 3270 displays and has continued with some modern computer typefaces such as Andalé Mono, and in some airline reservation systems.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 0 ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵖⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕⵏ “ⵉⴱⵎ 3270”, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵉ ⵎⵓⵏⵓ, ⴷ ⵛⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ."
"1 (one, also called unit, and unity) is a number and a numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals.","1 (ⵢⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵜ, ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ) ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵟⵟⵓⵏ."
"In conventions of sign where zero is considered neither positive nor negative, 1 is the first and smallest positive integer.","ⴳ ⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔ, 1 ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ."
Most if not all properties of 1 can be deduced from this.,"ⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴼⵍⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ 1, ⵎⴽ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ."
It is thus the integer after zero.,ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ.
"It was transmitted to Europe via the Maghreb and Andalusia during the Middle Ages, through scholarly works written in Arabic.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵍⵎⵔⵔⵓⴽ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵄⵔⴰⴱⵜ."
Styles that do not use the long upstroke on digit 1 usually do not use the horizontal stroke through the vertical of the digit 7 either.,"ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵣⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 1, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵙⵜ ⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 7."
"By definition, 1 is the magnitude, absolute value, or norm of a unit complex number, unit vector, and a unit matrix (more usually called an identity matrix).","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ, 1 ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ (ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ: ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ)."
"In category theory, 1 is sometimes used to denote the terminal object of a category.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ 1 ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵄⵜ ⵓⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ."
"Since the base 1 exponential function (1x) always equals 1, its inverse does not exist (which would be called the logarithm base 1 if it did exist).","ⵎⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ 1, (ⴽ1) ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵀⴰ 1, ⵓⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ 1, ⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ)."
"Likewise, vectors are often normalized into unit vectors (i.e., vectors of magnitude one), because these often have more desirable properties.","ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵜⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵉⵍⵏ ⴰⵡⵢⵉⵡⵏ ( ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ), ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
It is also the first and second number in the Fibonacci sequence (0 being the zeroth) and is the first number in many other mathematical sequences.,"ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ “ⴼⵉⴱⵓⵏⴰⵜⵛⵉ (0 ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ), ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴹⴼⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ."
"Nevertheless, abstract algebra can consider the field with one element, which is not a singleton and is not a set at all.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵖⵔ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ, ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ."
A binary code is a sequence of 1 and 0 that is used in computers for representing any kind of data.,ⵍⴽⵓⴷ ⴱⵓ-ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ 1 ⴷ 0 ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ.
+1 is the electric charge of positrons and protons.,+1 ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵜⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵓⵥⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵍⴱⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ.
"The Neopythagorean philosopher Nicomachus of Gerasa affirmed that one is not a number, but the source of number.","ⵉⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵏⵢⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ “ ⵏⵉⵎⵓⴽⴰⵅⴰⵔⵓⵙ” ⴳ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ."
"We Are Number One is a 2014 song from the children's TV show LazyTown, which gained popularity as a meme.","“ⵏⴽⵯⵏⵉ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ” ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ 2014, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵍⴼⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ “ⵍⴰⵣⵉ-ⵜⴰⵡⵏ” ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ."
In association football (soccer) the number 1 is often given to the goalkeeper.,ⴳ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴹⴰⵕ ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 1 ⵉ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵙⵡⵉⵜ.
1 is the lowest number permitted for use by players of the National Hockey League (NHL); the league prohibited the use of 00 and 0 in the late 1990s (the highest number permitted being 98).,"1 ⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ “ⵍⵀⵓⴽⵉ” (ⵜ.ⵜ.ⵍ), ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⴷⵍ ⵜⴱⵔⵣⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ 00 ⴷ 0 ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ 1990 ( ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ 98)."
"Any random sequence of digits contains arbitrarily long subsequences that appear non-random, by the infinite monkey theorem.","ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴹⴼⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵛⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵡⴰⵢ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵄⴹⵓⴹ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ."
"""Second, since no transcendental number can be constructed with compass and straightedge, it is not possible to """"square the circle"""".""","“ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵚⵓⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵓⵎⵉ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ”."
The Indian astronomer Aryabhata used a value of 3.1416 in his Āryabhaṭīya (499 AD).,ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉ “ⴰⵔⵢⴰⴱⴰⵟⴰ” ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ 3.1416 ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ “ⴰⵔⵢⴰⴱⵉⵟⵉⵢⴰ” (499 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ).
"The Persian astronomer Jamshīd al-Kāshī produced 9 sexagesimal digits, roughly the equivalent of 16 decimal digits, in 1424 using a polygon with 3×228 sides, which stood as the world record for about 180 years.","ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵉ “ ⵊⴰⵎⵛⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⴽⴰⵛⵉ” 9 ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵚⴹⵉⵚ-ⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ 16 ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1424 ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵣⴷⵙ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ 3×228 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ 180 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
These avoid reliance on infinite series.,ⵜⴰⴷⵖ ⵜⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵣⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ.
"As modified by Salamin and Brent, it is also referred to as the Brent–Salamin algorithm.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵎ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ “ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⵜ- ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵎⵉⵏ”."
"This is in contrast to infinite series or iterative algorithms, which retain and use all intermediate digits until the final result is produced.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎ “ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ” ⵏⵖⴷ “ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵍⵙⵉⵏ” ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍ, ⴰⵔⵜⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ."
Such memorization aids are called mnemonics.,ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴽⵜⵉ.
The digits are large wooden characters attached to the dome-like ceiling.,ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⴱⵓⵙⵜ.
"""A numerical digit is a single symbol used alone (such as """"2"""") or in combinations (such as """"25""""), to represent numbers in a positional numeral system.""","ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴹⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴹⵓⵏⵙ (ⴰⵎⵎ “2”), ⵏⵖⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ( ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “25”), ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵇⴹ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵙⴰⵏ."
"A positional number system has one unique digit for each integer from zero up to, but not including, the radix of the number system.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵙⴰⵏ; ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ."
"The original numerals were very similar to the modern ones, even down to the glyphs used to represent digits.","ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵥⵖⵓⵕⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏⴰⵡⴹ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ."
The Mayas used a shell symbol to represent zero.,ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵣ “ⵜⵉⵇⵛⵔⵜ” ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ.
The Thai numeral system is identical to the Hindu–Arabic numeral system except for the symbols used to represent digits.,ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵟⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓ- ⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱ ⵅⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⵏ.
They are both base 3 systems.,ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ 3 ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ.
Several authors in the last 300 years have noted a facility of positional notation that amounts to a modified decimal representation.,ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ 300 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ.
"For example, 1111 (one thousand, one hundred and eleven) is a repunit.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, 1111 ( ⵉⴼⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ) ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵜ."
"Besides counting ten fingers, some cultures have counted knuckles, the space between fingers, and toes as well as fingers.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⴹⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵏⴼⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴹⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴹⵓⴷⴰⵏ."
"Stone age cultures, including ancient indigenous American groups, used tallies for gambling, personal services, and trade-goods.","ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ-ⴰⴳⴳⵓⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴱⵓⵕⵉⵏ, ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵇⴱⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵣⵉⵡⵜ."
"Beginning about 3500 BC, clay tokens were gradually replaced by number signs impressed with a round stylus at different angles in clay tablets (originally containers for tokens) which were then baked.",ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 3500 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴹ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵖⴰⵏⵉⴱ ⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴹ ( ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⴽⵏⴰⵜ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵡⴰⵏ.
These cuneiform number signs resembled the round number signs they replaced and retained the additive sign-value notation of the round number signs.,"ⴰⵖⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵃⴹⵓ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵇⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢ."
Sexagesimal numerals were a mixed radix system that retained the alternating base 10 and base 6 in a sequence of cuneiform vertical wedges and chevrons.,ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵚⴹⵉⵚ-ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴷⵔ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ 10 ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ 6 ⴳ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴼⵔⵓⵏ.
Unique numbers of troops and measures of rice appear as unique combinations of these tallies.,ⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴳⵍ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ.
Conventional tallies are quite difficult to multiply and divide.,ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⴷ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ.
"Jews began using a similar system (Hebrew numerals), with the oldest examples known being coins from around 100 BC.","ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⴰ (ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵄⵉⴱⵔⵉⵢⴰ), ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵣⴰⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 100 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ."
"The Maya of Central America used a mixed base 18 and base 20 system, possibly inherited from the Olmec, including advanced features such as positional notation and a zero.","ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵍⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ; ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ 18 ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ 20, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵉⴷ ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⵎⴽ, ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ."
"Knowledge of the encodings of the knots and colors was suppressed by the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century, and has not survived although simple quipu-like recording devices are still used in the Andean region.","ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 16, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵊⵉⵎ ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ “ⴽⵉⴱⴱⵓ”, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ “ⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ”."
Zero was first used in India in the 7th century CE by Brahmagupta.,"ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ “ⴱⵔⴰⵀⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜⴰ”, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 7 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⵙⵉⵃ."
"Arabic mathematicians extended the system to include decimal fractions, and Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Ḵwārizmī wrote an important work about it in the 9th  century.","ⵙⴱⵉⵔⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵄⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⵎⵓⵃⵎⵎⴰⴷ ⴱⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⴰ ⵍⵅⴰⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 9."
"The binary system (base 2), was propagated in the 17th century by Gottfried Leibniz.","ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵙⵉⵏ (ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ 2), ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 17 ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴳⵓⵜⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵍⵉⴱⵏⵉⵣ."
"The variables for which the equation has to be solved are also called unknowns, and the values of the unknowns that satisfy the equality are called solutions of the equation.","ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵇⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ, ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵔⵉⵙⵎ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴽⵙⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ."
A conditional equation is only true for particular values of the variables.,ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ.
Very often the right-hand side of an equation is assumed to be zero.,ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ.
An equation is analogous to a scale into which weights are placed.,ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ.
"This is the starting idea of algebraic geometry, an important area of mathematics.","ⵜⴰⴷⵖ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"To solve equations from either family, one uses algorithmic or geometric techniques that originate from linear algebra or mathematical analysis.","ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵡⵙⵏⴰⴽ."
"These equations are difficult in general; one often searches just to find the existence or absence of a solution, and, if they exist, to count the number of solutions.","ⵜⵉⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ, ⵎⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵟⵉⵏ ⵎⵛⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ."
"In the illustration, x, y and z are all different quantities (in this case real numbers) represented as circular weights, and each of x, y, and z has a different weight.","ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵣ, “ⴽ”, “ⵢ” ⴷ “ⵣ” ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ( ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ), ⵙ ⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵉ ⴽⵓ “ⴽ”, “ⵢ”, ⴷ “ⵣ” ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ."
"Hence, the equation with R unspecified is the general equation for the circle.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ “ⵔ” ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵢⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⵢ."
"The process of finding the solutions, or, in case of parameters, expressing the unknowns in terms of the parameters, is called solving the equation.","ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵍⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵍⵜ, ⵎⴽ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵖⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ."
Multiplying or dividing both sides of an equation by a non-zero quantity.,ⴰⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ.
An algebraic equation is univariate if it involves only one variable.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵎⵎ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⴳ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴷⴰⵢ.
"In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is the basis and a fundamental part of linear algebra, a subject which is used in most parts of modern mathematics.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴳⵓⵎ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ."
This formalism allows one to determine the positions and the properties of the focuses of a conic.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⴽⵓⵔⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵄⴱⴰ.
"This point of view, outlined by Descartes, enriches and modifies the type of geometry conceived of by the ancient Greek mathematicians.","ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵀⵢⵢⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ."
An exponential Diophantine equation is one for which exponents of the terms of the equation can be unknowns.,"ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⴷⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ."
"Modern algebraic geometry is based on more abstract techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry.","ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵏⵣⵣⵖⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ, ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵏⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ."
A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵉⴳ ⵟⴼⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ.
"In pure mathematics, differential equations are studied from several different perspectives, mostly concerned with their solutions — the set of functions that satisfy the equation.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ."
"Linear differential equations, which have solutions that can be added and multiplied by coefficients, are well-defined and understood, and exact closed-form solutions are obtained.","ⵜⵉⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵔⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏ."
"PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena such as sound, heat, electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ “PDE” ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵖⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⴽⵜⵔⵓⵙⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽ, ⵉⵍⵓⴽⵜⵔⵓⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵓⵍⵉⵡⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⵓⵜⵎ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵏ."
A solution is an assignment of values to the unknown variables that makes the equality in the equation true.,ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴷⵊ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ.
The set of all solutions of an equation is its solution set.,ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ.
"Depending on the context, solving an equation may consist to find either any solution (finding a single solution is enough), all solutions, or a solution that satisfies further properties, such as belonging to a given interval.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ (ⵅⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⴼⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ), ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ , ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ."
"In this case, the solutions cannot be listed.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⴹⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ."
"The variety in types of equations is large, and so are the corresponding methods.","ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ."
This may be due to a lack of mathematical knowledge; some problems were only solved after centuries of effort.,"ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵄⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ."
Polynomials appear in many areas of mathematics and science.,ⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
Many authors use these two words interchangeably.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ.
"Formally, the name of the polynomial is P, not P(x), but the use of the functional notation P(x) dates from a time when the distinction between a polynomial and the associated function was unclear.","P ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ P(x), ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⴼ P(x), ⵉⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵚⴼⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⵣⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵙⵍⵖⵏ."
"However, one may use it over any domain where addition and multiplication are defined (that is, any ring).","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⵙ (ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⵔⵙⵜ)."
Polynomials of small degree have been given specific names.,"ⵜⵉⴷ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ."
"The polynomial 0, which may be considered to have no terms at all, is called the zero polynomial.","ⴱⵓ-ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ 0, ⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⵎⴳⴳⵓⴷⵢ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ."
"Because the degree of a non-zero polynomial is the largest degree of any one term, this polynomial has degree two.","ⵎⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔ-ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ."
"Polynomials can be classified by the number of terms with nonzero coefficients, so that a one-term polynomial is called a monomial, a two-term polynomial is called a binomial, and a three-term polynomial is called a trinomial.","ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵎⵏⵛⴽ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉ ⴱⵓ-ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴱⵓ-ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⵓ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉ ⴱⵓ-ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴱⵓ-ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉ ⴱⵓ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ; ⴱⵓ-ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ."
"When it is used to define a function, the domain is not so restricted.","ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⴼ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ."
"A polynomial in one indeterminate is called a univariate polynomial, a polynomial in more than one indeterminate is called a multivariate polynomial.","ⴱⵓ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴱⵓ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ, ⴱⵓ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⵓⴷⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⴰⵎⴳⴳⵓⵡⴷⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ."
"In the case of the field of complex numbers, the irreducible factors are linear.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙⵏ; ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ."
"If the degree is higher than one, the graph does not have any asymptote.","ⵉⴳ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
"In elementary algebra, methods such as the quadratic formula are taught for solving all first degree and second degree polynomial equations in one variable.","ⴳ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ."
"However, root-finding algorithms may be used to find numerical approximations of the roots of a polynomial expression of any degree.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴼ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵥⵖⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ."
"Since the 16th century, similar formulas (using cube roots in addition to square roots), but much more complicated are known for equations of degree three and four (see cubic equation and quartic equation).","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 16 ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴽⵙⵍ ( ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵖⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵜⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵖⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵏ), ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ( ⵥⵕ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵏⵜⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ)."
"In 1830, Évariste Galois proved that most equations of degree higher than four cannot be solved by radicals, and showed that for each equation, one may decide whether it is solvable by radicals, and, if it is, solve it.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1830, ⵉⵙⵡⵔ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⴳⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⵜ ⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ, ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⴷ ⵉⴷ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⵣⵖⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⵎⴽ ⵉⵖⵢ, ⵉⴼⵙⵉ ⵜⵜ."
"Nevertheless, formulas for solvable equations of degrees 5 and 6 have been published (see quintic function and sextic equation).","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 5 ⴷ 6 (ⵥⵕ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵚⴹⵉⴹⵜ)."
"The most efficient algorithms allow solving easily (on a computer) polynomial equations of degree higher than 1,000 (see Root-finding algorithm).","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵀⴰⵍ ( ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ), ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ 1,000 ( ⵥⵕ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵖⵕⴰⵏ)."
"For a set of polynomial equations in several unknowns, there are algorithms to decide whether they have a finite number of complex solutions, and, if this number is finite, for computing the solutions.","ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ-ⵉⵙⵎ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵖⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ."
A polynomial equation for which one is interested only in the solutions which are integers is called a Diophantine equation.,ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴷⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ.
"The coefficients may be taken as real numbers, for real-valued functions.",ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ.
This equivalence explains why linear combinations are called polynomials.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⵙⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ.
"""In the case of coefficients in a ring, """"non-constant"""" must be replaced by """"non-constant or non-unit"""" (both definitions agree in the case of coefficients in a field).""","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵅⵔⵙⵜ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵡⵉⵔⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵣⵉⵎⵏ (ⵉⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏⵡⴰⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ)."
"When the coefficients belong to integers, rational numbers or a finite field, there are algorithms to test irreducibility and to compute the factorization into irreducible polynomials (see Factorization of polynomials).","ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵣⵍ (ⵥⵕ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵏ)."
The characteristic polynomial of a matrix or linear operator contains information about the operator's eigenvalues.,"ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⴽⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ."
"However, the elegant and practical notation we use today only developed beginning in the 15th century.",ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ ⴰⵙⴷⵓⴽⵎ ⴰⵏⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 15.
"""This """"completes the square"""", converting the left side into a perfect square.""","ⵖⴰⵢⴰ “ⵉⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ”, ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵎⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ."
"Descartes' theorem states that for every four kissing (mutually tangent) circles, their radii satisfy a particular quadratic equation.","ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵜⵓⴳⴷⵓⵜ (ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵓ ⵓⴳⴷⵓ), ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵊⵊ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ."
Babylonian mathematicians from circa 400 BC and Chinese mathematicians from circa 200 BC used geometric methods of dissection to solve quadratic equations with positive roots.,"ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ; ⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 400 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 200 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵢⵓⵎⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵣⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵖⵕⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ."
"Euclid, the Greek mathematician, produced a more abstract geometrical method around 300 BC.","ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵢⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 300 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ."
"Al-Khwarizmi goes further in providing a full solution to the general quadratic equation, accepting one or two numerical answers for every quadratic equation, while providing geometric proofs in the process.","ⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵍⵅⴰⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⵊⵢⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⴰⴷ."
"Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam (Egypt, 10th century) in particular was the first to accept irrational numbers (often in the form of a square root, cube root or fourth root) as solutions to quadratic equations or as coefficients in an equation.","ⴰⴱⵓ ⴽⴰⵎⵉⵍ ⵛⵓⵊⴰⵄ ⵉⴱⵏ ⴰⵙⵍⴰⵎ (ⵎⵉⵚⵕ, ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 10); ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵀ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏ ( ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴳⵏⵜⵔ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ) ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ."
His solution was largely based on Al-Khwarizmi's work.,ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵅⴰⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎⵉ.
"However, at some point the quadratic formula begins to lose accuracy because of round off error, while the approximate method continues to improve.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵣⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵛⵛⴽⴰ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⴷ; ⵙ ⵓⵣⴳⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ, ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ."
"Methods of numerical approximation existed, called prosthaphaeresis, that offered shortcuts around time-consuming operations such as multiplication and taking powers and roots.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵉⵙⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵏⴼⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵖⵕⴰⵏ."
"Computational algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and play a prominent role in engineering, physics, chemistry, computer science, and economics.","ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵛⵉⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ."
"For solutions in an integral domain like the ring of the integers, or in other algebraic structures, other theories have been developed, see Linear equation over a ring.","ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵅⵕⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵥⵕ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⵉⵔⴳⵜ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵅⵕⵙⵜ."
"This allows all the language and theory of vector spaces (or more generally, modules) to be brought to bear.",ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ( ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⵔⵙⵉⵍⵏ).
Such a system is known as an underdetermined system.,ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵢⵏ.
"The second system has a single unique solution, namely the intersection of the two lines.",ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵊⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ.
Any two of these equations have a common solution.,ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⴰⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ.
A system of equations whose left-hand sides are linearly independent is always consistent.,ⴰⵀⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵍⵎⴰⴹ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ; ⴰⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉ.
This yields a system of equations with one fewer equation and one fewer unknown.,"ⴷⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⵣⴷⵓⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ."
Type 3: Add to one row a scalar multiple of another.,ⴰⵏⴰⵡ 3: ⵔⵏⵓ ⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵍⴰⴳ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.
"For instance, systems with a symmetric positive definite matrix can be solved twice as fast with the Cholesky decomposition.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵍⵟ ⵏⵜⵛⵓⵍⵉⵙⴽⵉ."
"A completely different approach is often taken for very large systems, which would otherwise take too much time or memory.","ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜ."
This leads to the class of iterative methods.,ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⵍⵙⵏ.
"In mathematics, a series is, roughly speaking, a description of the operation of adding infinitely many quantities, one after the other, to a given starting quantity.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉ; ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵉⵡⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ."
"In addition to their ubiquity in mathematics, infinite series are also widely used in other quantitative disciplines such as physics, computer science, statistics and finance.","ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢ ⵏⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ."
"Zeno's paradox of Achilles and the tortoise illustrates this counterintuitive property of infinite sums: Achilles runs after a tortoise, but when he reaches the position of the tortoise at the beginning of the race, the tortoise has reached a second position; when he reaches this second position, the tortoise is at a third position, and so on.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⵏⵓ ⴳⵔ ⴰⵅⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴽⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ, ⴰⵅⵉⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵣⵍⴰ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⴽⴼⵔⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴽⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵎⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔ, ⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⴹ ⴽⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴷⴷⵓ."
"This argument does not prove that the sum is equal to 2 (although it is), but it does prove that it is at most 2.","ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ 2 (ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ), ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵣⵣⴳⴰ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ 2."
"Tests for uniform convergence include the Weierstrass' M-test, Abel's uniform convergence test, Dini's test, and the Cauchy criterion.","ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ, ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ “ⵡⴰⵢⵔⵙⵜⵔⵉⵙ ⵎ Weierstrass' M-tes”, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ “ⴰⴱⵉⵍ Abel's” ⴷ “ ⴷⵉⵏⵉ Dini's” ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ “ⴽⵓⵛⵉ Cauchy ”."
"The convergence is uniform on closed and bounded (that is, compact) subsets of the interior of the disc of convergence: to wit, it is uniformly convergent on compact sets.","ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵇⵏⵏ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⴰⵍⵢ ( ⵉⴳ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵣⵉⵏ), ⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵉⵙⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ: ⵉ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵙⵜ, ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⵔⵏ."
The Hilbert–Poincaré series is a formal power series used to study graded algebras.,ⵜⴰⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ “ⵉⵍⴱⵉⵔ-ⴱⵡⴰⵏⴽⴰⵔⵉ Hilbert–Poincaré” ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵙⵉⴱⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵎⴹⴼⵓⵕ.
"In the 17th century, James Gregory worked in the new decimal system on infinite series and published several Maclaurin series.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 17 ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ “ⴳⵉⵎⵙ ⴳⵔⵉⴳⵓⵔⵉ James Gregory” ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ; ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ “ⵎⴰⴽⵍⵓⵔⵉⵏ Maclaurin”."
"Cauchy (1821) insisted on strict tests of convergence; he showed that if two series are convergent their product is not necessarily so, and with him begins the discovery of effective criteria.","ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷ “ⴽⵓⵛⵉ” (1821) ⵖⴼ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵇⵊⵉⵔⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴽⵣ ⵉⴳ ⵎⵎⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵥⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵛⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵓⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵜⵏ."
A summability method is such an assignment of a limit to a subset of the set of divergent series which properly extends the classical notion of convergence.,"ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⴽⵣ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵄⵔⴰⵇⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵏⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ."
Indian scholars have been using factorial formulas since at least the 12th century.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 12.
"In functional languages, the recursive definition is often implemented directly to illustrate recursive functions.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⵏⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ."
Other implementations (such as computer software such as spreadsheet programs) can often handle larger values.,ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ) ⴰⵙⵎⴽⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ.
"Compared to the Pickover definition of the superfactorial, the hyperfactorial grows relatively slowly.","ⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⴼⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵎ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⵉⵙⵖⵜ."
"There are, relatively speaking, no such simple solutions for factorials; no finite combination of sums, products, powers, exponential functions, or logarithms will suffice to express ; but it is possible to find a general formula for factorials using tools such as integrals and limits from calculus.","ⵙ ⵜⵎⵉⵙⵖⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵙ ⵏⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵏⵙⵉⵡⵍ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵓⴼ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵎⴷ."
"The integrals we have discussed so far involve transcendental functions, but the gamma function also arises from integrals of purely algebraic functions.","ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵏⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵓⵡⵉⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ."
"By taking limits, certain rational products with infinitely many factors can be evaluated in terms of the gamma function as well.","ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ."
"Its history, notably documented by Philip J. Davis in an article that won him the 1963 Chauvenet Prize, reflects many of the major developments within mathematics since the 18th century.","ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⴱ ⵊ. ⴷⵉⴼⵉⵙ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵛⵓⴼⵉⵏⵉ ⴱⵔⵉⵣ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ1963, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ 18."
"Instead of finding a specialized proof for each formula, it would be desirable to have a general method of identifying the gamma function.","ⵅⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴼ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ, ⵢⵓⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴽ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ."
"However, the gamma function does not appear to satisfy any simple differential equation.",ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵜ.
The Bohr–Mollerup theorem is useful because it is relatively easy to prove logarithmic convexity for any of the different formulas used to define the gamma function.,"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⵀ-ⵎⵓⵍⵉⵔⵓ ⵜⵓⴱⵖⵉⵔⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵡⵔ ⵡⵓⴹⵓ ⴰⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎⵉ ⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ."
"As electronic computers became available for the production of tables in the 1950s, several extensive tables for the complex gamma function were published to meet the demand, including a table accurate to 12 decimal places from the U.S. National Bureau of Standards.","ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ 1950, ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵔⴰ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵖⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ 12 ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉ."
"In science, a formula is a concise way of expressing information symbolically, as in a mathematical formula or a chemical formula.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰ, ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵙⴰⵏⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵉⵎⵉ."
"In mathematics, a formula generally refers to an identity which equates one mathematical expression to another, with the most important ones being mathematical theorems.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"This convention, while less important in a relatively simple formula, means that mathematicians can more quickly manipulate formulas which are larger and more complex.","ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵍⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⴱⵉ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ."
"For example, H2O is the chemical formula for water, specifying that each molecule consists of two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, H2O ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ (H) ⴷ ⵜⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ (O)."
"In empirical formulas, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound—as ratios to the key element.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⴷⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵜⵜⵉⵢ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ."
"Some types of ionic compounds, however, cannot be written as empirical formulas which contains only the whole numbers.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴷ ⵏⵓⵔⵓ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ."
"There are several types of these formulas, including molecular formulas and condensed formulas.",ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
Functions were originally the idealization of how a varying quantity depends on another quantity.,ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⵏⴽ ⵙⵏⵣⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.
"""This definition of """"graph"""" refers to a set of pairs of objects.""","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ “ⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ” ⴰⴷ, ⵖⵔ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
"When the domain and the codomain are sets of real numbers, each such pair may be thought of as the Cartesian coordinates of a point in the plane.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵔⴰⴳ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ."
"Occasionally, it may be identified with the function, but this hides the usual interpretation of a function as a process.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ, ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⵢ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ."
"A map can have any set as its codomain, while, in some contexts, typically in older books, the codomain of a function is specifically the set of real or complex numbers.","ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵍⵏ, ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ; ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ."
Another common example is the error function.,ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ; ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ.
Power series can be used to define functions on the domain in which they converge.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴳ ⵎⵎⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ.
"Then, the power series can be used to enlarge the domain of the function.",ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵅⵉⵜⵔ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ.
Parts of this may create a plot that represents (parts of) the function.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵚⵟⵟⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ (ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵙⴳ) ⵙ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ.
This is the canonical factorization of .,ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ.
"At that time, only real-valued functions of a real variable were considered, and all functions were assumed to be smooth.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ."
Functions are now used throughout all areas of mathematics.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ.
"This is how inverse trigonometric functions are defined in terms of trigonometric functions, where the trigonometric functions are monotonic.","ⵜⴰⴷⵖ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ, ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵔⵜⵓⵜ."
"Usefulness of the concept of multi-valued functions is clearer when considering complex functions, typically analytic functions.","ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴼⴰⵡⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙⵜ."
Such a function is called the principal value of the function.,ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ.
Functional programming is the programming paradigm consisting of building programs by using only subroutines that behave like mathematical functions.,"ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"""Except for computer-language terminology, """"function"""" has the usual mathematical meaning in computer science.""",ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ.
"Terms are manipulated through some rules, (the -equivalence, the -reduction, and the -conversion), which are the axioms of the theory and may be interpreted as rules of computation.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ (ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ, ⴰⵣⵓⴳⵣ, ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ), ⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ."
"Nicolas Chuquet used a form of exponential notation in the 15th century, which was later used by Henricus Grammateus and Michael Stifel in the 16th century.","ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵚ ⵜⵛⵓⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 15, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵙ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉⴽⵓⵙ ⴳⵔⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵙⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 16 ."
"Thus they would write polynomials, for example, as .","ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⴷⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ."
"The result is always a positive real number, and the identities and properties shown above for integer exponents remain true with these definitions for real exponents.","ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ."
This function equals the usual th root for positive real radicands.,"ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⴰⵥⵓⵕ th”, ⴳ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵖⵕⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ."
This is the starting point of the mathematical theory of semigroups.,ⵜⴰⴷⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵏⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ.
"We can again replace the set N with a cardinal number n to get Vn, although without choosing a specific standard set with cardinality n, this is defined only up to isomorphism.","ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ N ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ n, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵖⴷ ⵜⴽ Vn, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵙⵜⵉⵢ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ n ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵜⵔⴰⵏ."
"Nicolas Bourbaki, Elements of Mathematics, Theory of Sets, Springer-Verlag, 2004, III.§3.5.","ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵚ ⴱⵓⵔⴱⴰⴽⵉ, ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙⴱⵔⵉⵏⵊ-ⴼⵉⵔⵍⴰⴳ, 2004, III.§3.5."
"Iterating tetration leads to another operation, and so on, a concept named hyperoperation.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵢⵉⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉ, ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ."
"In applied settings, exponential functions model a relationship in which a constant change in the independent variable gives the same proportional change (that is, percentage increase or decrease) in the dependent variable.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉ, ⵜⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ, ⴰⵙⵖⵏ ⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ; ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵖ ( ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ), ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ."
This function property leads to exponential growth or exponential decay.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⴽⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ.
"Similarly, the composition of onto (surjective) functions is always onto.","ⵙ ⵓⵔⵡⴰⵙ, ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ( ⵜⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ) ⴷⴰ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ."
"Then one can form chains of transformations composed together, such as .","ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ."
This alternative notation is called postfix notation.,ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⴼⵉⴽⵙ.
The category of sets with functions as morphisms is the prototypical category.,ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓ.
"For example, the decibel (dB) is a unit used to express ratio as logarithms, mostly for signal power and amplitude (of which sound pressure is a common example).","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⵉⵙⵉⴱⵍ (ⴷⴱ), ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⴼ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⴽⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎⴰⵜ, ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵜⵜⵓⵔ ( ⵉⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ)."
"They help to describe frequency ratios of musical intervals, appear in formulas counting prime numbers or approximating factorials, inform some models in psychophysics, and can aid in forensic accounting.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵓⴳⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⴻⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵟⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴽⴰⴹ."
"The next integer is 4, which is the number of digits of 1430.","ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ 4, ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵉⵏ 1430."
"Prior to Napier's invention, there had been other techniques of similar scopes, such as the prosthaphaeresis or the use of tables of progressions, extensively developed by Jost Bürgi around 1600.","ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵀⵢⵢⴰ “ⵏⴰⴱⵉⵔ”, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “ⵜⵉⵎⵍⵙⵉⵜ”, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⴼⵓⵔⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵊⵓⵙⵜ ⴱⵓⵔⵊⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵓⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ1600."
"Speaking of a number as requiring so many figures is a rough allusion to common logarithm, and was referred to by Archimedes as the “order of a number”.","ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴰⵎⵛⵛⵓⵔ,ⵉⵎⴽ ⵣⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵏⵄⵜ ⴰⵔⵅⵎⵉⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ”."
Such methods are called prosthaphaeresis.,ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ; ⵜⵉⵏⴽⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ.
"For example, each chamber of the shell of a nautilus is an approximate copy of the next one, scaled by a constant factor.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵕⵚⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵏⵓⵜⵉⵍⵓⵙ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵕⵚⵉⵜ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ."
Logarithms are also linked to self-similarity.,ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵔⵡⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ.
"It is used to quantify the loss of voltage levels in transmitting electrical signals, to describe power levels of sounds in acoustics, and the absorbance of light in the fields of spectrometry and optics.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵍ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕⵉⵏ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵡⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
Vinegar typically has a pH of about 3.,ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵍⵅⵍⵍ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ 3 ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵎⵉ.
"""This """"law"""", however, is less realistic than more recent models, such as Stevens's power law.)""","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏⵙ."
"When the logarithm of a random variable has a normal distribution, the variable is said to have a log-normal distribution.","ⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⵅⴱⴱⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍ."
"For such a model, the likelihood function depends on at least one parameter that must be estimated.","ⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵖⴼ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⵙⵖⵍⵜ, ⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵡⵇⵇⵔ."
"Similarly, the merge sort algorithm sorts an unsorted list by dividing the list into halves and sorting these first before merging the results.","ⵣⵓⵏⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴰⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴽⵛⵎ, ⵙ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⴼⵉⵖⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
Lyapunov exponents use logarithms to gauge the degree of chaoticity of a dynamical system.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⵓⵏⵓⴼ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽ.
"The Sierpinski triangle (pictured) can be covered by three copies of itself, each having sides half the original length.","ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴷⵍ ⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵙⵢⵉⵔⴱⵉⵏⵙⴽⵉ ( ⴳ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ), ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵉⵏ, ⴽⵓ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ."
"Another example is the p-adic logarithm, the inverse function of the p-adic exponential.",ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ p-adic ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ p-adic.
"Carrying out the exponentiation can be done efficiently, but the discrete logarithm is believed to be very hard to calculate in some groups.","ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵖⵉⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴰⵎⴱⴹⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
Square roots of negative numbers can be discussed within the framework of complex numbers.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ.
"In Ancient India, the knowledge of theoretical and applied aspects of square and square root was at least as old as the Sulba Sutras, dated around 800–500 BC (possibly much earlier).",ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵓⵍⴱⴰ ⵙⵓⵜⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 800 ⴰⵔ 500 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ (ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ).
The letter jīm resembles the present square root shape.,ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍ jīm ⵢⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ.
It defines an important concept of standard deviation used in probability theory and statistics.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏⵜ.
Most pocket calculators have a square root key.,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ.
The time complexity for computing a square root with n digits of precision is equivalent to that of multiplying two n-digit numbers.,"ⴰⵙⵔⵔⵓⵏⴽⵙ ⴰⵣⵎⵣⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ n ⵙ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⴷ, ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⴽⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ n."
Hilbert's problems are twenty-three problems in mathematics published by German mathematician David Hilbert in 1900.,"ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴱⵔⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵉⴼⵙⵔⵜⵏⵜ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴷⵉⴼⵉⴷ ⵀⴰⵍⴱⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1900."
"For other problems, such as the 5th, experts have traditionally agreed on a single interpretation, and a solution to the accepted interpretation has been given, but closely related unsolved problems exist.","ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 5 ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⴰⵖ ⵣⴰⵕⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ."
There are two problems that are not only unresolved but may in fact be unresolvable by modern standards.,"ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵔⵜⴰ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ."
"The other twenty-one problems have all received significant attention, and late into the twentieth century work on these problems was still considered to be of the greatest importance.","ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴷⴼⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ, ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ."
"Hilbert lived for 12 years after Kurt Gödel published his theorem, but does not seem to have written any formal response to Gödel's work.","ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵀⴰⵍⴱⵔⵜ 12 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⴳⵓⴷⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳⵓⴷⵍ."
"In discussing his opinion that every mathematical problem should have a solution, Hilbert allows for the possibility that the solution could be a proof that the original problem is impossible.","ⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ, ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵀⵉⵍⴱⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ."
"The first of these was proved by Bernard Dwork; a completely different proof of the first two, via ℓ-adic cohomology, was given by Alexander Grothendieck.","ⵜⵜⵓⵡⵔ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴱⵉⵔⵏⴰⵔⴷ ⴷⵓⵔⴽ, ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔ ⴳⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⴽ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵎⵢⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ℓ-adic."
"However, the Weil conjectures were, in their scope, more like a single Hilbert problem, and Weil never intended them as a programme for all mathematics.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍ; ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⴱⵔ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵡⵉⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ."
Erdős often offered monetary rewards; the size of the reward depended on the perceived difficulty of the problem.,"ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵔⴷⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵛⵇⵇⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ."
"At least in the mainstream media, the de facto 21st century analogue of Hilbert's problems is the list of seven Millennium Prize Problems chosen during 2000 by the Clay Mathematics Institute.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⴱⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 21, ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴹⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⴽⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2000."
"The Riemann hypothesis is noteworthy for its appearance on the list of Hilbert problems, Smale's list, the list of Millennium Prize Problems, and even the Weil conjectures, in its geometric guise.","ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵔⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴱⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴹⵏⵜ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴳⴰⵏⵜ."
"1931, 1936 3rd Given any two polyhedra of equal volume, is it always possible to cut the first into finitely many polyhedral pieces that can be reassembled to yield the second?","1931, 3 ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1936 ⵉⴳ ⵏⵓⵙⵢ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵖⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ, ⵉⵙ ⵏⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵏⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵏ ⵏⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵖ ⴷ ⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ?"
— 12th Extend the Kronecker–Weber theorem on Abelian extensions of the rational numbers to any base number field.,__12 ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵡ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⴱⵔ ⵜⵢⵓⵔⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴱⵉⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ.
1959 15th Rigorous foundation of Schubert's enumerative calculus.,15 ⴳ 1959 ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵇⵊⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵛⵓⴱⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ.
1927 18th (a) Is there a polyhedron that admits only an anisohedral tiling in three dimensions?(b) What is the densest sphere packing?,18 ⴳ 1927 (ⴰ) ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴱⵓ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴼⴰⴼ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ? (ⴱ) ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴳⵓⴷⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ?
"A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label.",ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴻⵙⵙⴰⵖ.
"""More universally, individual numbers can be represented by symbols, called numerals; for example, """"5"""" is a numeral that represents the number five.""","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴹⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ “5” ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ."
"Calculations with numbers are done with arithmetical operations, the most familiar being addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation.","ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⴽⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ, ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ; ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ."
"Gilsdorf, Thomas E. Introduction to Cultural Mathematics: With Case Studies in the Otomies and Incas, John Wiley & Sons, Feb 24, 2012.Restivo, S. Mathematics in Society and History, Springer Science & Business Media, Nov 30, 1992.","ⴳⵉⵍⵙⴷⵓⵔⴼ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵢ, ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵟⵓⵎⵢⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴽⴰⵙ, ⵊⵓⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵉⵢ & ⵙⵓⵏⵙ, 24 ⵉⴱⵔⵉⵔ 2012. ⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⴼⵓ , ⵙ. ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵙⴱⵔⴰⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⴰⵢⵙ, ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴰⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱ, 30 ⵏⵓⵡⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 1992."
"During the 19th century, mathematicians began to develop many different abstractions which share certain properties of numbers, and may be seen as extending the concept.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵛⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ."
"A tallying system has no concept of place value (as in modern decimal notation), which limits its representation of large numbers.","ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ (ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ), ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵡⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ."
"Brahmagupta's Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta is the first book that mentions zero as a number, hence Brahmagupta is usually considered the first to formulate the concept of zero.","ⴱⵔⴰⵀⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵟⴰ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵔⴰⵀⵎⴰⵙⴼⵓⵟⴰⵙⵉⴷⴰⵏⵟⴰ; ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵀⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵟⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ."
"In a similar vein, Pāṇini (5th century BC) used the null (zero) operator in the Ashtadhyayi, an early example of an algebraic grammar for the Sanskrit language (also see Pingala).","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⴷⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴱⴰⵏⵉⵏⵉ ( ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 5 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ), ⴰⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ (ⴰⵎⵢⴰ), ⴳ ⴰⵛⵜⴰⴷⴰⵢⴰⵢⵉ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⵙⵉⴽⵔⵉⵜ (ⵥⵕ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴱⵉⴳⴰⵍⴰ)."
"By 130 AD, Ptolemy, influenced by Hipparchus and the Babylonians, was using a symbol for 0 (a small circle with a long overbar) within a sexagesimal numeral system otherwise using alphabetic Greek numerals.","ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 130 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴱⴰⵟⵍⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵙ ⴱⵀⵉⴱⴰⵔⵅⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵢⵢⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ 0 ( ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ ), ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⵇⴹ ⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⵎⴰⵢⵏ."
"Diophantus' previous reference was discussed more explicitly by Indian mathematician Brahmagupta, in Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta in 628, who used negative numbers to produce the general form quadratic formula that remains in use today.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴷⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⴱⵔⴰⵀⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜⴰ ⴳ ⴱⵔⴰⵀⵎⴰⵙⴼⵓⵟⴰⵙⵉⴷⴰⵏⵟⴰ ⴳ 628, ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ."
"At the same time, the Chinese were indicating negative numbers by drawing a diagonal stroke through the right-most non-zero digit of the corresponding positive number's numeral.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ."
"Classical Greek and Indian mathematicians made studies of the theory of rational numbers, as part of the general study of number theory.","ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵏ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ."
The concept of decimal fractions is closely linked with decimal place-value notation; the two seem to have developed in tandem.,"ⵉⵣⵍⵖ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⵣⵍⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ."
"However, Pythagoras believed in the absoluteness of numbers, and could not accept the existence of irrational numbers.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵍⵙ ⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⵀⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ."
"By the 17th  century, mathematicians generally used decimal fractions with modern notation.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 17, ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ."
"In 1872, the publication of the theories of Karl Weierstrass (by his pupil E. Kossak), Eduard Heine, Georg Cantor, and Richard Dedekind was brought about.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1872 ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵡⵢⵢⵉⵔⵙⵜⵔⴰⵙ ( ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵢ ⴽⵓⵙⴰⴽ), ⴷ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵕⴷ ⵀⴰⵢⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⴷⵉⴷⵉⴽⵉⵏⴷ."
"Weierstrass, Cantor, and Heine base their theories on infinite series, while Dedekind founds his on the idea of a cut (Schnitt) in the system of real numbers, separating all rational numbers into two groups having certain characteristic properties.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵀⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ, ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴷ ⴷⵉⴷⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴱⵓⵢⵜ (ⵙⵛⵏⵉⵜ) ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴽⵓⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ."
Hence it was necessary to consider the wider set of algebraic numbers (all solutions to polynomial equations).,ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵅⵣⵣⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ( ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ).
Aristotle defined the traditional Western notion of mathematical infinity.,ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵖⵔⴱⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ.
"But the next major advance in the theory was made by Georg Cantor; in 1895 he published a book about his new set theory, introducing, among other things, transfinite numbers and formulating the continuum hypothesis.","ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵔ; ⴳ 1895 ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ."
"""A modern geometrical version of infinity is given by projective geometry, which introduces """"ideal points at infinity"""", one for each spatial direction.""","ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵓⵜⵜⵉⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ, ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
"The idea of the graphic representation of complex numbers had appeared, however, as early as 1685, in Wallis's De algebra tractatus.",ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ 1685 ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ “ⵡⴰⵍⵉⵙ” “ⵉⵙⴰⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ”.
"In 240 BC, Eratosthenes used the Sieve of Eratosthenes to quickly isolate prime numbers.","ⴳ 240 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵔⴰⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵏⵙ ⴰⵔⴽⴽⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⴱⵉⵜ."
"Other results concerning the distribution of the primes include Euler's proof that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges, and the Goldbach conjecture, which claims that any sufficiently large even number is the sum of two primes.","ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⵓⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵄⵔⴰⵇⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵍⴷⴱⴰⵛ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⴳⴷⵓⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ."
"Traditionally, the sequence of natural numbers started with 1 (0 was not even considered a number for the Ancient Greeks.)","ⵙ ⵜⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ, ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 1 (0 ⵓⵔ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ)."
"In this base 10 system, the rightmost digit of a natural number has a place value of 1, and every other digit has a place value ten times that of the place value of the digit to its right.","ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ 10, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ 1, ⴷ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Negative numbers are usually written with a negative sign (a minus sign).,ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵜ ( ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴽⵜⴰⵎⵜ).
Here the letter Z comes .,ⴷⴰⴷⵖ ⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍ ⵥ.
"Fractions can be greater than, less than, or equal to 1 and can also be positive, negative, or 0.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ; ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ 1, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ 0."
The following paragraph will focus primarily on positive real numbers.,ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ.
"Thus, for example, one half is 0.5, one fifth is 0.2, one-tenth is 0.1, and one fiftieth is 0.02.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵣⴳⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ 0.5, ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ 0.2, ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ 0.1, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⴰ 0.02."
Not only these prominent examples but almost all real numbers are irrational and therefore have no repeating patterns and hence no corresponding decimal numeral.,"ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ, ⴰⵖⴼ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⴽⵙⴰⵍ."
"Since not even the second digit after the decimal place is preserved, the following digits are not significant.","ⵎⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⴰⵖⴼ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ."
"For example, 0.999..., 1.0, 1.00, 1.000, ..., all represent the natural number 1.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, 0.999..., 1.0, 1.00, 1.000, ..., ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ 1."
"Finally, if all of the digits in a numeral are 0, the number is 0, and if all of the digits in a numeral are an unending string of 9's, you can drop the nines to the right of the decimal place, and add one to the string of 9s to the left of the decimal place.","ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 0, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 0, ⴷ ⵎⴽ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴽⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓⵏ ⴳ 9, ⵜⵖⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⴳⵣⵣⴷ ⵜⵥⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵜⵔⵏⵓⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ 9 ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵍⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ."
Thus the real numbers are a subset of the complex numbers.,"ⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ; ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ,"
"The fundamental theorem of algebra asserts that the complex numbers form an algebraically closed field, meaning that every polynomial with complex coefficients has a root in the complex numbers.","ⵜⵙⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵏ, ⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴷ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⵓⴷⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ."
"The primes have been widely studied for more than 2000 years and have led to many questions, only some of which have been answered.","ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 2000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ."
Real numbers that are not rational numbers are called irrational numbers.,"ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ; ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ."
"The computable numbers are stable for all usual arithmetic operations, including the computation of the roots of a polynomial, and thus form a real closed field that contains the real algebraic numbers.","ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵟⵏ; ⵡⵔⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵡⴰⵍⴼⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ."
One reason is that there is no algorithm for testing the equality of two computable numbers.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ.
"The number system that results depends on what base is used for the digits: any base is possible, but a prime number base provides the best mathematical properties.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"The former gives the ordering of the set, while the latter gives its size.","ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"This standard basis makes the complex numbers a Cartesian plane, called the complex plane.",ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜⵉⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ.
The complex numbers of absolute value one form the unit circle.,"ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ."
"In domain coloring the output dimensions are represented by color and brightness, respectively.","ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵯⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⴰⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢ."
"Work on the problem of general polynomials ultimately led to the fundamental theorem of algebra, which shows that with complex numbers, a solution exists to every polynomial equation of degree one or higher.","ⵢⵓⵡ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ; ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ."
Wessel's memoir appeared in the Proceedings of the Copenhagen Academy but went largely unnoticed.,"ⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “ⴽⵓⴱⵏⵀⴰⴳⵏ”, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"Later classical writers on the general theory include Richard Dedekind, Otto Hölder, Felix Klein, Henri Poincaré, Hermann Schwarz, Karl Weierstrass and many others.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⴷⵉⴷⵉⴽⵉⵏⴷ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵜⵓ ⵀⵉⵍⴷⵔ,ⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⴽⵙ ⴽⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉ ⴱⵡⴰⵏⴽⵉⵔ, ⴷ ⵀⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵛⵡⴰⵔⵜⵣ, ⴷ ⴽⴰⵔⵍ ⵡⵉⵔⵙⵜⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
The use of imaginary numbers was not widely accepted until the work of Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855).,"ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵢⴰⵀⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵓⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵔⴷ ⵓⵍⵔ (1707-1783), ⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵔⵉⵜⵛ ⴳⴰⵡⵙ (1777-1855)."
The integers form the smallest group and the smallest ring containing the natural numbers.,"ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ; ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵅⵔⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ."
It is the prototype of all objects of such algebraic structure.,"ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⴱⵔⵉⵜ."
"Fixed length integer approximation data types (or subsets) are denoted int or Integer in several programming languages (such as Algol68, C, Java, Delphi, etc.).","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵉⵡⵔⵏ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⴱⵉⵄⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ), ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ “ int “ ⵏⵖⴷ “Integer” ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ( ⵣⵓⵏⴷ Algol68, ⴷ C, ⴷ Java,ⴷ Delphi, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ)."
"These are provable properties of rational numbers and positional number systems, and are not used as definitions in mathematics.","ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵙⵡⵔ ⵉ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⵔⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ."
"Since the triangle is isosceles, a = b).","ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵍⴰⵍⵏ, a = b)."
"Since c is even, dividing c by 2 yields an integer.","ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ c ⴰⵎⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⴰⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵓⴱⴹⵓⵜ ⵏ c ⵅⴼ 2; ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ."
Substituting 4y2 for c2 in the first equation (c2 = 2b2) gives us 4y2= 2b2.,"ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ 4y2 ⵖⵔ c2, ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ (c2 = 2b2), ⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ 4y2= 2b2."
"Since b2 is even, b must be even.","ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ b2 ⴰⵎⵙⵉⵏ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ b ⴰⵎⵙⵉⵏ."
However this contradicts the assumption that they have no common factors.,ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵎⴳⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴷⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵛⵛⵓⵔⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ.
"Hippasus, however, was not lauded for his efforts: according to one legend, he made his discovery while out at sea, and was subsequently thrown overboard by his fellow Pythagoreans “…for having produced an element in the universe which denied the…doctrine that all phenomena in the universe can be reduced to whole numbers and their ratios.”","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ , ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴱⴰⵙⵓⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵉⵢ, ⵢⵓⴽⵣ, ⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍ, ⴳⵔⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ,..., ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵢⴰ ⵓⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉⵏ... ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"For example, consider a line segment: this segment can be split in half, that half split in half, the half of the half in half, and so on.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⵏⴽ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ: ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⵓ ⵖⵔ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴰⵣⵏⴳ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉ."
This is just what Zeno sought to prove.,ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵏⴰⵖ ⵣⵉⵏⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵔ.
"In the minds of the Greeks, disproving the validity of one view did not necessarily prove the validity of another, and therefore further investigation had to occur.","ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵖⵔⵉⵇ, ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
"A magnitude “...was not a number but stood for entities such as line segments, angles, areas, volumes, and time which could vary, as we would say, continuously.","ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ”...ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ: ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵎⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⴽⵙⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ."
"Because no quantitative values were assigned to magnitudes, Eudoxus was then able to account for both commensurable and incommensurable ratios by defining a ratio in terms of its magnitude, and proportion as an equality between two ratios.","ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⴽⵙⵓⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴽⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍ."
"This incommensurability is dealt with in Euclid's Elements, Book X, Proposition 9.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵉ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵍⵉⴷⵙ, ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⴰⵙⵓⵎⵔ 9."
"In fact, in many cases algebraic conceptions were reformulated into geometric terms.",ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ; ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⵍⵙ ⵜⵉⵀⴽⵛⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⴰⵏⴻⵏ.
The realization that some basic conception within the existing theory was at odds with reality necessitated a complete and thorough investigation of the axioms and assumptions that underlie that theory.,"ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⴰⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ."
"""However, historian Carl Benjamin Boyer writes that """"such claims are not well substantiated and unlikely to be true"""".""","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⴱⵏ ⵊⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴱⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵏ; “ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⴽⵓⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ”."
Mathematicians like Brahmagupta (in 628 AD) and Bhāskara I (in 629 AD) made contributions in this area as did other mathematicians who followed.,"ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⵔⴰⵀⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜⴰ (ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 628 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ), ⴷ ⴱⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⴰ (ⴳ 629 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ), ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴷ, ⵎⴽ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ."
"The year 1872 saw the publication of the theories of Karl Weierstrass (by his pupil Ernst Kossak), Eduard Heine (Crelle's Journal, 74), Georg Cantor (Annalen, 5), and Richard Dedekind.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1872 ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵡⵉⵢⵔⵙⵜⵔⴰⵙ ( ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵔⵏⵙⵜ ⴽⵓⵙⴰⴽ) ⴷ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵕⴷ ⵀⴰⵢⵏ ( ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵕⵉⵍ, 74), ⴷ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵔ (ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵏ, 5), ⴷ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵕⴷ ⴷⵉⴷⵉⴽⵉⵏⴷ."
"Weierstrass, Cantor, and Heine base their theories on infinite series, while Dedekind founds his on the idea of a cut (Schnitt) in the system of all rational numbers, separating them into two groups having certain characteristic properties.","ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⵡⵉⵢⵔⵙⵜⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵀⵉⵏ; ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ, ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴷ ⴷⵉⴷⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴱⵓⵢ (ⵙⵉⵛⵏⵉⵜ), ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⵔⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⵟⵟⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ."
"Dirichlet also added to the general theory, as have numerous contributors to the applications of the subject.","ⵉⵔⵏⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴷⵉⵍⵉⵛⵍⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ."
This asserts that every integer has a unique factorization into primes.,ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ.
"To show this, suppose we divide integers n by m (where m is nonzero).",ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵏⴰⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ n ⵅⴼ ⵎ ( ⴰⵛⴽⵓ m ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵜ).
"If 0 never occurs, then the algorithm can run at most m − 1 steps without using any remainder more than once.","ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ 0, ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ m - 1, ⴱⵍⴰ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ."
"""In mathematics, the natural numbers are those used for counting (as in """"there are six coins on the table"""") and ordering (as in """"this is the third largest city in the country"""").""","“ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ( ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ : ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⴱⵓⵜ), ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ( ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ : ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵖⵔⵎ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ).”"
These chains of extensions make the natural numbers canonically embedded (identified) in the other number systems.,"ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ( ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ), ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
The first major advance in abstraction was the use of numerals to represent numbers.,"ⴰⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵖⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ."