Title: Advisory Opinion to The Attorney General Re: Amendment to Bar Government From Treating People Differently Based on Race in Public Education

State: florida

Issuer: Florida Supreme Court

Document:

Supreme 
Court 
of 
Florida
 
____________
Nos. SC97086,  SC97087, SC97088, & SC97089
____________
ADVISORY OPINION TO THE 
ATTORNEY GENERAL
RE:  AMENDMENT TO BAR 
GOVERNMENT FROM TREATING
PEOPLE DIFFERENTLY BASED ON
RACE IN PUBLIC EDUCATION
______________________________________
ADVISORY OPINION TO THE
ATTORNEY GENERAL
RE:  AMENDMENT TO BAR 
GOVERNMENT FROM TREATING
PEOPLE DIFFERENTLY BASED ON
RACE IN PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT
______________________________________________________________
_____
ADVISORY OPINION TO THE
ATTORNEY GENERAL
RE:  AMENDMENT TO BAR
GOVERNMENT FROM TREATING
PEOPLE DIFFERENTLY BASED ON
RACE IN PUBLIC CONTRACTING
1   Article XI, section 3, which vests the power to propose a revision or amendment in the people,
provides, in relevant part:
It [the power] may be invoked by filing with the secretary of state a petition 
containing a copy of the proposed revision or amendment, signed by a number of 
electors
in each of one half of the congressional districts of the state, and of the state as a whole, equal
to eight percent of  the votes cast in each of such districts, 
respectively and in the state as
a whole in the last preceding election in which presidential electors were chosen.
Art. XI, § 3, Fla. Const.    
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______________________________________
ADVISORY OPINION TO THE
ATTORNEY GENERAL
RE:  END GOVERNMENTAL
DISCRIMINATION AND
PREFERENCES AMENDMENT
______________________________________
[July 13, 2000]
PER CURIAM.
The Attorney General has requested this Court review proposed
amendments to the Florida Constitution.  We have jurisdiction.  Art. IV, § 10; art
V, § 3(b)(10), Fla. Const.  For the reasons expressed below, we hold the four
proposed amendments violate article XI, section 3, Florida Constitution, and
section 101.161, Florida Statutes (1999).  Accordingly, the proposed amendments
should not be placed on the ballot.
In accordance with article XI, section 3, Florida Constitution,1 the Florida
2   Section 15.21, Florida Statutes, requires the Secretary of State to submit the initiative petition
to the Attorney General if the sponsor has registered as a political action committee, submitted the
proposed amendment to the Secretary of State, and obtained a letter from the Division of Elections stating
that the sponsor has received verification that it has collected the requisite number of signatures.  See §
15.21, Fla. Stat. (1999).
3  Section 16.061, Florida Statutes, provides, in pertinent part:
The Attorney General shall, within 30 days after  receipt of a proposed revision or
amendment to the State Constitution by initiative petition from the Secretary of State,
petition the Supreme Court, requesting an advisory opinion regarding the compliance
of the text of the proposed amendment or revision with s. 3, Art. XI of the State
Constitution and the compliance of the proposed ballot title and substance with s.
101.161.
§ 16.061, Fla. Stat. (1999).  
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Civil Rights Initiative, the sponsor of the proposed state constitutional
amendments, filed initiative petitions with the Secretary of State.  On October 26,
1999, the Secretary of State submitted the initiative petitions to the Attorney
General pursuant to section 15.21, Florida Statutes (1999).2  In compliance with
section 16.061, Florida Statutes (1999), the Attorney General subsequently
petitioned this Court for an advisory opinion regarding the validity of the proposed
constitutional amendments.3  Thereafter, this Court issued an interlocutory order
inviting interested parties to file briefs in this case.  In response to the Court’s
order, the following groups filed briefs as interested parties:  Florida Civil Rights
Initiative (FCRI), Leadership Conference on Civil Rights (Leadership Conference),
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Florida Conference of Black State Legislators (CBSL), Florida Board of Regents
(Board of Regents), Campaign for a Colorblind America, Initiative & Referendum
Institute and Pacific Legal Foundation (CCBA), Florida Chapter of the National Bar
Association (NBA), and Floridians Representing Equity and Equality (FREE).
Generally, the four initiative petitions address alleged discriminatory practices
in the areas of public education, employment, and contracting.  The first three
proposed amendments purport to bar differential treatment based on race, color,
ethnicity, and national origin, and are identical in every respect except the
designation of the targeted area of discrimination.  For example, the first petition
addresses education, the second petition addresses employment, and the third
petition addresses contracting.  The first three proposed amendments state:
ADD SECTION 26 TO ARTICLE I, FLORIDA CONSTITUTION AS 
FOLLOWS:
(1)  The state shall not treat persons differently based on race, color,
ethnicity, or national origin in the operation of public education.
(2)  This section applies only to action taken after the effective date of
this section.
(3)  This section does not affect any law or governmental action that
does not treat persons differently based on the person's race, color,
ethnicity, or national origin.
(4)  This section does not invalidate any court order or consent decree that is
in force as of the effective date of this section.
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(5)  This section does not prohibit action that must be taken to
establish or maintain eligibility for any federal program, if ineligibility
would result in a loss of federal funds to the state.
(6)  For the purposes of this section, "state" includes, but is not
necessarily limited to, the state itself, any city, county, district, public
college or university, or other political subdivision or governmental
instrumentality of or within the state.
(7)  The remedies available for violations of this section shall be the
same, regardless of the injured party's race, color, ethnicity, or national
origin, as are otherwise available for violations of then existing Florida
education discrimination law.
(8)  This section shall be self-executing.  If any part or parts of this
section are found to be in conflict with federal law or the United States
Constitution, the section shall be implemented to the maximum extent
that federal law and the United States Constitution permit.  Any
provision held invalid shall be severable from the remaining portions of
this section.
The ballot titles for the proposed amendments state: "AMENDMENT TO BAR
GOVERNMENT FROM TREATING PEOPLE DIFFERENTLY BASED ON
RACE IN PUBLIC EDUCATION."  As previously mentioned, the titles for the
proposed amendments for employment and contracting are identical except they
replace “public education” with “public employment” and “public contracting,” 
respectively.  The summaries for the proposed amendments provide:  
Amends Declaration of Rights, Article I of the Florida Constitution, to
bar state and local government bodies from treating people differently
based on race, color, ethnicity, or national origin in the operation of
public education [public employment] [public contracting], whether
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the program is called "preferential treatment," "affirmative action," or
anything else.  Does not bar programs that treat people equally without
regard to race, color, ethnicity, or national origin.  Exempts actions
needed for federal funds eligibility.
The fourth petition also purports to prohibit discrimination on the
aforementioned bases, but also allegedly proscribes differential treatment based on
sex.  Furthermore, the fourth petition purports in one petition to bar differential
treatment in the three areas, education, employment, and contracting, instead of
addressing these areas in separate petitions.  The fourth proposed amendment
contains the same provisions as the first three, except it contains an additional
section which states:
This section does not affect any otherwise lawful classification that: 
(a) Is based on sex and is necessary for sexual privacy or medical or 
psychological treatment; or (b) Is necessary for undercover law 
enforcement or for film, video, audio, or theatrical casting; or (c) 
Provides for separate athletic teams for each sex.
The ballot title for the fourth petition is also slightly different, stating “END
GOVERNMENTAL DISCRIMINATION AND PREFERENCES
AMENDMENT.”  The summary for the fourth petition provides:
Amends Declaration of Rights, Article I of Florida Constitution, to bar
government from treating people differently based on race, sex, color,
ethnicity, or national origin in public education, employment,   or
contracting, whether the program is called "preferential treatment,"
"affirmative action," or anything else.  Does not bar programs that
treat people equally without regard to race, sex, color, ethnicity, or
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national origin.  Exempts bona fide qualifications based on sex and
actions needed for federal funds eligibility.
The Court’s inquiry, when determining the validity of initiative petitions, is
limited to two legal issues:  whether the petition satisfies the single-subject
requirement of article XI , section 3, Florida Constitution, and whether the ballot
titles and summaries are printed in clear and unambiguous language pursuant to
section 101.161, Florida Statutes (1999).  See Advisory Opinion to the Attorney
General re Right of Citizens to Choose Health Care Providers, 705 So. 2d 563, 565
(Fla. 1998); Advisory Opinion to the Attorney General re Prohibiting Public
Funding of Political Candidates’ Campaigns, 693 So. 2d 972, 974 (Fla. 1997).  In
order for the Court to invalidate a proposed amendment, the record must show that
the proposal is clearly and conclusively defective on either ground.  See Askew v.
Firestone, 421 So. 2d 151, 154 (Fla. 1982).  In determining the propriety of the
initiative petitions, the Court does not review the merits of the proposed
amendments.  See Right of Citizens to Choose Health Care Providers, 705 So. 2d
at 565; Advisory Opinion to the Attorney General re People’s Property Rights
Amendments Providing Compensation for Restricting Real Property Use May
Cover Multiple Subjects, 699 So. 2d 1304, 1306 (Fla. 1997).  As the Court noted in
Advisory Opinion to the Attorney General re Tax Limitation, 644 So. 2d 486, 489
4  In addition to a citizen initiative, amendments may be proposed by the Florida Legislature (article
XI, section 1), by a constitutional convention (article XI, section 4), by a constitution revision commission
(article XI, section 2), and by a taxation and budget reform commission (article XI, section 6). 
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(Fla. 1994) (Tax Limitation I), “This Court’s role in these matters is strictly limited
to the legal issues presented by the constitution and relevant statutes.  This Court
does not have the authority or responsibility to rule on the merits or the wisdom of
these proposed initiative amendments . . . .”  Moreover, other constitutional
challenges are not justiciable in this type of proceeding.  See Advisory Opinion to
the Attorney General--Limited Political Terms in Certain Elective Offices, 592 So.
2d 225, 227 (Fla. 1991).
The restrictions on initiative petitions are both constitutionally and statutorily
mandated.  The single-subject requirement is derived from article XI, section 3,
which provides, in relevant part:
     The power to propose the revision or amendment of any portion of
this constitution by initiative is reserved to the people, provided that,
any such revision or amendment, except for those limiting the power
of government to raise revenue, shall embrace but one subject and
matter directly connected therewith.
Art. XI, § 3, Fla. Const.  (emphasis added).  Although article XI provides other
methods for amending or revising the constitution,4 the citizen initiative is the only
method that is constrained by the single-subject requirement.  See Advisory
Opinion to the Attorney General re Fish and Wildlife Conservation Comm’n, 705
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So. 2d 1351, 1353 (Fla. 1998).  The single-subject limitation exists because the
initiative process does not provide the opportunity for public hearing and debate
that accompanies the other methods of proposing amendments.  See Fish and
Wildlife Conservation Comm’n, 705 So. 2d at 1353.  Consequently, “[the] single-
subject provision is a rule of restraint designed to insulate Florida’s organic law
from precipitous and cataclysmic change.”  In re Advisory Opinion to the Attorney
General--Save Our Everglades, 636 So. 2d 1336, 1339 (Fla. 1994).  This Court
requires “strict compliance with the single-subject rule in the initiative process for
constitutional change because our constitution is the basic document that controls
our governmental functions, including the adoption of any laws by the legislature.” 
Fine v. Firestone, 448 So. 2d 984, 989 (Fla. 1984).  The single-subject requirement
also prevents logrolling, a practice that combines separate issues into a single
proposal to secure passage of an unpopular issue.  See Fish and Wildlife
Conservation Comm’n, 705 So. 2d at 1353; People’s Property Rights
Amendments, 699 So. 2d at 1307; Save Our Everglades, 636 So. 2d at 1339.  
Thus, voters are protected by the single-subject requirement because they are not
forced to “accept part of an initiative proposal which they oppose in order to
obtain a change in the constitution which they support.”  Fine, 448 So. 2d  at 988.  
In evaluating whether a proposed amendment violates the single-subject
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requirement, the Court must determine whether it has a “logical and natural oneness
of purpose.”  Advisory Opinion to the Attorney General re Term Limits Pledge,
718 So. 2d 798, 802 (Fla. 1998) (quoting Fine, 448 So. 2d at 990).  To ascertain
whether a “oneness of purpose” exists,  the Court must consider “whether the
proposal affects separate functions of government and how the proposal affects
other provisions of the constitution.”  People’s Property Rights Amendments, 699
So. 2d at 1307; see also Term Limits Pledge, 718 So. 2d at 802; Tax Limitation I,
644 So. 2d at 490 (noting that “how an initiative proposal affects other articles or
sections of the constitution is an appropriate factor to be considered in determining
whether there is more than one subject included in an initiative proposal”) (quoting
Fine, 448 So. 2d at 990).  However, “[a] proposal that affects several branches of
government will not automatically fail; rather, it is when a proposal substantially
alters or performs the functions of multiple branches that it violates the single-
subject test.”  Fish and Wildlife Conservation Comm’n, 705 So. 2d at 1353-54. 
Moreover, “the possibility that an amendment might interact with other parts of the
Florida Constitution is not sufficient reason to invalidate the proposed
amendment.”  Term Limits Pledge, 718 So. 2d at 802.  Nevertheless, “it is
imperative that an initiative identify the provisions of the constitution substantially
affected by the proposed amendment in order for the public to fully comprehend
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the contemplated changes and to ensure that the initiative’s effect on other unnamed
provisions is not left unresolved and open to various interpretations.”  Right of
Citizens to Choose Health Care Providers, 705 So. 2d at 565-66.        
The second area of our inquiry, the need for clarity in the ballot titles and
summaries, is addressed in section 101.161, Florida Statutes, which provides, in
pertinent part:
Whenever a constitutional amendment or other public measure is
submitted to the vote of the people, the substance of such amendment
. . . shall be printed in clear and unambiguous language on the ballot . .
. .  The substance of the amendment . . . shall be an explanatory
statement, not exceeding 75 words in length, of the chief purpose of
the measure.  The ballot title shall consist of a caption, not exceeding
15 words in length, by which the measure is commonly referred to or
spoken of.
§ 101.161(1), Fla. Stat. (1999).  Thus, the statute requires that the ballot title and
summary “state in clear and unambiguous language the chief purpose of the
measure.”  Limited Political Terms in Certain Elective Offices, 592 So. 2d at 228
(quoting Askew, 421 So. 2d at 155); accord Right of Citizens to Choose Health Care
Providers, 705 So. 2d at 566.  Moreover, the title and summary must be accurate and
informative.  See Term Limits Pledge, 718 So. 2d at 803.  These requirements ensure
that the “electorate is advised of the true meaning, and ramifications, of an
amendment.”  Tax Limitation I, 644 So. 2d at 490 (quoting Askew, 421 So. 2d at
5  The classifications used in the Restricts Laws Related to Discrimination amendment were race,
color, religion, sex, national origin, age, handicap, ethnic background, marital status, and familial status.
Restricts Laws Related to Discrimination, 632 So. 2d at 1019.
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156).   Indeed, the Court concluded that the purpose of the statute was “to provide
fair notice of the content of the proposed amendment so that the voter will not be
misled as to its purpose, and can cast an intelligent and informed ballot.”  Term
Limits Pledge, 718 So. 2d at 803.  Nonetheless, “the title and summary need not
explain every detail or ramification of the proposed amendment.”  Prohibiting Public
Funding of Political Candidates’ Campaigns, 693 So. 2d at 975.
SINGLE-SUBJECT REQUIREMENT
The Attorney General and various opponents have asserted several arguments
regarding the validity of the proposed amendments.  We, however, address only
those contentions which we find dispositive.  The first challenge to the initiative
petitions is that they include multiple classifications, thereby asking voters several
questions in derogation of the single-subject requirement.  This Court addressed the
issue of including multiple classifications in a single initiative petition in In re
Advisory Opinion to the Attorney General--Restricts Laws Related to Discrimination,
632 So. 2d 1018 (Fla. 1994).  In that case, the proposed amendment enumerated ten
classifications of people who were entitled to protection from discrimination.5  See
Restricts Laws Related to Discrimination, 632 So. 2d at 1019.  In invalidating the
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petition, we noted that the amendment’s inclusion of ten different classifications
constituted logrolling and was violative of the single-subject requirement.  See id. at
1020.  In essence, the voters were “being asked to give one ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer to a
proposal that actually asks ten questions.”  Id. 
As the Attorney General correctly recognizes, the omnibus petition contains
the same fatal flaw by combining three distinct subjects which constitute separate and
distinct functional operations of government--public education, public employment,
and public contracting.  FCRI, however, contends that the subject areas operate as a
limitation on the amendment’s application, thereby preventing it from having universal
application to all government action.
That the proposed amendment does not universally apply to all government
action does not insulate it from single-subject scrutiny.  Surely the proponents of an
initiative petition cannot satisfy the single-subject requirement by contending that the
proposed amendment could have been even broader.  Such a contention would
contravene both the constitutional requirement and this Court’s repeated holdings
that initiative petitions should embrace only one subject.  The Court’s commitment to
enforcing this standard is evidenced by Right of Citizens to Choose Health Care
Providers, which recognized that the issue of health care providers presented multiple
topics that constrained the electorate’s ability to vote on singular issues.  Moreover,
6  Subsequent to our decision in Tax Limitation I, voters approved a constitutional amendment
exempting proposals limiting the power of government to raise revenue from the single-subject requirement.
See Advisory Opinion to the Attorney General re Tax Limitation, 673 So. 2d 864, 865-66 (Fla. 1996)(Tax
Limitation II).  The initiative petition we struck down in Tax Limitation I fell within this exemption.  See id.
Consequently, the Attorney General resubmitted the petition for review by this Court.  See id. at 865. In
accordance with the new constitutional provision, we addressed only the ballot summary and title
requirements.  See id. at 866.  
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in Fine and Tax Limitation I we recognized that the subject of taxes and user fees
could not be combined within a single initiative.6  See 448 So. 2d at 991; 644 So. 2d
at 491.  Without question, the amendment combining education, employment, and
contracting is significantly broader than the subjects of health care providers and
taxes and user fees.  It applies to diverse areas of governmental operation which, in
themselves, are multifaceted.  In effect, FCRI’s purported “limitation” on the
application of the proposed amendment essentially creates multiple subjects.  In
short, the omnibus petition applies to three broadly defined subjects and, therefore,
violates the single-subject requirement.         
Opponents also maintain that the proposed amendments substantially affect
other existing constitutional provisions.  As previously stated, initiative petitions must
identify those constitutional provisions that are substantially affected by the
proposed amendments.  See Right of Citizens to Choose Health Care Providers, 705
So. 2d at 565-66.  We further elucidated this “identification” requirement in Tax
Limitation I.  In that advisory opinion, we held that the proposed amendment
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substantially affected article VII, sections 1(a), 1(b), 2, 5, 7, and 9.  See 644 So. 2d
at 493-94.  We noted that all of these constitutional provisions were included in the
constitution “for a distinct and specific purpose.”  Id. at 494.  In concluding that
these provisions were substantially affected, we recognized that “[n]one have been
identified and, consequently, this proposed initiative violates the principle we clearly
established in Fine that the electorate must be advised of the effect a proposal has on
existing sections of the constitution.”  Id.
Likewise, the proposed amendments fail to identify the constitutional
provisions that they substantially affect.  Specifically, the proposed amendments
substantially affect both article I, section 2, and article I, section 21.  Article I,
section 2,  provides:
     All natural persons, female and male alike, are equal before the law and
have inalienable rights, among which are the right to enjoy and defend l
i
f
e
and liberty, to pursue happiness, to be rewarded for industry, and to 
acquire,
possess and protect property; except that the ownership, 
inheritance, disposition and possession of real property by aliens 
ineligible for citizenship may be regulated or prohibited by law.  No 
person shall be deprived of any right because of race, religion, national 
origin, or physical disability.
Art. I, § 2, Fla. Const.  If the electorate approves the proposed amendments,
preferential treatment would be prohibited on the basis of the enumerated
classifications, but permitted on the basis of religion and physical disability--the
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remaining classifications in the current constitutional provision.  FCRI contends that
the proposed amendments do not affect the existing protection against deprivation of
rights.  Rather, they provide an additional protection against discriminatory
preferences to the existing constitutional protection against discriminatory
deprivation.  
FCRI’s construction of the proposed amendments’ effect on article I, section
2, is not entirely accurate.  Although FCRI characterizes the changes as “additional”
or “supplemental,” they nevertheless affect the existing constitutional prohibitions. 
For example, counsel for FCRI conceded at oral argument that the prohibition
against deprivation has not previously been construed as prohibiting preferential
treatment.  To be sure, “affirmative action” laws and programs have been used as
remedies for violations or deprivations of rights.  As such, the proposed
amendments alter the available remedies for an existing constitutional protection.  As
a result, they take away existing protections granted by article I, section 2, to those
who have been victims of discrimination.  As counsel for NBA suggested, the
petitions engage in false advertisement because they do “not provide equal protection
of the law, [they] take away the cloak of protection from victims of discrimination.” 
Further, the proposed amendments create new distinctions between discrimination
based on the enumerated classifications and discrimination based on religion and
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physical disability.  In short, article I, section 2, is substantially affected, yet nowhere
in the petitions is the voter apprised of its new operation.  Accordingly, the petitions’
failure to acknowledge the proposed amendments’ effect on article I, section 2,
violates the single-subject requirement.           
Additionally, the absence of a reference to article I, section 21, also renders
the initiative petitions constitutionally infirm.  Article I, section 21, provides:  “The
courts shall be open to every person for redress of any injury, and justice shall be
administered without sale, denial or delay.”  Art. I, § 21, Fla. Const.  The proposed
amendments state:  “This section does not invalidate any court order or consent
decree that is in force as of the effective date of this section.”  Individual Petitions §
4; Omnibus Petition § 5.  By providing an exception for only existing court orders or
consent decrees, the proposed amendments strip the judiciary of its powers to
provide redress for injuries emanating from discriminatory practices, thereby directly
impacting article I, section 21.  Indeed, counsel for FCRI explicitly stated in oral
argument that courts would be unable to use preferences or consider race in
fashioning remedies for discriminatory violations.  FCRI attempts to minimize the
gravity of the amendments’ impact by contending that individuals are still entitled to
remedies--those provided by general law.  
This argument, however, is both tautological and misleading.  According to
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FCRI, individual victims purportedly maintain access to courts because remedies will
be provided by general law.  However, the proposed amendments themselves place
limitations on what remedies general law may provide.  The amendments require
general law to limit available remedies to injunctive or prohibitive relief.   These
limitations on the courts’ powers are significant in that they operate to redefine the
remedial role of courts in equal protection cases.  As a result, courts will be closed,
not open, to victims of discrimination who seek redress for their injuries. Thus, the
proposed amendments have a substantial effect on article I, section 21, and the
failure to identify this substantial effect violates the single-subject requirement.
The Attorney General and opponents further contend that the proposed
amendments violate the single-subject requirement because of their functional effect
on multiple levels and branches of government.  This Court has invalidated proposed
amendments on single-subject grounds repeatedly for substantially altering or
performing the functions of multiple branches of government.  See People’s
Property Rights Amendments, 699 So. 2d at 1308 .   As we reiterated in Evans v.
Firestone, 457 So. 2d 1351 (Fla. 1984), the test is functional, not locational, “and
where a proposed amendment changes more than one government function, it is
clearly multi-subject.”  457 So. 2d at 1354.   In Evans, we invalidated a proposed
amendment because it performed both legislative and judicial functions.  See 457 So.
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2d at 1354.  We noted that substantive provisions were essentially legislative, and that
the amendment’s effect on procedural rules was judicial in nature.  See id.  Similarly,
in People’s Property Rights Amendments, we invalidated an initiative because of its
effect not only on “legislative appropriations and statutory enactments but executive
enforcement and decision-making.”  699 So. 2d at 1308.  We further noted that the
amendment was violative of the single-subject requirement because “[t]he state,
special districts, and local governments have various legislative, executive, and quasi-
judicial functions which are applicable to land use.”  Id.   
The foregoing cases illustrate the defects in the present petitions.  As counsel
for FCRI conceded, the Legislature will be prohibited from adopting an “affirmative
or balancing program” to address unlawful deprivation of rights.  In effect, the
proposed amendments would eliminate the Legislature’s authority to adopt
programs, create legislative bodies, or fund scholarships specifically designed for
minorities.   Like the amendments in Evans, these substantive constraints are
essentially legislative functions.  As previously discussed, the functions of the
judiciary are also substantially affected.  Like the procedural rule changes proposed
in the Evans amendments, restricting the scope of courts’ remedial powers is
inherently judicial in nature.   Limiting legislative authority and redefining courts’
remedial powers significantly restricts the state’s ability to address the effects of
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past and present discriminatory practices.   That these effects constitute substantial
alterations of governmental functions is incontrovertible.
Moreover, in Tax Limitation I, we invalidated a petition that not only altered
the functions of the legislative and executive branches, but had “a very distinct and
substantial affect [sic] on each local governmental entity.”  644 So. 2d at 494-95. 
Likewise, in Restricts Laws Related to Discrimination, we invalidated an amendment
applying to “any governmental entity” in part because it encroached on the home
rule powers of local government.  The FCRI initiatives have a similar effect.  As
previously mentioned, the proposed amendments specifically define “state” to
include “any city, county, district, public college or university, or other political
subdivision or government instrumentality of or within the state.”  Individual
Petitions § 6; Omnibus Petition § 7.  If extended to their logical extreme, the
proposed amendments will bar school districts from sponsoring programs
developed solely for the benefit of minorities, public universities from either
maintaining educational programs tailored specifically for minority students or
recruiting minorities with minority scholarships, and city governments from
considering race when hiring and assigning police officers to various precincts and
neighborhoods.  Thus, the proposed amendments’ substantial effect on local
government entities, coupled with its curtailment of the powers of the legislative and
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judicial branches, renders it fatally defective and violative of the single-subject
requirement.   It is precisely this sort of “cataclysmic change” that the drafters of the
single-subject rule labored to prevent.
Nevertheless, FCRI maintains that the proposed degree of specificity imposes
hypertechnical burdens on citizens’ constitutional right to place proposed
amendments on the ballot.  While citizens have the right to amend the constitution
by the methods provided, the citizens have recognized that the power to do so
should not be unbridled.  As we noted in Evans:
We recognize that all power . . . comes from the people and that the 
citizens of the state have retained the right to broaden or to restrict that
power by initiative amendment.  But where such an initiative performs t
functions of different branches of government, it clearly fails the 
functional test for the single-subject limitation the people have 
incorporated into article XI, section 3, Florida Constitution. 
457 So. 2d at 1354.  Thus, while purely speculative consequences, such as the
possibility that the Legislature could pass a law abridging existing constitutional
rights, see In re Advisory Opinion to the Attorney General:  English--The Official
Language of Florida, 520 So. 2d 11, 12 (Fla. 1988), are not germane to this Court’s
determination, identifiable changes in the functions of different levels and branches
of government are sufficient to warrant invalidating the amendments.
BALLOT TITLES AND SUMMARIES
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The Attorney General and opponents assert that the ballot titles and
summaries violate section 101.161, Florida Statutes, for several reasons.  As
previously mentioned, the ballot title and summaries must describe the chief
purpose of the measure in clear and unambiguous language.  See Right of Citizens
to Choose Health Care Providers, 705 So. 2d at 566.  The Attorney General,
CBSL, FREE, NBA, and Leadership Conference highlight the different terminology
used in the ballot titles and summaries from the actual text of the proposed
amendments.  The ballot titles and summaries refer to “people”; however, the text
of the proposed amendments refers to “persons.”  They contend that use of the
term “people” fails to give voters notice that corporations may also be prohibited
from receiving preferential treatment.  FCRI, however, submits that these
contentions are without merit where the terms are virtually synonymous.  
Opponents contend that the divergent terminology creates an ambiguity
similar to that in Right of Citizens to Choose Health Care Providers.  In that
advisory opinion, we found a discrepancy between the term "citizens,” which was
used in the ballot summary, and "every natural person," which appeared in the text
of the amendment.  See 705 So. 2d at 566.  We concluded: "This discrepancy
between ‘natural person’ and ‘citizens’ is material and misleading.  This divergence
in terminology is ambiguous in that it leaves voters guessing whether the terms are
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intended to be synonymous or whether the difference in terms was intentional."  Id. 
  Similarly, in People’s Property Rights Amendments, we invalidated a misleading
petition, stating that the “summary refers to the owner of real property but does not
define ‘owner.’  Consequently, the use of the term ‘people’ in the title ‘People’s
Property Rights Amendments’ is confusing because it is unclear if ‘owner’ is
restricted to people who own the property or also to corporate entities.”  699 So.
2d at 1308-09.  By like measure, in In re Advisory Opinion to the Attorney General
re Casino Authorization, Taxation and Regulation, 656 So. 2d 466, 468-69 (Fla.
1995), we invalidated a petition because voters were not informed that the
proposal’s use of different terminology was legally significant.  In that advisory
opinion, the summary used the term “hotel,” but the text of the proposed
amendment used the term “transient lodging establishment.”  Id. at 469.  We noted
that the legal definition for “transient lodging establishment” was much broader than
that for “hotel,” and concluded:
Thus, while the summary leads the voters to believe that casinos will be
operated only in “hotels,” the proposed amendment actually permits 
voters to authorize casinos in any number of facilities, including a bed
and breakfast inn.  We believe that the public perceives the term “hotel”
to have a much narrower meaning than the term “transient lodging 
establishment.”
Id.  In English--The Official Language of Florida, we also addressed differing
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terminology where the summary stated that the Legislature could “implement this
article,” but the text stated that the Legislature had the power to “enforce this
section.”  520 So. 2d at 13.  We, however, concluded that the two terms were
synonymous and that voters could not reasonably be misled.  See id.   
As the opponents suggest, the divergent terminology creates a discrepancy
as to whether the proposed amendments’ proscriptions apply to corporations.
Although FCRI likens the difference in terminology to English--The Official
Language of Florida, the different terms used in the present initiatives are more
analogous to those used in Right of Citizens to Choose Health Care Providers,
People’s Property Rights Amendments, and Casino Authorization, Taxation and
Regulation.  FCRI maintains that while the term "persons" is not defined, its
contextual meaning is clear.  Since corporations do not have "race, color, or
ethnicity," FCRI contends that the plain meaning of the amendments is that they
apply to natural persons. However, the amendments’ proscriptions could extend to
corporations based on the race of their ownership or racially-oriented purpose. 
Like the amendments in Right of Citizens to Choose Health Care Providers and
People’s Property Rights Amendments, it is unclear to the voter whether the
difference in terms was intentional and how corporations will be affected.  As in
Casino Authorization, Taxation and Regulation, the petitions do not account for the
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legal significance of using the term “person,” thereby failing to inform voters of the
potential breadth of the proposed amendments.  Contrary to the inconsistent
terminology used in this case, the terms used in English--The Official Language of
Florida--legislative implementation and enforcement--were virtually synonymous. 
While “people” and “person” also appear synonymous, their legal differences are
significant and are not revealed to the voter.   In addition, FCRI points out that the
scope of the amendment is, however, broad enough to apply where governmental
action attempts to authorize or endorse the use of the corporate form to circumvent
the prohibition of discrimination as to race, color, ethnicity, or national origin.  This
distinction is also not clearly explained to the voters.  As we noted in Restricts
Laws Related to Discrimination, "[t]he omission of such material information is
misleading and precludes voters from being able to cast their ballots intelligently." 
632 So. 2d at 1021.
Further, the Attorney General, FREE, Board of Regents, and Leadership
Conference contend that the ballot titles and summaries do not identify the
constitutional and statutory provisions that the proposed amendments will affect. 
In Advisory Opinion to the Attorney General Re Stop Early Release of Prisoners,
642 So. 2d 724, 726 (Fla. 1994), we invalidated a petition because it substantially
modified another constitutional provision but did not mention this consequence in
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the ballot summary.  As previously discussed, the proposed amendments
substantially affect article I, section 2, and article I, section 21.  However, the ballot
summaries do not describe this effect.  Consequently, the ballot summaries are
defective for not identifying the initiative petitions’ effect on these existing
constitutional provisions.
In a similar vein, the Attorney General, CBSL, and Board of Regents
contend that the ballot titles and summaries imply that there currently is no such
constitutional provision barring discrimination based on the enumerated
classifications.   In Tax Limitation I, we held that the ballot title and summary were
misleading because they implied that there was no existing cap or limitation on taxes
in the constitution when, in fact, such a limitation existed.  See 644 So. 2d at 494. 
Similarly, in Casino Authorization, Taxation and Regulation, we invalidated a
petition because the ballot summary implied that the amendment was necessary to
prohibit casinos in the state.  See 656 So. 2d at 469.  We noted that the first line of
the summary, “This amendment prohibits casinos unless approved by the voters,”
created the false impression that casinos were presently allowed in the state.  Id. 
Consequently, we held that the ballot summary was defective because of what it
failed to say.  See id.
The ballot titles in the present case state:  “AMENDMENT TO BAR
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GOVERNMENT FROM TREATING PEOPLE DIFFERENTLY BASED ON
RACE IN PUBLIC EDUCATION [EMPLOYMENT] [CONTRACTING]” and
“END GOVERNMENTAL DISCRIMINATION AND PREFERENCES
AMENDMENT.”  As in Tax Limitation I and Casino Authorization, Taxation and
Regulation, the ballot titles imply that there is no provision addressing differential
treatment for the enumerated classifications.  However, article I, section 2, prohibits
deprivation of rights based on race, religion, national origin, or physical disability. 
See art. I, § 2, Fla. Const.  As this Court has noted with other initiatives, the
problem “lies not with what the summary says, but, rather, with what it does not
say.”  Term Limits Pledge, 718 So. 2d at 804 (quoting Askew, 421 So. 2d at 156). 
Consequently, the ballot titles are defective because of the misleading negative
implication that no such constitutional provision addressing differential treatment
currently exists, and for the negative implication that the government is presently
practicing discrimination.
The Leadership Conference contends that the omnibus summary’s reference
to “bona fide qualifications based on sex” does not accurately explain what the
proposed amendment provides.  It notes that a voter has no basis for knowing the
meaning of an “otherwise lawful classification.”  It contends that voters could
construe “bona fide qualifications based on sex” very broadly or narrowly, without
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knowing of the limitations provided in the initiative.  
This Court addressed the problem of including ambiguous and undefined
terms in ballot summaries in People’s Property Rights Amendments.  In that
advisory opinion, we held that the ballot summary was defective because, among
other things, it failed to define the term “common law nuisance,” leaving voters
unaware of what restrictions would be compensable under the proposed
amendment.  See 699 So. 2d at 1309.  Similarly, we invalidated another petition
because the ballot summary’s definition of new tax as “increases in tax rates” did
not distinguish between an increase in the amount of payments on taxable property
or an increase in the actual rate at which the property was being taxed.  See id. at
1311.   We also vigorously enforced the “clear and unambiguous” requirement in
Smith v. American Airlines, Inc., 606 So. 2d 618 (Fla. 1992), noting that “the ballot
summary here is [not] written clearly enough for even the more educated voters to
understand its chief purpose.  The summary not only assumes an extensive
understanding of [the topic], but also requires the voter to infer a meaning which is
nowhere evident on the face of the summary itself.”  
 Like the summaries in People’s Property Rights Amendments and Smith,
the omnibus ballot summary’s general reference to the bona fide qualification
exception is inadequate.  The omnibus petition provides:  
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This section does not affect any otherwise lawful classification that:  (a)
Is based on sex and is necessary for sexual privacy or medical or 
psychological treatment; or (b) Is necessary for undercover law 
enforcement or for film, video, audio, or theatrical casting; or (c) 
Provides for separate athletic teams for each sex.
Omnibus Petition § 4.  The summary states:  “Exempts bona fide qualifications
based on sex . . . .”  Omnibus Petition Summary.   The term is not defined, leaving
voters to guess at its meaning.  Moreover, like the term “common law nuisance” in
People’s Property Rights Amendments, “bona fide qualification based on sex” is a
legal phrase, and voters are not informed of its legal significance.   Certainly, the
bare mention of a bona fide qualification exception does not inform voters of the
concerns regarding sexual privacy, medical treatment, law enforcement, theatrical
casting, or sports.  Like the defective ballot summary in Smith, voters would
undoubtedly rely on their own conceptions of what constitutes a bona fide
qualification.  Thus, the omnibus petition’s summary is vague and ambiguous,
thereby violating section 101.161, Florida Statutes.
In a general rebuttal to the foregoing arguments, FCRI asserts that this Court
has recognized that the summary is required only to state the “chief purpose of the
measure” and that the statutory seventy-five word limit neither permits nor requires
the inclusion or explanation of such detail, limitations, or anticipated ramifications.
To be sure, we noted in Limited Casinos that “[t]he seventy-five word limit placed
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on the ballot summary as required by statute does not lend itself to an explanation
of all of a proposed amendment’s details.”  644 So. 2d at 75.  Similarly, in Grose
v. Firestone, 422 So. 2d 303, 305 (Fla. 1982), we recognized that an exhaustive
explanation of the interpretation and future possible effects of the amendment was
not required.  Consistent with this approach, we recognized in Prohibiting Public
Funding of Political Candidates that the ballot title and summary “need not explain
every detail or ramification of the proposed amendment.” 693 So. 2d at 975. 
Despite the foregoing observations, we have stated:  
[W]e have never required that the summary explain the
complete details of a proposal at great and undue length,
nor do we do so now.  However, the word limit does not
give drafters of proposed amendments leave to ignore the
importance of the ballot summary and to provide an
abbreviated, ambiguous statement in the hope that this
Court’s reluctance to remove issues from the ballot will
prevent us from insisting on clarity and meaningful
information.
Smith, 606 So. 2d at 621.  Thus, drafters of proposed amendments cannot
circumvent the requirements of section 101.161, Florida Statutes, by cursorily
contending that the summary need not be exhaustive.  Although significant detail
regarding implementation and speculative scenarios may be omitted, this Court has
repeatedly held that ballot summaries which do not adequately define terms, use
inconsistent terminology, fail to mention constitutional provisions that are affected,
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and do not adequately describe the general operation of the proposed amendment
must be invalidated.  That being the case, the challenges in the present case are not
anomalous in that they require the summaries to contain sufficient detail.  Rather,
they are representative of the types of information that this Court has previously
determined must be included in ballot summaries to ensure that voters are not
misled.  In short, the summaries are misleading and, therefore, violate section
101.161, Florida Statutes.  
In invalidating the four proposed amendments, we find Justice Kogan’s
concurrence in Restricts Laws Related to Discrimination instructive:
I reach this conclusion only because of the present
initiative’s overbroad and unstated effects.  I do not
believe the Constitution forbids the people to propose
limited initiatives that either broaden or restrict civil rights. 
What the Constitution does require is that all such civil
rights initiatives must be narrowly framed, must not
involve undisclosed collateral effects, and must not have
the potential to disrupt other aspects of Florida law or
government beyond the subject of the amendment itself. 
When such overbreadth exists, the single-subject
requirement necessarily is violated; and the ballot-
summary requirement is violated to the extent the initiative
does not or cannot explain its own domino effect.
632 So. 2d at 1024 (Kogan, J., concurring).  Accordingly, we hold that the four
proposed amendments should be stricken from the ballot for failure to comply with
article XI, section 3, of the Florida Constitution and section 101.161, Florida
7  The majority opinion holds that the omnibus amendment improperly embraces multiple subjects
and that all four amendments are defective in the following ways:  They fail to identify the other
constitutional provisions that they substantially affect; and they functionally affect multiple branches and
levels of government.
8  The majority opinion holds that the omnibus amendment improperly uses  the phrase “bona fide
qualifications based on sex” and that all four amendments are defective in the following ways:  They
improperly use the term “people” in the summary and “persons” in the text; they fail to identify the other
constitutional provisions that they affect; and they erroneously imply that the constitution does not currently
contain a provision barring discrimination based on the enumerated classifications.
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Statutes.
It is so ordered.
HARDING, PARIENTE and QUINCE, JJ., concur.
SHAW, J., concurs in result only with an opinion.
WELLS, C.J., and ANSTEAD and LEWIS, JJ., concur in result only.
NOT FINAL UNTIL TIME EXPIRES TO FILE REHEARING MOTION, AND
IF FILED, DETERMINED.
SHAW, J., concurring in result only.
The majority opinion holds that the four proposed amendments violate the
single subject requirement in various ways7 and violate the ballot title and summary
requirements in sundry other ways.8  While I disagree with the majority’s reasoning,
I nevertheless agree that the amendments are invalid.  My quarrel with the
amendments is simple and straightforward:  I believe that the ballot titles and
summaries are fundamentally misleading.
I.  FACTS
9  See § 15.21, Fla. Stat. (1999).
10  See § 16.061, Fla. Stat. (1999).
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In 1999, the Florida Civil Rights Initiative (“sponsors”) filed with the Florida
Secretary of State (“Secretary”) four initiative petitions seeking to amend the
Florida Constitution.  The proposed amendments would bar state and local
government from promulgating programs that “treat people differently” based on
membership in enumerated classes.  Three amendments, all of which apply to
“race, color, ethnicity, or national origin,” would bar such programs in public
education, public employment, and public contracting respectively.  The fourth
amendment, i.e., the omnibus amendment,  applies to “race, sex, color, ethnicity,
national origin” and would bar such programs in all three areas, i.e., in public
education, public employment, and public contracting.  The Secretary submitted
the petitions to the Florida Attorney General9 who petitioned this Court for an
advisory opinion concerning the amendments’ validity.10
This Court’s inquiry, when assessing the validity of an initiative petition on
request of the Attorney General, is limited to two questions:  whether the text of the
amendment comports with the single subject requirement in article XI, section 3,
Florida Constitution, and whether the ballot title and summary comport with the
accuracy requirement in section 101.161(1), Florida Statutes (1999).  During this
11  See Askew v. Firestone, 421 So. 2d 151, 154 (Fla. 1982). 
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pre-election inquiry, the merits of the amendment are not in issue.  The Court will
declare a proposed amendment invalid only if the record shows that the proposal is
clearly and conclusively defective in either of the above areas.11
II.  THE PRESENT AMENDMENTS
The ballot titles of the first three amendments are identical to one another
except for the last word in each, which reads either “EDUCATION,”
“EMPLOYMENT,” or “CONTRACTING,” as indicated by the blank space
below:
AMENDMENT TO BAR GOVERNMENT FROM
TREATING PEOPLE DIFFERENTLY BASED ON
RACE IN PUBLIC _______________
The ballot summaries for the three amendments also are identical except for the
words “EDUCATION,” “EMPLOYMENT,” and “CONTRACTING,” as
indicated by the blank space below:
Amends Declaration of Rights, Article I of the Florida
Constitution, to bar state and local government bodies
from treating people differently based on race, color,
ethnicity, or national origin in the operation of
public____________, whether the program is called
“preferential treatment,” “affirmative action,” or anything
else.  Does not bar programs that treat people equally
without regard to race, color, ethnicity, or national origin. 
Exempts actions needed for federal funds eligibility.
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Similarly, the core provision in the text of each of the three amendments is identical,
except for the words “education,” “employment,” and “contracting”:
(1)  The state shall not treat persons differently
based on race, color, ethnicity, or national origin in the
operation of public _____________.
In contrast to the first three amendments, the ballot title for the fourth
amendment, i.e., the omnibus amendment, reads as follows:
END GOVERNMENTAL DISCRIMINATION AND
PREFERENCES AMENDMENT
The ballot summary for the omnibus amendment utilizes the same “treating people
differently” language used in first three summaries and additionally addresses sex:
Amends Declaration or Rights, Article I of the Florida
Constitution, to bar state and local government bodies
from treating people differently based on race, sex, color,
ethnicity, or national origin in public education,
employment, or contracting, whether the program is
called “preferential treatment,” “affirmative action,” or
anything else.  Does not bar programs that treat people
equally without regard to race, sex, color, ethnicity, or
national origin.  Exempts bona fide qualifications based
on sex and actions needed for federal funds eligibility.
The core provision in the text of the omnibus amendment reads as follows:
(1)  The state shall not discriminate against, or
grant preferential treatment to, any individual or group on
the basis of race, sex, color, ethnicity, or national origin
in the operation of public employment, public education,
or public contracting.
12  In re Advisory Opinion to the Attorney General–Save Our Everglades, 636 So. 2d 1336, 1339
(Fla. 1994).
13  Fine v. Firestone, 448 So. 2d 984, 988 (Fla. 1984).
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The gist of the proposed amendments is to bar state and local government
from “treating people differently” in public education, public employment, and
public contracting based on race, sex, color, ethnicity, or national origin.
III.  SINGLE SUBJECT
The Florida Constitution states that an initiative petition must be limited to a
single subject:
SECTION 3.  Initiative.–The power to propose the
revision or amendment of any portion or portions of the
constitution by initiative is reserved to the people,
provided that, any such revision or amendment, except
for those limiting the power of government to raise
revenue, shall embrace but one subject and matter directly
connected therewith.
Art. XI, § 3, Fla. Const.  (emphasis added).  The purpose of this requirement is
twofold:  to insulate the organic law from “precipitous and cataclysmic change,”12
and to prevent “logrolling.”13
The abiding test for evaluating a single-subject challenge to an initiative
petition was set forth by this Court in Fine v. Firestone, 448 So. 2d 984 (Fla. 1984):
[I]n determining whether a proposal addresses a single
subject the test is whether it “may be logically viewed as
14  Cf. In re Advisory Opinion–Restricts Laws Related to Discrimination, 632 So. 2d 1018, 1019
(Fla. 1994) (striking an amendment that was intended to bar rights or protections for homosexuals and that
forbade the passage of laws creating rights or protections based on anything other than “race, color,
religion, sex, national origin, age, handicap, ethnic background, marital status, or familial status”; “marital
status” was defined to include only opposite-sex marriages).
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having a natural relation and connection as component
parts or aspects of a single dominant plan or scheme. 
Unity of subject and plan is the universal test.”
Fine, 448 So. 2d at 990 (quoting City of Coral Gables v. Gray, 154 Fla. 881, 883-
84, 19 So. 2d 318, 320 (1944)).  In brief, the amendment must exhibit “a logical
and natural oneness of purpose.”  Id. 
The present amendments comport with this test.  Although the amendments
apply to several areas (i.e., public education, public employment, and public
contracting) and various classifications (i.e., race, sex, color, ethnicity, or national
origin), these areas and classifications are logically and naturally related to the
sponsors’ single dominant scheme to stop state and local government from
promulgating programs that expressly promote or favor certain groups or
classifications for whatever reason.  The enumerated classifications embrace any
program that would accomplish that result and are sufficiently interrelated to
minimize the danger of logrolling.14  The amendments would result in a singular
change in the organic law of the state, for they would return this area of
governmental function to the status quo ante.  The state could no longer attempt to
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adjust for past inequities by sponsoring assistance programs for discrete,
historically disadvantaged groups.
IV.  BALLOT TITLE AND SUMMARY
Section 101.161, Florida Statutes (1999), requires that all proposed
amendments must be accurately represented on the ballot by a title and summary:
101.161  Referenda; ballots.--
(1)  Whenever a constitutional amendment or other
public measure is submitted to the vote of the people, the
substance of such amendment or other public measure
shall be printed in clear and unambiguous language on the
ballot after the list of candidates, followed by the word
"yes" and also by the word "no," and shall be styled in
such a manner that a "yes" vote will indicate approval of
the proposal and a "no" vote will indicate rejection.  The
wording of the substance of the amendment or other
public measure and the ballot title to appear on the ballot
shall be embodied in the joint resolution, constitutional
revision commission proposal, constitutional convention
proposal, taxation and budget reform commission
proposal, or enabling resolution or ordinance.  The
substance of the amendment or other public measure shall
be an explanatory statement, not exceeding 75 words in
length, of the chief purpose of the measure.  The ballot
title shall consist of a caption, not exceeding 15 words in
length, by which the measure is commonly referred to or
spoken of.
§ 101.161(1), Fla. Stat. (1999) (emphasis added).  The purpose of this requirement
is to ensure that voters have fair notice of the content of the amendment and can
15  Advisory Opinion to the Attorney General re Term Limits Pledge, 718 So. 2d 798, 803 (Fla.
1998).
16  See § 101.161(2), Fla. Stat. (1999).
17  See § 101.161(1), Fla. Stat. (1999) (“The substance of the amendment or other public measure
shall be an explanatory statement, not exceeding 75 words in length, of the chief purpose of the measure.”
(Emphasis added)).
18  See, e.g., Evans v. Firestone, 457 So. 2d 1351, 1355 (Fla. 1984) (“The ballot summary should
tell the voter the legal effect of the amendment . . . .”  (emphasis added)); Askew v. Firestone, 421 So. 2d
at 151, 156 (Fla. 1982) (“The purpose of section 101.161 is to assure that the electorate is advised of the
true meaning, and ramifications, of an amendment.” (Emphasis added)).
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cast “an intelligent and informed ballot.”15  Significantly, both the ballot title and
summary are prepared by the amendment's sponsor.16
To conform to section 101.161(1), a ballot summary must state "the chief
purpose" of the proposed amendment.17  In evaluating an amendment’s chief
purpose, the Court must look not to subjective criteria espoused by the
amendment’s sponsor but to objective criteria inherent in the amendment itself,
such as the amendment’s main effect.18  As noted above, the gist of the present
amendments is to bar state and local government from “treating people differently”
in the specified areas based on the enumerated classifications.  The amendments
thus would do two things:  They would bar the state from either (1) repressing
citizens’ rights, or (2) promoting citizens’ rights, in the specified areas based on
membership in the enumerated classes.
19  Cf. United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 515 (1996) (addressing sex-based discrimination at
Virginia’s publicly-operated military academy, Virginia Military Institute, under the federal Equal Protection
Clause); Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954) (addressing race-based discrimination in
public schools under the federal Equal Protection Clause).
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As to the first function, i.e., barring government from repressing citizens’
rights, such state action is currently prohibited by the Florida Constitution’s Equal
Protection Clause.  Article I, section 2, Florida Constitution, expressly states:
Section 2.  Basic rights.–All natural persons,
female and male alike, are equal before the law and have
inalienable rights, among which are the right to enjoy and
defend life and liberty, to pursue happiness, to be
rewarded for industry, and to acquire, possess and
protect property; except that the ownership, inheritance,
disposition and possession of real property by aliens
ineligible for citizenship may be regulated or prohibited by
law.  No person shall be deprived of any right because of
race, religion, national origin, or physical disability.
Art. I, § 2, Fla. Const.  The Clause logically embraces those areas (i.e., public
education, public employment, and public contracting) and classifications (i.e.,
race, sex, color, ethnicity, or national origin) enumerated in the proposed
amendments.  The Clause historically has protected against race and sex-based
discrimination.19  Thus, to the extent that the amendments would protect Floridians
from the deprivation of rights based on membership in the enumerated classes, the
amendments would simply duplicate the Equal Protection Clause of the Florida
20  The amendments, however, could have a confusing effect on the Equal Protection Clause by
implying that “religion” and “physical disability,” which are denoted in the constitution but not in the present
amendments, are entitled to 
less protection than the other classes, which are denoted in both the constitution
and the present amendments.
21 See, e.g., §§ 287.0931–.0947, Fla. Stat. (1999) (delineating minority business enterprise
programs); §§ 288.702–.714, Fla. Stat. (1999) (setting forth the Florida Small Minority Business
Assistance Act of 1985); §§ 337.125–.139, Fla. Stat. (1999) (delineating criteria for socially and
economically disadvantaged business enterprises and efforts to encourage the awarding contracts to
disadvantaged business enterprises).  
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Constitution20 and would have no practical effect–despite language suggesting
otherwise.
As to the second function, i.e., barring government from promoting citizens’
rights, this is the true import of these amendments.  The constitution currently
contains no provision expressly addressing this issue and the amendments thus
would have a practical effect in this area, for they would bar government from
doing something that it presently can do.  In point of fact, state and local
governments in Florida have recognized historically founded inequities and have
promulgated class-specific programs promoting citizens’ rights in an effort to
redress past and present deprivations.21  One effect–i.e., the intended effect–of the
amendments is clear:  They would stop government from pursuing any programs
that promote the rights of a discrete class (e.g., minorities or women) in the
22  Under the plain language of the amendments, state and local governments could pursue only
those programs that are mandated by court order or consent decree or that are necessary to maintain
federal funding for the state.
23  The amendments on their face would bar any race or sex-based program in the enumerated
areas.  This would include enrichment, outreach, and mentoring programs as well as traditional affirmative
action programs involving percentages, timetables, and goals.
24  The ballot title of the omnibus amendment states:  “END GOVERNMENTAL . . .
PREFERENCES . . .”
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enumerated areas.22
Nothing in the ballot titles and summaries notifies the voter of this effect. 
Just the opposite.  By clothing the amendments in traditional equal protection
terminology (e.g., “to bar government from treating people differently”; “end
governmental discrimination”), the ballot titles and summaries give the illusory
impression that the amendments’ main effect would be to protect Floridians from
the deprivation of rights.  Although the summaries use the phrase “whether the
program is called ‘preferential treatment,’ ‘affirmative action,’ or anything else,”
this phrase is far from clear and falls short of notifying voters of the actual impact
the amendments would have on state programs that recognize and are designed to
redress past and present discrimination.23  Further, this language implies that the
amendments would bar only those programs that give preferential treatment to
members of the enumerated classes,24 whereas in fact the amendments would bar
all class-specific programs, preferential or not.
25  See also Wadhams v. Board of County Comm’rs, 567 So. 2d 414 (Fla. 1990) (striking as
misleading a county charter amendment that called for meetings by the Charter Review Board every four
years, where the ballot language failed to inform voters that the amendment would supersede an existing
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This Court in Askew v. Firestone, 421 So. 2d 151 (Fla. 1982), reviewed a
proposed amendment that banned former legislators from lobbying for a two-year
period after leaving office unless the legislator disclosed his or her financial
interests.  Although the ballot summary faithfully tracked the text of the proposed
amendment, the summary failed to explain that the amendment would trump an
already existing constitutional provision that imposed an absolute two-year ban,
regardless of financial disclosure.  The Court concluded that the summary was
misleading:
The problem . . . lies not with what the summary says,
but, rather, with what it does not say.
. . . . 
If the legislature feels that the present prohibition
against appearing before one's former colleagues is
wrong, it is appropriate for that body to pass a joint
resolution and to ask the citizens to modify that
prohibition.  But such a change must stand on its own
merits and not be disguised as something else.  The
purpose of section 101.161 is to assure that the electorate
is advised of the true meaning, and ramifications, of an
amendment.  A proposed amendment cannot fly under
false colors; this one does.  The burden of informing the
public should not fall only on the press and opponents of
the measure--the ballot title and summary must do this.
Askew, 421 So. 2d at 156 (emphasis added).25
charter provision that allowed unlimited meetings).
26  See Wadhams, 567 So. 2d at 414 (“The [Commissioners argue] that the majority in the
decision below correctly concluded that there was no reason to invalidate the amendment[] based on voter
confusion because the voters were afforded ample opportunity to become informed on the issue before the
election by public hearings, advance publication of the proposal, and media publicity.  We reject this
argument.”); see also James Bacchus, Legislative Efforts to Amend the Florida Constitution: The
Implications of Smathers v. Smith, 5 Fla. St. U. L. Rev. 747, 802 (1977) (“It is hardly necessary to
document the conclusion that a constitution which relies exclusively on legislative journals and legal
advertisements to publicize proposed constitutional amendments guarantees little in the way of actual notice
to a vast majority of the electorate.”).
27  The amendments also contain several technical faults:  The summaries use the term “people”
whereas the texts use the term “persons”; and the summary to the omnibus amendment uses the phrase
“bona fide qualifications based on sex” without clarification.
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In the present case, as in Askew, the main effect of the amendments is not
stated clearly–or even hinted at–anywhere in the ballot language.  Rather, the
burden of informing voters of the amendments’ true effect is left to the press and
opponents of the measures.  Many voters–indeed, most voters–thus are left in the
dark as to the amendments’ chief purpose and far-ranging effect.26
V.  CONCLUSION
Based on the foregoing, I conclude that the ballot titles and summaries
violate the accuracy requirement set forth in section 101.161(1), Florida Statutes
(1999).27  Rather than frankly notifying voters that the proposed amendments would
be used as a “sword” to stop state and local governments from promoting citizens’
rights, the amendments “fly under false colors” and give voters the illusory
28  The ballot title of the omnibus amendment states:  “END GOVERNMENTAL
DISCRIMINATION . . .”
29  For instance, state and local governments would be barred from undertaking class-specific
programs intended to promote full use of community resources, to preempt expensive legal challenges, or
to defuse tension or unrest within a community.
30  As noted above, under the plain language of the amendments, state and local governments could
pursue class-specific programs only when mandated by court order or consent decree or when necessary
to preserve federal funding for the state.
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impression that they would be used as a “shield” to bar government from
repressing citizens’ rights.28  Further, the ballot titles and summaries “hide the ball”
as to the amendments’ true effect, giving voters no clue of the impact the
amendments actually would have on government programs promoting social
harmony and combating discrimination.29  Under the plain language of the
amendments, state and local governments would be powerless to redress many
forms of de facto discrimination, no matter how abject.30
While the vague and obfuscating language employed in the ballot titles and
summaries might be viewed by some as a deft campaign tactic, such a practice is
inimical to the constitutional processes in Florida and is patently impermissible in an
initiative petition.  A constitutional referendum is not a high stakes poker game
where voters must guess the sponsors’ hand by discounting the hype and spin and
calculating the odds themselves.  Whenever constitutional rights are in issue,
31  See generally Crawford v. Gilchrist, 64 Fla. 41, 54, 59 So. 963, 968 (1912) (noting that the
“proposal of amendments to the Constitution is a highly important function of government, that should be
performed with the greatest certainty, efficiency, care and deliberation”).
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accuracy and truthfulness are the hallmarks.31  The sponsors of an amendment
must place all the cards on the table, face up, prior to the election.  Each voter is
entitled to cast a ballot based on the full truth.
Because the ballot titles and summaries of the proposed amendments are
fundamentally misleading, I conclude that the four amendments–as presently
drafted–are invalid.
Four Cases Consolidated - Original Proceedings - Advisory Opinion to the
Attorney General
Robert A. Butterworth, Attorney General and Louis F. Hubener, III, Assistant
Attorney General, Tallahassee, Florida,
Presentor
Thomas M. Ervin, Jr. and C. Everett Boyd, Jr. of Ervin, Varn, Jacobs & Ervin,
Tallahassee, Florida, 
for Florida Civil Rights Initiative, Proponent - Interested Party
Alan C. Sunderg, General Counsel, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida;
F. Townsend Hawkes and Michael P. Donaldson of Carlton, Fields, Ward,
Emmanuel, Smith & Cutler, Tallahassee, Florida; and Gregg A. Gleason, General
Counsel, Florida Board of Regents, Tallahassee, Florida,
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for Florida Board of Regents, In Opposition To Initiatives
Parker D. Thomson of Thomson, Muraro, Razook & Hart, Miami, Florida; and
Randall C. Berg, Jr., Peter M. Siegel and JoNel Newman of the Florida Justice
Institute, Inc., Miami, Florida,
for Florida Conference of Black State Legislators 
Barbara R. Arwine, Thomas J. Henderson and Diane L. Gross of Lawyers’
Committee for Civil Rights Under Law, Washington, D.C.; Matthew D. Slater,
Marcilynn A. Burke, and Emily Ryo of Cleary,  Gottlieb, Steen & Hamilton,
Washington, D.C.; and David M. Lipman, Miami, Florida,
for The Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, Amicus Curiae
Sharon L. Browne, Sacramento, California, and Frank A. Shepherd, Miami,
Florida,
for Campaign for a Color-Blind America, Initiative & Referendum Institute,
and Pacific Legal Foundation, Amici Curiae
Darryl Parks, President, Florida Chapter, National Bar Association, of Parks &
Crump, Tallahassee, Florida, Thomasina H. Williams of the Law Offices of
Williams & Associates, Miami, Florida,  and H. T. Smith, Miami, Florida,
for the Florida Chapter of the National Bar Association 
 Joseph W. Hatchett and Mark Herron of Akerman, Senterfitt & Eidson,
Tallahassee, Florida, 
for Floridians Representing Equity and Equality