Title: Bridgeford v. Sorel

State: north-dakota

Issuer: North Dakota Supreme Court

Document:

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N.D. Dep’t of Transp.1'   1:G ³,QDQDSSHDOIURPDGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VUHYLHZRIDQDGPLQLVWUDWLYHDJHQF\¶V GHFLVLRQZHUHYLHZWKHDJHQF\¶VGHFLVLRQ´Haynes v. Dir., Dep’t of Transp. 1'1:G7KLV&RXUWZLOODIILUPDQDGPLQLVWUDWLYHDJHQF\¶V RUGHUXQOHVV 7KHRUGHULVLQYLRODWLRQRIWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOULJKWVRIWKHDSSHOODQW  7KHILQGLQJVRIIDFWPDGHE\WKHDJHQF\DUHQRWVXSSRUWHGE\D SUHSRQGHUDQFHRIWKHHYLGHQFH 7KHFRQFOXVLRQVRIODZDQGRUGHURIWKHDJHQF\DUHQRWVXSSRUWHGE\ LWVILQGLQJVRIIDFW 1'&& >@ 5DWKHUWKDQPDNLQJLQGHSHQGHQWILQGLQJVRIIDFWRUVXEVWLWXWLQJRXUMXGJPHQW IRUWKDWRIWKHDJHQF\RXUUHYLHZLVFRQILQHGWRGHWHUPLQLQJZKHWKHU³DUHDVRQLQJ PLQGUHDVRQDEO\FRXOGKDYHGHWHUPLQHGWKDWWKHIDFWXDOFRQFOXVLRQVUHDFKHGZHUH SURYHGE\WKHZHLJKWRIWKHHYLGHQFHIURPWKHHQWLUHUHFRUG´Deeth v. Dir., N.D.  Dep’t of Transp.1'1:G$OWKRXJKRXUUHYLHZLVOLPLWHG WRWKHUHFRUGEHIRUHWKHDGPLQLVWUDWLYHDJHQF\³WKHGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VDQDO\VLVLVHQWLWOHG WRUHVSHFWLILWVUHDVRQLQJLVVRXQG´Id³$QDJHQF\¶VFRQFOXVLRQVRQTXHVWLRQVRI ODZ DUH VXEMHFW WR IXOO UHYLHZ´  Id  7KLV &RXUW ³UHYLHZV FRQVWLWXWLRQDO ULJKWV YLRODWLRQVXQGHUWKHGHQRYRVWDQGDUGRIUHYLHZ´State v. Williams1' 1:G >@ %ULGJHIRUGDVVHUWVWKHLQLWLDONQRFNLQJRQWKHZLQGRZRIKLVYHKLFOHE\WKH RIILFHUZDVDWUHVSDVVDQGDQDWWHPSWWRJDWKHULQIRUPDWLRQWKDWPXVWEHFRQVLGHUHG DVHDUFKVXEMHFWWRWKHZDUUDQWUHTXLUHPHQWRIWKH)RXUWK$PHQGPHQW%ULGJHIRUG DOVRFKDOOHQJHVWKHHQWU\LQWRKLVYHKLFOHDVDQLPSHUPLVVLEOHZDUUDQWOHVVVHDUFKLQ YLRODWLRQRIWKH)RXUWK$PHQGPHQW ,,, >@ %ULGJHIRUGFRQWHQGVWKHRIILFHUWUHVSDVVHGRQKLVSURSHUW\E\NQRFNLQJRQWKH YHKLFOH¶VZLQGRZWKHNQRFNLQJRQWKHZLQGRZZDVDQDWWHPSWWRJDWKHULQIRUPDWLRQ DQGDVHDUFKZKLFKUHTXLUHGDZDUUDQW+HDUJXHVWKHRIILFHU¶VNQRFNLQJRQWKH ZLQGRZZDVQRWZLWKLQWKHFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNLQJH[FHSWLRQWRWKHUHTXLUHPHQWIRU DZDUUDQW >@ ³/DZHQIRUFHPHQWRIILFHUVRIWHQVHUYHDVFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNHUV´State v. Schneider1' 1:G 7KH8QLWHG6WDWHV6XSUHPH&RXUW GHVFULEHG FRPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNLQJ IXQFWLRQV DV WKRVH ³WRWDOO\ GLYRUFHG IURP WKH GHWHFWLRQ LQYHVWLJDWLRQ RU DFTXLVLWLRQ RI HYLGHQFH UHODWLQJ WR WKH YLRODWLRQ RI D FULPLQDOVWDWXWH´Id TXRWLQJCady v. Dombrowski86    &RPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNLQJ MXVWLILHV ODZ HQIRUFHPHQW FRQWDFW ZLWK FLWL]HQV ZLWKRXW UHDVRQDEOHVXVSLFLRQRIXQODZIXOFRQGXFWLappv. N.D. Dep’t of Transp1'     1:G    &RQWDFW ZLWK FLWL]HQV IDOOV ZLWKLQ WKH FRPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNLQJUROHZKHQDQRIILFHU¶VREMHFWLYHLVWRKHOSDSHUVRQLQSRVVLEOHQHHGRI DVVLVWDQFHSee City of Jamestown v. Jerome1' 1:G > @ ,QFDVHVLQYROYLQJPRWRUYHKLFOHVWKH³ODZGLVWLQJXLVKHVEHWZHHQWKHDSSURDFK RIDQDOUHDG\VWRSSHGYHKLFOHDQGWKHVWRSRIDPRYLQJRQH´Abernathey v. Dep’t of  Transp. 1'1:G³:KHQDQRIILFHUDSSURDFKHVDSDUNHG YHKLFOHWRLQTXLUHLQDFRQYHUVDWLRQDOPDQQHUZKHWKHUWKHRFFXSDQWLVRND\RUQHHGV DVVLVWDQFHWKHRIILFHULVHQJDJHGLQWKHUROHRIDFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNHUZLWKDFWLRQV VHSDUDWHIURPWKHGHWHFWLRQLQYHVWLJDWLRQRUDFTXLVLWLRQRIHYLGHQFHUHODWLQJWRWKH YLRODWLRQRIDFULPLQDOVWDWXWH´State v. Leher1'1:G >@ ³>:@KHUHLWLVREYLRXVDFLWL]HQQHLWKHUQHHGVQRUGHVLUHVDVVLVWDQFHDQRIILFHU KDVQRFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNLQJUROHWRILOO´Rist v. N.D. Dep’t of Transp.1'  1:G+RZHYHUWKHDSSHDUDQFHRIDQLQGLYLGXDOVOXPSHGRYHU VOHHSLQJLVQRWDQREYLRXVLQGLFDWLRQWKDWDFLWL]HQGRHVQRWQHHGDVVLVWDQFHId see alsoState v. Smith1' 1:G Lapp1' 1:G State v. Franklin1:G 1'  :KHQDQ RIILFHUHQFRXQWHUVDSHUVRQ³ZKRVHVWDWHRIFRQVFLRXVQHVVSUHYHQWVDFRQYHUVDWLRQDO LQTXLU\IURPRFFXUULQJ´WKHRIILFHUPXVWGHFLGHWKHDFWLRQVQHFHVVDU\WRJHWWKH SHUVRQWRUHVSRQGDQGPD\QHHGWRDSSURDFKDQRQUHVSRQVLYHSHUVRQ³GLIIHUHQWO\ IURPDSHUVRQZKRLVFRQVFLRXVDQGDEOHWRFRQYHUVHZLWKWKHRIILFHU´City of Mandan v. Gerhardt1'1:G FLWLQJRistDW 7R GHWHUPLQH LI DVVLVWDQFH LV QHHGHG LW LV UHDVRQDEOH IRU DQ RIILFHU WR NQRFN RQ D YHKLFOH¶VZLQGRZSeeRistDW City of Fargo v. Sivertson 1' 1:G%\NQRFNLQJDQRIILFHULVGRLQJ³QRPRUHWKDQDQ\SULYDWHFLWL]HQ PLJKWGR´Florida v. Jardines 86   GLVFXVVLQJZDUUDQWOHVVVHDUFKHV RIKRPHV  >@ ,Q Lapp ZH KHOG FRPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNHU IXQFWLRQV VXSSRUWHG DQ RIILFHU¶V HQFRXQWHUZLWKDGULYHULQFOXGLQJNQRFNLQJRQWKHYHKLFOH¶VZLQGRZ1' 1:G ,QLappDQRIILFHUDUULYHGDWDEXVLQHVVSDUNLQJORWWRILQGD PDQVOXPSHGRYHUWKHVWHHULQJZKHHORIDUXQQLQJYHKLFOHIdDW$VHFXULW\ JXDUGKDGWULHGWRZDNHWKHPDQE\NQRFNLQJRQWKHZLQGRZIRUWHQPLQXWHVEHIRUH WKHRIILFHUDUULYHGId$IWHUWKHRIILFHUWDSSHGRQWKHZLQGRZWZLFHZLWKLQWZR PLQXWHVWKHPDQZRNHXSId$WWKDWSRLQWWKHRIILFHUQRWLFHGWKHPDQ¶VJORVV\ H\HVDQGRSHQHGWKHGRRUId:HGHWHUPLQHG³WKHHQFRXQWHUZDVZLWKLQWKHRIILFHU¶V  UROH DV D FRPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNHU  8QWLO WKH RIILFHU FRQYHUVHG ZLWK >WKH PDQ@ DQG DVFHUWDLQHG >KH@ GLG QRW QHHG PHGLFDO DWWHQWLRQ WKH RIILFHU ZDV MXVWLILHG LQ LQYHVWLJDWLQJ>KLV@FRQGLWLRQ´IdDW >@ ,QSivertsonDQRIILFHUDSSURDFKHGDYHKLFOHVWRSSHGEHKLQGDWUDIILFDFFLGHQW DIWHUQRWLFLQJLWZDVQRWSDVVLQJWKHVFHQHOLNHRWKHUPRWRULVWV 1' 1:G7KHRIILFHUWHVWLILHGKHPDGHFRQWDFWWRHQVXUHWKHGULYHUZDV DOULJKW  Id DW    %HFDXVH WKH GULYHU ZDV ³IL[DWHG IRUZDUG´ ZKHQ WKH RIILFHU DSSURDFKHGWKHRIILFHUWDSSHGRQWKHZLQGRZWRJHWWKHGULYHU¶VDWWHQWLRQIdDW :H KHOG WKH RIILFHU¶V DFWLRQV ³ZHUH D SHUPLVVLEOH SDUW RI D OHJLWLPDWH FDUHWDNHU HQFRXQWHU´Id7KLV&RXUWPDGHDVLPLODUGHWHUPLQDWLRQLQCity of Grand Forks v. ZejdlikZKHUHDQRIILFHUUHSHDWHGO\NQRFNHGRQWKHGULYHU¶VZLQGRZWRJHW=HMGOLN¶V DWWHQWLRQ1:G 1'  See also Gerhardt1' 1:G >@ 7KHRIILFHU¶VNQRFNLQJRQ%ULGJHIRUG¶VYHKLFOHZLQGRZZDVZLWKLQWKHVFRSH RIWKHRIILFHU¶VFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNLQJIXQFWLRQ%HFDXVHWKHRIILFHUZDVDFWLQJZLWKLQ KLVUROHDVDFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNHUWKHRIILFHU¶VNQRFNLQJRQWKHZLQGRZZDVQRWDQ LPSHUPLVVLEOHWUHVSDVVRQ%ULGJHIRUG¶VSURSHUW\DQGZDVQRWDQDWWHPSWWRJDWKHU LQIRUPDWLRQZKLFKUHTXLUHGDZDUUDQW ,9 >@ %ULGJHIRUGZDVXQUHVSRQVLYHWRWKHRIILFHU¶VSUHVHQFHQH[WWRWKHYHKLFOHDQG UHPDLQHGXQUHVSRQVLYHIROORZLQJVLJQLILFDQWDWWHPSWVWRJHWKLVDWWHQWLRQIURPRXWVLGH WKH YHKLFOH  $IWHU %ULGJHIRUG IDLOHG WR UHVSRQG WKH RIILFHU RSHQHG WKH GRRU RI %ULGJHIRUG¶VYHKLFOHDQGVKRRN%ULGJHIRUGXQWLOKHUHVSRQGHG7KHGLVWULFWFRXUW FRQFOXGHGWKHHQWU\LQWRWKHYHKLFOHZDVLPSURSHUEHFDXVHLWZDVDVHDUFKWKDWIHOO RXWVLGHDQ\H[FHSWLRQWRWKHZDUUDQWUHTXLUHPHQWRIWKH)RXUWK$PHQGPHQW >@ 8QUHDVRQDEOHVHDUFKHVDQGVHL]XUHVDUHSURKLELWHGE\WKH)RXUWK$PHQGPHQW WRWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV&RQVWLWXWLRQDQGE\6HFWLRQ$UWLFOHRIWKH1RUWK'DNRWD &RQVWLWXWLRQAbernathey 1'1:G³$QLQGLYLGXDOPD\ FKDOOHQJH D VHDUFK XQGHU WKH )RXUWK $PHQGPHQW LI LW YLRODWHV WKH LQGLYLGXDO¶V  UHDVRQDEOHH[SHFWDWLRQRISULYDF\RULQYROYHVDQXQUHDVRQDEOHSK\VLFDOLQWUXVLRQRI DFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\SURWHFWHGDUHDLQRUGHUWRILQGVRPHWKLQJRUREWDLQLQIRUPDWLRQ´ United States v. Cowan)G   WK&LU  FLWDWLRQVDQGTXRWDWLRQV RPLWWHG  >@ 6HDUFKHVZLWKRXWDZDUUDQWDUHQRWXQUHDVRQDEOHXQGHUWKH)RXUWK$PHQGPHQW LIWKHJRYHUQPHQWFDQVKRZWKHVHDUFKIDOOVXQGHUDQH[FHSWLRQWRWKHVHDUFKZDUUDQW UHTXLUHPHQWState v. Matthews1'1:G³$FWLQJLQD FRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNLQJFDSDFLW\LVDQH[FHSWLRQWRWKHZDUUDQWUHTXLUHPHQWRIWKH )RXUWK$PHQGPHQW´State v. Gill1'1:G FLWLQJ Dombrowski86DW 7KHRIILFHU¶VHQWU\LQWRWKHYHKLFOHZDVDVHDUFKDQG WKHUHIRUHZHPXVWFRQVLGHUZKHWKHUDQH[FHSWLRQWRWKHZDUUDQWUHTXLUHPHQWRIWKH )RXUWK$PHQGPHQWDSSOLHV >@ :HKDYHSUHYLRXVO\QRWHGWKDW³>L@IWKHSROLFHILQGDSHUVRQXQFRQVFLRXVRU GLVRULHQWHGDQGLQFRKHUHQWLQDYHKLFOHLWLVUHDVRQDEOHIRUWKHPWRHQWHUWKH YHKLFOH IRU WKH SXUSRVH RI JLYLQJ DLG WR WKH SHUVRQ LQ GLVWUHVV DQG RI ILQGLQJ LQIRUPDWLRQEHDULQJXSRQWKHFDXVHRIKLVFRQGLWLRQ´Gerhardt1' 1:G FLWLQJ:D\QH5/D)DYH6HDUFK 6HL]XUH I  WKHG  :H KDYH SUHYLRXVO\ GHFOLQHG WR KROG DQ RIILFHU¶V HQWU\ LQWR D YHKLFOH GXULQJ D FRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNHUHQFRXQWHUZDVDQLPSURSHUZDUUDQWOHVVVHDUFKRist1' 1:G,QRistDGHSXW\REVHUYHGDPDQVOXPSHGEHKLQGWKH VWHHULQJZKHHORIDSDUNHGQRQUXQQLQJYHKLFOHDQGGHFLGHGWRSHUIRUPDZHOIDUH FKHFNIdDW7KHGHSXW\DSSURDFKHGWKHUROOHGGRZQGULYHU¶VVLGHZLQGRZDQG VKRXWHG³6KHULII¶V'HSDUWPHQWZDNHXS´VHYHUDOWLPHVId:KHQWKHGULYHUGLGQRW ZDNHXSWKHGHSXW\UHDFKHGLQVLGHWKURXJKWKHRSHQZLQGRZDQGVKRRNWKHGULYHU¶V OHIWVKRXOGHUId$IWHUWKHGULYHUZRNHXSWKHGHSXW\VPHOOHGDOFRKRODQGQRWLFHG DQRSHQEHHUFDQIdDW:HGHWHUPLQHG³WKHGHSXW\FRXOGQRWEHVXUHZKHWKHU >WKHGULYHU@ZDVVLPSO\VOHHSLQJLQKLVYHKLFOHRULQQHHGRIDVVLVWDQFH´IdDW >@ +HUHDQRIILFHUQRWLFHG%ULGJHIRUGDSSHDUHGWREHDVOHHSLQDUXQQLQJYHKLFOH DWDJDVVWDWLRQDURXQG DP7KHUHFRUGSURYLGHVQRLQGLFDWLRQRIDQ\REYLRXV  VLJQ%ULGJHIRUGGLGQRWQHHGRUGHVLUHDVVLVWDQFH7KHRIILFHUDSSURDFKHGWKHYHKLFOH DQGNQRFNHGIRUVHFRQGVLQDQDWWHPSWWRPDNHFRQWDFWZLWK%ULGJHIRUG'HVSLWH WKHRIILFHU¶VORXGNQRFNLQJDQGUDLVHGYRLFH%ULGJHIRUGGLGQRWZDNHXSRUPRYH %ULGJHIRUG¶VXQUHVSRQVLYHQHVVSURPSWHGWKHRIILFHUWRRSHQWKHYHKLFOHGRRUDQG VKDNH%ULGJHIRUGWRPDNHVXUHKHZDVDOULJKW$WWKLVSRLQWDIWHUHQWHULQJWKHYHKLFOH WRGHWHUPLQHLI%ULGJHIRUGGLGQRWUHTXLUHDVVLVWDQFHWKHRIILFHUVPHOOHGDOFRKRODQG KDGUHDVRQDEOHVXVSLFLRQWREHOLHYH%ULGJHIRUGKDGEHHQGULYLQJXQGHUWKHLQIOXHQFH > @ %ULGJHIRUGDWWHPSWVWRGLVWLQJXLVKKLVFDVHIURPRXUSULRUFDVHVE\DUJXLQJKH ZDVQRW³VOXPSHG´EHKLQGKLVVWHHULQJZKHHODQGWKHRIILFHUKDGQRWUHFHLYHGDFDOO IURPDFRQFHUQHGFRPSODLQLQJWKLUGSDUW\,PSOLFLWO\%ULGJHIRUGDUJXHVWKHUHQHHGV WR EH VRPH REMHFWLYH VLJQ RI GLVWUHVV LQ H[FHVV RI KLP VOHHSLQJ DQG EHLQJ QRQ UHVSRQVLYHIRUWKHRIILFHUWRFRQWLQXHWKHFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNHUIXQFWLRQIURPRXWVLGH WKHYHKLFOHWRLQVLGHWKHYHKLFOH >@ :KLOHZHKDYHKHOGWKHFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNHUIXQFWLRQGRHVQRWH[WHQGWR ³FLUFXPVWDQFHVZKHUHLWLVREYLRXVWKDWDFLWL]HQLVQHLWKHULQQHHGRIQRUGHVLUHV DVVLVWDQFH´Jerome1' 1:G FLWLQJState v. DeCoteau  1' 1:G RXUFDVHODZDOORZVDQRIILFHUWRFRQWLQXHD FRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNHUUROHIURPRXWVLGHDYHKLFOHWRWKHLQVLGHRIDYHKLFOHZKHQD VOHHSLQJLQGLYLGXDOIDLOVWRUHVSRQGWRDWWHPSWVWRJHWDUHVSRQVHIURPRXWVLGHWKH YHKLFOH)RUH[DPSOHZHKDYHSUHYLRXVO\KHOGXQWLOWKHRIILFHUKDVFRQYHUVHGZLWK DQXQUHVSRQVLYHLQGLYLGXDOVHDWHGZLWKLQDYHKLFOHDQGDVFHUWDLQHGWKDWWKHLQGLYLGXDO GRHVQRWQHHGPHGLFDODWWHQWLRQDQRIILFHULVMXVWLILHGLQRSHQLQJWKHYHKLFOHGRRUDQG LQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHRFFXSDQW¶VFRQGLWLRQLapp1'1:G  :KHQ³DQLQGLYLGXDOZKRVHVWDWHRIFRQVFLRXVQHVVSUHYHQWVDFRQYHUVDWLRQDO LQTXLU\IURPRFFXUULQJWKHRIILFHUPXVWGHWHUPLQHZKDWDFWLRQVQHHGWREHWDNHQ WRJHWWKHLQGLYLGXDOWRUHVSRQGDQGWKHUHIRUHPD\QHHGWRDSSURDFKDSHUVRQZKR GRHVQRWUHVSRQGGLIIHUHQWO\IURPDSHUVRQZKRLVFRQVFLRXVDQGDEOHWRFRQYHUVHZLWK WKHRIILFHU´Rist1'1:G,QRistZHQRWHGZKHQWKH  GHSXW\REVHUYHG5LVWXQUHVSRQVLYHZLWKLQWKHYHKLFOH³WKHGHSXW\FRXOGQRWEHVXUH ZKHWKHU5LVWZDVVLPSO\VOHHSLQJLQKLVYHKLFOHRULQQHHGRIDVVLVWDQFH´ IdDW 9 >@ 7KHRIILFHU¶VDFWLRQVUHPDLQHGZLWKLQWKHFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNHUH[FHSWLRQWR WKHZDUUDQWUHTXLUHPHQWRIWKH)RXUWK$PHQGPHQWZKHQKHNQRFNHGRQ%ULGJHIRUG¶V ZLQGRZ  7KH RIILFHU¶V DFWLRQV DOVR UHPDLQHG ZLWKLQ WKH FRPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNHU H[FHSWLRQZKHQHQWHULQJ%ULGJHIRUG¶VYHKLFOHVXEVHTXHQWWR%ULGJHIRUG¶VIDLOXUHWR UHVSRQGWRWKHRIILFHU¶VDFWLRQVRXWVLGHWKHYHKLFOH:HUHYHUVHWKHGLVWULFWFRXUW¶V MXGJPHQW DQG UHLQVWDWH WKH 'HSDUWPHQW¶V VXVSHQVLRQ RI %ULGJHIRUG¶V GULYLQJ SULYLOHJHV >@ -RQ--HQVHQ /LVD)DLU0F(YHUV *HUDOG:9DQGH:DOOH&- &URWKHUV-XVWLFHFRQFXUULQJLQSDUWDQGGLVVHQWLQJLQSDUW >@ , FRQFXU LQ WKDW SRUWLRQ RI WKH PDMRULW\ RSLQLRQ FRQFOXGLQJ WKH RIILFHU¶V NQRFNLQJRQ%ULGJHIRUG¶VFDUZLQGRZZDVFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNLQJDQGQRWD)RXUWK $PHQGPHQWYLRODWLRQLQYROYLQJWUHVSDVV,UHVSHFWIXOO\GLVVHQWIURPWKDWSRUWLRQRI WKHPDMRULW\RSLQLRQVXJJHVWLQJODZHQIRUFHPHQWFDQSURFHHGXQGHUWKHFRPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNLQJ IXQFWLRQ WR HQWHU D FRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\ SURWHFWHG DUHD XQOHVV D SHUVRQ DIILUPDWLYHO\FRPPXQLFDWHVWKH\QHLWKHUQHHGQRUGHVLUHDVVLVWDQFH >@ 7KLV&RXUWUHYLHZHGRXUDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKHFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNLQJIXQFWLRQDV IROORZV ³/DZHQIRUFHPHQWRIILFHUVRIWHQVHUYHDVFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNHUV Lapp v. N.D. Dep’t of Transp.1'1:G FLWLQJState v. DeCoteau 1'  1:G 7KH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV 6XSUHPH &RXUW GHVFULEHG FRPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNLQJ IXQFWLRQVDVWKRVHµWRWDOO\GLYRUFHGIURPWKHGHWHFWLRQLQYHVWLJDWLRQ RUDFTXLVLWLRQRIHYLGHQFHUHODWLQJWRWKHYLRODWLRQRIDFULPLQDOVWDWXWH¶ Cady v. Dombrowski  86    6&W   /(GG      &RPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNLQJ DOORZV ODZ HQIRUFHPHQWFLWL]HQ FRQWDFW LQFOXGLQJ VWRSV ZLWKRXW DQ RIILFHU¶V UHDVRQDEOH VXVSLFLRQ RI FULPLQDO FRQGXFW  State v. Glaesman 1:G 1'  )RU)RXUWK$PHQGPHQWSXUSRVHV DVHL]XUHGRHVQRWRFFXUZKHQDQRIILFHUDSSURDFKHVDSDUNHGYHKLFOH  LIWKHRIILFHUTXHVWLRQVWKHRFFXSDQWLQDFRQYHUVDWLRQDOPDQQHUDQG GRHVQRWLVVXHRUGHUVWRWKHSHUVRQRUGHPDQGDUHVSRQVHState v. Langseth 1:G  1'   FLWLQJWibben v. N.D. State Highway Comm’r  1:G    1'   9DQGH:DOOH-FRQFXUULQJ +RZHYHUHYHQDFDVXDOHQFRXQWHUFDQ EHFRPH D VHL]XUH LI D UHDVRQDEOH SHUVRQ ZRXOG YLHZ WKH RIILFHU¶V DFWLRQV²LI GRQH E\ DQRWKHU SULYDWH FLWL]HQ²DV WKUHDWHQLQJ RU RIIHQVLYHId. FLWLQJWibbenDW 7KLVPD\RFFXUWKURXJKDQ RUGHUDWKUHDWRUDZHDSRQGLVSOD\Id.$QRIILFHU¶VLQLWLDOFRPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNLQJHQFRXQWHUDOVRPD\FDXVHWKHRIILFHUWRGHYHORSDUHDVRQDEOH DQGDUWLFXODEOHVXVSLFLRQRIXQODZIXOFRQGXFWLappDW ³2XU SUHYLRXV FDVHV SURYLGH H[DPSOHV RI ODZ HQIRUFHPHQW RIILFHUV SHUIRUPLQJ FRPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNLQJ IXQFWLRQV  See Lapp v. Dep’t of Transp.1'1:G  KROGLQJDQ RIILFHU¶V HQFRXQWHU ZLWK DQ LQGLYLGXDO MXVWLILHG E\ WKH RIILFHU¶V FRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNLQJUROHZKHQWKHLQGLYLGXDOZDVVOXPSHGRYHUWKH VWHHULQJZKHHORIDYHKLFOHZLWKLWVHQJLQHUXQQLQJ City of Fargo v. Sivertson   1'     1:G  GHWHUPLQLQJ DQ RIILFHU¶VLQLWLDODSSURDFKRIDGULYHUZKRIDLOHGWRSURFHHGDURXQGWKH VFHQHRIDQDFFLGHQWZLWKWKHUHVWRIWUDIILFZDVDFDUHWDNLQJHQFRXQWHU City of Grand Forks v. Zejdlik1:G 1'  KROGLQJ DQ RIILFHU ZDV DFWLQJ DV D FRPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNHU ZKHQ KH LQLWLDOO\DSSURDFKHGDQLQGLYLGXDOVOXPSHGRYHUWKHVWHHULQJZKHHORI DQLGOLQJYHKLFOH State v. Franklin1:G 1'  GHWHUPLQLQJRIILFHUV¶DSSURDFKRILQGLYLGXDOVSDUNHGDWQLJKWLQPRWHO SDUNLQJORWDQGVOXPSHGGRZQLQWKHLUVHDWVZDVPRUHRIDFDUHWDNLQJ HQFRXQWHU WKDQ D VHDUFK RU VHL]XUH  State v. Halfmann 1:G  1'   KROGLQJDQRIILFHUDFWHGLQD FDUHWDNLQJFDSDFLW\ZKHQKHDSSURDFKHGDGULYHUDIWHUVKHGURYHWRWKH VKRXOGHURIDJUDYHOURDGDQGVWRSSHGKHUYHKLFOH  ³$UHYLHZRIRXUFDVHODZDOVRUHYHDOVVLWXDWLRQVZKHUHODZ HQIRUFHPHQWRIILFHUVGLGQRWDFWDVFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNHUVSee State v. Keilen1'  1:G KROGLQJWKHFRPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNLQJH[FHSWLRQGLGQRWDSSO\WRDQDSDUWPHQWVHDUFKZKHQRIILFHUV DUULYHGDQGGLGQRWVHHDGLVWXUEDQFHRUDQ\RQHLQQHHGRIDVVLVWDQFH City of Jamestown v. Jerome  1'      1:G  GHWHUPLQLQJDQRIILFHUGLGQRWDFWDVDFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNHUEHFDXVH KLVSXUSRVHLQWDONLQJZLWKWKHGHIHQGDQWZDVWRLQYHVWLJDWHDSRVVLEOH OHJDOYLRODWLRQ State v. DeCoteau 1' 1:G KROGLQJRIILFHUVKDGQRFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNLQJUROHWRILOOZKHQWKH\ DUULYHGDWDKRPHVDZQRGLVWXUEDQFHDQGZHUHWROGE\WKHKRPHRZQHU VKH GLG QRW QHHG RU UHTXHVW WKHLU DVVLVWDQFH  State v. Hawley 1:G   1'   GHFOLQLQJWRDGGUHVVFRPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNLQJ EHFDXVH WKH RIILFHU KDG D UHDVRQDEOH DQG DUWLFXODEOH VXVSLFLRQRIDSDUNLQJYLRODWLRQ State v. Brown 1:G   1'   KROGLQJDQRIILFHU¶VYHKLFXODUVWRSZDVPDGHWR GHWHUPLQHLIGULYHUZDVLQWR[LFDWHGQRWIRUWKHFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNLQJ SXUSRVHRIUHQGHULQJDVVLVWDQFH State v. Sarhegyi 1:G  1'   GHWHUPLQLQJDQRIILFHU¶VVWRSRIDORQHYHKLFOH SDUNHGLQDIDUPLPSOHPHQWGHDOHU¶VORWZKLFKDWWHPSWHGWROHDYHZKHQ KHDSSURDFKHG ZDVQRWFRPPXQLW\FDUHWDNLQJ State v. Langseth   1:G    1'    FRQFOXGLQJ WKH FRPPXQLW\ FDUHWDNLQJ H[FHSWLRQ GLG QRW DSSO\ ZKHQ DQ RIILFHU SXUVXHG WKH GHIHQGDQWZKLOHIODVKLQJWKHSDWUROFDU¶VZDUQLQJOLJKWV ´ State v. 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