Task: Question Answering
Input (English): Context: Jurisprudence is the science, study, and theory of law. It includes principles behind law that make the law. Scholars of jurisprudence, also known as jurists or legal theorists (including legal philosophers and social theorists of law), hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature of law, of legal reasoning, legal systems, and of legal institutions. Modern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was focused on the first principles of the natural law, civil law, and the law of nations. General jurisprudence can be divided into categories both by the type of question scholars seek to answer and by the theories of jurisprudence, or schools of thought, regarding how those questions are best answered. Contemporary philosophy of law, which deals with general jurisprudence, addresses problems in two rough groups:, Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between, masculinity and femininity. Depending on the context, these characteristics may include biological sex (i.e. the state of being male, female or an intersex variation which may complicate sex assignment), sex-based social structures (including gender roles and other social roles), or gender identity. Some cultures have specific gender roles that can be considered distinct from male and female, such as the hijra (chhaka) of India and Pakistan., Jurisdiction (from the Latin "ius, " meaning "law" and "" meaning "to speak") is the practical authority granted to a legal body to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility, e.g., Michigan tax law. In the federations like USA, areas of jurisdiction apply to local, state, and federal levels; e.g. the court has jurisdiction to apply federal law., JURIST is an online legal news service hosted by the University of Pittsburgh School of Law, powered by a staff of more than 60 law students working in Pittsburgh and other US locations under the direction of founding Publisher & Editor-in-Chief Professor Bernard Hibbitts, Acting Executive Director Andrew Morgan, Research Director Jaclyn Belczyk, Technical Director Jeremiah Lee, Managing Editor Joseph Macklin and Chief of Staff Steven Wildberger. It features continuously updated US and international legal news and expert commentary. JURIST is dedicated to advancing civic education, supporting sound decision-making and promoting the rule of law by objectively reporting, documenting and analyzing important legal developments as they happen. JURIST seeks to encourage teaching, learning, and scholarship within the legal community and in the general community., In jurisprudence, procedural defenses are a form of defense, via which a party argues that it should not be held liable for a legal charge or claim brought against it. In common law jurisdictions the term has applications in both criminal law and civil law. Procedural defenses are applicable independently of the question of guilt or innocence in a criminal proceeding, and independently of substantive findings for or against a plaintiff or defendant in a civil proceeding., Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things, applying logic, establishing and verifying facts, and changing or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, language, mathematics, and art and is normally considered to be a definitive characteristic of human nature.
Reason, or an aspect of it, is sometimes referred to as rationality. , A defendant is a person or entity accused of a crime in criminal prosecution or a person or entity against whom some type of civil relief is being sought in a civil case., In jurisprudence , prosecutorial misconduct is `` an illegal act or failing to act , on the part of a prosecutor , especially an attempt to sway the jury to wrongly convict a defendant or to impose a harsher than appropriate punishment . '' It is similar to selective prosecution ., Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe., A theory is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking, or the results of such thinking. Depending on the context, the results might for example include generalized explanations of how nature works. The word has its roots in ancient Greek, but in modern use it has taken on several different related meanings. , Criminal justice is the system of practices and institutions of governments directed at upholding social control, deterring and mitigating crime, or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts. Those accused of crime have some protections against abuse of investigatory and prosecution powers., Religion is a cultural system of behaviors and practices, world views, sacred texts, holy places, ethics, and societal organisation that relate humanity to what an anthropologist has called "an order of existence". Different religions may or may not contain various elements, ranging from the "divine", "sacred things", "faith", a "supernatural being or supernatural beings" or "some sort of ultimacy and transcendence that will provide norms and power for the rest of life.", In jurisprudence, selective prosecution is a procedural defense in which a defendant argues that he should not be held criminally liable for breaking the law, as the criminal justice system discriminated against him by choosing to prosecute. In a claim of selective prosecution, a defendant essentially argues that it is irrelevant whether he is guilty of violating a law, but that the fact of being prosecuted is based upon
forbidden reasons. Such a claim might, for example, entail an argument that persons of different age, race, religion, or gender, were engaged in the same illegal actions for which the defendant is being tried and were not prosecuted, and that the defendant is "only" being prosecuted because of a bias. In the US, this defense is based upon the 14th Amendment, which stipulates, "nor shall any state deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.", Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. State-enforced laws can be made by a collective legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in statutes, by the executive through decrees and regulations, or established by judges through precedent, normally in common law jurisdictions. Private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people., Natural law ("lex naturalis") is a philosophy that certain rights are inherent by virtue of human nature and can be understood universally through human reason. Historically, natural law refers to the use of reason to analyze human nature to deduce binding rules of moral behavior. The law of nature, as determined by nature, is universal., Subject: prosecutorial misconduct, Relation: subclass_of, Options: (A) abuse (B) age (C) ancient greek (D) behavior (E) being (F) binding (G) case (H) charge (I) civil law (J) collective (K) court (L) criminal (M) criminal law (N) direction (O) director (P) economics (Q) editor (R) education (S) entity (T) ethics (U) expert (V) gender (W) history (X) information (Y) jurisdiction (Z) jurisprudence ([) jurist (\) language (]) latin (^) law (_) legal systems (`) legislature (a) male (b) mathematics (c) natural (d) order (e) people (f) person (g) politics (h) private (i) procedural defense (j) process (k) professor (l) prosecution (m) protection (n) range (o) reasoning (p) rehabilitation (q) relief (r) religion (s) science (t) sense (u) service (v) single (w) society (x) state (y) study (z) system ({) tax (|) theory (}) thought (~) university () word
Output (English): procedural defense