Task: Question Answering
Input (English): Context: Philosophy (from Greek , "philosophia", literally "love of wisdom") is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was probably coined by Pythagoras (c. 570  c. 495 BC). Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and systematic presentation. Classic philosophical questions include: Is it possible to know anything and to prove it? What is most real? However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as: Is there a best way to live? Is it better to be just or unjust (if one can get away with it)? Do humans have free will?, In philosophy and logic, an argument is a series of statements typically used to persuade someone of something or to present reasons for accepting a conclusion. The general form of an argument in a natural language is that of premises (typically in the form of propositions, statements or sentences) in support of a claim: the conclusion. The structure of some arguments can also be set out in a formal language, and formally defined "arguments" can be made independently of natural language arguments, as in math, logic, and computer science., Modern humans ("Homo sapiens", primarily ssp. "Homo sapiens sapiens") are the only extant members of Hominina tribe (or human tribe), a branch of the tribe Hominini belonging to the family of great apes. They are characterized by erect posture and bipedal locomotion; manual dexterity and increased tool use, compared to other animals; and a general trend toward larger, more complex brains and societies., In neuropsychology, linguistics and the philosophy of language, a natural language or ordinary language is any language that has evolved naturally in humans through use and repetition without conscious planning or premeditation. Natural languages can take different forms, such as speech, signing, or writing. They are distinguished from constructed and formal languages such as those used to program computers or to study logic., The Doomsday argument (DA) is a probabilistic argument that claims to predict the number of future members of the human species given only an estimate of the total number of humans born so far. Simply put, it says that supposing that all humans are born in a random order, chances are that any one human is born roughly in the middle., In biology, a species (abbreviated sp., with the plural form species abbreviated spp.) is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is often problematic. For example, in a species complex, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear or disappear altogether. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, or ecological niche. The presence of locally adaptive traits may further subdivide species into infraspecific taxa such as subspecies., Self - referencing doomsday argument rebuttals attempt to refute the Doomsday argument ( that there is a credible link between the brevity of the human race 's existence and its expected extinction ) by applying the same reasoning to the lifetime of the Doomsday argument ( DA ) itself . The first researchers to write about this were P. T. Landsberg and J. N. Dewynne in 1997 ; they applied belief in the DA to itself , and claimed that a paradox results ., In mathematics, computer science, and linguistics, a formal language is a set of strings of symbols together with a set of rules that are specific to it., Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things, applying logic, establishing and verifying facts, and changing or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, language, mathematics, and art and is normally considered to be a definitive characteristic of human nature.
Reason, or an aspect of it, is sometimes referred to as rationality. , The term proposition has a broad use in contemporary philosophy. It is used to refer to some or all of the following: the primary bearers of truth-value, the objects of belief and other "propositional attitudes" (i.e., what is believed, doubted, etc.), the referents of that-clauses, and the meanings of declarative sentences. Propositions are the sharable objects of attitudes and the primary bearers of truth and falsity. This stipulation rules out certain candidates for propositions, including thought- and utterance-tokens which are not sharable, and concrete events or facts, which cannot be false., Subject: self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal, Relation: instance_of, Options: (A) argument (B) aspect (C) belief (D) biological classification (E) biology (F) computer (G) formal language (H) homo (I) human (J) humans (K) information (L) language (M) logic (N) mathematics (O) offspring (P) philosophy (Q) planning (R) presentation (S) probabilistic argument (T) rank (U) reason (V) science (W) sense (X) series (Y) speech (Z) structure ([) study (\) term (]) tool (^) tribe (_) truth (`) two (a) utterance (b) value (c) writing
Output (English): probabilistic argument