Title: Interlingua grammar Content: Interlingua is a planned language. It uses words that are found in most West- European languages. It was made by IALA. They are a group of people (the most known was Alexander Gode) that worked on it for more than 20 years. The first dictionary for the language was finished and published in 1951. Interlingua was created on the base of languages: English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian. == Spelling == The vowels in Interlingua are pronounced like in Spanish or LFN (another planned language). The consonants are pronounced, for the most part, like in English or LFN. Interlingua keeps much of the spelling of Latin words, more near to the forms in English and French than to them in the other Romance languages. For example, it keeps q ([k]), y ([i]), ch ([k]), ph ([f]), rh ([r]), and th ([t]). It keeps also the common use of double consonants. More, it allows versions like ch for [ʃ], s between vowels like [z], c before e/i like [ts], g before e/i like [ʒ], qu before e/i like [k], etc. Accent is not indicated, even in exceptions, but it follows, for the most part, a system of rules similar to that of LFN. === Collateral spelling === Interlingua has also a "collateral" spelling, that simplifies the complications above to a system more like this of Spanish or LFN. This collateral spelling has the same status, but in reality it is not much used by adherents. The details: #double letters are simplified, except ss, for example ecclesia > eclesia, adducer > aducer, interrogar > interogar. #vowel y becomes i, for example tyranno > tirano. #ph becomes f, for example phonetic > fonetic. #ch, when pronounced like k, becomes c, except before e o i, for example christo > cristo. #rh and th become r and t, for example rhetoric > retoric, pathetic > patetic. #g and gi, when pronounced like French j, become j, for example sage > saje, sagio > sajo. #-isar and derivations become -izar, for example civilisar > civilizar. #-te becomes -t, except when the accent is on the third syllable from the end, for example animate > animat. #-nne, -lle, and -rre become -n, -l, and -r, for example perenne > peren, belle > bel, bizarre > bizar. == Articles == *un - a/an *le - the *al - to the *del - of the == Nouns == The plural is -s after a vowel, -es after a consonant, but -hes after final c: *catto > cattos - cat > cats *can > canes - dog > dogs *roc > roches - rook > rooks (of chess) Interlingua has no grammatical gender. Some words distinguish female from male by changing -o into -a, or by adding -essa. Other ones have two different forms. But the most of words do not distinguish: *puero > puera - boy > girl *tigre > tigressa - male tiger > female tiger *rege > regina - king > queen *jornalista - journalist (male or female) == Adjectives == Adjectives do not change for agreement with nouns. They can precede or follow the noun, except numbers, that always precede the noun. In general, short adjectives precede and long adjectives follow. *belle oculos = oculos belle - beautiful eyes *un bon idea, un idea ingeniose - a good idea, an ingenious idea To compare, use plus or minus and le plus or le minus: *un plus feroce leon - a more ferocious lion *un traino minus rapide - a less rapid train *le plus alte arbore - the highest tree *le solution le minus costose - the less costly solution One can use the suffix -issime for the absolute superlative: *un aventura excellentissime - the most excellent adventure The adjectives bon, mal, magne (big), and parve (little) have alternative irregular forms : : == Adverbs == There are two kinds of adverbs: first form and second form. Adverbs of first form are a closed class of grammatical words, like quasi (almost), jam (already), and totevia (nevertheless). Adverbs of second form are an open class derived from adjectives by adding the suffix -mente (or -amente after final c): *felice > felicemente - happily *magic > magicamente - magically Some common adverbs have short alternative forms that end with -o: *sol > solmente > solo - only Like adjectives, adverbs use plus, minus, le plus, and le minus: *Illa canta plus bellemente que illa parla - She sings more beautifully than she speaks *Le gepardo curre le plus rapide de omne animales - The cheetah runs the most rapidly of all animals The adverbs of bon and mal have alternative irregular forms: : *un corvo parlante - a speaking crow *Approximante le station, io sentiva un apprehension terribile - Approaching the station, I felt an awful apprehension *un conto ben contate - a well told story *La Beltate dormiente - The Sleeping Beauty === Composed tenses === Instead of the simple tenses, one can use composed forms. For the past, one can use ha and other forms of habe, with the past participle: *Le imperio ha cadite - The empire has fallen For the future, use va and other forms of vade, with the infinitive: *Io va retornar - I will return Used rarely, velle with the infinitive is the hypothetical composed: *Io velle preferer facer lo sol - I would prefer to do it alone The passive is formed by using es or other forms of esser with the passive participle: *Iste salsicias es fabricate per experte salsicieros - These sausages are made by expert sausage makers The passive to the Past Perfect is created by using habeva essite with the passive participle: *Nostre planeta habeva essite surveliate durante multe annos - Our planet has been surveyed for many years === Other forms === Here are examples of various forms of commands: *Face lo ora! - Do it now! *Le imperatrice desira que ille attende su mandato - The empress wants him attend to her command *Va tu retro al campo; resta vos alteros hic - You: return to the camp; The rest of you: stay here *Cliccar hic - Click here *Que tu va via! - I want you to go away! *Que illes mangia le tortas - Let them eat cake / They can eat cakes *Que nos resta hic ancora un die / Vamos restar hic ancora un die - They must still remain here for a day / Let we still remain here for a day Sia is the interrogative form and the subjunctive of esser: *Sia caute! - Be cautious! *Sia ille vive o sia ille morte... - Whether he is live or he is dead... *Que lor vita insimul sia felice! - Let their life together be happy! === Alternative versions of esser === Because the verb esser is irregular in many European languages, Interlingua allows the use of versions: *es - present *sia - command and subjunctive *era - past *sera - future *serea - hypothetical Some persons use also these forms of esser in the present tense: *son - plural *me so, nos somos (much rarely) === Verbs with two roots === Because Interlingua is a "neo-Latin" language, it keeps any of the double roots of Latin that survive in the Romance languages and English. For example: *sentir ("to feel") > sen _t_ imento, sen _s_ or *repeller ("to repulse") > rep _ell_ ente, rep _uls_ ive *ager ("to act") > a _g_ ente, a _ct_ or Many speakers of Interlingua prefer the use of the more recognizable form in international vocabularies, and drop the other ones. == Syntax == The normal order of words in Interlingua is subject-verb-object, but one can use other orders if the meaning is clear: *Ille reface horologios - He repairs clocks *Amandolas ama io tanto, io comprava un amandoliera - I love almonds so much that I bought an almond orchard But pronouns tend to follow the order of the Romance languages - subject-object-verb - except for infinitives and commands, that has the object after the verb: *Ille los reface - He repairs them *Nos vole obtener lo - We want to obtain it *Jecta lo via! - Throw it away! If two pronouns - first the object direct and second the indirect object - occur with the same verb, the indirect object goes first: *Io les lo inviava per avion - I sent it to them by plane *Io la los inviava per nave - I sent them to her by ship === Questions === One can form questions in different ways: 1\. By putting the verb before the subject: *Ha ille arrivate? - Has he arrived? *Cognosce tu ben Barcelona? - Do you know Barcelona well? *Te place le filmes de Quentin Tarantino? - Do you like the films by Quentin Tarantino? 2\. By using a word of question instead of the subject: *Qui ha dicite isto? - Who has said this? *Que cadeva super te? Un incude - What fell on you? An anvil 3\. By adding the particle esque (or, more rarely, an) to the beginning of the sentence: *Esque illa vermente lassava su fortuna a su catto? - Did she leave her fortune to her cat? 4\. By change the tone of the sentence, or by adding a question mark, without change the normal order: *Tu jam ha finite tu labores? - Have you already finished your work?