Science and society. Social media and the elections.
(2012)

C R E D IT : J O E S U T IL F F /J O E S U T L IF F .C O M I n the United States, social media sites—such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube—are currently being used by two out of three people ( 1), and search engines are used daily ( 2). Monitoring what users share or search for in social media and on the Web has led to greater insights into what people care about or pay attention to at any moment in time. Furthermore, it is also helping segments of the world population to be informed, to organize, and to react rapidly. However, social media and search results can be readily manipulated, which is something that has been underappreciated by the press and the general public. In times of political elections, the stakes are high, and advocates may try to support their cause by active manipulation of social media. For example, altering the number of followers can affect a viewer’s conclusion about candidate popularity. Recently, it was noted that the number of followers for a presidential candidate in the United States surged by over 110 thousand within one single day, and analysis showed that most of these followers are unlikely to be real people ( 3). We can model propaganda efforts in graph-theoretic terms, as attempts to alter our “trust network”: Each of us keeps a mental trust network that helps us decide what and what not to believe ( 4). The nodes in this weighted network are entities that we are already familiar with (people, institutions, and ideas), and the arcs are our perceived connections between these entities. The weights on the nodes are values of trust and distrust that we implicitly assign to every entity we know. A propagandist is trying to make us alter connections and values in our trust network, i.e., trying to infl uence our perception about the candidates for the coming elections, and thus “help us” decide on candidates of their choice. The Web, as seen by search engines ( 5), is similarly a weighted network that is used to rank search results. The hyperlinks are considered “votes of support,” and the weights are a computed measurement of importance assigned to Web pages (the nodes in the graph). It is also the target of propaganda attacks, known as “Web spam” ( 6). A Web spammer is trying to alter the weighted Web network by adding connections and values that support his or her cause, aimed at affecting the search engine’s ranking decisions and thus the number of viewers who see the page and consider it important ( 4). “Google bomb” is a type of Web spam that is widely known and applicable to all major search engines today. Exploiting the descriptive power of anchor text (the phrase directly associated with a hyperlink), Web spammers create associations between anchor words or phrases and linked Web pages. These associations force a search engine to give high relevancy to results that would otherwise be unrelated, sending them to the “top 10” search results. A well-known Google bomb was the association of the phrase “miserable failure” with the Web page of President G. W. Bush initially and later with those of Michael Moore, Hillary Clinton, and Jimmy Carter ( 7). Another Google bomb associated candidate John Kerry with the word “waffl es” in 2004. A cluster of Google bombs was used in an effort to infl uence the 2006 congressional elections. Google has adjusted its ranking algorithm to defuse Google bombs on congressional candidates by restricting the selection of the top search results when querying their names ( 8). During the 2008 and 2010 elections, it proved impossible to launch any successful Google bombs on politicians, and it is hoped that the trend will continue. During the 2010 Massachusetts Special Election (MASEN) to fi ll the seat vacated by the death of Senator Ted Kennedy, we saw attempts to infl uence voters just before the elections, launched by out-of-state political groups ( 9). Propagandists exploited a loophole introduced by the feature of including real-time information from social networks in the “top 10” results of Web searches. They ensured that their message was often visible by repeatedly posting the same tweet. A third of all election-related tweets sent during the week before the 2010 MASEN were tweet repeats ( 9). All search engines have since reacted by moving real-time results out of the organic results (results selected purely by information retrieval algorithms) and into a separate search category. “Twitter bombs,” however, are likely to be launched within days of the elections. A Twitter bomb is the act of sending unsolicited replies to specifi c users via Twitter in order to get them to pay attention to one’s cause. Typically, it is done effectively by means of “bots,” short-lived programs that can send a large quantity of tweets automatically. Twitter is good at shutting most of them down because of their activity patterns and/or users’ complaints. However, bombers have used fake “replies” to spam real users who are not aware of their existence. For example, in the 2010 MASEN, political spammers created nine fake accounts that were used to send about 1000 tweets before being blocked by Twitter for spamming ( 9). Their messages were carefully focused, however, targeting users who in the previous hours were discussing the elections. With the retweeting help of similarly minded users, >60,000 Twitter accounts were reached within a day at essentially no cost. Twitter bombs, unfortunately, have become common practice. Department of Computer Science, Wellesley College, 106 Central Street, Wellesley, MA 02481, USA. E-mail: pmetaxas@wellesley. edu; emustafa@wellesley.edu US