Capsule Networks for Hyperspectral Image Classification
(2018)

Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have recently exhibited an excellent performance in hyperspectral image classification tasks. However, the straightforward CNNbased network architecture still finds obstacles when effectively exploiting the relationships between hyperspectral imaging (HSI) features in the spectral–spatial domain, which is a key factor to deal with the high level of complexity present in remotely sensed HSI data. Despite the fact that deeper architectures try to mitigate these limitations, they also find challenges with the convergence of the network parameters, which eventually limit the classification performance under highly demanding scenarios. In this paper, we propose a new CNN architecture based on spectral–spatial capsule networks in order to achieve a highly accurate classification of HSIs while significantly reducing the network design complexity. Specifically, based on Hinton’s capsule networks, we develop a CNN model extension that redefines the concept of capsule units to become spectral– spatial units specialized in classifying remotely sensed HSI data. The proposed model is composed by several building blocks, called spectral–spatial capsules, which are able to learn HSI spectral–spatial features considering their corresponding spatial positions in the scene, their associated spectral signatures, and also their possible transformations. Our experiments, conducted Manuscript received June 9, 2018; revised August 22, 2018; accepted September 19, 2018. This work was supported in part by the Ministerio de Educación (Resolución de 26 de diciembre de 2014 y de 19 de noviembre de 2015, de la Secretaría de Estado de Educación, Formación Profesional y Universidades, por la que se convocan ayudas para la formación de profesorado universitario, de los subprogramas de Formación y de Movilidad incluidos en el Programa Estatal de Promoción del Talento y su Empleabilidad, and en el marco del Plan Estatal de Investigación Científica y Técnica y de Innovación 2013–2016), in part by the Junta de Extremadura (decreto 297/2014, ayudas para la realización de actividades de investigación y desarrollo tecnológico, and de divulgación y de transferencia de conocimiento por los Grupos de Investigación de Extremadura) under Grant GR15005, in part by the Generalitat Valenciana under Contract APOSTD/2017/007, in part by the Spanish Ministry of Economy under Project ESP2016-79503-C2-2P and Project TIN2015-63646-C5-5-R, in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant 61771496, in part by the National Key Research and Development Program of China under Grant 2017YFB0502900, and in part by the Guangdong Provincial Natural Science Foundation under Grant 2016A030313254. (Corresponding author: Jun Li.) M. E. Paoletti, J. M. Haut, J. Plaza, and A. Plaza are with the Hyperspectral Computing Laboratory, Department of Technology of Computers and Communications, Escuela Politécnica, University of Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain (e-mail: mpaoletti@unex.es; juanmariohaut@unex.es; jplaza@unex.es; aplaza@unex.es). R. Fernandez-Beltran and F. Pla are with the Institute of New Imaging Technologies, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castellón de la Plana, Spain (e-mail: rufernan@uji.es; pla@uji.es). J. Li is with the Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Urbanization and Geosimulation, Center of Integrated Geographic Information Analysis, School of Geography and Planning, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China (e-mail: lijun48@mail.sysu.edu.cn). Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TGRS.2018.2871782 using five well-known HSI data sets and several state-of-theart classification methods, reveal that our HSI classification approach based on spectral–spatial capsules is able to provide competitive advantages in terms of both classification accuracy and computational time.