Table S.3: Performance on predicting the torque values at the first and seventh joints of the SARCOS robot arm. Definitions of an asterisk and bold type are the same as in Table 1.
Target	Model	Number of training samples
n < d	n ≈ d	n > d
5	10	15	20	30	40	50
Torque 1	Direct	21.3 ± 2.04	18.9 ± 2.11	17.4 ± 1.79	15.8 ± 1.70	13.7 ± 1.26	12.2 ± 1.61	10.8 ± 1.23
Only source	24.0 ± 6.37	22.3 ± 3.10	21.0 ± 2.49	19.7 ± 1.34	18.5 ± 1.92	17.6 ± 1.59	17.3 ± 1.31
Augmented	21.8 ± 2.88	19.2 ± 1.37	17.8 ± 2.30	15.7 ± 1.53	13.3 ± 1.19	11.9 ± 1.37	10.7 ± 0.954
HTL-offset	23.7 ± 6.50	21.2 ± 3.85	19.8 ± 3.23	17.8 ± 2.35	16.2 ± 3.31	15.0 ± 3.16	15.1 ± 2.76
HTL-scale	23.3 ± 4.47	22.1 ± 5.31	20.4 ± 3.84	18.5 ± 2.72	17.6 ± 2.41	16.9 ± 2.10	16.7 ± 1.74
AffineTL-full	21.2 ± 2.23	18.8 ± 1.31	18.6 ± 2.83	15.9 ± 1.65	13.7 ± 1.53	12.3 ± 1.45	11.1 ± 1.12
AffineTL-const	21.2 ± 2.21	18.8 ± 1.44	17.7 ± 2.44	15.9 ± 1.58	13.4 ± 1.15	12.2 ± 1.54	10.9 ± 1.02
Fine-tune	25.0 ± 7.11	20.5 ± 3.33	18.6 ± 2.10	17.6 ± 2.55	14.1 ± 1.39	12.6 ± 1.13	11.1 ± 1.03
MAML	29.8 ± 12.3	22.5 ± 3.21	20.8 ± 2.12	20.3 ± 3.14	16.7 ± 3.00	14.4 ± 1.85	13.4 ± 1.19
L2-SP	24.9 ± 7.09	20.5 ± 3.30	18.8 ± 2.04	18.0 ± 2.45	14.5 ± 1.36	13.0 ± 1.13	11.6 ± 0.983
PAC-Net	25.2 ± 8.68	22.7 ± 5.60	20.7 ± 2.65	20.1 ± 2.16	18.5 ± 2.77	17.6 ± 1.85	17.1 ± 1.38
Torque 2	AffineTL-full	15.8 ± 2.37	13.0 ± 1.41	11.5 ± 0.985	10.4 ± 0.845	9.20 ± 0.827	8.35 ± 0.802	7.78 ± 0.780
AffineTL-const	14.9 ± 1.77	13.6 ± 2.51	12.3 ± 1.77	11.2 ± 1.16	10.6 ± 1.22	9.74 ± 0.920	9.06 ± 0.785
Fine-tune	15.8 ± 2.37	13.0 ± 1.41	11.5 ± 0.985	10.4 ± 0.845	9.20 ± 0.827	8.35 ± 0.802	7.78 ± 0.780
MAML	15.8 ± 2.37	13.0 ± 1.41	11.5 ± 0.985	10.4 ± 0.845	9.20 ± 0.827	8.35 ± 0.802	7.78 ± 0.780
L2-SP	15.8 ± 2.37	13.0 ± 1.41	11.5 ± 0.985	10.4 ± 0.845	9.20 ± 0.827	8.35 ± 0.802	7.78 ± 0.780
PAC-Net	15.8 ± 2.37	13.0 ± 1.41	11.5 ± 0.985	10.4 ± 0.845	9.20 ± 0.827	8.35 ± 0.802	7.78 ± 0.780
Torque 3	AffineTL-full	14.9 ± 1.77	13.0 ± 1.41	11.5 ± 0.985	10.4 ± 0.845	9.20 ± 0.827	8.35 ± 0.802	7.78 ± 0.780
AffineTL-const	14.9 ± 1.77	13.0 ± 1.41	11.5 ± 0.985	10.4 ± 0.845	9.20 ± 0.827	8.35 ± 0.802	7.78 ± 0.780
Fine-tune	24.4 ± 5.87	15.0 ± 2.01	13.6 ± 2.31	11.9 ± 1.21	10.7 ± 0.897	9.52 ± 0.774	8.43 ± 0.907
MAML	21.8 ± 7.33	14.8 ± 4.51	13.1 ± 2.69	11.5 ± 2.24	9.77 ± 1.24	8.90 ± 1.10	7.89 ± 0.713
L2-SP	24.4 ± 5.87	15.1 ± 2.02	13.6 ± 2.29	12.0 ± 1.22	10.8 ± 0.886	9.70 ± 0.78	8.68 ± 0.868
PAC-Net	24.0 ± 6.94	16.7 ± 4.14	13.7 ± 2.36	13.2 ± 2.49	12.4 ± 2.05	11.6 ± 0.844	11.2 ± 0.706
Torque 4	Direct	9.91 ± 1.65	8.15 ± 1.01	7.39 ± 1.21	6.84 ± 0.878	5.90 ± 0.850	5.26 ± 0.774	4.66 ± 0.523
Only source	9.00 ± 1.44	7.51 ± 1.05	6.90 ± 1.15	6.51 ± 0.930	5.67 ± 0.890	5.29 ± 0.840	4.89 ± 0.604
Augmented	9.47 ± 1.35	7.72 ± 1.05	6.99 ± 1.25	6.29 ± 0.967	5.42 ± 0.938	4.76 ± 0.826	4.32 ± 0.592
HTL-offset	8.96 ± 1.42	7.47 ± 1.06	6.88 ± 1.15	6.39 ± 0.952	5.58 ± 0.856	5.18 ± 0.821	4.83 ± 0.603
HTL-scale	9.05 ± 1.40	7.49 ± 1.08	6.89 ± 1.18	6.63 ± 1.03	5.60 ± 0.955	5.21 ± 0.836	4.86 ± 0.503
AffineTL-full	9.24 ± 1.46	7.45 ± 1.25	6.85 ± 1.23	6.28 ± 0.930	5.54 ± 1.15	4.89 ± 0.907	4.46 ± 0.733
AffineTL-const	9.08 ± 1.21	7.55 ± 0.974	6.67 ± 1.00	6.17 ± 0.916	5.42 ± 0.971	4.85 ± 0.752	4.42 ± 0.614
Fine-tune	9.00 ± 2.14	7.38 ± 1.09	6.72 ± 1.01	*5.91 ± 0.734	*5.26 ± 0.541	4.86 ± 0.488	4.41 ± 0.325
MAML	9.50 ± 4.94	*7.11 ± 0.966	*6.44 ± 1.01	*5.92 ± 0.793	*5.22 ± 0.626	4.87 ± 0.539	4.79 ± 0.525
L2-SP	9.00 ± 2.14	7.39 ± 1.08	6.73 ± 1.02	*5.91 ± 0.73	5.39 ± 0.633	4.89 ± 0.493	4.46 ± 0.319
PAC-Net	9.14 ± 2.11	*7.31 ± 1.03	*6.33 ± 0.841	*5.96 ± 0.926	5.34 ± 0.633	5.17 ± 0.474	5.05 ± 0.371
Direct	14.2 ± 2.30	11.1 ± 2.28	9.49 ± 2.19	7.78 ± 1.02	6.86 ± 0.768	6.13 ± 0.714	5.48 ± 0.592
Only source	13.1 ± 3.36	9.62 ± 2.05	8.38 ± 2.06	7.06 ± 1.32	6.36 ± 1.24	5.79 ± 0.768	5.37 ± 0.897
Augmented	13.5 ± 2.83	9.69 ± 1.89	8.51 ± 1.84	*6.96 ± 1.03	*6.09 ± 0.931	*5.39 ± 0.685	*4.87 ± 0.618
HTL-offset	13 ± 3.38	9.62 ± 2.05	8.34 ± 2.00	7.02 ± 1.24	6.26 ± 1.17	5.76 ± 0.764	5.36 ± 0.897
HTL-scale	13.0 ± 3.35	9.63 ± 2.07	8.30 ± 1.95	7.01 ± 1.16	6.30 ± 1.17	5.77 ± 0.758	5.37 ± 0.902
AffineTL-full	13.0 ± 2.69	9.48 ± 2.10	8.38 ± 1.85	7.14 ± 1.62	*5.91 ± 0.838	*5.45 ± 0.777	*4.94 ± 0.603
AffineTL-const	13.2 ± 3.16	*9.32 ± 1.99	8.39 ± 1.84	*6.88 ± 1.00	*5.85 ± 0.710	*5.55 ± 0.679	*4.94 ± 0.581
Fine-tune	*11.7 ± 2.70	*8.24 ± 1.31	*6.71 ± 1.02	*5.90 ± 0.971	*5.17 ± 0.785	*4.59 ± 0.442	*4.21 ± 0.376
MAML	14.3 ± 7.75	10.9 ± 3.44	9.55 ± 1.99	9.41 ± 2.33	7.98 ± 2.36	6.70 ± 1.25	6.18 ± 1.35
L2-SP	*11.7 ± 2.70	*8.24 ± 1.31	*6.73 ± 1.01	*5.92 ± 0.959	*5.22 ± 0.765	*4.67 ± 0.45	*4.28 ± 0.363
PAC-Net	11.2 ± 5.24	*8.84 ± 2.75	*7.64 ± 1.17	7.34 ± 1.56	6.77 ± 0.966	6.29 ± 0.536	6.02 ± 0.446
Torque 5	Direct	1.07 ± 0.157	0.993 ± 0.0903	0.910 ± 0.119	0.847 ± 0.129	0.744 ± 0.113	0.686 ± 0.0996	0.623 ± 0.0944
Only source	1.15 ± 0.214	1.04 ± 0.0775	0.998 ± 0.145	0.975 ± 0.133	0.863 ± 0.111	0.826 ± 0.155	0.775 ± 0.106
Augmented	1.04 ± 0.113	0.987 ± 0.109	0.907 ± 0.120	0.874 ± 0.136	0.755 ± 0.130	0.710 ± 0.110	0.637 ± 0.0893
HTL-offset	1.14 ± 0.221	1.02 ± 0.0864	0.965 ± 0.157	0.925 ± 0.141	0.837 ± 0.104	0.800 ± 0.156	0.738 ± 0.101
HTL-scale	1.13 ± 0.194	1.01 ± 0.0786	0.980 ± 0.177	0.914 ± 0.132	0.830 ± 0.114	0.844 ± 0.171	0.785 ± 0.123
AffineTL-full	1.04 ± 0.121	0.989 ± 0.175	0.907 ± 0.162	0.860 ± 0.170	0.747 ± 0.117	0.691 ± 0.0924	0.654 ± 0.0716
AffineTL-const	1.05 ± 0.106	0.974 ± 0.102	0.899 ± 0.123	0.854 ± 0.121	0.756 ± 0.106	0.700 ± 0.0869	0.638 ± 0.0796
Fine-tune	1.22 ± 0.356	1.04 ± 0.105	0.976 ± 0.0878	0.913 ± 0.137	0.749 ± 0.111	0.688 ± 0.103	0.598 ± 0.0697
MAML	1.45 ± 0.479	1.18 ± 0.183	1.07 ± 0.208	0.999 ± 0.193	0.816 ± 0.211	0.703 ± 0.124	0.613 ± 0.0634
L2-SP	1.22 ± 0.355	1.04 ± 0.105	0.973 ± 0.0873	0.917 ± 0.133	0.756 ± 0.109	0.699 ± 0.113	0.606 ± 0.0644
PAC-Net	1.27 ± 0.319	1.10 ± 0.115	1.03 ± 0.108	0.985 ± 0.145	0.881 ± 0.151	0.806 ± 0.118	0.781 ± 0.124
Direct	1.86 ± 0.248	1.67 ± 0.192	1.50 ± 0.162	1.36 ± 0.159	1.22 ± 0.163	1.12 ± 0.102	1.05 ± 0.0916
Only source	1.91 ± 0.230	1.87 ± 0.357	1.76 ± 0.179	1.64 ± 0.190	1.53 ± 0.255	1.36 ± 0.153	1.26 ± 0.0883
Augmented	1.86 ± 0.180	1.66 ± 0.17	1.55 ± 0.219	1.45 ± 0.231	1.27 ± 0.265	1.11 ± 0.130	1.01 ± 0.0944
HTL-offset	1.88 ± 0.214	1.81 ± 0.369	1.67 ± 0.246	1.54 ± 0.239	1.46 ± 0.267	1.33 ± 0.142	1.21 ± 0.133
HTL-scale	2.05 ± 0.649	1.88 ± 0.389	1.71 ± 0.241	1.60 ± 0.308	1.62 ± 0.474	1.37 ± 0.158	1.25 ± 0.0922
AffineTL-full	1.82 ± 0.232	1.74 ± 0.209	1.55 ± 0.242	1.43 ± 0.231	1.27 ± 0.230	1.13 ± 0.122	1.06 ± 0.191
AffineTL-const	1.83 ± 0.173	1.68 ± 0.207	1.55 ± 0.236	1.40 ± 0.227	1.23 ± 0.198	1.12 ± 0.113	1.02 ± 0.0953
Fine-tune	2.41 ± 0.375	2.03 ± 0.387	1.71 ± 0.463	1.49 ± 0.297	1.27 ± 0.257	1.15 ± 0.110	1.07 ± 0.0817
MAML	2.69 ± 0.676	2.17 ± 0.511	1.96 ± 0.526	1.68 ± 0.373	1.42 ± 0.365	1.23 ± 0.111	1.16 ± 0.0829
L2-SP	2.41 ± 0.375	2.03 ± 0.387	1.72 ± 0.455	1.49 ± 0.299	1.28 ± 0.254	1.16 ± 0.0829	1.09 ± 0.0777
PAC-Net	2.47 ± 0.385	2.22 ± 0.550	2.22 ± 0.599	1.99 ± 0.372	1.91 ± 0.355	1.74 ± 0.144	1.69 ± 0.0595
Direct	2.66 ± 0.307	2.13 ± 0.420	1.85 ± 0.418	1.54 ± 0.353	1.32 ± 0.200	1.18 ± 0.138	1.05 ± 0.111
Only source	2.31 ± 0.618	*1.73 ± 0.560	*1.49 ± 0.513	*1.22 ± 0.269	*1.09 ± 0.232	*0.969 ± 0.144	*0.927 ± 0.170
Augmented	2.47 ± 0.406	*1.69 ± 0.507	*1.49 ± 0.513	*1.32 ± 0.214	*1.16 ± 0.225	*0.984 ± 0.149	*0.897 ± 0.138
HTL-offset	2.29 ± 0.621	*1.69 ± 0.507	*1.49 ± 0.513	*1.22 ± 0.269	*1.09 ± 0.233	*0.969 ± 0.144	*0.925 ± 0.171
HTL-scale	2.32 ± 0.599	*1.71 ± 0.516	*1.51 ± 0.513	*1.24 ± 0.271	*1.12 ± 0.234	*0.999 ± 0.175	*0.948 ± 0.172
AffineTL-full	*2.23 ± 0.554	*1.71 ± 0.501	*1.45 ± 0.458	*1.21 ± 0.256	*1.06 ± 0.219	*0.974 ± 0.164	*0.870 ± 0.121
AffineTL-const	*2.30 ± 0.565	*1.73 ± 0.420	*1.48 ± 0.527	*1.20 ± 0.243	*1.04 ± 0.217	*0.963 ± 0.161	*0.884 ± 0.136
Fine-tune	*2.33 ± 0.511	*1.62 ± 0.347	*1.35 ± 0.340	*1.12 ± 0.165	*0.959 ± 0.12	*0.848 ± 0.0824	*0.790 ± 0.0547
MAML	*2.54 ± 1.29	*1.90 ± 0.507	*1.67 ± 0.313	*1.23 ± 0.282	*1.28 ± 0.272	*1.20 ± 0.199	*1.06 ± 0.111
L2-SP	*2.33 ± 0.509	*1.65 ± 0.378	*1.35 ± 0.340	*1.12 ± 0.165	*0.968 ± 0.114	*0.858 ± 0.0818	*0.802 ± 0.0535
PAC-Net	*2.24 ± 0.706	*1.61 ± 0.394	*1.43 ± 0.389	*1.24 ± 0.277	*1.12 ± 0.100	*1.13 ± 0.0726	*1.100 ± 0.0589