SlowGuess/NeurIPS_2023_OCR huggingface dataset:
Saptarshi Roy
College Station, TX 77843
roys8001@stat.tamu.edu
Raymond K. W. Wong
raywong@tamu.edu
Yang Ni
yni@stat.tamu.edu
Discovering causal relationship using multivariate functional data has received a significant amount of attention very recently. In this article, we introduce a functional linear structural equation model for causal structure learning when the underlying graph involving the multivariate functions may have cycles. To enhance interpretability, our model involves a low-dimensional causal embedded space such that all the relevant causal information in the multivariate functional data is preserved in this lower-dimensional subspace. We prove that the proposed model is causally identifiable under standard assumptions that are often made in the causal discovery literature. To carry out inference of our model, we develop a fully Bayesian framework with suitable prior specifications and uncertainty quantification through posterior summaries. We illustrate the superior performance of our method over existing methods in terms of causal graph estimation through extensive simulation studies. We also demonstrate the proposed method using a brain EEG dataset.
Motivation. Multivariate functional data arise in many fields such as biomedical research [Wei and Li, 2008, Chiou and Muller, 2016], environmental science [Korte-Stapff et al., 2022], finance [Kowal et al., 2017], plant science [Wong et al., 2019, Park et al., 2022], and sport science [Volkmann et al., 2021] where multiple variables are measured over time or other domains. The increasing availability of functional data in these fields provides us with great opportunities to discover causal relationships among random functions for the better understanding of complex systems, which is helpful for various machine learning and statistics tasks such as representation learning [Schölkopf et al., 2021], fairness [Tang et al., 2023], transfer learning [Rojas-Carulla et al., 2018], and reinforcement learning [Zeng et al., 2023]. One motivating example is electroencephalography (EEG) where electrical activity from the brain is recorded non-invasively from electrode channels by placing them on the scalp or directly on the surface of the brain. Given its continuous nature and the short time separation between the adjacent measuring points, it is natural to treat the data at each brain location/region as a function over time. A relevant scientific goal is to estimate brain effective connectivity among different regions, which will potentially allow us to make better decisions, design more effective interventions, and avoid unintended consequences. However, existing structural equation model (SEM) based causal discovery methods assume acyclic relationships among the random functions by imposing a directed acyclic graph (DAG) structure, which may be too restrictive for many real applications. For example, there are strong indications that in brain effective connectivity studies, due to reciprocal polysynaptic connections, the brain regions are far from exhibiting acyclicity [Friston, 2011, Markov et al., 2012], and that in genetic pathways, due to the presence of multiple upstream regulators and downstream targets for every signaling component, feedback loops/directed cycles are regular motifs [Brandman
and Meyer, 2008]. Thus, in light of the prevalence of cycles in complex systems, it is desirable to have a flexible model for causal discovery among random functions that can account for such cyclic causal structures.
Challenges. Causal discovery for multivariate functional data in the presence of cycles is an inherently difficult problem that is not yet well understood. We highlight three prominent challenges. (i) Functional data are infinite-dimensional in nature. It may so happen that the low-frequency spectrum of one curve might causally influence the high-frequency spectrum of another curve. This demands identification of pertinent features that can be used to create a finite-dimensional representation of the data, which is easier to work with and analyze. However, the challenge is that we may not know a priori what the relevant features are when dealing with infinite-dimensional objects. Blind adoption of standard (non-causal-adaptive) low-dimensional features can lead to errors or inaccuracies. (ii) Although the identifiability of causal models for multivariate functional data in the absence of cycles has been established in recent works [Zhou et al., 2022b, Lee and Li, 2022], showing identifiability of causal models from multivariate data, let alone multivariate functions, is still a challenging and complex task in cases where causal relationships are obscured by the presence of cycles. (iii) It is common that functional data are only observed over discrete time points with additional noises. Such incomplete and noisy observations of the functions add another layer of difficulty in probing the causal relationships of interest.
Related work. Causal discovery from multivariate functional data has been studied by a few recent works [Zhou et al., 2022b, Lee and Li, 2022, Yang and Suzuki, 2022], which have already shown some promising results in discovering causality in, e.g., EEG data and longitudinal medical record data. However, all of them are limited to DAGs, which do not allow inference of cyclic causality. While there has been a surge of research on causal discovery methods for scalar random variables in the presence of feedback loops/cycles over the last few decades [Richardson, 1996, Lacerda et al., 2008, Mooij et al., 2011, Hyttinen et al., 2012, Huang et al., 2019, Mooij and Heskes, 2013, Mooij and Claassen, 2020, Zhou et al., 2022a], none of these approaches have been extended to discovering causal dependencies among random functions in multivariate settings. Therefore, how to handle cyclic causal relationships among multivariate functional data while addressing the aforementioned challenges remains a largely unsolved problem.
Contributions. In this paper, we propose an operator-based non-recursive linear structural equation based novel causal discovery framework that identifies causal relationships among functional objects in the presence of cycles and additional measurement/sampling noises. Our major contribution is four-fold.
1. We consider a causal embedding of the functional nodes into a lower-dimensional space for dimension reduction that adapts to causal relationships.
2. We prove that the causal graph of the proposed model is uniquely identifiable under standard causal assumptions.
3. We capture within-function dependencies using a data-driven selection of orthonormal basis that is both interpretable and computationally efficient.
4. To perform inference and uncertainty quantification from finite-sample data, we adopt a fully Bayesian hierarchical formulation with carefully selected prior distributions. Posterior inference is performed using Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC). We demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method in identifying causal structure and key parameters through simulation studies and apply the framework to the analysis of brain EEG data, illustrating its real-world applicability. Code will be made available on the project's website on Github.
2 Model definition and causal identifiability
Let  $[p] = \{1, \dots, p\}$  for any positive integer  $p$ . A causal directed cyclic graph (DCG) is a graph  $\mathcal{G} = (\mathcal{V}, \mathcal{E})$ , which consists of a set of vertices or nodes  $\mathcal{V} = [p]$  representing a set of random variables
and a set of directed edges  $\mathcal{E} = \{\ell \to j|j,\ell \in \mathcal{V}\}$  representing the direct causal relationships among the random variables. In a DCG, we do not assume the graph to be acyclic. A causal DCG model is an ordered pair  $(\mathcal{G},\mathbb{P})$  where  $\mathbb{P}$  is a joint probability distribution over  $\mathcal{V}$  (more rigorously, the random variables that  $\mathcal{V}$  represents) that satisfies conditional independence relationships encoded by the causal DCG  $\mathcal{G}$ . A simple directed cycle is a sequence of distinct vertices  $\{v_{1},\ldots ,v_{k}\}$  such that the induced subgraph by these vertices is  $v_{1}\rightarrow \dots \rightarrow v_{k}\rightarrow v_{1}$ . For a vertex  $j\in \mathcal{V}$ , we use  $\mathrm{pa}(j)$  to denote the set of parents (direct causes).
2.2 Model framework
Consider a multivariate stochastic process  $\mathbf{Y} = (Y_{1},\dots ,Y_{p})^{\top}$  where each  $Y_{j}$  is defined on a compact domain  $\mathcal{T}_j\subset \mathbb{R}$ . Without loss of generality, we assume  $\mathcal{T}_1 = \dots = \mathcal{T}_p = [0,1]$ . Suppose  $Y_{j}\in \mathcal{H}_{j}$  where  $\mathcal{H}_j$  is a Hilbert space of functions defined on  $\mathcal{T}_j$ . We let  $\langle \cdot ,\cdot \rangle$  denote the inner product of  $\mathcal{H}_j$ . We propose a causal model that captures the relationships among  $Y_{1},\ldots ,Y_{p}$ .
Our proposed model considers an operator-based non-recursive linear structural equation model on the random functions  $\mathbf{Y}$  as
$$
Y _ {j} (\cdot) = \sum_ {\ell \in \operatorname {p a} (j)} \left(\mathcal {B} _ {j \ell} Y _ {\ell}\right) (\cdot) + f _ {j} (\cdot), \quad \forall j \in [ p ], \tag {1}
$$
where  $\mathcal{B}_{j\ell}$  is a linear operator that maps  $\mathcal{H}_{\ell}$  to  $\mathcal{H}_j$ , and  $f_{j}\in \mathcal{H}_{j}$  is an exogenous stochastic process. Clearly, for any  $j,\ell \in \mathcal{V}$  such that the edge  $\ell \to j\in \mathcal{E},\mathcal{B}_{j\ell}$  is not a null operator. Now by stacking the  $p$  equations in (1), we obtain
$$
\boldsymbol {Y} = \mathfrak {B} \boldsymbol {Y} + \boldsymbol {f}, \tag {2}
$$
where  $\mathfrak{B} = (\mathcal{B}_{j\ell})_{j,\ell=1}^{p}$  is a matrix of operators and  $\boldsymbol{f} = (f_1, \ldots, f_p)^\top$  is a  $p$ -variate stochastic process. In DAGs, the causal effect matrix can be arranged into a lower block triangular structure given a topological/causal ordering. But since our model allows for cycles, we have no such restriction on the structure of the operator matrix  $\mathfrak{B}$  except that  $\mathcal{B}_{jj}, \forall j \in [p]$ , is null, i.e., no self-loops.
Model (1) is infinite-dimensional and hence challenging to estimate and interpret. To alleviate such difficulties, we consider a low-dimensional causal embedding structure. Specifically, we assume that the causal relationships are preserved in an unknown low-dimensional subspace  $\mathcal{D}_j$  of  $\mathcal{H}_j$ . Denote the dimension of  $\mathcal{D}_j$  by  $K_j$ . Let  $\mathcal{P}_j$  and  $\mathcal{Q}_j$  be the projection onto  $\mathcal{D}_j$  and its orthogonal complement in  $\mathcal{H}_j$  respectively. We assume  $\mathcal{B}_{j\ell} = \mathcal{P}_j\mathcal{B}_{j\ell}\mathcal{P}_\ell$ , which implies that causal effects can be fully described within the low-dimensional subspaces  $\{\mathcal{D}_j\}_{j=1}^p$ . As such, (1) can be split into
$$
\mathcal {P} _ {j} Y _ {j} = \sum_ {\ell \in \operatorname {p a} (j)} \mathcal {B} _ {j \ell} \left(\mathcal {P} _ {\ell} Y _ {\ell}\right) + \mathcal {P} _ {j} f _ {j}, \tag {3}
$$
$$
\mathcal {Q} _ {j} Y _ {j} = \mathcal {Q} _ {j} f _ {j}.
$$
We assume that  $\mathcal{P}_j f_j$  and  $\mathcal{Q}_j f_j$  are independent of each other. Now, by defining  $\alpha_j = \mathcal{P}_j Y_j$  and  $\epsilon_j = \mathcal{P}_j f_j$ ,  $\forall j \in [p]$ , (3) can be compactly written as
$$
\alpha = \mathcal {B} \alpha + \epsilon , \tag {4}
$$
where  $\pmb {\alpha} = (\alpha_{1},\dots ,\alpha_{p})^{\top}$  and  $\pmb {\epsilon} = (\epsilon_1,\dots ,\epsilon_p)^{\top}$  with  $\alpha_{j},\epsilon_{j}\in \mathcal{D}_{j},\forall j\in [p]$
In practice, the random functions in  $\mathbf{Y}$  can only be observed over a finite number of (input) locations, possibly with measurement errors. More specifically, for each random function  $Y_{j}$ , we observe  $\{(t_{ju},X_{ju})\}_{u = 1}^{m_j}$ , where  $X_{ju}\in \mathbb{R}$  is the measurement of  $Y_{j}$  at location  $t_{ju}\in \mathcal{T}_j$  and  $m_j$  is the number of measurements obtained from  $Y_{j}$ . Defining  $\beta_{j} = \mathcal{Q}_{j}Y_{j}$ , we consider the following measurement model:
$$
\begin{array}{l} X _ {j u} = Y _ {j} (t _ {j u}) + e _ {j u} \\ = \alpha_ {j} \left(t _ {j u}\right) + \beta_ {j} \left(t _ {j u}\right) + e _ {j u}, \quad \forall u \in [ m _ {j} ], j \in [ p ], \tag {5} \\ \end{array}
$$
with independent noises  $e_{ju}\sim N(0,\sigma_j),\forall u\in [m_j]$
More compactly, (5) can be written as
$$
\boldsymbol {X} = \boldsymbol {\alpha} (\boldsymbol {t}) + \boldsymbol {\beta} (\boldsymbol {t}) + \boldsymbol {e}, \tag {6}
$$
where  $\begin{array}{rlr}{\pmb{X}}&{=}&{({\pmb{X}}_1^\top,\ldots,{\pmb{X}}_p^\top)^\top,}\end{array}$ $\pmb {\alpha}(\pmb {t}) = (\pmb {\alpha}_1(\pmb {t}_1)^\top ,\dots ,\pmb {\alpha}_p(\pmb {t}_p)^\top)^\top$ $\beta (t) =$ $(\beta_{1}(t_{1})^{\top},\ldots ,\beta_{p}(t_{p})^{\top})^{\top}$  and  $\pmb {e} = (e_1^\top ,\dots,e_p^\top)^\top$  with  $\pmb {X}_j = (X_{j1},\dots,X_{jm_j})^\top$ $\pmb {\alpha}_j(t_j) =$ $(\alpha_{j}(t_{j1}),\dots ,\alpha_{j}(t_{jm_{j}}))^{\top},\beta_{j}(t_{j}) = (\beta_{j}(t_{j1}),\dots ,\beta_{j}(t_{jm_{j}}))^{\top}$  and  $\pmb {e}_j = (e_{j1},\dots,e_{jm_j})^\top$
We call our proposed model, FENCE, which stands for 'Functional Embedded Nodes for Cyclic causal Exploration', reflecting its purpose.
2.3 Causal identifiability
In this section, we shall show that the graph structure of the proposed FENCE model is identifiable for functional data measured discretely with random noises under several causal assumptions. We start by defining causal identifiability and state our assumptions.
Definition 2.1. (Causal Identifiability) Suppose  $\mathbf{Y}$  is a  $p$ -variate random function and  $\mathbf{X}$  is the observed noisy version of  $\mathbf{Y}$  given by (6). Assume  $\mathbf{X}$  follows FENCE model  $S = (\mathcal{G},\mathbb{P})$  where  $\mathcal{G}$  is the underlying graph and  $\mathbb{P}$  is the joint distribution of  $\mathbf{X}$  over  $\mathcal{G}$ . We say that  $\mathcal{S}$  is causally identifiable from  $\mathbf{X}$  if there does not exist any other  $S^{*} = (\mathcal{G}^{*},\mathbb{P}^{*})$  with  $\mathcal{G}^{*}\neq \mathcal{G}$  such that the joint distribution  $\mathbb{P}^*$  on  $\mathbf{X}$  induced by  $\mathcal{G}^*$  is equivalent to  $\mathbb{P}$  induced by  $\mathcal{G}$ .
In other words, for a causal graph to be identifiable, there must not exist any other graph such that the joint distributions induced by the two different graphs are equivalent. Next, we list and discuss a few assumptions to establish the causal identifiability of the proposed model.
Assumption 1. (Causal Sufficiency) The model  $S = (\mathcal{G}, \mathbb{P})$  is causally sufficient, i.e., there are no unmeasured confounders.
Assuming no unmeasured confounders keeps the causal discovery task more manageable especially for cyclic graphs with purely observational data.
Assumption 2. (Disjoint Cycles) The cycles in  $\mathcal{G}$  are disjoint, i.e., no two cycles in the graph have two nodes that are common to both.
Assuming disjoint cycles induces a natural topological ordering and forms a directed acyclic hypergraph-like structure within the DCG. The same assumption was made in Lacerda et al. [2008].
Assumption 3. (Stability) For the model  $\mathcal{S}$ , the moduli of the eigenvalues of the finite rank operator  $\mathcal{B}$  are less than or equal to 1, and none of the real eigenvalues are equal to 1.
According to Fisher, 1970, the SEM in (4) can be viewed as being in a state of equilibrium, where the finite rank operator  $\mathcal{B}$  represents coefficients in a set of dynamical equations that describe a deterministic dynamical system observed over small time intervals as the time lag approaches zero. The eigenvalue conditions are deemed necessary and sufficient for the limiting behavior to hold, as argued by Fisher, 1970. Such an assumption is widely adopted in e.g., econometrics, and Lacerda et al., 2008 made this assumption as well.
Assumption 4. (Non-Gaussianity) The exogenous variables have independent mixture of Gaussian distributions. i.e.,  $\epsilon_{jk} \stackrel{\text{ind}}{\sim} \sum_{m=1}^{M_{jk}} \pi_{jkm} N(\mu_{jkm}, \tau_{jkm})$  with  $M_{jk} \geq 2$ .
The assumption of non-Gaussianity on the exogenous variables has been proven useful in causal discovery as it induces model identifiability in the linear SEM framework [Aapo and Petteri, 1999, Shimizu et al., 2006, Lacerda et al., 2008, Spirtes and Zhang, 2016]. Mixture of Gaussian can approximate any continuous distribution arbitrarily well given a sufficiently large number of mixture components [Titterington et al., 1985, McLachlan and Peel, 2000, Rossi, 2014]. It is also easy to sample, which facilitates our posterior inference.
Assumption 5. (Non-causal dependency) We assume  $\beta(t) = C(t)\gamma$ , where  $C(t) = \operatorname{diag}(C_{11}(t_1), \ldots, C_{pp}(t_p))$  and  $\gamma$  represent another exogenous component of the model. Here  $C_{jj}(t_j)$  is a mixing matrix that mixes the independent entries in  $\gamma$  to generate temporal dependence within the  $j$ -th block. We assume  $\gamma_{jk} \stackrel{\text{ind}}{\sim} \sum_{m=1}^{M_{jk}} \pi_{jkm}' N(\mu_{jkm}', \tau_{jkm}')$  with  $M_{jk} \geq 1$ .
Since the model assumes that all causal information in  $\mathbf{Y}$  is preserved in the lower-dimensional space  $\mathcal{D}_j$  and not in its orthogonal complement, it is apparent that while each  $\beta_j(t_j)$  within a block can have temporal dependence, it is independent of  $\beta_{\ell}(t_{\ell})$  when  $j\neq \ell$  and  $j,\ell \in [p]$ .
For some basis  $\{\phi_{jk}\}_{k=1}^{K_j}$  that spans the low-dimensional causal embedded space  $\mathcal{D}_j$ ,  $\alpha_j$  in (5) can be further expanded by,  $\alpha_j(t_{ju}) = \sum_{k=1}^{K_j} \tilde{\alpha}_{jk} \phi_{jk}(t_{ju})$ . Therefore (6) can be written more compactly as
$$
\boldsymbol {X} = \boldsymbol {\Phi} (\boldsymbol {t}) \tilde {\boldsymbol {\alpha}} + \boldsymbol {\beta} (\boldsymbol {t}) + \boldsymbol {e}, \tag {7}
$$
where  $\Phi (\pmb {t}) = \mathrm{diag}(\Phi_1(\pmb {t}_1),\dots ,\Phi_p(\pmb {t}_p))$  with  $\Phi_j(t_j) = (\phi_{jv}(t_{ju}))_{u = 1,v = 1}^{m_j,K_j}$
Assumption 6. (Sufficient sampling locations) The basis matrix  $\Phi(t)$  of size  $\sum_{j=1}^{p} m_j \times \sum_{j=1}^{p} K_j$  has a full column rank.
This assumption implies enough sampling locations, over which each random function  $Y_{j}$  is observed, to capture all the causal information that  $Y_{j}$  contains.
Given these six assumptions, our main theorem establishes the causal identifiability of the proposed model.
Theorem 2.1. Under Assumptions 1-6,  $\mathcal{S} = (\mathcal{G},\mathbb{P})$  is causally identifiable.
The proof essentially involves two steps as shown in Figure 1. On the left-hand side (LHS) of the diagram, we depict the hypergraph-like structure that emerges when assuming the existence of disjoint cycles (Assumption 2), whereas, on the right-hand side (RHS), we offer a magnified view of the hypernodes (nodes containing simple directed cycle). Our approach to proving causal identifiability progresses from the LHS to the RHS. That is, we first prove the identifiability of the hypergraph-like structure depicted on the LHS of Figure 1, and then we proceed to establish the identifiability of each simple directed cycle within every hypernode in the hypergraph. The detailed exposition of the proof can be found in Section A of the Supplementary Materials.
Figure 1: Two important components of causal identifiability proof: (I) identifiability of directed acyclic hypergraph induced by disjoint cycles, and (II) identifiability of each disjoint cycle.
3 Bayesian model formulation
In this section, we will describe the inference procedure of the proposed model. A straightforward approach would be a two-step procedure where the first step performs functional principal component analysis on each function marginally to reduce the dimension, and then the second step learns causal structure based on the principal components. However, this simple approach has several disadvantages. First, the estimated functional principal components that explain the most variation of each individual function marginally may not optimally capture the cause-effect dependence relationships among different functions. Second, this procedure is unreliable since estimation uncertainty fails to propagate correctly from the first step to the second step. As such, we propose a fully Bayesian approach, which reduces the dimension of functional data adaptively for causal structure learning.
3.1 Model parameters
Let  $\pmb{E} = (E_{j\ell})_{j,\ell=1}^{p}$  denote the adjacency matrix where  $E_{j\ell} = 1$  indicates the existence of a directed edge from node  $\ell$  to node  $j$ , and 0 otherwise. Let  $\{\phi_k\}_{k=1}^S$  be a set of  $S$  common unknown basis
functions that approximate each random function  $Y_{j}$  i.e.,  $Y_{j} = \sum_{k=1}^{S} \tilde{\alpha}_{jk} \phi_{k}$  where  $\{\tilde{\alpha}_{jk}\}_{k=1}^{S}$  denote the set of basis coefficients. Note that  $\{\phi_{k}\}$  is not the basis for the lower-dimensional causal embedded subspace  $\mathcal{D}_j$ . However, we assume that the first  $K_{j}$  of them actually spans  $\mathcal{D}_j$  and our goal is to hunt for them through a properly designed inference procedure. Moreover, according to our assumption, we build our SEM on the first  $K_{j}$  of the basis coefficients  $\tilde{\alpha}_{j} = (\tilde{\alpha}_{j1}, \dots, \tilde{\alpha}_{jK_{j}})^{\top}$ . Defining  $\bar{\alpha}_{j} = (\tilde{\alpha}_{j,K_{j}+1}, \dots, \tilde{\alpha}_{jS})^{\top}$  with  $\bar{\alpha}_{j} = \gamma_{j}$ , jointly they can be written as
$$
\tilde {\alpha} = \tilde {B} \tilde {\alpha} + \tilde {\epsilon}, \tag {8}
$$
where  $\tilde{\alpha} = (\tilde{\alpha}_1^\top, \dots, \tilde{\alpha}_p^\top, \bar{\alpha}_1^\top, \dots, \bar{\alpha}_p^\top)^\top$ ,  $\tilde{\epsilon} = (\tilde{\epsilon}_1^\top, \dots, \tilde{\epsilon}_p^\top, \gamma_1^\top, \dots, \gamma_p^\top)^\top$  with  $\tilde{\epsilon}_j =$
$(\tilde{\epsilon}_{j1},\dots ,\tilde{\epsilon}_{jK_j})^\top$  and  $\gamma_{j} = (\gamma_{j,K_{j} + 1},\ldots ,\gamma_{jS})^\top$  . Here  $\tilde{B} = \left( \begin{array}{cc}B & 0\\ 0 & 0 \end{array} \right)$  where  $B =$
$((B_{j\ell}(a,b))_{a = 1,b = 1}^{K_j,K_l})_{j,\ell = 1}^p$  with  $\pmb{B}_{jj} = \mathbf{0}$  since we assume the absence of self loops. To carry out inference, we assume  $\tilde{\epsilon}_{jk},\gamma_{jk}\stackrel {ind}{\sim}\sum_{m = 1}^{M_{jk}}\pi_{jkm}N(\mu_{jkm},\tau_{jkm})$
3.2 Adaptive basis expansion
As the  $\phi_k$ 's are specifically useful for restricting the original function space for each  $Y_j$  to a lower-dimensional causally embedded smooth space of dimension  $K_j$ , we make the basis  $\{\phi_k\}$  adaptive for causal structure learning by further expanding them with known spline basis functions [Kowal et al., 2017],  $\phi_k(\cdot) = \sum_{r=1}^{R} A_{kr} b_r(\cdot)$ , where  $\pmb{b} = (b_1, \dots, b_R)^\top$  is the set of fixed cubic B-spline basis functions with equally spaced knots and  $\pmb{A}_k = (A_{k1}, \dots, A_{kR})^\top$  are the corresponding spline coefficients. Since we do not fix  $\pmb{A}_k$ 's a priori, the basis functions  $\phi_k$ 's can be learned from data a posteriori and hence are adaptive to both data and causal structure (i.e., the basis functions, the functional data, and the causal graph are dependent in their joint distribution).
3.3 Prior specifications