Silviase/jgov_v1.4_full_ann huggingface dataset:
Hizenhamashuku Mizu To Machinami No Kai (Society of Water and Townscape in Hizenhamashuku) consisting of volunteers playing a major role, the city is working to promote the tourism industry by hosting concerts or exhibitions, and spreading Sake Brewery Tourism with use of the time-honored sake breweries. As shown by the 70,000 attendants crowding the Kashima Sake Brewery Tourism & Hizenhamashuku Flower and Sake Festival in FY 2015, the city is attracting nationwide attention as an advanced example. The more the city's name is recognized, the more people are relocating to the city, so the NPO corporation is engaged in further Vitalization of the Local District by responding to would-be residents and grappling with the problem of vacant townhouses, one of the issues of the district.

Figure 1-2-22 Hizenhamashuku Flower and Sake Festival (Kashima Sake Brewery Tourism)

Source) MLIT

Figure 1-2-23 Events Utilizing Sake Brewery (fashion show by local high school students)

Source) MLIT

## (Survey on resident awareness of infrastructure management)

The MLIT conducts Monitor Surveys Note 21, and a Monitor Survey conducted in February 2016 $ ^{22} $ included the following question: “Expansion of cooperation by residents is being examined and tried as an effort to appropriately maintain infrastructures amid declining population and severe fiscal condition. What do you think of such an effort?” A majority of respondents answered, “I have not participated in such activity before, but I would like to do so going forward.” This shows willingness of residents to participate in infrastructure maintenance (Figure 1-2-24).

Source) MLIT "Monitor Survey"

As explained above, a few hundred years after the Edo period, we can still see that bridges, roads, rivers, running water, levees, and other infrastructures that serve as the foundation of people's activity are closely connected with the lives and economic activity of local residents.

It is important that each of us lives affectionately with infrastructures and maintain them, not only for now but also for the future to hand them over to the next generation.

In preparing for natural disasters, it is also important for local residents to have disaster prevention awareness (non-
(Major port and harbor development)

Around the time when the First Comprehensive National Development Plan was formulated, seaside industrial zone, centering on the development of Kashima Port and other industrial ports, was constructed including formation of industrial complex, mainly for the heavy industry, in the Pacific belt zone.

Subsequently, in order to cope with closer international exchanges, international ports including Tokyo Bay, Osaka Bay, and Ise Bay were developed. Also, container transportation appeared in Japan in the late 1960s and developed rapidly to form the current international marine container transportation networks.

## (Infrastructure development with hosting of Tokyo Olympic)

The hosting of the 18th Olympics Games in Tokyo was decided by the 56th International Olympic Committee (IOC) General Session held in Munich, West Germany on May 26, 1959.

Large-scale infrastructure development was conducted mainly in Tokyo over a five-year preparation period leading up to the 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games (the 1964 Games), which provided many high quality infrastructure developments.

In order to receive Olympians, officials and visitors from in and out of Japan for the Olympic games in which 93 countries and approximately 5,000 players participated during the 15-day period from October 10 to 24, 1964, transportation networks including the Metropolitan Expressway and Tokaido Shinkansen were developed and road networks connecting sports grounds in various locations mainly in Tokyo and Haneda Airport were also established. Also, amid increasingly severe environmental pollution problems at that time, sewage and water supply systems in the Tokyo Area were improved dramatically, and the large-scale infrastructures constructed for the 1964 Olympic are high quality assets of present Japan. The overview of infrastructures constructed is as follows.

## ■ Olympic related roads and the Metropolitan Expressway

Preparations for the 1964 Games, as infrastructure development to secure transportation between sports grounds in the city center and neighboring prefectures and the Olympic Village became a pressing task; Olympic related roads of 22 lines and to lengths of 54.6 km were developed $ ^{Note\ 23} $ .

With regards to the plan and vision of the Metropolitan Expressway, preliminary investigations by Tokyo government started in 1951 and the basic plan was decided and instructed in 1959. However, in order to meet demand for transport between sports grounds in the city center and the Olympic Village, the development of the Metropolitan Expressway was considered indispensable and the construction of five routes (32.9 km) that needed to be built urgently was decided on by the Metropolitan Expressway development committee in December 1960.
Since completion in a short period of time was required, spaces above existing roads, rivers, moats, and water channels were used as much as possible to minimize land purchases. Starting with the opening of route No. 1 (about 4.5 km between Kyobashi and Shibaura) in December 1962, four routes (32.8 km) were opened to traffic by the 1964 Games in just five years from the start of planning (Figure 1-2-28).

## ☑ Tokaido Shinkansen (Bullet Train)

Because of economic growth, Tokai-do Line at that time was in a tight supply situation for transportation of both passengers and cargos. Therefore, the study committee on main national railways was established in 1957, which started examining measures to enhance transportation capacity, focusing on Tokaido Line.

The study committee compiled a report in July 1958 and decided that construction of a separate line by AC electric power to enhance transportation capacity of Tokaido Line was necessary, and the Japan National Railways was to manage the new line together with the existing railways.

The dream super express Tokaido Shinkansen, which connected Tokyo and Shin-Osaka (515 km) in about four hours $ {^{Note 25}} $ , started operation in October 1, 1964, in time for the 1964 Games, taking just five and a half years from the construction start in 1959 with construction expenses of 380 billion yen.

The growth of Tokaido Shinkansen has influenced the subsequent development of other New Shinkansen lines. In the wake of Tokaido Shinkansen, the Sanyo, Tohoku, Joetsu, Hokuriku, Kyushu, and Hokkaido Shinkansen lines have been developed in sequence. Shinkansen development has led to further economic growth of Japan.

## ■ Development of subway

Subway were developed before the war and the line between Asakusa and Ueno Note 27 (about 2.2 km), which was the base of the Ginza Line Note 26, was opened in 1927 as the first subway in the East.

Although Tokyo was hit by air strikes during World War II, the subway suffered relatively small damage compared to other means of transportation.

As post-war reconstruction progressed, population concentrated in Tokyo and securing a means of transportation for commuting to work and schools was an issue. However, Toden streetcars, which were the main means of transportation at that time, were always congested and hopes were put on the development of subway. In 1954, the Marunouchi Line opened between Ikebukuro and Ochanomizu (6.4 km), and Hibiya Line, part of which

Opening of Hibiya Line

Figure 1-2-29

Source) Adachi Museum

started operation in 1961, opened the whole line between Nakameguro and Kitasenju (20.3 km) to traffic (Figure 1-2-29) in August 1964, just in time for the 1964 Games.
■ Tokyo International Airport (Haneda Airport) and Tokyo Monorail

Tokyo International Airport (Haneda Airport Note 28) was opened as “Tokyo Airport” in 1931 as Japan’s first civil aviation airport. In October 1945 after the end of World War II, however, the Allied Forces banned Japan’s production and operation of aircraft.

The Allied Forces returned most of the facilities in 1952, extension of runways and construction of aircraft parking aprons were conducted in sequence, and the airport was renamed as Tokyo International Airport.

In 1964, overseas travel by Japanese was liberalized and Haneda Airport started such services as an arrival terminal dedicated for domestic flights and former Runway C.

Since the congestion in the area between Haneda Airport and the city center had been a problem and introduction of railway access to the airport was hoped for, the construction

Figure 1-2-30

Opening Ceremony of Tokyo Monorail

Source) Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd.

of Tokyo Monorail was decided in order to prepare for the 1964 Games successfully.

The construction works started in May 1963 and in just one year and four months, Tokyo Monorail that connects Monorail Hamamatsucho Station, located adjacent to JR Hamamatsucho Station, and Haneda Airport Station, located right under the former Haneda Terminal Building (13.1 km), was opened to traffic on September 17, 1964, just before the opening of the 1964 Games (Figure 1-2-30).

## ■ Water supply system development

In the 1960s, water-purification facilities were built across Japan, but water demand increased as convenient and comfortable living spread and as the economy grew rapidly. Therefore, water shortages occurred year after year since 1958. An especially severe time of water shortage happened at the time of the 1964 games, called the "Tokyo Olympic Water Shortage" in which water supply in Tokyo was restricted by as much as 50%, severely affecting daily activities of the public, including laundry and cooking at shops and homes, queues waiting for water trucks, and the spread of food poisoning due to deteriorating sanitary conditions (Figure 1-2-31).

After the Tokyo Olympic Water Shortage, a plan to transmit water from Tone River was pushed forward, resulting in water resource development facilities like channels and dams, such as Musashi Channel between

Figure 1-2-31

Emergency Water Supply at the Time of Tokyo Olympic Water Shortage

Source) Tokyo Waterworks Historical Museum

Tone River and Arakawa River in 1965, and an extension of water supply pipes was implemented in earnest. On the other hand, water demand continued to increase.
## Sewerage system development

In association with population concentration and industrial development, water pollution of public water areas, such as rivers and lakes became severe from around 1955 due to discharged water from homes and factories.

In accordance with the so-called “36 report” submitted in 1961 by the Tokyo city planning special sewerage system investigation committee, medium and small-sized rivers severely polluted by discharged water from factories and homes were covered and Shibuya River was covered in 1964 located near the 1964 games fields (Figure 1-2-32).

Subsequently, with the revision of the Sewerage Service Act in 1970, sewerage systems served important roles of preserving water quality of public water areas in addition to making cities clean.

Source) Shibuya Folk and Literary Shirane Memorial Museum Regional history told by Shibuya River Haru-no-Ogawa

## (Succession of Olympic legacy)

As described above, large-scale infrastructure development took place leading up to the 1964 Games. For the 2020 Tokyo Olympics and Paralympic Games, games will be conducted in the Heritage Zone, which includes venues constructed for the 1964 Games, and the Tokyo Bay Area Zone, to be newly constructed mainly in bay areas.

The construction of the Olympic Village to be established in the Harumi area (Chuo Ward, Tokyo), has already started with participation of private-sector business operators.

The coastal region reclaimed in the Edo period is booming on the back of expectations for improved convenience of life due to infrastructure development for the hosting of the 2020 Games Note 29.

Edo, which was called a water city, had active water transportation and the revitalization of water transportation, such as touring and restaurant ships from Tokyo Port and rivers, will be promoted for the 2020 Games.

As for road development in consideration of the 2020 Games, National Route 357 Tokyo Bay Tunnel was opened in March 2016, and a walking event was held one week before the opening. Road development will be conducted in sequence by the 2020 Games.
(Upholding economic growth through infrastructure development)

As described above, post-war Japan implemented large-scale construction of social infrastructure, which serves as the foundation of our lives today, and thereby supported not only people’s lives but also the economy.

Transit times trimmed by the development of transportation networks offer an easy-to-understand example of the economic effects brought by infrastructure development.

When comparing times needed to transport freight from the MLIT office (Tokyo) to prefectural governments in over the 40 years from 1971 to 2014, the time needed is reduced by up to 500 minutes (Figure 1-2-33).

(Notes) 1 Measurement of the time needed to transport a 10-ton freight aboard a large truck from the location of the MLIT (Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda City, Tokyo) to a prefectural government office by way of a road network.

2 The difference between 1971 and 2014 lies in road network; the other conditions, such as travel speed, are the same.

3 For transportation time for Hokkaido, Tokushima, Kagawa, Ehime, and Kochi in 1971 and Hokkaido in 2014, the cargo transportation time was calculated based on the time on terries in addition time by roads.

4 Tokyo and Okinawa were excluded.

Source) MLIT, "National Integrated Transport Analysis System (NITAS) ver. 2.3."

Also, we can see that the area of one-day round trip from Tokyo by railway expanded dramatically during a period from 1947, right after the World War II, to now (Figure 1-2-34).
Obviously, enhanced transportation networks resulting from the development of express highways, express railways, and the like have cut the transit times drastically. Such infrastructure development supported Japan’s economic growth to become one of the world’s biggest economies.

As described above, infrastructure development by Ieyasu Tokugawa centered around Edo Castle in the Edo period was the base of current Japan. Also, various infrastructures that support Japan's economic activities nowadays were constructed in the period of war reconstruction and high economic growth period.

Infrastructure constructed in the past exists as legacy assets, and has greatly contributed to the economic growth of Japan.

## ○ Reference Materials

Bureau of Tokyo Olympic games preparation. (1963). Project overview of the bureau of Olympic preparation in 1963

Ichiro Ishii. (1994). History of civil engineering: Morikita Shuppan

Akira Koshizawa. (2001). The story of urban planning in Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Hyouronsha Ltd.

Akira Koshizawa. (2014). The legacy of urban Planning in Tokyo: Chikumashobo Ltd.

Shuji Takashina, Toru Haga, Yoshinobu Oikawa, Hiroshi Takagi. (2014). Modern Japan created by railways: Seizando-Shoten Publishing Co., Ltd.

Takashi Yajima, Hitoshi Ieda. (2014). World city Tokyo created by railways: The Institute of Behavioral Sciences
## (3) Changes in infrastructure investment

(Changes in public works-related expenses (general account))

After the surge in the 1970s, public works-related expenses stayed flat in 1980s and then got back on a rising trend, peaking in the mid-to-late 1990s before declining, and have been almost flat since around 2013 (Figure 1-2-35).

(Note) Expenses relating to restoration and reconstruction from the Great East Japan Earthquake are recorded in special account for the Great East Japan Earthquake from 2012 and not included in public works-related expenses.

Source) Developed by the MLIT from MOF “Fiscal Statistics”

(International comparison of infrastructure standards)

Comparison between Japan’s public investment trends with that of other countries is as follows.

Changes in gross general government general fixed capital formation, having 1997 figure as baseline, indicate that while other major OECD countries are on an increasing trend, only Japan shows continued declines and is hovering at around 50 in recent years (Figure 1-2-36).

Also, the ratio of gross general government fixed capital formation to GDP for each year shows that Japan’s level of investment was high compared to other nations in late 1990s but has been at the same levels as other major developed countries since 2000 (Figure 1-2-37).

Source) Developed by the MLIT from OECD Stat. Extracts “National Accounts” for countries other than Japan and from “Fiscal 2014 National Accounts (2005 basis, 93SNA)” (Authentic Information) compiled by the Cabinet Office for Japan.
(Notes) 1 All values indicated are normal.

2 For the U.K. in 2005, the effect of the assumption of the assets and debts of British Nuclear Fuels Limited (BNFL) by the central government (approximately 1.4 billion pounds) are excluded.

3 Since there is no available data for gross fixed capital formation of Germany and France (from 1997 to 2008), gross capital formation data is used for all years. 4 Data based on 08SNA for Japan and data based on 93SNA for other nations

Source) Developed by the MLIT from OECD Stat. Extracts “National Accounts” for countries other than Japan and from “Fiscal 2014 National Accounts (2005 basis, 93SNA)” (Authentic Information) compiled by the Cabinet Office for Japan.

(Poor land and severe natural conditions that are expensive)

As described above, when looking at Ig/GDP ratio, Japan’s public investment amount is at the same level as those of major OECD member countries; however, it is difficult to determine whether the level is high or low by comparing nations that have different territorial structures and are in different stages of infrastructure development.

As Japanese rivers are precipitous and short, their flow suddenly increases at times of heavy rains. While comparison of normal time flow and flood time flow shows that the increase is eight times for the River Thames, four times for the Danube and three times for the Mississippi River, that of Japanese rivers generally changes significantly—100 times for Tone River, 60 times for Kiso River, and 30 times for Yodogawa River (Figure 1-2-38).
Furthermore, much of the land where people live is lower than the river level at times of flooding (Figure 1-2-39). Therefore, flooding rivers tend to cause severe damage to people’s lives.

As for earthquakes, about 20% of world’s earthquakes with magnitude of 6.0 or greater occur around Japan (Figure 1-2-40).

Besides floods and earthquakes, Japan is prone to such natural disasters as typhoons, rainfall disaster, torrential snows, sediment-related disasters, tsunami, and volcanic disasters, accounting for about 20% of the global total amount of disaster damage, although Japan’s land area makes up only 0.27% of world’s land area (Figure 1-2-41).
Japan's National Land Area, Number of Deaths from Disasters, Disaster Damage Cost, and GDP in the World

(Note) Numbers of deaths and disaster damage amounts are 1984-2013 total; land area and GDP figures are of 2014 data.

Source) Developed by the MLIT from Cabinet Office “2014 White Paper on Disaster Management” and MIC “World Statistics 2016”

Also, in terms of landform, Japan has a high ratio of structures including bridges and tunnels compared to other nations (Figure 1-2-43) to deal with steep landforms with many mountains and rivers (Figure 1-2-42).

Figure 1-2-42 Difference in Landform between Japan and Germany and Expressways

(Note) As of 1998 Source) Topographical map of the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, Michelin “Motoring Atlas Europe”

Figure 1-2-43 Comparisons of the Proportion of Structures by Country

(Note) Proportion of structures = (Bridge beam length + Tunnel length)/Total length Source) Survey by Infrastructure Development Institute

Since Japan needs to adopt construction methods that take into consideration its specificity based on such harsh natural and land conditions, it tends to incur larger costs for infrastructure development compared to other nations. Therefore, caution must be exercised when comparing public investment amounts of Japan with those of other nations.
## Column

## Has the multiplier effect been diminishing?

There is a multiplier effect as one of flow effects of public investment. The multiple effect means that not only the public investment becomes a final demand and expands the economy, but also the increase in public investment influences consumer spending, etc. and boosts GDP in the end (Figure 1-2-46).

It is sometimes said that the multiplier effect is representative of the economic effects of public investment, but the multiplier effect originally refers to merely the things generated in the process in which the amount of public investment increases employee incomes, eventually leading to a rise in consumption. That is, the multiplier effect is different from the production inducement effect $ {Note\ 1} $ caused by public investment, and does not include the economic effects gained.

Source) Developed by the MLIT from Tsutomu Miyagawa, Miho Takizawa (2011) "Graphic Macro Economics 2nd Edition"

from the combined use of the infrastructure at all. We need to pay attention to these points.

As for this multiplier effect, it is said that the figure has been falling in recent years, but there are indications that in the macro-econometric model in the early 70s and earlier, the importance of the supply block and financial block was not recognized, so the model was constructed in which multiplier controls by price hikes or financial aspects were not counted at all, and the comparison of the multipliers in the same structure models in the 80s and 90s showed almost no change in the multipliers (theses by persons involved in the development of the models in the former Economic Planning Agency Note $ ^{2} $ ).

Note 1 The effect refers to when an investment is made in a part of the industry sector, not only production of the relevant industry sector increases, but also through procurement of raw materials and equipment, the effects influence other industry sector directly or indirectly, and cause a rise in their production.

Note 2 Masahiro Hori, Susumu Suzuki, and Osamu Kayasono (1998) “Tanki nihon keizai makuro keiryo moderu no kozo to makuro keizaiseisaku no koka” [“The structure of macro-econometric model in the short-term Japanese economy and the effects of macro economy policies”]. Economic Research Institute, Economic Planning Agency. Economic Analysis, 157.

(Productivity is the key to economic growth)

There are three factors that create economic growth: (i) labor, (ii) capital, and (iii) total factor productivity (TFP) $ ^{Note 30} $ .
The analysis of economic growth of Japan by growth accounting Note 31 shows that contributions of capital and TFP were larger than those of labor (Figure 1-2-47).

Also, comparisons between the GDP growth rate and the rate of increase in labor force during the period from 1956 and 1970, in the high economic growth period, show that the average annual rate of increase in labor force was only about 1.4% compared to the average annual growth rate of about 9.6% for real GDP, and it reveals that the rapid growth did not depend on the increase of labor force only.

Note 32. While productive-age population, which constitutes the labor force, is expected to decrease by close to 1% annually during the 20-year period until

2030, the above data indicates that it is possible to achieve economic growth with the declining population going forward if the decrease in labor force can be compensated by capital accumulation and productivity improvement $ {Note\ 33} $ . Therefore, it is important to be conscious of productivity on the condition of ensuring security and safety in order to support economic growth going forward.

## (Productivity Revolution Projects)

The MLIT is working on productivity improvement through individual projects from three approaches: (i) projects for increasing society’s base productivity, (ii) projects for increasing productivity by industry, and (iii) projects for increasing productivity through futuristic investment/new technologies (Figure 1-2-48).