Silviase/jgov_v1.4_full_ann huggingface dataset:
Source) Developed by the MLIT from MOF's "Trade Statistics"

According to the national accounts of Japan, exports of goods and services accounted for about 18% of GDP in FY 2014, indicating that the significance of external demand’s contribution to economic growth is relatively important as the pace of increase in domestic demand is on a declining trend.

For example, overseas development of infrastructure systems is expected to boost Japan’s economic growth by tapping huge infrastructure demand in emerging countries and other nations $ {}^{Note 14} $ . A report by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) $ {}^{Note 15} $ estimates annual global infrastructure demand in 2030 at 2.326 trillion dollars, which is huge. If Japanese companies win such overseas infrastructure markets in addition to the domestic one, it would not only contribute to increased earnings of Japanese companies, but also lead to enhanced cost competitiveness and productivity by leveraging scale advantage, return to domestic businesses by acquiring global standards, and economic revitalization of the Japanese economy.

## (The Growing number of inbound foreign tourists)

On the back of affordability created by the yen’s depreciation and eased visa requirements for travels to Japan, the number of foreign visitors to Japan is rapidly increasing. According to the Tourism Agency, the number of foreign tourists visiting Japan was the largest ever at about 19.74 million in 2015 (Figure 1-1-18). Also, the consumption amount of foreign visitors to Japan in the same year increased 71% from the previous year, to the record high of 3,477.1 billion yen (Figure 1-1-19).

The consumption amount of foreign visitors in Japan is counted toward exports, not personal consumptions, for GDP statistics purposes Note 16.
## (3) Changes in industrial structure

Amid changing population structure due to a declining and aging population, improvements to productivity, including technological innovations Note $ ^{17} $ play important roles in order for the Japanese economy to grow.

Chapter 3, Section 1 of the Annual Report on the Japanese Economy and Public Finance 2015 of the Cabinet Office describes that the prolonged economic downturn is on the back of slow productivity increases, pointing to Japan’s service industry Note $ ^{18} $ where productivity gain is slow compared to other developed countries.

The ratio of the labor-intensive service industry to economic activity is increasing as the economy becomes service-based and society ages.

Advanced countries, including Japan, have shifted to service-based economies on the back of raises in demand for services in accordance with changes in social structure, such as higher income levels and a declining and an aging population. This has led to an expansion of demand for labor in non-manufacturing industries. In terms of the shares of GDP contribution and the number of employees to the overall economy, shift from the manufacturing industry to the service industry is happening.

The shift of economic structure from the manufacturing industry to the service industry is common across advanced economies. For Japan, the ratio of nominal value added by the service industry to the overall economy, which was 70% in 2000, rose to 74% in 2014 (Figure 1-1-20). Similarly, the ratio of workers engaged in the service industry increased from 65% in 2000 to 72% in 2013.
The productivity per worker in the service industry that accounts for about 70% of GDP and working-age population, however, is declining while that of the manufacturing industry is increasing. The GDP per worker is especially low in such services as wholesale and retail, restaurant, accommodation, medical, and welfare industries (Figure 1-1-21).

Amid these circumstances, it is especially important in the service industry to increase labor productivity by improving production efficiency, technological innovation, and the like.
a hill named Mt. Kanda (Surugadai) was leveled to reclaim Hibiya Inlet in 1596, and the reclaimed land was utilized for building urban areas and samurai residences.

(Eastward Move of Tone River and westward move of Arakawa River)

Tone River, which currently flows into the Pacific Ocean

(Choshi-city, Chiba prefecture), flew into Edo Bay (current Tokyo Bay) in the Edo period (Figure 1-2-2).

Towns of Edo suffered frequent water damage due to floods and other disasters. The eastward move of Tone River started in 1594 in order to avoid water damage, develop farmland, and activate logistics by ship transportation.

In the eastward move of Tone River, construction projects for not only changing the flow of the river, but also for building levees and irrigation channels were conducted. These projects took 60 years and were completed in 1654. Also, a construction project to separate the Arakawa River, which joined the Tone River near Koshigaya, from the Tone River was conducted in 1629, resulting in the current path, flowing via the Sumida River into Tokyo Bay.

These projects contributed to flood prevention, development of new fields and water transportation, and supported the development of Edo.

(Formation of traffic networks centered around Edo by building Gokaido Roads)

Ieyasu planned development of Gokaido Roads (or five key roads, i.e., Tokai-do Road, Nakasen-do Road, Nikkokaido Road, Koshu-kaido Road and Oshu-kaido Road) based on the radial urban structure starting from Nihonbashi and, as a starter, built Tokai-do Road between Edo and Kyoto in 1601. The width of the Gokaido Roads including the Tokai-do Road was made wide, and they were used for Sankin-kotai (a system that obligated daimyo to reside in Edo periodically, taking turns) and other purposes. Also, roads called wakikaido (subsidiary roads) played the roles of supplementing transportation using the Gokaido Roads and serving as main roads that branch off from the Gokaido Roads to local regions, and many such wakikaido were built as roads for commoners (Figure 1-2-3).

Thus, the Gokaido Roads and other roads built across Japan by the Edo Shogunate supported the Sankin-kotai system and economies in the areas along the roads used for the system (e.g., prosperity of post towns along the roads). They are still serving as the delicate framework for the traffic networks of Japan, including railways and highways.
## Economic effect of Sankin-kotai

Sankin-kotai is a system in which daimyo traveling to and from Edo to fulfill their duty for alternate year-attendance at the Tokugawa shogunate government.

Although the size of the daimyo’s procession varied depending on their stipend and class, many processions were conducted with 150 to 300 persons, and large domains carried out the procession in the size of a few thousand persons, moving in flocks and taking an even longer period (Figure 1-2-4).

The Sankin-kotai system had a significant effect on the economy through, for example, large-scale consumer activity that took place in towns across Japan and Edo (Figure 1-2-5).

In addition to the economic effect, various traditions and food cultures were developed and exchanged mainly in Edo, which served as the foundation for creating the flow of transportation to local regions across Japan.

Figure 1-2-4

Folding Screen of Kaga Domain Daimyo Procession

Source) Ishikawa Prefectural Museum Of History

In his diary of accompanying a visit to Edo “Edo Sanpu Zuiko Ki”, Carl Peter Thunberg, a doctor and botanist at the Dutch trading house (who visited Edo in 1775), praised Japan’s roads: “Roads of this country are kept in good conditions throughout the year, wide and have trenches for drainage.” In the Edo period, commoners cleaned and maintained roads, and the description indicates that the maintenance conditions were at high levels compared to those of Western nations.

Among ukiyo-e paintings that are emblematic of the Edo period, Fifty-three Stations on the Tokaido: Morning Scene at Nihonbashi Bridge by Hiroshige Utagawa, which depicts artisans and merchants of bustling Nihonbashi, is especially famous. Also, Hokusai Katsushika painted energetic people on a bridge, having Mr. Fuji and Edo Castle on the background, in 36 views of Mount Fuji: Edo Nihonbashi (Figure 1-2-6).

Nihonbashi, the starting point of roads in the Edo period, still serves this role because distances to Tokyo indicated in current road signs show those to Nihonbashi.

Figure 1-2-5

Post Towns of Gokaido Roads (accommodations)

Name of Roads	Number of staging posts	Number of accommodation facilities
Honjin	Sub-Honjin	Hatakoya
Tokai-do road	57	116	70	3,103
Koshu-kaido road	45	41	44	525
Nakasen-do road	67	72	99	1,812
Nikko-kaido road	23	25	27	820
Oshu-kaido road	10	11	11	267

Source) Developed by the MLIT from the "Kinsei kotsu shiryoshu" (collection of historical early modern transportation)

Figure 1-2-6

Nihonbashi in the Edo Period Painted in Ukiyo-E

Fifty-three Stations on the Tokaido: Morning Scene at Nihonbashi Bridge by Hiroshige Utagawa

36 views of Mount Fuji: Edo Nihonbashi by Hokusai Katsushika

Source) National Diet Library
Column

# Daily life and infrastructure in the Edo period as portrayed by Hiroshige Utagawa

Figure 1-2-7 Hiroshige Utagawa

Because cameras were not commonly used in the Edo period, we cannot actually see the pictures to suppose the daily life at the time. However, everybody would know the landscapes of areas in Japan as portrayed in ukiyo-e prints (woodblock prints depicting the ways of the world) by Hiroshige Utagawa (1797–1858), who passed on the scenery of Japan in the latter part of the Edo period to us (Figure 1-2-7).

Around the late Edo period, ordinary people in the Edo area preferred to travel the nation, and ukiyo-e prints, such as the Fifty-Three Stations on the Tokai-do Road, depicting noted places of post towns and sightseeing spots, were widely popular as souvenirs. Hiroshige mainly portrayed the lives of Edo citizens as the background for the seas, mountains, rivers, and ponds. These ukiyo-e prints depict the beautiful scenery using indigo blue as the keynote color and had a great influence on the French Impressionists such as van Gogh, creating the term “Hiroshige Blue” outside Japan.

Source) National Diet Library

He painted the infrastructures of the time—roads, bridges, rivers, and ports—everywhere in his paintings, along with a variety of nature landscapes, so we can suppose that the infrastructure had been developed in ancient times and were closely related to everyday life and the economic activities of Edo citizens (Figure 1-2-8).

Figure 1-2-8 Various Infrastructures Painted by Hiroshige Utagawa in Fifty-three Stations on the Tokaido

A mountain road was developed by cutting through a mountain Nissaka-shuku (Kakegawa-city, Shizuoka prefecture)

Source) National Diet Library

Okazaki-shuku with a large-scale bridge (Okazaki-city, Aichi prefecture)

## (Agricultural production increased by development of farming water)

In the Edo period, about 80% of population lived in rural areas $ {}^{Note 19} $ , thus increases in agricultural production directly led to economic growth. In association with progress in the development of new fields and irrigation since 17th century, production volume (in koku unit) increased by about 30% (Figure 1-2-9, Figure 1-2-10).
Figure 1-2-9

Changes in Farming Land Area and Irrigation System Development

Western calendar year	BC2000	0	600	700	800	900	1000	1100	1200	1300	1400	1500	1600	1700	1800	1900	2000
Period	Jomon	Kofun	Nara	Heian	Kamakura	Muromachi	Sengoku
Changes in population and farming land area	Farming land area (10,000 ha)	Sayama Pond (621)	Manno Pond (821)	Takahashi River, Tataizeki (1182)	Tatsumi-yosui (1631)(1653)	Edo	Minumadai-yosui (1670)	Hakone-yosui (1680)(1882)	Meiji-yosui (1880)(1882)	Asaka-sosui (1885)(1961)	Nasu-sosui (1885)(1961)	Kagawa-yosui (1968)	Aichi-yosui (1974)	Toyokawa-yosui (1968)	Population (1,000 people)	4.79 million ha

Source) Developed by the MLIT from “Variety of Irrigation Systems in the World” by Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries

Figure 1-2-10

Changes in Koku-Unit Yield in Edo Period

(Water supply system development)

Partly due to the location close to the coastline, the salt concentration of well water of Edo towns was high and not suitable for drinking. Therefore, Ieyasu sent his vassal Okubo Togoro Tadayuki and ordered him to develop water supply systems.

Around 1629, the Kanda Water Supply System that has spring water sourced from Inokashira Pond, Zenfukuji and Myoshoji Ponds, and the like was completed. At that time, water pipes were made of stones, woods, bamboo, and the like (Figure 1-2-11).

As the population of Edo increased, drinking water became scarce and the development of the Tamagawa Water Supply System was planned by order of the fourth shogun Ietsuna Tokugawa, and Shouemon Tamagawa and Seiemon Tamagawa, known as Tamagawa brothers, started construction of a water supply system.

The brothers started excavation works in April 1653 and planned to connect stone and wooden pipes from Yotsuya Okido to Toranomon but they ran out of money for construction expenses near Takaido. Therefore, the brothers requested the Shogunate to allocate additional expenses but the request was not approved and they invested their own money to continue the construction projects. As a result, they completed the pipe from Hamura to

Figure 1-2-11

Wooden Water Pipes of Edo Period Excavated in Chiyoda Ward, Tokyo

Water pipes from Marunouchi 3-chome remains

Source) Tokyo Waterworks Historical Museum

Mark of seams on wooden water pipes
Yotsuya Okido about seven months later in November of the same year, and from Yotsuya Okido to Toranomon in November 1654, completing the whole Tamagawa Water Supply System in the short period of about one and a half years.

Because of the success of the Tamagawa brothers, water from the Tamagawa Water Supply System was used for irrigation and drinking water by Edo citizens and it is still used as current Tokyo people’s drinking water more than 360 years later.

## (Sewerage systems in Edo)

In the Edo period, oil, chemical detergents, and the like were not used in large volumes as we do now, and human excrement was traded as a valuable resource to be used as fertilizer. Therefore, sewerage in the Edo period was mainly for rain and spring water, and its contamination level was said to be relatively low compared to current levels.

In the case of the Taiko Gesui (Sewerage System) (Osaka-city), built in the Azuchi-Momoyama period before the Edo period, town people jointly conducted water cleaning activity in accordance with the official notice of Machi-bugyo (town magistrate), and they are also said to have borne maintenance, repair and other expenses (Figure 1-2-12).

The Taiko Sewerage System has been used up until now after an elapse of 400 years since its construction, which indicates that appropriate maintenance enables such a

Figure1-2-12

Taiko Gesui (Sewerage System) still being used (Osaka-shi)

Source) Construction Bureau, Osaka City

system to serve as infrastructure that supports people’s lives for a long time.

## (808 Bridges of Naniwa)

Many towns were packed in Edo to the extent it was called “Edo 808 Towns of Edo.” On the other hand, towns of Osaka with numerous bridges were referred to as the “808 Bridges of Naniwa” (Figure 1-2-13).

About half of the 350 bridges in Edo were public works bridges built by Shogunate.

Of Osaka’s remaining bridges, only 12 were built through public works projects, such as Tenjin-bashi Bridge and Korai-bashi Bridge, and the rest of about 190 bridges were built by town people at their own expense for their living and business (Figure 1-2-14). Noninbashi Bridge (Osaka-shi) was one of the public works bridges, but duties of daily maintenance were imposed on town people around the bridge, including cleaning of the bridge, reporting of any crashing of a ship into the bridge and detention of the boatman, and reporting of any damage to the bridge.

Figure 1-2-13

Scenery of 808 Bridges of Naniwa

Source) National Diet Library
Of four bridges on the Sumida River in the Edo period, Ryogokubashi Bridge, Eitaibashi Bridge, Azumabashi Bridge, and Shin'ohashi Bridge, the Azumabashi Bridge was built in 1774 by six town persons at their own expense by obtaining the approval of the Edo Shogunate, and the other three bridges were constructed by the Shogunate. This indicates that bridges were so indispensable for living and economic activity of town people in Edo that they constructed bridges even by using their own money.

Figure 1-2-14

(Infrastructure development and nurturing of disaster prevention awareness by wealthy merchants)

Goryo Hamaguchi, the seventh head of the Hamaguchi family that ran a shoyu (soy) sauce production business, predicted the coming of a tsunami to Hiromura (current Hirogawa-cho, Wakayama) right after the Ansei Nankai Earthquake in November 5, 1854, and set a fire on just harvested precious rice to evacuate village people to a hill, which rescued many of them. This is the anecdote known as the Fire of Rice Sheaves.

Just three months after the earthquake, Goryo implemented reconstruction measures aimed at two purposes by investing his own money and filing a petition to Kishu domain.

Figure 1-2-15

Bronze Statue of Goryo Hamaguchi and Cross-Sectional Drawing of Hiro Village Breakwater (Hirogawa-cho, Wakayama)

Source) Inamura-no-Hi no Yakata museum

In addition to levee development to prevent future tsunami disasters, measures were also aimed at countering unemployment for villagers who had lost jobs due to the tsunami. The four year construction project resulted in a large-scale breakwater, Hiromura Breakwater, with dimensions 600 m long, 20 m wide and 5 m high, in 1858 (Figure 1-2-15).

The public works project conducted with investment of money by Goryo himself promoted self-support and disaster awareness among villagers, as well as the sense that the breakwater was their asset.

Subsequently, the Hiromura Breakwater was designated as a historic site in 1938, and the breakwater protected many villagers from a tsunami caused by the Showa Nankai Earthquake in 1946, about 100 years after the construction of the
breakwater.

The Hiromura Breakwater still exists in Hirogawa-cho. In 1994, the Hiromura Breakwater Preservation Committee was established, with cleaning activity taking place a few times a year on a regular basis, in which not only the committee members but also children in the neighborhood participate to learn disaster prevention. This represents praises for Goryo's accomplishments as well as continued fostering of disaster prevention awareness among local residents.

Inamura-no-Hi no Yakata museum, which consists of the Goryo Hamaguchi Archives and the Tsunami Educational Center, was opened in 2007 and the facilities communicate the importance of disaster prevention awareness to visitors. In December 2015, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution to designate November 5, the date when the Ansei Nankai Earthquake hit, as World Tsunami Day, contributing to the fostering of disaster prevention awareness, not only in Japan, but also on a global scale.

## (Infrastructure maintenance awareness handed to present time)

The awareness that infrastructure is an asset and it should be maintained by people as in the Edo period is handed down to the present day in some areas, case examples of which are as follows.

Example (i): In Chuo Ward, Osaka-city, conducts the annual event of cleaning bridges in the ward “Bridge Cleaning Brash Up Project” led by the ward office in public and private sector collaboration with local residents, companies, various organizations, and others (Figure 1-2-16).

Example (ii): Nihonbashi Bridge, Chuo Ward, Tokyo Metropolis, Nihonbashi Bridge cleaning has been conducted since 1971, hosted by the Nihonbashi-Meikyu (Nihonbashi preservation association), with participation of people from companies, elementary schools, and other organizations in the neighborhood (Figure 1-2-17).

Example (iii): In Chuo Ward, Niigata-city, Niigata prefecture, a festival to celebrate the birth of Bandaibashi Bridge, a symbol of Niigata-city, is held annually (Figure 1-2-18).

Figure 1-2-16

Cleaning of Bridges in Chuo-ku by Citizens, Corporations and Various Organizations

Source) Chuo Ward Office, Osaka City

Figure 1-2-17

Source) Nihonbashi-Meikyou

People Washing Nihonbashi Bridge

Figure 1-2-18

Bandaibashi Bridge Birth Festival Leaflet and Picture of the Festival

Source) Chuo Ward Office, Niigata-city
Example (iv): The activity of the committee to think about environmental beautification established in 1999 in Saikai-city, Nagasaki prefecture Note 20, is conducting planting and road weeding projects in and out of the region (Figure 1-2-19).

Figure 1-2-19

Cleaning activity around Oshima-Ohashi Bridge

Source) MLIT

Road Beautification Activity in Saikai city

General education in coordination with elementary schools

## Column

## Development of attractive communities where local activities and infrastructure are combined

Many of the measures implemented by local districts that have received Handmade Hometown Prizes are to revitalize the regions utilizing familiar infrastructures.

Semboku-city, Akita prefecture, is working on Vitalization of the Local District utilizing sediment control facilities, mainly driven by NPO Iyashi-No Keiryu, Sato, Machi Net (healing mountain streams, villages, and town net) (Figure 1-2-20 and 1-2-21). The sediment control dam with large culverts on the Obanaigawa River, completed in 2005, had been planned as a facility, not only to have disaster prevention functions, but also to be friendly to the environment and landscape, and to allow the participation of residents. The universal design of the facility makes it easy for every person to visit and use. The NPO corporation has hosted an event called the Iyashi-De Walk (Walk in Healing) every year since 2005, through which more than 100 people who enjoy walking at the waterside and in the forest, including wheelchair users and kindergarteners, have deepened exchanges among them. In addition, various activities are carried out in the facility to encourage contacts with nature and raise awareness of regional disaster prevention, while the facility serves as the playground for many schools and organizations, and as the place to hold citizens' forums focusing on the environment and disaster.

Figure 1-2-20 Exchanges of Broader People after Introduction of Universal Design for Sediment Control Dam

Source) MLIT

Figure 1-2-21 Kindergarteners Viewing From Above Sediment Control Dam (Playing and Leaning Ground)

Source) MLIT

In Kashima-city, Saga prefecture, since around 1989 when local residents came into action to revitalize the exhausted towns, residents have been making efforts to develop towns utilizing the townscape of Hizenhamashuku Note dating back to the Edo period (Figure 1-2-22 and 1-2-23). Nowadays, with the NPO

Note In 2006, designated as an important preservation district of historic building in Japan.

Note 20 Won 2015 MLIT Mister Award “Handmade Hometown Prizes.” This Award is given by the MLIT Minister to social capital that creates attractions and distinct characteristics of a region and brilliant local activity that utilize it.