Silviase/jgov_v1.4_full_ann huggingface dataset:
火災負傷者数、火災死者数を一定割合で求めると対象とする地域の人口による火災死者数低減効果を考慮しなければ、過大な火災死者数を算出することがわかる。特に都道府県総人口の大きい地域で過大な火災死者数を算出することになる。

都道府県総人口の大きい部分で見かけ上、火災死者数の増加が飽和する傾向が現在の資料から分かる。この飽和する傾向をもたらす因子を明らかにすることができれば、火災死者数を低減する方策の策定に寄与できる。

もし、産業分野で有効とされる災害発生頻度低下対策が火災にも有効であるならば、火災被害を低減するためには、火災発生件数に関連する要因を取り除くことが有効であると考えられる。また、火災死者にのみ注目した対策は、有効性が十分でないと推定される。

## 参考文献

1）桐田一吉：“安全工学”、pp.26-33、共立出版(1971)

2）安全工学協会編："安全工学便覧"、p.325、コロナ社（1973）

3）前澤正禮：“概説安全工学”、p.16、共立出版(1973)

4）化学工学協会編："化学プラントの安全対策技術4事故災害事例と対策"、p.30、丸善(1979)

5）総合安全工学研究所訳："ハインリッヒ産業災害防止論"、p.61、海文堂出版（1982）

6）清水久二、新井栄一訳：“クールマン安全工学”、p.11、海文堂出版（1985）

7）北川徽三："基本安全工学"、p.16、海文堂(1982)

8) Crowl, D. A. and Louvar, J. F.: "Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with Applications", p.10, Prentice Hall (1990)

9）鶴田 俊：“火災現象と安全工学－消火技術の現状－”、p.59、第30回安全工学シンポジウム講演予稿集、日本建築学会（2000）

10) http://www.fdma.go.jp

11）消防厅：“昭和55年版消防白書”、p.220、消防厅（1980）

12）消防厅：“昭和41年版消防白書”、p.204、消防厅（1966）

13) http://www.stat.go.jp/data/ssds/zuhyou/5-141.xls

14）総務庁統計局編：“第四十一回日本統計年鑑平成3年”、p.26、日本統計協会・毎日新聞社(1991)

15) http://www.npa.go.jp/police_j.htm

16) http://statmap.mhlw.go.jp/sugata/index.html

17）中山伊知郎編：“統計學辞典”、p.605、東洋経済新報社（1957）
# A Study on Hazard and Risk from Fires

(Abstract)

Takashi Tsuruda

(Recieved July 30, 2001)

The relationship between hazard and risk from fires has been explored to investigate life saving factors.

The frequencies of injury and fatality from fires have been compared with the local population based on the prereleased data to verify the linear correlations of these frequencies.

It was verified that the frequency of injury from fires is proportional with the local population.

It was found that the frequency of fatality from fires is proportional with the logarithm of the local population.

This result indicates that the estimated fatalities from fires are much larger than the real observed fatalities if the reduction of the frequency of fatality with the local population size is not included.
# Suppression of Large Scale Fire Spread with Water and Water based Chemicals

Satoshi Takahashi

(Received July 31, 2001)

Large scale fire suppression experiments were performed using water and water based chemicals. The mixed solution of surfactant and mono-ammonium phosphate proved to be very effective in suppressing fire spread, although the quantity of required water was reduced to only 60% that of plain water. In case of plain water, the fire men were obliged to locate in the limited area to control the frequently penetrating fire out from the suppressed area, but in case of the chemical solution, because there was a long interruption time for application, the fire men were free and are supposed to be capable to move in an other area, thus making them possible to cover more wide burning area.

## I ntroduction

The Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake(The 1995 Hyogoken Nanbu earthquake) damaged water supply facilities and resulted in the shortage of water against fires, making it extremely difficult to halt the spread of fires, that occurred simultaneously in various parts in the earthquake region. It is necessary to address our self to the issue of prevention of fire spread scientifically with limited water resources. In the past, the research on suppression of fire spread using only water, not to mention chemicals, had not been done thoroughly nor in enough large-scale fire. There is a potential in Japan and even at a global scale. In addition to the obvious practical applications, this field of research is scientifically attractive.

This report presents the results of timely experiments conducted to address the issue, and analyzes the results focusing on suppression of large-scale fire spread.

## Concept of Suppressing Fire Spread

## (1) Suppression and Extinction

Suppressing fire spread is different from extinguishing. The latter means to stop the burning of an object, the former means to keep this extinguished object in a limited area, leaving other areas untouched burning using inhibitors (referred to as plain water and water-based chemicals hereafter). Since the inhibitor treated area is exposed to heat until the residual burning ends, this inhibitor is required to be enough effective to
prevent re-ignition.

## (2) Inhibitors

In these experiments, MAP(mono-ammonium phosphate) and surfactant were mixed and used as a chemical inhibitor besides water. MAP has been used to extinguish cellulosic material fires and as a fire retardant. In small scale laboratory tests, the effect of MAP in extinguishing fires is well known to be high even in its diluted solution $ [1,2,3] $ although it has not been demonstrated in a full-scale experiment. In an actual large-scale fire, it is preferable from many respects, chemicals are used at low concentrations, if possible. Thus, in the experiments, the concentrations of the chemicals are used as low as possible.

When fire brigades use plain water to extinguish fire, they waste a lot of it, because the fuel's capacity to retain water used to be poor $ ^{[4]} $ . Our intention was to reduce this wasted water by enhancing penetration and adhesion on fuel surfaces. The combination of these two substances would increase the penetration of water and MAP and more effective in extinguishing and suppressing fire spread than other single water-soluble substance without surfactant.

The surfactant (Dioctyl sodium sulfo succinate) used in the experiments is known for its excellent penetration rather than lowering surface tension. It is a surfactant made of natural substance and biodegradable. As for the performance, fluoric substances are even more effective, but they are less biodegradable. In an emergency, however, fluoric substances are also recommended because of their superior character in lowering surface tension at lower concentration and their availability as foam-type fire extinguishers. Other surfactants can also be used. The surface tension of typical surfactants are shown in Fig.1. The recommended concentration, although not necessarily, is slightly up the micell concentration.

Prior to large-scale experiments, laboratory penetration tests of the solutions have also been performed $ [5] $ . Fig.2 shows only one typical results. Surfactant concentrations were 0.1% and 0%, carbonization degrees were

Fig.1 Relationship between concentration of surfactants and surface tension OT-P : Dioctyl sodium sulfo succinate OS-Soap : Potassium Olealate AFFF concentration is based on 3% type-solution $ ^{*} $ 1 dyn= $ 10^{-5} $ N

Fig.2 Sprayed quantity vs soaked density

Symbols	Temperature condition	Surfactant concentration [%]	Carbonization degree [%]
---□---	cool	0	0
---■---	cool	0	30
—△—	cool	0.1	0
—▲—	cool	0.1	30
—○—	hot	0	30
—●—	hot	0.1	30
30% and 0%, respectively.

Wood samples of the size $ 5~cm \times 5~cm \times 7~cm $ were heated at $ 550^{\circ}C $ in an electric furnace and partially carbonized. These heated samples were tested either at cooled ambient temperature or at hot state just after pulled out from the furnace. In Fig.2, we see large gaps between plain and wet water, cooled and hot state, raw and carbonized wood. At ambient temperature, there are little difference between surfactant and plain water on raw surface, still as the carbonization degree increased, the surfactant worked more effectively. At hot state, both surfactant and water are soaked surprisingly, although surfactant effect is conspicuous.

## Experiments

Since fires have scale merits, it is necessary to conduct full-scale experiments in order to imitate real fire suppression. Experiments using large wood cribs were conducted in Part 1 and a more practical experiment using a larger pile made of waste wood materials and manual application was conducted in Part 2. By retarding areas where fire was once extinguished and by making efficient use of water, our goal was to improve the speed of operations by fire brigades.

## Part 1 Experiments using Large Wood Cribs

### 1.1 Objectives

Large wood cribs were used as models for observing the suppression mechanisms of the inhibitors.

### 1.2 Methodology

#### 1.2.1 Combustion Model and Water Application Method

Date of experiment: March 4~8, 1996.

Four hundred Japanese cedar square lumbers, $ 5cm \times 5cm \times 200cm $ in size, were cross piled as Fig.3 in zigzag form thirty layers high. Seven crib assembly were then lined up in three rows as Fig.4. In Fig.4, the fire was set on the right hand side bottom corner.

Fig.3 Model crib for testing fire spread suppression

One Crib is composed by 5 units, where one unit is composed by 2 layers×14 lumbers plus 4 Layers×13 lumbers. Lumber size: 5cm×5cm×200cm ; Japanese Cedar.

Fig.4 Schematic of wood crib array

No.1~No.6 : Fuel crib, No.7 : Target crib
The one at the left hand side(No.7) was designed as the target crib to be tested for fire suppression purposes. Because the lumbers are in zigzag form, the inhibitor does not simply fall down straight to the ground and accumulates on the surface to work effectively. These paralleled experiments were conducted four times.

In the first two experiments, the fixed nozzles above the top of the crib were used to extinguish fire in order to eliminate any operational factors. In the third and fourth experiments, experienced fire fighters manually applied from hand-held hoses.

In order to compare the suppression effects of the water and chemical inhibitor at the minimum amount required to extinguish the fire, applications were stopped as soon as the fires were extinguished in all the four cases.

The author anticipated to apply the target crib when it is fully involved in fire and observe the recurrence. Still we needed to bear in mind that the wind velocity affects the spread of fire and about twenty minutes of combustion period of a crib in order to judge the right time of spraying. The four experiments were elaborately designed and conducted under more or less the same conditions.

#### 1.2.2 Inhibitors

0.15% of undiluted solution of the surfactant and 1% of MAP were mixed in water as a chemical inhibitor and plain water as reference.

#### 1.2.3 Nozzle

Above the target crib, four nozzles were placed by one per square meter. Water pressure, the clearance of the nozzles above the crib and type of nozzle used (cone nozzle) were adjusted to ensure inhibitors reach fully on the top area of the crib at 250 liters/min. When hand-held two hoses were used, inhibitors were sprayed from opposite position, each producing 250 liters/min in straight and spray form. The author advised the fire fighters preliminary to apply carefully not to waste inhibitors.

### 1.3 Results and Assessment

#### 1.3.1 Burning Conditions

Experiments 1 and 2: Wind blew strongly toward the target crib (No.7) from the fuel cribs (see Fig.4), so the flame propagated fast and even after the fire was extinguished, the target crib was often engulfed in flames.

Experiments 3 and 4: On the reverse, wind blew in the opposite direction, toward the fuel cribs from the target crib, and slowed down the propagation speed. It was so slow that when the target crib caught fire, the first row (No.1-3) started to tilt. Thus, in order to expose the target crib to the heat for a sufficient period of time, we were obliged to extinguish the fire earlier than the previous experiments.

The difference in wind directions enabled us to compare the two cases by the wind category, $ ^{①} $ when the target crib is on the lee side with direct flame impact and $ ^{②} $ when it is on the upwind side with no direct flame impact.

In all cases, interestingly enough, burning on the upper part of the crib preceded the lower part and burned in a straight diagonal line as shown in Fig.5.

1st & 2nd Experiment

3rd & 4th Experiment

Fig.5 Burning conditions when applied inhibitors : side view

☑ Symbol is charred area (ignited area) when applied inhibitors
Table 1 Burning Rate of Cribs

Experiment. No.	Inhibitors & Required Quantity (kg)	Burning Rate before Application (m/min)	Burning Rate after Application (m/min) and its decrease percent (%) for target crib
No.2	No.5	No.7	Charred layers	Raw wood layers
Flame	no Flame	Flame	no Flame
1	Plain water
404	0.72	0.62	0.22	0.14(64)	—	0.111	—
2	Chemical Inhibitor
742	0.42	0.37	0.20	0.029(15)	—	0.18	—
3	Chemical Inhibitor
806	0.20	0.18	0.16	0.022(14)	0.0037(2.3)	0.00	0.055
4	Plain water
505	0.085	0.16	0.13	0.026(20)	0.093(72)	0.00	0.059

opposite direction, flames did not blow into the target crib. The crib was reignited only by the emitted heat from the burning area. As shown in Table 1, the burning rate was only slightly reduced by the chemicals referred to water with flames and without flames, the rate markedly reduced. The crib caught fire beginning at the lower corner portion as it is heated, and the fire gradually spreads toward the upper layers as Fig.6(3). Ignition in the lower layers were most likely the main cause of fire spread because the preliminary burning time, in other words the degree of carbonization, are less in these layers, and are less exposed to inhibitors.

#### 1.3.3 Analysis of Effectiveness

In experiment 1 and 2 in Table1, when flames were blowing in, the speed of fire spread through the carbonized layers slowed down to 64% with water and 15% with chemical inhibitor. Chemicals was, thus, 4.3 times effective of water, in terms of speed. Taking the quantity used into consideration, the effectiveness, simply put, is 2.4(4.3/1.8) times. These results are based when minimum amounts of inhibitors were used. The carbonized layers start burning only when the burning area was in flames; no measurement could be made without the flames. When chemical inhibitor was used, the rate of fire spread in the wood layers was bigger than water. This is probably due to stronger wind after the fire was under control or something another reasons. Basically, there was no big difference in speed between water and chemical inhibitor on wood layers.

In experiments 3 and 4, the flames blew in the opposite direction, allowing a clear view of the array and made measurement easier. When there were flames in the burning area, little differences were observed between water and chemical inhibitor as shown in Table1. However, in comparison with experiment 1, where the target crib were on the lee side, water proved to be quite effective in experiment 4. In addition, after the flames disappeared (only glowing, or mildly hot), the chemical inhibitor showed 25 times more effective in delaying the burning rate. The findings of experiments 3 and 4 indicate that fire suppression in opposite wind could be realized easily by simply applying water. However, this does not mean the fire will never recur.

### 1.4 Summary

The findings of the experiments using large size wood cribs are summarized as follows.

(1) For the purposes of effective fire suppression, inhibitors should be sprayed from the caustic curve toward
the carbonized layer in the burning area. The effect of spraying the chemical inhibitor on the unburned wood layers is limited due to small amount retained on the surfaces. However, since leaping flames, radiant heat and flying sparkles can cause fires on the fresh surfaces, some amount of the inhibitor should be sprayed on these areas just to prevent catching fires.

(2) For efficient suppression, inhibitors should be sprayed successively in the target area for a short period of time after the fire is extinguished to ensure thorough penetration of them.

(3) On the lee side, a mixture of surfactant and MAP is most suitable.

(4) Plain water is effective in suppressing fire on the wind side. Wet water must prove to be more effective. MAP is not necessarily required, but is safer to use.

(5) Comparing the speed of fire spread in extinguished areas, chemical inhibitor was several times more effective than plain water when the flames were blowing in and over ten times more effective only when radiant heat.

(6) More chemical inhibitor than plain water was required just to extinguish a crib fire but it largely reduced the speed of fire spread even when fire recurred.

## Part 2 Large Scale Experiments using Waste Wood Materials

### 2.1 Objectives

Based on the findings of the basic experiments using wood cribs, this experiment was intended to be a full scale to simulate the intensity so that fire fighters could test fire suppression effects in more realistic conditions. However, although it was practical, this was only an experiment. Limited inhibitors were to be used to test the effectiveness. This experiment aimed at gathering data on the fire suppression performance of water and chemicals and other data related to a large scale fire.

### 2.2 Methodology

#### 2.2.1 Fire Suppression Methodology

Date of experiment: Wednesday, January 29, 1997.

Temperature : $ 11 \pm 1^{\circ}C $ and relative humidity $ 21 \pm 1\% $ .

The weather was fair with north ideal breeze.

Fig.7 outlines the experiment methodology. Water and chemical inhibitor were each sprayed in 2 meters high, 10 meters wide and 3 meters deep areas to compare the effects. Although 1% MAP was used in the previous crib experiments, we increased the

Rags soaked with kerosene were put into the bottom on right hand side corner of the area A, on the first row, and ignited. Fire spread toward B to the lee side. Since the caustic curve was expected to become convex, one meter to the two ends from the center were not set fire so that the fire would spread in a straight line.

In the previous basic experiments, it was found

Fig.7 Experiment methodology for fire spread suppression
## Conclusion

Chemical inhibitor, which is composed by thin mono-ammonium phosphate and surfactant, proved to be several times more effective than plain water in preventing the spread of large-scale fire at lee side. At wind side, the difference was small, although over ten times more effective than lee side. The amount of inhibitor required in a given area may not be largely diminished, but due to long interruption time of application for chemicals, greater efficiency on operations can be expected.

## Acknowledgement

This work was done under request after The Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake with the cooperation of many companies and Fire Departments.

The author especially thanks to KOBE FIRE DEPARTMENT; TOKYO FIRE DEPARTMENT; KAWASAKI SAFETY SERVICE INDUSTRIES LTD; HATSUTA SEISAKUSHO CO LTD; NOHMI BOSAI LTD; NITTANN CO LTD; HOCHIKI CORPORATION; NIPPON DRY CHEMICAL CO LTD; YAMATO PROTEC CORPORATION; MIYATA INDUSTRY CO LTD; and also Dr. Hasegawa, K., Mr. Takemoto, A., and other members of our Institute.

## References

1) Bryan, J., and Smith, D. N.: "THE EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS IN WATER SOLUTION ON FIRE EXTINCTION", ENGINEERING, pp. 457–460 (JUNE 8, 1945)

2) Bryan, J., and Smith, D. N.: "THE EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS IN WATER SOLUTION ON FIRE EXTINCTION", ENGINEERING, pp. 497–450 (JUNE 22, 1945)

3) TYNER, H.D.: "Fire-Fighting Effectiveness of Chemicals in Water Solution", INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY, p.60 (January, 1941)

4) Takahashi, S.: "Extinction of Wood Fire", Bulletin of Japanese Association of Fire Science and Engineering, 30, (1), p.31 (1980)

5) Takahashi, S. and Takemoto, A.: "Report on Technical Development of Fire Spread Prevention by using Small amount of Water", NRIFD TECHNICAL REPORT No.39(1977)
# 大規模火災の水と塩類水溶液による延焼阻止

(概要)

高橋 哲

(平成13年7月31日受理)

阪神淡路大地震では、同時多発的に火災が発生したため、相対的に消防力が不足し、とりわけ水の確保が十分に行われなかった。また、あっても活用するための手段が機能しなかったといわれている。

これを契機として、入手できる水を有効活用するため、消火剤を利用するなど水に適切な化学薬品を添加する事によって、消火や延焼阻止効果の大幅な向上がはかれないかという指摘がなされた。筆者らはこの緊急の課題に対して、とりあえず実現可能と考えられる薬品を選定し、実規模の実験を通じて延焼阻止効果を確認することとした。実験では、阻止効果を定量的、科学的に判定できるように、まず大型クリブを使用して、スプリンクラーなどから水と塩類水溶液を定量的に散布して比較した。ついで大規模なガレキ場を建造して、実践的に、消防士が手持ちホースで最小限の阻止剤を散布することによって、阻止効果を比べる実験を行った。

巾10mの阻止帯での比較では、塩類水溶液は水の63％にとどまった。その他の効果として、燃焼が阻止帯を突破する事を防ぐために、水では間断なく散布する必要があったのに対して、塩類水溶液では、18分余りの中断時間を稼ぐことが出来た。延焼火災では、放置燃焼領域はどんどん拡大するから、小水量および長い散布中断時間を稼げることは、単位消防力あたり大きな展開力が得られることとなり、潜在的な延焼拡大領域を未然に防止できることにつながるので、実験以上の価値が生ずると考えられる。
# 所外発表論文

目次

CFD Modeling of Garage Fire and Gaseous Fire Suppression

D. Makarov, A. Karpov, O. Sugawa, and T. Tsuruda ..... 71

Investigation Report regarding Behavioral Response of Employees in a Hotel Fire

M. Mizuno, T. Wakamatsu, Y. Ohmiya, and A. Sekizawa ..... 84

Study on Feasibility of Evacuation by Elevators in a High-Rise Building

- A Case Study for the Evacuation in the Hiroshima Motomachi High-Rise Apartments

A. Sekizawa, S. Nakahama, Y. Ikehata, M. Ebihara, and H. Notake ..... 96

A Study for the Fire Safety Planning of the Himeji-jo Castle, A World Heritage

G. Mizukami, Y. Hasemi, T. Yamada, and T. Jin …… 106

CO Formation Characteristics of Methane-Air Diffusion Flames Doped with Halon Replacements

Y. Saso, M. Nishioka, and T. Takeno …… 118

An Experimental Study of Ejected Flames of a High-Rise Buildings

- Effects of Depth of Balcony on Ejected Flame -

T. Suzuki, A. Sekizawa, T. Yamada, E. Yanai, H. Satoh, H. Kurioka, and Y. Kimura ..... 129

CFD Simulation of Gaseous Suppressant Injection and Fire Extinguishing

D. Makarov, A. Karpov, and T. Tsuruda ..... 140

Comparison of Combustion Characteristics of Various Crude Oils

Y. Iwata, H. Koseki, M.L. Janssens, and T. Takahashi …… 152

A Study of Full-Scale Flammability Test of Flame Retardant and Non-Flame Retardant Curtains

T. Yamada, E. Yanai, and H. Naba …… 162

Comparison between Experiments and Numerical Simulations of Fire Whirls due to a Single Flame in a Vertical Square Channel with Symmetrical Corner Gaps

K. Satoh, K.T. Yang, and K. Kuwahara …… 173

The Movement of Smoke in Horizontal Passage under the Soffit against an Air Flow

I. Kasahara, S. Nakahama, K. Hiwatashi, Y. Ikehata, Y. Watanabe, T. Yamada, and S. Matsushima ..... 183

Evaluation of the Burning Characteristics of Vegetable Oils in Comparison with Fuel and Lubricating Oils

H. Koseki, Y. Natsume, and Y. Iwata ..... 195
# Articles of Staff of NRIFD Published by Outside Organizations

Contents

CFD Modeling of Garage Fire and Gaseous Fire Suppression

D. Makarov, A. Karpov, O. Sugawa, and T. Tsuruda ..... 71

Investigation Report regarding Behavioral Response of Employees in a Hotel Fire

M. Mizuno, T. Wakamatsu, Y. Ohmiya, and A. Sekizawa ..... 84

Study on Feasibility of Evacuation by Elevators in a High-Rise Building

- A Case Study for the Evacuation in the Hiroshima Motomachi High-Rise Apartments -

A. Sekizawa, S. Nakahama, Y. Ikehata, M. Ebihara, and H. Notake ..... 96

A Study for the Fire Safety Planning of the Himeji-jo Castle, A World Heritage

G. Mizukami, Y. Hasemi, T. Yamada, and T. Jin …… 106

CO Formation Characteristics of Methane-Air Diffusion Flames Doped with Halon Replacements

Y. Saso, M. Nishioka, and T. Takeno …… 118

An Experimental Study of Ejected Flames of a High-Rise Buildings

- Effects of Depth of Balcony on Ejected Flame -

T. Suzuki, A. Sekizawa, T. Yamada, E. Yanai, H. Satoh, H. Kurioka, and Y. Kimura ..... 129

CFD Simulation of Gaseous Suppressant Injection and Fire Extinguishing

D. Makarov, A. Karpov, and T. Tsuruda ..... 140

Comparison of Combustion Characteristics of Various Crude Oils

Y. Iwata, H. Koseki, M.L. Janssens, and T. Takahashi ..... 152

A Study of Full-Scale Flammability Test of Flame Retardant and Non-Flame Retardant Curtains

T. Yamada, E. Yanai, and H. Naba …… 162

Comparison between Experiments and Numerical Simulations of Fire Whirls due to a Single Flame in a Vertical Square Channel with Symmetrical Corner Gaps

K. Satoh, K.T. Yang, and K. Kuwahara …… 173

The Movement of Smoke in Horizontal Passage under the Soffit against an Air Flow

I. Kasahara, S. Nakahama, K. Hiwatashi, Y. Ikehata, Y. Watanabe, T. Yamada, and S. Matsushima ..... 183

Evaluation of the Burning Characteristics of Vegetable Oils in Comparison with Fuel and Lubricating Oils

H. Koseki, Y. Natsume, and Y. Iwata … 195
消防研究所报告

___ 消防研究所报告 ___

通 卷 92 号

平成13年9月30日発行

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〒181-8633 東京都三鷹市中原3丁目14番1号

電話（0422）44-8331（代表）

100 本報告書は古紙100%（白色度70.0%）を使用しています。
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