Silviase/jgov_v1.4_full_ann huggingface dataset:
Envisaged Storm Surge Floods in the Port of Tokyo (Calculation)

Note: Simulated under the conditions of a Muroto-class typhoon passing along a course that will raise the sea level in the inner part of Tokyo Bay to its maximum height while the sea level has already risen by 60cm through global warming. (The Muroto Typhoon hit the island of Shikoku in September, 1934, with a pressure of 911.6hPa observed at Cape Muroto, near the strike point.)

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Japan

## (3) Measures required in daily life

## ○Transition in greenhouse gas emissions throughout the world

Global emissions of greenhouse gases through human activities have been on a continuous increase, and the emissions of $ CO_{2} $ , which claims the majority share of the human-generated greenhouse gases, in particular, have increased by approximately 80% during the period from 1970 to 2004. In terms of emissions volume by country, Japan ranks fourth after the USA, China and Russia.

1970—2004 Annual Global Emissions of Human-generated Greenhouse Gases

Note: Emissions of six other kinds of greenhouse gases subject to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) have been converted into $ CO_{2} $ emissions according to their capabilities to cause global warming and added together. (Unit: one million $ CO_{2} $ -converted tons each year)

Source: Compiled from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report.

Transition in $ CO_{2} $ Emissions by Major Countries

Source: “CO₂ Emissions from Fuel Combustion,” International Energy Agency
## ○Transition in greenhouse gas emissions in Japan

In Japan, the emissions of greenhouse gases have been on the increase since FY1990. The emissions of industrial sectors, responsible for about 35% of total emissions, have been on the decrease since FY1990, while emissions of the household and other business (office and commercial facilities) sectors have shown an increase of 30 to 40%. The transport sector has shown an increase of about 17% since FY1990 although this has turned to a decrease in more recent years.

CO $ _{2} $ Emissions in Japan by Sector

Notes: 1) Quick estimation only for 2006

2) Emissions from transport are from domestic transport only

Source: “Data on Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Japan,” Greenhouse Gas Inventory Office, National Institute for Environmental Studies

## ○Public awareness of global warming

According to the “Opinion Polls on Countermeasures against Global Warming” conducted by the Cabinet Office in 2007, more than 90% of Japanese citizens are interested in global environmental issues, including global warming. This percentage is higher than that from the previous poll (in 2005). On the other hand, the opinion poll on global warming conducted by MLIT in December 2007 has revealed that when the central and local governments, business enterprises and private citizens were all asked how much effort they should make for the countermeasures against global warming, more private citizens than those of the central and local governments and business enterprises replied that the efforts should be made to an extent that does not increase the burden placed upon themselves.

The household, business and transport sectors that have each increased $ CO_{2} $ emissions are all related to public life, and the efforts to reduce the emissions need to be continued now and in the future by each and every Japanese citizen. Accordingly, it is important to adopt an attitude to make our everyday lives environmentally friendly while securing the convenience, amenity and other qualities of life.

Public Consciousness of Economic Burden following the Countermeasures against Global Warming

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Japan
## Chapter 2 Issues Concerning the Mitigation of Global Warming in Daily Life

## (1) Issues in the transport sector to mitigate global warming

### I. Issues concerning reducing $ CO_{2} $ emissions in domestic transportation

CO $ _{2} $ emissions in the domestic transportation sector, which account for about 20% of the total emissions of Japan, increased by about 23% during the period from FY1990 to FY2001 but have turned to a decrease since then.

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Notes: 1) Other Transport: Bus, taxi, railway, vessel, air transport

2) Quick estimation only for FY2006

3) 2010 target (250 million tons) is the target value shown in the Kyoto Protocol Target Achievement Plan (approved in a cabinet meeting in April 2005 and partly amended in May 2006). The "Final Report on Assessment and Review of the Kyoto Protocol Target Achievement Plan" (February 2008, Global Environmental Committee, Central Environmental Council and Global Environmental Subcommittee, Environmental Committee, Industrial Structure Council) estimates the $ CO_{2} $ emissions in the transport sector in FY2010 to be 240 million tons (in the case of successful measures) and 243 million tons (in the case of less successful measures).

Source: Compiled from “Data on Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Japan,” Greenhouse Gas Inventory Office, National Institute for Environmental Studies.

## ○ Issues concerning reducing $ CO_{2} $ emitted by private automobiles

## (Trends in driving distance of private automobiles)

The total running distance of private automobiles has been on the increase. It increased by about 40% in the period from 1990 to 2006 but has remained level in recent years. One of the background factors behind the trend is the swift popularization of private automobiles. The number of private automobiles increased by more than 60% in the above period but the pace of increase has been calming down in recent years.

Transition in Running Distance of Private Automobiles

Source: “Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport,” Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Japan
## (Trends in fuel consumption of private automobiles)

Improved fuel consumption will lead to reduced $ CO_{2} $ emissions. The average fuel consumption of gasoline passenger automobiles actually driven (running fuel consumption) has improved since FY1998.

As a general rule, the larger the engine displacement is, the worse the fuel consumption becomes. The share of the automobiles with engine displacement of 2000cc or more was increasing but this increase has come to a stop in recent years, while mini car ownership has shown a considerable increase.

Transition in Average Fuel Consumption of Gasoline Automobiles

Note: “Sales mode fuel consumption”: harmonic average of the $ 10 \cdot 15 $ mode fuel consumption ratios of the new automobiles sold each year organized by the vehicle weight and weighted by the respective numbers of units sold

"Ownership mode fuel consumption": harmonic average of the sales mode fuel consumption ratios of the automobiles owned at the end of each year organized by their age and weighted by the respective number of units owned

"Actual running mode of fuel consumption": Running distance divided by the amount of fuel consumed

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Japan

The average fuel consumption of gasoline automobiles has been improving through the leading runner approach, green taxation plan for automobiles, etc. under the “Law concerning the Rational Use of Energy” (Energy Conservation Law).

Furthermore, hybrids and other highly fuel-efficient vehicles are becoming popular, showing that automobile buyers are becoming more interested in the fuel efficiency performance of their vehicles and the environment.

## (Issues concerning the further improvement of fuel consumption)

Further efforts should be made for the improvement of fuel consumption and diffusion of low-fuel consumption vehicles. Diesel vehicles, for instance, are 20 to 30% more fuel efficient than gasoline vehicles and are therefore excellent in terms of $ CO_{2} $ emissions. The number of diesel vehicles used in Japan is still small while the number has been increasing in Europe and the USA. When the new fuel efficiency requirement to be implemented in 2015 has been attained as scheduled, the fuel consumption of automobiles is expected to be improved by 23.5% compared with that of 2004.

Furthermore, the amount of $ CO_{2} $ emitted while the vehicles are running can be reduced by changing how they are driven. Smoother driving with less acceleration and deceleration, for instance, will improve fuel consumption by approximately 15%. Efforts for further diffusion and promotion of economic driving must be made.

Shares of Automobile Ownership Organized by Engine Displacement

Source: Compiled from "The Number of Automobiles Owned," Automobile Inspection & Registration Association

Diffusion Status of Low-emission Vehicles

Share of Diesel Vehicles in the New Car (Automobile) Registrations

Source: Compiled from “World Motor Vehicle Statistics” and “Statistics of Motor Vehicles in Major Countries,” Japan Automobile Manufactures Association
## ○ Issues for reduction of $ CO_{2} $ emissions through smoother traffic flow

When vehicle running speed is increased from 20km/h to 60km/h, for instance, fuel consumption is improved and $ CO_{2} $ emissions are reduced by about 40%. Running speeds are now on the track for improvement with the speeds improving by about 3% in the period from 1994 to 2006.

Relationship between Running Speed and $ CO_{2} $ Emissions

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

Transition in Traveling Speed during Congested Hours

Notes:

1) The average speed of actual running in the designated research areas during morning (07:00–09:00) or evening (17:00–19:00) hours. Data collected on weekdays.

2) DID (Density Inhabited District) means the district where census base unit areas inhabited by over 4000 persons per 1km $ ^{2} $ are located next to each, other making the total district population more than 5000.

Source: "Road Traffic Census," Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Japan

## (Solution for traffic congestion)

Time lost due to traffic congestion around the country amounted to 3.31 billion man-hours (equivalent to approximately 10 trillion yen when converted into a monetary value) in 2006, although it has been decreasing year by year recently. It is necessary in the future to reduce the volume of traffic going through the central part of the Tokyo metropolitan area by introducing beltways and other effective and efficient measures that will be able to cope with the causes of congestion of the respective points.

Road Traffic Congestion

Lower right: Beltway 8, near Kamitakaido 1 Intersection, Suginami ward, Tokyo

## (Promotion of the use of highways)

Compared with the use of ordinary roads, the use of highways is generally superior in terms of traveling performance and is characterized by smaller amounts of $ CO_{2} $ emissions. In Japan, however, it is difficult to say that highways are being fully utilized compared with the USA and European countries. It is necessary to solve the problems of inconvenience in entering and exiting highways due to the long distances between interchanges and relatively high tolls, so that highways, with less environmental load, may be made more convenient.
○ Issues concerning the reduction of $ CO_{2} $ emissions through the promotion of the use of public transport (Increasing reliance on private automobiles)

When people begin to use public transport, including railways, buses, etc., rather than private automobiles to move from one place to another, $ CO_{2} $ emissions will be reduced. The changes in distribution of passengers according to transport facilities reveal, however, that reliance on automobiles has increased as motorization has progressed.

CO₂ Emissions per Transportation Volume (2005)

Transition in Passenger Transport Shares (in passenger-km)

## (Regional difference in amount of increased $ CO_{2} $ emissions)

In the fluctuations of $ CO_{2} $ emissions (comparison between FY1990 and 2004) per passenger in the passenger transport sector calculated for each prefecture, the $ CO_{2} $ emissions show an increase of about 38% on national average while most of the prefectures within the three major metropolitan areas remain below the average. Almost all the prefectures in the provincial regions show an increase above the average, evidence that the trends of $ CO_{2} $ emissions vary greatly between the major cities and provincial regions.

Transition in Estimated $ CO_{2} $ Emissions per Passenger (in Passenger Transport) (Comparison between 1990 and 2004)

Note: Calculated in terms of private automobiles, commercial automobiles, buses and railways. $ CO_{2} $ emissions of each prefecture were calculated for motor vehicles by distributing the regional total emissions on a pro-rata basis of the automobile ownership of the respective prefectures in the region, and for railways on a pro-rata basis of transport volume of the respective regions and prefectures.
Note: “Keihin” includes the wards of Tokyo and the cities of Yokohama and Kawasaki. “Hanshin” includes the cities of Osaka, Sakai, Toyonaka, Ikeda, Suita, Moriguchi, Yao, Neyagawa, Higashi-Osaka, Amagasaki, Akashi, Nishinomiya, Ashiya, Itami, Takarazuka and Kawanishi.

## ○ Issues to reduce $ CO_{2} $ emissions through the improved efficiency of distribution

The amount of $ CO_{2} $ emitted in the freight transport sector has been decreasing since 1996, and it decreased by about 5% in the period from 1990 to 2006. The volume of $ CO_{2} $ emissions through transportation by trucks has also been decreasing from the peak figures recorded in 1996.

## (Trends in truck transportation)

The volume of freight carried by trucks increased by about 25% on a ton-kilometer basis in the period from 1990 to 2006, while the volume on a tonnage basis decreased in the same period. This is due to the fact that freight transportation distances have been increasing.

The shift to independent operations seems to have contributed to the fact that $ CO_{2} $ emissions are on the decrease while transportation volume is increasing. Load efficiency was on the decrease but marked a recovery to a level of approximately 44%(in 2006) as a result of joint transportation and delivery by several operators working in cooperation with one another.

Fuel consumption of trucks and other heavy-weight vehicles is expected to be improved by 12.2% by 2015, when the new fuel consumption requirements will have been enforced and attained, compared with the level of 2002.

Transition in Transportation Volume of Private and Commercial Trucks

Source: “Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport,” Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Japan

Transition in Load Efficiency of Trucks

Source: Compiled from the "Statistica Report on Motor Vehicle Transport," Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Japan
## (Issues concerning a modal shift)

A modal shift from trucks to railways and ships must be promoted as one of the effective measures to reduce $ CO_{2} $ emissions in cargo transportation. The changes in transport distribution by means of transport reveals, however, that the share of motor vehicles has increased from 50.1% (1990) to 59.9% (2006).

CO₂ Emissions per Transportation Volume (2005)

Transition in Cargo Transport Shares (on a ton-km basis)

Source: "Statistical Survey of Truck Transportation," Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Japan

While the overseas deployment of production bases by manufacturers following the development of international divisions of labor is in progress, changes are noted in the trends of international distribution as well as domestic cargo transportation in Japan. While, for instance, the volume of daily necessities commonly carried by trucks has marked a sharp increase, the volume of mining products, which is the major transport item of the domestic shipping industry, has remained level. This kind of change has resulted in the reduced share of domestic shipping and increased share of motor vehicles. Furthermore, it is possible that the share of motor vehicles is increasing as truck transport, which is shorter in lead time and more suitable for the operation of low quantity and high frequency transportation, is employed to meet the requirements of transportation enterprises that are moving forward with complete supply-chain management.

Following the amendment to the Energy Conservation Law (enforced in April 2006), certain shippers are expected to enhance their efforts to reduce the amount of $ CO_{2} $ emitted in transportation through the modal shift and switch to joint transportation and commercial trucks, as they are required under this law to take measures for energy conservation. Accordingly, it is necessary to advance the establishment of circumstances where ship and railway transportation may be actively utilized to ensure the acceleration of the modal shift.

## (Reduction of $ CO_{2} $ emissions in home delivery services and merchandise transportation and consumer awareness)

Redelivery of home delivery items increases the traveling distance of delivering trucks and may possibly lead to increased emissions of $ CO_{2} $ . The opinion poll conducted by the MLIT has revealed a consumer attitude of avoiding placing a burden on the environment so long as a certain level of convenience is secured in redeliveries.

Redelivery of Home Delivery Items Opinion Poll on Global Warming (MLIT)
As for the transportation of merchandise including daily necessities and provisions, faster delivery as well as low quantity and high frequency services contribute to the convenience of consumers, but at the same time, they lead to increased reliance on truck transportation with heavier environmental load. Depending on the areas of transportation, truck transport transit time is shorter but causes more $ CO_{2} $ emissions compared with railway and ship transportation. In a trial calculation using the transportation of goods from Fukuoka to Tokyo, air transport and trucks had shorter transit times but emitted more $ CO_{2} $ than railways or ships.

Trial Calculation of Transit Time, Transportation Cost and $ CO_{2} $ Emissions in Transportation from Fukuoka Prefecture to Tokyo Metropolitan Area by Transportation Mode

Notes: 1) Respective values are calculated based on the value of automobiles set at 100.

2) Average transit time and transportation cost are based on the data from the 8th Nationwide Freight Transportation Survey (2005). (The data are based on a several sample surveys. Time and cost from the point of origin to the point of destination of the cargo were surveyed. Data for “Ship” include the time and cost for land transport between the point of origin and the sea port as well as those for vessel transportation.)

3) CO $ _{2} $ emissions are calculated in the ton-kilometer method under the Energy Conservation Law for an assumed transportation from Fukuoka Prefectural Office to Tokyo Metropolitan Office. (Truck transportation is based on the use of a 10-ton commercial vehicle. Transportation by railway, vessel and air transport includes carriage between the point of origin and railway station, sea port or airport by a 10-ton commercial truck.)

The opinion poll conducted by the MLIT revealed that the difference in $ CO_{2} $ emissions resulting from the use of different modes of transportation for given merchandise is not widely recognized by consumers.

The poll also revealed that consumers will show more interest, subject to the satisfaction of certain conditions, in the merchandise transported by environmentally friendly means when they are asked to choose merchandise on sale in a shop and displayed with information on whether environmentally friendly transportation means were used.

In order to induce the consumers to choose merchandise with less environmental load, it is necessary to show them simply which items of merchandise are transported using means more friendly to the environment. Further diffusion and enhanced awareness of the “Eco-Rail Marks” among consumers is expected to contribute to the promotion of the modal shift to railway transport through a choice of merchandise by the consumers.

Awareness of Different $ CO_{2} $ Emissions by Different Means of Transportation Opinion Poll on Global Warming (MLIT)

Choice of Merchandise When Environmental Impacts of the Transportation are Known.

Opinion Poll on Global Warming (MLIT)
### Ⅱ. Reducing CO $ _{2} $ emissions from international transport

The reduction of $ CO_{2} $ emissions from international transportation (aviation and shipping) is being studied by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the International Marine Organization (IMO). International transportation is not covered under the reduction of greenhouse gases in the Kyoto Protocol.

## ○ Reduction of $ CO_{2} $ emissions from international aviation

(Shift in $ CO_{2} $ emissions from international aviation)

The amount of $ CO_{2} $ emissions from international aviation worldwide is 400 million tons and is greater than the worldwide total amount of $ CO_{2} $ emissions from domestic aviation. Emissions have increased between 1990 and 2004 by 35% and are predicted to continue to increase.

## (The situation of international aviation by region and international discussion)

Looking at shifts in $ CO_{2} $ emissions from international aviation sector by region, emissions have increased 80% in the EU from 1990 to 2004, and it is being considered that including not only intra-region but also inter-region aviation in the EU emissions trading scheme. On the other hand, in East Asia, $ CO_{2} $ , emissions have more than doubled in the same period due to rapid economic growth. Therefore discussion about reducing $ CO_{2} $ emissions from international aviation, at global level including East Asia which economies have been rapidly grown, is necessary.

With this background, the 36th ICAO Assembly in 2007 resolved developing ICAO Programme of Action including a comprehensive measure against global warming and global goals in the form of fuel efficiency for international aviation, by the end of 2009. Japan will also study measures against global warming for international aviation and needs to respond appropriately to international discussion at the ICAO and others.

Shifts in $ CO_{2} $ Emissions from International and Domestic Aviation

Source: $ CO_{2} $ Emissions from Fuel Combustion, International Energy Agency

Shifts in CO₂ Emissions from International Aviation (by Region)

Notes: 1) East Asia comprises Japan, China, South Korea, and the 10 member nations of ASEAN

2) The EU comprises the 15 member nations as of 2004, before Eastern European nations were granted membership (Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Germany, France, Italy, UK, Ireland, Denmark, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Austria, Finland, and Sweden).

3) Both intra- and inter-region emissions are included.

Source: CO $ _{2} $ Emissions from Fuel Combustion, International Energy Agency

## ○ Reducing $ CO_{2} $ emissions from shipping

(Changes in $ CO_{2} $ emissions from the shipping sector)

CO $ _{2} $ emissions from international shipping account for 3% of the total amount of emissions worldwide and have increased by 40% between 1990 and 2004. As the amount of freight will increase, it is therefore believed that CO $ _{2} $ emissions from shipping will also increase.