Silviase/jgov_v1.4_full_ann huggingface dataset:
昭 和 54 年 度 運 輸 省 所 管

空港整備特別会計

## 物品増減及び現在額総計算書

品目	昭和53年度末現在(A)	昭和54年度間減(B)	昭和54年度末現在(A±B)
増(a)	減(b)	差引(a-b)	価格改定による増又減(円)
数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数(個)	価格(円)
1 電気機器	156	265,649,768	129	1,081,203,484	63	785,371,257	66	295,832,227	0	222
2 通信機器	2,276	5,313,544,099	943	5,514,621,503	986	5,371,743,503	43	142,878,000	13,755,940	2,233
5 土木機器	19	149,078,424	0	0	3	19,116,792	3	19,116,792	0	16
6 試験及び測定機器	1,690	2,441,307,279	232	476,884,097	36	123,858,915	196	353,025,182	26,207,052	1,886
7 荷役運搬機器	7	26,902,680	0	0	0	0	0	0	857,000	7
8 産業機器	16	17,619,864	35	146,523,047	36	148,172,751	1	1	1,649,704	0	15
10 車両及び軌条	536	2,253,656,138	89	761,472,242	85	298,622,249	4	462,849,993	2,386,674	540
12 特殊用途機器	1	743,238	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1
13 雑機器	1,210	2,654,414,578	263	782,212,738	101	333,041,084	162	449,171,654	18,705,500	1,372
合計	5,911	13,122,916,068	1,691	8,762,917,111	1,310	7,079,926,551	381	1,682,990,560	61,912,166	6,292
昭 和 54 年 度 郵 政 省 所 管

# 郵政事業特別会計

## 物品増減及び現在額総計算書

品目	昭和53年度末現在(A)	昭和54年度間增減(B)	昭和54年度末現在(A±B)
増(a)	減(b)	差引(a-b)	価格改定による増又は減(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)
数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)
1 電気機器	7,461	6,160,666,005	1,587	1,134,742,012	379	374,933,350	1,208	759,808,662	1,287,345	8,669	6,921,762,012
2 通信機器	78	217,503,071	85	371,157,400	61	153,347,000	24	217,810,400	2,780,000	102	438,093,471
3 工作機器	9	6,877,000	2	2,474,880	4	2,907,000	△	2	432,120	0	7	6,444,880
5 土木機器	2	1,621,100	1	830,000	1	830,000	0	0	0	0	2	1,621,100
6 試験及び測定機器	69	156,499,560	19	45,821,000	5	3,610,000	14	42,211,000	0	83	198,710,560
7 荷役運搬機器	157	146,004,090	468	336,746,066	213	160,867,700	255	175,878,366	147,000	412	322,029,456
8 産業機器	290	503,814,500	47	47,609,200	54	64,390,250	△	7	16,781,050	0	283	487,033,450
10 車両及び軌条	4,888	9,680,420,725	4,232	3,751,871,665	3,031	2,734,901,354	1,201	1,016,970,311	92,902,274	6,089	10,790,293,310
11 医療機器	1,785	4,231,937,198	174	647,614,800	64	405,369,670	110	242,245,130	1,568,000	1,895	4,475,750,328
13 雑機器	18,303	62,246,625,359	14,450	70,968,043,556	9,111	42,108,123,812	5,339	28,859,919,744	139,866,593	23,642	91,246,411,696
合計	33,042	83,351,968,608	21,065	77,306,910,579	12,923	46,009,280,136	8,142	31,297,630,443	238,551,212	41,184	114,888,150,263
昭 和 54 年 度 劳 働 省 所 管

勞 働 保 險 特 別 会 計

## 物品増減及び現在額総計算書

品目	昭和53年度末現在(A)	昭和54年度間增減(B)	昭和54年度末現在(A±B)
增(a)	減(b)	差引(a-b)	価格改定による増又減(円)
数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	価格改定による増又減(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)
1 電気機器	297	532,070,766	114	124,792,100	58	62,880,250	56	61,911,850	0	353	593,982,616
2 通信機器	1,259	3,627,067,274	24	120,124,300	19	83,914,900	5	36,209,400	0	1,264	3,663,276,674
3 工作機器	68	89,265,841	4	4,460,000	0	0	4	4,460,000	0	72	93,725,841
4 木工機器	23	20,284,330	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	23	20,284,330
5 土木機器	0	0	1	766,000	0	0	1	766,000	0	1	766,000
6 試験及び測定機器	355	1,056,968,220	27	104,845,200	1	527,100	26	104,318,100	4,325,000	381	1,165,611,320
7 荷役運搬機器	9	41,258,000	16	167,360,000	9	84,420,000	7	82,940,000	0	16	124,198,000
8 産業機器	84	112,347,330	17	31,742,700	0	0	17	31,742,700	0	101	144,090,030
10 車両及び軌条	1,137	930,743,315	779	641,711,760	651	495,788,000	128	145,923,760	10,706,030	1,265	1,087,373,105
11 医療機器	7	7,281,700	1	770,000	0	0	1	770,000	0	8	8,051,700
13 雑機器	3,365	4,355,642,877	550	554,295,980	323	303,117,120	227	251,178,860	154,000	3,592	4,606,975,737
合計	6,604	10,772,929,653	1,533	1,750,868,040	1,061	1,030,647,370	472	720,220,670	15,185,030	7,076	11,508,335,353
昭和54年度建設省所管道路整備特別会計物品增減及び現在額総計算書
品目	昭和53年度末現在(A)	昭和54年度間增減(B)	昭和54年度末現在(A±B)
增(a)	減(b)	差引(a-b)	価格改定による増又は減(円)
数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	価格改定による増又は減(円)	数(個)	価格(円)
1 電気機器	819	1,921,280,940	133	370,636,182	53	84,891,520	80	285,744,662	15,859,740	899	2,222,885,342
2 通信機器	3,969	11,275,749,574	634	1,925,556,757	340	800,316,179	294	1,125,240,578	190,949,210	4,263	12,591,939,362
3 工作機器	18	25,298,330	1	540,000	2	1,080,000	△	1	540,000	0	17	24,758,330
4 木工機器	1	530,000	1	768,000	0	0	1	768,000	0	2	1,298,000
5 土木機器	2,795	20,455,031,509	1,323	11,916,360,973	1,234	9,845,008,573	89	2,071,352,400	303,019,729	2,884	22,829,403,638
6 試験及び測定機器	2,689	4,906,348,165	799	1,781,229,954	665	1,828,055,664	134	△	46,825,710	35,096,400	2,823	4,894,618,855
7 荷役運搬機器	58	161,333,280	8	24,659,500	14	44,273,500	△	6	△	19,614,000	105,000	52	141,824,280
8 産業機器	86	106,596,600	23	35,370,500	10	10,094,000	13	25,276,500	△	1,542,800	99	130,330,300
10 車両及び軌条	3,313	7,064,697,667	900	2,654,404,347	969	2,309,993,518	△	69	344,410,829	20,272,253	3,244	7,429,380,749
13 雑機器	1,015	1,895,207,138	296	793,191,448	195	401,483,047	101	391,708,401	6,660,423	1,116	2,293,575,962
合計	14,763	47,812,073,203	4,118	19,502,717,661	3,482	15,325,196,001	636	4,177,521,660	570,419,955	15,399	52,560,014,818
# 昭 和 54 年 度 建 設 省 所 管

# 治 水 特 別 会 計

## 物品増減及び現在額総計算書

品目	昭和53年度末現在(A)	昭和54年度間增減(B)	昭和54年度末現在(A±B)
増(a)	減(b)	差引(a-b)	価格改定による増又は減(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)
数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)
1 電気機器	1,050	3,602,030,707	165	1,040,622,560	71	305,988,200	94	734,634,360	34,887,500	1,144	4,371,552,567
2 通信機器	5,771	19,824,989,347	1,251	5,272,556,112	481	1,523,822,648	770	3,748,733,464	333,099,287	6,541	23,906,822,098
3 工作機器	25	39,686,000	2	2,360,000	1	1,970,000	1	390,000	0	26	40,076,000
5 土木機器	431	4,515,661,999	243	3,075,006,386	234	1,393,793,690	9	1,681,212,696	304,760,000	440	6,501,634,695
6 試験及び測定機器	2,846	4,968,003,687	664	1,154,152,814	232	375,973,774	432	778,179,040	57,531,266	3,278	5,803,713,993
7 荷役運搬機器	36	81,481,508	4	12,973,800	4	3,045,800	0	9,928,000	75,800	36	91,485,308
8 産業機器	114	128,770,070	17	34,648,000	5	11,699,470	12	22,948,530	0	126	151,718,600
9 船舶用機器	3	1,756,049	1	520,049	2	1,040,098	△	1	520,049	0	2	1,236,000
10 車両及び軌条	2,352	3,689,049,265	550	1,258,515,374	497	907,713,160	53	350,802,214	6,813,685	2,405	4,046,665,164
13 雑機器	900	1,336,403,666	220	422,814,251	151	317,976,770	69	104,837,481	10,059,850	969	1,451,300,997
合計	13,528	38,187,832,298	3,117	12,274,169,346	1,678	4,843,023,610	1,439	7,431,145,736	747,227,388	14,967	46,366,205,422
物品增減及び現在額総計算書 特別会計計 （35）

特別会計計
品目	昭和53年度末現在(A)	昭和54年度間減(B)	昭和54年度末現在(A±B)
増(a)	減(b)	差引(a-b)	価格改定による増又は減(円)
数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)
1 電気機器	22,455	50,544,705,197	4,147	10,312,157,526	824	2,121,399,874	3,323	8,190,757,652	397,176,485	25,778	59,132,639,334
2 通信機器	16,249	46,919,620,614	3,476	14,568,933,362	1,984	8,142,567,942	1,492	6,426,365,420	650,774,339	17,741	53,996,760,373
3 工作機器	5,704	9,673,674,357	439	1,001,747,654	42	76,449,249	397	925,298,405	9,782,200	6,101	10,608,754,962
4 木工機器	141	129,949,048	12	9,428,500	2	1,463,833	10	7,964,667	34,000	151	137,947,715
5 土木機器	4,313	29,282,792,142	1,683	15,426,845,269	1,589	11,611,227,993	94	3,815,617,276	600,662,119	4,407	33,699,071,537
6 試験及び測定機器	100,218	235,713,982,382	16,347	46,613,513,756	2,425	6,884,378,394	13,922	39,729,135,362	1,860,900,221	114,140	277,304,017,965
7 荷役運搬機器	4,009	12,573,936,384	1,205	3,770,528,100	843	2,364,959,359	362	1,405,568,741	4,795,968	4,371	13,984,301,093
8 産業機器	14,694	49,782,734,977	2,211	6,533,559,949	637	1,544,466,123	1,574	1,989,093,826	295,262,633	16,268	55,067,091,436
9 船舶用機器	226	1,007,112,828	27	139,996,349	10	18,260,798	17	121,735,551	2,705,800	243	1,131,554,179
10 車両及び軌条	21,812	39,625,272,725	8,206	11,720,491,336	6,463	8,478,522,881	1,743	3,241,968,455	152,098,935	23,555	43,019,340,115
11 医療機器	44,699	145,822,186,897	8,552	38,012,167,447	1,423	4,358,135,056	7,129	33,654,032,391	426,576,660	51,828	179,902,795,948
12 特殊用途機器	207	1,025,955,572	13	132,566,000	0	0	13	132,566,000	5,500,000	220	1,164,021,572
13 雑機器	66,058	161,861,041,534	25,256	92,431,561,988	11,138	45,951,397,376	14,118	46,480,164,612	849,379,713	80,176	209,190,585,859
計	300,785	783,962,964,657	71,574	240,673,497,236	27,380	91,553,228,878	44,194	149,120,268,358	5,255,649,073	344,979	938,338,882,088
総計
品目	昭和53年度末現在(A)	昭和54年度間減(B)	昭和54年度末現在(A±B)
増(a)	減(b)	差引(a-b)	価格改定による増又は減(円)
数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	数量(個)	価格(円)	価格(円)	価格(個)	価格(円)	価格(個)	価格(円)
1 電気機器	28,364	62,626,947,720	5,083	12,867,764,379	1,518	3,987,080,157	3,565	8,880,684,222	864,595,250	31,929	72,372,227,192
2 通信機器	33,419	92,313,264,932	5,904	22,812,119,752	3,202	11,050,291,345	2,702	11,761,828,407	1,013,636,643	36,121	105,088,729,982
3 工作機器	7,316	12,450,333,522	610	1,568,038,736	165	338,490,490	445	1,229,548,246	58,682,800	7,761	13,738,564,568
4 木工機器	506	541,837,974	45	53,056,350	12	9,076,833	33	43,979,517	224,000	539	586,041,491
5 土木機器	4,595	29,926,037,255	1,738	15,596,466,262	1,624	11,749,519,216	114	3,846,947,046	600,662,119	4,709	34,373,646,420
6 試験及び測定機器	139,695	363,853,214,885	23,012	77,574,339,066	5,603	19,878,720,558	17,409	57,695,618,508	3,161,986,852	157,104	424,710,820,245
7 荷役運搬機器	4,430	13,703,173,523	1,403	4,618,221,716	1,058	3,299,510,694	345	1,318,711,022	5,823,301	4,775	15,027,707,846
8 産業機器	21,564	62,975,689,564	4,179	12,291,122,236	2,133	5,276,825,793	2,046	7,014,296,443	727,197,185	23,610	70,717,183,192
9 船舶用機器	1,051	7,168,657,285	1,637	16,643,938,389	1,748	20,356,595,599	△	111	△	3,712,657,210	5,060,623	940	3,450,939,452
10 車両及び軌条	78,105	152,677,791,197	22,247	47,844,984,768	18,055	32,387,273,973	4,192	15,457,710,795	172,936,016	82,297	168,308,438,008
11 医療機器	46,819	151,957,011,860	9,177	40,600,152,587	1,515	4,875,820,794	7,662	35,724,331,793	444,960,660	54,481	188,126,304,313
12 特殊用途機器	2,649	6,340,927,931	1,379	3,320,041,161	1,153	1,897,040,683	226	1,423,000,478	47,953,049	2,875	7,811,881,458
13 雑機器	81,753	192,220,903,561	28,474	98,994,814,082	12,622	49,621,583,283	15,852	49,373,230,799	1,535,346,865	97,605	243,129,481,225
14 防衛用武器	8,795	272,013,179,784	5,526	146,131,274,137	2,962	81,148,398,277	2,564	64,982,875,860	3,378,085,960	11,359	340,374,141,604
15 防衛用施設機器	1,995	16,936,531,300	701	7,862,619,588	558	4,694,486,000	143	3,168,133,588	0	2,138	20,104,664,888
16 防衛用電気通信機器	10,022	194,382,907,951	8,024	112,527,491,575	3,964	77,730,685,649	4,060	34,796,805,926	57,736,000	14,082	229,237,449,877
17 防衛用航空機用機器	6,262	123,983,829,915	13,113	180,008,504,631	10,019	147,794,017,860	3,094	32,214,486,771	0	9,356	156,198,316,686
18 防衛用船舶用機器	287	5,929,103,250	326	16,802,847,228	292	10,430,875,348	34	6,371,971,880	0	321	12,301,075,130
19 防衛用衛生機材	256	2,283,552,387	86	999,572,193	18	182,349,000	68	817,223,193	0	324	3,100,775,580
20 防衛用一般機器	2,167	54,295,618,218	2,176	41,134,461,024	501	12,200,017,249	1,675	28,934,443,775	1,694,362,760	3,842	84,924,424,753
計	480,050	1,818,580,514,014	134,840	860,251,829,860	68,722	498,908,658,801	66,118	361,343,171,059	13,759,128,837	546,168	2,193,682,813,910
ESRI Discussion Paper Series No.43

Vector Autoregressive Analysis of the Validity of the Two-gap Model for Nine Large Recipients of Japan’s ODA

by

Michiko Yamashita and Anil Kumar Khachi

June 2003

Economic and Social Research Institute

Cabinet Office

Tokyo, Japan
Vector Autoregressive Analysis of the Validity of the Two-gap Model for Nine Large Recipients of Japan’s ODA

By

Michiko Yamashita $ ^{*} $ & Anil Kumar Khachi $ ^{**} $

Economic and Social Research Institute

Cabinet Office, Japanese Government

June 2003
## Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to identify empirically the factors that have promoted or restrained the economic growth in developing countries, based on the well-known growth model called the two-gap model. The authors apply vector autoregressive (VAR) analysis to nine developing countries, to which Japan has liberally provided ODA over the past 30 years.

The results of the empirical tests, however, do not give a straightforward answer to the effectiveness of the two-gap model. It reveals instead that the growth-promoting (restraining) factors vary across the countries, implying that each country requires its own development strategies.

Chapter 1 of this paper briefly reviews the historical path of Japan’s ODA policies. Chapter 2 describes the theoretical framework and the empirical methodologies employed in the analysis. Chapter 3 presents the results of the empirical tests, and concludes its implications.
## Contents

Chapter 1 Historical evolution of Japan’s ODA
1.1 Overview of Japan’s ODA ..... 1
1.2 Large recipients of Japan’s ODA ..... 4
1.3 Development paths of the recipients ..... 9
Chapter 2 Two-gap models and time-series analysis
2.1 Theories of development assistance ..... 15
2.2 Methods of empirical analysis ..... 17
Chapter 3 Empirical VAR model analysis
3.1 VAR model specification ..... 24
3.2 Unit root tests ..... 25
3.3 Granger causality tests ..... 25
3.4 Impulse response analyses ..... 25
3.5 Variance decompositions ..... 25
3.6 Conclusions ..... 26
References ..... 39
## Figures and tables

Figure 1-1 Annual ODA extended by Japan, US and Germany.....10
Figure 1-2 Official and private capital flows to developing countries.....11
Figure 1-3 Official and private debts of developing countries.....12
Table 1-4 Large recipients of Japan’s ODA (1960-1999).....13
Table 1-5 Large recipients of Japan’s ODA (1970-1999).....13
Table 1-6 Large recipients of Japan’s ODA (1980-1999).....13
Table 1-7 Large recipients of Japan’s ODA (1990-1999).....14

Figure 2-1 Static trade model.....22
Figure 2-2 Two-gap model.....23

Table 3-1 Development paths of major countries.....27
Table 3-2 Unit roots tests.....29
Table 3-3 Granger causality tests.....30
Figure 3-4 Response of per capita GDP growth to one standard deviation impulses ± two standard errors.....31
Table 3-5 Variance decomposition of per capita GDP growth.....36
### 1.1 Overview of Japan’s ODA

Japan’s Official Development Assistance has expanded four-fold over a period of 15 years, from $3.8 billion in 1985 to its peak of $15.3 billion in 1999 (see Figure 1-1). The Japanese government eagerly increased official aid to dampen pressure from abroad to recycle its huge accumulated trade surplus, and to take commensurate responsibilities as an economic global superpower in the international development community. Due to the prolonged recession in Japan, however, the public sector has been facing financial difficulties. Japan’s ODA budget will reportedly be reduced by 9.4 percent for fiscal 2003, following the 11.9 percent cut in fiscal 2002.

## (1) Medium-term ODA Plans

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) publicized the Sixth ODA 5-year plan in 1999, covering the period from 1999 through 2004, in which the necessity of gaining the understanding and support of the Japanese public for ODA was articulated. The plan emphasized that the government would 1) pursue and implement aid projects in a more appropriate, efficient, and effective manner; 2) honor its obligations of accountability to the national Diet and the public at large; and 3) coordinate ODA more closely with Japanese foreign policies and other policies pertaining to the national interest $ ^{1} $ . For the first time since 1977, the year the first ODA 5-year plan was announced, the plan did not declare the numerical targets of ODA to be attained during the period.

1 $ ^{st} $ ODA plan (1978-1980) targeted to double the annual amount of ODA, from 1.4 billion per year to 2.8 billion per year at the end of the period.

$ 2^{nd} $ ODA plan (1981-1985) targeted to double the 5-year total amount of ODA, from 10.7 billion to 21.4 billion at the end of the period.

3 $ ^{rd} $ ODA plan (1986-1992) targeted to double the annual amount of ODA, from 3.8 billion per year to 7.6 billion per year at the end of the period, resulting in a 7-year total amount of more than 40 billion.

- $ 4^{th} $ ODA plan (1988-1992) targeted to double the 5-year total amount of ODA, from 25 billion to 50 billion at the end of the period.

5 $ ^{th} $ ODA plan (1993-1997) targeted to 1) attain the 5-year total amount of ODA, ranging from 70 billion to 75 billion during the period, and 2) increase ODA grants and untied projects.
$ 6^{th} $ ODA plan (1999-2004) targeted to 1) narrow down and prioritize the focus of ODA projects, 2) encourage partnership with NGOs in execution of ODA projects, and 3) formulate nation-wise plans for facilitating the medium-term ODA guidelines.

## (2) New Miyazawa Initiative

The Ministry of Finance (MOF), on the other hand, publicized the New Miyazawa Initiative in 1998 to assist Asian countries in recovering from the damages inflicted by the financial crisis in 1997. The MOF announced that Japan would provide a package of support measures totaling 30 billion, of which 15 billion would be made available for medium- to long-term financial needs, and another 15 billion for short-term capital needs during the process of implementing economic reform $ ^{2} $ . The Initiative included the following assistance measures:

The Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) would provide official financial assistance by extending ODA yen loans or trade finance to Asian countries, and by acquisition of the sovereign bonds issued by them.

The JBIC would support Asian countries in raising funds from the international financial market by guaranteeing bank loans and bond issuance. Figure 1-2 shows that the private capital flows are dominating since 1995.

The MOF would establish an Asian currency crisis support facility to provide interest subsidies to Asian countries that borrowed funds from JBIC or private banks, if loans were extended jointly with the Asian Development Bank (ADB).

The JBIC would continue to provide co-financing with the World Bank and ADB to Asian countries to restructure corporate debts and restore stability in the financial market.

The MOF would request the World Bank and ADB to provide technical assistance through “Japan Special Funds” to Asian countries that implemented a comprehensive approach to restore the financial system.

The MOF would prepare short-term funds to Asian countries in the form of swap arrangements to facilitate trade finance and other needs in the course of their economic reforms program.
## (3) ODA Reform Proposals

Debate on Japan’s ODA amongst experts in development assistance, business communities, journalists, NGOs, and civil society became vigorous after July 1998, when Prime Minister Obuchi ordered steps to be taken to improve the transparency and efficiency of ODA. Consequently, the Ministerial Council on External Economic Cooperation worked out some specific measures for that purpose, including formulation of a medium-term policy on ODA and country assistance programs for individual recipient countries. A series of proposals on ODA reforms were made public by the government consultative bodies thereafter:

The Council on ODA Reforms for the 21 $ ^{st} $ Century released its final report in January 1998, and recommended improved information disclosure, effective collaboration of the entire government, and promotion of organic interaction among the different schemes.

The Council on External Economic Cooperation presented its own views on ODA reform in a report entitled Proposal for Further Promotion of Economic Cooperation in the Future in June 1998.

The Special Committee on External Economic Cooperation of the Liberal Democratic Party released a proposal entitled Strategic Economic Cooperation for the 21 $ ^{st} $ Century in July 1999, and recommended that the MOFA be assigned a pivotal role in ODA administration. Special emphasis was placed on political participation and strategic utilization of aid, as well as accountability to the public.

The Committee on Oversight and Administration of the House of Councillors adopted a resolution on ODA in August 1999. It called on the government to formulate country assistance programs, prioritize aid programs, address environmental issues, expand human resources development, find and hire more specialists, collaborate with NGOs, improve evaluation systems, and enhance activities for publicity and disclosure.

Prior to the administrative reform of the central government in January 2001, the Japan Export-Import Bank and the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund were merged into the Japan Bank for International Cooperation in October 1999 to enhance the effectiveness of ODA and OOF funding.

The Second Council on ODA Reforms presented its final report in March 2002, which emphasized the following points: 1) utilize Japan’s human resources and technology by finding/fostering development personnel and collaboration with NGOs; 2) prioritize and make ODA more effective by establishing a Board on
Comprehensive ODA Strategy that discusses basic policies and priorities of ODA projects, and serves as a catalyst to activate public discussions; 3) drastically improve the ODA implementation system by securing policy consistency, speedy and flexible responses, and ceaseless review of the projects.

Following the proposal of the above committee on ODA reform, the MOfA established the Board on Comprehensive ODA Strategy in June 2002 to discuss comprehensive policies on ODA from strategic viewpoints. It set up task forces to review the ODA Charter adopted in 1992, and to formulate country assistance programs for Vietnam and Sri Lanka.

In July 2002 the MOfA decided to sequentially implement 15 specific measures for ODA reform under the principle of implementing whatever possible in the following five areas: 1) auditing; 2) evaluation; 3) partnership with NGOs; 4) exploring/fostering/utilizing human resources; and 5) information disclosure and public relations.

In December 2002 the MOfA announced that it would undertake three major changes in ODA policies and implementation: 1) review the ODA Charter to reflect the evolving international debates with such new concepts as sustainable development, poverty reduction, human security, and peace-building; 2) change the debt relief method from providing grant aid for debt relief to canceling official debts (see Figure 1-3), so that it reduces the burden on debtor countries; and 3) establish a committee for grant aid to enhance transparency in various stages of the project implementation.

### 1.2 Large Recipients of Japan’s ODA

## (1) 1960-1969

Japan’s ODA started as war reparations to a few Asian countries. Reparations totaling some 1.2 billion were initially paid in kind to Burma, the Philippines, Indonesia, and South Vietnam by way of industrial goods and construction services managed by Japan’s trading companies. Later, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Korea, and Micronesia received a total of ¥245 billion in concessional and tied-yen loans, while China renounced its right to war reparations from Japan in 1978 $ ^{3} $ . The tied-yen loans promoted Japan’s manufacturing industries and supported its export promotion policy.

Technical assistance started in 1954, when Japan participated in the Colombo Plan, and