Silviase/jgov_v1.4_full_ann huggingface dataset:
Figure 46: Characteristics of employment management in companies whose employees' motivation to work is considered high and those whose employees' motivation to work is considered low

Companies whose employees' motivation to work is considered high proactively implement employment management for both regular and non-regular workers in a broad way.

Difference in points of employment management between companies whose employees' motivation to work is considered high and those whose employees' motivation to work is considered low

Source: Prepared by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW based on the “Survey on the Way of Human Resources Management” (2014) Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training

(Note) Bar graphs show points of difference (ratio of companies that consider their employees' motivation to work is high - ratio of companies that consider their employees' motivation to work is low) determined by calculating the rate of companies that implement activities (separate rate for companies with high motivation and those with low motivation).

Figure 47: Characteristics of human resources development in companies whose employees' motivation to work is considered high and those whose employees' motivation to work is considered low

Companies whose employees' motivation to work is high implement education and training through day-to-day operations and external training, motivate workers using an objective management system, and conduct regular interviews.

Difference in points of human resources development between companies whose employees' motivation to work is considered high and those whose employees' motivation to work is considered low

Source: Prepared by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW based on the “Survey on the Way of Human Resources Management” (2014) Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training

(Note) Bar graphs show points of difference (ratio of companies that consider their employees' motivation to work is high - ratio of companies that consider their employees' motivation to work is low) determined by calculating the rate of companies that implement activities (separate rate for companies with high motivation and those with low motivation).
## Figure 48: Experiences that were important in occupational career (before becoming a manager)

As experiences before they were placed in managerial post, "having worked with supervisors who they respect," "having achieved pressure-packed work," "having been shown expectation and trust to them," "having mistakes that led to the way they are today" are listed on top.

Source: Prepared by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW based on the “Survey on Occupational Career Development” (2014) Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training

Figure 49: Experiences that were important in occupational career (after becoming a manager)

Experiences after the managers were placed in managerial post are: "having achieved pressure-packed work," "having worked in cooperation with other department in the company," "having had difficulties in training subordinates," "having worked with supervisors who they respect," and "having had conversations with people in higher positions including executives in the company."

Source: Prepared by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW based on the “Survey on Occupational Career Development” (2014) Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training
Considering that many of these employees are in their mid-40s, they have experienced relocations in a frequency of more than once in about five years on average. If employees continue to work in a single company, they are relocated every few years and many of them are considered to develop an occupational career where they develop necessary skills and experiences while experiencing working in various departments.

On the other hand, the largest number of employees has experienced two job types and almost 70% have experienced less than two. This indicates that, rather than experiencing various types of work, many people develop their career that enables them to have a broad area of experiences and cultivate expertise for the job type with some focus.

## Figure 50: Percentage of the number of job separations from the first job by age

○ Half the number of males in their 30s to 50s continue to work without leaving their first job.

○ Only a small number of females continue to work without leaving the first job, and about 40% of females in their late 40s have changed their job more than twice.

Source: Compiled independently by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW, from questionnaire data of the “Basic Statistical Survey on Employment Structure” (2012) Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

(Note) 1) People whose current job is the first job are those with "no job separation," people whose previous job is the first job are those with "1 job separation," and people whose job other than current and previous jobs is the first job are those with "2 or more job separations."

2) People whose first job is unknown are excluded from the calculation.

## Figure 51: Continuous employment rate from late 20s by generation

☐ The continuous employment rate of both males and females has gradually decreased as the generation age is younger, bottomed out in the generation born between October 1967 and September 1972 and showing an increasing trend in recent years.

Source: Compiled independently by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW, from questionnaire data of the “Basic Statistical Survey on Employment Structure” Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

(Note) Rate determined by the number of people who have been continuously employed from late 20s divided by the number of currently-employed workers in late 20s.
Figure 54: Rate of people who wish to change job by experience of job change since the first job and reason for the job change (executives or regular staff and employees aged 30 or older and younger than 55)

For both males and females, the more the number of job changes they have experienced, the higher the rate of those who wish to change job again.

Source: Compiled independently by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW, from questionnaire data of the “Basic Statistical Survey on Employment Structure” (2012) Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

(Note) 1) People whose current job is the first job are those with "no experience of job changes," people whose previous job is the first job are those with "experience of job change: once," and people whose job other than current and previous jobs is the first job are those with "experience of job change: twice or more."

Figure 55: Proportion of those who have experienced 2 or more job changes since their first job by annual income class (executives or regular staff/employees, total of males and females)

Many people with relatively low income and high income have changed their job more than twice. The number of people in the middle class who have experienced twice or more job changes is relatively small.

Source: Compiled independently by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW, from questionnaire data of the “Basic Statistical Survey on Employment Structure” (2012) Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (Note) "Workers who have changed their job more than twice from the first job" are those whose first job is not the current or previous job.

Figure 56: Breakdown of reason for job change of people who wish to change job by annual income class (executives or regular staff and employees aged 30 or older and younger than 55, total of males and females)

Many people with relatively low income answered that the reason of job change is "low income" and those with high income said that the reason is because "they would like to use their knowledge and skills."

Source: Compiled independently by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW, from questionnaire data of the “Basic Statistical Survey on Employment Structure” (2012) Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications
Figure 57: Satisfaction level of job change by reason and desire for continuous employment at the new workplace

People who voluntarily separated from their previous job are more satisfied with the job change and have more willingness to continue to work at the new workplace compared to those who involuntarily separated.

Source: Compiled independently by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW, from "Survey on Current Situation concerning Measures for Personnel Affairs of Mid-Career Recruitment" (2013, commissioned by MHLW) Mizuho Information and Research Institute

Figure 58: Breakdown of wage variation before and after job change by reason for job separation

○ Increase rate of wage is higher and decrease rate is lower for people who voluntarily changed their job compared to those who involuntarily changed job.

Source: "Labour Market Analysis Report Vol.15: Situation concerning Wage Variation of Workers Who Changed Job or Newly Employed" (July 30, 2013) Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare

(Note) Specially compiled the "Survey on Employment Trends" Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare

2) General workers, average values for 2002 - 2011

3) Calculated for current workers who changed job or newly employed at the time of survey, excluding unknown wage variation.

4) Calculated reasons for job separation other than "retirement or termination of contract period" and "involuntary job separation" as "voluntary or other reasons."

5) Total by reasons of job separation includes unknown reason for job separation.

Figure 59: Changes in the rate of former employees who changed job or newly employed by wage variation category.

The number of job separations with wage increase is rising when the general nominal wage per person is increasing, and this increases the number of job changes as a whole.

Source: "Survey on Employment Trends," "Monthly Labour Survey" Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare

(Note) 1) Rate of former employees who changed job or newly employed is determined by the number of regular employees who were previously employed for at least a year, newly employed in the year and are currently working in the company after they changed their job at the time of the survey divided by the regular employees as of January 1.

2) Construction workers are excluded in this graph as it is a time-series comparison. In this Survey on Employment Trends, time-series comparison requires attention as education is added for the survey from 2004.

3) Options concerning wage variation were changed from 1998 and cannot be connected before and after the year.

4) Increase/decrease rate of total sum of cash earnings is the total in surveyed industries and the total in employment forms in companies with 30 or more employees.
Figure 60: Breakdown of wage variation from job change of those who involuntarily separated from their previous job by presence or absence of participation in public vocational training

○ As for people who involuntarily separated from their previous job, the rate of those whose wage decreased by changing job is smaller for those who participated in public vocational training.

Source: Compiled independently by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW, from “Survey on Current Situation concerning Measures for Personnel Affairs of Mid-Career Recruitment” (2013, commissioned by MHLW) Mizuho Information and Research Institute

Figure 61: Distribution of annual income by presence or absence of self-development in the past year (executives or regular staff/employees aged 30 or older and younger than 55, total of male and female)

☐ There is a tendency that people who carry out self-development earn high income.

Source: Estimated by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW, from questionnaire data of the “Basic Statistical Survey on Employment Structure” (2012) Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications
women in their 30s. According to the figure, women who live with parents and those with a higher availability of day-care centers are contributing to the increased labour force participation rate of married women in their 30s. Moreover, it is indicated that the effect of accumulated development of measures such as the Child Care and Family Care Leave Act and the Act on Advancement of Measures to Support Raising Next-Generation Children also contributed to the increase of the labour force participation rate of women in their 30s after 2005.

Figure 62: Labour force participation rate and potential labour force participation rate by gender and age group (2013)

Many women in their 30s wish to work and the potential labour force participation rate of women aged 50 to 54 has been changing between 80 - 89%.

Source: "Labour Force Survey" (2013) Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (Note) Potential labour force participation rate = (labour force + people who wish to work) / population x 100

## Figure 63: Percentage of households with employed wife in their 30s by presence or absence of a child

In the period from 2007 to 2012, the percentage of households with an employed wife in their 30s is increasing even in households with a child aged under 6 years.

(1) Households with a wife aged between 30 and 34

(2) Households with a wife aged between 35 and 39

Source: Prepared by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW, based on the “Basic Statistical Survey on Employment Structure” Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

(Note) Households with both a child aged under 6 and a child aged 6 or older are included in "Households with a child aged under 6."
effective in April, 2006) and after that the rate of males has remained at levels exceeding 75%. The rate of people aged between 65 and 69 increased after 2012, when baby-boomer generations turned 65. This was caused by the increased number of people who never wish to retire. The continuous employment of elderly people has been promoted and the fact that people in their 50s wish to work in the future has a positive effect on the employment of elderly people.

According to Figure 69, points on which baby-boomer generations put priority are: "they can continue to work without physical burden," and "they can work at their own pace," followed by "they can exercise their abilities." It is becoming more and more important to create a working environment in which elderly people can exercise their abilities and experience.

## (To work in a way you wish throughout the entire life)

It is important to work in a way you wish throughout your entire life in order to realize "a society in which everyone participates." To realize this, it is necessary to maintain your health during your occupational career, use the potential labour force in labour market, and re-employ people who wish to work, as well as prevent involuntary separation from work because of difficulty in keeping a work-life balance and use the occupational career which has been developed.

Figure 66: Ratio of people who wish to discontinue to work of total employees by presence or absence of family care and use of family care leave system

○ A high ratio of employees who are engaged in family care wish to discontinue to work but the ratio of those decreases by the use of a family care leave system.

Source: Prepared by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW, based on the “Basic Statistical Survey on Employment Structure (2012)” Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

(Note) 1) Of all employees, ratio of "people who wish to discontinue to work" (those who answered that they "wish to completely discontinue this work" to the question "do you continue this work in the future?")

2) "Employees who use family care leave system" refer to those who used at least one of: family care leave based on the Child Care and Family Care Leave Act, short-time work, nursing care leave, and company's independent systems other than these systems.

Figure 67: Support from the employer necessary for keeping the balance between work and family care

Of support from the employer, which is considered necessary for employees to keep the balance between work and family care, needs for support in working hours are high.

Source: "Survey Research on Current Situation concerning Balance between Work and Family Care" (2009, commissioned by MHLW) Mizuho Information and Research Institute

(Note) 1) Employees aged between 30 and 64 who are engaged in the care of their own family or family of their spouse (age 65 or over) at the time of survey (February 2010) are surveyed.

2) Multiple answers.
## Figure 68: Changes in labour force participation rate of elderly people (in their 60s)

The labour force participation rate of people aged between 60 and 64 increased in 2007 and 2008 when the measure to secure employment of the elderly was made compulsory (made effective in April, 2006) and after that the rate of males has remained at levels exceeding 75%.

The labour force participation rate of people aged between 65 and 69 is characterized by the increase after 2012, when baby-boomer generations (born between 1947 and 1949) turned 65.

Source: "Labour Force Survey" Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (Note) Figures in 2011 are alternative estimate values of the Great East Japan Earthquake.

## Figure 69: Points on which baby-boomer generations put priority

Points on which baby-boomer generations (born between 1947 and 1949) put priority include "they can continue to work without physical burden," and "they can work at their own pace," followed by "they can exercise their abilities."

(Note) 1) Males and females born between 1947 and 1949 are surveyed.

Source: "Survey on Awareness of Baby-Boomer Generations (2012)" Cabinet Office
## Figure 75: Rate of shift to regular employment and job separation rate by detailed occupational category

The rate of shift to regular employment is high in sales workers, construction workers, health, medical, care service workers, and transportation and machine operation workers, and low in service workers and carrying, cleaning, packaging and related workers. (%)

Source: Compiled independently by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW, questionnaire data of the “Basic Statistical Survey on Employment Structure” (2012) Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

(Note) 1) The graph shows the rate of shift to regular employment by occupation (the ratio of regular employees of current employees who separated from job in the past 5 years) and job separation rate (the ratio of people who separated from job in the past 5 years of employees of each occupation).

2) Occupational categories listed are limited to occupations with 100 or more samples.

Figure 76: Analysis of factors causing shift from non-regular employment to regular employment (probit analysis)

Factors that increase the probability of shift from non-regular to regular employment

Source: Estimated by the Office of Counselor for Labour Policy, MHLW, questionnaire data of the “Basic Statistical Survey on Employment Structure” (2012) Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

(Note) 1) Factors of voluntary standard of less than 10% are shown in the figure.

2) "Marginal effect" shows the difference in the probability of shift to regular employment when compared with "base" for each factor. For example, if workers' ages are between 20 and 24, it shows a 20.3% higher probability of shift to regular employment compared to those aged 60 or over who were previously non-regular workers. Therefore, it should be noted that there is no point comparing marginal effects between factors of difference base.
Developing occupational abilities by accumulating human capital through a sustainable vocational life contributes to a stable occupational life for people and strengthening of Japan's economic and social foundation.
熱海・湯河原における

パブリックアートの事例を紹介します。
2011

Public Art in ATAMI/YUGAWARA

「熱海市役所泉支所」©Gurunavi. All Rights Reserved.
2011

Public Art in ATAMI/YUGAWARA

「熱海市役所泉支所 テープカットの様子」©Gurunavi. All Rights Reserved.
## 地元地域へ開かれた企業活動 —地元小学校と工房の関係にみる企業の社会性—
地元地域への貢献

-2010年熱海市立泉小学校3年生による工房への見学会
クレアーレ熱海ゆがわら工房では、

過去30年にわたり一流の作家

の方と手を組み、駅、空港、学校、

官公庁などに470を超える作品

を設置して参りました。
# ご清聴ありがとうございました。

滝久雄

2011.1.28
ESRI Discussion Paper Series No.233

法人所得税の限界実効税率 - 日本の個別企業の実証分析 -

林田 吉恵・上村 敏之

March 2010

內閣府経済社会総合研究所

Economic and Social Research Institute

Cabinet Office

Tokyo, Japan
# 法人所得税の限界実効税率 - 日本の個別企業の実証分析 -

林田吉惠（内閣府経済社会総合研究所客員研究員/関西学院大学経済学部大学院研究員）
上村敏之（内閣府経済社会総合研究所客員主任研究官/関西学院大学経済学部教授）

## 要旨

本稿では、投資家である家計の税制と法人所得税が企業の設備投資に与える影響を分析する。そのため、設備投資の資金調達手段の違いを考慮した個別企業ごとの租税調整済み資本コストと限界実効税率を計測して投資関数を推計し、投資率に対する法人実効税率の弾力性を求めた。本稿は、これらの分析結果の分布の推移に注目する。

限界実効税率の平均は1970年代から1990年代までにかけて高く推移し、その後に低下する。この動きは、法定税率の変遷や景気の変動によっておおむね説明できる。限界実効税率の分布は、1970年代から1990年代にかけて広がりを見せるが、2000年代になれば分布が小さくなる。

本稿で推計された投資関数は、理論的な符号条件を満たしている。租税調整済み資本コストの係数は、1970年代から1990年代まではさほど変わらないが、2000年代は小さくなった。推計された係数を用いれば、限界実効税率の投資率に対する弾力性を計測できる。弾力性の分布の推移をみると、1970年代と1980年代は弾力性の値は大きいものの、1990年代から2000年に入ると低下している。

本稿の分析により、以下の示唆を得ることができよう。過去の法人所得税は設備投資に対して影響力を持っていたと考えられるが、2000年代に入ってからは、法人所得税の設備投資への影響力はとても小さくなったことが指摘できた。

この背景には、低迷する経済、グローバル化の急激な進展など、企業と取り巻く環境が大きく変化していることがあるだろう。もはや、法人所得税が企業の設備投資に与える影響は小さく、他の要因が拡大してきたことを示唆している。

キーワード：法人所得税、資本コスト、限界実効税率

JEL Classification Number H25
# Marginal Tax Rate of Corporate Income Tax using Japanese Firm Data

Yoshie Hayashida, Researcher of School of Economics, Kwansei Gakuin University

Toshiyuki Uemura, Professor, School of Economics, Kwansei Gakuin University

## Abstract

In this paper, the impact of corporate income tax systems on investment at individual firms is evaluated by examining (1) distribution of marginal effective tax rates (METRs), (2) functions of tax adjusted capital costs considering personal income taxes, and (3) distribution of elasticity of METRs. To analyze the fluctuation of such an impact over the past three decades, tax adjusted capital costs and METRs are measured to estimate the investment functions and obtain the elasticity of the corporate effective tax rates on the investment rates. The results indicate that all of (1), (2) and (3) above exhibit a marked change in trend around the turn of the century. The distribution of METRs remains wide from 1970s to 1990s, but narrows after 2000. The functions of tax adjusted capital costs show little change from 1970s to 1990s, but decreases in 2000s. Likewise, while the distribution of elasticity of METRs also exhibits high values in 1970s and 1980s, the values decline in 1990s and 2000s. These findings suggest that the impact of corporate income tax systems on investment at individual firms has decreased in recent years and that other factors, such as the business environment, statutory tax rates, and economic conditions, have been playing a greater role in determining the investment decisions at firms.

JEL Classification Number H25
# 法人所得税の限界実効税率 $ ^{*} $ －日本の個別企業の実証分析－

林田吉恵（内閣府経済社会総合研究所客員研究員/関西学院大学経済学部大学院研究員）

上村敏之（内閣府経済社会総合研究所客員主任研究官/関西学院大学経済学部教授）

### 1. はじめに

数年前に盛んだった法人税率の引き下げ論は、景気の低迷にともなう法人関連税収の落ち込みとともに、議論も下火になっているようである。とはいえ、日本の法人実効税率が他国に比べて相対的に高いという主張を筆頭に、法人所得税の課題が解決したわけでもない。

特に法人課税は、大企業からの税収が大きい。同時に、マクロ経済の設備投資に占める大企業の設備投資も大きい。財政の側面からは税収確保が重視され、一方では設備投資を促進するための税制改革が叫ばれる。また、地方自治体の法人課税の税収は不安定であり、地方財政を悩ましている。これらの問題により、短期的にはともかく、長期的には法人所得税の見直しは必要だろう。

法人所得税の議論において常に浮上するのが、税率の引き下げによって設備投資を促進すべきという主張である。理論的にはともかく、税率引き下げが設備投資を促進するかどうかは、実証的な分析を必要とする。このとき、3つの視点が重要だと考えられる。

第一に、法人課税の税制は、企業に対して一律に適用されるものの、個々の企業の財務状態を反映するために、その経済効果は異質性をもつと考えられる。したがって、集計値による法人課税の分析には限界がある。ここに、実証分析のレベルを個別企業のレベルにまで落とし込む必要性がでてくる。

第二に、資本市場が発達してきた現在においては、家計である投資家と企業のつながりを無視することはできない。投資家は安全資産と危険資産の選択を行っており、そこに所得税制が関与している。そのため、企業行動にも家計の所得税制が関係する。

第三に、同じく資本市場の発達により、企業は様々な資金調達の手段によって設備投資を行っている。設備投資の資金調達の手段としては、負債、新株発行、内部留保が考えられる。これらの資金調達手段にも、税制が介在する。

本稿では、過去から現在に至る法人所得税が、企業の設備投資に与えた影響について、実証的に検証することを目的とする。それによって、今後の法人所得税改革がどのように