Silviase/jgov_v1.4_full_ann huggingface dataset:
government strengthen its efforts aimed at a recycling economy while at the same time promoting the development of waste management facilities, the construction of waste collection, reuse and recycling systems, and so on.

Fig. 1-2 Waste generation in China

Meanwhile, there have recently been some tragic accidents related to waste management. The Leuwigajah final disposal site in Indonesia, which used to receive waste from Bandung City and surrounding areas, was a landfill site created by damming a river valley. In February 2005, a major disaster occurred when the dam collapsed after three days of torrential rain. As a result, about 860,000 tons of waste flowed out over a length of one kilometer and a width of 200-250 meters, killing 147 people. To make matters worse, left without an outlet for waste management, people started to dump their waste at random in the streets.

In recent years, meanwhile, the volume of discarded television sets, personal computers, refrigerators and other electrical and electronic products has also increased, and exports or imports of these for recycling or disposal have risen sharply. These discarded electrical and electronic products sometimes include lead and other harmful substances. In some reported cases, these are being recycled under environmentally inappropriate practices in developing countries.

## 2 The squeeze on resources and energy

Thriving demand for resources in China and elsewhere is reflected in inflated prices for natural resources. This, in turn, has had the effect of inflating prices for metal scrap, waste paper and other recyclable resources, and cross-border movements of these have become prominent recently. According to a survey by the Japan Iron and Steel Recycling Institute, the price of scrap iron in Japan was 20,000 yen per ton in December 2003 but had swollen beyond 30,000 yen in December 2006 (Fig. 1-3). Similarly, the Paper Recycling Promotion Center reports that waste paper prices have also been in a rising trend in recent years. The price of Corrugated cardboard, for example, was 6 yen per kilogram in 2002 but rose to about 10 yen in 2006.

In Japan, exports of recyclable resources to China and other Asian countries are in a growing trend. Trade in recyclable resources that circulate for commercial gain (such as waste plastics) is now handled in the same way as other materials and products. With increased demand for
resources associated with economic growth in China and other East Asian countries, the volume of exports to these countries in recent years has increased sharply (Fig. 1-4). For example, exports of iron and steel scrap from Japan to China were about 330,000 tons in 1995 but about 3.46 million tons in 2005, showing that in those 10 years the volume had increased more than tenfold. In other words, movements of recyclable resources no longer terminate within our own country but have spread internationally.

Fig. 1-3 Trends in scrap iron prices

Note: Prices for scrap iron (steel scrap) are based on pre-H2 furnace cash prices in December each year.

Source: Japan Iron and Steel Recycling Institute

Fig. 1-4 Exports of recyclable resources

Source: Ministry of Finance Trade Statistics

Energy demand has similarly grown. With this, energy prices have also become inflated. Crude oil, for example, was traded at about 25 US dollars per barrel in 2001, but by 2006 this had risen 2.5 times to about 64 dollars per barrel (Fig. 1-5).
Fig. 1-5 Trends of imported crude oil CIF prices

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the world's primary energy demand is expected to increase by about 50% in the period from 2003 to 2030 unless there is a major change in current policies on energy and the environment (Fig. 1-6). In particular, the proportion taken up by China and other Asian countries in 2030 is calculated to swell to 30% of the global total.

Fig. 1-6 Global prospects for primary energy demand

Source: IEA “World Energy Outlook 2004”

Meanwhile, vast quantities of carbon dioxide are being artificially released into the atmosphere owing to our habit of burning fossil fuels, etc., and fears have arisen that the planet is now overheating. With the advance of global warming, there are concerns that the human living environment and wildlife habitats could suffer grave consequences on a widespread scale. Cutting carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions is therefore a task of global importance in connection with our promotion of 3R.
## 3 The 3R initiative and the role of Japanese technologies

This aggravation of global waste problems and squeeze on resources and energy underline the importance of creating an international SMS. The Fundamental Law for Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society defines a “sound material-cycle society” as a society that is realized by reducing the generation of waste from products, suitably utilizing waste as resources whenever possible and appropriately disposing of waste that cannot be used in any way, thereby controlling the consumption of natural resources and reducing the environmental load. The international SMS may be seen as an extension of this definition into the global arena. The 2006 version of the SMS White Paper defines the basic concept behind establishing an international SMS in three terms, namely 1) to establish a domestic SMS in each country, 2) to enhance and reinforce activities to prevent illegal imports and exports of waste, and having achieved these, 3) to facilitate imports and exports of recyclable resources.

Japan has played a leading global role in establishing an international SMS by promoting “the 3R Initiative”. At the G8 Sea Island (USA) Summit in 2004, the former Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi proposed “the 3R Initiative” to promote 3R efforts internationally, as a way of encouraging more efficient use of resources and substances. This proposal was accepted by all of the G8 leaders.

As a result, a Ministerial Conference on the 3R Initiative was held in Tokyo in April 2005, and promoting technologies suited to 3R was adopted as one of the themes for discussion. At the Conference, the participants agreed that technology had an extremely important role to play in achieving sustainable patterns of production and consumption. They also agreed that technology related to 3R would promote not only environmental protection but also the creation of new values and increased efficiency in industry, thus harnessing latent demand in society. The Conference also identified sectors in which research and technological innovation are required, including reproduction, waste reduction, recycling, recovery and other clean technologies, as well as eco-design to enhance resource efficiency and mitigate environmental burdens.

At the Ministerial Conference on the 3R Initiative, Japan announced its “Action Plan for a World-Wide Sound Material-Cycle Society through the 3R Initiative” (Action Plan to Promote Global Zero-Waste Societies). The Action Plan identifies activities for Japan, such as enhancing the knowledge base and technology base to realize zero-waste societies in Asia, as international cooperation for realizing world-wide zero-waste societies. It also states that an “East Asia Sound Material-Cycle Society Vision” will be formulated by 2012 as one example of this international cooperation.
Scenes from the Asia 3R promotion conference

In a follow-up to the Ministerial Conference on the 3R Initiative, a Senior Official-Level Meeting for the 3R Initiative was held in Tokyo in March 2006, when discussions were held on the development and transfer of technologies related to 3R. Among others, it was pointed out that, since development levels and socio-economic conditions differ depending on the country or community, economic aspects of 3R-related technology are also important.

Besides this, an “Asia 3R Promotion Conference” was held in Tokyo in October 2006, with the participation of 19 Asian countries and 8 international agencies. 3R was comprehensively promoted at the Conference, while various specific initiatives – such as 3R on household waste, 3R on electrical and electronic waste (E-waste), and medical waste – were introduced by the various countries, international agencies, networks of international NGOs, companies and others, resulting in a lively discussion. The participants not only shared awareness of the importance of promoting 3R in Asia, but also praised this Conference as the first opportunity for policy-makers from Asian countries and international agencies to discuss 3R. It was also confirmed, among other matters, that technology will be an important element in promoting 3R. Moreover, the required technologies do not necessarily have to be the latest versions, but should be socially acceptable ones that are environmentally appropriate and economically viable.

In this way, Japan has played a leading role in establishing an international SMS through the 3R Initiative, which has been highly praised by various countries and international agencies. In 2008, Japan will assume the presidency of the G8 group of nations. As such, Japan aims to display international leadership and promote the 3R Initiative in the runup to the G8 Summit. In this display of leadership, technology is expected to make a contribution to promoting 3R in specific terms. In particular, Japan has some superior technologies in the fields of 3R and waste management. The next section will examine some leading examples of these technologies.
Japanese society, which aims to be a sound material-cycle society (SMS), is supported by various technologies. Our social and economic situation, as well as our activities, have changed remarkably over time and the amount and kind of consumed natural resources, products and service activities have changed accordingly. As a result, the quantity and quality of waste generated have also changed. In response to such change, various technologies for product manufacturing and waste management processes have been developed to sanitarily dispose of waste, remove hazardous substances and save resources and energy (Fig. 2-1).

Fig. 2-1 Progress of waste management and 3R

Reinforcement of laws and policies	Change of organization	Technological development
1954 The Public Cleansing Law
1967 The Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control
1970 The Waste Management Law (Introduced the responsibility of waste-generating business)
1976 Revision of the Waste Management Law (Clarified enterprise's responsibility for industrial waste disposal)
1991 Revision of the Waste Management Law (Reduction of waste generation and recycling of waste)
The Law to Promote Recycled Resource Use
1995 The Law for the Recycling of Containers and Packages
1997 Revision of the Waste Management Law (Measures against illegal dumping, etc.)
1998 The Home Appliances Recycling Law
2000 The Law for the Recycling of Construction Material
The Fundamental Law for Establishing a Sound Material-cycle Society
The Law for the Promotion of Effective Utilities of Resources
The Food Waste Recycling Law
2001 PCB Special Measures Law
2002 The End-of-life Vehicle Recycling Law
2003 Fundamental Plan for Establishing a Sound Material-cycle Society	1971 Environment Agency established	Improvement of hygiene
Measures against hazardous substances
Recycling
Reduce, reuse
2001 Ministry of the Environment established
(Responsibility for the control of waste transferred to the Ministry of the Environment)

Source: Ministry of the Environment

This section outlines various technologies that support the SMS of Japan, for example the following: waste-related technology for improving public health; hazardous substance countermeasure technology for reducing influences on human health and the ecosystem; 3R-related technology for enabling the 3Rs (reduce, reuse and recycle) of waste; and resource recycling technology that focuses on major metals. While some of these technologies were introduced from other advanced countries and used until now, there are also many technologies that have been developed by Japan. These original Japan technologies have the possibility of contributing significantly to the appropriate management of waste and the promotion of 3R activities, especially in Asian regions.
For example, Japan has been promoting incineration, considering its hot humid climate in summer, in order to sanitarily and rapidly dispose of waste. Japan’s technology and experience can be shared with Asian countries that also have hot, humid climates.

## 1 Improvement in hygiene

The main purpose of waste management is to maintain a sanitary and comfortable living environment. The Public Cleansing Law was enacted in 1954 for the purpose of “improving public health by sanitarily disposing of waste and cleaning the living environment.” The sanitary disposal of waste has contributed to the improvement in hygiene in Japan. For example, sanitary disposal of waste prevents vast numbers of mosquitoes and flies from breeding and is thought to be one factor that has enabled the Japanese to acquire a taste for raw food in their diet.

With the growth of the Japanese economy and resultant industrial development, waste generation became an issue, such as areas of polluted water due to illegally dumped waste oil. So, the Public Cleansing Law was amended in 1970 to become the Waste Management and Public Cleansing Law (hereinafter called “the Waste Management Law”). The present waste management law is enacted for the purpose of “preserving the living environment and improving public health through the restriction of waste discharge, appropriate sorting, storage, collection, transport, recycling, disposal, or the like of waste and conservation of a clean living environment” (Article 1). The term “appropriate sorting, storage, collection, transport, recycling, disposal” clarifies how to appropriately dispose of waste (Fig. 2-2). It not only means that waste should be sanitarily disposed of, but also that waste should be disposed of so as not to become a significant environmental burden. At each stage of waste management, various technologies are employed to play an active role in improving hygiene and protecting the environment.

Fig. 2-2 Waste management flow

## (1) Technologies for night soil disposal

The disposal of night soil, or excretory substances, is the origin of waste management. From ancient times in Japan, agriculture developed around rice farming and a sanitary recycling system used to exist whereby night soil generated in urban areas was used as fertilizer in suburban villages. However, due to urbanization, which began in the mid-1950s, the population balance between urban areas and suburban villages was lost. In addition, due to the spread of chemical fertilizers and increased demand for flush toilets, the development of night soil disposal facilities and the reinforcement of sewage systems in urban areas progressed rapidly.
Due to limited finances and time, however, the reinforcement of the sewage system could not keep pace with ever-expanding demand. So, a single type private sewage treatment system (which treats only night soil) became widespread after the mid-1960s.

In 1983 the Purification Tank Law, which regulates each stage of purification tank processing, from manufacture through installation to management and maintenance, was enacted to control purification tanks. After that, a pressing need arose for reinforcing measures to be taken against one of the major causes of water pollution: domestic wastewater, and single type private sewage treatment systems, which were predominantly purification tanks. Therefore, the Purification Tank Law was revised in 2000, limiting purification tanks to combined-type private sewage treatment systems (which treat both night soil and miscellaneous drainage) and basically prohibits the installation of new single type private sewage treatment systems (Fig. 2-3).

As at the end of 2005, there were 10.93 million purification tanks (combined-type private sewage treatment systems): an increase of 310,000 (2.9% up compared to the situation at the end of 2004). The percentage of the population (diffusion rate) with purification tanks is 8.6%: an increase of 0.2% compared to the end of 2004 (8.4%).

While the sewerage wastewater treatment system was imported from Europe, purification tanks are a domestic wastewater treatment system peculiar to Japan, which was developed in consequence of the country's long history of night soil disposal. Purification tanks treat wastewater on site, using technology that converts organic pollutants contained in wastewater into purification tank sludge, which is composed mainly of microorganisms, while mineralizing the pollutant and separating sludge from the treated water. Purification tanks (combined-type private sewage treatment systems) have the advantages that they can treat wastewater in almost the same manner as other wastewater treatment facilities, that a system for an ordinary family can be installed in a space equivalent to that of one passenger car and that these can be employed efficiently in less heavily populated areas. So, these systems play an important role in Japan, especially as a pillar of domestic wastewater and public sewerage treatment. Besides, because purification tanks treat domestic wastewater on site, there is no great change in the flow of the water channel, etc. after a tank has been installed. Thus, these tanks contribute to constructing a water cycle that is environmentally sound.

Night soil collected from houses without flush toilets and sludge collected periodically from purification tanks are sanitarily treated in night soil treatment facilities, etc. The night soil treatment facility effectively removes not only organic substances but also nitrogen and phosphorus, which cause eutrophication, pathogenic microorganisms, etc. in an enclosed sea. Some recently developed night soil treatment facilities are equipped with facilities for recycling sludge, etc.
Mechanical waste collection vehicle (packer car)

Source: HP of the Resource & Waste Recycling Bureau, Yokohama City

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## Treatment of domestic wastewater by Japanese - made “Johkasoh”

“Johkasoh” is “a Porification tank for treating night soil and miscellaneous domestic wastewater to discharge treated water in a channel other than public sewerage” (Clause 1, Article 2 of the Law for Combined Household Wastewater Treatment Facility). It is almost the same in mechanism as a sewage treatment plant, and is a wastewater treatment facility installed in individual houses. The “Johkasoh” has the advantages that treated water can be used for watering, etc., on the site, that sludge can easily be reused because of the little content of heavy metals, and that there is a double purification effect because treated water is naturally purified before flowing into a water body, such as a river.

Cross-section of purification tank (anaerobic filter contact aeration type)

Filter material packed in the tank catches suspended matter and provides a large surface area for microorganisms to reside, thus enabling efficient treatment.

Anaerobic filter tank

Solid matter contained in waste water is removed by sedimentation and waste water is decomposed by the anaerobes sticking to the filter (organic substances are decomposed into low molecular substances).

Contact aeration tank

Additional purification of waste water by aerobic microorganisms (When waste water flows through the filter, organic substances contained in the water are digested by the microorganisms sticking to the filter and converted into energy for the microorganisms' multiplication and activity, thus being removed from the water.)

Source: Japan Education Center of Environmental Sanitation
## (2) Collection and transportation technologies

The collection of waste is important for keeping the living space of each house clean, thereby protecting the living environment. In each house, factory or business establishment, waste generated through biological means or mechanical operation is segregated into flammable and inflammable garbage, or according to different types of industrial waste. Thereafter, segregated waste is collected by the local authority or transported by the waste generator for appropriate treatment. Alternatively, its collection and transportation is consigned to a company that is qualified to collect and transport waste. These technologies are used for the efficient collection and transportation of waste without allowing it to become dispersed.

In Japan, in order to ensure safe and sanitary work and to collect waste quickly and efficiently, mechanical waste collection vehicles (packer cars) are predominantly used to collect domestic waste. The packer car is so structured as to press charged waste into a storage compartment, which is constructed in the vehicle, under mechanical force. For transportation of bulky waste or for transportation to a transfer facility, various types of vehicles, such as tippers and trucks with cranes, are used.

Collected domestic waste is transported directly to an intermediate treatment facility, such as an incineration plant, or transported to a transfer facility and transferred to a larger vehicle when the distance to a treatment facility is great. Besides collecting and transporting waste with a vehicle, there is also pipeline waste transportation technology that transports waste through a pipeline with compressed air, but this is not widely used today because of difficulties with waste segregation.

In developing countries, because of narrow roads that cannot accommodate waste collection vehicles and because the cost of labor is comparatively low, waste is manually collected by humans in many areas.

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## Donating used equipment to developing countries

The collection and transport of waste is the first step of waste management, but in developing countries the system is insufficient to deal with all waste generated, resulting in waste being left on roadsides or street corners. To solve this problem, various activities are being conducted to transfer used, but still working, waste collection vehicles of Japanese local authorities to developing countries that require them. For example, 10 used waste collection vehicles of Osaka City were donated to Phnom Penh, Cambodia, under grass-roots grant aid for recycling. Although donating used vehicles is worthwhile, international cooperation will have greater value if

Japanese waste collection vehicles donated to Phnom Penh

Source: Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center