Silviase/jgov_v1.4_full_ann huggingface dataset:
## Section 6 Trends Abroad

## 1 Information and communications market abroad

In 2004, total sales of telecommunications services in the world reached 1.2160 trillion US dollars (139.8400 trillion yen: 115 yen / 1 US dollar), a 10.6% increase over the previous year, and still keeping an 8% increase from the previous year (Figure 2-6-1).

Sales of fixed communications were stable between 1998 and 2003; however, it jumped up to 520 billion US dollars (59.8 trillion yen) or a 21.8% increase over the previous year. Sales of international calls totaled 32.0 billion US dollars in 2004, decreased by almost 50% from the peak 60.0 billion US dollars (6.9000 trillion yen) in 2000. Sales of mobile communications achieved 454.0 billion US dollars (52.2100 trillion yen) in 2004, a 9.7% increase over the previous year.

## 2 Trends in ICT policies abroad

As is the case in Japan, other countries formulate new national strategies and revise existing strategies in response to changes in the market environment, including the progress of broadband, convergence, and ubiquitous networking.

For example, “i2010: European Information Society 2010,” adopted in June 2005 by the EU, targets three different goals: 1. Realization of a Single European Information Space offering reasonable and secure broadband communications, rich and diverse contents and digital services; 2. Enhancement of research and technical innovation in the ICT field; and 3. Realization of an Inclusive European Information Society which offers high-quality public services and improves the quality of life. In the UK, “Connecting the UK: the Digital Strategy” was adopted in March 2005 to close the digital divide caused by ICT and the progress of broadband.

Korea adopted the “u-Korea basic plan” in March 2006 to promote ubiquitous society at the highest global standards.

## (1) Trends in ICT policies in the United States

The FCC (Federal Communications Commission) has been reviewing its rules since the end of 2001 in order to promote broadband deployment in the United States. In 2003, the FCC adopted a decision to abolish the unbundling obligation for fiber-to-the-home (FTTH), which allowed Verizon to start establishing its fiber-optic networks.

In 2005, the FCC reviewed the regulatory classifications for wired broadband services such as DSL and FTTH, and adopted a decision to abolish the obligation for telecommunications carriers to offer transmission component of the wireline broadband Internet access ser-

Figure 2-6-1 Increase in telecommunications market (services)

Produced from the ITU website.
### Section 2. Bilateral ODA by Income Groups

### Chart III-12. Bilateral ODA Disbursement by Income Groups (Breakdown by DAC Classification)

Calendar year	2007	2008	Number of countries (2008)
Income group
LDC	1,874.8 (32.4)	1,418.2 (20.8)	49
LICs	1,067.2 (18.5)	761.0 (11.2)	11
LMICs	1,336.4 (23.1)	1,885.3 (27.6)	45
UMICs	352.3 (6.1)	565.4 (8.3)	35
HICs	-154.0 (—)	1.2 (0.0)	4
Unclassifiable	1,301.4 (22.5)	2,192.1 (32.1)
Total	5,778.1 (100.0)	6,823.2 (100.0)

(Excluding disbursements for Eastern Europe and graduated countries)

*1 Least Developed Countries (LDC) are those countries designated by resolution of the UN General Assembly, after deliberation by the UN Economic and Social Council based on criteria (see chart below) recommended by the UN Committee for Development Policy (CDP). LDC designation requires consent from the country concerned.

Population	Average per capita GNI from 2000-2002	HAI $ ^{(1)} $	EVI $ ^{(2)} $
Greater than or equal to 75,000,000	Less than or equal to US745	Less than 58	More than 42

$ ^{*} $ 1) The Human Asset Index (HAI) is an index established by the CDP to measure the level of development of human capital, and reflects ① average calorie intake per capita as a percentage of the minimum requirement, ② the mortality rate for children aged five years or under, and ③ educational standard (adult literacy rate, gross secondary school enrolment ratio).

(*2) The Economic Vulnerability Index (EVI) is an index established by the CDP to measure economic vulnerability, and reflects ① export concentration, ② instability of export earnings, ③ instability of agricultural production, ④ share of manufacturing and modern services in the country's gross domestic product (GDP), and ⑤ population size, and ⑥ population ration is affected by natural disaster.

$ ^{*} $ 2 Low Income Countries (LICs) are countries or regions whose GNI per capita is less than or equal to US935 in 2007 (from the World Bank Atlas Database). For disbursements in 2008, there were 11 such countries and regions.

*3 Lower Middle Income Countries (LMICs) are countries or regions whose GNI per capita is more than or equal to US$936 but less than or equal to US$3,705 in 2007 (from the World Bank Atlas Database). For disbursements in 2008, there were 45 such countries and regions.

*4 Upper Middle Income Countries (UMICs) are countries or regions whose GNI per capita is more than or equal to US$3,706, but less than or equal to US$11,455 in 2007 (from the World Bank Atlas Database). For disbursements in 2008, 39 such countries and regions in this category.

*5 High Income Countries (HICs) are countries or regions whose GNI per capita is more than or equal to US$11,456 in 2007 (from the World Bank Atlas Database). For disbursements in 2008, there were no countries in this category.

Source: World Bank Atlas, 2009 DAC Development co-operation Report
Type	Japan's ODA (2008)
Grants	Total	Loan aid	Total	Total
Grant aid	Technical cooperation	Amount disbursed	Amount received
Country or Region	Grants provided through multilateral institutions
* Cyprus	0.01	0.01	0.01
* Malta	0.01	0.01	0.01
Moldova	9.35	0.23	9.58	9.58
Ukraine	4.76	2.10	6.86	1.56	1.56	8.42
Belarus	0.27	0.15	0.42	0.42
* Estonia	0.10	0.10	0.10
* Latvia	0.06	0.06	0.06
* Lithuania	0.03	0.10	0.13	0.13
(former Yugoslavia)	13.11	0.29	11.04	24.14	18.61	2.89	15.72	39.87
Bosnia and Herzegovina	7.75	3.50	11.25	0.65	-0.65	10.60
Croatia	0.72	0.25	0.97	0.95	-0.95	0.01
Macedonia	0.59	2.20	2.79	18.61	18.61	21.39
* Slovenia	0.06	0.06	0.06
Serbia	3.46	0.29	2.42	5.88	5.88
Montenegro	0.60	2.54	3.14	1.28	-1.28	1.85
Multiple countries of what was formerly Yugoslavia	0.07	0.07	0.07
Multiple countries in Europe	0.54	0.54	0.54
* Eastern Europe (6 countries)	3.45	0.39	7.32	10.77	117.37	34.87	82.51	93.28
* Bulgaria	2.47	2.45	4.91	37.42	9.34	28.08	33.00
* Czech Republic	0.33	0.33	0.33
* Hungary	1.21	1.21	1.21
* Poland	1.04	1.04	11.17	-11.17	-10.13
* Romania	0.60	2.19	2.78	71.14	8.72	62.43	65.21
* Slovakia	0.07	0.07	8.81	5.64	3.17	3.24
* Multiple countries in Eastern Europe	0.39	0.39	0.04	0.42	0.42
Multiple regions Aid, etc.	44.46	2.45	1,560.97	1,605.44	1,605.44
Bilateral ODA total	4,780.69	730.90	3,057.82	7,838.51	7,050.81	7,950.47	-899.66	6,938.85
(1,979.51)	(730.90)	(3,057.82)	(5,037.33)	(7,050.81)	(6,886.94)	(163.87)	(5,201.20)

$ ^{*} $ 1 Figures for Grant aid include those provided through multilateral institutions that can be classified by country.

$ ^{*} $ 2 $ ^{*} $ = graduated countries.

$ ^{*} $ 3 Multiple regions Aid of technical cooperation includes the dispatch of survey teams to more than one region, subsidies for foreign student support organizations, administrative costs, promotion of development awareness costs, etc.

$ ^{*} $ 4 Due to rounding, the total figure may not match the sum of the individual parts.

$ ^{*} $ 5 Region classifications are determined by MOFA. Brackets indicate names of regions.

*6 The former Yugoslavia includes Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro.

$ ^{*} $ 7 Figures in parenthesis do not include debt relief.

$ ^{*} $ 8 Debt relief includes debt cancellation of yen loans and debt reduction of insured commercial claims. It does not include debt rescheduling.

$ ^{*9} $ Grants provided through multilateral institutions have conventionally been reported as “Contributions and subscriptions to multilateral institutions, etc.” However, since 2006, expenditures clearly addressing a country at the point of disbursement are considered as bilateral ODA and therefore newly reported as “Grant aid.”
## Chapter 2

Progress of 50 Years of ODA

Signing of the loan agreement for the New Tokaido Line (the Shinkansen project). Front row (from left to right): His Excellency Mr. Koichiro Asakai, Ambassador of Japan in the United States; Sir William Iliff, Vice President of the World Bank; and Mr. Shinji Sogo, President of the Japanese National Railways. Back row (left to right): Mr. Gengo Suzuki, Executive Director of the World Bank for Japan; and Mr. Manabu Kanematsu, Managing Director of the Japanese National Railways. (Photo: World Bank Tokyo Office)

## Key Points

• Japan started to provide ODA by joining the Colombo Plan in 1954, and has steadily developed its assistance implementation systems ever since.

In 1977, Japan announced that it would double its ODA. Since the following year, 1978, Japan has decided five medium-term targets, quantitatively expanding and globalizing ODA.

• Japan formulated the ODA Charter in 1992 and worked to clarify the policy and philosophy of Japan's ODA through the 1990s in the new international environment after the Cold War.

• Japan revised the ODA Charter in August 2003. ODA entered a new era.

As mentioned in Chapter 1, Japan's ODA has contributed to the economic and social development of developing countries for half a century, and it is highly evaluated by countries throughout the world. Chapter 2 looks back at the progression of Japan's ODA, which has yielded such positive accomplishments, over the past 50 years, based on data and reference materials. Japan's ODA has achieved major developments not only in its scale but also in the aspects of quality, content, policy and philosophy. These developments were also closely linked to political and economic situations in Japan, international circumstances, and international trends and debates regarding ODA. In this chapter, the 50 years is broadly divided into the following four periods and the history of Japan's ODA is outlined.

Section 1 System Development Period (1954-1976)

Period, since Japan started to provide technical assistance by joining the Colombo Plan in 1954, when aid implementation systems were developed through the launch and consolidation of aid implementation agencies, diversification of the framework of assistance and other measures

Section 2 Systematic Expansion Period (1977-1991)

● Period when quantitative expansion of ODA was planned through repeated medium-term targets and Japan's ODA developed globally

Section 3 Substantial Policy and Philosophy Shaping Period (Original ODA Charter Period) (1992-2002)

Period under the new international environment after the end of the Cold War when Japan kept on making efforts particularly to focus on clarifying the ODA policy and philosophy through the establishment of the original ODA Charter of 1992, the Medium-Term Policy on Official Development Assistance of 1999, and others

Section 4 Meeting the Challenges of a New Era (Revised ODA Charter) (2003 - present)

Japan's ODA has reached a new turning point with the approval by the Cabinet in August 2003 of the revised ODA Charter
welfare in the Union of Burma." Economic cooperation provided in tandem with reparations was also specified as the way of atoning for the war. After that, successive reparations treaties were signed with the Philippines in 1956, Indonesia in 1958, and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) in 1959. Moreover, though not reparations in the strict sense, grant aid etc. (known as "quasi-reparations") has been provided to Cambodia and Laos, which renounced claims to Japan for reparations, as well as to Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Korea, and Micronesia.

The conclusion of treaties regarding reparations with these Asian countries was the center of Japan's economic diplomacy with Asia until the mid-1960s, while support for payment of reparations was continued until 1976. Providing reparations and economic cooperation in tandem therewith had two objectives: one was to perform Japan's obligations under the various treaties for atoning for the war; the other was to support the promotion of the development and social welfare of those countries. At the same time, it was effective for promoting the securing of markets for Japanese industry, through disbursing to Asian countries the funds, which limited the scope of the goods and services that could be supplied to Japanese ones. The historical background of Japan's financial assistance-starting as providing reparations and economic cooperation in tandem therewith to Asian countries-combined with the basic policy of placing emphasis on providing cooperation for Asian countries having close links with Japan, became the model for the subsequent Asia focus of Japan's ODA.

## Commencement of Yen loans

In 1958, Japan extended the first yen loan, to India, $ ^{10} $ thus commencing full-fledged economic cooperation. This was conducted independently of the issue of atoning for the war through reparations, and had a groundbreaking significance in the sense that it was the start of financial cooperation with concessional conditions. At that time, ensuring a recovery in exports was the primordial issue for the Japanese economy; the provision of tied $ ^{11} $ loan assistance was also effective for export promotion, thus Japan actively provided such loan assistance throughout the 1960s.

In a foreign policy speech in February 1957, then acting Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs Nobusuke

Colombo Port Expansion Project

Colombo Port today

Colombo Port, becoming the hub of Southwest Asia. Japan provided various support for the expansion and development of Colombo Port through Yen loans and other methods.

Blueprint for Colombo Port

Colombo Port before expansion
* : Society for Economic Cooperation in Asia and Mekong Community of Japan were dissolved and contract works of Latin American Society and Infrastructure Development Institute were transferred to OTCA when OTCA was established.

Improving Japan's international position and strengthening its aid implementation systems

From the second half of the 1960s to the 1970s, the world entered a period of turmoil. The Vietnam War intensified; the United States announced dollar-defense measures including the discontinuation of gold-dollar convertibility (the Nixon Shock); and the First Oil Crisis occurred in 1973 on the occasion of the Fourth Middle East War. While the world economy especially in the United States entered a difficult phase, Japan's international position was rapidly improved. In line with this trend, Japan's assistance had gradually transitioned from assistance centered on atoning for the war. While quantitatively expanding its ODA, Japan strived to diversify its framework of assistance.

Also due to the influence of changes in exchange rates to the amounts of assistance, Japan's ODA disbursement increased ten-fold from 115.8 million dollars in 1964 to 1.149 billion dollars in 1976. In 1972, Japan came to rank fourth among DAC countries, above the United Kingdom (in 1973, Japan's Gross National Product (GNP) was 412.5 billion dollars, second highest among DAC countries).

As for the framework of assistance, Japan strived for diversification, starting to provide food aid in 1968 $ ^{15} $ and general grant aid in 1969, while expanding the conventional
Next year, 2005, heralds the 40 $ ^{th} $ anniversary of the foundation of the JOCV. The JOCV is an organization founded based on recommendations by youth groups and young Diet members. Under the JOCV system, young Japanese men and women aged 20-39 stay in a developing country generally for two years. They cooperate toward achieving the social and economic development of the country in fields such as agriculture, fisheries, health care, and education and culture, while living and working with its people. Since the first group of five JOCV members was dispatched to Laos in 1965, more than 25,000 have been active to date in 78 countries.

This program has its departure point the will of young people to provide cooperation to assist development of developing countries. As its high visibility indicates, it has won high praise both domestically and overseas as a true model of public participation-type aid.

JOCV members, working hard with the inhabitants of developing countries, are able to respond in detail to

First-term JOCVs about to depart from Haneda Airport

(Photo: JICA)

the needs in the field. In addition, they can play a role as bridge to further cooperation, by directly grasping the issues of the countries' inhabitants. The members also contribute to promote mutual understanding between Japan and developing countries. Teaching volunteers convey the situation of IOCV activities to Japanese schoolchildren, and the members returned to Japan provide continuing cooperation to recipient countries through NGO activities and so forth. From these perspectives, it is fair to say that IOCVs really contribute to the citizens of Japan and developing countries becoming "true friends."

Moreover, JOCVs returned to Japan also return both domestically and overseas the experience they have gained through the activities. This is a major feature of this program. Former members naturally have the potential to become valuable human resources in the field of international cooperation. And the stage of their activities after returning to Japan has come to widen more and more.

The JOCV program with this kind of deep significance has received support from various people in Japan. The circle of support for this program is widening, through measures such as companies and local governments developing systems enabling people to participate in the JOCV while keeping their present jobs, provision of help for activities of JOCVs going out into the field for a short term, contribution of materials necessary for activities in the field, citizens providing donations and so forth. Meanwhile, more than 20,000 former members themselves form the core group having deep understanding of and demonstrate strong support for the program.
Source: Cabinet Office, World Economic Trends (Autumn Report in 2003)

framework of project-type loans and starting two-step loans $ ^{16} $ in 1966 and commodity loans $ ^{17} $ in 1968. Meanwhile, in 1965, the Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers (JOCV) were founded, incorporating in aid the perspective of public participation and Japan's assistance came to be widely expanded and improved.

In 1974, OTCA and the Japan Emigration Service integrated and became JICA, $ ^{18} $ having become an independent administrative institution at present. In 1975, development of aid implementation systems progressed through measures such as clarifying the allocation of roles and duties between the OECF and the Export-Import Bank of Japan (EIB). $ ^{19} $ In these ways, Japan made efforts to improve the quality of its aid.

## Departing from trade promotion

From the 1970s, expansion of Japan's export gradually receded as the objective of its assistance.

In the 1960s, Japan had come to the period of rapid growth, and by the end of that decade, there were less needs for linking ODA to export promotion. Furthermore, the DAC Peer Review Japan in 1969 recommended that Japan should abolish tied aid. In response, it was decided in 1972 on approval by the Cabinet of the Law for Special Measures for
Source: DAC press release, 2004, DAC Journal: Development Cooperation 2003 Report

Notes: (1) Excludes assistance to Eastern Europe and graduated countries.

(2) US figures for 1991-92 exclude military debt relief.

(3) Figures for 2003 for the major donors except Japan are estimates.

(4) Due to subsequent revision, the above data do not necessarily correspond to the figures at the time of publication.

Chart I - 14 Transition of Qualification for Procurement of Yen Loan

(Loan Agreement basis (excludes Debt Relief))

Note: Partially Untying (LDC Untying): To supply the goods or services by aid fund from donor countries ("Japan" in case of Yen Loan) or all developing countries. In this case, the goods or services cannot be supplied from other advanced countries (developed countries excluding "Japan" in case of Yen Loan).
Hospital in Batdambang Province in Cambodia. Cooperation began in 1964 based on the Japan-Cambodia Agreement on Economic and Technical Cooperation of 1959. This medical center is also called the Japan Hospital.

A medical examination

Mongkol Borei medical center (before restoration)

The experts dispatched at that time

Coordinating the Overseas Economic Relations that Yen loans would be untied. Subsequently, progress was made in untying Yen loans, and since 1980s, almost 100% of them have been untied. Due to the influence of the special yen loans $ ^{20} $ introduced in line with the Asian Economic Crisis in the second half of the 1990s, the untied rate fell temporarily. However, Japan's untied aid rate is higher than average even among DAC countries.

The focus of Japan's assistance in this period was placed on Asia. And bilateral assistance formed its core, but as already mentioned, this was linked to the background of Japan's assistance starting from the provision of reparations and economic cooperation in tandem therewith. Since the second half of the 1960s, Japan's assistance has also come to be promoted in the form of international collaboration. For instance, the Ministerial Conference for the Development of Southeast Asia, advocated by Japan, was held in 1966. Furthermore, Japan played a key role in the establishment of the Asian Development Bank (ADB). In the second Annual Meeting of the ADB in 1969, then Minister of Finance Takeo Fukuda announced that Japan would double its assistance to Asia within five years. Thus Japan strengthened its stance of placing emphasis on Asia. Such economic cooperation to Asia contributed greatly to building the infrastructure for Southeast Asia's economic development as part of a three-pronged approach at that time that also included develop-and-import schemes and investment activities.

## Section 2 Systematic Expansion Period (1977-1991)

End of reparations payment and systematic expansion of assistance

In July 1976, Japan's payment of reparations ended upon