Silviase/jgov_v1.4_full_ann huggingface dataset:
## Section 2 Bilateral ODA Disbursements by Income Groups

## Chart IV-12 Bilateral ODA Disbursement by Income Groups (Breakdown by to DAC Classifications)

Recipient group	2009	2010	Number of Japanese ODA recipients (2010)
LDCs	1,895.8	2,711.4	49
LICs	1,533.1	1,342.3	11
LMICs	621.6	823.2	46
UMICs	404.9	730.9	35
HICs	1.8	9.5	4
Unclassifiable	1,719.0	1,719.6	—
Total	6,176.2	7,337.0	145

(Excluding disbursements to Eastern Europe and graduated countries)

*1 Least Developed Countries (LDCs) are those countries designated by resolution of the UN General Assembly, after deliberation by the UN Economic and Social Council based on criteria (see chart below) recommended by the UN Committee for Development Policy (CDP). LDC designation requires consent from the country concerned.

Population	Average per capita GNI from 2005 - 2007	HAI (Note 1)	EVI (Note 2)
No less than 75,000,000	No more than US$905	Less than 60	More than 42

(Note 1) Human Assets Index (HAI) based on indicators of: (a) nutrition: percentage of population undernourished; (b) health: mortality rate for children aged five years or under; (c) education: the gross secondary school enrolment ratio; and (d) adult literacy rate.

(Note 2) Economic Vulnerability Index (EVI) based on indicators of: (a) population size; (b) remoteness; (c) merchandise export concentration; (d) share of agriculture, forestry and fisheries in gross domestic product; (e) share of population living in low elevated coastal zones; (f) instability of exports of goods and services; (g) victims of natural disasters; and (h) instability of agricultural production.

$ ^{*} $ 2 Low Income Countries (LICs) comprise countries and regions with GNI per capita of US935 or less in 2007 (World Bank Atlas basis).

$ ^{*} $ 3 Lower Middle Income Countries (LMICs) comprise countries and regions with GNI per capita between US936 and US3,705 in 2007 (World Bank Atlas basis).

$ ^{*} $ 4 Upper Middle Income Countries (UMICs) comprise countries and regions with GNI per capita between US3,706 and US11,455 in 2007 (World Bank Atlas basis).

*5 High Income Countries (HICs) comprise countries and regions with GNI per capita of US$11,456 or more in 2007 (World Bank Atlas basis).

Source: World Bank Atlas, DAC statistics on OECD.STAT
Type	Japan's ODA (2010)
Grants	Total	Loan aid	Total	Total
Grant aid	Technical cooperation	Amount disbursed	Amount recovered
Country or region	Grants provided through multilateral institutions	Technical cooperation
Tuvalu	3.31	1.22	4.54	4.54
Vanuatu	11.81	3.81	15.61	15.61
ODA for multiple countries in Oceania	0.43	0.43	3.62	4.04	4.04
Europe	9.46	0.81	24.96	34.42	198.03	51.94	146.09	180.51
Albania	0.39	2.83	3.22	3.09	3.87	-0.78	2.44
Belarus	1.01	0.38	1.39	1.39
Bosnia and Herzegovina	0.98	2.69	3.67	0.10	1.53	-1.44	2.24
Croatia	1.61	0.27	1.88	1.88
Cyprus *	0.02	0.02	0.02
Estonia *	0.11	0.11	0.11
Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia	0.43	1.37	1.81	24.22	2.98	21.24	23.05
(Former Yugoslavia)	4.58	0.34	10.91	15.48	24.32	5.39	18.93	34.41
Kosovo	0.15	0.93	1.08	1.08
Latvia *	0.12	0.12	0.12
Lithuania *	0.15	0.15	0.15
Malta *	0.01	0.01	0.01
Moldova	0.24	0.69	0.93	0.93
Montenegro	0.22	0.65	0.87	0.87
Serbia	1.18	0.34	4.87	6.05	0.88	-0.88	5.18
Slovenia *	0.13	0.13	0.13
Ukraine	1.06	3.38	4.44	48.73	48.73	53.17
Multiple countries of the former Yugoslavia countries
ODA for multiple countries in Europe	0.34	0.34	1.63	1.97	1.97
Eastern Europe (6 countries) *	1.85	0.12	4.73	6.58	121.88	42.68	79.21	85.79
Bulgaria *	0.85	1.18	2.02	5.76	12.48	-6.72	-4.70
Czech Republic *	0.45	0.45	0.45
Hungary *	1.26	1.26	1.26
Poland *	0.85	0.85	13.18	-13.18	-12.33
Romania *	0.88	0.89	1.77	116.13	10.28	105.85	107.61
Slovakia *	0.10	0.10	6.74	-6.74	-6.65
ODA for multiple countries in Eastern Europe *	0.12	0.12	0.01	0.13	0.13
Aid encompassing multiple regions, etc.	99.27	38.14	1,462.68	1,561.95	1,561.95
Bilateral ODA total	3,465.59	1,269.15	3,488.50	6,954.09	8,323.84	7,849.88	473.95	7,428.04
(3,444.71)	(1,269.15)	(3,488.50)	(6,933.20)	(8,323.84)	(7,843.07)	(480.77)	(7,413.97)

$ ^{*} $ 1 Grant aid includes aid provided through multilateral institutions that can be classified by country.

$ ^{*} $ 2 $ ^{*} $ indicates graduated countries and regions.

$ ^{*3} $ Aid encompassing multiple regions for technical cooperation includes the dispatch of survey teams, subsidies for foreign student support organizations, administrative costs and promotion of development awareness covering multiple regions.

$ ^{*} $ 4 Due to rounding, the total figure may not match the sum of each number.

*5 Country names are general names derived from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs's "List of Countries".

$ ^{*} $ 6 Based on the regional classification of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Regions are indicated in parenthesis.

$ ^{*7} $ The former Yugoslavia includes Croatia, Kosovo, Slovenia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Montenegro.

$ ^{*} $ 8 Figures in parenthesis do not include debt relief.

$ ^{*} $ 9 Debt relief includes debt cancellation of ODA loans and debt reduction of insured commercial claims, but does not include debt rescheduling.
# Annual Report on Trends in Forest and Forestry in Japan

Fiscal Year 2009

(Summary)

Forestry Agency

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan
## Table of Contents

Topics ..... 1
Chapter I Productivity Improvement for Revitalizing Forestry ..... 3
Chapter II Global Warming and Forest ..... 15
Chapter III Forest Management ..... 18
Chapter IV Forestry and Mountainous Areas ..... 22
Chapter V Wood Supply/Demand and Wood Products Industry ..... 26
Chapter VI National Forest Management ..... 31
Appendix ..... 34
## Topics

### 1. Forest and Forestry Revitalization Plan

In December 2009, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries developed the “Forest and Forestry Revitalization Plan.”

Under three fundamental principles: a) to provide and sustain multifunctional roles of forest, b) to revitalize forestry and wood products industry fully utilizing regional natural resources, and c) to contribute to the realization of the "low-carbon society" through expanding wood use for both material and energy, the Plan intends to convert Japan's society from "concrete society" into "wood society" which will fully utilize forest resource to contribute to employment and environment.

The Plan intends to develop the foundation for the efficient and stable forest management, through i) construction of forest road networks, ii) coordination and consolidation of forestry practices, and iii) development of skilled forestry workforce, aiming to realize the target of wood self-sufficiency rate as “more than 50%” through developing reliable domestic wood supply/use system (Fig 1-1).

The MAFF sets up the Promotion Unit to materialize the Plan in January 2010. Five consultation committees under the Unit have been reviewing current forest policies including forest planning system, forest road networks, logging system, and human resource development.

Fig 1-1: Forest and Forestry Revitalization Plan

For implementing the core concept of the Plan, the Forestry Agency started an experimental project. Currently, “Experimental Implementation of Forest and Forestry Industry Revitalization” projects are conducted in five areas in Japan, where efficient forestry production systems are to be introduced on experimental basis. The Project will develop and demonstrate efficient logging system through introducing advanced foreign
forestry machines with necessary modification suitable for testing areas. Education of forest machine operators for planning and construction of forest road networks will also be conducted.

### 2. Young People and Forestry

Young people are now becoming aware of the forestry sector as their potential carriers. For example, the average age of trainees of the vocational training project “Green employment” dropped from 43.4 years old in 2003 to 35.2 in 2008.

Further, there are other indications that young people are getting interested in forestry: i.e. participating in forestry practices voluntarily, engaging in forest conservation activities, moving to rural area, and obtaining a job in the Forest Owners' Cooperative. Forestry sector is expected to attract more attention from young people.

### 3. Promotion of Wood Use

Recently, wood is becoming to be used in various areas where not used previously. For example, wood is increasingly used as structural and interior materials in public buildings, including schools, local government offices, and public housings. Moreover, a railway company developed railcars with wooden interior and exterior. A mobile phone provider developed a cellular phone with wooden shell. Such wood use would make it possible for the people to understand the wide variety of wood use and the appeal of wood as material.

1. University Library in Akita

2. Town Office in Kochi

3. Wooden cowhouse in Hokkaido

4. Railcars with wooden interior and exterior

5. A Cellular phone with wooden shell

Photo: Characteristic Wood Use in Japan
## Chapter I Productivity Improvement for Revitalizing Forestry

### 1. Challenges of Japan’s Forestry

## (1) Expectation toward Forestry

In Japan, Large part of 10 million hectares of planted forests, mainly planted in 1950-60's, has been reaching their maturing ages. Planted forests are now shifting from “resource development stage” to “resource use stage.” Given such resource condition, large-scale sawmills and plywood mills are shifting their procurement from the imported logs to the domestic logs, in response to the uncertainty of international market, caused by the growing demand of wood in emerging economies such as China and India, as well as drastic increase of export tax on log in Russia. Under such circumstances, the forestry sector is now strongly expected to supply raw materials from planted forests to wood mills sustainably, contribute to the mitigation of global warming, and create jobs in mountainous areas.

Source: Forestry Agency

Fig 1-2: Area Distribution of Planted Forest by Age in Japan

## (2) Realities of Current Forestry

In spite of the growing expectation toward forestry, Japan's forestry faces some difficulties. One of the most serious and typical weaknesses is the profitability of log production (log sales revenue minus production costs). In fact, the gross profit of log production dropped to only 20% of its highest record in 1980 in the case of Sugi (cryptmeria japonica). While the log price of Sugi in 2008 was 12,200yen/m $ ^{3} $ , the costs for log production and transportation required 7,699yen/m $ ^{3} $ for clear-cutting and 10,659yen/m $ ^{3} $ for thinning, resulting in gross profit of only 4,500ye/m $ ^{3} $ and 1,500yen/m $ ^{3} $ respectively (Fig 1-3).

Improvement of profitability is necessary in order to revitalize forestry from its long-lasting stagnation and fulfill various expectations of the society toward forestry.
Source: MAFF "Wood Price," Forestry Agency

Fig 1-3: Price and Costs of Sugi

## (3) Direction of Forestry Revitalization

Forestry profitability is heavily influenced by log prices. However, since wood is an international commodity, it is unrealistic that the log price in the domestic market would be far higher than that in the international market. In fact, the prices of domestic wood in recent years are almost at the same level of those in the European market, even though the prices of domestic wood have dropped significantly since 1980's. Given such conditions, the prices of domestic wood are not expected to rise in the near future. In this context, the reduction of the log production costs through improving productivity is necessary for the better profitability of Japan's forestry (Table 1-1).

Saw Log	Year
Species	Price(Yen/m³)
Germany	Spruce	13,000	2007
Pine	9,400
Austria	Spruce	11,000	2008
Sweden	Spruce	7,000	2008
Pine	7,800
Japan	Sugi	10,900	2009
Hinoki	21,300
Pine	13,200
Source: METLA “Finnish Statistical Yearbook of Forestry 2008,” BMLFUW “Austrian Forest Report 2008,” Skogsstyrelsen “Swedish Statistical Yearbook of Forestry 2009,” MAFF “Wood Price”

Table 1-1: Wood Price in Europe and Japan
## (4) Potential of Productivity Improvement

Labor productivity of Japan’s log production has been improving since 1970’s, reaching 4.00m $ ^{3} $ /person-day in clear-cutting and 3.45 m $ ^{3} $ /person-day in thinning in 2008. These figures are much lower than those in Europe, such as Sweden, where the labor productivity of forestry is approximately 24m $ ^{3} $ /person-day.

However, some forestry contractors in Japan have already achieved the productivity level almost equal to the one in Europe by improving their production systems. It suggests that there is a room to improve the productivity of log production in Japan, as the mean volume per tree increases with the shift of the age distribution of planted forests toward maturing stage.

Source: SKOGFORSK "NEWS, No.1 2008"

Source: MAFF "Forestry Situation Report," Forestry Agency Notes: Figures in 1968, 71, 79 and 85 refer average of regeneration and thinning. These figures differ from those after 1982 in their calculation.

Fig 1-5: Labor Productivity in Log Production in Japan

Fig 1-4: Labor Productivity in Swedish Forestry

Source: Japan Forestry Development and Extension Association "Forestry Mechanization Management"

Notes: The Productivity is that of medium-sized processors

Fig 1-6: Productivity of Processor
### 2. Measures for Productivity Improvement

## (1) Planting and Tending

It is crucial for sustainable management of planted forest to ensure the cost for regeneration is affordable in accordance with log sales revenue at the final harvest. Currently, the total cost for regeneration and tending practices is estimated at approximately 1.5 million yen/ha for the first 10 years (Table 1-2).

Age Class	I	II	III	IV	V	VI	VII	VIII	IX	X
Costs (1,000 yen/hectare)	1,016	488	167	274	104	120	110	88	60	48

Source: MAFF “Forestry Management Statistics in 2006” (December 2009)

Table 1-2: Regeneration and Tending Costs

In addition to the traditional techniques to reduce regeneration costs, such as reducing planting density and minimizing weeding area, more advanced techniques are applied by some active firms. Among such techniques, land preparation for planting with heavy machinery and “multi-cavity containers” for seedling production have been showing good performances (Column 1-1). These techniques are expected to contribute to the reduction of regeneration costs significantly.

Column 1-1: Seedling Production with “Multi-cavity container”

“Multi-cavity containers” enable seeding producers to expand the capacity and efficient planting with specialized tools.

Left: Multi-cavity container

Right: Seedlings raised in the container
## (2) Thinning

“Thinning” is a practice to control the density of standing trees and enhance the growth of remaining trees by selective cutting. Thinning also contributes to the enhancement of multifunctional roles of forest, including conservation of soil and water resources as well as forest environment through improving the light condition of forest floor. In order to improve the total profitability of forestry, it is essential to reduce the cost for thinning and to earn as much revenue as possible by maximizing the utilization of thinned trees, while much felled trees are left in forest currently due to unaffordable cost for extraction. For the improvement of forestry profitability, it is essential to earn as much revenue as possible by transporting and selling unused thinned wood.

In Japan, thinning is generally conducted by “qualitative thinning” under which thinned trees are chosen on one-by-one basis, depending on their shape, quality, or condition surrounding the trees. This method allows forest owners to take care of their forests cautiously and intensively, but requires experienced technical skills to choose, cut down, and transport thinned trees. With the decreasing and aging of forest workers, such traditional methods of thinning may not be always appropriate or possible.

In response to such circumstances, "line thinning" has been introduced in Japan. The "line thinning" chooses thinned standing trees in "line." Line thinning has advantages in productivity improvement, cost reduction, and prevention of damages on remaining trees, but disadvantages in quality control of remaining trees or light capture efficiency. Given these advantages and disadvantages, line thinning can be an option of efficient thinning (Fig 1-7).

Source: Nagano Forestry Research Center

Fig 1-7: Differences of Productivity and Damages
## (3) Log Production

## a) Machineries

Since logs are bulky and heavy, and thus difficult to handle, efficient use of machinery is crucial for the improvement of productivity in each stage of log production, such as felling, yarding, limbing, bucking, loading, forwarding, and unloading. In Japan, the number of forestry machineries (feller buncher, harvester, processor, skidder, forwarder, tower yarder, and swing yarder) has been steadily increasing since 1988, reaching 3,802 in 2008 (Fig 1-8).

Source: Forestry Agency

Notes: Number of Tower Yarder until 1998 includes Swing Yarder.

Fig 1-8: Number of Forestry Machineries

## b) Productivity

Some firms have already achieved $ 10m^{3}/person-day $ or more of the productivity, while many others are still at the level of $ 2-3 m^{3}/person-day $ , although they are equipped with heavy forestry machineries (Table 1-3). This fact suggests that the productivity improvement cannot be achieved only by the introduction of heavy machineries, but it depends heavily on the effective use of forestry machineries.
Felling	Pre-yarding	Limbing, bucking	Yarding	Productivity ( $ m^{3}/person\cdot day $ )
Harvester	Harvester /Grapple	Harvester /Processor /Chainsaw	Grapple /Crawler-dump	9.0 - 10.6
Chainsaw	Harvester /Processor	Harvester /Processor	Forwarder	5.5 - 8.0
Chainsaw	Grapple	Harvester /Processor	Forwarder /Crawler-tractor etc	3.5 - 15.0

Source: Forestry Agency “Case Study on Low-cost Log Production System Development Project” (March 2007)

Table 1-3: Productivity of Log Production (Thinning in gently inclined forests)

## c) Combination of forest machines

Since the capacity of forest machines widely differs depending on their type and size, appropriate combination of forest machines is prerequisite for high productivity in log production (Table 1-4). Such combination of machinery must have a streamlined set of processes from felling to trucking, with a minimum number of operators.

Typical combinations of forestry machineries in Japan are divided into two categories by the main machine; a) cable yarding systems with a swing yarder (excavator with winches for extraction) or a tower yarder, and b) non-cable yarding systems, such as grapple yarding and skidding (Fig 1-9). Since past experiences have shown that the productivity of non-cable yarding system is better in many cases than those of cable yarding systems in thinning operation, one of the non-cable systems should be the first choice, and a cable yarding system would be an option only when the density of the forest road network is scarce due to steep slope or other conditions.

In addition, it is important to take into account the performance and maneuverability of the machine cautiously, because these factors substantially differ depending on makers, types, and specifications.

Machines	Machine Weight	Capacity
Felling	Chainsaw	-	3m³/hour
Harvester	12.7t	8m³/ hour
7.5t	5m³/ hour
Limbing	Processor	11.9t	10m³/ hour
Bucking	6.5t	6m³/ hour
Yarding	Forwarder	9.0t	4m³/ hour
4.9t	3m³/ hour
Pre-Yarding	Grapple	12.8t	20m³/ hour
Loading	6.4t	15m³/ hour

Table 1-4: Capacity of Forestry Machineries
Fig 1-9: Typical Combination of Forestry Machineries in Japan
## d) Optimization of operation

Even if forestry machineries are properly chosen, high productivity is not necessarily guaranteed. For the realization of high productivity, acceleration of operating speed in each process, and optimized connection between processes are essential so that harvested logs are smoothly passed from forests to log yards. Specifically, the harvesting system needs to be optimized through: a) analyzing the cycle time of each process, b) identifying a “bottleneck” among the processes that have less productivity than the others and thus hinder the improvement of total productivity, and c) improving the efficiency of the “bottleneck” processes to reduce latency time of other processes with higher productivities.

## e) Maximizing the actual operating hours of machineries

Since the costs for the introduction of forestry machineries and the associated fixed costs such as depreciation and maintenance are expensive, effective use of the machineries is indispensable so that the costs per time period or per production are to be reduced. In Japan, the operating time of forestry machineries still remains only 1,000 hours/year or fewer, while it often ranges from 1,500-2,000 hours/year in the European countries. It is also crucial to secure greater production volume per annum and per site to reduce the fixed costs, through the coordination of small forest owners and consolidation of forestry practices.

## f) Development of innovative forestry machines

Heavy machineries with crawlers, typically excavators, are commonly used as base machines with attachments for forestry. Such crawler-based machines are advantageous in price of the machines, which are less expensive than that of specialized base machines for forestry, and the maintenance services are well offered due to its popularity in the market of the civil engineering. However, crawler-based machines have a weakness in their mobility in and out of forests with their slow speed. The Forestry Agency has been developing innovative forestry machineries including a harvester head adapted for large-diameter logs with grapple function, a high-speed crawler truck and a forwarder for logging residue, reflecting the local needs and local conditions in Japan (Photo).

Harvester head for large-diameter logs

Crawler-Truck

Forwarder for logging residue collection

Photo: New Forestry Machineries under Development
## (4) Forest Road Network

Forest road network, which consists of “forest roads”, “spur roads”, and “yarding trails”, are the most important infrastructure for forestry practices (Fig 1-10). The forest road network enables efficient forestry practices through improving the access to forest, including rapid access to the site for the emergency response.

Fig 1-10: Forest Road Network

Forest road network should be properly constructed in accordance with the field condition and the forestry machineries to be used in the area. The ideal density of forest road is generally 30-50m/hectare for cable yarding system and 100m/hectare or more for non-cable yarding. European countries had invested heavily on forest road network in 1960-70's and achieved the densities of 89m/hectare in Austria and 118m/hectare in Germany. However, the density of roads in Japan is only 17m/hectare due to steep inclination and severe geological conditions (Fig 1-11). In this light, the construction of forest road network is a key challenge for better utilization of the machineries and higher labor productivity.

Fig 1-11: Forest Road Network in Europe and Japan
Recently, simple and durable construction technique is emerging that reduces earthwork quantities by flexible planning of route and road width (Fig 1-12). With this technique, forest roads are already constructed in steep forests with gradient of $ 30^{\circ}-40^{\circ} $ . In Japan, the gradient is less than $ 30^{\circ} $ for 59% of planted forests and $ 30^{\circ} $ to $ 40^{\circ} $ for 31%, this simple and durable construction technique can be applied in most of the planted forests in Japan (Table 1-5).

Fig 1-12: Simple and Durable Construction Technique

0°-20°	20°-30°	30°-40°	40°-45°	45°-
Planted Forest	33	26	31	8	3
Natural Forest	30	26	31	9	3
Total Forest	32	26	31	8	3

Source: Forestry Agency “Forest Resource Monitoring Survey ( $ 2^{nd} $ period, 2004-08)”

Table 1-5: Gradient Distribution of Forest in Japan