Silviase/jgov_v1.4_full_ann huggingface dataset:
Figure 4-1-10 Outline of the establishment of a worldwide Sound Material-Cycle Society

Source : Ministry of the Environment

(2) Indicators and numerical targets for establishing a SMC Society

To quantitatively evaluate progress in the development of a SMC Society, the Second Fundamental Plan defines material flow indicators and effort indices.

Effort indices are used to measure the progress of measures and initiatives being implemented by different entities to assist the establishment of a SMC Society.

### A. Material flow indicators

Intensive discussions were held in order to define material flow indicators during the 10 meetings of the Material Flow Study Group (chaired by Dr. Itaru Yasui, former vice-rector of the United Nations University), from June 2006 to January 2008. In addition, the government and the OECD jointly hosted an international seminar on material flows and resource productivity, at which the general chair was Dr. Yuichi Moriguchi from the Research Center for SMC and Waste Management, the National Institute for Environmental Studies. The aim of this seminar was to bring together experts in indicators and statistics from OECD member states, China, India and Russia. The indicators were improved and enhanced by means of these processes, based on cutting-edge knowledge from Japan and abroad.

When establishing a SMC Society, it is essential to know what kinds of waste are generated where, and in what quantity. The accurate acquisition of this information allows the causes of waste generation to be identified and facilitates both restraining generation and the cyclical
Such information is not only applicable to the waste generation process but is also useful for promoting the efficient use of the total material input to a society. Japan should, therefore, first clarify its nationwide material flows. This will then be of great help in future policymaking.

The government has created a diagrammatic illustration of material flows (Material Flow Chart) by calculating the material flows that encompass all movements of materials in an economic society and then collecting data that show how much resources were input into the Japanese economic society, how much were reserved in society, consumed as energy, or turned into waste, and how much of the generated waste was recycled or disposed of in final disposal sites (Figure4-1-11).

Figure 4-1-11 Material flow in Japan (FY 2005)

The Second Fundamental Plan sets targets for three indicators -- resource productivity, the cyclical use rate, and the final disposal amount – referring to the “inlet,” “cycle,” and “outlet” aspects of Japan’s nationwide material flow, respectively. These targets are to be pursued through the joint efforts of the government and other concerned parties. The target year for the Second Fundamental Plan is FY 2015, envisaging a society even farther ahead, in FY 2025.

The target for the inlet has been set by resource productivity: approximately ¥420,000 per ton in FY 2015. This indicator is designed to comprehensively measure how effectively industries and people are using products. Since natural resources are exhaustible, generate environmental burdens associated with extraction, and eventually turn into wastes, this indicator should be
increased so that adequate gross domestic product (GDP) can efficiently be achieved from smaller inputs of resources. The target figure is double the rate in FY 1990 (approximately ¥210,000 per ton) and roughly 60% higher than the rate in FY 2000 (approximately ¥260,000 per ton) (Figure4-1-12).

Figure 4-1-12 Trends of Resource Productivity

The target for the cycle has been set by the cyclical use rate: approximately 14-15% in FY 2015. In principle, this indicator should be increased so that appropriate cyclical use can be expanded in order to reduce the amount of final disposal. The target figure is about 80% higher than the rate in FY 1990 (approximately 8%) and about 40-50% higher than the rate in FY 2000 (approximately 10%). Note that the total input in an economic society is the sum of the natural resources input and the amount of cyclical use (Figure4-1-13).

Figure 4-1-13 Trends in the cyclical use rate

The target for the outlet has been set by the final disposal amount: approximately 23 million tons in FY 2015. The final disposal amount is an indicator that is directly linked to the urgent problem of a shortage of final disposal sites. Being expressed as the sum of the final disposal amount of municipal solid waste and industrial waste, this indicator should be reduced. The target figure is about 80% lower than the amount in FY 1990 (approximately 110 million tons) and about 60% lower than the amount in FY 2000 (approximately 56 million tons) (Figure4-1-14).
Figure 4-1-14 Trends in the final disposal amount of waste, since 1990

In addition to these three indicators, above, two supplementary indicators were also set as targets: (i) resource productivity excluding the input of earth and rock resources and (ii) coordination with efforts directed towards a low-carbon society.

As a result of a progress review of the First Fundamental Plan, it was pointed out that, as far as resource productivity is concerned, the input of non-metallic mineral resources (earth and rock resources) has a large impact on the total natural resources input. This point was addressed by setting an additional target that supplements current resource productivity, namely, (i) resource productivity excluding the input of earth and rock resources. The target figure is about ¥770,000 per ton in FY 2015, which corresponds to 30% improvement compared to approximately ¥590,000 per ton in FY 2000.

In order for the indicator to measure (ii) coordination with efforts directed towards a low-carbon society, a target for emission reduction measures in the waste sector was set in line with the revised Kyoto Protocol Target Achievement Plan: a reduction of 7.8 million tons of $ CO_{2} $ by FY 2010. In the future, it would be desirable that a target be set for net greenhouse gas emissions from the waste sector (calculated by subtracting greenhouse gas emissions derived from fossil fuels for which waste power generation and wastes recycled as fuels or raw materials is to be substituted). However, since there is no internationally recognized and agreed common method of calculation available, including that for sector-specific distribution, Japan will just collate this data for the time being.

The Second Fundamental Plan also introduced the following indicators to monitor changes for use as reference indicators for future policy implementation.

One of these indicators is the resource productivity of fossil resources. This is a noteworthy indicator from the viewpoint of anti-global warming measures, considering that fossil resources are exhaustible and therefore need to be used efficiently.

Total material requirement (TMR), or the hidden flow, was included as an additional indicator to help increase awareness of global environmental problems. TMR includes hidden flows such as materials that are extracted in conjunction with target resources during resource extraction and are then removed as waste. TMR is considered as a quantitative measure of the sustainability of resource use and the global environmental burdens derived from resource
use. Reducing new resource extraction from nature and promoting cyclical use of metallic resources will help reduce the domestic and overseas environmental burdens caused by resource use in Japan. This indicator can also be used to evaluate progress in the recycling of rare resources (difficult to measure simply by weight). An example of TMR measurement can be seen with regard to imported metallic resources, which are closely related to 3R measures. Estimates show that the TMR associated with Japan's imports of metallic resources is approximately 2.1 billion tons, which is 21 times the amount of actual pure metal imported (about 0.1 billion tons).

When measuring TMR, accurate information needs to be gathered on the grade of ore collected from each mine for the extraction of metallic resources. However, since Japan imports most of the metallic resources in demand, it is not very easy for Japan to gather accurate information on ore grades and so on from overseas mines. Therefore, those who make use of this indicator must be aware that a significant proportion of all the source data are just estimates. Another point that should be taken into consideration is that the value of TMR is not a direct representation of the impact on environmental destruction. There are initiatives underway to minimize environmental burdens by planting trees in order to restore the modified environment after resource extraction.

Securing a stable supply of metallic resources from overseas is vital for Japan. However, overseas mines are experiencing degradation in ore grades and the deepening of ore deposits, and these trends can have an impact on TMR values. To address such changes, Japan should continue collecting and accumulating data at the global level.

[An example of resource extraction with a high impact on the environment]

[An example of resource extraction followed by afforestation]

Source : Masatsugu Taniguchi, United Nations University

For resource productivity purposes, the government has decided to keep track of not only nationwide indicators but also industry-specific resource productivity. This focuses on resource-intensive goods and services in order to obtain estimates for each industry sector, and allows a more accurate analysis of the factors affecting change. In the future, it is hoped that industry-specific resource productivity will be measured in many countries so that international comparisons can be made of the effectiveness of resource use.

The Second Fundamental Plan also identified various issues that need to be examined further.
One of these issues is the development of material flow indicators that allow international comparisons to be made so that Japanese data can be compared with those of other developed countries and other Asian countries. This requires the establishment of common calculation methods and the construction of relevant databases. With this in mind, Japan will make a proactive contribution to the international accumulation of knowledge. In particular, Japan will assist Asian countries in collecting and organizing statistics on resource productivity, the cyclical use rate, and the final disposal amount (Figure4-1-15).

Figure 4-1-15 Resource productivity in Asian countries (2004)

$ ^{※} $ 1 : Natural resource input does not include nonmetallic minerals.

※2 : GDP data are real GDP figures based on purchasing power parity in 2000, cited from the "World Development Indicator" of the World Bank

Source : Created by the Ministry of the Environment, mainly based on UN statistics

On the other hand, there is also a concept called environmental efficiency, which measures the relative efficiency between environmental burdens and the added value of goods and services by using the corporate or product value instead of GDP, and by using environmental burdens instead of resource consumption, such as natural resources input. Using this concept, the government will be able to collect and analyze the information needed for the quantitative assessment and evaluation of environmental burdens associated with resource extraction and the use of resources and products, and will create inventories relevant to the calculation of these environmental burdens. In particular, the government will seriously consider promoting joint research projects between Japanese research institutes and between Japanese and foreign research institutes or international organizations.

In the case of conversion factors that involve statistical imperfections or a lack of international consensus, the government will continue to contribute to discussions in the OECD and the UNEP directed towards the definition of internationally shared conversion factors and will make good use of the results.

### B. Effort indices

When establishing a SMC Society, it is essential that not only the government but also all the entities concerned play their respective parts. Unlike the material flow indicators, which are designed to measure the entire country’s progress in creating a SMC Society, the effort indices deal with measures taken by the entities concerned in order to establish a SMC Society. These
indices are used to set targets for the activities of these parties and to help expedite their activities. By making it possible to carry out quantitative assessment and evaluation, these indices also help achieve a SMC Society.

The effort indices need to be flexibly modified and expanded in accordance with the results of annual reviews and analyses, in order to ensure that activities carried out by individual entities contribute to steady progress, overall. Given the possibility that new and more ambitious indices may be developed at the local and regional level, these effort indices are also expected to serve as a reference point when setting regional targets.

(An excerpt from “Effort indices” in Chapter 2, Section 2 of the Second Fundamental Plan)
1 Indicators for target setting
(1) Reduction of waste
a. Reduction of municipal solid waste
(a) The target for both the public and enterprises is a reduction of approximately 10% from the FY 2000 level in the effort index of per capita daily waste generation (calculated from the amount of municipal solid waste as the sum of the wastes collected through scheduled collection and group collection and the wastes carried in).

The target set by the First Fundamental Plan concerning both per capita daily residential waste generation and per capita daily commercial waste generation was a reduction of approximately 20% from the FY 2000 levels. This was a target that could be achieved by reducing waste generation and fostering cooperation on sorting and resource collection.

In addition to the indices used to evaluate cooperation on sorting and other efforts directed towards resource recovery, which followed on from the previous plan, the Second Fundamental Plan also defined targets directly concerning the reduction of waste generation. These indices are related to the “Reduce” component of the 3Rs, and the restriction of waste generation. It is hoped that efforts to “Reduce” (the most important factor in establishing a SMC Society) will be enhanced, as a result.

(An excerpt from “Effort indices” in Chapter 2, Section 2 of the Second Fundamental Plan)
2 Indicators used to monitor changes

(2) Rate of refusal of free plastic shopping bags (rate of shoppers bringing their own shopping bags); volume of sales of disposable products (imported disposable wooden chopsticks)

As indices of the public’s efforts to reduce waste, the government will monitor the rate of refusal of free plastic shopping bags (rate of shoppers bringing their own shopping bags) and the volume of sales of disposable products (imported disposable wooden chopsticks).

As indices of the public’s efforts to reduce waste, the government will measure the rate of refusal of free plastic shopping bags (rate of shoppers bringing their own shopping bags) and the volume of sales of disposable products (imported disposable wooden chopsticks).

It is essential that the government assesses and examines certain factors in detail for each type of product used by people in their everyday lives. This includes reductions in usage, the
amount reused, and environmental burdens throughout the life cycle of a product (life cycle assessment (LCA)), from resource extraction through to disposal.

(An excerpt from “Effort indices” in Chapter 3, Section 2 of the Second Fundamental Plan)

2 Indicators to monitor changes

(6) Percentage of local governments charging for garbage collection; municipalities most active in promoting waste reduction

As indices of local governments’ efforts to reduce waste, the government will monitor the percentage of local governments charging for garbage collection and identify those municipalities which are most active in promoting waste reduction.

As indices of local governments’ efforts to reduce waste, the government will measure the percentage of local governments charging for garbage collection and identify those municipalities which are most active in promoting waste reduction.

Since local governments play a key role in establishing a SMC Society, the government will use a broad range of indices to monitor changes and keep track of their activities. This will include those municipalities which are most active in promoting recycling, and the number of recycling centers and other resource recovery facilities.
# Section 2 HISTORY OF JAPAN'S SOUND MATERIAL-CYCLE SOCIETY

History shows that Japan did once successfully create a society in harmony with nature, as did other countries and regions, based on “mottainai,” the spirit of avoiding being wasteful with goods and a desire to keep things clean. This white paper calls this the primitive sound material-cycle (SMC) society and examines it in detail.

This chapter looks back on the Edo and later eras to analyze what kinds of systems Japan formed as part of this primitive SMC Society. In the Edo era, there were systems that are still applicable to modern society and can still serve as useful models for certain countries today.

The later part of the chapter describes Japan’s 21 $ ^{st} $ century path to a new SMC Society, while looking back over how Japan has, since the Meiji era, moved towards a mass-production and mass-consumption society in order to achieve economic growth.

## 1 The Edo era and its systems for a sustainable society

It is believed that, in the Edo era, Japan had a SMC Society driven mainly by community activities. Compared with the modern world, people in those days were engaged in social activities involving lower carbon emissions and they lived their lives with a deeper awareness of being in harmony with nature. Evidence from this period strongly suggests that a sustainable society can be established through the comprehensive promotion of a low-carbon society, a society in harmony with nature and a sound material-cycle society.

## (1) Edo's sanitary material-cycle system

The city of Edo is believed to have been more sanitary than any other city in the world at that time in history. This is because its social system was centered on rice-growing and all organic matter such as night soil and kitchen garbage was recycled as fertilizer and returned to the soil in rural villages so that it never remained in urban areas. Modern European cities failed to take such effective measures to dispose of night soil and, consequently, infectious diseases like the plague and cholera became rampant. In Japan, such diseases were relatively rare because night soil, which could potentially transmit pathogens, was made good use of and never left uncontrolled and unattended.

The concept of “SMC blocks,” spelled out in the new Fundamental Plan for the Establishing a SMC Society, emphasizes the significance of forming a material cycle of optimal size, in accordance with the regional characteristics and properties of circulative resources (CRs). In light of this, the following sections outline how Edo successfully created a SMC Society, establishing regional SMC blocks based on the characteristics of the communities and products.
### A. Establishment of SMC blocks that take advantage of the characteristics of the communities and products involved

People in the Edo era considered it important to make the most of the characteristics of their local communities and products. For example, they used the expression “sanri shiho,” which means that you can stay healthy and live longer if you eat vegetables grown within a radius of three ri (approximately 12 kilometers). There seems to be some variation in the travel distances cited for vegetables, as demonstrated by similar expressions such as “shiri shiho” (within a radius of four ri) and “gori shiho” (five ri) in other regions. However, these expressions all stress the importance placed on the characteristics of local communities and products. This concept has been passed down over generations and still exists in the modern expression of “local production for local consumption.”

In the Edo era, night soil and ash from urban areas were effectively used to fertilize the soil in farmland and to grow vegetables. These wastes were not only accepted by farmers but also traded and bartered for money or vegetables. As well as helping suburban farmers fertilize their farm soil, such practices even fostered the development of SMC blocks between cities and the surrounding farm villages, contributing to both the farmers' economic self-reliance and to urban development. This was a good example of a virtuous circle for both the economy and the environment.

[A farmer carrying night soil buckets] Source : Yowatari Fuzoku Zue (Collected Genre Paintings of the World)

### B. SMC blocks, as demonstrated by the use of night soil as a fertilizer for rice and vegetable cultivation

Since rice production capacity was the key to political power in the Edo era, the shogunate government and domain governments considered the implementation of measures to develop new fields and improve rice production capacity a high-priority policy.

As a result, the cultivated area for rice increased from about 1.6 million hectares in the Keicho period (1596-1614) to about 3 million hectares in the Kyoho period (1716-1735). This means that an 80% increase in production area was achieved in about a century. Over the same period, the accumulation of experience and new technologies also contributed to improvements in rice productivity. For example, Nogyo Zensho (Encyclopedia of Agriculture, Yasusada Miyazaki,
(1696), a leading agricultural book in the Edo era, includes descriptions of advances in fertilizer research: "There is an urgent need to put night soil on infertile land. Farmers must build a shack to store night soil. This should be used to store everything from rotten food to kitchen wastewater and bathing wastewater, and to fully ferment them for use as fertilizer. Cattle and horse feces should be stored in layers. Pile them up if you have too much. There are many kinds of fertilizers. Good fertilizers can be made by mixing night soil with oilcake, dried sardines and residues from whale processing." Other technologies developed in this era included the use of water wheels to pump irrigation water and sluices and dikes for stream management.

Such advances in agriculture were, in fact, closely related to the issue of how to secure adequate amounts of fertilizer for use on the fields. One solution to this was allowing large amounts of night soil and ash, generated in urban areas, to be effectively used in surrounding farm villages as fertilizer. As mentioned earlier, during the Edo era, a material cycle existed so that farmers could obtain the valuable urban night soil and ash, spread it on their fields as fertilizer, then grow rice and vegetables which provided food for the people in the city of Edo. Urban communities promoted a material cycle in which both they and the rural villages each played their respective roles and maintained relatively high sanitary levels as a result. Night soil (human waste) was even a source of financial gain for urban citizens (Figure4-2-1).

Figure 4-2-1 Night soil use

Source : Created by the Ministry of the Environment, based on

"KEISUKE NOMURA『Edo vegetables $ \sim $ to seek a disappeared Mikawashima greens』"