examines the thinking that underlies the creation of communities, from various standpoints: in terms of risk dispersion, creating autonomous and self-reliant communities; in terms of natural resource self-sufficiency,

## 1 Sustainable Use of Natural Resources as the “Commons”

creating communities that utilize natural resources; and in terms of rebuilding social cohesion, creating communities that value interaction between people. All of these contribute to the realization of a sustainable society.

Elinor Ostrom, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences in 2009, has proposed a management approach to the commons that is centered on the communities closest to the scene of events, and which is based on observations made with regard to the view that "the tragedy of the commons," a concept first published in 1968 by Garrett Hardin, does not necessarily occur.

In Hardin’s article, the following explanation was given regarding the process of overgrazing that occurs in shared pastures (commons) where there is no clear ownership: "Each herdsman, when rationally pursuing the maximization of his direct benefit, will try to increase the number of sheep in his herd. However, as more and more herdsmen do this, the shared pasture becomes devastated as a result of overgrazing, and the herdsmen suffer collectively."

In other words, the tragedy of the commons in everyday life results when people, in accordance with their own values and standards of behavior, seek to maximize benefit for themselves. This is not limited to shared land such as pastures: the tragedy of the commons can be seen as a mechanism that operates in the general environment that no one owns, such as the air and water. Companies and individuals release environmental load substances during the course of their socio-economic activities, and the result is environmental pollution.

On the other hand, there are pasturelands, forests, fisheries, and other areas that offer shared natural resources all over the world; in many of these areas, not only is the tragedy of the commons not in evidence, but these natural resources are often considered to be collective property, which is managed in traditional, sustainable ways.

## 2 Self-Relient Communities to Avoid Risk of Disasters

The Great East Japan Earthquake revealed the vulnerability of a socio-economic system where the production and distribution of energy and goods are over-centralized. Before the disaster, economic growth had focused on efficiency of scale, promoting over-concentrated mass production that emphasized divisions of labor and market expansion to drive the globalization of the global economy. At the same time, however, more weight is being given to people's values as a component of "face-to-face" socio-economic activities, which foster greater local independence and make the relationship between people and goods more tangible.

This kind of thinking contributes to the realization of sustainable local communities as well as efforts that help diversification of risk. For example, the introduction of

Professor Ostrom analyzed a wealth of cases where the local residents were utilizing shared land and where the tragedy of the commons was not occurring. From this, she identified the following eight conditions for the successful autonomous management of shared land.

(1) Clearly defined boundaries of the commons;

(2) Rules regarding usage and management of the commons that are adapted to local conditions;

(3) The ability of users to participate in group decisions;

(4) Monitoring of adherence to rules;

(5) Graded levels of penalties for rule violators;

(6) Mechanisms for conflict resolution;

(7) Recognition by higher-level authorities that authority over the commons lies with the parties primarily connected with the commons; and

(8) A nested structure within the commons group.

These conditions do not mean that management of the commons will naturally work out so long as an autonomous organization exists. Management of local natural resources requires the following factors: recognition of the value of the resources unique to the community; overcoming internal and external conflicts over the resources; and a strong determination on the part of local residents to enjoy the bounty of nature over the long term. The sustainable use of local natural resources is impossible without a firm commitment by local residents to work towards the realization of a sustainable society.

1. Response percentages given by people asked "How close are you with your neighbors?" in 1975, 1986, 1997.

2. Response percentages given by people asked "How close are you with people in your community? Please select only one." in 2002 and 2011.

Materials: Created by the Ministry of the Environment from the Survey on Social Awareness conducted by the Cabinet Office

distributed, self-relient energy supply systems that utilize renewable energy will help to create local communities capable of coping in times of emergency.

The development of diversification and self-reliant infrastructure is inefficient from the standpoint of efficiency of scale and the direction of the global market, and it is expensive. However, such infrastructure offers flexibility in the face of unanticipated disasters by reducing risk. Furthermore, the inefficiencies and high costs of this sort of infrastructure can be improved to some degree through the application of Information Communication Technology (ICT) and advanced transportation systems.

Various regions are using these kinds of cutting-edge technologies and systems to construct diversification and self-relient local communities.

## 3 Building Sustainable Local Communities Centered on Interpersonal Connections

## (1) The Dilution of Interpersonal Connections

Sustainable management of natural resources can be described as people working directly with nature in a way that enables them to partake of its bounty in an ongoing fashion. In order for this to happen, it is important for the people in a community to understand the local environment and work together within it. People's connections with one another and with nature are also important elements contributing to the vitality of a community.

In modern local communities, however, interpersonal connections are becoming more and more diluted. The results of a survey on interpersonal connections within local communities conducted by the Cabinet Office shows that 60% of Japanese find it difficult to form relationships with others. The dilution of interpersonal connections within communities was the reason given for this difficulty by 54% of respondents, while more than 30% said the increasingly nuclear family and diluted relationships between parents and children were responsible.

This decrease in the cohesiveness and vitality of local communities will likely prove to be a major problem in the future management of local natural resources. Strengthening these interpersonal connections is essential to the sustainable utilization of natural resources.

## (2) Volunteer Activities Related to Environmental Conservation and Environmental Education

Rehabilitating interpersonal connections to the point where they are a central aspect of local communities is an extremely difficult challenge. Two ideas for how this might be accomplished are volunteer activities related to environmental conservation and environmental education.

People tend to become more connected when they work together on environmental conservation efforts. People who volunteer to help protect nature and the environment frequently do so within a social or family group context. In

Source: Created by the Ministry of the Environment from the Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities (2006, 2001) produced by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

Source: Cabinet Office: Applications Received and Certifications Issued Under the Act to Promote Specified Nonprofit Activities

particular, nature and environmental protection volunteer activities attract more family volunteers than any other volunteer activity; thus, environmental conservation activities provide a venue for families to forge stronger bonds. In addition, the number of NPOs that focus on environmental conservation is on the rise (Figure 3-2-3). Through their shared concern for the environment and its deep connection to their lives, people are able to affirm the connections that exist within society.

Also, in order to advance these activities, it is important that those involved understand the value of the local natural resources, and hold them in common. In addition, children, who represent the next generation to inherit these natural resources, need to be educated about them. From this standpoint, it is important to implement environmental education (Education for Sustainable Development, ESD), which cultivates people who will build up sustainable societies.

ESD was first proposed by an NPO in Japan, and Japan then incorporated it into a proposal to the UN for the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development that was intended to start in 2005. This