ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Raymond S. Nickerson in his article, How we Know-and Sometimes Misjudge-What Others Know: Imputing One’s Knowledge to Others, reminds us that, “To communicate effectively with other people, one must have a reasonably accurate idea of what they do and do not know that is pertinent to the communication” (p. 737). Therefore, for effective communication one has to have a clear understanding of what the listeners know in relation to the subject. The speaker has to find out how much information the audience has or does not have on the subject matter before the discussion begins. To avoid controversy and uneasiness, the speaker should not make too many assumptions about listeners’ knowledge. Hence, the speaker should not presume that the audience has too much or too little knowledge on the subject matter. The speaker should offer sufficient knowledge to his audience ensuring its neither too much nor too little (Nickerson 1999). The author further refers to a fundamental rule of communication according to Paul Grice’s Gricean View. It suggests that when the speaker assumes the audience has information then it should not be passed (Grice 1975). This will prevent the audience from feeling that they are being viewed as less intelligent. Paul Grice was a British teacher well known for his skills of Philosophy in linguistics and artificial intelligence (Nickerson 1999). Nickerson (1999) reminds us that a speaker should convey information according to the level of understanding of the audience. A level too high for the audience will leave them confused and without sufficient knowledge. On the other hand, a level too low or too simple makes the audience feel patronized. Therefore, when a speaker overestimates or underestimates the knowledge of his audience he or she is likely to cause difficulties in communication (p. 737). The speaker should evaluate what he or she knows and compare it what he or she assumes the audience knows before conveying any information. A critical analysis of information and the audience are essential so that effective communication can be achieved.
Introduction: Poverty Controversy in the USA The essay provides a consistent discussion of poverty in the USA as well as verifies the standards of socioeconomic life in America against those, which exist in the developing countries. The description of the topic is provided by the overview of two newspaper articles that represent two contrastive views on the issues. These are 4 Shocking Examples of American Inequality by Buchhite and Editor’s Corner: Real Poverty Doesn’t Exist in America by Freeman. The critical foundation for the writing is introduced by the controversy of poverty line definition. Thus, the discussed standpoints claim that the issue of poverty is extremely subjective since people view the concept through the lens of their personal experiences, views, and values. Therefore, in this paper, we set the aim to find out whether it is possible to specify the formula of poverty as well as estimate the ways, in which the problem is fought. Freeman and His Theory of American Poverty Pretentiousness In his article, Freeman discusses the issue of poverty from the point of view of a skeptic. He claims that the type of poverty, which exists in the US, is based on the inequality of human needs that depend upon the general level of life quality in separate countries. First, the author discusses the cases of poverty revelations, which occurred in such countries as the Dominican Republic and Ecuador. According to Freeman the absence of electricity, air conditioning, and basic food provisions refer to the genuine socio-economic problem. In contrast to it, the insufficiencies, which are often identified as poverty in the USA, represent basic whims of the American citizens (Freeman 3). The statement, which is made by Freeman in his article, raises the issue of needs and non-needs. In this context, the author puts a strong line of demarcation between the issues, which constitute a foundation for human existence and those, which can be disregarded since they do not decide between living and dying. Indeed, the contemporary generation of young Americans is obsessed with the Apple brand and some other luxury technical innovations. Due to it, the citizens of the USA, which can not afford iPhone or fashion brand clothes, are immediately correlated with impoverished people. Still, the main point of Freeman’s argument is to prove that the separate parts of global society suffer from the p
Introduction Before the passing of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996, the ability of a patient to access his medical records was based upon state laws covering such instances. Under the HIPAA though, a national standard has been set in terms of a person gaining much needed access to health records that cannot be overturned by state laws. However, the medical record received is not the original copy but rather a certified true copy of the original. Although the HIPAA does not specifically require a written request, most health providers — and some doctors require one before issuing file copies. Under HIPAA guidelines, processing time for such requests should take no longer than 30 days. State laws however may offer a shorter period of access times and you can have your file copies in as little as 5 days. Main body The one drawback of the HPIAA is that medical records are no longer sealed from public viewing. There are a number of scenarios wherein the government can legally access medical files without the need for the patient’s consent. Some of these scenarios include the following:  1. As required by law (statute, regulation, court order)  2. For public health activities  3. Regarding victims of abuse, neglect, or domestic violence  4. Health oversite activities (like audits)  5. Judicial and Administrative Proceedings  6. Law enforcement purposes.  7. To facilitate cause of death, etc  8. To aid in tissue/organ donation  9. Research 10. Serious threat to health or safety (of the individual or the public) 11. Essential Government functions. 12. Worker’s Compensation All of these disclosures can be demanded by the government at any given time without the need of consent from the concerned party. provide it is necessary for the betterment of a larger purpose such as epidemics and child abuse cases. However, a patient is required to sign a release document when the records are necessary for medical purposes such as psychotherapy or if the information will be sold to a 3rd party for marketing purposes. Such Privacy Policies also have to be signed in acknowledgment of receiving the privacy policy information. However, the signing of the policy should contain a specific disclaimer indicating that it does not signify the agreement of the patient with the aforementioned policies. In events when the patient does not sign the policy, a “good faith” effort must be undertaken by the concerned party. Refusal to sign the policies should not also be considered grounds for withholding of medical treatment. Conclusion This is why medical personnel must be well trained and versed pertaining to the implementing policies of the HIPAA. The training should start on the first day that they report for work and extensively cover the rules pertaining to which cases do not require written consent (such as the case of government need) and what needs written consent (such as psychiatric profiles and marketing needs of the hospital.). Failure on the part of the provider to do so may res
The “image of God” Christian concept not only proffers theological guidance to communities of renewal and hope in the contemporary world, but also ascertains one of the deeply held convictions that human beings are made according to the image and likeness of God. Indeed, according to Ross (n.d.), the imago Dei concept informs our practical, operational, and moral underpinnings as image bearers and avails orienting and directive guidance as we engage in our daily activities with fellow colleagues who are made in the image of God. This paper expounds on the concept and provides some opinions related to the imago Dei topic. As documented in the literature, the “image of God” concept affirms our capacity to celebrate the dignity of the human person in relationship to God and the world, and also to reinforce the importance of personal and social transformation in our lives in order to develop the capacity to express out intimacy with God and the world (Ross, n.d.). The concept, in my opinion, can be used by Christians to develop their interior life according to God’s image and likeness, implying that it can be instrumental in dealing with all the social ills afflicting the contemporary world. The “image of God” concept is also instrumental in ensuring peaceful coexistence among human beings, particularly upon the realization that we all resemble God in image and likeness. Ross (n.d.) notes that “for us to attain love in its highest degree, charity or love must be directed toward another person” (para. 5). As such, it is my considered opinion that the concept can be used in the contemporary world not only to minimize violation of persons and
Introduction Cambodia and Thailand disputed for many years about ownership over a Temple of Preah Vihear. It started in the early 20th century when Thailand was a part of Siam, and Cambodia was a French colony. Initially, a Court decided that the Temple belongs to Siam. However, three years after, Cambodia demonstrated a new map proving that the ancient Temple belongs to it. This paper aims at exploring the case of the Temple of Preah Vihear ( Cambodia v Thailand ) Merits, ICJ Rep (1962) that lasts longer than all the other cases considered by the UN International Court of Justice. Court’s Decision As a result of thorough investigations, the Court ruled that the territory of the Temple of Preah Vihear belongs to Cambodia. In this regard, the Court ordered Thailand to withdraw all military and police forces as well as other guards or keepers from the Temple and Cambodian adjacent territory as the so-called equidistance line was identified. Furthermore, the Court ordered Thailand to return all the items that were taken out of the Temple by Thai authorities since the occupation of the Temple in 1954. At the same time, “the Court did not define the region under dispute or the Temple’s vicinity on Cambodian territory and the status of the Annex I map line in the operative clauses” (Ciorciari 2014, p. 290). The decision of 1962 stated the following significant regulation: the line of the border can be considered conclusively recognized as a result of the absence of objections of another country concerning the given territory for a long time. This phenomenon is denoted by the term of acquiescence that means a tacit consent and serves as the basis of the international law principle of estoppels. Principle of Sovereignty The case reflects a number of principles of international law including those of sovereignty, international responsibility, and peaceful settlement of international disputes. The first one refers to the dispute about the territorial sovereignty over the area where the Temple is located rather than to the delimitation of the border. The Court found that the subject of the dispute is the sovereignty of the promontory of Preah Vihear and that it extends according to the line on the map set out in Annex I (Rylatt 2013). Therefore, the territory of Preah Vihear is under the sovereignty of Cambodia. This decision supports the principle of sovereignty as it protects the country’s identity along with its rights. According to one of the regulations of this principle, both territorial integrity and political independence of the countries are inviolable, and borders can be changed only by agreement and in accordanc
Introduction Walt Whitman in his works rejected the distinction between beautiful and ugly as he sought to have a world that was united in perception. His resistance stemmed from the fact that in the early decades of photography, photographs were meant to idealize images and for a picture to be considered beautiful, its subject had to be something beautiful. However, over time and with photography being received as an independent form of art, interest shifted to the less-glorified and casual elements of American life. Beauty in photographs was no longer primarily linked to the subject, but to the quality of the work. This essay seeks to show that photography has changed our understanding of beauty. Photography and beauty Human beings have for a long time documented their history and the elements of their surroundings through the use of images. Early humans used crude tools to sketch images of things that were of interest to them on walls and later on stretched skin. Later, with the development of proper media, the preservation of memories shifted to canvas and paper. Most artists of the time ensured that the images they painted were of things or people considered beautiful. In the 19 th century, cameras were invented, bringing with them a new method of image recording. Because of the initial limited availability of photographic material, the resources were used sparingly. Photographs were only taken after careful preparation, and when the subjects were humans, they ensured that they were clad in their best attire. During the first decade of photography, the phrase ‘beautiful photography’ described things like good looking women, sunrises, cute babies and attractive environments. By the start of the 20 th century, more cameras were produced and photography was being viewed as an art form. Schools were started to teach on the basics of good photography with graduates from such schools moving on to make a name for themselves by coming up with unique photographs. Things like picture composition, lighting and contrast became the benchmarks by which the beauty of photographs was determined. By a proper combination of different techniques, photographers could turn the night-time image of lights emerging from a desolate African slum into something that people would buy to hang in their houses. Photography as an art form has since undergone perfection and with the development of new exhibition platforms the artistic-photographs are being exhibited to bigger audiences than before. Most people have come to the realization that beauty can be seen in every situation, depending on the context that the viewer chooses to receive it. Because of this change in perception, which can fundamentally be said to have been occasioned by the changing face of photography, a person can walk past a homeless person sleeping on the sidewalk, and instead of seeing his pain and suffering, ends up appreciating the peace and tranquility he is experiencing in his own small world. The
The concept of femininity in its relation to the behavior of women and their treatment is a difficult topic to address. While traditional femininity is seen as the societal norm, it can often feel repressing or degrading to actual people. In recent years, rejection of femininity is often seen as a form of empowerment, with women breaking ties with the expectations society places on them. In terms of media representation of women, however, this process is more difficult. As seen by the characters of Lucy and Martha on TV programs I Love Lucy and The Martha Raye Show respectively. Both actresses satirize typical feminine behavior by performing unusual acts or acting in a way that is unexpected from women. While these portrayals of women can be seen as empowering, promoting variety and freedom of expression within the female gender, they can also be seen as belittling and promoting the status quo instead. Both acts are primarily of a comedic nature, with the audience finding amusement in the unusual way these women behave and in the difference between their perceptions of femininity and what they are seeing. In this way, the characters of “Lucy” and “Martha” can be seen as belittling of deviancy and non-traditional behavior. It can be even be argued that these figures are being accepted only because they are both celebrities and a part of a show, not reality. In another TV program, Queen for a Day, women are competing for a chance to win prizes (MeditationsBySharri, 2016). The goal of each contestant is to tell the audience and the host about their needs, appealing to sympathy. The women’s plights are then judged by the audience who decides the winner by applause. The system can be seen as a good example of gendered social instruction, as the contestants are encouraged to appear fragile and emotionally vulnerable before an audience. The premise that belittles women and humiliates them before a large audience would not work with a man in a similar setting, because of the inherent expectation of men being strong and unemotional.
Apple Inc., along with other companies like Cisco and other companies show their earnings in non-GAAP (generally accepted accounting principles) figures, as they are believed to reflect their earnings better. Apple undertook a non-GAAP accounting principle in the first quarter of 2010 (Adhikari, 2010). Non-GAP financial measures that Apple included in its reports were “adjusted sales,” “adjusted cost of sales,” “adjusted gross margin,” etc. Apple adopted these measures in order to reverse the effect of subscription accounting (Apple Inc., 2009). Apple demonstrated that the non-GAAP measures were used only for the operational results. The accounting system showed an increased sales of products of the companies like the iPhone and Apple TV. The overall GAAP-revenue of Apple was $8.3 billion in 2009 while the non-GAAP revenue showed $9.7 billion (Madway, 2009). It is believed that the non-GAAP results showed a better performance of the company. This essay will discuss the effect the non-GAAP accounting practice had on the different departments of the company. The new non-GAAP accounting practice that Apple followed required the company to account for all the revenue and cost associated with the production of iPhone and Apple TVs after the products are sold. The previous accounting practice constrained Apple to recognize the product revenue over 2 years. Thus, the practice essentially reduced the profit or revenue earned by the company as it was spread across a longer period. As observed in 2009, Apple began selling its iPhone 3GS which achieved a significant amount of 5.2 million. Therefore, using a non-GAAP accounting measure, Apple was able to account for the whole sale in 2009. This is believed to affect the company as a whole and the sales and finance department as the whole profit and revenue realized during the period is accounted for using the non-GAAP measure. Therefore, this measure helped Apple to compare its sales with that of the competitors. The measure also provided a meaningful measure of the growth of Apple. Further it provides a full insight into the company’s performance for the investors. As these non-GAAP measures are inconsistent with GAAP accounting principles as the former do not show deferment of products or revenue for later period, therefore, it does not include the compan
Introduction Throughout this week’s reading, the discussion focused on the topic of war and how it was perceived through political and theoretical perspectives. In this paper, three articles will be reviewed and analyzed to determine the authors’ views on the nature of war and theories that could explain the reasons behind it. Articles included in the analysis are “Offense, Defense, and Causes of War” by Van Evera, “Domestic Politics and War” by Levy, and “The Causes of War and the Conditions of Peace” by Levy; all present unique perspectives on the topic of war and contain insightful research that will be analyzed further. “Offense, Defense, and Causes of War” Van Evera came up with a list of ten war-causing effects, which, when combined, present an offense-defense theory that could give a profound explanation to the nature of war and its outcomes across such domains as military and foreign policy, as well as crisis diplomacy. The author suggested that due to the wide explanatory range of the offense-defense theory, it was possible to determine how intervening phenomena such as expansionism, arms races, first-strike, move advantage, and others were “war causes in their own right” (Van Evera 41). Some of the most noteworthy explanations for the nature of war include; “empires are easier to conquer,” “states negotiate less readily and cooperatively,” “offense dominance is self-feeding,” “arms racing is faster and harder to control” (Van Evera 6). The greatest strength of the proposed theory to explain the causes of war is its simplicity and the applicability to real-world events such as World War I. Also, it is essential to mention that the offense-defense theory is utilitarian and takes into consideration the direct effects of war on military and national policies of entities involved in warfare (Van Evera 11). On the other hand, there is a weakness that prompts the further exploration of the theory. For instance, despite providing a satisfying explanation for the causes of war, the theory fails to explain why the majority of entities that participated in wars only placed importance on offense rather than defense, contributing to the exaggeration of aggressive military actions. “Domestic Politics and War” Levy aimed to explore the role of domestic political variables in facilitating war due to the gap in the available studies that predominantly focused on isolated hypotheses of a non-cumulative and atheoretical nature. The author argued that there was a need in recognizing the role that domestic factors played in contributing to the war to strengthen the vali