ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Usury refers to the lending of money at interest. The practice of usury has a very long history. Writings from ancient times such as the Bible have passages that condemn usury. The fact that usury was found in many old writings does not mean that societies accepted it. What it means is that usury has been a controversial subject since those days. The situation is still the same today, although some forms of it are not acceptable in society today. One of the indications of this situation is the change in the meaning of the term itself. The meaning of the term ”usury” today is slightly different from the meaning it had in the middle ages. Contemporary scholars use usury to mean the taking of excessive profits and interest in business dealings (Jones 3). The important word in this definition is “excessive” (Jones 3). In the middle ages, the term usury meant the taking of any interest on loans and debts. Usury is more of a moral issue as opposed to a financial one. The Bible prohibited the taking of interest between Jews, especially from the poorer ones (Geisst 3). Strict Judaism still rejects usury to date. In the Islamic tradition, usury is sinful (Geisst 3). This is why Islamic banking standards do not include the taking of interest. A brief look at the ancient times shows that the discomfort with usury was not limited to religious circles. Writings from the Greco-Roman period indicate that usury was a persistent social problem that bothered philosophers and rulers alike. The government of the Greek city of Sparta outlawed the taking of interest for some period of time (Jones 22). During that time, it was illegal for Spartans to lend or borrow money at interest, or to collect interests on debts. In another instance of the application of legal controls against usury, all members of the Senate were forbidden from participating in usury by the Emperor Alexander Severus of Rome (Jones 22). This shows that the society felt that the practice robbed senators of their moral authority in the Roman states. This situation can only result from a social consensus that the practice of usury is morally flawed. One of the philosophers of the time, Plato, also objected to the practice of usury. Plato felt that usury made a person less virtuous thereby making the person a bad citizen (Jones 22). Part of the argument presented by Plato was that usury was responsible for many of the social ills of his time, hence its inherent immorality (Jones 22). Jeremy Bentham presented an interesting perspective on usury in 1787. His main argument was that any legal control on usury would limit personal freedoms (Bentham 1). In his view, any level headed person should be left to decide whether or not to practice usury, as long as it was not a ploy to swindle others out of their money. In addition, he felt that it was easier to allow usury to flourish openly rather than put ineffective controls (Bentham 2). It is important to note that Bentham wrote his views when the definition of usury was in transition from charging
A shared identity brings people together as they feel they feel a sense of belonging. People can have a shared identity through language. For instance, in the United States most people speak English. Those who support English Only bill argue that it will help bring cohesion as people speak one language. They ask, “will America if it continues on its traditional path of benign linguist neglect, go the way of Belgium, Canada and Sri Lanka-three countries among many whose unity is gravely imperiled by language and ethnic conflicts” (King 437)? Therefore, having shared identity is a good goal as far as individuals are not forced to abandon their individuality. Having a shared goal is a good goal because it can help foster nationalism. Through a shared language people form an identity, and in a country they feel a sense of nationalism. For example, in Italy unification came through speaking of a similar language as in Germany. In other instances, people in a country may not share the same language, but they tolerate and embrace each other’s differences. For example, in Switzerland there are four official languages. The people get along well and there is no strife because of the different languages. A strong national identity brings the citizens together. The people “… share something big and almost mystical that holds each together in a union transcending language. That something I call unique otherness” (King 442). This is beneficial to the country as it enjoys peace and harmony. Besides, the diversity of the people creates a beautiful oneness and every person feels a sense of belong and pride in their country. The drawbacks of having a shared identify goal is the danger of animosity towards anyone considered different. In countries that value one language above the others may force all its citizens to speak the preferred language. That favoritism of one language may lead to ethnic wars. For instance, in other countries such as Canada where people speak different languages for example English and French there is ethnic strive hence lack of a strong nationalism. In Moldova in 1995, protests erupted over the language to be used in teaching the Moldovan history (King 440). Some use language to demand for separation from a country, and it leads to loss of life in wars. Therefore, the quest for a shar
Introduction The world we live in, operates under some given rules which are meant to safeguard our rights as well as those of others. Apart from the laws which are written, there are others that are embedded in us that distinguish us from animals. These rules are ingrained in us and they help us to tell the difference between right and wrong. In addition, the other significant difference between us and animals is our ability to look within ourselves and strive to understand our nature better. The Philosopher’s way and the Socratic Method Applied to Current Events According to Socrates café by Christopher Phillips, the Socratic Method aims at arriving at a solution following your own method. Socrates considered philosophy as a way of living that anyone was capable of. Instead of subscribing to any school of thought, this method advocates common sense and common speech. North Korean Nuclear Program The Socrates method gives every individual or group the chance to express their views on a topic. This philosophy can be used in the analysis of North Korea’s insistence on having a nuclear program. Whereas the United Nations has vehemently opposed the proliferation of nuclear weapons in North Korea, the country insists that the weapons will not be transported out of its borders. South Korea has been at the fore front in condemning their northern counterparts and they in turn termed this as an act of war. In order to understand this, consider that the Socratic Method allows for individual conclusions and the intentions of North Koreans can be misjudged by others who do not consider the dynamics and circumstances that force this communist state to insist on weapons like they do. Education standards in the US falling short Statistics show that the standards of education in the US have declined, prompting a review into the methods employed. The study argues that the methods of teaching are more focused on questions and answers that they ignore the in-depth role education plays and also differences in understanding. The Socratic Method advocates for the personalized understanding of a different topic in comparison to being fed the answer without having to understand it. Ethics Applied to Current Events This is a moral philosophy that addresses issues such as the distinction between good and evil or right and wrong. How much for a life? An article in the New York Times reads “China presses hush money on grieving parents”, about 10,000 children who lost their lives after an earthquake on may 12 th 2008, which led to the collapse of 7,000 classrooms and whose parents were offered $8,800 as compensation and $5,600 each as pension. where there is a one-child-a-person, the governments award of compensation shows that they was recognition that something may ha
Demographics The patient is a 32-years-old male. He was admitted to Emergency Room (ER) 2 weeks ago. The patient was referred to the hospital by a general practitioner (GP). Presenting Complaint The patient was in good condition and did not have any critical healthcare issues before he got injured. He appeared in the ER because he had his finger amputated accidentally. It happened to him when he started splitting firewood. He cut his hand accidentally, injured his thumb finger, and amputated his index finger so that there was a necessity to consult a doctor. His case got worse over the course of time until he received the needed care. History of Presenting Complaint The patient claimed that he noticed the problem immediately and it got worse before he received treatment. He suffered from severe (10) pain in his hand until it was released with painkillers. The patient wanted his finger to be put in its place but was afraid that it would not be possible. He also thought that he could have had some infection in the wound. Past Medical/Surgical History In 2015, the patient had surgery, which dealt with his knee replacement. In addition to that, he had cleft palate surgery. What is more, the patient had 3 surgeries performed on the eye. Still, none of them have any relation to the current case and problems with his finger. The patient has no history of current and inactive medical conditions. Drug History The patient is taking painkillers to reduce the pain because of his injury: Bi Morphine is used to relieve pain 3 times a day and paracetamol is used 4 times a day (1000 mg). Intravenous therapy is used to keep his blood pressure up as he has atrial fibrillation and his heart rhythm is irregular. The patient has no allergies. No side-effects are noticed. He has all obligatory vaccinations, including Flu, Td/Tdap, MMR, and Chickenpox (CDC 2016). Family History No diseases run in the family. Both parents are alive and have only age-related health issues, such as high blood pressure and farsightedness. Social History He has never smoked, drunk alcohol, or taking
The cartoon. The cartoon relates to the recent disappearance of the Malaysian Airline Jet Flight 370. The Boeing 777-200ER had 239 people on board; 227 passengers and 12 crew members. It took off from Kuala Lumpur on March 8, 2014 and was headed to Beijing, China. The plane lost contact with the control towers between Malaysia and Vietnam and no call or signal was made indicating any problem before it disappeared from civilian radar. The satellite data indicated the plane went off course west before flying south of the Indian Ocean, and since no signs of mechanical problems had been noted, the plane is believed to have been diverted on purpose. The pilots are suspected to be responsible for the missing flight (Ramakrishnan, 2014). The last words believed to have been from the plane were “All right, good night”, by the copilot. It is not known what the words meant, but knowing that the pilot might have diverted the plane on purpose, the words might carry hidden meaning. The captain Zaharie Ahmad Shah, 53 years old was an experienced veteran pilot and had the knowledge to divert the flight, unlike his 27 year old copilot Fariq Ab Hamid, who did not have the expertise. The captain had no militia connections, but he was a firm supporter of the opposition party in Malaysia. The party leader Anwar Ibrahim had been accused of committing sexual crimes and the day of the flight he was found guilty and jailed for five years though his supporters protested the ruling. Zaharie was present when the verdict was made and is likely to have protested by diverting the flight because the time it lost contact it was in the safe flight path and the weather conditions were excellent (Ramankrishnan, 2014). Investigators searched Zaharie’s premises and asked the relatives if anything was suspicious about behavior of Zaharie in the last days before the flight. There was also the case of two passengers using stolen passports; Nourmohammadi 18, and Delavar Seyed Mohammad Reza 29, both Iranian nationals. The two also raised suspicions on whether they were involved in any terrorist activities and if they might have been involved in the disappearance of the plane and why were they using stolen passports. The cartoon relates to this in that the two nationals may have used corrupt means to avoid security checks, and the pilot also had a personal political affiliation which may have caused him to divert the flight in retaliation to the court’s decision and wanted the government to feel the effect. The search for the missing flight has been a difficult task since it involves large masses of water in the Indian Ocean and many nations have offered help in the search. Planes and ships have surrounded Indian Ocean where China’s satellite imagery captured floating debris where the plane was
Introduction Jack London has been touted as one of the best writers of his time with an instinctive artistic ability of high order and an extraordinary set of skills with words. It should be noted that this book complements the themes advanced in his earlier publication “The Call of the Wild”, by showing how a naturally domesticated animal may revert to freedom present in nature and the wilderness. In view of this, this paper focuses on the attributes of the characters and their adaptability to different circumstances. Analysis of the Main Characters White Fang is the main character of the story. This fact is emphasized by London’s decision to name the story after him. He was born of a mixed heritage, to a wolf paternity and a mother bearing a mixed heritage of wolf and dog. He shows unique attributes, which prompt his mother to care for him. He is naturally agile and strong, attributes which he transforms into fighting skills after other dogs become mean to him (The New York Times). His conquests in the battle field underline his fierceness. He is an intelligent animal, a fact which helped him survive the challenges in the forest. Loosing all his siblings to the drought helps him sharpen his natural instincts. He is adventurous, a trait which enables him to learn the invaluable lesson of survival for the fittest. This helps him in the later stages of his life when he is handled by different masters. His loyalty is portrayed when he opts to stick to his masters in spite of the misery he underwent on their account. This is as a consequence of fear instilled into him during his beatings and, he subsequently He toes the line in order to avoid retribution. This implies that his heart had not warmed to his master hence love was constituent in their relationship (London 172). Fang shows his obedient nature by staying within all boundaries established by his different masters (The New York Times). White Fang’s resilience is portrayed by the attitude he adopts since his childhood. He is constantly teased by other puppies when they move into the human camp. After loosing several fights, he adapts to the situation and fights his battles with the resolve to win. Life in this camp also reveals his aggression. He beats all his opponents before doing all it takes to beat his main tormentor, lip-lip. In the latter years of his life, he gains from this experience to fight when unleashed on other aggressive dogs. His last master, Weedon Scott reveals a sentimental aspect to his character. By showering him with affection continuously, White Fang becomes affectionate towards his boss. This fondness is genuine due to the love that is existent between them. This transformation is shown by numerous instances
Abstract This paper discusses the role of reinforcement in learning. It supports the idea that all behavior is due to reinforcement learning. Agents such as students in a language class act according to the teaching they have acquired over time. They may not show responsive behavior towards a stimulus presented in the present, but the observation should not be a reason for assuming that reinforcement learning is not taking place. This paper shows that learning relies on a person’s reinforcement history. The opposing argument, which is not supported by this article, states that reinforcement history has its limits in affecting behavior. Any living thing does not have to incur new reinforcement of the same or different stimulus to develop a memory that helps in making new decisions. The paper shows that reinforcement is continuous whose effect does not end with time. The conclusion is that learning is a product of reinforcement, but reinforcement can be a variety of things. This finding implies that researchers will have to incorporate diverse theories in their discussions on research findings to ensure their results and interpretations remain credible. On the other hand, practitioners ought to increase awareness of the concepts of learning before choosing particular systems or technologies. Introduction In reinforcement learning, the person or animal receiving and interpreting new information has to evaluate the need to use the new information as it is or combine it with existing information to make a decision. This paper supports the idea that all observed behavior in a person or an animal is due to reinforcement. The understanding used is that learning is both the use of information stored in memory and incoming information that acts as stimuli. The learner is usually referred to as an agent. Any other thing, person, factor, or condition that affects or causes learning happens in the agent’s environment. The person or animal being observed can exhibit different behaviors and reactions to the same stimulus in the process of interacting with new information and retrieving the stored information. This paper asks whether there is something wrong with the theory of reinforcement learning, as part of finding enough literature support for reinforcement learning. It also seeks to find out whether any other alternative methods or theories can help explain the learning process. Although research on different models of reinforcement learning continues, one concept remains valid at all times, as suggested by the literature examined in this paper. Reward and punishment reinforce behavior and become part of the memory (Shteingart & Loewenstein, 2014). The intensity of the reward and punishment affects the memory of the event, the environment, and its future cognition by the agent. Thus, the total number of reward and punishment events contributes to the overall learned experience of the agent. People learn continuously because they are always retrieving inf
Globalization is the interconnection that has been experienced in the world through the improvement of communication, trade, and transportation. The aim of globalization is to enhance free movement of goods and services through international trade. It also increases wealth in the process of distribution of goods and services. Regional economies and many cultures have been incorporated through free flow of information, easy transportation, and trade. There are many types of globalization, including economic globalization, technological globalization and cultural globalization. However, the focus here is on the aspects of economic globalization. Economic globalization involves a global system that allows movement of goods, capital and resources; for example, the European Union. Economic globalization has improved interdependence of different countries across the world because of global trade. However, striving for better economies has affected different cultures as they tend to emulate countries that have successfully developed their economic systems. Economic globalization has led to the interdependence of economies in the whole world due to the trades carried out across many borders. This has led to continuing expansion of the global market. Development of science and technologies are a driving force to economic globalization. These technologies have made transport and communication easy. The cost of shipping and airfreight has reduced to allow international trade. Multinational Corporations have increased in number and they have planned production and distribution of resources and thus, have helped in profit maximization. As they are increasing all over the world, they are reforming the macroeconomics mechanisms of the process of the global economies. Due to the high income, many industries are restructuring and upgrading. Many developed countries have entered into the developing countries to do business since there is no competition as compared to theirs, thus leading to economic globalization. Domestic and multinational organisations are striving to improve their image in the global market and many have turned to mergers and acquisitions (Joshi, 2009). Similarly, economic globalization has brought in economic benefits because there is stiff competition, which has led to the decrease of prices and variety high quality goods. Production efficiency has also been improved as the domestic firms try to compete with the foreign competitors. Provision of financing has helped poor countries acquire capital for development. There are many opportunities for finance all over the world. Before globalization, capitalists and companies could only get money from investors in their local countries, but as the economies are integrated, there are many sources of finance. Developers i
Introduction The concept of leadership is an essential part of the modern world due to the fact that it is one of the key determinants of successful management. Therefore, it is critical to be able to properly assess and evaluate one’s personality and its corresponding leadership style. The main reason is that leadership can be expressed in various forms. However, it is also important for a potential leader to have the capacity to communicate his or her vision. Analysis of the Results The test results suggest that as a leader, I possess a clear and precise vision for a company, but the biggest issue is that I might have trouble communicating my ideas. It also states that I should develop a specific set of communication skills, which will match my personality. In addition, I might lack self-assurance, which is crucial for any leader. Therefore, the main point of the test result is to encourage improving my communication skills. Explanation of the Test Results According to the test results, my biggest strengths are that I have a clear vision, I am mentally resilient, I do not get distracted by staying focused, and I have a great deal of determination. In the traditional culture of organizations built on hierarchy and control, personal power was probably the most important argument for persuasion. Employees who do not believe in the goal set for them will work with enthusiasm, by force, following the orders of the boss. As far as upbringing is concerned, here, it is necessary to take into account that sympathy greatly affects human relations and interaction (Crawford, Dawkins, Martin, & Lewis, 2019). The more people like a leader, the more willing they are to persuade and influence, and this is one of the keys to effective communication. Nevertheless, my weakest leadership and personality traits are that I do not excel at communicating my ideas, I might lack self-assurance, I can have problems in keeping employees motivated, and employees might not share my passion. In addition, it is absolutely essential to build trust and be competent. Even if they like a leader, people may doubt that he or she has enough experience, knowledge, or information that would add weight to your words. The ability to build trust plays a huge role in persuasion, influence, and effective communication. A leader should think about how much the interlocutor sympathizes and trusts him/her and his/her words. The Influence of Chosen Traits on My Leadership Style Having a clear vision is a vital trait for a leader, thus, I will share it by communicating it through texts a