ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Abstract Tuberculosis is not a new problem for public health systems, but in the realities of today is the United States, it still has the potential to pose a public health threat. Tuberculosis has the potential to affect the human body through its airborne transmission. Issues such as screening and control of tuberculosis cases, as well as the problem of selecting effective therapies for the disease, are essential in the development of strategic national and federal programs. This research paper will collect material describing tuberculosis and current statistics on America and New Jersey in particular. In addition, it will provide an overview of current policy programs to combat disease. Keywords: public health problem, federal programs, New Jersey, control of tuberculosis cases Introduction In recent decades, there has been a negative upward trend in tuberculosis prevalence almost everywhere in the US. Tuberculosis, a particularly airborne infectious disease, poses a severe threat to the country’s public health system. It is known that among the states of America, New Jersey is one of those where there is an increased risk factor of tuberculosis infection. The purpose of this research paper is to identify the public health threat posed by tuberculosis in New Jersey and to discuss national programs to combat the disease. The Problem of Tuberculosis Tuberculosis is a common, socially dependent infectious disease that affects all human organs and tissues. Statistics show that tuberculosis is one of the leading causes of death in the world (Yu, Wang, Mei, Hu, & Ji, 2020). Each year, this pathology kills about 2 million people on the planet, with the number of cases increasing by 9 million (Yu et al., 2020). The rise in tuberculosis and deaths in recent years has rightly raised concerns among tuberculosis services. This underlines the critical importance of further research on the treatment and prevention of morbidity. Reasons for Tuberculosis The causative agent of tuberculosis is mycobacteria, which is common in the environment. The source of infection is a patient with an open disease form (Brown, 2016). The problem of tuberculosis is a priority for various health systems around the world, as negative pathomorphism is noted: the incidence is increasing, and the rate of acute and antibiotic-resistant forms is increasing (Yu et al., 2020). This is due to the socio-economic and environmental situation and a number of aggravating factors: age, chronic non-specific respiratory diseases, diabetes mellitus, and HIV infection (Kreisel, Passannante, & Lardizabal, 2019). Infection with tuberculosis mycobacteria does not always cause the development o
Abstract This paper presents information about lupus and related health outcomes from the perspective of social variables, including gender, race, and social class. The report provides general information on the illness and its prevalence, as well as discussion on how it affects minority and non-minority groups, people of different genders, and individuals of various social classes. The paper also discusses governmental organizations’ interventions aimed at improving the population’s health outcomes from the perspectives of social variables. Introduction Lupus is an autoimmune disease that can cause severe damages to the body’s tissues. Currently, the exact causes of the illness are unclear; the condition does not have specific symptoms and may manifest itself differently in all individuals. However, there is a link between several social variables, including race, social class, and gender, and the health outcomes in people living with the disease. This paper studies this relation, discussing lupus, its symptoms, and prevalence in detail. The report also refers to the government organizations that address the problem from the perspectives of several social variables. The Link Between Social Variables and Health Outcomes Health Outcomes and Race Many factors, including individual, national, community, and cultural ones, may determine the health statistics among the population. Although each of these factors is significant, sociologists pay particular attention to social factors, including class, gender, and race. They believe that there a direct link between these social variables and health outcomes. Race can be considered one of the most significant aspects affecting individuals’ health. For instance, the report by Williams, Priest, and Anderson (2016) reveals that ethnic and racial minorities have a higher rate of illnesses and impairment than the average in their societies globally. These groups of the population experience the earlier onset of symptoms and, often, the poorer quality of healthcare services. The primary reasons for such outcomes are discrimination within the healthcare system and on interpersonal levels and racial segregation (Williams et al., 2016). These core problems lead to variations in the level of education and employment for minority populations, which, in their turn, result in lower income rates and purchasing power. Stereotypes, stigma, and prejudices contribute to reduced societal opportunities, leading to poorer health outcomes. Thus, a person’s race can be a determinant factor of their health outcomes, as it plays a significant role in individuals’ access to care and the quality of services. Health Outcomes and Social Class The social status or class can also determine health outcomes regardless of a person’s race (Williams et al., 2016). Individuals of lower social class have more limited access to care, as they may
Introduction In this paper, we are going to discuss the suitability of various sources for studying musical instruments. In particular, we are going to focus on transverse flute. In order to do it, we should first compare the research methods, employed in various musicological disciplines such as organology, ethnomusicology, history of music and so forth. They are usually regarded as separate branches of musicology, but in the vast majority of cases, their research techniques overlap, and are very similar to one another 1 . Our task is to apply these techniques specifically to Western concert flute in several situations such as constructing, performing, and viewing. It is necessary to explore advantages and disadvantages of such sources as iconography, text documents museum and field studies, the recordings of performance etc. On the whole, it is quite possible for us to argue that under certain circumstances, each method can be used effectively; much depends upon the research question. David Beard says that the appropriateness often depends on a particular type of instrument, which is being studied and the task, set by the scholar (Beard et al, p 93). We shall try to illustrate this thesis on the example of transverse flute. Historical study Historical studies of transverse are very numerous; there are many works, which analyze the evolution of this instrument. For example, scholars often compare medieval, Renaissance, nineteenth century flutes, and so forth (Baines, 218). Among the most notable representatives of this approach, we can single out Johann Tromlitz, Ardal Powell, John Solum, Anne Smith etc. The researchers, who give preference to historical methods, can use a wide range of source, such as archeological findings, manuscripts, museum exhibits, graphic images, etc. As regards, archeological findings, we should say that they are of immense value if we try to trace the origins of the transverse flute (Tedesco, 2001). Secondly, they are very helpful for the scholars who attempt to explore the differences in construction. Certainly, one may suggest that such type of sources is most suitable only for historians or culture
Samuel Smiles, Friedrich Engels, and Karl Marx Great men live for and by their convictions and ideologies and they make the complete use of a given opportunity or environment to establish their beliefs and principles. One of the underlying features of human world is that it is founded on several philosophies and ideologies which are divergent and contrasting in meaning. Sound principles and ideologies by eminent thinkers have influenced human being throughout the history and the superiority of a particular concept over the existing ideologies helps it in establishing its bases. When the different established philosophies come to contact with each other, it is the more ideologically sound philosophy that emerges popular. In this background, it is greatly revealing to undertake an analysis to find whose vision would ultimately win out, if Samuel Smiles, Friedrich Engels, and Karl Marx happen to be trapped on a deserted island. Indisputably, Smiles would want to create a society based on his ideology while Marx and Engels would try to establish a society which corresponds to their concepts. The question is indeed interesting and the answer will be further illuminating. As established through his famous book Self-Help (1859), Smiles would argue for a society in the island which gives complete room for individual freedom because self-help offers the best means for success of the individual as well as the society. However, Marx and Engels would counter this argument and try to establish a society based on the socialist ideas as disseminated through their Communist Manifesto (1848). In the modern context of the island, it will be the efforts of Smiles to establish a society which caters for industry, thrift and self-improvement which emerges successful over the socialist efforts of Marx and Engels. Samuel Smiles held the view that cooperation will be at its best when it is based on the principle of self help and unlike socialists he emphasized the role of God who assists people who help themselves. The famous maxim ‘heaven helps those who help themselves’ may be realized as the result of vast human experience. Human history stands as the evidence for the success of people and communities that worked for their own good. The concept of the well-being of the society as established by the socialists cannot stand in the long run. History has proved the failure of people and nations which worked for the common good. Many of the socialist nations failed to work out as the concept of common good of the people in the society is a false concept. Every nation which proved successful through the history worked for its good and the spirit of self-help as conceived by Smiles is the source of every valid growth in the human beings and communities. Self-help, Smiles establishes, “exhibited in the lives of many …constitutes the true source of national vigor and strength. Help from without is often enfeebling in its effects, but help from within invari
In the studies of second language phonology, it is found that the pronunciation of learners often deviates from that of native speakers of the target languages. It is found that L2 learners’ pronunciation deviates from that of native speakers and is deeply influenced by their L1 language (Chen, 2003). Thus, the role of L1 transfer seems to play a very crucial role in L2 phonological acquisition (Chen, 2003). Phonetics deals with the production of speech sounds by humans, often without prior knowledge of the language being spoken. Phonology is about patterns of sounds, especially different patterns of sounds in different languages, or within each language, different patterns of sounds in different positions in words etc. The available phonological elements and structures are the same for all words and can be described in terms of mouth gestures and noises. This “grounding” of the system is called phonetic interpretation. Phonetic interpretation is the same for all words. Learning about the sound structure of a language is a complex process that involves anatomy, physiology and acoustics of the human vocal tract. It also includes the nomenclature for the vocal articulations and sounds used in speech, as represented by the International Phonetic Alphabet. The phonological features of a language are organized into segments, syllables and words. Often there are extreme changes in sound of morphemes (or words) in different contexts. Knowledge of language sound structure unfolds as children learn to speak and the variation in sound structure differs across dialects and across time (Chen, 2003). According to a study titled ” English Vocabulary Learning by Chinese Students: How Can Phonology Help?” by Monica Hill, it has been found that the phonological dimension of word learning had a significant effect on Chinese learners who were learning English as a second language (Hills, 1999). Study by Alan Juffs (1990) reveals that in the case of Chinese undergraduates’ oral production of English lexical items, factors affecting both placement and phonetic stress errors involved native language patterns, syllable structure, and the lexical item’s position in the rhythmic sequence. Many aspects of the English phonological system cause difficulties for Chinese learners. Some English phonemes do not exist in Chinese; stress and intonation patterns are different. Moreover, unlike English, Chinese is a tone language. This means that it uses the pitch – highness or lowness- of a phoneme sound to distinguish word meaning. In English, changes in pitch are used to emphasize or express emotion, not to give a different word meaning to the sound (Shoebottom, 2007). English has more vowel sounds than Chinese, resulting in the faulty pronunciation of words like ship/sheep, it/eat, full/fool. Dipthongs such as in weigh, now or deer are often shortened to
Introduction Since the dawn of time, Man has looked up in to the sky and wondered what is beyond the realms of this planet. This curiosity and interest has pushed man to develop tools and techniques to observe the world not only around him, but also above him. One of these endeavours is telescopes, which have been in use by people since the early 1600s (The Galileo Project, 2008). From using telescopes, time has shown that people have always been interested in observing the sky and the different elements, such as planets, stars and other celestial entities. However, the scope of mere observation has evolved to something much more than just gathering data. This report will study the uses of telescopes and how they have changed over time. There are three researched texts which are going to be used in this report along with different diagrams and illustrations to explain the concepts introduced. Understanding Telescopes Figure 1. The Formation of Lenses Positive and Negative Lenses (C) Telescopes are based on the concepts of optics, which deals with the way light interacts within environments. Telescopes are the result of utilising different lenses which capture and project light in certain ways. To understand how telescopes, it is necessary that the concepts behind optics be understood. For that purpose, the introductory text by Page and Page (1966) is an excellent resource, allowing any person interested in telescopes to form a solid understanding. The concepts of optics form the principles required to understand how optical devices, such as telescopes function. Leveraging the knowledge of lenses, which are pieces of glass with curved surfaces, the book explains how images are formed. There are two types of images formed, positive and negative, which are directly correlated to the focal length of the lens. This is also the reason why lenses are “powered” or “numbered”. The following diagram, illustrates these different types of lenses. Within the realm of telescopes, there are primarily two different types, namely refractor and reflector telescopes. There are advantages and disadvantages offered by both. Whilst it is not possible to list a detailed argument within the scope of this report, there are then aspects which should be considered when deciding on which kind of telescope of use. These aspects are (i) definition, (ii) achromatism, (iii) magnifying power, (iv) light-gathering power, (v) resolving power, (vi) size of image and usable field, (vii) flatness of field, (viii) versatility, (ix) economy and ease of construction and (x) ease-of-use and maintenance (Page and Page, 1966, p.30). However, over the course of time, the usage of telescopes has moved from just observation of the stars to data collection in order to better understand the universe. Evolution in the use of telescopes To understand the change in the use of telescopes, it is warranted that the evolution in types of telescopes be also investigated. An example of this is the Cassegrainian telescope, which is an evolution from the traditional Newtonian model, is a step towards the evolution in t
Introduction Technological advancement has increased the usage of computer applications. Computers are increasingly being used to perform various tasks. The increase in usage of computers, as a consequence, has increased the demand for software development. Many software development companies and individuals have come up. Unlike in the past where software development was a reserve of a few, today there are many software developers all over the world. The availability of many software developers has consequently changed the way computer applications are developed. Many software development companies are increasingly using offshore software development. Software development outsourcing is on the increase with many small-scale software development companies coming up in such countries as India. Although viewed as a means of cutting the cost of software development, offshore outsourcing of IT projects can raise various ethical issues. The paper reviews ethical issues in international software development and tries to propose possible solutions. Growth in outsourcing Practice Outsourcing has been on the increase in the recent past. Technological advancement especially in information technology has contributed to the increase. Many industries such as accounting, legal, writing, and software development have benefitted from outsourcing. Through outsourcing, organizations can access various services without having to employ permanent individuals to offer the services (Gold, 2004, p. 17). The major motivation for outsourcing has been cutting costs. Many organizations have been motivated by the amount of money they can save to outsource some services. Apart from cost-cutting, organizations are motivated to engage in outsourcing by the ability to access various services that they require. Outsourcing in Software development There has been an increase in offshore software development in the recent past. An increase in software development outsourcing is evidenced by the increase in IT Business Process Outsourcing companies. IT BPOs companies have been on the increase in almost all parts of the world. IT services outsourcing is an important economic activity in such countries as India. Offshore software development has been motivated by various benefits. The major motivation for software development outsourcing has been the ability to reduce the cost of IT projects. Apart from cost, the scarcity of professionals has been motivating organizations to opt for outsourcing software development. IT projects are usually involved and require a long duration of time to complete. Organizations have been using software development outsourcing companies to reduce the duration of time required for software development. Despite the various benefits of software development, there are various ethical issues that are involved. Some ethical issues constitute ethical issues affecting the outsourcing industry in general. Other ethical issues evolve from the process of software developm
Introduction The economic stimulus plan is a response to the current global financial crisis that the Obama administration is hopeful will extricate the country’s economy from the spiraling downturn that it is currently in. So just how did it begin? It began when people anticipated financial problems in the future, which expectations were triggered by a number of occurrences in the economy, and this led to their cutting their spending, in turn causing businesses to lose revenues to the point that they could not meet their expenses and had to lay off workers to survive, who had no more income to spend. The cycle is repeated each time worsening. There have been conflicting reactions to the plan, while the president’s party the democrats are more or less solidly behind it, republicans are mostly opposed to it, as seen from there only being three votes from that side for the plan in the Senate and none in the house (Otterman, 2009). The president has however been applauded for his inclusion of the Republican Party views in the development of the plan, ‘good ideas are not the monopoly of a single party, and if it is a good idea, we will consider it.’, he told senate-house leaders. The action of the plan is considered to attack the core of the problem of the recession, the reduction in spending that is manifesting in all sectors of the economy, using the Keynesian approach of economic regulation that places heavy emphasis on the role of fiscal policy (William King, 2009). The plan concentrates mostly on tax cuts for families, individuals and businesses, with working families enjoying up to $1000 tax credit and individuals getting half as much. Businesses enjoy tax credit especially on jobs that they create of the preserve, as well as benefits from other business expense reductions such as tax rebates on past production mainly on capital allowances. Families are also to be cushioned against foreclosure on mortgages, and local governments that are struggling under the pressure of the crisis are to receive support from the federal government (Presidential press service, 2009) The plan has however come under fire over such issues as where the threshold income for the tax credit will be, with some quarters arguing that as many as possible people should be included in th