ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Theory of Classical Conditioning: The Basics In ordinary life, a person makes a number of habitual actions without even noticing them; for example, when leaving for school or work, hardly anyone will forget to lock the door; likewise, when greeting someone, most people would stretch out their hand for a handshake. Caused by classical conditioning, these habitual actions, or reflexes, can be either simple or complex, yet they all have one thing in common – they were acquired at some point of a person’s life. Also known as responded conditioning, or Pavlov’s theory, classical conditioning can be defined as a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus (Basford & Slevin, 2003, 560). The principle of conditioned theory mechanism seems to have become a common knowledge. According to Basford and Stein’s interpretation, classical conditioning is developed in a person or an animal when a neutral stimulus “is paired or occurs contingently with the unconditioned stimulus on a number of occasions” (Basford & Slevin, 2003, 560), which leads to the neutral stimulus producing “the same response as the unconditioned stimulus” (Basford & Slevin, 2003, 560). As it has been stressed above, Pavlov is immediately associated with the term of classical conditioning. In his experiments, he offered his experimental dogs food, which served as an unconditioned stimulus, causing them to respond in reflex salivation. Simultaneously with the unconditioned stimuli, a neutral stimulus (a bell ringing) was also used. After the experiment had been reiterated several times, a neutral stimulus turned into a conditioned stimulus – the dogs started salivating at the sound of the bell as well (Basford & Slevin, 2003, 560). Thereforethe theory of classical conditioning clarifies the nature and development of conditioned, or trained reflexes and behaviors. Scenario Number One: Proving the Classical Conditioning Theory Classical conditioning works in a very efficient way, since it affects people and animals on the subconscious level. Perhaps, one of the most powerful tools for changing one’s behavioral pattern, it might be considered somewhat unfair when tested on people, which is why it seems much less controversial to try the effects of classical conditioning on animals. People say that of all animals, cats are the least trainable. However, being animals, just like dogs an people, cats are also subject to the effects of training (Johnson-Bennett, 2007). In the given experiment, the myth concerning cats being completely untrainable will be finally busted. Experiment description A four-year-old Maine Coon cat is going to be the object of the experiment. The subject of the experiment will concern teaching a cat to “handshake,” i.e., raise its foreleg and allow the trained to hold and slightly shake it. The experiment is going to be carried out in the following manner: Step 1. The cat is being shown a snack (e.g., a piece of Kibble). Step 2. As the cat sits, the trained slightly touches the cat’s chin holing his/her hand palm up. Step 3. The cat raises the paw to stop the trainer. Steps 4 and 5. The
Marcelo M. Suárez-Orozco and Carola Suárez-Orozco discuss the topic of anti-migration measures taken in the USA, and the genuine implications of the tendencies observed in the field. The authors provide the findings of a statistical report of the Pew Hispanic Center about a dramatic reduction of illegal migration rates from the south of the continent to the USA. The authors initially assess the tendency as a logical one, since the greatest economic recession since the times of the Great Depression reduces the migration incentives seriously, with advanced economies offering much fewer jobs and much worse living conditions for immigrants. However, the author indicate that this is not the key point to consider with the framework of illegal immigration topic. They offer an alternative approach to the topic consideration, claiming that it is more constructive than the modern anti-migration measures. The statistics the authors offer shows that there are $14.9 billon expenditures on the US Custom and Border Protection services, which is incredibly much in the conditions of the economic crisis in the country. However, even under the strengthening power of enforcement officials at the border and the aggravating policies of deportation, there are still 300,000 illegal immigrants recorded annually (Suárez-Orozco and Suárez-Orozco). The authors assess this tendency as a major breach of the fundamental US legislation, which is integrity of its borders and national security. The access of illegal immigrants erodes public trust and creates the projects of hopelessness in the issue of immigration. The authors expand on this critical situation even further, assessing the number of children of illegal immigrants who become US citizens by birth (4 million in 2008), while the official applicants for immigration have to wait for years, and sometimes decades, to join their relatives, official residents and citizens of the USA (Suárez-Orozco and Suárez-Orozco). The present tendency is shown by the authors as a dramatic discrepancy in the anti-migration theory and practice, harming obedient citizens, and ignored by deviant ones. Upon a critical appraisal of the present situation, the authors of the article offer a different approach to the issue of illegal migration. They remind to the reader that it is actually the American population that created the demand for illegal, cheap labor in the 1990s, and that employs illegal immigrants as nannies and gardeners. It is useless to reject people once they are already in the USA. Hence, the authors claim that in case Americans could have given cheap manual jobs for those immigrants, they should consider the opportunity of welcoming them in their community, at their workplace, and in the neighborhood. To achieve that, immigrants have to fit a certain set of characteristics that will enable them to assimilate with the mainstream American society as equal members thereof. Suárez-Orozco and Suárez-Orozco propose a three-stage program for fighting illegal immigration. They
Introduction The evolution of wings in different species of insects is based on their biological ancestry and adaptation to the environment (Brodsky, 2009). Research findings into this evolution have been done across various disciplines such as paleontology, physiology, and geology. According to evolutionary studies carried out on ancient fossils, the origin of modern insects is thought to be closely related to wingless bristle-like creatures known as silverfish. Two theories have been put forward by scientists regarding fossil research on the evolution of insects’ wings. Main text Scientists believe that the wings could have developed from the gill-like projections possessed by the insects which lived in water according to episcopal theory (Engel, 2005). The theory states that the gills evolved over a long period after which they extended into the trachea of an adult insect in the form of flaps. These wing-like flaps enabled the primitive insect to jump over short distances but soon evolved further into the modern wings for flying, gliding, and diving. On the other hand, the paranodal theory states that the wings just emerged from protrusions at the back of an insects’ body living on land (Hall, 1998). It is quite remote to imagine that wings evolved from insects living in water since the modern insects live in terrestrial habitats. Insects are thought to be the first creatures to live on land. Winged insects emerged about three hundred million years ago according to the fossil record; however, no clue exists about the fossil background of the original insect ancestors. Research into the fossil history of the dragonfly for instance; reveals a close relationship in terms of physical features between the dragonfly fossils of the Carboniferous period and the existing ones. This fossil period that is characterized by the emergence of the dragonfly matches the time when other insects evolved but without wings. Insects, therefore, existed before they developed wings but then underwent extensive modifications during their evolution to acquire their modern wings (Hutchins, 2006). Insects evolved wings to fly. The development of wings went hand in hand with other morphological modifications which included the development of strong thoracic muscles required for propelling the insect in the air. The wings were specialized to translate the force generated from the axillary apparatus for flying. Wings are attached to the direct muscular system of the insect which either contracts or relaxes to adjust the position of the wings for movement in the air (Thomas, Reynolds & Woiwood, 2001). In addition, there are also indirect muscles. Flying demands a lot of metabolic energy which translates to mean that insects have evolved a complex physiological system to respond to their flight energy requirements. Wings are also thought to evolve as modified limbs. This theory states that wings developed from a section of the legs of wingless insects. Dorsal wings, therefore, developed from ventral legs through evolutionary modifications (Brodsky, 2009). As such, the first insects to develop wings according to fo
Introduction A motivational speaker is a speaker who raises his/her speeches to lift up or motivate the audience. It is not clinical by nature, nor is it psychotherapy, but it’s a verbal encouragement so as to increase one’s will power. A motivational speech can be delivered anywhere and for such speech one don’t needs any degree, qualification or certification. However, the only thing required is faith in oneself. Motivation is basically to help someone to do something good i.e. to increase one’s willingness towards a right thing. Motivational speeches consist of sharing best practices, lessons, experience. It is nothing but an action behind all organisms. Motivation helps me or anyone to achieve his /her goals. There are mainly two types of Motivational Speakers Self Motivators These are those persons who are from sports or adventure field, or have overcome some obstacle or problem in their lives. Self Motivator does not know how to motivate other people. The only way can motivate others is narrate his story so that people can compare their lives with his life and learn something. Leadership Motivators These are those persons who are from Business field, Coach Managing, or are Military officials. An experienced Professional Business person also comes in this category. Leadership motivator has a greater understanding of the needs of others and he also knows how to appeal to others. The major corner stones of a leadership motivator are:   * Communication   * HeadshipTrust   * Empowerment   * Team-building The similarity between bot
Central Nervous System (CNS) disorders pose a major threat to the quality of life. They are complex in their mode of causing disturbances to mental stability, behavior and overall psychological well being. The chemistry of these disorders is interlinked with a spectrum of pathways. Treatment approaches targeted at the management of these disorders are important to consider and need thorough understanding with regard to their safety, efficacy and many other aspects. The present description is concerned with highlighting the treatment strategies of Lithium and Lamotrigine drugs for bipolar affective disorders. A bipolar disorder is a disease where individuals often switch between depression and bad or good moods. These swings in mood between depression and mania are very rapid. Bioloar disorder is of two types Type 1 and type 2.Individuals with type I disorder, earlier known as manic depression, posses minimum one episode of mania and major depression periods. Individuals with type II disorder,II have do not possess complete mania. They have increased impulsiveness and levels in energy that are similar to hypomania in the degree of severity. The periods related to type II alternate with depression episodes. Firstly, there is a need to know about the role of mood stabilizers in psychiatry. Mood stabilizer is a substance used for curing depressive symptoms and acute manic symptoms. They are also used in prophylactic measure for managing bipolar disorder‘s depressive and manic symptoms. In detail, mood disorders are conventionally considered as neurochemical disorders. these are linked with alterations in cellular resilience and structural plasticity. So in CNS, the role of mood stabilizers is to enhance the cytoprotective protein bcl-2 expression in the human neuronal cells and in vivo. Here, mo
McDonald’s is among the companies that once failed to adapt. In 1998, it launched the “Made for You” innovative process that involved customized food preparation considering the clients’ specific ingredient-related preferences (Pal & Mathew, 2020). It resulted in a major failure despite the management’s expectations. According to Weiss (2016), the five pillars improving change initiatives’ chances of success include strategy, structure, culture, systems, and leadership. In the case of McDonald’s, culture and leadership were present in the form of employees’ openness to new practices and operation executives’ clear articulation of a vision for change (Pal & Mathew, 2020). Nevertheless, limited consideration was given to systems, structure, and strategy, resulting in innovators’ inability to predict customization’s impacts on waiting time for orders, queuing, and teamwork speed. Also, there are multiple failure-promoting factors, some of which include employee opposition or resistance to change, inadequate focus, and change initiatives’ inability to go beyond promoting short-term local improvements. In the chosen case, there was no evidence of employee resistance. However, the leaders failed to treat innovation “as a strategic element for organizational success,” which resulted in customization at the expense of service speed (Pal & Mathew, 2020, p. 158). This exemplifies both the short-term/local nature of improvement and insufficient focus on the product delivery system in its entirety. Employee empowerment (EE) can support productive partnerships between businesses and clients. EE in the form of flexibility and involving employees in decision-making is positively related to client satisfaction, which is achieved by increasing employee satisfaction (Shedid, 2019). Kanter’s structural empowerment theory posits that EE, being promoted by giving employees the resources, information, and opportunities for development, gives rise to employee commitment and accountability, which eventually results in better customer service (Shedid, 2019). In their EE theory, Bowen and Lawler argue that EE stems from authority delegation, knowledge, information sharing, and rewards (Shedid, 2019). These factors can create organizational contexts that would be conducive to employee engagement, resulting in more effective customer care and communication. Agile organizations’ structures are non-hierarchical and allow for customer-centeredness and open communication (Balog, 2020). In line with
Lupus: A Question of Research Faced with the word Lupus, it is difficult to know what to think. Is this some strange form of wolf flu that has kept you in constant pain for days? Are the terrible rashes the early signs of sprouting fur? Could the fatigue that has caused you to lose job after job, snap at the kids and miss out on the family outings be because you are becoming some kind of nocturnal animal? With all that has happened and all the time you’ve been seeking answers to these debilitating health issues, why couldn’t someone have come up with an answer earlier? The truth is, Lupus is an autoimmune disease, which are characteristically difficult to identify. This is made even more difficult because Lupus does not present with consistent symptoms in every patient and it is not well researched, meaning that many physicians are not familiar enough with the condition to recognize it when they see it. This introduces a Catch 22 situation in which the disease is not well recognized because of its changeability which reduces the attention of researchers, but with more research, the disease may become better recognized and treated. Little to no public awareness of the illness or its effects results in equally poor grassroots support for research funding and treatment development. Meanwhile, you’ve just spent the last five years bouncing from one doctor to another, trying to maintain your sanity and your savings while missing out on your life. Lupus is an illness that is not very well understood or recognized but requires more significant funding for research and treatment options. There are many things about lupus that we don’t yet understand such as what causes this autoimmune dysfunction or why it manifests in specific individuals. Not much is known about the onset of lupus, when it occurs or how it begins its attack on the body. Scientists attempting to discover the causes of lupus have made some educated guesses but have so far remained unable to pinpoint the process. Some research has suggested a genetic link through chromosome 1; other research has focused upon chromosome 6, but no conclusive results regarding either chromosome have been found (“Introduction to Lupus,” 2007). According to the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS) (2002), the causes for lupus remain unknown and there is, therefore, no current means of curing the illness. “Lupus sometimes seems to run in families, which suggests the disease may be hereditary. Having the genes isn’t the whole story, though. The environment, sunlight, stress, and certain medications may trigger symptoms in some
Introduction Operations management deals with all the aspects of goods and services production. Operations management involves supervision, design and if necessary redesigning of business processes with the sole aim of achieving efficiency with minimal resources while meeting the requirements of customers. Management and direction of a firm or organization’s physical functions forms the core concern of operations management (Greasley, 2009, p. 47). Though operations management is wide and includes fields such as equipment maintenance, industrial relations and systems analysis, this discussion will focus on processes related to manufacturing and production systems in a particular industry (Stevenson, 2008, p. 56). Operations management has increasingly become a critical component in corporate world today. Increased consumer awareness thanks to education coupled by stiff competition has led to major corporations implementing exceptional management systems to ensure maintainace of the market share. Outstanding performance on a global scale entails heavy investment in both labour and capital-intensive systems in order to maintain relevancy. This analysis will focus on various aspects of operations management and production at Toyota, a leading Japanese car manufacturer with a considerable share in the global auto industry. The analysis will especially lay emphasis on a brief overview of the company, a somewhat detailed description of Toyota’ s operations management system, an evaluation on the use of teams in its production and operations management and a brief evaluation of the company’s ability to deal with a major crisis. Toyota Motor Corporation Toyota Motor Corporation is a multinational car maker with headquarters in Aichi Japan and, also the largest automaker in terms of production. In 2010, Toyota employed slightly over 317, 700 people worldwide. In 2010, the Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers (OICA) ranked Toyota a head of General Motors and Volkswagen, in car sales. According to the OICA, Toyota sold 8.55 million units representing a market share of 11% while GM came second with 8.4 million units representing 10.9% (Jones & Edward, 2010, p. 35). In 2006, Toyota became the most profitable vehicle manufacturer with $ 11 billion in profits. In the year 2011, Toyota recorded an operating income of $5.2 billion and a profit of $5.07 billion. Total equity in the same year totaled $128.30 billion with the total assets topping $370.3 billion. F
They had immense financial constraints. The writer lists several instances where financial constraints were witnessed in running the activities of the union. Although he does not directly proclaim it, the evidence is clear from the excerpt. Effective revolutions can only succeed if resources are sufficient enough to facilitate the actions of the union; it is prudent that a wide and stable resource base is established, this provides a firm pillar for the agitation process. The writer narrates how it became hard to fund raise for hiring an attorney to defend the members arrested (Chaplin 1948). Revolutions can be brought through peaceful means. In the memoirs, the workers organized peaceful strikes lacking military belligerence (Chaplin 1948). The writer posits that reactions of the workers would be non confrontational and peaceful, not based on life-threatening behaviors. When accused of arson, he responded that their activity was not meant to harm life or destroy property Another aspect of the revolution was the fact that they were less than formal. An incisive look at the book depicts a less organized yet almost efficient manner of running their activities. The actors lacked formal and distinct roles and responsibilities to play. This is an outstanding aspect of the struggle witnessed throughout the excerpt. The unions had a random manner of carrying out their activities without being directed by a distinct code of ethos and action plan. An instance is his activity in Minneapolis dye factory. He says that his counterpart was largely unreliable. Their activities were mostly stochastic. The resilience of the union members-especially leaders is an outstanding spectacle that can easily be noticed from the memoirs. In pursuing changes in any deviant social attitude, resilience forms a core foundation (Chaplin 1948). Throughout the book, the writer has established himself as a resilient and ardent defender for what the workers believe in. The agitators of change were jailed on several occasions, intimidated in numerous circumstances and persecuted recurrently, but they continued to fight for the course that they believed in. Their endurance gradually bred fruits. An outstanding aspect the writer has portrayed in his memoir is the fact that trade unionism goes beyond the classroom education levels of the leaders. The writer had very little work experience. A little background check on the writer reveals a man with a less than modest education level. He dropped out of school at a very tender before he finally got engrossed in trade unionism. This infers that activism needs more than just classroom education to be executed. It rather requires an inherent self sacrifice-voluntary. The writer left school to seek employment; he, however, ventured into trade unionism. The book exposes the role of the security officers or law enforcers in suppressing unrest among the agitated and oppressed working force. It is an open secret that the law enforcers invariantly unleashed t