The second half of the 19 th century saw a dramatic transformation take place in the United Kingdom. From a traditional society dominated by a narrow elite, Great Britain moved towards becoming a recognizably modern mass democracy. Reforms expanded the electoral franchise to include much of the lower middle and working classes. Other changes in civil service, education, and labor legislation made British society more meritocratic and egalitarian. This transition was all the more striking because it occurred with the active participation of the ruling elite (Frankforter and Spellman, p. 602). Two men, in particular, were instrumental in the reforms: William Gladstone, the leader of the Liberal Party, and his Conservative rival Benjamin Disraeli. Despite the limitations that underlay those reforms, they had a lasting impact on the modern British state. On the eve of the reforms in 1868, the United Kingdom was a parliamentary monarchy with limited suffrage. While real power had mostly passed from Queen Victoria to the House of Commons, most people had no say in government, and their interests were underrepresented (Frankforter and Spellman, p. 601). Only 1.4 million out of a population of 35 million had the vote due to steep property requirements. While the Great Reform Act of 1832 took steps towards expanding the franchise, it did not fundamentally transform the system (Steinbach, p. 53). However, many Liberals and Conservatives came to see this situation as unsustainable. The process of industrialization, which created a growing and increasingly disaffected working class, made reform appear urgent. As they alternated in power, both parties became involved in the reforms that transformed Britain. Although Gladstone began pushing for electoral reform in 1866, this initiative led to the Liberal government’s fall due to internal divisions (Steinbach, p. 51). Having assumed power, the Conservatives undercut the Liberals by expanding the franchise to 2.5 million voters. The new electorate helped Gladstone win the 1868 election, but in the longer run, the reform let Conservatives secure a broader support base (Frankforter and Spellman, p. 601). The secret ballot was introduced in 1872, while further suffrage expansion in 1884 enfranchised a majority of adult men. While in power, the Liberals created a professional, merit-based military and civil service, established universal elementary education, and removed religious tests in universities. When Disraeli returned to office in 1874, he introduced social reforms improving working conditions, housing, and public health. Liberal and Conservative governments expanded trade union rights, though they forbade strikes. This policy activity shows how expanding suffrage incentivized both parties to carry out useful reforms. The reforms carried out by Gladstone and Disraeli reflected their views, but the same ideals limited their extent. By the end of the period, suffrage was far from universal; in particular, neither party considered extending it to women (Steinbach, p. 52). Nevertheless, electoral reforms created a precedent that would be instrumental in further expansion of the suffrage. Like many Liberals, Gladstone believed in individual independence an