ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Legal Professional Privilege The concept of privilege against self-incrimination is the one that forbids the government to compel any client to introduce some information that can easily incriminate him/her during a particular criminal process. This is why, in some countries, privilege again self-incrimination is considered to be the major right that allows not to testify against oneself if such information may lead to criminal liability. Legal professional privilege is considered to be a type of a rule of law with its own purposes and peculiarities. According to the Common law regulations, legal professional privilege is aimed to protect all types of communications observed between the client and legal professional advisor on the basis of client’s permission to be disclosed; it is necessary to underline the fact that it is client who has privilege, not a lawyer. Identifying the peculiarities of legal professional privilege, it should be noted that its main goal is to protect information being privileged from any production in the process of legal proceedings. It is usually strives to protect confidential communications between the client and lawyer for reaching the following purpose:   * Provide professional assistance or legal advice;   * Get the material necessary for use in legal proceedings. The analysis of legal professional privilege gives an opportunity to stress that it is also aimed at protection of confidential information between the lawyer and some third parties, which are involved in the procedure because of possibility to obtain additional material. Legal professional privilege also aims to protect the communication between the above-mentioned third parties and the client. Such communication may be of different types: letters from and to lawyers concerning legal pieces of advice, file notes, which the client or his/her lawyer creates, witnesses’ statements, and other documents, created as responses to the lawyers. However, it is also necessary to admit that there are some kinds of documents, which cannot be protected by legal professional privilege. They are the letters of a lawyer addressed to some other part of court proceedings; a bill of costs, offered by a lawyer; statements of witnesses, which have more administrative purposes. It should be noted that the privilege is considered to be a kind of derogation from accepted general rule stating that all the information as to the case is to be admis
Discussion and Analysis The patient-centered nursing (PCN) model guides practitioners to respond to patients’ conditions and health using personalized care delivery procedures. In terms of origin, Carl Rogers introduced it in the 1930s (Flagg, 2015). The psychotherapist believed that a person’s experiences and expectations were the foundations for effective healing procedures. Tom Kitwood would later introduce aspects of relationships and communication to strengthen the framework. McCormack and McCance refined and presented the major attributes aspects of patient-centered nursing in 2010. The model’s meaning is that care delivery should focus on the needs of patients. This kind of awareness will result in holistic medical support. In terms of logical adequacy, this theory presents several attributes that can guide practitioners to predict their patients’ health outcomes. Scientists and researchers acknowledge that its contents, terms, and generalizations make sense and can guide nurses to deliver positive health results. PCN is a useful theory since it guides practitioners to make better assumptions and predictions. It also introduces evidence in the field of healthcare, thereby empowering nurses to establish meaningful relations with their patients. This model meets the generalizability test since it is applicable in different fields, scenarios, and settings to transform people’s experiences. It can also predict positive emotional, spiritual, mental, and physical health outcomes. The theory has an acceptable degree of parsimony. This is true because it can explain a specific phenomenon without sacrificing its completeness. Its formulations, assumptions, and metaparadigms are also clear. Practitioners can, therefore, consider these issues to make appropriate care delivery decisions (McEwen & Wills, 2014). The model also fulfills the testability requirement since researchers can use it to generate numerous hypotheses. They can go further to modify the theory because of its strong experiential evidence.
Merton’s theory of socialization and the behavior of whistleblowers Merton’s theory of socialization is concerned with the issue of deviance in society. According to Merton, the failure of social structure is wrongly blamed for people’s autocratic biological initiatives that are not properly managed by social control (672). Merton’s theory involves the notion of anomie and its meaning of confusion created by the conflict of social norms (682). The sociologist identifies five modes of adaptation to societal norms: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion (Merton 676). The differences between these modes are based on the acceptance or rejection of cultural goals and institutionalized means (Merton 676). According to the author, when a person cannot achieve the desired cultural aims, he or she turns to deviant social behavior. The ideology proposed by Merton can be employed while explaining the cases of whistleblowers such as Julian Assange from WikiLeaks or business disruptors such as Airbnb. Both these cases can be referred to as instances of innovation according to Merton’s theory. Merton defines innovation as the agreement with the set cultural goals and rejection of how these goals are achieved (676). Julian Assange, the founder of WikiLeaks, had a goal of making some secret information available for the masses. However, at the same time, he did not care much about the fact that how he obtained and shared the data were not legal (Domscheit-Berg and Klopp xii-xiv). In the case of Airbnb, a pattern of conduct similar to WikiLeaks’ one may be noted. The company has the aim of providing people with reasonable prices on rented tourist accommodations. Still, Airbnb’s disruptive theory involving illegal mechanisms makes it close to Merton’s innovation mode (Guttentag 1192) Wrongs view of socialization and the behavior of whistleblowers Dennis Wrong coined the phrase “overspecialization” in an attempt to criticize the common beliefs of sociologists (183). According to Wrong, social theory should be regarded as several answers to questions inquired about social reality (183). To express his disapproval of the sociologists’ views, the scholar says that they tend to define sociological theory as the formation of formal knowledge that conforms to the logical requirements of scientific views established by methodologists and philosophers (Wrong 183). Wrong identifies two answers to the Hobbesian question of social order (185). The first option is the internationalization of social norms (Wrong 185). The second one is associated with the fact that people are fundamentally motivated by the wish to create a good image by gaining approval of the others (Wrong 185). Wrong considers the sociologists’ explanation of internationalization too much positive and utopistic. He says that sociol
Introduction “Brownies” is a short story by ZZ Packer that was published in 2003. The story centers on a group of Girl Scouts in training called “Brownies.” The group is predominantly African-American with only one Caucasian member. Internally, the group follows a mean but authoritative girl named Arnetta. She decides to pick a fight with a different Girl Scout group made up of girls with learning disabilities under the false presence of them using a racial slur. However, the plan goes awry when they confront the girls, with fear and guilt getting the better of Arnetta and her group. This paper will focus on how the point of view and tone of the short story conveys the dangers of racial tension. Analysis Although the story is told from the point of view of the girl referred to as “Snot” by the troop, Arnetta could be considered the center point of the short story. She is the one who is behind most of the girls’ actions. At her young age, she already learned how to manipulate both children and adults. She makes sure to pay attention in class to gain favor from her troop leader (Packer 3), and the girls are completely obedient to her (Packer 2). This fact leaves her unopposed and makes her every word that has authority among her group. She also has a jealous and envious attitude toward white people that she uses to instigate the fight. Other girls partially share her point of view but perhaps would not propose a fight if Arnetta was not there (Packer 3). Her point of view could be considered racist, but her age suggests that this is a learned behavior for which her family might be responsible. When confronted with fighting the girls from Troop 909 something changes her mind (Packer 21). Perhaps the act of attacking innocent girls with learning disabilities was too unjust, or her learned behavior became replaced with common sense. Either way, this event changed her mind and the mind of her group. This is significant because it shows how close racial tension can bring people to doing terrible things. The girls blindly follow Arnetta because they all partially believe that she is right, and only when they have to do something their judgment says they are in the wrong. In groups of adults, mob mentality often gets the better of people leading to horrible consequences (Stott and Drury 2). The tone and especially the changes in tone are very important to the central theme of the story. Most of the story is told with a juvenile and almost comedic tone. There are moments of levity when the girls start humming songs, and one of them says that she is going to “marry Michael Jackson.” However, after the girls finish humming, Snot says that Troop 909 is vulnerable in the shower, turning a fun moment into a sinister one (Packer 11). The tone also changes when the main character thinks about Daphne’s poem. This time it brings intro
Introduction Students who bear the tag of ‘gifted children’ possess a prominent ability of high levels of achievement, performance and creativity. Special needs often arise either from the interactions of these students with the environment such as in school, family and the society or due to their internal characteristics as gifted students. Their characteristics as gifted students are their strengths and can cause problems if taken to the extremes and therefore early identification of these characteristics and development of a plan would help the students utilize their strengths and associated problems as motivational tools for further achievement. However, the strengths of gifted students and their linked problems can act as positives to encourage the students to realize their potentials fully despite presence of limitations such as family poverty, social degradation, and substance abuse often faced by the gifted students in their day to day lives. Strengths and associated problems A major characteristic of all the gifted students is their inherent ability to acquire, gain and retain information concerning a certain task or topic quickly. The rationale here is that, their intellectual ability is relatively higher than that of others and therefore they tend to be impatient with other students who have a lower ability of gaining information (Barbara, 2002, p.6). The ability to acquire and sustain information is the basis for good performance in not only academic fields, but also in social and economics fields. In a common class of both gifted students and regular students, problems of fast learners and slow learners often arises as the levels of understanding and concept conceptualization differs from one student to another depending on whether a student is gifted or not. The inherent strength creates a personality, which resists common routines and procedures of doing things because gifted students have the ability of developing accurate shortcuts of solving complex problems within shortest time possible. This ability encourages creativity and innovations and poses a challenge to the other students to improve. Encouragement of the gifted students to develop new methods of doing things and using these methods as a positive motivational tool would propagate innovation of new skills. Moreover, gifted students own an intrinsic belief and motivation that achievement and success in any task given is possible. For instance, in subjects or academic concepts that ordinary students tackle with difficulties, gifted students believ
Human papilloma virus is among the most common diseases which are transmitted sexually. It is a dangerous public health issue because HPV leads to oncogenic complications of the anogenital area in both males and females without a strong correlation with age factors. Many countries have already implemented national HPV vaccination programs in accordance with WHO recommendations. However, already in a number of countries, there is a potential for complete disappearance or decrease of anogenital warts within the population, which is associated with the short incubation period of this HPV and is the first marker of the effectiveness of vaccination in the population. Therefore, it is important to bring awareness to the importance of vaccination against HPV in order to prevent associated complications in terms of various oncogenic health abnormalities. Background Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a category of widespread and genetically heterogeneous DNA viruses that infect the epithelium of the mucous membranes and skin. Papillomaviruses affect a wide range of vertebrates, and HPV virions contain double-stranded, annularly twisted DNA and are devoid of a sheath. The capsid is an icosahedron about 55 nm in diameter, composed of several capsomeres. HPV is lipid-free and is inactivated by fat solvents (CITE). During replication, the virus releases a number of proteins, the synthesis of which is controlled by early and late genes. Early genes control the processes of replication, transcription, and transformation. They are responsible for the oncogenic properties of HPV, in part due to the fact t
Personality and the Trait Approach Personality is a complicated mixture of emotional, behavioral, and attitudinal patterns exercised by an individual. Therefore, this concept is difficult to define through analyzing one dimension because it is a unique notion when it comes to the professional and psychometric analysis of a person. Nevertheless, psychologists support the idea that the concept of personality is closely associated with individuality, motivation, behavioral patterns, rather than with physical peculiarities, including age, gender, etc. Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that studies three main areas; individual differences, human nature, and major psychological processes. Many theories such as the psychoanalytic theory, behaviorist theory, and many others have been widely used by professionals to study personality (Bradberry, 2007) The primary task of personality psychology is to work out consistent ways of defining and classifying personality differences, as well as outlining the structural aspects of individuality. In this respect, the analysis of personality traits is the core of personality description disclosing tendencies and disposition to behave, think, and feel in a specific way. It should be noted that these characteristics are structurally arranged. Specifically, the very about specific types of behavior – from the most general to the more peculiar forms of self-expression. Over 70 years, personality psychologists have been working on evaluating and classifying the system of psychological traits. They have analyzed thousands of patterns and words that can be assigned to characterizing specific traits and soft out those terms to form broader personality categories. The process of classification, or distillation, involves evaluating correlations and associations among various personality traits that are explored using factor analysis. The latter is a procedure based on grouping the adjacent traits and gathering those into broader categories. What is Psychometrics This is a branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and personality traits. It uses instruments such as questionnaires, tests and personality assessments. Two major procedures are involved in psychometrics; construction of instruments and procedures for assessment, and applying theoretical approaches to measurements (Michell, 1999). Most clinicians are known to be psychometricians, however, other professionals such as human resources and learning and development professionals also apply psychometrics in their jobs. The Five-Factor Model In psychology, the five-factor model uses five domains of personality to describe or explain hum
Organizational behavior is the analysis and application of information about the peoples’ actions in an organization (McCuddy, 2011). The purpose of organizational behavior is to build a healthier relationship by achieving human, social and organizational objectives (Romando, 2010). Moreover, managers study the behavior of the organizations to understand how people are motivated because motivated employees are indispensable to a company triumph while unmotivated employees cause conflict (McCuddy, 2011). Motivation is an internal drive that accounts for persistence of efforts at work, while motivation theory is the process that describes what triggers and directs human behavior (Romando, 2010). There are three categories of motivation theories and they include content, process and reinforcement theories (McCuddy, 2011). Content theories focus on internal factors that direct a human behavior, process theories focus on the thoughts of people that direct their behavior while the reinforcement theories put an emphasis on controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences (Romando, 2010). Content theories strive to satisfy the people needs and they include Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, ERG theory, two-factor theory and acquired needs theory (Romando, 2010). Maslow’s theory has categorized needs into five levels in order of priority as physiological, safety, social esteem and self-actualization, while ERG theory has classified needs into existence, relatedness and growth needs (Romando, 2010). Existence needs are the desire for physiological needs; relatedness needs are the desire for a good relationship while growth needs are the desire for personal development (Romando, 2010). On the other hand, two-factor theory suggests that hygienic factors in workplace lead to job dissatisfaction and they include status, security, supervision and policies while motivator factors affect job satisfaction and they include achievement, growth, recognition and responsibility ( McCuddy, 2011). Moreover, acquired needs theory categorizes needs into achievement, affiliation and power needs (McCuddy, 2011). In an organization, managers strive to meet the needs of employees from physiological level going upwards because employees whose needs are satisfied are highly motivated to produce more ( McCuddy, 2011). Additionally, a balance between hygienic and motivation factor promotes a conducive working environment (Romando, 2010). For instance, in an organization where the salary is high and employees are responsible for whatever they do productivity is high (Romando, 2010). The process theories of motivation include Adam equity theory and Vroom expectancy theory (Romando, 2010). Equity theory outlines that people measure fairness of their work outcome in relation to others and besides, felt negative inequity is when an individual feels that he has received less than ot
Purpose A personality test describes a person’s character based upon a persons life, behavior thoughts, and feelings. Employers consider the personality tests as a way of gauging if a person they are considering hiring is stable, honest, and a good fit for the company. History The earliest known personality test was created by Hippocrates, the man who is known as the Father Of Medicine due to his many scientific and medical discoveries over 400 years ago that are still practiced today. He is believed to have recorded the first known personality model known as Hippocrates Theory which bases the four personality types on the amount of body fluid in an person. This theory was expanded upon by the Greek physician Galen who believed that a predominance of blood in a person led him to be cheerful and strong. While a predominance of mucus led him to have an indifferent and slow personality. Dominant black bile on the other hand indicated a depressed personality. More yellow bile meant a violent and strong personality. The first modern personality test was the Woodworth Personal data sheet, which was first used in 1919, it was designed to help the United States Army screen recruits who might get shell shock. In the early 20 th century personality tests were used more because it became a huge interest in employment hiring when the field of psychology took off. Many different tests emerged, some attempting to identify specific characteristics, while others’ tried to identify personality as a whole. Types There are too many different types of personality tests to list them all but some of the most well known are:   * The Rorschach inkblot test was introduced in 1921 as a way to determine personality by using abstract inkblots.   * The Thematic Apperception Test was commissioned by the Office of Strategic Services in the 1930s to identify personalities that might be turned by enemy intelligence.   * The Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory was published in 1942 to help in assessing psychopathology in a clinical setting.   * Myers- Briggs Type Indicator is a 16-type indicator of Carl Jung’s Psychological Types, developed during World War II.   * The Insights Discovery Test based on Carl Jung’s psychiatry and an update of Hippocrates’ “four Humors,” which exists today as the Four Temperaments. The 16 Personality Factors (16PF) test was developed in 1946 by Raymond Cattell and has become popular in business. In 1963 W.T. Norman suggested that only five factors would be sufficient. In 1981 a group reviewing available personality tests decided that most of the tests which held promise seemed to measure a subset of five common traits, as Norman had previously claimed. These five personality traits or the five-factor model is common in business-oriented personality tes