ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
An Ideal City and Moral Values Plato’s ideal city can rightfully be called a city of pigs as it is in people’s blood to desire more than some food, clothes and dwelling. People tend to create comfortable conditions. Many people also enjoy creating, watching or possessing beautiful things which cannot be regarded as essentials. Therefore, no state can have the only aim to create some structures for economic growth. People must have an opportunity to enjoy beautiful things (masterpieces of art) as these things are heritage of the entire humanity. At the same time, any society has to impose certain moral values based on the principles of justice. People must understand that moral conduct is essential. People must behave morally, irrespective of their fear of punishment or desire of joy. Of course, the state should be governed by a group of people who are close to (i.e. understand the needs of) all other groups. These groups include, producers, guardians (police), ‘caretakers’ (educators, medics, etc.). I believe the state should redistribute resources to ensure the public good. Taxation is one of the forms of redistribution. I think health care, education and care about elderly people as well as state’s order should be ensured by the state. The rest can be financed by those interested in a particular sphere. Education in the City Plato’s system of education is very effective as the philosopher stresses that young people must be surrounded by the right information. I agree with such a position and I also think that young people cannot be exposed to examples of vicious and immoral conduct. Otherwise, young people may see that such conduct is possible and will try to copy the behavioral patterns they observed. Education in the ideal city should be based on the principle of morality. Of course, young people should obtain basic knowledge about the world around them. They should also be able to acquire certain skills to become members of the society. Apart from acquiring certain facts and skills, young people should be taught the principles of morality. It is not enough to tell young people that they should conduct in a proper way, but it is essential to show what can come of the person who breaks the rules. Of course, this is not only about certain punishment. Young people should see that the vicious personality degrades and this may become one of the reasons why the majority of people will avoid misbehaving. Functions in Society Plato argues that people should carry out a single function in the society. For instance, guardians should protect the society and future guardians should be chosen and educated properly. Admittedly, this approach has a number of advantages, but it also has some drawbacks. As for the posi
Introduction This research paper examines the meaning of anthropocentrism and biocentrism. It tries to explain the reasons why environmentalists advocate for anthropocentrism and biocentrism. It creates understanding on what is anthropocentrism and biocentrism. The paper further examines the major differences, as well as similarities between anthropocentrism and the biocentrism. Throughout the paper, discussions will be based on the ethical issues involved, which are the moral issues governing behaviors. The paper goes a notch higher to discuss the possible consequences of anthropocentrism and biocentrism, which are the possible effects of the belief and advocacy in either anthropocentrism or biocentrism. Finally, discussions in this paper touch on values involved, which are the factors that influence individual attitude towards government policy or towards nature and environment at large. Attitudes influence the perceptions of an individual towards environmental conservation and preservation of nature. For some individuals, nature is special and has to be taken care of, but some are of a different opinion since they believe nature exists to support their socio-economic activities. Anthropocentrism The human centered view of the world is known as anthropocentrism. The cultural tradition of western mainstream has shown that only the humanity has been treated morally. This depicts a conservative approach to the environmental ethics in regards to the fact that nature does not only consist of human beings, but other creatures as well hence everything deserves moral treatment. Nevertheless, the ecologically conscious environmental ethicists have taken a hastier than a proactive approach in defending the western traditional culture against a broader perspective of bolder thinkers to increase their environmental ethics view to incorporate the non-human species and nature in general. Kristin Shrader-Frechette and John Passmore were among the first advocates of strict anthropocentric approaches. Shrader-Frechette for example, had a view that it will be difficult to take an action that will do an irreversible damage to the ecosystem, but will not threaten the lives of the humanity A number of the western anthropocentric environmental ethics could not criticize the behaviors that threaten the well-being of humanity. Shrader-Frechette suggested that there is no reason to implement newfangled environmental ethics that are not anthropocentric. Evidently, a number of the environmental damages caused by humans threaten their well-being. Depletion of the ozone layer and global warming are just but crucial examples. However, there have been other damages that have been done by humans that do not threaten the human well-being. David Ehrenfeld asked for contemplation of the demise of the endangered Houston toad, a victim of urban encroachment, and others such as white Rhine because of poaching. They have been endangered because they have no reasonable value to man. Ehrenfeld however added that hundreds of thousands of other species are non-resourceful and therefore not important. Such acts of morally censuring the extinction of some species because
This article written by Graham and Harvey reveals a research done through a survey with the intent of addressing the current practice involving finance among corporates. Capital budgeting and structure are some of the main areas which the study focused on. The intent was to find the corporate practice aspects, which occurred consistently with the finance theory and unraveled the ideas which were difficult to reconcile with business school concepts. The research aimed at giving practitioners knowledge, equipping them with the understanding of how other companies operate for the sake of staging a comparison. The research design, which involved a survey, gave room for understanding the aspects of corporate decision-making. The authors anchored on analyzing the CFO’s responses in revealing the characteristics of the company under study in terms of P/E ratio, size, credit rating, the industry, leverages, and dividend policy, among others. Besides, the aspects of organizational factors and their relationship with corporate financial choices were determined. The results were varying as follows: for capital budgeting concerns, the majority of the companies showed they mind using a discounted cash flow. Understanding of this mechanism is through academic theory, which reveals the aspects of net present value (NPV) for new project evaluation. On the contrary, the UAE corporates were noted to pay less attention to embracing finance theory, as they relied on informal thumb rules and what was practical for them. Therefore, the primary concern of the CFOs was to learn the application of financial flexibility preservation instead of minimizing the company’s weighted average cost. The survey revealed the reality of wide utilization of the NPV approach to evaluate projects today more than it was used to approximately 29 years ago. The report shows surprising results explaining the applicability of informal criteria in project assessment to be more flexible for capital structure, while the most critical factors were credit settings in terms of debt policy scenario. The survey explains that some companies became reluctant to the issues of equity at times, but the undervaluing stock degree was significant for impartiality insurance.
Briefly discuss the term ‘educational policy’; identity and briefly explain five characteristics of a good educational policy within a given context. (5 marks) The term ‘policy’ can be defined in multiple ways, but here, we will consider one of them. According to UNESCO (2013), educational policy is the set of key goals and priorities that the government intends to achieve or pursue education. It is apparent that this definition presupposes the creation of a plan to achieve the goal; also, the priorities can be viewed as the values to be maintained, and UNESCO (2013) states that policy is aimed at resolving an issue. UNESCO (2013) considers the national policy, therefore, the national government is meant in their paper, but the international UNESCO educational policy can be described with the same words. Also, UNESCO (2013) defines the key characteristics of a ‘good’ policy, and they include being evidence-based (that is, based on research that is carried out before the decision-making), feasible politically (concerning the national and international realia) and financially (concerning naturally limited resources), agreed on by the relevant stakeholders (including politicians), and goal-appropriate (that is, capable of facilitating their achievement). List six (6) main activities in policy development in education and discuss how two of these can be carried out in a given context. (5 marks) The main activities of policy development can be illustrated by Fig. 1. Figure 1: The cycle of policy development. Based on lecture notes, Chang (2013), and UNESCO (2013). UNESCO (2013) states the need for the consideration of the context of the policy developed or implemented since the environment tends to have multiple impacts on it. For example, the process of evaluation can be carried out in numerous ways that may or may not be suitable for a particular context. A SWOT analysis can be used for the policy of an educational institution, especially if it competes with other ones, which is common for universities (Chang 2013, pp. 24-25). Also, SWOT can be used as a complementary tool for other instruments of analysis, including the problem analysis that will be employed if the policy-makers are resolving an issue (Chang 2013, pp. 23). To sum up, the evaluation stage can be carried out with the help of different tools that are defined by the context. The planning stages are very context-dependent, and it is especially true for the evaluation of the options. The criteria of ‘good’ policy enumerate several context considerations. For example, a national education policy-makers need to consider the legislation of the country, its specific needs, resources, and culture. An option that is incompatible with Islam will never be accepted in the UAE. Similarly, the Middle East may still be somewhat behind the expectations concernin
Rhetoric has been studied for centuries, and researchers agree on some basic points regarding the matter. However, different approaches to the art of persuasion are now under discussion as the focus is on different facets and associated issues. Kenneth Burke is regarded as one of the most prominent theorists exploring the essence and instruments of rhetoric, who came up with a clear definition and a comprehensive perspective of persuading (Herrick, 2015). Burke noted that rhetoric could be referred to as a symbolic tool to achieve cooperation (Burke, 2017). This definition is compatible with the views of other major thinkers who examined the peculiarities of rhetoric. First, it is necessary to note that Burke (2017) saw rhetoric (communication, language) as a means to make people collaborate or, in other terms, behave in a certain way. The major goal of persuasion is regarded as achieving cooperation, so the consequence of the verbal interaction is placed to the fore. Burke (2017) identifies the basic aspects of rhetoric that are included in his pentad: act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose. The social aspect is central to rhetoric, according to Burke (2017), who stressed that the system of symbols used for communication was to be common for the speaker and the listeners. The researcher sees language itself (as well as the process of communication) as a system of symbols that serve as screens for real-life objects (Borchers & Hundley, 2018). Burke (2017) emphasized that people expressed their attitudes towards objects rather than simply identified them due to the peculiarities of language. These attitudes are formed (and often transformed) alongside the development of societies. People’s vocabulary is consistent with the existing values and codes that have been accumulated for decades and centuries. The social context was the primary focus of Kenneth Burke and new rhetoricians who believe that communication can be effective if communicators are aware of the meanings used within their group (Hansen, 1996). The process of communication and persuasion encompasses the utilization of such symbols as the speaker wants to engage their listeners. For instance, when Trump addresses his supporters, he employs a system of symbols that are clear and easily decodable, which makes the politician’s message understandable and persuasive (Arrigo, 2018). Therefore, in a wider context, all languages and means of communication between humans are symbolic systems. This aspect discussed by Burke is grounded in Aristotle’s ideas regarding rhetorical art. The Ancient Greek philosopher stated that persuasion consisted of logos, ethos, and pathos. Logos stands for facts, ethos is associated with the credibility of the message, and pathos could be seen as an emotional load (Aristotle, 2018). Aristotle taught that a combination of these three components could have diverse effects on people depending on the quality and weight of each chosen element. As mentioned above, logos is also a symbol, although Aristotle did not go into such details when exploring persuasion. Burke (2017) claims that symbols have different connotations and intensities. For example, the word
Introduction Karoly Maria Benkert, a 19th century German psychologist, is credited with having coined the term homosexuality. In coining this word, he was referring to what Palen has defined as “ a sexual orientation toward, and sexual activity with, members of the same sex” (2001, p. 273). Although homosexuality practices and philosophical discussions are fairly old, going as far back as the times of Plato, Cicero, Thoma Aquinas, and Michael Foucault, the topic remains controversial but vital in religious, philosophical, and political spheres. With time, however, homosexuality has enjoyed increased acceptance in society. Same-sex couples are now permitted to marry under the law in countries like Belgium, the Netherlands, certain provinces in Canada (for example, British Columbia, Nova Scotia, and Manitoba), and the U.S state of Massachusetts. It is also illegal to discriminate somebody on account of his/her sexual orientation in Denmark, Ireland, South Africa, and Finland (Kraft et al. 2006). The aim of this paper is to explore the concept of homosexuality from a philosophical context. Natural Laws Theory According to the conventional natural-law argument on homosexuality, homosexuality involves a misuse of one’s sexual organs. Sexual organs are thus meant for procreation and as such, using them for any other purpose is immoral because it does not meet the “natural end”. Plato viewed same-sex sexuality as being “unnatural”. He also states that opposite-sex sex brings about pleasure naturally. According to Plato, erotic attractions are strong in nature and hence problematic. According to Levin, homosexuality is an unnatural act because it does not contribute towards evolutionary fitness. However, since homosexuality occurs in the natural world, it could regarded as natural. Levin further notes that since homosexuality evolves “a misuse of body parts”, it is thus immoral (Levin 2002). Levin further contends that homosexuality is abnormal in a “descriptive and normative sense” on grounds that homosexuals are “bound to be happy” for “evolutionary reasons” (Levin 2002, p. 236). Although Levin’s argument is quite noble, it lacks moral and normative conclusions. His argument only succeeds in demonstrating that homosexuals are likely to be unhappy on account of a “misuse” of their body parts. Levin views homosexuality as an abnormal act because to him, those who engage in it are actually abusing their body parts. However, Levin has not provided a clear definition of what constitutes ‘abnormal’. From Levin’s arguments, we can argue that he views homosexuality as an abnormal act since it defies the natural laws theory. Homosexuality also defies societal norms. Stoicism also played a key role in the development of the natural laws theory. Stoicism was
Achebe’s Things Fall Apart is an enthralling must-read chef-d’oeuvre starring Okonkwo, the protagonist who, despite his hatred towards his father, ends up taking after him. From the first line, the author begins by presenting Okonkwo as a well-known man even beyond the nine neighboring villages. The tall, muscular, and fearful character that had unkempt eyebrows and broad nose resented his father for being lazy and irresponsible. Okonkwo is hard working and successful because he tries hard not to be like his father. However, as the paper unveils, Okonkwo’s life is full of contentious situations ranging from failing his people, being a dependant rather than a provider, and being hopeless amongst others, that perhaps make him resemble his father whom he never wanted to emulate. Okonkwo resented his father’s failure even when he was merely a boy. Even at the helm of his success, he still remembered how he suffered when his playmate said his father was an agbala. From that moment, he learnt that Agbala, not only meant a woman, but also a name for any man with no title, like his father (Achebe 9). In some se
In chapter 20 of the provided book, it is found that many projects fail mostly due to negligence from their managers. This is because certain rules have to be followed for any project to succeed. For instance, users of projects have to be consulted in implementation processes from the early stages. This is noteworthy because users are capable of giving reliable information since they are on the ground. This means that since users are physically involved in the administration of projects, they stand in better positions to tell of challenges associated with projects. This information can initiate crucial changes during the implementation process hence leading to the success of the project. Besides, projects fail because their managers restrict the implementation process to one way of communication. For instance, users may be denied opportunities to comment or make proposals aimed at improving the implementation of the project. Users may implement wrong procedures even if they understand their implications. This is because they are not allowed to make proposals or question their seniors. For any project to succeed, more than one way of communication should be enhanced to ensure perfection in the implementation process. Users should be empowered to encourage them to seek clarifications hence ensuring correct procedures takes place. Project managers should make sure that there is an updated implementation strategy. This is a strategy aimed at converging stakeholders quite often to discuss their progress. This is extremely significant because stakeholders in the project take this opportunity to raise issues and observations that need to be discussed. Corrections in procedures can be made during these update meetings hence making it easy for the project to succeed. People may make proposals depending on progress status, and these may lead to changing sections of the implementation plan to suit situations on the ground. Since all stakeholders have to be involved in update meetings, they may decide to make certain changes aimed at making the project a success. The projects should be tested by users to check their viability. After the project has passed theory requirements, users must put it into practice to test its applicability. This is hugely valuable as some projects may be completed only to become useless. Therefore, before any project is commissioned, users must be given a chance to test whether it is applicable. If it is not applicable, then changes should be made to make it applicable hence a success. Finally, it is extremely pertinent to train staff on how to work on the project. Employees need to be conversant with the proposed project. Since
The philosophers view the concept of life and death from different angles. Parfit (2004) claims that the situation differs because the conditions of people’s lives vary. This claim implies that if the life of a person is beneficial, then this life is worthy. On the contrary, if a person suffers, it would be better for an individual not to exist. This argument is reasonable because it introduces the explanations of different options and the analysis of the consequences. A person may support this claim by offering the idea about the existence of various circumstances and the relativity of people’s lives, introducing the details. On the other hand, some individuals may contradict the author’s argument, claiming that there should be one truth and one single solution to the issue. The author argues that if a person is never born, there is no one “who never exists” (Parfit, 2004, p.120). This idea implies that the writer uses the feelings of people to explain the worthiness of human life. One of the most controversial points is that death and never-existence can be compared. Mainly, the philosophers may argue that the difference is significant between these two states. This assertion stands out because it regards the theme of life, death, and the afterlife, which is always debatable. If it were possible to address the author, it would be relevant to ask whether the philosopher would prefer life or death in his situation. Perhaps, he would reply that it depends on his analysis of his whole life in general. This idea of the thinker is reasonable because it can be compared with the social issue of death penalties. Mainly, the theme explored in the reading is significant because it might help understand whether capital punishment is justified. The author’s position is that people deserve existence when their life benefits them. This point can be supported by the claim that humans’ lives should also serve the lives of others. Reference Parfit, D. (2004). Whether causing someone to exist can benefit this person. In D. Benatar, Life, death & meaning: Key philosophical readings on the big questions (pp. 119-124). Rowman & Littlefield.