ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
It is intriguing to note that virtually all nation-state have been transformed into a global village through globalization and technological advances. Capital, goods, knowledge, people, weapons and communications, as well as beliefs, pollution and crime move across different territorial boundaries without resistance that was initially experienced. After the end of the cold war between nations, the supremacy of state-centric political and military to dictate the local and international politics have severely diminished over the years. Non-state actors such as international and nongovernmental organizations, civil societies, workers unions or other sovereignty-free actors have significantly influenced the authority of states. The states have virtually been left with no choice but to consult the supra-state actors before implementing any policies or laws. Most scholars argue that the power struggle between the nongovernmental organization and the state are shaped by both external and internal factors, which continuously change and shape this power configuration. Farrington & Lewis (5) explains that relation between the government and supra-state may take three forms. First, the state may have formal collaboration with the supra-state actors based on joint mandate. Secondly they may have informal or informal links, which is based on exchange of information and ideas. Lastly, the relationship may be informal or formal interaction, which may be supportive or conflicting. This study will endeavor to explore and explains the functions of supra-state actors and how they have influenced the authority of states in managing their affairs. Definition of Supra state actors Ataman (1) argues that defining supra-state actors is not an easy task since different non-governmental organizations have their own agenda, ambition and goals. According to the United Nation, supra-state actors are transnational, private international actors, which are made up of national groups, individual and are not officials of any representative of a national government. Hence, the term supra-state actors encompass a large spectrum of organizations, which include nonprofit organizations, international-nongovernmental organization, voluntary associations, non-governmental organization or new social movement. All this organizations have different ideologies, operation and organizational structure that are not universally structured. Overview of the supra-state actors Currently, there have been wide proliferation and mushrooming of non-governmental organizations in the entire world. The emergence of supra-state actor organizations can be dated back in the early 1839. During this period, the non-governmental organizations had little influence on the state function and authority. The non-g
Introduction Communication is a rather complex process that takes place in two dimensions at once, has several properties, and lasts always, even when the participants in the dialogue are silent. The communication concept outlined by Adler et al. takes many factors into account, categorizing them into different categories, functions, and goals. During communication, people send messages to each other, being near or far. Moreover, in assessing this process, words play a role and emotions, intonations, communication channels, non-verbal signs, and much more. One of the most fundamental aspects of communication is its two dimensions: the content dimension and the relational dimension (Adler et al. 14). Content dimension implies direct communication, often containing speech without hidden meanings. The relational dimension includes the attitude towards the interlocutor and is already much more complex. Any communication is unique and irreversible. It means that nobody can neither repeat nor turn the communication towards the past tense (Adler et al. 13). Uniqueness is also a distinctive property of interpersonal communication, which, in addition to it, is characterized by the properties of the general dependence of the interlocutors on each other, the desire to show oneself, and intrinsic rewards as a result of communication (Adler et al. 16). The very essence of interpersonal communication implies the dependence of the interlocutors, since the constant reaction to each other (in the case of live communication) or asynchronous responses in the case of online communication, one way or another, correct the future responses of the dialogue participant or their absence. This aspect is reminiscent of early concepts of communication that have been compared to the game of tennis (Adler et al. 10). The desire to show oneself and intrinsic rewards lie already in a plane inaccessible to the interlocutor. These aspects significantly adjust the participant’s behavior in the dialogue, dictating his interests and satisfaction with the results of the dialogue, respectively. In this work, through the prism of the concept of communication, Darren Aronofsky’s film “ The Fountain ” will be analyzed. In symbolic form, this artifact of popular culture reveals the different levels and dimensions of communication between the two spouses, considered in different contexts. This film allows for analysis that cannot be done in real life. Some moments in history have different development paths, “rewind,” looking from the outside, and repetition with the ability to change the decision. From the considered concept, we can conclude that to evaluate the act of any communication, it is necessary to look at it from different points of view. From the concept of the film “ The Fountain ,” it is possible to get this view, a sweep of the levels of communication and a vast field for the analys
The United States dollar, as it is recognized currently, was initiated in fear. In 1906, the Pacific tectonic plate dashed towards the north approximately twenty feet in less than one minute (Davidson par. 1). In this regard, the buildings that did not collapse due to the quake burnt, and in just a couple of days, eighty percent of San Francisco was destroyed. In the course of that occurrence, the old British companies insured the US corporations, in addition to the government, and the payouts after the destructions were massive. As was the normal process, the insurers paid in terms of gold, which were approximately 65 million dollars and about fourteen percent of all gold stores in Britain. Davidson affirms that for fear that such an amount of gold departing from its reserves would completely weaken the kingdom; the Bank of England raised the interest rates on the British bonds twofold (par. 1). In return, the majority of rich Americans sent funds to Britain. The reserves in Britain were refilled as the United States stock dropped by ten percent in a couple of months. At that time, regional banks and not the government issued the dollar bills where every bill was a representation of the real gold resting in a particular bank’s vault. Attributable to the large quantities of gold being hurled around, the majority of Americans became apprehensive that their reserves did not have sufficient anymore. The occurrence took the most influential moneyman in the country, J. P. Morgan, to settle the predicament. The residents of the US believed that their fiscal lives were established on a firm basis of gold. Nevertheless, all of a sudden became aware that the only item of lasting worth was the strength of a single wealthy person. To make sure that such an occurrence never arose again, the Congress set up a new body with professionals that would control the worth of the dollar through the determination of major interest rates (Davidson par. 2-4). The coordination operated better than any person would have thought. Frank Knight sought to distinguish risk from uncertainty by affirming that the term risk ought to pertain to facts that can be represented mathematically while uncertainty is a dissimilar thing altogether; the profound unknown. Foretelling where the stock marketplace will be in days or years is a risk. People may differ on the figure but concur on the fundamental data and computing instruments. Uncertainty defines the items that people cannot start to compute and are not aware of their existence (Davidson par. 5-9). The happening of the financial crisis could be attributed to people believing that they were in a state of risk, where the opportunity for evasion on mortgages, as well as more intricate derivatives, could be designed with great accuracy when in its place there was profound uncertainty taking place. Following the co
Regional planning is a subdivision of land use arrangement and also deals with the well-organized placement of activities concerning the usage of the land, settlement as well as infrastructure growth across significantly a very big area of land than a personal city. The interrelated field of city planning mostly deals with the specific issues of town planning. However, the reason for managing the city is to avoid common town problems for example the internal city decay, congestion, traffic, and other common forms of overcrowding. Regions need a variety of land uses which include; cities, the safety of farmland, transport hubs, room for industries, armed forces bases as well as wilderness. In other words regional planning is the art of a well-organized placement of infrastructure as well as zoning for the development of a region. A region as far as planning is concerned is managerial or sometimes partially functional and mostly includes a network of settlements together with character areas (Gwyndaf 2003). At the moment there are immense changes further on for council tenants within West Gorton. Some of them are considering a suggestion to move their homes and their estates to new landlords who are not operating to make profits. The other part is weighing up plans to destroy parts of the properties to replace them with new advanced homes, more facilities as well as a brighter and secure and comfortable environment. It is the most recent stage of a moving program which is seeing many tenants enjoying the brighter future. This is because investment programs bring sparkling home improvements and dramatic upgrades towards local environments and states (Phyllis 2006). Once the local individuals back the transfers in particular ballots, four companies are already offering top-notch improvements to bring the local housing up to the beautiful contemporary standards. The four companies are city South Manchester Housing Trust, Southway H
Introduction The revenue-maximizing rental rate is $950. At this rate, the demand for apartments increased to 1900 leaving 100 surplus apartments. The revenue was $1.81 million at this rate. When the rental rate, further decreased, the demand for flats increased, but the revenue also dropped. As the demand curve is an imaginary line showing the number of apartments demanded at a particular rate, it shows that the demand curve for two-bedroom apartments is a downward sloping curve with a negative slope. In other words, as the rental rate increases, the demand for apartments goes down as they become dearer. However, when their rates decrease, i.e. they become cheaper, the demand for apartments grows higher. Further, in the simulation, we have also observed that as the rental rate becomes lower, the revenue initially increases, and after one point, it starts declining. This provides an inverted bell-shaped revenue curve. Further, the surplus 100 apartments that are left at this rental rate can only be rented out if their rental rate is reduced, which will make the revenue decline. Table 1: Revenue maximizing Rental Rate. 2 years later, Susan recommended leasing out all the (i.e. 2500) apartments. The current rental rate at which the apartments are rented is $1100. At this rate, only 2050 apartments can be rented. However, all the 2500 apartments can be rented out at a rental rate of $1550. Main Body The simulation included the demand curve at the next stage, and the new task was to identify the equilibrium quantity and rental rate. The rental rate at which the market assumed equilibrium is $1050, and the number of apartments rented is 2000. The demand for the apartments reduced at a rental rate above this, while supply increased creating surplus supply. At this rate, the supply and demand were equal. First, there is a shift in the supply curve due to the increase in the number of available apartments from 2000 in Year 1 to 2500 in Year 2 and 3000 in Year 3. With the present situation, there is an increase in the demand for apartments with the advent of the new technology firm, which has brought in more people in the city. With increased demand, GoodLife has provided more apartments. Therefore, there is a rightward shift of the supply curve with more apartments to
Brief summary of economic costs Economic costs may be fixed or variable. Fixed costs refer to those costs that a firm cannot control and are usually not linked to the quantity of goods produced. In other words, they are not proportional to quantity; a graphical representation of total fixed costs versus quantity is a horizontal straight line since the costs do not increase with time. Examples here include machinery, cost of purchasing a location or fixtures. When the total fixed costs in a firm are divided by quantity produced then this becomes Average Fixed Cost (AFC) which is what is used for calculations. Variable costs on the other hand refer to those kinds of costs that can be changed with time and they are usually proportional to volume of production. Examples include rent, electricity bills, telephone bills and many others. When a graph of total variable costs is plotted against quantity of production, this usually results in an upward sloping curve. Average variable cost (AVC) refers to the ratio of total cost divided by the quantity of goods produced. The total cost of a firm is a sum of total fixed costs and total variable costs. The same applies to average total costs which is a sum total AFC and AVC. Marginal cost on the other hand refers to the difference in total costs when quantity of goods produced is altered by one unit (Rittenberg and Tregarthen, 2009). In the short run, a firm may choose to operate even when there is still a loss if it has been established that the price of the goods being sold is less than average total costs but greater than average variable costs. The seller will go through an economic loss because his marginal revenue (the difference in revenue when quantity of goods is increased by one unit) will be equal to his marginal cost. However, this state should not cause him to close down because he is still in a position to pay all the variable expenses and some of his fixed expenses. If he were to close in the short run, he would be left with the fixed expenses which he would still have to pay when he decides to resume. The fixed costs always exist whether or not he is producing goods. Diminishing returns When firms want to experience increase in revenue, they will often increase the variable expenses to be used in production. However, at some point, this continua
Abstract Mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is today’s one of the fine technologies that we have. The report shed light on the MANET and its characteristics. Though the MANET is a portable hosting system, used by various users, it has certain issues over the security of the data transfer. This is one of the important obsessions facing in the case of MANET. Even though there are many problems persisting much research has been conducted in securing the communication in the MANET network. Various researches show that there are plenty of solutions available for MANET in order to provide secure communication between the nodes. This paper starts off with a concise description of MANET and the various characteristics of MANET. Apart from that paper explains various kinds of issues that have been presented while communication taking place between the nodes present in the MANET. In order to provide effective and secure communication, there are different types of solutions present and this paper explains different types of security solutions for MANET for providing secure transmission. Introduction Ensuring effective security in Mobile ad hoc networks (MANET) has been considered to be very essential in the present scenario. This has got great potential for enhancing communication for different applications. The main objective of the research paper is to provide security solutions for MANET including the current Intrusion Detection System (IDS) approaches. Before explaining security solutions for MANET this paper will explore a concise explanation regarding MANET and its characteristics features. Research aims and objectives The main aims and objectives of this research are to provide a solution for MANET networks in order to have secure communication between the source and destination. In the case of MANET, there are plenty of issues evolving around the MANET while transmitting the messages over the network. Some issues may be complex and some may be very small issues. Even though these issues are small or big, it is sure that this is going to make a problem while communication takes place between the source and destination. The main objective of this paper is to provide different types of security solutions for this scenario. This mainly includes providing a description and analysis of those different types of solutions which enables MANET to have secure communication. What is MANET? MANET means Mobile Ad-hoc Networks. This is otherwise called a Mobile Mesh Network. “Mobile ad hoc (or spontaneous) networks (Manet) are IP networks made up of a collection of wireless and mobile nodes communicating via radio links.” (Albers, et al., n.d., p.1). The operation of these types of networks does not need any sort of predefined infrastructure or central
Introduction Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a hereditary disease with an autosomal recessive type of inheritance. Phenylketonuria is caused by insufficient activity of the enzyme called phenylalanine hydroxylase. As a result, it leads to the gradual accumulation of amino acid phenylalanine and its derivatives, which have a toxic effect on the central nervous system of a patient. Phenotypic manifestations of the disorder are microcephaly, convulsions, allergic dermatitis, hypopigmentation of hair, skin, and iris. Without timely treatment, patients with the problem have severe mental degeneration, and the seriousness of the PKU depends on the type of mutation. In order to fully understand the hereditary nature of the disorder, it important to identify and describe the genes involved. The genes are autosomal recessive (AR), their location is 12q23.2, and the MIM number is 612349 in the locus PAH (“Phenylketonuria; PKU,” 2020). It is stated that transient phenylalanine titration treatment can have a detrimental effect on the control of the patients’ metabolism (Barbosa et al., 2018). Phenylketonuria is a genetic violation of the metabolism of amino acids and the reason is the lack of liver enzymes involved in the phenylalanine to tyrosine metabolism. Main body The early signs of phenylketonuria are vomiting, lethargy or hyperactivity, the smell of mold from urine and skin, and a delay in psychomotor development. Typical late symptoms include oligophrenia, physical developmental retardation, cramps, and eczematous skin changes. Screening of newborns for phenylketonuria is still in the maternity hospital. Subsequent diagnostics include molecular genetic testing, determination of blood phenylalanine concentration, urine biochemical analysis, and brain MRI. The treatment of phenylketonuria is to follow a special diet. Disruption of amino acid metabolism is accompanied by a violation of myelination of nerve fibers, a decrease in the formation of neurotransmitters, triggering pathogenetic mechanisms of mental retardation, and progressive dementia. Newborns with phenylketonuria do not have clinical signs of the disease. Typically, the manifestation of phenylketonuria in children occurs at an early age. With the inception of feeding, the breast milk proteins or their substitutes begin to enter the baby’s body, which leads to the development of the early, non-specific symptoms such as lethargy, anxiety, and hyperexcitability, regurgitation, muscle dystonia, convulsive syndrome. One of the early pathognomonic signs of phenylketonuria is vomiting, which can be mistakenly treated as a manifestation of pyloric stenosis. By the following period, the child’s lag in the development of psychomotor functions becomes noticeable. The child can become inactive, irresponsive, stops to recognize parents, and does not attempt to stand on his feet or sit down. A fundamental factor in the treatment of phenylketonuria is a diet that restricts the intake of protein in the body. Conclusion Conducting a mass scre
Introduction It has been reported five million Jews were executed by the Nazis during the Second World War. ‘Die Endlösung’ (Fleming, 15) or the Final Solution is the name given to the methodical execution of the Jewish population during the Second World War by the Nazis. The chief of this monstrous plan was Heinrich Himmler. The entire process was referred to by Adolf Hitler as “die Endlösung der Judenfrage” or ‘ultimate solution of the question regarding the Jews’ (Longerich, 4). The plan was activated in 1942 but the construction of the entire approach started much earlier during the Berlin Wannsee conference in early 1942. Background During this meeting, the official command was put forward by Göring and Reinhard Heydrich was selected to devise a plan. By that time already a million Jews were killed. However, the first time this coinage of “Final Solution” was uttered was in 1943 at the Posen Conference and it was present in the speech of Heinrich Himmler. It was followed by systematic transportation of Jews to concentration camps by trains and executions followed there at places like Uckermark, Auschwitz-Birkenau, Treblinka, Neuengamme, Majdanek, and Herzogenbusch (Browning, 144). Discussion In a general sense, discrimination is fuelled by different aspects like low education, unfavorable economic condition, the social structure that is inclined towards a specific religion or cult, and most important of all- ill-fated political motivation. These are few reasons why the well educated, financially well off people tend to be secular in nature though there are exceptions and sometimes with rapid political campaigns, like the Nazi movement in Germany during the 1930s and 1940s by Adolph Hitler, these people start believing in an ideology that is basically racist in nature. Most people with discrimination or racist views don’t want others to label them as racist, so they mitigate their views whenever possible as this racism (like Nazism) comes in a package of camouflaged theoretic philosophy. This paved the path for ‘The final Solution’ and it was the Nazi plan for the extermination of the Jews (Baumslag, 89). The important focus of the paper evaluates the idea that the mass genocide of the Jewish people happened based on logic and the upper echelons of government. The mass murder of the Jewish people would have presented the Nazis with several difficult problems when planning how to approach the killings. However, the government planning was extremely complex, as well as the killing, which was very critical to the initial success of the extermination. The process by which the genocide was organized removed everyday individuals psychologically and morally from the actions of the government. This would mean that either the everyday individuals who took part in German society were unaware of the genocide, or may have even perhaps had some kind of resistance