ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction Biological psychology is a field that has provided insight into the behaviors of individuals in response to particular circumstances. Biopsychology forms an important basis for psychic therapy in the modern world. This paper explores the prime element of this branch of science and how they relate to psychiatry. Definition Biological psychology is a branch of psychology that tries to expose the biological aspect of behavior, i.e., the study of the brain I,n relation to the behavior (Wickens, 2005). History The ancient Greeks were the first people to appreciate the brain as the foundation for the mind. For example, Plato (429-348 BC) was the first to suggest the brain as the organ for reasoning. However, another early scientist including Aristotle believed that the heart performed this function while the brain acts as an organ for cooling the blood. In ancient times, the human body was venerated, and autopsies were prohibited so that the pioneering study of the human brain was before the time of Leonardo da Vinci (Wickens, 2005). Major theorists in biological psychology Descartes (1596-1650) Descartes proposed the pineal gland as the place for interaction between the mind and the body; it is the only single structure of the brain corresponding to his concept of the soul. He also remembered for the development of the concept of automatic reflex, which happens for instance when a limb is rapidly drawn away from fire. To affirm this response, Descartes hypothesized that a sensory fiber is composed of a tube containing a spirit to convey the message of heat to the ventricles, which then sends the animal spirit to flow to the muscle of the relevant muscle to trigger its withdrawal. Noteworthy is the fact that the mind was not involved in such event, reflexive, and thus not a cause of behavior (Wickens, 2005). Another proposal by this scientist sparked a big controversy among the then ancient scientist. He hypothesized that functions like respiration, digestion, memory, impressions, and emotions are reflexive. He supported these ideas with animals which did not seem posses spirit but are capable of having sensory activity, emotions and memories. Thus, these behaviors could be dependent on the physical phenomenon, except pure thought and reasoning which according to him was the function of the soul and unique to humans, parallel to the religious views of that time (Wickens, 2005). Luigi Galvani Experimental findings in 1971 by an Italian scientist, Galvani was substantial enough to dismiss Descartes theories of the animal spirit. Galvani discovered that he could cause the leg of the frog to twitch, in a different manner. This led to the conclusion that nerves are capable of conveying electricity and the animal spirit must have electric nature. Following the invention of the voltmeter, electric activity was indeed observed, and this lead to the dismissal of hydraulic theories and a different approach of study (Wickens, 2005). Franz Gall (1758–1828) Gall is
Witnesses have a crucial role to play in the criminal justice system, as their actions and words have a critical impact on the direction of cases. Eyewitness testimony refers to the accounts given by a person regarding an event they witnessed (Jain, 2000). In essence, eyewitnesses are required to provide descriptions of what they saw during such events. Eyewitness testimonies are considered direct evidence and can be regarded during forensic investigations, thus, ensuring that justice is served (Jain, 2000). However, despite proving useful in criminal investigation and persecution, studies have indicated they are unreliable. Scientific, psychological, and technological developments have proved the unreliability of eyewitnesses in criminal prosecution. Connectedly, this paper discusses the challenges involved in reliance on eyewitness testimonies. Psychological Development History of Psychological Development Psychological developments and studies in the criminal justice system have been used in establishing that eyewitness testimonies are not reliable. The developments date back to the 20th century when Garry Wells used psychological lens to learn their reliability. In his examination, Wells established that eyewitnesses gain influence from various psychological factors, which could detrimentally affect their decision-making and reasoning abilities (Helm et al., 2016). Throughout the 20th century, psychologists continued questioning the reliability of eyewitnesses in cases whereby the anxiety/stress simulation was adopted. In this simulation, psychologists established that stresses show huge associations with violent crimes happening in real life. Wells established that people who view violent attacks are more likely to remember less than 40% of the ordeals due to the induced stresses during the events (Helm et al., 2016). During criminal activity, one’s memory system is altered, thus resulting in lower retention rates than in normal circumstances. In his study, Wells relied on the estimator versus system variables to establish a six-person lineup. By definition, estimator variables are those factors that have a significant impact on eyewitness identification accuracy. In essence, the variables do not lie under the criminal justice system (Helm et al., 2016). They are the variables that can easily be altered and controlled by the prosecutors and the police, thus leading to changes in the eyewitness identification process. On the contrary, the police and the prosecutors cannot control or alter the system variables (Helm et al., 2016). For instance, Wells’ study relied on eyewitness’ imperfections in the memory system. Wells established that these two forms of variables could play a critical role in determining one’s memory of a criminal offense. Various incidences have been used to show the unreliability of eyewitness testimonies. In one such case involving an Elon College student,
Coined by Katha Pollitt in the distant 1991, the term “Smurfette Principle” described the phenomenon of female characters existing in media for the sole purpose of being the male counterparts and having no identity other than that: “The message is clear. Boys are the norm, girls the variation; boys are central, girls peripheral; boys are individuals, girls types. Boys define the group, its story and its code of values. Girls exist only in relation to boys” (Pollitt, 1991, April 7, para. 4).Also known as a “token woman,” the given character originated from the attempts of the entertainment industry to market their product to a particular audience (Thompson & Heinberg, 1999). However, despite the fact that the Smurfette principle is still applied towards modern media and especially film industry, considerable changes in the definition of the role of a female character have occurred, with the latter acquiring their own unique features outside of supplying color commentaries for the male characters, which can be traced in a number of present-day media specimens. One of the most obvious changes that have occurred to female characters in media and that seems to have the greatest impact on the destruction of the Smurfette Principle is that most of the female characters created in 2000s–2010s clearly have distinct personalities – in contrast to the ones of the 90s era, when a female character had a personality of a powder compact (Smith, 2008). Another obvious foot forward in promoting a less clichéd female character to younger audience is the fact that modern female leads do not need a male companion and often do not have one. The given feature of a “strong, independent” female character was launched by the creators of long-forgotten She-Ra franchise (Scheimer 1985–1986), where, though originally created as a counterpart to He-Man, the princess had a distinct personality, and her gender could be considered accidental. Although the number of female protagonists with their unique story arc and personality still seems quite little, the prevalence of female antagonists whose gender could be defined as accidental is stunning. Even the notorious The little mermaid , which Pollitt despised so much for providing an unbearably bland character with the most trivial motivations that a female protagonist can get, provides the audience with a unique and compelling evil female character. Ursula, though admittedly despicable, is much more compelling than Ariel, and her motivations are much more complex; the animators could have easily substituted her with a male character without changing a single line: “Come in. Come in, my child. We mustn’t lurk in doorways. It’s rude. One might question your upbringing” (Ashman, 1989, 0:39:17–0:39:25). Therefore, it can be assumed that the experience of writing negative female characters can be translated into cre
Apple Inc. is an American multinational corporation that designs, develops and markets consumer electronics, computer software and personal computers. It has a wide range of products both software and hardware; the hardware include, iPod, iPhone and the iPad while software includes; iTune, iLife suite of multimedia and creativity software and iWork suite of productivity software. Owing to its emphasis on the philosophy of comprehensive aesthetic design and its distinctive advertising campaigns, the company not only endeared itself to consumers globally but also confirmed its status as a major player in the consumer electronics industry. The fact that the Apple App store can be found in 96 countries globally underpins its scope (Chesbrough & Henry, 2003). Apple’s mission statement sums what the company is all about. ‘Apple is committed to bringing the best personal computing experience to students, educators, creative professionals and consumers around the world through its innovative hardware, software and internet offerings. Apple Inc. deploy Apple brand to compete across various competitive markets. These markets include computer industry, the electronics industry and the advertising market. Apple’s product strategy has been instrumental in helping the company to launch and maintain a formidable campaign against its rivals. Apple’s product strategy entails developing innovative products and services that are in sync with a digital hub strategy. Apple Macintosh computer products serve as digital hub for the various Apple digital devices such as the iPod, digital video and still cameras, cellular phones, personal digital assistants and other digital devices. The most recent brand strategy by Apple lays a lot of emphasis on customer experience. It took Apple a long time to penetrate the China market. When iPhone was released in the year 2007, it did not get a positive reception. It was deemed to be unnecessarily overpriced. Apple did not also have an official Chinese distributor. Nevertheless, the product became popular with the affluent Chinese who had more disposable income. Apple eventually got an official distributor for its merchandise. China Unicom, the second largest mobile phone operator in China, obtained the rights to distribute the iPhone in China. A lot of factors are responsible for Apple’s success in China. Apple had an extremely strong series of products starting with the iPod in 2001 to the iPhone in 2007. The level of product differentiation by Apple was unprecedented. It was superior to the ones that existed in the market at the time. Their superb design appealed to a wider audience (Chandler & Alfred, 2001). Apple Inc. in America added to its distribution channels to shore up sales. They opted for distribution channels with high sales volumes such as AT&T, Best Buy, and Wal- Mart. These allowed Apple to reach to a wider audience. A
In the year 1862, President Abraham Lincoln had only one goal which was to save the union in whichever way he knew possible with less concentration on slavery. Restoration of national authority was the fastest way to save the union. Lincoln’s actions towards slavery were, therefore, taken on the basis that they would help in saving the union. Lincoln had always claimed that he was against slavery; however he said that his constitutional right did not allow him to stop it and ha had expectations that prevention of slave trade to new U.S. would terminate the slavery. However, he had realized that the only way to save the union, which was his main goal, was to abolish slavery. As a result, in 1983, he signed a formal public statement for liberation. Due to this hindrance to abolish slavery in the union, Lincoln decided to do it from the southern states of America using his powers as the commander in chief of the United States. He came up with this decision when he realized that it was easier for the southern states to engage in a war because of the slave labor. The slavery immobilized the economy of the southern states therefore his plan was an action intended to further the union’s efforts in helping the south. This act was a very simple one but formal as well since Lincoln revealed it to the cabinet and asked for their opinions. This move gave him constitutional authority to obstruct in the salve trade. After emancipation was proclaimed, all slaves were freed including those who were not under the Union. After emancipation, Lincoln established some settlements for the newly liberated slaves (Allard 1). Lincoln had planned to colonize the freed slaves something which he commented on the emancipation proclamation. However, this plan did not work out as he had expected. This failure drove him to integrate the proclamation policies into the constitution to get rid of slavery completely throughout America. The freed slaves were used in the military as stated in the emancipation government policies. Although Lincoln was initially not willing to implement the policy, he eventually started the enrollment of the military which were called the Negro troops. Surprisingly, he initiated the process of increasing black troops despite the fact that he was initially against racial equality between blacks and Americans. Lincoln became the first American against racial racism with over 50,000 black soldiers being enrolled under his directions. Reconstruction began at the time when the war was still happening. Lincoln recommended that speedy elections should be done at the course of the war in his efforts to reunite the nation without any indifference to the south. With the intimidation of the southern states, a resolution on their leadership had to be made. He also appointed governors and general to put up plans to promote state restoration something which some citizens. Soon after the emancipation implementa
There is a common misconception that the larger amount of storage in a computer system allows for better and faster performance. However, the storage issue is that a slow processor, while requiring significantly more time to retrieve and operate the data to access certain files, is more likely to fill the storage with redundant information. In some cases, when using slow processors to access webpages or files that require high speed and performance, the system has to back up the data for it not to crash. Thus, it uses a considerably larger amount of random access memory (RAM). A high-speed computer system secures quality data processing, storage, and immediate retrieval of files (Donatus et al., 2017). Hence, it may be concluded that speed is more important in a computer storage system because, without high processing speed, any amount of storage may be filled by duplicating and saving some irrelevant information. While there are indications of how speed may be more significant than storage in the context of a computer system, both storage and speed are important to efficiency. Thus, while speed stands for the processor’s ability to quickly and efficiently access local or web-based files, the notion of storage stands for the amount of data that could be simultaneously stored on the computer’s hard drive. If the storage size is limited, the computer is more likely to be overloaded with information and slow down the processor’s performance. On the other hand, a slow processor may catalyze faster storage fill. Hence, while speed and storage are responsible for different functions in a computer system, their proper cooperation is vital for optimal performance. A primary distinction between speed and storage is the fact that speed predominantly deals with short-term system memory, whereas storage is a computer tool responsible for storing data on a long-term basis. Reference Donatus, N. O., Agbaeze, E., Ikenna, N. C., Kizito, U. K., & Andrew, M. K. (2017). Positioning performance improvement of a servomechanism of hard disk drive in a computer. International Journal of Engineering Sciences & Research Technology, 6 (11), 102-107. Web.
Joseph E. Stiglitz is an American economist who has made a substantial contribution to economic theories winning the Nobel Prize in 2001. He was born in February 1943 and completed his bachelor’s degree at Amherst College in 1964. Mr. Stiglitz also attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, graduating with a doctorate in philosophy in 1967 (Stiglitz, 2017). He has taught in many higher learning institutions, including Yale, Stanford, and Harvard universities. Additionally, the economist has been working as a professor at Columbia University since 2000, where he chairs important economic forums and conferences with industry leaders and regulators (Stiglitz, 2017). Capitalist countries, such as the U.S. and France, have developed market theories to enact and implement vital economic policies during financial hardships. Mr. Stiglitz is renowned for his market theory on asymmetric information and contributing to the existing intellectual application of economic policies. Higher learning academic achievement in accomplishing sound research projects is critical in reflecting the reality of the theory. Mr. Stiglitz was objective in noting the significance of asymmetric information when establishing economic-financial policies (Stiglitz, 2017). His research determined that individuals or businesspersons with a better understanding of an existing market could capitalize on the information for economic gains. The findings were critical in advancing the practical application of economic theories in the stock market business. Consequently, Mr. Stiglitz earned membership in important policymaking processes regarding effective economic initiatives with positive public impacts. For instance, former president Bill Clinton appointed him to the U.S. Council of Economic Advisers (1993-1997) (Stiglitz, 2017). The World Bank also optimized his intellectual knowledge of the economy as the vice president of a multinational financial organization. The economy expert has had a successful career as an international policy analyst and continues to advance his ideas by engaging elites in progressive economic debates. Moreover, Mr. Stiglitz has won distinguished global awards for his overall contribution toward global economic growth. As mentioned before, he won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics after developing the Keynesian framework of capitalist markets. The award was crucial in progressing his work, which began as research on the influence of information asymmetry in developing profitable organizational strategic plans on investments. For instance, he worked as the CEA chairman during Clinton’s administration between 1993 and 1995 by enacting useful, accurate, and relevant financial policies (Stiglitz, 2017). In addition, Mr. Stiglitz was appointed the Chief Economist at the World Bank from 1997 to 2000 (Stiglitz, 2017). The international financial agency optimized his expertise further by making him the Senior Vice President. Most notably, a former French leader requested Mr. Stiglitz to chair the National Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance
Introduction For any field of knowledge to be functional and meaningful it has to have practitioners in that area that must follow specific ethics and values specific to their areas of specializations. It is important to note that, although different professions have commonalities among their ethics, each of the professions has a class of unique ethics and values that identifies practitioners in that specific field. In addition, it is good to note that, practitioners in these fields not only work to gain good remuneration packages, but also they are involved in extensive researches; a practice aimed at improving and enhancing knowledge in their fields. Generally, professionals regardless of their areas of specialization must have cognitive and academic competence and a set of principles not only defined by their areas of specialization, but also intrinsically driven (Clark and Kasar pp.5-7). When individuals decide to be professionals in a specific field, then it means they are ready to sacrifice all that is at their disposal to make sure their professions shine, hence a factor necessitating one at all times to perform work with integrity and dedication. In addition, to self-interest and personal achievement, professionally individuals should create lasting relationships with not only those they work with, but also those they are serving. This is because, in case conflicting issues exists among a cohort of workers, then resulting conflicts can impair the quality and quantity of work output. Hence, if professional cannot fight to ensure they maximise their work output and competencies, then what is the essence of individuals calling themselves professionals? On the other hand, it is necessary to note that, all professional services’ main aim is to aid community development and peaceful coexistence, a factor that will improve the nature of relationships that will exist among community members. Hence, in trying to maintain this “contract” with the community, it is important for all professionals to ensure whatever principles, moral ethics, or values they embrace fit societal wants and needs (Cunningham pp.6-9). Professionalism in Education Educators play several roles dictated either by professional ethics or by societal needs. For example in an elementary school, although teachers’ main role is to deliver knowledge, they also have other duties that include acting as a surrogate parents, disciplinarians, motivators, and many other roles that depend on specific societies. This is because, students take more time with teachers than they do with their parents. Therefore, this makes it important for teachers to try and formulate mechanisms of balancing students’ needs and their professionalism. It is important to note here that, as compared to other professions, this profession entails many ethical concerns because to st