ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Viktor Bout rose from being a low-paid translator in the Soviet armed forces to becoming the most notorious illegal arms trafficker in the world. Nicknamed ‘the Merchant of Death,’ he is thought to be involved in supplying weapons and ammunition to wide-ranging customers from the Taliban in Afghanistan, to rebels in Columbia and warlords in Africa. Life before career in illegal arms trafficking Viktor Anatolyevich Bout was born in Dushanbe, Tajikistan on January 13, 1967. After completing his education, he enrolled in the military of the Soviet Union. He was initially assigned to work as a navigator at a Soviet military base in Vitebsk. After a few years, the scope of his duties was increased to include training the Soviet air force, commando troops. The year 1991 was auspicious in Viktor Bout’s life. First of all, he obtained a degree in foreign languages that year from the Military Institute in Moscow. Later that year he was promoted as a military translator for the Soviet army in Angola, Africa. Finally, his military career came to an abrupt end when the Soviet Union collapsed late in 1991. Bout and his fellow officers were rendered jobless (Amoruso). Viktor Bout decided to go into the air transport business. Taking advantage of the Soviet Union’s collapse, he bought a large number of aircraft lying abandoned in Soviet airfields. The powerfully built Antonov and Ilyushin aircraft were not only easier to maintain than U.S. planes, but the planes and their crews were available for sale at very low prices (BBC.co.uk). Bout established the Transavia Export Cargo Company in 1993. The company initially did legitimate business, particularly with the U.N, by airlifting supplies to its peacekeeping forces in various countries (Amoruso). Illegal arms trafficking – destination afghanistan Viktor Bout’s greed for quick riches made him turn to illegal arms trafficking. He used his international contacts to develop business relations with the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan. The latter was in need of weapons (Amoruso). Bout used his wide range of contacts to locate illegal arms suppliers . Bout then used his aircraft to transport the illegal shipments of arms to the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan. This went on for a period of 2 years , by the end of which he earned nearly $ 50 million, which he promptly invested into his rapidly expanding illegal arms trade (Amoruso). Bout inaugurated his second company called Trans Aviation Network Group in Ostend, Belgium in March 1995. His illegal arms trade suffered a setback when the Afghan Northern Alliance was overthrown and replaced by the Taliban. Cutting all ties with the Northern Alliance, Bout initiated discussions with the Taliban and had no difficulty in making them his new customer in Afghanistan. Bout’s illegal arms shipments resumed to that country, in fact increasing in quantity and frequency (Amoruso). As his business flourished, so did Viktor Bout’s lifestyle. He purchased a large house in Ostend, several luxury cars, and even a
The political system in France, England, and Spain during the period of the high middle age to 17 th century was marked with a lot of changes and development. This was the era of reformation; it led to the advancement of these countries in areas such as science, religion, arts, economics among others. Conversely, this was dependent on the kind of leaders at a particular time during this period. The war between England and France went over approximately a period of one year. On most occasions the battles were worn by England though, eventually, France triumphs the battle forcefully. There was a great advancement of poetry and literature during this period. There were a lot of civil wars in England after losing the battle to France. The person who was to take over the leadership role in England was determined by the civil wars. Henry VII became the king of England in 1485 and was later appointed the supreme leader of the church by parliament after the catholic refused to accept his plea for divorce. This results in a lot of reformations in England. Later from 1553 to 1603 queen Mary took over the power and made several changes in England’s land (Brown, Elizabeth A.R., 1991). It is clear from the literature that France and England were great enemies for a long period. After a whole century of wars, various modes of leadership emerged in England. For instance, France followed absolutism styles where their kings were assigning themselves more power as they wished without the people’s consent. This system was horrible for the people of France and by the time France was becoming revolutionalized many people had lost their life. This was not the case for England. For them when something was wrong they get head-on without waiting and this was the fact why England became a democratic country ahead of France and Spain. Despite being a monarchy, England retained the parliament house and there was no king who differed with it in all this period. With the discovery of North America in 1492 followed by its free inducement of territory, France and England moved into held territory in this part. France proceeds and took over the land which was not yet reclaimed in Italy and Germany. France’s reigned however came to halt shortly during the time of Napoleon. For hundred years, France was ruled and after a while, their power came to peaked. On other hand, England explored and started colonies in most parts of the world particularly in Asia and Africa. England ruled a large territory and they were economically stable than the rest of the world up to when they were forced to live the colonies to the owners (Borrigheimer, Karl S., 1976). Religion was another feature of these countries. When Henry VIII became the king of England and was later elected the head of the England church. The rate of prosecution
Franz Kafka’s novella, The Metamorphosis, encompasses the journey of a man into the world of an insect. This existential work is often dismissed as absurdist; however it serves to give a unique and striking portrayal of the transformation of its protagonist, Gregor Samsa, into what is commonly translated as a “monstrous vermin” (Kafka, xxii). Kafka’s narration is marked by pessimism, dark humor, and a keen wit. It expresses an underlying cynicism born of exploitation, misery and injustice. The idea of ungeziefer, the original word used by Kafka to describe what Gregor turns into, is defined as “a person or animal which is considered to be loathsome, toxic and unpleasant “ (American Heritage Dictionary, 2009). This idea is essential to interpreting Kafka’s work. Gregor’s character is a symbolic vehicle through which Kafka explores his troubled relationship with his father and his feelings of alienation from society at large. The metamorphosis causes Gregor to be treated as if he is something less than human, a sentiment that Kafka often expressed in his other writings. Gregor’s transformation, then, is outwardly symbolic of the pain of Kafka’s lived experience. Gregor’s appearance comes to reflect his social situation, thus embodying Kafka’s sense of social, religious, and philosophical alienation. There are many biographical similarities between Gregor and Kafka, reinforcing the interpretation that Gregor embodies many of Kafka’s internal emotions. When the reader first meets Gregor, he is painted as a good son, a simple and hardworking employee whose efforts to repay his parents’ debts go mostly unappreciated. This portrait strongly resembles Kafka’s troubled relationship with his father, Hermann, a businessman who was heavily critical of his son for refusing to take up the family business. After years of abuse, Kafka came to feel reviled and unwanted and, as result of this abuse, Kafka felt like vermin – something unpleasant, reviled and unwanted. In his unpublished “Letter to His Father”, he goes so far as to refer to himself as “Ungeziefer” (Kafka, 2009
Introduction Government agencies are organizations that have the responsibility of overseeing and administering defined functions of the government. Agencies are notably of various types and are either permanent or semi-permanent depending with the legislation or executive powers that created the agency. Most of the agencies have an executive functions such as the advisory and monitoring activities. Agencies are normally autonomous, independent and accountable to its board of directors. Though agencies may be created by the executive powers and the president being the appointing authority, there is some degree of independence from the executive control (Hall, 2). Role of government agencies Broadly defined government agencies are executive federal departments that are inclusive of the president’s cabinet level departments as well as their sub units. Most of these agencies executive role is to implement and advise on policy issues in addition to delivering government services. Agencies also have administrative, commercial and regulatory functions. These functions are carried out within the framework of the government or department within which the agency falls. The degree of the agency operational independence also varies with the ministerial department that oversees the agency (Hall, 2). Constitutional justification of the agencies Agencies are created through statutes known as enabling acts. Enabling acts define the agency responsibility, scope and authority. Even though agencies are not expressly mentioned in the US constitution, most of the independent agencies created are technically under the executive arm of the government with the few spread in the legislature (Hall, 2). The administrative course of action which was ratified in 1946 instituted various means via which the state agency dealings could be supervised. The act created a common administrative law and procedures that regulate the agency promulgation of rules as well as the agency adjudication of claims (Clark, 1). The act is applicable to both independent agencies and the federal executive department. According to the manual on the administrative procedure act 1947, the APA main purpose required agencies to inform the public of the organization, include the public in the rule making process, to establish a common standard for the agencies conduct of making rules as well as their adjudication. Also, identify the scope of the agency judicial review (Clark, 1). How the agencies fit in the realm of the judicial system The administrative procedure act also established a process through which US federal courts can directly review the agency d
Introduction The history of the European colonialism started around the 1500s and lasted for centuries. The European countries were not unique in their colonial efforts 1 ; however, it is clear that the colonization organized by the European countries changed the face of the world. There existed numerous reasons for the colonization to start and continue. In this paper, we will discuss two such reasons: religious expansion and promoting trade. Reason One: Religious Expansion One of the main reasons why European countries engaged in colonization of the globe was connected to religion: the colonizers wished to promote the Christian faith in Asia and other parts of the world. This also involved fighting the adepts of the competing religions. One of the main competing religions was Islam; it was often a great desire to get rid of this rival. The authors of the primary sources provided by Andrea and Overfield mention the religious component. 2 For example, the Portuguese general and conqueror Afonso d’Albuquerque, in his speech to his men that was given in order to persuade them to attack the city of Melaka (contemporary Malaysia), mentioned “the great service” to the Christian God they would make by conquering the city. He stated: “The first of these [reasons for taking the city] is the great service we shall render to Our Lord by throwing the Muslims out of the city and preventing the fire of the Mohammedan sect from spreading any further. I hope in Our Lord that, as a result of our doing this, the Muslims may be driven out of India altogether.” 3 Therefore, it is clear that Portugal was interested in removing the Muslims from Asia. The famous Italian explorer Christopher Columbus (who was provided with the equipment necessary for the voyage by the Spanish crown, though) in the prologue to his diary of his first voyage (which was written in late 1492) stated: “as Catholic… Princes who love the holy Christian faith and the propagation of it, and who are enemies to the sect of Muhammad and to all idolatries and heresies, resolved to send me… to the said parts of India… with a view that they might be converted to our holy faith.” 4 Because Columbus uses the possible chance to more effectively remove Muslims from India as an argument for exploring the new route to Asia, it is evident that the Spanish crown was opposing Islam. In addition, Columbus mentions the Spanish victory in Granada, where “the Muslim King… kiss[ed] the royal hands.” 5 In this regard, it should be noted that the victory in Granada was the battle with which the completion of Reconquista, the expulsion of Muslim Moors from the Iberian Peninsula (mostly by Spanish and Portuguese), is associated. 6 Another example of the wish to promote religious faith is given by an English writer Richard Hakluyt. He was one of the lobbyers of the colonization of North America in the 16 th century. He also used the possible opportunity to spread the Christian faith as an argument to persuade the English monarchs to support the colonization. For instance, in h
Introduction It could be hardly doubted that the modern taxation system is a significantly complicated subject. Many aspects of this system, such as vast differences in tax rates and tax treatment of corporate income in different countries, are continuously investigated and elaborated on (Arel-Bundock, 2017). Another important part of the question is numerous strategies of tax avoidance (which is also referred to as tax aggressiveness), which are employed by multinational corporations (McClure, Lanis, & Govendir, 2016). This paper aims to dwell upon several issues, including previously mentioned problems along with the use of the Double Irish and the Dutch Sandwich by Google, Google’s negotiation with the Internal Revenue Service, and Microsoft’s use of Irish subsidiary to cut the company’s U. S. taxes. Based on the investigation of the given questions, a conclusion will be made. Differences in Tax Rates and Tax Treatment among the Countries First of all, it is essential to discuss the question of why the taxation rates and treatment of corporate income vary so dramatically among different countries. In general, “taxation of business income is always a contentious public policy issue” since numerous parties are involved (Griffin & Pustay, 2015, p. 530). The Use of Tax Havens by Multinational Corporations It is possible to mention that the ability of multinational companies and corporations (MNCs) to lower their tax burdens is vastly based on the strategic use of transfer prices (Griffin & Pustay, 2015). Also, this ability is significantly facilitated by the existence of a tax haven, which is the term referred to a country that imposes little or no taxation of corporate income (Griffin & Pustay, 2015). Such states, instead, impose a small fee for a multinational corporation (concerning the income rate of an average MNC) to establish a fully owned subsidiary in a tax haven. Further, an MNC manipulates different types of payments, including “transfer prices, dividends, interest, royalties, and capital gains,” between its separate subsidiaries to lower the corporate income taxation (Griffin & Pustay, 2015, p. 526). As result, the tax rates of multinational companies which are using the tax haven scheme are significantly lower than those of the companies, operating in high-tax countries. It could be additionally mentioned that the globalization process has an immense impact on the development of corporate tax competition in numerous states and the growing rate of tax avoidance by MNCs (Farnsworth & Fooks, 2015). Political Reasons for Tax Rates Differences As it was mentioned in the previous section, there are vast differences in tax rates and tax treatment among different countries. Another reason for such variety that should be mentioned is different domestic policies, implemented by the governments. It is argued that, in the majority of cases, politicians are preoccupied with the creation of new workplaces and tax revenue, and they tend to change their countries’ tax codes if such actions stimulate the local economy (Griffin & Pustay, 2015). Therefore, c
Social development is the catchphrase of the American dream. It is the warrant to all punctilious society members in a nation that, despite its social-economic background, chances open up for all citizens to climb the social ladder. The only way an individual has a guarantee to climb up the social ladder is having appropriate education. Education is a social institution that grooms young members of the society to be the kind of people they wish to be when they grow up. Nonetheless, if an individual discards his or her designated chance to get educated and instead undergoes that of a distinguished social stratum, the system has been conquered. For example, children from families with a poor socio-economic background are more likely to attend low-level educational institutions and perhaps not join college for higher education (Cullen 14). Conversely, if a child from a rich family defies this typecast by attending poor school and refusing to join college, he or she is discarding his or her parents’ lifestyle and choosing a completely different life to lead. This phenomenon is best explicated in Lubrano’s article, “The shock of education” where he talks about how colleges can corrupt individuals. Uplifting oneself into a better social life in a higher social stratum is correspondent to the act of undyingly changing citizenship. The conspirator is now a citizen of another nation, and he has completely complicated time interacting and connecting to the previous system. When he goes back home he is purely visiting, only to realize that he has nothing to exchange with his or her friends or folks. Those who do this often have a feeling that they are ditching their friends and relatives who are permanently stuck in the original social class. To add on these hardships and constraints from below, there are hardships and constraints from above trying to push these pursuers of the American dream downwards. This way, trying to attain the American dream becomes a nightmare. In the paper “The Shock of Education” author Lubrano adds his personal anecdote, simply a bricklayer’s child, who typically gets and accepts a scholarship chance to the University of Columbia by studying industriously in his home in Brooklyn. The author elucidates the changeover as “yanking” and thinks he is “operating between two globes” (Maasik and Jack 12). These two literary articles in examination, a short narrative and a script, extensively explicates contradicting culture play on contradicting teams in the play of social mobility. However, both articles represent members of sensible classes in the society. In both pieces, sets of characte
Introduction For many years, women have faced challenges in the effort to rise to top positions in organisations. The number of women in boardrooms is too low compared with the number of men. As Ridgeway notes, gender discrimination has continued to dominate many organisation both public and private (1997, p.218). An invisible barrier exists (‘glass ceiling’) which prevents women from rising to these top levels in many organisations. Though many policies have been developed over the past years to address the problem, the problem still persist thus demanding for more research to come up with a more practical solution to address the problem. This study presents a possible policy by the government that can be used to solve this problem. The Policy Government regulation act To address this problem, a government regulation Act can be enacted that will set a certain number of gender limit that would require organisations, both private and public, to have a certain minimum number of both men and women in their management positions. This policy will require at least one third of each gender in each public and private office. As Cheung-Ling notes, it is only a government regulation, which can bring reforms in gender inequality (1992, p.89). The policy may also require that the two top posts of any organisation not to be occupied by the people of the same gender. The policy will ensure that there is equality between men and women and all the management positions in both public and private organisations are shared more equally between the two genders. The policy will be enforced and monitored by the government to ensure that it is followed by every organisation. Addressing the problem The problem of discriminating women in management position is mainly based on stereotypes that women cannot perform as men in the managerial positions. According to Huffman, Cohen and Pearlman, the performance of women in managerial positions depends on the context and therefore, it should not be generalised (2010, p.255). Women only occupy middle-level management positions either because they shy off ‘big’ posts or out of discriminatory practices in organizational culture (Wentling 2003, p.311). Thus, enacting this policy will require organisations to abide to the requirement of the government when they are appointing people to occupy the top management positions. Promotions in these organisations will also consider gender equality to ensure that both genders are represented in the top positions. Comparison Though there are several laws that have been enacted to address the past, they have not completely solved the problem. For example, the government of Australia enacted Sex Discrimination Act in1984 to address the problem; unfortunately, it solved it partially (Australian Human Rights C