ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction Human society is often more complex in terms of formation and organization than that of any other creatures on earth. The genesis of such complexity often varies depending on reasons and circumstances of formations, some of which include protection of property rights, survival, and symbiotic trade relationships among others. Regardless of the reason for the formation of any society, the element of conflict is always present, precisely because human beings have different perceptions and opinions regarding the procedure of operations in such a society, the superiority element of societal stratification, and the issue of morality and what constitutes right as opposed to wrong. Many philosophers have tried to explain the issue of the occurrence of such conflict according to their perspectives on the constitution of ideal societies. Karl Marx is one of the most renowned philosophers of all time due to his contribution to the issue of societal structures and the genesis of conflicts. The nineteenth-century philosopher’s works have been the basis for the formation of governments as well as the dissolution of others. In addition, Marx’s works have generated controversy among philosophers who have read his works, some of whom agree with his opinions while others refute them with reasons. This paper constitutes a critical analysis of Karl Marx’s political manifesto, The Communist Manifesto, which he compiled with the help of Frederick Engel in the nineteenth Century, even though it remains relevant to date. The paper’s discussion also includes the opinions of other scholars including that of philosopher Mikhail Bakunin on the principles of Marxism regarding the class conflict. The Communist Manifesto The Communist Manifesto was first published in 1848 under the commissioning of the First Communist Political Party, as an activist group whose main agenda was to foster the establishment of communism as a form of governance in continental Europe starting with England. In the manifesto, Marx begins by noting that the society at the time considered communism a specter and that all “the old powers of Europe had entered into a holy alliance to exorcise it” (Marx & Engel, 1948, p.1). This statement implies that according to Marx, the society thought of communism as a radical idea for which the authorities in power worked hard to quash. Marx also states in the first chapter that the “history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggles” (Marx & Engel, 1948, p.2). He then goes ahead to explain his view on the class conflict by noting two significant classes of people whom he thought made up every society and determined the social and consequently political set up of societies. The division entails the bourgeois and proletarians, whom he later refers to as t
Type of people living in the community and the work that they do Situated in the Northwest Alley, the city that nowadays bears the name of its founder has a relatively small population of 625,000 residents. Such a small amount of local residents, however, does not mean that the ties within the community are any weaker than in a larger city. Quite on the contrary, the Kelsey community is well integrated and quick to respond to the needs of its members. The community consists of people promoting life standards improvement through raising environmental awareness ( Every day is Earth Day , 2007). How and where the members of the community Interact Latest technologies are used as the key tool for interaction between the community members. With the help of modern media, social networking in particular, the residents of Kelsey are capable of keeping in touch with each other and learning about the key concerns of the community fast ( Kelsey: U.S. Census data , 2000). In addition, Kelsey residents attend meetings, in the course of which major issues in the city’s agenda are discussed ( City of Kelsey: Memorandum, n. d.). Thus, social networking does not replace live communication between the city residents, but is used as a tool for information sharing and responsibilities distribution and delegation ( City of Kelsey: Community assessment , n. d.). Individual responsibilities to the community The dwellers of the city of Kelsey have been known to be friendly people, and thus the city is a very nice place to live. The citizens provide the community with fresh fruits and vegetables. This ensures that the residents of Kelsey live a better, healthy and quality life. Every individual is required to take care of the environment by keeping it clean. The people recycle most of the products that they use at home, and in some situation they donate to the community. The residents are taught Individual responsibility through trainings on environmental awareness; moreover, they often volunteer in various community activities. Individuals also have a huge responsibility of maintaining their culture. As mentioned above, M. Kelsey wanted to preserve the natural resources, thus, convincing each and every member in the society strive to retain natural environment by growing trees. In addition, the city policy presupposes that all the community members should try and live in peace and maintain the good image that the City of Kelsey has had for centuries. Community responsibilities to individuals The community of Kelsey works very hard to ensure that both the residents and tourists enjoy the time that they spend in the city. The citizens consider it their responsibility to ensure that individuals in the community are safe from any kind of harm. The community also takes care of the less privileged individuals in the society, for example, the sick
Saussure distinguishes language (langue), speech (parole), and speech activity (language). Speech activity is many-sided also adjoins to a number of areas: physics, physiology, mentality. Speech is the individual phenomenon, and language is “a social product of speech ability, set of the necessary conditions acquired by the public collective for the realization of this ability at separate persons.” Language acts as a “system of cleanly linguistic attitudes,” and only it should be studied by linguists: “Unique and true object of linguistics is the language considered in and for.” In the development of this position, Saussure differentiates between external linguistics and internal linguistics. To the external linguistics, the attitudes of language to public establishments belong and historical conditions of its existence. But all these moments are outside language as systems of pure attitudes (“there is no necessity to know a condition in which this or that language “as” language is the system, submitting to the own order.”) And in this last understanding, language makes a subject of internal linguistics (“all is internal that in any degree alters system”) ( Levi-Strauss, 1966, p. 88). The following differentiation Saussure divides into two planes: diachronic (historical or dynamic aspect) and synchronism (static aspect, language in its system). Both these aspects are torn from each other by Saussure and also opposed (“with the opposition of two points of view on language – synchronous and diachronic – absolutely and do not bear the compromise”). Abstract from historical consideration, the synchronic aspect allows the researcher to concentrate on studying the system of language closed “in itself and for itself. ” The historical point of view on language (diachronic) destroys the system, transforms it into the assembly of the isolated facts (Beedham, 1999, pp 99). Saussure considers the language as the system of any signs (the sign nature of language) and assimilates to any other system of signs. (“Language is the system of the signs expressing ideas and consequently, it can be compared to the writing, with the alphabet for the deaf-mutes, with symbolical ceremonies, with forms of courtesy, with military signals, etc.”) He thinks of creation of science, “studying a life of signs inside of the life of any society” (semiology). The language sign, accor
Introduction The strong economic growth exhibited by industrialized countries in the past three decades has been accompanied by an increase in energy consumption. This has made the operation of Large Combustion Plants (LCP) to generate electrical energy and/or heat a cornerstone of our modern society. The BAT Reference Document (BREF) (2006) declares that the economy of all industrialized countries is largely dependent on LCPs. However, these plants generate a significant amount of residues and waste and these emissions have an effect on the environment. Gas Combustion installation use the raw material taken from earth and convert them into useful energy. However, the burning process results in a significant impact on the environment since the combustion process results in emissions to air, water and soil. One of the large combustion installations commonly used is the Gas Combustion Plant. This paper will set out to describe the major pollutants emitted from Gas Combustion Plants which are oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Specifically, the paper will analyze the process through which this pollutant is produced and proceed to access the environmental impact that the pollutant has. The manner in which the pollutant is monitored will them be elaborated. The paper will conclude by describing methods used to control the emissions. Sources of the Pollutant The major pollutant(s) in any industry are described as those which produce the highest pollution index during the industrial process. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions are of primary concern in gas combustion plants. NOx is formed by a number of processes in Large Gas Combustion Plants. The first process which produces a significant amount of NOx is when nitrogen and oxygen in the combustion air mix with one another at high temperatures in a flame (Sutton, et al. 2011). The high temperatures results in production of increased amounts of thermal NOx. The formation of thermal NOx is dependent on the temperature of the combustion chamber. When the furnace temperatures are above 1000 0 C, emissions of NOx are significantly high. Keeping the peak flame temperature below 1000 0 C significantly lowers NOx emission. Thermal NOx is the dominant manner through which NOx is generated in Gas Combustion Plants. The second process is when the nitrogen oxides in fuel react with oxygen in the combustion air. The formation of fuel NOx depends on the nitrogen content in the fuel as well as the level of oxygen in the reaction medium. The quantity of fuel NOx produced is therefore greater in installations that have fuels with high nitrogen contents. The third albeit less significant mechanism is prompt NOx
Debatably the most critical in a chain of Court trials defining the meaning of obscenity and settling the disputes as to how and when a community could control pornography, Miller v. California case remained the High Court’s ultimate decision regarding most kinds of obscene materials into the contemporary world. While the trial focused on describing obscene materials in Miller v. California , the definition of obscenity has been changed and enhanced in the succeeding court suits. Since the basic description was formulated in the early 1970s, it has never been overhauled and acts as the reference point for most of United States court prosecutions concerned with obscenity cases. The issue has been to identify an ultimate description of obscene material that protects the authority of state organs in regulating the worst types of obscenity for community wellbeing, and yet does not prevent speech of real significance to the community (Cohen 42). Currently, in the period of easy technology-based communication, fresh dimensions to this concern appear. While the courts have held that obscene materials are described based on “contemporary-community Standard,” it is unclear whose society standards apply when dealing with electronic communication (Cohen 42). Is it within the law or important to hold publishers on global sites to the most limiting society standards in the country? Or is it important for all communities served by the websites to lessen their levels to that of the most tolerant location? Do the various legislations need any specific regional description at all? Basically, it is legally acceptable in applying the conventional test for obscenity – the Miller standards – to a country with an extremely large territory, absolute freedom to move from one local jurisdiction to another, and technology that enables mass communication across nearly all local, state, and national boundaries, comprising their relationships with “contemporary society standard,” exclusive of all obligations for a more specific description (Cohen 38). The “contemporary society standard” components of the test were not predestined for imposing geographically differing Initial Alteration rights for a publisher, and the fact that these standards at times lead to the geographic disparity is more incidental than it is an incident of legal practice. The community standard parts of the Miller test exist for acknowledging the function of a jury to draw findings of reality regarding a matter of inaccurate ruling. Application of unclear society standards is no longer legally challenging in electronic obscenity cases compared to any other form of pornography prosecution. It is related to utilizing
About BlackRock World Mining Trust BlackRock World Mining Trust is a British investment trust. The company was established in 1993 and it deals with investment in mining and metals. The company is a publicly traded entity based in London, United Kingdom. The company is listed on the London Stock Exchange. Besides, it is a component of the FTSE 250 index. The firm’s objective is to maximize the returns of the shareholders through investing in a number of securities of mining and metal securities. It is the largest investment trust company in London. Valuation of beta The beta of an asset is commonly used to estimate the price of the asset using the capital asset pricing model. It measures the volatility of a company’s stock relative to the market changes. Computation of asset beta is founded on historical returns which may not give an estimate of the firm’s future share prices. A number of factors can make the value of asset beta to fluctuate. Some of the factors are risk of the business, operation risk, financial risk, and sales risk. Asset beta is the sum of beta equi
Introduction The ideology of self in philosophy is a term that is used to describe various essential characteristics that combine together to form a unique personality different from other individuals. The concept of self is described as central to human development and is responsible for two very important functions i.e. self which is regarded as the point from which the unconscious thoughts emanate and also the point from which purposeful thought are processed (Myers). As such the concept of self in a person is best exhibited through observation of other people’s actions, behaviors and characters which are determined by the brain from where they originate. Incidentally this is the concept from which the science of psychology is based which is best exemplified by the theory of behaviorism: The purpose of this paper is to analyze the concepts of self ideology as advanced by Hume and their relevance in context of other theories on the same subject of self. Hume’s Self Ideology Hume’s conception of self ideology is based on a broad theory that is referred as bundle theory which he was the original founder; according to bundle theory all objects are described to consist of “collection of properties” that make up the whole object, this properties are what Hume is referring as “bundles” (Hume). It is from this principle that Hume advances the self ideology which he asserts is made up of collections of perceptions that a person has on oneself which are shaped by various experiences of that particular individual. These human experiences that Hume’s refers as bundles of perceptions are described to be constantly changing with
Introduction The letter grading system, to which all of us are accustomed, has its advantages and disadvantages. There is an opinion that the letter grades should be replaced with pass or fail ones. I do not support this idea for a number of reasons. In this essay, I am going to discuss the pros and cons of the letter grading model and to prove that it should be remained in the education system. The Main Body First of all, it should be said that nothing is perfect and the arguments against can be found for everything but we have to think whether the strengths of the current letter grading system overbalance its weaknesses. In my personal view, they do. In comparison with the pass or fail grades, one of the major benefits of the letter grading model is that it represents the more detailed breakdown of the students’ results. Thus, it gives the opportunity to reflect the level of knowledge more precisely. In contrast, the pass or fail system has only two grades: one positive and one negative. However, it goes without saying that the students, who failed, would have relatively different results. Undoubtedly, some of them would be very close to the pass level and some would be substantially below it. Moreover, this grading system does not encourage the students striving for better result. Many would consciously fail on some of the interim assessments because they knew that they were not as much important as the final exams. However, the solid knowledge is gained when the students prepare for each test because the interim assessments are primarily aimed at the assimilation of knowledge and not at the final postulation of the achievements. The same can be said about the pass grade. The group of students, which will be graded pass, in reality, will have the relatively different results. It is not fair because some of the students will put the maximum efforts to study all the material and to answer all the test questions, whereas the other students will study just a portion of the required assignment in order to have the minimum knowledge to pass the test. In my view, this system does not motivate the students to study better. The critics of the letter grading say that it is too complicated and that it should be replaced with the one similar to pass and fail system. I disagree with this statement because I think that although the letter grading is more complica
Cyber law refers to the legal concerns that relate to communication, purchase and distribution of devices and technologies that are networked. Some of these laws relate to the use of Facebook, music downloading from internet and access to porn on websites. So much information is exchanged on net making internet an easy destination for crime. Due to this, strangers may access personal details and use the information in other criminal ways. Facebook is a social networking service that has gained a significant use allover the world within a very short time. This system enables its users to fill in their personal information on the Facebook page in order to have Facebook accounts. Other registered viewers are able to view these profile pages. Recently, the use of Facebook and the laws that govern its use and privacy rights of the user has raised a lot questions among many people. It permits the likeliness of non-users to be identified on Facebook, hence violation of users’ privacy. For instance, a malicious person may use someone else’ photo or email address to log in into the system. Those who use Facebook must submit their personal details before being register. An instance that is different to the non-users who violate the privacy of other people because they have no Facebook pages. To guard against this criminal offense, Australian Cyber laws require that while an organization or website is collecting personal details, the system must have reasonable steps that alerts the person concerning some issues. This is mainly done through a privacy policy (Delaney and Morris para. 4-6). Germany, one of the countries in the world that have very strict privacy rights, has laws that examines Google in order to intercept private details from any unsecured wireless networks in the process of gathering information and photos. This was launched during German’s ‘Street View project. Additionally, the terms that must be adhered to while using Facebook clearly state that the website should be accessed and utilized for personal and not for commercial works. This is a law that many misinterpret and continue to display malicious information which could risk their lives to the legal bodies. The information displayed on such sites is displayed for multitudes to view and therefore available by the general public. This means that the police and security administration officers can use the information to file cases or carry criminal investigations against the writer (McDowell and Contributor para. 1-6). The other Cyber law is safeguard against exposure of porn to kids. Early 1995 in the United States, there was a concern on the extensive use of net by ordinary users that contributed to the use of the same by kids. With this increased use net came what most people call ‘porn’ on net. This has been a really controversial matter worldwide. The state’s congressmen and senators were faced with the needs to regulate this issue. To counter exposure and access of porn to children, the United States of America requires that sellers of porn establish the age of their purchasers, a situation that i
Adam Smith argues that the division of labor increases labor productivity within an entire economy. A worker would spend more time performing a particular task thus increases his or her skills in performing that task. This is forms the basis of Smith’s argument that the division of labor increases the productivity of the labor force. From a social point of view, the division of labor is evident when particular aspects of production are separated and located in different firms and geographical regions. Such a phenomenon could not exist in a socialist country which was characterized by firms having all aspects of production and individuals not specializing in particular tasks. The benefits associated with the division of labor have therefore helped the once socialist economies change into capitalist economies. The patterns of putting all aspects of production in one firm or one region had to change for these economies to adapt to the world market. Similarly, the failure of individual laborers to specialize in particular tasks had to change for these economies to adapt to the world market. Impact on free trade on the division of labor According to the free trade policy, the determinant of resource allocation is the supply and demand. It is out of the supply and demand that prices of commodities emerge from. Using the supply and demand determinant as a pricing strategy, free trade can be distinguished from other forms of trade policies. The restrictions put in place by the government to protect domestic industries have benefits as long as there is a balance between foreign and domestic producers. Free trade has opened up markets and industries to a global scale. This implies that the scale of production in certain industries has increased. With an increase in the scale of production, there is an increase in the division of labor. Free trade increases production and efficiency. For instance, some countries cannot produce certain goods or services cheaply. However, the same goods and services can be produced in other countries at a cheaper cost. It is, therefore, better for these countries to buy the goods and services from foreign countries at a cheaper cost. This introduces the issue of specialization where different countries specialize in producing specific goods and services based on the low cost of production. Through specialization, countries can increase their production and become more efficient. This implies that countries can allocate resources effectively and purchase goods and services they are not able to produce cheaply from other countries. Outsourcing is a common practice in the free international market. For instance, US companies outsource manufacturing of products in other countries where they c