ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
The Roman Empire is the first-ever experience of world globalization, the creation of a universal multinational society, in which the main directions of historical development with its ups and downs, unprecedented progress, and wild barbarism were identified. In this sense, the Roman state has been going on, taking one form or another, for 2000 years. And all because Rome never considered itself as a state in the modern sense of the word, i.e., as one state among other states. The Roman Empire claimed to be not just a state but a universal state, the only state in the universe, coinciding in scale with the entire civilized world. In this sense, the Roman Empire thought of itself rather not as a state but as all civilized and politically organized humanity. What really distinguished the Roman Empire from its predecessors and contemporaries is that it really managed to combine cultural universalism and political isolationism and put them into practice – it was, in fact, multi-ethnic, turning into a formation where ethnic differences had no political values. The political order hovered over ethnic division, just as our civilization hovers over national borders, and is not a pretext for chauvinism. The creation of popular religions that spread around the globe played a huge role in the globalization of the world. When the Christian religion appeared, it influenced whole countries of the Roman Empire, changing people’s vision of life, culture, and traditions. Religion was a key thing, which gathered a lot of nations, and ethnicities together under a common belief. The spread of religions resulted in a number of global events. A lot of wars were started on a religious basis, which covered big territories. Cultures, languages, and knowledge was also spreading along with the spread of religion. Even though religion was changing and transforming depending on the traditions of particular ethnical groups or nations, it was the thing that was connected nations that culturally and physically far from each other. A separate group of clergymen themselves became the owner of land, property, and slaves demanded a significant share of the product produced and captured trophies to increase their wealth and make sacrifices. Along with state power, religious power appeared, which had common interests with other strata of the ruling class, but often came into conflict with the secular ruler.
Livability in cities depends on business, employment, safety, healthcare, and education. Portland has a population of 2 million residents. It is rich in architecture with an array of urban park systems and eateries. It also boasts rich oceanic views, snow-capped peaks, and natural rivers. The city is so popular it has a television show called Portlandia, which has significantly drawn attention to it. In terms of livability, people tend to be concerned about scenario and infrastructural appeals. Portland has a modern infrastructural setting that attracts not only tourists but also people willing to relocate. In terms of healthcare, Portland has been ranked as a traditional healing center because of its chiropractic center by popular science in 2008. Nightlife has been stated as one of the aspects looked into in terms of livability. Portland boasts a versatile nightlife and cultural centers. Studies also show that the most important aspect of livability to professionals is moving from point X to Y. The city is bike friendly with more workers cycling to their places of work than in any other part of the country. Social diversity is the diverse backgrounds and cultures that are in society. This diversity is important to a metropolitan area because it influences economic growth and development. Social diversity also encourages talent and creativity from the population. The diverse social structure of Portland enables it to have an array of professionals with different skills who help in innovation and regional growth. Toronto is a good example of a metropolitan city in Canada. Toronto grasps a huge share of immigrants from the national 19%. Compared to all the other cities it harbored approximately 86,000 of 240,000 immigrants who got into Canada (CIC 2009) The graph demonstrates immigration patterns of metropolitan cities. The graph proves cities are likely to be more productive and ec
Introduction The use of mass media and social media has changed over the last few decades. The reason for a shift in how media is used is in technological advances such as the invention of the Internet. While a television show could gather millions of simultaneous viewers in 1980s, the most popular shows of 2010s are mostly watched online, through video streaming services. Social media sites have also created a new way of information consumption with various groups and individuals providing both entertainment and informational content. However, no alternative to this form of media existed before the invention of the Internet, which highlights the differences in the inter-generational use of media. This paper will provide background information on media use of today and compare my use of media with that of my grandfather. Background Since the invention and popularization of television, mass media became a mainstay of the majority of families. While magazines and radio held a certain appeal to all ages, television added a moving visual element that completed the experience of living room media consumption. Portable media formats such as VHS, DVD, and Blu-ray have allowed people to enjoy films and television shows on demand, and the invention of the Internet made access to any element of mass media instantaneous. The use of mass media has become the norm even among small children. Studies show that the majority of children younger than eight years old have already used a mobile device and that its use is steadily increasing with chances to overtake television and other, more traditional, channels of mass media (“Zero to Eight,” 2013). Social media is different in its content and how it is used by people. Unlike a full-length television program or a movie, it does not require a time commitment due to the bite-sized nature of the content it provides. Usually, a person will check in with social media sites a few times a day either to communicate or to consume content such as videos, images, music and interactive entertainment. Social media sites are reliant on users to create content and the most popular content creators are set to become more visible on the site. People subscribe to their content and receive it in their media feed whenever they visit the site (Bolton et al., 2013). Despite the focus on short-form content, social media can consume a large portion of the day for an active user. However, it also allows a person to express themselves, and distribute their creations, which is not possible through standard mass media (Seidman, 2013). With the user bases of sites like Instagram, Snapchat and Twitter growing to numbers rivaling mass media, large corporations have become highly invested in promotion of their brands and products over social media and often create content that is specifically designed for social media consumption such as short-form movies or elaborate promotional videos (Treem & Leonardi, 2013). My Media Use For the purpose of clear information presentation, mass media and social me
Introduction The Scottish Parliament Building serves as the domicile of the Parliament of Scotland. The building is located in Holyrood, Edinburgh. The area is inside a UNESCO World Heritage Site (The New Scottish Parliament at Holyrood, Audit-Scotland, 2000). They started constructing the building in June 1999. The building is first used by the Members of the Scottish Parliament in their debate on a Tuesday, 7 th of September 2004. Queen Elizabeth led the official launching of the Parliament Building on October 9, 2004. The architect for the project is Enric Miralles from Catalan. He is the one responsible for the design of the building but unfortunately, he passed away earlier than the end of the project (BBC Scotland News, July 2000). Before the opening of the new Scottish Parliament Building, the General Assembly Hall of the Church of Scotland accommodates the debating chamber and committee rooms of the Scottish Parliament. It was situated on The Mound in Edinburgh. Other offices for the administrative support of the parliament are housed in different buildings that are being rented by the Council of the City of Edinburgh. When the building was completed in 2004, it combined all the various components of the parliament in its own location. The 129 Members of the Scottish Parliament and its over a thousand staff are all accommodated by the Scottish Parliament Building (Scottish Office, March 1998) Since the beginning, the building itself and the construction thereof, become very controversial and very much criticized. All aspects of the project have been scrutinized – location, design, architect and the contractor. Politicians questioned every detail of the project. The media and the public gave negative comments about the extravagance of the whole idea. The project missed its expected completion time of 2001. Instead of 2001, the building was opened over three years overdue in 2004. Furthermore, the total cost incurred in constructing the building reached an estimated amount of £414 million which is almost tenfold higher than the original budget of £10 million to £40 million. In 2003, a formal inquiry led by former Lord Advocate, Peter Fraser was formed. Fraser established a major and highly publicized public inquiry regarding the management of the construction of the building. The inquiry ended in September 2004. The panel drew negative remarks on how the construction of the building is managed. Unfavourable comments were also given on the way the project managers handled cost increases, and also the instigation of the major design alterations of the building (Bain, 2004) In spite of the criticism that the building received, it was still considered an architectural marvel by experts and critics. A poetic convergence of the landscape of Scotland and the people and culture of the city is perceived by the design and look of the building. Because of this, the building received not only criticisms but awards as well. In fact, it receives the prestig
Introduction The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast the approaches of two of the most significant personalities in the field of psychology: Sigmund Freud and B.F Skinner. These psychologists have contributed immensely to the growth of psychology as a credible science, and in the process adopted diverse perspectives. But their goals were the same: to be able to explain and understand the complexities of human behavior and to determine why humans behave the way they do. Of the different approaches taken up, five can be said to be the major perspectives used by these psychologists – Biological, Psychodynamic, Cognitive, Behavioral, and Humanistic. Sigmund Freud was the main proponent of the psychodynamic perspective while B.F Skinner belonged to the behavioral school of psychology. Main body First, let us consider the psychodynamic approach of Freud. An Austrian psychologist of the early 1900s, Freud’s name is readily recognized as a psychologist by most people, even though they may be totally unacquainted with psychology. The psychodynamic approach advocated by Freud is based on the premise that “behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which we have little awareness or control.” (Feldman, 2002). Freud believed that most behavior is prompted by the unconscious part of an individual’s personality. He further suggested that a human being’s personality had three separate but interacting components: the id, ego, and superego. The id is the basic and primitive part of the personality that operates according to the pleasure principle , seeking constant gratification of natural instincts like hunger, sex, and aggression. The second component of personality, the ego, functions according to the reality principle , balancing the desires of the id with the limitations of the real world in which the person exists. The last and final component, the superego, could be stated as shaped by the ideas of right and wrong that society has laid down and as shown by significant individuals like parents, teachers, or other role models who influence a person. The superego, driven by the conscience and ego-ideals, helps a human being to control the wild impulses of the id. Thus it can be said that the ego acts as a buffer between the id and superego. An unrestrained id would result in reckless selfish individuals who care nothing for values or morals and act at the impulse of their id to satisfy their basic and primitive needs and thereby becoming a threat to society. On the other hand, an unrestrained superego would result in impractical perfectionism and low self-image. Now we consider the behavioral perspective of B.F Skinner, an American psychologist of the 20 th century. His theory states that observable behavior should be the focus of the study of psychology. Proponents of the behavioral school argue that it is possible to elicit any sort of desired behavior by controlling the environment. Much of our present knowledge of how people learn new behavior is
Introduction Chronic diseases are defined as diseases that are persistent, mostly incurable and often characterized with the complicated casualty, a wide range of risks, prolonged latency and illness period and can lead to impairment of body organs or cause disability (Australian National Health Priority Council, 2005). Chronic diseases have a great impact on the Australian economy in that the Australian government committed money equivalent to US$35 billion in the period between 2000-2001, which is close to two-thirds of the total expenditure on health care, to address the treatment, management and control of the various chronic diseases (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2002). This resulted in the endorsement of a national-strategic policy by the Australian government, an approach that was formulated in order to improve and manage the prevention of chronic diseases in Australia. This strategic policy developed three elements for the management and prevention of chronic diseases; of these three elements was the national chronic disease strategy. Definition of the action area The impact of chronic diseases is highly manifested in Australia; seventy percent of the total deaths diminished healthy life expectancy and disability reported in Australia results from these chronic diseases. This is likely to rise to eighty percent by the year (2007) (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2004). The said diseases affect individuals whose ages range from twenty-four to sixty-five years old. According to the National Public Health Partnership (2001), “the indigenous communities in Australia are the most highly affected by chronic diseases”. These chronic diseases do not stop a patient’s life instantly; however, they have an extensive range of negative effects on the patient’s quality of life, health, and economic position as well as the well-being of the families and the communities, because such members waste many hours in taking care of the sick (Catford, 2007). The World Health Organization (WHO) in its 2005 study estimated that due to the increasing rates of the impacts associated with chronic diseases, close to 75 percent of the global deaths will result from these diseases. According to Mathers, Voc and Stevenson (1999), “chronic diseases are attacking around 100 million people in the United States; therefore, more than $650 billion is estimated to be spent on managing chronic diseases each year”. According to the World Health Organization (2005), the death caused by infectious diseases, prenatal and maternal conditions and nutrition deficiency diseases all combined is expected to decrease at a rate of 3 percent, while the deaths caused by chronic diseases are expected to increase by a rate of 17 percent during the same period of time. Chang and Johnson (2008) also asserted that “chronic diseases develop at a slow pace but are the leading cause of health complications which results in a bad quality of life and even premature births”. These diseases also cause socio-economic problems, because a lot of resources
Introduction Orr’s book Talking about Machines has become one of the most significant writings in the field of anthropology since it revealed new insights in the overall study. The author underlines the importance of fieldwork which is conducted in quite specific way. Orr was inside the group of workers under analysis and his book has the author who is at the same time an informant. The reader can consider the analysis of an individual who knows the insights of the workplace and the group in question. This peculiarity of Orr’s approach results in a specific type of writing where theory is intermingled with narrative. Orr manages to combine thorough analysis and description. Admittedly, the researcher uses a very specific and effective approach of interpreting data. Orr’s orientation on “situatedness” enables him to make his data precise and interpretation profound (Yanow 2006:1746). Moreover, his research has contributed greatly to the development of anthropology since it opened up new horizons for researchers. The author, the reader and the informant Admittedly, anthropologists used to consider peculiarities of exotic people living in faraway lands. However, Orr is one of those who understands that the natives of anthropologic research should not be “the alien and exotic others” but these should be “oddly familiar domestic others who might be our cohorts at work”, neighbors or researchers themselves (qtd. in Neyland 2007:129). Orr became a shadow for copier workers when they were working, having lunch or communicated with each other and customers (Yanow 2006:1746). Interestingly, the author of the book was also a part of a group of informants. Many researchers claim that being a part of a group enables the researcher to see more complete picture (Enslin 1994:537). Even defining the term “work” Orr is focused on workers’ position, rather than on some virtual amount of work completed (Orr 1996:10). Workers are put in the center of the research. Workers’ activities, their communication and their sharing experience make the scope of data for Orr. Basically, he “connect[s] players and not isolate[s] them within their own perspectives” (Boud et al. 2006:21). More so, he considers workers perspectives from the point of view of one of them but not as a distant researcher on the basis of some statistical data. Interestingly, Orr points out that “machines participate in society” (1996:3). Thus, the researcher is interested in the triangular: worker, customer, machine. Orr does not only observe the communication patterns between workers, or between workers and consumers, he also pays attention to the way workers treat (or “communicate” with) machines. Thus, informants of the research are not only people but machines as well. It goes without saying that such approach was not widespread among anthropologists who were concerned with people only. The majority of res
The adversarial system is a recognized and legal procedure in the U.S. law, where two lawyers represent their parties’ cases in court before an impartial person. Usually, the advocates represent a party before a jury or judge, who attempt to understand and determine the truth to help pass a judgment accordingly. The adversarial system limits millions of Americans from humble backgrounds who cannot afford a lawyer or a chance to get justice. Therefore, technology, simplification of the court language, and elimination of lawyers from lower crimes are the primary solutions to the adversarial system problems that the U.S. is facing presently. Notably, technology is the first solution that can help overcome the problems in affiliation with the adversarial system. According to Fisher (2018), it requires an hour of an advocate’s service when technology is embraced, hence becoming cheaper for every individual to seek a lawyer’s services. Technology has the potential of reducing the time that the plaintiff and the respondent spend in the justice corridors. Arguably, technology will surpass the adversarial system barriers, hence helping to provide better procedures and subsequent substantive justice. Connectedly, technology is the ultimate solution that will ensure fairness for all people throughout the country by reducing the time parties spend in court and enhancing lawyer affordability despite parties’ economic status. Additionally, simplification of the court language is another solution that can help in ensuring justice for all and consequently defeating the present menace of an adversarial system that is receiving colossal criticism. Fisher (2018) states that simplifying processes and terminologies will help people understand the court proceedings. Throughout the U.S., people opt to hire a lawyer to represent them in their court cases because they do not comprehend the court terminologies. The court uses multiple vocabularies that are often complicating to the individuals despite meaning simple things that they know. Thus, simplifying the court language and phraseology is a prudent solution towards ensuring that justice is served to all Americans impartially. Besides, the elimination of lawyers from lower crimes remains another so