ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction Europe, before the Second World War, was torn up by the governing classes and the interconnection between bourgeoisie and proletariat. Land ownership and agriculture became the determining factors in the amount of power a class had and this was the key issue that would allow any change. Those who had the power did not want to let go of it or the attributes that allowed possessing the said authority. The separation from the Old Regime came at an extremely slow pace in Europe, in comparison to Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary. The movement towards the republic was the key goal of the people, demanding their rights and freedoms acknowledged but the direction was being constantly halted by economic domination of the ruling class in agriculture and “traditional manufacture” (Mayer, 11). The Old Regime was being supported by those who owned most land and in turn, they greatly influenced the government and the policies that were put in place. Bourgeoisie is thought of as the part of the nation that moved the progress, as they had the most influence on all the aspects of social life. Background Mayer has always raised controversy whenever she stands to speak about the history of revolutions that took place in many regions. She compares the state of affairs in Europe and close by nations through uncovering the reasons that delayed liberalism and greatly influenced the onset of the World War. This book raises various issues that reflect disparities among various scholars and philosophers but also created a different perspective as to the change in politics and the fall of Old Order. Perspectives of Arno Mayer on the Industrial Revolution in Europe She explains that Europe was well prepared to participate in the First World War even though most of its enemies were not aware of these plans. Physical and ideological adjustments had already taken place long before there were rumors of an inevitable war. In addition, civilization had already taken place in most parts of Europe even before anyone though that there was going to be a war. But even with the increase of tensions, the governing classes were not going to let go of their dominance and power in society. The way out was to adjust the already existing policies to the new ones, “the old elites excelled at selectively ingesting, adapting, and assimilating new ideas and practices without seriously endangering their traditional status, temperament, and outlook” (Mayer, 13). It is interesting that no global changes would be sufficient enough to deprive the land owners and those in control of their power. Their selfish ways were indifferent to people’s rights and the conditi
Introduction “Crash” (2004) is directed by Paul Haggis, a director who won the Academy Awards for the screenplay of “Million Dollar Baby”. Aspects such as serendipity, coincidence, and luck have been employed in this movie, as the lives of the characters crash into each other as would pinballs. The movie makes it easy for the viewer to understand the character’s life and history, but it does not necessarily conclude how they would behave, because it is all dependent on the accident. The movie presumes that people feel bitterness and prejudice towards members of different groups, and helps its viewers see the consequences of such mentalities. The ideas of “Crash” “Crash” combines the stories of blacks, whites, Koreans, Iranians, Latinos, police, criminals, the impoverished, the wealthy, the powerful, and the powerless, and the way they are defined by racism. The movie shows how they are both victims and guilty of perpetuating racism. Such mentalities prevent the characters to see the people around them for who they are. A simple example of this would be Shaun Toub, playing an Iranian in the movie, he is thought to be an Arab, but in reality, Iranians are Persians. Another example of this would be, the Iranian and the white wife of a district attorney, Sandra Bullock, mistakenly believes that the Mexican-American locksmith, Michael Pena, is a gang member and a crook. As the story progresses, the Mexican American is revealed to be a family man, contrary to what was believed. The movie does not use an
Introduction One thing that has amazed mankind is the speed at which new technologies emerge. It is no doubt that everyone is impacted by technology. Technology has changed since the inception of computers and mobile phones. Technology and Life One of the areas that technology has impacted my life is in terms of communication. The availability of the internet and smartphones, which are now affordable, helps me to communicate with friends and relatives who are in other parts of the world. For instance, through e-mails, instant chat, and video calls, I talk to my uncle, who is working as an expatriate in India. I am also capable of reading news from BBC, New York Times, US Today, among others, through my phone. This keeps me updated on all events, both locally and internationally. Despite the fact that technology has made communication easier and faster, it is worrying that I talk to my relatives and friends less when I e-mail or SMS them (Oak, 2012). Additionally, through video calls and e-mails, it is not possible to express my emotional feelings and thoughts as compared to face-to-face interaction. On the same line of thinking, this kind of communication has been used widely in education. I have managed to enroll in some online courses and successfully graduated. Through the internet and other forms of technology such as CD, video conferencing, among others, we have managed to have a class discussion where we share course contents, ask questions, take tests, to mention but a few (Schroeder, 2010). As a student, I have really benefited from technology. For instance, when I am not sure about some terms and concepts, the internet has made it easy for me to understand them. I just have to google, and I find simplified explanations. However, the problem with this kind of learning is the fact that it lacks face-to-face interaction between students and the teacher or instructor (Oak, 2012). Businesses have tried to adopt online or internet commerce. This has offered me a platform to shop online without experiencing the problem of queuing for hours. Well developed websites make it enjoyable to order goods and services online. It is worth noting that the approach is convenient, easy to use, saves time; one can buy whenever he or she wishes and receive the product at his or her doorstep. Additionally, for those individuals used to carrying out business face-to-face, it might not be a good idea for them to shop online (Schroeder, 2010). Technology, particularly through internet games and social media communication, is addictive. Whenever I am free, I always find myself using social media such as Facebook or Twitter to communicate with relatives, classmates, and other friends despite the fact that we were together, maybe in class or in town. On the same note, the internet provides
Accuracy monitoring is used to measure the extent to which the participants’ evaluation of their memory and learning capabilities with their actual performance. Upon conducting the experiment, it is necessary to assess whether such match exists and what is the extent of it. Within the framework of such assessment, we will conduct a few correlations. Exam Performance and Confidence Ratings The overall exam performance summed up to 0.85 (proportion of correct responses). To convert the performance into the language of grades, such performance can be counted for a good B. Although the average does not give an account for results specifically, it is possible to say that the students have reached a high performance rate in the given test. Only one student has a proportion of correct answers that is lower than 0.7; three students have to be excluded from the sample because they have given 100% correct responses. Overall, the performance rate was high for all participants regardless of their self-efficacy predictions. Monitoring Accuracy The correlation (r) between the participants’ predictions of their performance – estimated self-efficacy – and grade-point is not significant: r = 0.248; p < 0.5 (Median = 0.294; SD = 0.254). A weak correlation, in this case, means that relying on a participant’s self-efficacy estimation, it is not possible to adequately predict their performance and proportion correct. The weakness of the correlation means that the partici
The war on drugs is not over yet and it is unlikely to be finished in the recent future. Americans are bombarded by messages about negative effects of substance abuse. Media provide a variety of stories about violent crimes associated with drug abuse. Officials keep talking about the necessity to launch programs aimed at promulgating healthy life styles. Admittedly, these strategies will help develop appropriate public opinion on the matter. Nevertheless, it is important to take into account various trends existing in the society. Thus, it is important to understand that the attitude towards substance abuse is not static as it is constantly changing. It is also crucial to make sure there is no bias in media representation of substance abusers as this negatively affects development of the American society. Finally, it is important to understand to what extent the image created by media does influence people and shapes their attitude towards substance abuse. Therefore, it is possible to state that appropriate media representation of substance abuse may help develop American society where drugs are seen as something harmful, unnecessary and needless. To develop appropriate strategies aimed at promulgating healthy life styles, it is necessary to make sure that they will be based on extensive data on substance abusers. According to Kugler and Darley (2012) the very image of drug abusers has changed throughout decades. In the twentieth century, “the media supported a punitive approach to drug policy” (Kugler & Darley, 2012, p. 217). Drug abusers were depicted as people who were often engaged in violent crime activities. Reportedly, Americans had concerns that their close ones might become victims of a variety of crimes associated with drugs (Kugler & Darley, 2012). Nonetheless, the perception is changing as people start adopting less punitive approach in the twenty-first century. According to Kugler and Darley (2012, p. 217) “only 30 percent of the public now believes that the government should emphasize arresting drug users” and there is growing support of legalization of such substance as marijuana. In many states across the country, more and more people are changing their viewpoint on the matter. Marijuana is not seen as a harmful drug anymore as it is regarded as another medication. These trends signify the shift in public opinion. Now drugs are not rega
Introduction The desire to acquire education has been increasing at a very high rate over the recent years across the globe. This is because the people are increasingly realizing the value attached to education. Times have long gone when education was perceived as luxury. Currently it is viewed as an investment-human capital investment, which unlike other forms of investments is so valuable in the sense that it is not affected by certain economic factors such as depreciation, inflation etc (Weiler, 1984, p.45). As a result, everyone is struggling to invest in this precious venture. In addition, the increasing demand for high quality knowledge in different fields due to changing economic world has brought about stiff competition in the field of education due to high standards expected of the personnel. There is massive establishment of advanced institutions with integrated learning programs to offer the best to those who want to acquire education. Consequently, it has led to the emergence of internationalization of education to meet the global industry’s market demand (World Bank, 2007, p.10). Globalization and Internalization of Higher Education As pointed out by Thune & welle-Strand (2003, p. 11), national governments and other institutions of higher learning, higher educational internationalization is becoming a significant strategy in developing higher educational systems. Internationalization and globalization are two concepts that are directly related, they almost encompasses similar aspects, policies, strategies, etc. Internationalization of higher education is a strategy that takes into consideration both international and national challenges (Spritzberg, 1980, p.32). Higher educational institutions are seen as national institutions, funded controlled and managed by the national government as they play a key role in developing nation’s economies as well as global economic development. Internationalization of higher education is seen as a means to improve the educational quality in a highly competitive world and it cannot take place in the absence of globalization. Approaches to internationalization The purpose and meaning of internationalization varies from institution to institution. Four approaches have been distinguished with reference to this (Welch, 1996, p.79).   * Process Approach: Under this approach, internationalization integrates global dimension or into the principal functions of the institution or organization. Integrating and
Issues and Concepts Discussed in the Article In their paper, Carrigtona, Combe, and Mumford give a clear different definition of organizational crisis. The authors characterize it as a high impact event or an array of events that compromises and threatens the viability and integrity of an organization. According to Carrington and colleagues, in case of an organization crisis, thought should precede action. Namely, a challenging situation requires leaders creating and directing a shared vision that would unite the followers and bring the crisis to a healthy resolution. Evidently, the latter describes the best scenario, while in real life, both leaders and followers are likely to be confronted with certain difficulties preventing them from implementing strategies, no matter how good they may be. As stated by Carrington and colleagues, the first major hurdle is leaders’ rigid mental models. An experienced leader is likely to be basing his or her thoughts and ideas on past events. While these crisis management tools acquired over time are undeniably valuable, the changing business environment conditions should prompt leaders to alter and adjust their perception. There is a need for cognitive shifts that would help fight cognitive inertia that is unacceptable during an organizational crisis. The second hurdle is the frequent inability of leaders and followers to come to a general consensus and cooperate. Carrington and colleagues define consensus in regard to individual mental models as the agreement on casual beliefs essential for organizational development and success. Moreover, sometimes, leaders cannot reach a compromise within their own group, which makes it strenuous to communicate their decisions and proposals to followers. Lastly, people tend to interpret events and other people’s actions differently, based on their own experience and inner bias. Thus, both leaders and followers need to make excellent sensemaking skills to understand the changing conditions and decide on how an organization should respond to a crisis. The Main Focus In their study, Carrington and colleagues mainly focused on comparing and contrasting mental models of leaders and followers within one organization. The authors studied the respondents and their beliefs in the situation of a cumulati
Risk Assessment in Toxicology The following scheme characterizes the process of risk assessment: Risk assessment is the process that incorporates the analysis of several data sets. Its goal is to give the rate of potential for an adverse effect of chemical exposure on human health (Roberts, James, & Williams, 2015). Firstly, the hazard should be identified, explaining what acute state or illness a person may get after being exposed to a studied substance. Dose-response measurement tells how many people experience health issues depending on the quantity of a chemical. Exposure assessment studies how much, in which ways, and in what time the substance affected people in each case. A combination of this data allows predicting how many people will receive health issues after being exposed to a chemical. Dose-Response Data (Kennedy et al., 2017) A dose-response relation demonstrates how many organisms were affected by a chemical substance. It can be an adverse reaction like the response of people on different amounts of nicotine. Positive effects like a therapeutic influence of corticosteroids on patients with acute allergic reactions are also considered. This graph shows a correlation between coffee consumption and the risk of developing hepatocellular carcinoma. Research suggests that extra two cups reduced the risk of HCC by 37% (Kennedy et al., 2017). It is explained by the components of coffee, including chlorogenic acid and diterpenes, which possess anticancerogenic properties. Risk assessment in this case would include the analysis of exposure types, including frequency and the method of consumption, combined with the dose-response data. Risk Management Risk management may be viewed as a series of plans and activities targeted at reducing or eliminating risks to human health and safety. It is executed based on a set of factors determining the possibilities and the scope of decisions. The first category includes data from various fields of science, offering data for risk assessment (Risk management, n. d.). Economic, legal, social, and political factors may determine whether the initiatives would be expensive, supported by the government, or accepted by a community. Technology is also important as it limits the possibility of implementing risk management ideas with the level of its current development. Risk Assessment & Management (Interaction between processes of risk assessment and risk management, n. d.) While risk assessment is based on receiving knowledge about substance’s negative influence, risk management represents actions required for eliminating it. After collecting and analyzing hazard, dose-response, and exposure data, and accessing risks, the latter are being characterized. Estimations are made depending on the conditions of exposure to a chemical and their correlation with the number of effects on human health. The process of decision-making begins, as possible solutions are matched with the existing possibilities influenced by the factors mentioned above.
Introduction Within the last twenty years, there have emerged non-state world aristocracies that have more global power than the nation-states. These international bodies include the IMF and the World Bank, which have created powerful international bureaucracies. Although people did not elect these bodies, they set rules of the economic game for most of the world’s population. Today the World Bank and the IMF have acquired supranational powers whereby they dictate and supervise the economic policies of many developing countries. Many elected governments in Africa, Asia, and Latin America are rapidly being transformed by the supranational economic policies beyond the control of their citizens into very low-intensity democracies. As a result, the policies affect the daily lives of citizens in those countries without being accountable to anyone. Therefore, the governments put in power by the people are limited, and hence citizens are denied their democratic rights of a sovereign nation (De Rivero & De Rivero, 2001). Transferred National Responsibility Although most developing countries dislike the rise in undemocratic and supranational power of the IMF, they are left with no alternative to the rigorous policies. Any government that rejects them becomes a world pariah because it will not be able to access international credit. The supranational monitoring of the IMF of the national economic policies of Asian, Latin American, and African countries has led to erosion of national sovereignty over the entire category of the quasi-nation states that refer to themselves as sovereign. Such countries have lost their democratic control of financial and economic policies to the IMF. Most leaders of developing countries have been convinced that adopting the IMF requirements is the only alternative to reducing poverty and attaining economic development. Therefore, most of them have transferred the responsibility placed on them of decision making as a sovereign nation to the IMF (Sihanya, Morkomen & Ambani, 2008). Conditionality IMF is today the world’s most powerful non-state body because it affects the economies of at least 184 countries. Some of the effects may be drastic or even disastrous such as the conditionality phenomenon. The multilateral nature of the IMF has enabled it to exercise conditionality on the borrowing nations whereby it affects the nature of policies implemented by the government of the recipient country instead of simply monitoring their quality. This may include a commitment by the borrowing nations to implement some policy decisions which, although are desirable, may be difficult to implement. Some conditions set may have delayed benefits, which means that a country’s priorities are ignored in favor of IMF policies. However, countries have to adhere to these conditions as they affect their rating by the body on their creditworthiness. Some of the ways in which the sovereignty of a country is restricted through the concept of conditionality are explained below (Miles & Scott, 2005)