ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
A socialist approach to politics focuses on equal power relations and adhocracy. Socialist politics aims at the alleviation of hierarchical government structures. Islamic principles on the other hand aim at the deployment of a conservative approach to governance. Qaddafi argues that the integration of his socialist politics into Islamic principles ensures effective governance (Byrnes 12). Qaddafi argues that traditional interpretations of the law under Islamic principles are not appropriate based on the fact different people have different interpretations of Islamic law. Irrespective of the motivations behind such an approach to politics, the claim that traditional interpretations of Islamic law are reactionary is not justified. Just like any other religion, Islam was founded on staunch principles that aim for the good of humanity; it cannot, therefore, be asserted that there are different interpretations of the Islamic principles. In addition, the claims by Qaddafi that Islamic principles are a reactionary approach to leadership are not justified because it is a violation of the ethical principles that govern Islam as a religion. This implies that Qaddafi has no trust in the use of Islamic principles to govern (Byrnes 14). The political frameworks of Islam are based on three significant principles that incorporate oneness, prophethood and Caliphate. This implies that the administration of authority is according to one’s instructions and that the main objective behind leadership is to ensure the good of humanity. Qaddafi’s perceptions do not reflect such principles of Islamic governance. Islamic principles also put emphasis on democracy, Qaddafi’s socialist approach to politics seems to denounce democracy as a way of administering governance. Based on these arguments, Qaddafi’s claims are not justified. Qaddafi’s ideology towards the resolution of the problem of democracy was not a success because the various levels of freedom aimed at fostering expression
The concept of biological species defines species as populations that can interbreed and are isolated from other species reproductively, thus making different groups that are unable to interbreed with such other species. Mayr also defines biological species as “a reproductively cohesive assemblage of populations” (222). One species can be separated from another geographically, for example. It should be however noted that species differ not only in the areas of their habitation but also in behavior (different mating rituals and processes), genes (differences in chromosomes), physiology (body mass, shapes of genitalia, etc.) that isolate them from each other (or, in return, make interbreeding more likely/possible). Thus, species that have similar physical features, mating rituals, genes, and behaviors (like the dog and the wolf or the tiger and the lion) can interbreed, and their offspring are usually fertile (wolfdogs and ligers are the examples of such interbreeding). At the same time, the species that differ in these characteristics or features too drastically are rarely able to interbreed and have fertile offspring, if any offspring at all (for example, cats and bears). Another prominent example of such interbreeding that does occur but leads to sterile offspring is the mule. The mule is an offspring of the horse and the donkey, and while these species do have a common ancestor, their differing number of chromosomes (64 in horses versus 62 in donkeys) does not allow them to have fertile offspring. The mule is sterile and has 63 chromosomes (Yilmaz et al. 450). Thus, differences in behavior, genes, and physiology often define whether species can interbreed or not. Paleospecies are “species defined from fossil evidence, often covering a long time span” (Jurmain et al. 107). Scientists can observe the reproductive behavior of different species that are modern and not extinct, but it is impossible for those species that are researched only through their remaining fossils (i.e., those that are extinct for a long period of time). When fossil groups are studied, the variations between them are specifically taken into consideration. It is critical to understand whether these variations are intraspecific (differences seen in every biological species) or interspecific (differences between reproductively isolated groups) (Jurmain et al. 107). If we had fossil remains of the wolf and the dog and tried to understand whether these species were different or the same, we would compare the variation between these fossil samples to those present within species of closely related forms (Jurmain et al. 107). If these differences were comparable, we would not split the species. Thus the wolf and the dog would be probably perceived as one species. It should be noted that the differences between paleospecies are complicated to study because these groups differ not only spatially but also through time. Thus, variations seen in paleospecies often make the distinction between species more difficult exactly due to this separation by th
Introduction Cognition is a state of mind that enables brain to perceive and process sensory functions like touch, smell, taste, hearing and vision. Its requirement is essential for all living beings to adapt to various environmental conditions. To better understand this neurological task there is a need to focus on the connection between brain and awareness. Awareness is a state of mind that determines the individual’s ability to perceive environmental changes by attention. The levels of attention may vary between individuals and in certain cases its defect could also lead to attention–deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).This neurological illness particularly affects children or young adolescents by causing a decline in their attention levels and ultimately leading to poor educational outcomes (Loe & Feldman, 2007). Main text Awareness is believed to have strong link with working memory (WM) which gets activated in patterns from representations. If a person is allowed to visualize the color, movement and shading of an object keenly, he might easily perceive them. This may be because in the visual system there may be representations of these tasks constructed from the native pattern of cell activation in the retina (Charlton, 2000). Previous studies have reported that awareness could be better studied by measuring the performance of various memory tasks while monitoring gaze direction, delaying responses, and recording brain activity (Charlton, 2000). Individuals having memory retention problems may fall victim to a condition of ‘unawareness when they fail to perceive and interpret the changes different from those visualized earlier (Silva, Groeger & Bradshaw, 2006). Individuals with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) have memory impairment and defects in self-awareness (Mimura, 2008).These reports indicate that awareness defects are having strong pathological connection with diseases. Next, awareness of body states constitutes consciousness. Although, both are related they seem to differ on the grounds that awareness is found in all the animals of animal kingdom and consciousness is found in only socially adapted primates such as chimpanzees and bonobos and other mammals like elephants and dolphins. Both these animal members were believed to evolve recently (Charlton, 2000). This was further strengthened by a report that described that many animals come across simple levels of consciousness when they were found to show a comparable awareness of certain similarly conditioned human tasks (Griffin & Speck, 2004). Since, consciousness was earlier found in specific primates, it could have also evolved in other primate members including human beings and developed over the time. Therefore, it may indicate that consciousness found in present-day human beings may have its evolutionary linkage with their primate ancestors. Further, it is reasonable to connect the relationship between awareness and memory with the concept of feeling of knowing. Spehn and Reder (2000) highlighted that feelings of knowing are generated through the monitoring of one’s knowledge and such process cou
Searching for the best possible decisions can be a difficult process, and there are many methods and approaches to decision making that are used by all people who disregard their social position and cultural background. The use of heuristics is an approach to decision making that is based on well-known objective laws and consistent patterns rather than on specific calculations. Importantly, heuristics and biases are associated with scarce available information or messages that have been misinterpreted. As for the positive sides of the phenomenon, the use of heuristics involves the rule of thumb, and the latter is sometimes able to produce rather accurate results in cases without specific circumstances. Nowadays, researchers single out three types of heuristics. The first type, representative heuristics, refers to the use of false parallels when making a decision or solving a task. They are often associated with the inability to take into account the impact of the sample size. Also, it is pivotal to mention that representative heuristics are related to the inability to assess the probability of different outcomes in an objective manner. For instance, representative heuristics manifest themselves when people make false conclusions concerning the probability of an event based on the previous experience. Also, the given type of heuristics refers to cases when people apply stereotypes related to job or ethnicity to any person belonging to a specific group. The second type of heuristics is called availability heuristics, and it refers to cases when the frequency of certain events is defined based on available information that can be inaccurate or incomplete. Availability heuristics have a significant impact on decision-making as it is manifested in people’s willingness to use their own experience (which is by definition limited) to make conclusions on the frequency of events. For instance, a person who knows twenty people who have a deficient color vision would be likely to think that such problems are much more common than they are usually believed to be. Finally, there are adjustment and anchoring heuristics. They affect the decision-making process because they encourage people to use certain information as an “anchor” and perform further logical operations based on it in order to make a conclusion. This type of heuristics manifests itself in the tendency to assess possible results based on the degree to which they are similar to information that has been given, the anchor. This phenomenon impacts decision making, and anchors are often used to increase sales or encourage people to make charitable donations. The use of heuristics often leads to biases of different nature and power, and there are some actions that can be taken to minimize its impact on conclusions and decisions. To overcome heuristics and biases, modern people in different fields are recommended to challenge the first assumptions that seem to be the most appropriate and use information
This thesis concerns addiction and its effect on and interaction with human behavior. To study this subject we must first define and understand what is meant by the word: “addiction.” This report will discuss the combination of genetic, environmental, and social causes of addiction. We will also explore different treatments for both genetic and social addictions. Past studies have clearly illustrated the condition of addiction is a collaboration of social, psychological, and physiological factors. The human race struggles with many different forms of addictions. According to social scientists, human beings can become addicted to any activity which gives them pleasure. Among the most common psychological addictions are gambling, drinking, sex, shopping, and playing video games. Physical addictions include smoking, drug use, and alcohol abuse. Researchers have found that there are common characteristics to all types of addictions that trigger the release of endorphins in the brain. All of the addictions are characterized by obsessive behavior. The addicted individual thinks about the addictive behavior or substance constantly. Their attraction to the addictive object or behavior is obsessive and uncontrollable. The lack of control is what creates the frightening reality of addiction. The addict has no control over their behavior. This lack of self-control is a dangerous situation to find oneself in, taken over by an object, substance, or activity. Some addictions are labeled as “diseases”. This is because of the debilitating effect the activity has on society and the individual. An addiction such as alcoholism is labeled a disease because excessive drinking leads to negative personal and social consequences such as drunk driving and domestic violence. These social problems hurt society by causing deaths on the highway and broken families. Or the other consequence for the addicted individual may be death from cirrhosis of the liver or mouth cancer or some other alcohol-related disorder. Addiction to hard drugs such as cocaine and heroin wreak similar havoc on society and the individual. Excessive gambling is also considered a disease but gambling has less of an effect on society and more of an individual effect. Some compulsive gamblers will commit robbery or other crimes to finance their addiction. Addictions have
Introduction In various societies across the globe, culture is normally seen as an enabling or limiting factor for social, political and economic progression. Through this understanding it has been established that there is a strong relationship between class and culture. This relationship has been previously investigated by researchers such as Pierre Bourdieu who identified that class affects culture and consequently, culture affects ones life chances, income and other economic parameters (Lane 2000, p. 1). Many other researchers have often voiced their concerns over the increased gap between the rich and the poor (worldwide) and expressed their concern over the fact that the world has failed to acknowledge the role of culture in widening this gap (Fieschi 2011, p. 1). The relationship between class and culture is of a vertical nature and it has been evidenced all over the world that the culture of the highest class is the most distinguished culture (Christie 2001, p. 201). This observation is true because the culture of the highest classes is often deemed to be superior to the culture of the lowest classes. More importantly, it is essential to understand that the culture of the highest classes also stands out because the ruling class normally comes from the highest classes and so they exert their influence over other classes. From this reinforced relationship between class and culture, many philosophers have come up with a new insight purporting that culture in its true essence maintains class domination and therefore there is no strongly distinguishable difference in the way culture and economics relate, and how economic capital works (Fieschi 2011, p. 1). However, this debate is not only one-sided because in recent decades, there has been an upsurge of popular culture which seeks to encompass both low and high classes, thereby breaking the cultural wall that have been perceived to draw the line between the culture of the highest classes and that of the lowest classes (Motz 1994, p. 239). Popular culture has brought a new twist to Pierre’s view of culture and economics because popular culture encompasses the attitudes, beliefs, values, ideas and perspectives of the majority and therefore, it cuts across the class divide to create a holistic perspective of culture. In the 21 st century, the Western culture has stood out to be a popular culture sweeping across the globe and it is generally perpetrated b
Study Overview Catherine Crisp reports in the article “Correlates of Homophobia and Use of Gay Affirmative Practice Among Social Workers” that research on social work practice with gay and lesbian clients has historically focused on examining attitudes towards individuals. Prior to the reported research, no studies have researched the relationship between attitudes and practice using validated measures. The innovative Gay Affirmative Practice Scale (GAP) is used to examine the relationship between attitudes and practice. The study focuses on correlates of homophobia in social workers, correlates of a measure of GAP in social workers, and the relationship between homophobia and GAP in social workers. The study’s strengths are the large sample size, random selection from the global largest social work organization, and the focus on direct practitioners. The obvious limitation of the study is the extremely low response rate. Design Overview and Critique Because the study focused on the link between practice and attitudes with gay and lesbian clients, only social workers who provided the direct practice to clients were included. 1,500 NASW members were planned to be surveyed. The survey package was mail to each member. The package consisted of four elements: GAP and Attitudes Towards Lesbian and Gay Men Scale (ATLG), questions on respondents’ demographics, a cover letter with informed consent information, and an envelope to return the questionnaire. The study is descriptive. The chosen study design is strong enough to gather reliable information. The questionnaires are targeted at practitioners in the field of research. The survey package includes all necessary information. However, the direct mailing contributes to the low response rate due to the absence of confidentiality. In addition, the length of the questionnaire is not motivating – respondents may be reluctant to spend a lot of time proving the answers. Another weakness is related to the limitation of response time (two weeks). The chosen study design (direct mailing) is not the most effective tool to gather sensitive information. From one side, it is rather cheap. On the other side, the response rate is extremely low. Thus, unnecessary biases are created. Survey Tool Critique The survey is carried out with the help of a questionnaire. The questionnaire is sent to randomly chosen respondents. T
A jury trial is aimed at enhancing justice. The jury trial has basic steps that should be observed for an extensive and qualitative proceeding of a fair verdict. The steps include; reporting for duty by the jurors, selection of jurors, the trial process, deliberations, and verdict declaring after the deliberations (Wicourts, 2012). The constitution provides for a quick and fair trial process. This enriches the release of a verdict as soon as possible. This is meant to prevent delay of justice. The citizens are also constitutionally guaranteed a jury trial in a case that qualifies to be heard by the jurors. This is stipulated in the sixth amendment. The amendment safeguards citizens from unfair penalties (Galie & New York State, 2011). Initially, states like Rhode Island penalized their citizens without proceedings of a fair trial. The constitution also provides for defendants’ assistance of counsel. The defendant should be allowed an opportunity to confront the plaintiff’s witnesses. Finally, the defendant’s right to remain silent should also be considered. Reporting for duty is the first stage. The stage encompasses a selection of jurors to be present during the case after the litigants declare their wish to have their case settled in the courtroom. Usually, jurors selected remain in the jury assembly or the courtroom. The juror qualifications are assessed to determine whether they are qualified to listen and give judgment in a case under question. The Clerk of Circuits chooses the jurors. The judge and attorneys, who provide information about the case, ask questions to determine the eligibility of the jurors to be selected. The questioning is called voir dire , meaning “to speak the truth” (Wicourts, 2012). The questions are meant to confirm that none of the jurors selected has any personal interest. For instance, questions such as knowledge of the parties in the case are asked, whether the juror knows about the case. They are also expected to provide reasons that may limit their ability to be fair and impartial in the case. The jurors are expected to respond to the questions with utmost faith and even take an oath to ensure they remain honest. The jurors selected are sworn to ensure fairness and impartiality in any decision made during and after the case. During the trial, the jurors sit in the jury box. The third stage is the trial. It takes place in the courtroom. The jurors are provided with detailed information concerning the case. Jurors take notes as the hearing continues. The notes
The world health organization estimates that half a million women die each year due to complications arising during pregnancy or birth. In Indonesia alone the Center for Health Research at the University of Indonesia estimates that 400 maternal deaths occur in every 100,000 live births in the country (Meiwita, Hull and utomo). Maternal death is defined by the World Health Organization as “the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration or site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management, but not from accidental causes”(Hunt and Mesquita). Emergency Obstetric Care, which includes treating symptoms of “shock,” giving antibiotics and sedatives through injections, executing manual extraction of the placenta and basic curettage is vital to the reduction of maternal deaths accompanied by other lifesaving skills. There are two major causes of maternal deaths according to DFID: complications arising directly from pregnancy, delivery or postpartum duration and is also known as direct obstetric death, or due to an existing medical condition aggravated by pregnancy or delivery such as rheumatic heart disease, hepatitis, HIV-AIDS, anemia or malaria. These are known as indirect obstetric deaths. According to the above report by Center for Health Research at the University of Indonesia, direct obstetric deaths account for 75% of maternal deaths and include five major medical causes which are hemorrhage, complications of unsafe labor, eclampsia, obstructed labor and infection. All these can be treated before they become emergencies. Even as emergencies, Emergency Obstetric Care can save all these conditions since they require no complex technology and are inexpensive. These include blood transfusions, antibiotics and other drugs, safe abortion procedures and caesarian sections. Prediction and prevention of obstetric complications is a good way of preventing maternal deat