ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction The epoch of the sixteenth century for the life of Europeans, Americans, and other nationalities appeared to be prominent because of global changes in the sphere of cultural, religious, and industrial development. As it was stated by Eric Foner, the author of the book “Give Me Liberty! An American History”, this era brought considerable transformations to every sphere of people’s lives; he characterized it as ‘colonialism change in Europe’ making the nations feel various introductions in the political and structural system of the states. Sixteenth Century Changes The meeting between a European colonialism representative and an Indian from North America allows evaluating historical changes of the sixteenth century. In European countries, the period of colonialism in the XVI century left a print on social, political, economical, and cultural factors. It is necessary to underline the fact that in economics the states were focused on the raw materials searching being the background of successful industrial development of the country. The atmosphere of racial discrimination and social inequality resulted in the high development of slavery in almost all European countries. The population was rapidly increased, though class discrimination provided poor conditions for life level at this period. The era of nationalism observed in Europe made nations take strong political and religious positions dominating over others; this aspect became one of the strongest reasons for international contradictions. Racism worsened the conditions on the international level; pressures on the part of white people to representatives of Afro-American origin reduced the level of cultural unity. Besides, language and religious development were based upon the system of political cooperation. North American Indians at the period of the sixteenth century felt a strong pressure on the part of cultural development of the native population. It should be noted that the principal form of religion was shamanism; people believed in two world existence. North American Indians’ reality perception was focused on the existence of material and spiritual aspects. Their culture had little space for self-expression though they differed by individuality and virtues outlined in artworks. Social status in the period of class discrimination was considered to be of great importance. It is necessary to note that Indians of North America as well as of other parts of the world paid special attention to the significance of religion stating that believes should form human life. The characteristic of this nationality during the XVI century can be demonstrated through language group divisions being based upon the dialects and style of communication. The atmosphere of the XVI century did not provide an obstacle for the ethical and cultural development of American Indians. Conclusi
A scholarly book by Ian Hodder The first pages of the book provide a thorough explanation of the Archaeology Theory. Ian Hodder provides the opening salvo which deals on some theoretical debates on archaeology. He explains the increase in the study of archaeological theory or in theory teaching and research. There are two reasons for this. The internal reasons dealt on the development of archaeological theory which emphasizes the New Archaeology on a critical approach to method and theory. One subject focuses on processual archaeology, which deals on theory rather than method and brings us to more theoretical positions in the historical and social sciences. There are shifts here: the New Archaeology has become more theoretical, and the theorizing has become very abstract and specialized, making it more difficult to understand. This is a big challenge for the students of Archaeology. In the humanities and social sciences, there are various discussions and debates. Some scientists like Meskel argue that feminist writers seek to open debate to a theoretical pluralism. Archaeology is now being linked to other disciplines like philosophy. Cultural studies are also being linked to the New Archaeology. But archaeology’s interaction with branches of psychology like evolutionary psychology and cognitive science are also given emphasis. Hodder explains Thomas’s archaeological work on landscapes which are largely influenced by geography, more specifically by cultural geographers and art history. “Behavioral Archaeology: Toward a New Synthesis” The chapter entitled “Behavioral Archaeology: Toward a New Synthesis,” written by Vincent M. LaMotta and Michael B. Schiffer, deals with behavioral archaeology, which refers to the study of the formation processes of the archaeological record and with the reconstruction of the cultural past through behavioral inferences. The authors argue that this is different from many other social sciences because behavioral archaeology is based on the study of interactions between people and material objects, which is collectively termed “behavior”, i.e., in the point of view of Archaeological study. The authors opine that behavioralists seek to develop appropriate method and theory for studying and explaining all forms of variation in human social life in terms of behavior. For instance, there is a variation in the form and arrangement of artifacts, architecture, and cultural deposits in living systems and in the archaeological record: archaeological record is the product of human behavior and not of some mental states (LaMotta and Schiffer, 2001, p. 15). A behavioralist can dig into every aspect of human life using scientific methods, and the research is framed in terms of people-object interactions. To behavioralists, the irreducible core of archaeology is simply “the study of material objects … in order to describe and explain human behavior (LaMotta, and Schiffer, 2001, p. 15). Human behavior therefore is linked to material objects of the past, meaning you can get the explanation of what we are today, or how we do react with the envir
Introduction Ralph Asher Alpher was a renowned American physicist whose Ph.D. dissertation in 1948 put forward a plausible mathematical formula covering the Big Bang Theory that spawned the universe 14 billion years ago (Cain). His dissertation was ridiculed and ignored by the scientific community for 16 years until two other scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize for Alpher’s discovery (Sullivan). Even after that, the man now firmly recognized as the pioneering architect of the Big Bang Theory for the origin of the universe (Union College) was denied recognition and honor for his discovery until he was literally on his deathbed. Main body In his dissertation, Dr. Alpher contended that the Big Bang was the logical explanation for the various plentiful elements in the universe. He also contended that the Big Bang had spawned an ‘echo’ which still exists in the universe as leftover radiation in the form of radio waves (Sullivan). Despite the backing of hundreds of supporters (Union College), Alpher’s dissertation was ignored by scientists and astronomers who were skeptical about the Big Bang theory and did not believe its ‘echo’ could be measured. In 1964 a group associated with Princeton University reported that there existed radio waves in the universe as a legacy of the Big Bang (Sullivan). That same year, two astronomers working for Bell Labs in New Jersey (Cain) who had read the Princeton report, coincidentally discovered the existence of a definite, regular hissing sound when they turned their radio receiver into space. That same year Penzias and Wilson claimed that they had found the existence of leftover radiation from the Big Bang. They were later jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their ‘discovery’ in 1978 (Sullivan). Alpher, who had tried his best to rectify the record and claim rightful recognition for the discovery, was so demoralized that he suffered a heart attack immediately after the Nobel Prize award was announced in 1978 (Cain). Thankfully, the attack did not prove fatal. Conclusion Alpher’s efforts towards gaining recognition for what was rightfully his did prove fruitful, albeit much later when he was about to die. In 2007, President George Bush conferred on him the National Medal of Science which is the most esteemed award for contribution towards science. As Alpher was ill and confined to a wheelchair at that time, his son Victor received the medal on his behalf from the President on July 27, 2007, at the White House. The citation read: “For his unprecedented work in the areas of nucleosynthesis, for the prediction that universe expansion leaves behind background radiation, and for providing the model and the Big Bang Theory” (Union College). Alpher died on August 12, 2007, at the
Abstract This essay analyzes two recent news stories wherein the issue of standard business communication consent forms has proved controversial. Legal action resulted when plaintiffs found that their DNA had been used and stored for purposes beyond the scope of the consent form and for which they did not give permission. Consent forms remain inadequate and incomplete in the area of DNA collection and do not provide proper information for donors so that they can make an informed choice about how their DNA will be used. Ethical Issues and Future Trends No one disputes the value of DNA research in the ongoing battle against disease. However, the business of scientific research in the future may face stiff ethical challenges on the basis of its existing communication tools. Universities and private DNA research firms often use consent forms to manage the acquisition and collection of DNA for one specific purpose, yet research itself often uses the DNA – without express permission from the donor – to underwrite a host of other unrelated research, some of which can cause harm to the donors. One such recent example occurred in the case of Arizona’s Havasupai tribe, based in the Grand Canyon (Harmon, 2010). In the early 1990s 41 members of the tribe donated samples of their blood and DNA to researchers working with the Arizona State University (Harmon, 2010). In April of 2010 these same members won a settlement against the University in the amount of $700,000, plus the return of their blood and samples, for what the tribe deemed “genetic era betrayal” (Harmon, 2010). The members discovered that the DNA they donated specifically for research into the tribe’s inordinately high incidence of type II diabetes onset was also used to support research into inbreeding, mental illness and migration patterns of the tribe’s ancestors (Harmon, 2010). The tribe knew nothing of these others areas of research and did not offer permission for their DNA to be used in this manner. Also, the research employed to study the migration patterns and origins of the tribe’s ancestors suggested that the Havasupai arrived in North America via passage across the frozen Bering Sea (Harmon, 2010). This not only discredited the tribal elders’ stories, but also threatened to undermine the tribe’s sovereign rights and endanger their ongoing land claim battles (Harmon, 2010). The Arizona State University spent nearly $2 million contesting the lawsuits launched by the Havasupai by tribe members (Harmon, 2010). The April 2010 settlement “appears to be the first payment to individuals who said their DNA was misused” (Harmon, 2010). At the heart of this ethical issue lies the problem of the consent form. In the age of the business of scientific research’s increasing dependence of DNA to crack disease, to what extent does the consent form protect the rights of donors? This essay studies the case of the Havasupai tribe and so called “vul
Process mapping is an activity that assists in planning and organising processes. Mapping is particularly valuable when it comes to the processes that have a complex structure and involve many steps and stages. In organisations, many processes also may have a flexible and changeable nature that would make them have complicated cycles and operations within. Since each process may potentially involve many participants faced with a variety of different situations and scenarios, it is important to create process maps that would serve as the essential guidance for the process participants to see how to react in versatile environments and based on various circumstances. Moreover, process maps have graphic nature that ensures easier comprehension of its structure by the observers and allows them to follow the map clearly regardless of the situations. For a process to be applicable to various scenarios, it needs to involve basic behaviour lines and take into consideration various situation scenarios and outcomes. A process map may look complicated and have multiple sections and parts; however, a user would be able to select their particular situation development path at every step and follow the process guidance provided via the map. In other words, process mapping is important because it carries out a number of essential functions such as the clarification of objectives, breaking down of the operations, guidance provision, consultation, prevention of errors and malpractice in the workplace. Practically, process mapping increases the efficiency of the processes, ensures their security, and creates a framework for safe and organised work. Introduction Process mapping is applied in a variety of organisations and professional spheres for a purpose of planning processes step by step and thus, structuring the work in a clearer and mor
Abstract Alan Kay’s educational vision stands behind the origin of personal computer and the other similar digital tools. It appears that the conception of “personal dynamic media” which can be easily operated by children, created by Alan Kay in 1968, stands behind the idea of desk top computing. This is contrary to beliefs by many people who suppose that multimedia and desktop computing were first developed for media professionals or business workers. While his work at Xerox’ Palo Alto Research Center Alan Kay became convinced that a communications revolution should take place and it should be inspired by children and in the hands of children. Kay’s project on development of the “Dynabook” established a ground for a large-scale conception of applying computers in the educational process and for people’s personal needs. One of his major achievements is the development of the powerful Smalltalk programming language which presented the user with an important opportunity to cultivate one’s creative spirit. Introduction Alan Kay created his famous “Dynabook” conception in 1968. It amounted to producing a special device, namely a sort of a lap top computer or a tablet personal computer, especially dedicated to the children audience to provide them with an opportunity to access varied digital media in order to achieve significant results in the area of education. Nowadays, Alan Kay still believes that the “Dynabok” device was not discovered yet; however, he admits that Microsoft’s Tablet PC is “the first Dynabook-like computer good enough to criticize” (Levy 2001). The conception of the “Dynabook” developed by Alan Kay is both a set of actual technological solutions in the area of computer programming and IT technology, and an idealized and sublimated vision of technological matters. Alan Kay’s Educational Vision Alan Kay is famous all around the world as a successful computer scientist who succeeded to invent his pioneering windowing graphical user interface, Smalltalk programming language and numerous important solutions in the area of object-oriented programming. Alan Kay’s educational vision is considered to be a basis for the origin of personal computer and similar devices. The conception of “personal dynamic media” which can be easily accessed and operated by children was created by Alan Kay in 1968 (Kay 1997). This conception seems to stand behind the very idea of desk top computing. Alan Kay came to this conception while analyzing the need to create a special device which will offer the children audience the opportunity to access media and the other files which can be useful in the area of acquiring knowledge and learning about the outward things. This served as a basis for production of modern personal computers, lap tops and similar digital devices. It is interesting, however, that numerous people believe that initially personal computers were created for adult people and those of them who worked in the area of business and media production, in particular (Kay 2000). Kay comments about initial stages of his “
Introduction The police is the guardian of society and should uphold the rights of people. Unfortunately, because officers have to deal with criminals who are also a part of the community, the police are often opposed to society. A conflict that exacerbates public distrust of the police arises, and, ultimately, this leads to unethical and sometimes even illegal behavior of officers. The purpose of this essay is to investigate the situation associated with the Newark PD, identify the causes of conflicts and find ways to solve them. Reasons for the Unethical Behavior of Police Officers Behavior of Individuals Speaking about the conflict points related to the police, people note the behavior of specific officers in particular situations. It is always easier to find guilty personalities than to look for problems in the whole system. However, the police officer should clearly remember and follow the legislation no matter the circumstances. Unfortunately, laws and codes do not fully cover what often happens in the streets. Such a situation was unfolding in Newark, a small city, in which the number of criminal offenses almost exceeded that in New York by five times (Frontline: Policing the Police). However, the severity of the situation in this city is not an excuse for neglecting the rights of citizens. Nevertheless, for the sake of ridding the streets of crime, many officers themselves go to illegal measures. Among such actions are random searches without reason, as well as extremely crude detentions. The behavior of the officers ultimately leads to an even higher level of distrust among the population. Besides, there are cases for which the blame lies entirely with the officers. For example, one of the illegal and unnecessary arrests was an arrest of an 8-grade schoolboy, which ended for a boy with a broken arm (Frontline: Policing the Police). Thus, we can conclude that in terms of unethical and illegal decisions, police officers who neglect the law for the sake of a quick resolution of the case can be blamed. The Subculture of the Department It cannot be denied that the blame for what is happening in Newark lies not with individuals, but with the unit as a whole. Authorities were exceeded not only by individual officers, but also by most of the department, and this was considered the norm. Also, there was a problem of organization, as the film clearly shows the deplorable state of the communication center that receives calls from citizens (Frontline: Policing the Police). On the other hand, officers did not fill out reports, as they would have to indicate all cases of illegal use of force. Thus, one can note the lack of organization within the units that directly affects the effectiveness of the police. There is also the problem of the formation of a specific subculture within the department. This culture was formed by those officers who have been working for many years. According to D’Souza, Weitzer, and Brunson, these officers themselves do not see any mistakes in their work, and they b
Summary In this chef-d’oeuvre work, Bridgeman explores the Biblical book of Jonah from an Africana setting. The article also highlights the converging point of the book of Jonah and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) that occurred in South Africa immediately after the end of apartheid. The article starts with an introduction where Bridgeman gives a brief contextual overview of the book of Jonah as recorded in the Bible. After the introduction, the author classifies Jonah in an Africana context where he draws parallels between what happen to him on the way Tarshish and the approach to reconciliation in post-apartheid South Africa. Bridgman then compares Jonah’s situation to the postcolonial thought where the colonized were required to abandon their cultures, beliefs, and way of life. Bridgeman (2010) posits, “The primary reason why people are colonized is to advance one’s religious notions, to rape the land and people of their resources, and to gain personal glory for being a conqueror” (p. 184). The author then moves on to explore the issue of missionary impulses, rapprochement, and the perils of granting people blanket pardon. In this section, Bridgeman explores the issue of victims of oppression being required to forgive their tormentors. Apparently, Jonah could not understand why God would be so merciful to forgive the people of Nineveh, yet they had caused great pain to Israelites. Similarly, after the apartheid, native South Africans were required to forgive their colonialists and accept them in society, which would amount to granting them blanket amnesty. Bridgman concludes by exploring the problems surrounding the preaching of the book of Jonah coupled with how Africans can approach the issues of colonial atrocities in the contemporary times. Critique Bridgeman raises a critical issue surrounding the story of Jonah, which is relevant to the story of reconciliation in post-apartheid South Africa. Jonah disobeyed God’s order because He was using mercy to abet injustices. Jonah was required to go and preach the gospel of repentance to the people of Nineveh. However, he knew that God was too merciful that if these people repented their sins, he would forgive them. However, in Jonah’s view, the Ninevites did not deserve a chance to repent because they were a cruel people. Their existence meant the endangerment of the Israelites, Jonah’s people. The Ninevites would receive a “blanket amnesty, since there is no evidence that repentance meant repair the damage or change their blood-thirsty, land-grabbing, and people-enslaving ways” (Bridgeman, 2010, p. 185). This aspect could not make sense to Jonah because his enemies would not be held accountable for their deeds. In other words, they could repent, go back to their atrocious ways, and repent again because God is such a merciful creator. This move eliminated the possibility of justice. The Ninevites would receive mercy packaged as blanket amnesty, but Jonah’s people would get injustice. Therefore, Jonah was required to understand that mercy is not earned, as those who receive it do not deserve it, but they get it anyway. For mercy to prevail over