ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction Delambre-Mechain geodetic survey was one of the most important surveys that defined meter as a standard unit of measurements. According to Wise (1995), that path towards developing this unit measurement by the two scientists was not only tedious, but also marred by political arrests and errors in the units of the measurements that were used. It is important to appreciate the fact that this survey was done at a time when a variety of units were used to measure distance. For instance, while a section of the mathematicians preferred the use of degrees as the standard measurement, others considered toises while another group considered feet to be more appropriate. This condition was worsened by the fact that these units were not universally accepted as they had massive differences. For instance, the use of feet was considered unreliable because of regional differences. A unit toise was an equivalent of 6.39 English feet or 6 Paris feet. This alone demonstrates how inaccurate the unit of feet was at this time. A distance of one foot in English units would not be equivalent to a distance of one foot in Paris Units. The work of Delambre and Mechian was to develop a unit that would be universally acceptable and more accurate in measuring distance. This essay is focused on analyzing Delambre-Mechain geodetic survey which started in 1792 and was finally published in 1810. Delambre-Mechain Geodetic Survey The geodetic survey by Delambre and Mechian, which begun in 1792, is one of modern scientific surveys whose results have defined the current units of measurements. It would be important to understand the definition of a geodetic survey in order to bring to focus activities that the two scientists were involved in during this process. Alde (2002, 36) defines geodetic survey as, “The scientific discipline of surveying the earth with regards to its shape and size, which include mapping the earth’s gravitational field, tides and the movement of the earth’s crust among others.” The emphasis of this definition is on the study of the earth with regard to its size and shape. This is what the two scientists were involved in for a period of 20 years, although Mechain did not live long enough to witness the completion of their survey. Mechain has been described by many who studied his work as a meticulous astronomer who was keen on precision and accuracy. He had gained fame for his keen eyes when conducting measurements. This was one of the main reasons why he was assigned to this task. Delambre on the other hand was a historian who had transformed to become a renowned mathematician in the French empire. He had won many prizes due to his ability to determine the size of different planets, especially Jupiter. The two were considered appropriate to conduct this geodetic survey that covered an expansive area. This geodeti
Introduction The Russian history is exceptionally important. Times before the collapse of the Russian Empire, communism was a driving force. Leaders supported and encouraged it (Burbank, Hagen, and Remnev 423-425). Imperial Russia was vast in terms of landmass and was made up of people from different backgrounds. This paper discusses or describes the Russian Empire from 1721 to the time of its collapse. The discussion will also encompass aspects such as religion, culture, leadership, societies, and geography over time. Geography The size of Russian Empire by the end of the late 1890s was approximately 23 million square kilometers. This size is roughly 1/6th of the entire Earth’s landmass. Most of its people or population lived on the European side of the empire (Burbank, Hagen, and Remnev 423-425). The Russian Empire had more than one hundred different ethnic groups, although the Ethnic Russians were the majority making up about fifty percent of the entire population. Imperial Russia was founded by Peter the Great in 1721. The empire expanded its territory almost four folds (Burbank, Hagen, and Remnev 400). The Empire spread eastward to the Pacific, absorbing Ukraine, and started pushing south into Central Asia. In other words, imperial Russia spread from Asia, America, Middle East, and Europe. In fact, most scholars indicate that tracing the exact boundaries of the Russian Empire is not easy as it kept expanding and losing some territories at the same time (Burbank, Hagen, and Remnev 419-421). The only known th
Premium Brands Income Fund is a company in Vancouver, British Columbia, that owns a wide range of food businesses supplied with manufacturing and distribution facilities located in Washington, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Premium Brands Income fund was formerly known as Fletcher’s Fine Foods. The company possesses a well-organized system of food distribution and wholesale networks which enable the Fund to sell one’s own products and products of the third parties. The ballpark of the customers dealing with the company is 25,000. The Fund’s family consists of the following brands: the McSweeney’s, Grimm’s, Harvest, Quality Fresh Foods, Hygaard, Bread Garden, and Hempler’s. The headquarters of the company is located in Richmond, Canada. The company’s major competitors are primarily in the Fresh Prepared Foods industry and foodservice; Grains, and Meat Products sectors are other spheres where Premium Brands Income Fund competes. The competitive landscape of the company includes: George Weston, Kraft Foods, Sepp’s. In July, 2007, the Premium Brands units were halted at C$12.36 on the Toronto Stock Exchange. For the month of November, 2007 the Premium Brands Income Fund announces a cash distribution of $0.098 per unit. According to the results for the third quarter that the company announced:   * The company’s sales have increased by $49.9 million, it composes 84% to record $108.6 million;   * The company’s EBITDA has increased in comparison with the third quarter of the year of 2006 ($11.5 million from $6.6 million respectively);   * The company’s net earnings of the third quarter of 2007 are $7.2 million or $0.42 per unit (they have increased if compared with $3.6 million or $0.24 per unit of the third quarter of the previous year). In July, 2007 the Premium Brands Income Fund finished the acquisition of Centennial Foodservice. This is the company’s leading distributor of protein products to the foodservice industry in Canada. Its annual sales amount $160 million. In August, 2007 the company started to deal with baked goods business, the sales of which are about $6 million per year. In November, 2007 the Premium Brands Income Fund established the guidance for the year of 2008 with the sales of $430 million to $440 million, EBITDA of $42 million, the capital maintenance expenditures has been increased from $2.5 million to $3.0 million. Important factors that influence the company’s development are:   * Seasonal and weather instability in the Fund’s sale;   * Changes in the cost of raw materials;   * Changes in consumer preferences;   * Competitiveness of other companies engaged in food manufacturing and distribution;   * New law regulations that might affect the company’s business and operations. Works Cited  1. “Premium Brands Income Fund Announces November 2007 Distribution.” Premium Brands Income Fund.  2. “Premium Brands Income Fund.” Hoovers. 2007.
Introduction The Chlamydia Screening Studies was the analysis designed to receive the results of people’s reaction to the home-based screening for the sexually transmitted infection, Chlamydia trachomatis. 19773 participants were invited to send their urine samples or even vulvovaginal swabs. Later they received negative or positive answers, and some of them were asked to come for the interview. Qualitative research has shown that there are certain differences between the reactions of men and women and the prevalence of the infection in different age groups. Various qualitative tools, like Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and Rosenburg Self Esteem Scale, were used to summarize the findings. Important issues Four important issues were raised by the Chlamydia Screening Studies: most people encountered the feeling of discomfort for being invited to the research; most participants felt anxiety, especially when they received a positive answer, due to the stereotype that infected people have a certain stigma, or that they will have to inform their partner about the positive results. Many people had the fear of having undetected diseases or women – being infertile. All these factors have put certain limitations on the outcomes of the project, due to the low response rate some sex or age groups were under-presented. However, the majority of the participants did not regret the decision to take part in the Chlamydia Screening Studies. People, who received a negative response, were pleased about the answers, however, there is a negative tendency of connection between negative response and lack of interest in changing unhealthy habits or behaviors. Cognitions To sum up, these projects had much more advantages for their participants compared to the feeli
Introduction Recent debates in academic circles have questioned the relevance of human dignity in bioethics. Some scholars argue that the concept is useful as it helps in explaining a number of bioethical issues. The areas addressed by the concept include embryo research, biomedical enhancements, as well as care for the disabled and the dying. Others argue that it is a useless and irrelevant concept given that it is just a means of justifying unconvincing arguments and un-articulated biases. The current paper is a critical analysis of the controversy surrounding the issue of human dignity and bioethics. In the paper, the author analyses the history and meaning of human dignity as perceived from different sources. In addition, the author outlines some traditional guidelines with regard to bioethics. The author analyses the various alternative approaches to bioethics and the principles on which bioethics are based. Finally, the author discusses possible solutions to address the controversy surrounding human dignity and bioethics. History of Human Dignity and Bioethics There are various sources of human dignity in contemporary society. Each of these sources contributes significantly to bioethics. However, the diverse nature of these sources brings with it some difficulties with regard to the application of the human dignity concept to bioethics (Ainslie2001, 110). Some of the various sources of human dignity are discussed in the section below: Kantian Moral Philosophy Immanuel Kant is among some of the philosophers who attempted to set human dignity on a rational foundation. According to Kant, the concept of human dignity has two major components. The two are humanity and dignity. According to Gregor (2006, 99), dignity denotes a ‘form of value’ that cannot be equated to anything else in the world. In other words, it is not possible to put a price tag on dignity. The concept derives its moral foundation from its ability to limit and regulate the exchange between humans. It is not the ‘price’ of the individual or the amount that is paid to use his power and other resources. Kant views humanity as an ‘objective end’ (Gregor 2006, 99). What this means is that the concept regulates the ‘other ends’ of humans. The regulation is in terms of the activities prompted by the ends. Humanity is not a goal that is to be achieved. On the contrary, it is the ability of the individual and the society in general to set objectives. It also refers to the ability of the individuals to reason systematically. According to Kant, respect for humanity, among other things, involves avoiding using others in ways aimed at meeting ends that they cannot formally share in (Pluhar 2007, 42). What this mea
Abstract Millions of Americans have engaged themselves in full-time work, all year but for wages that can only match poverty levels, Barbara Ehrenreich gets inspiration partly from the rhetoric that is raised by the welfare reforms; with the promise that all jobs in America are equal to an excellent life. However, the primary concern is whether there is any possibility of an individual surviving, let alone prospering on $6-$7 per hour for the rest of their lives. This does not overlook the fact that one has to eat, sleep, and wear. In this book, Ehrenreich presents her experience of abandoning her dream of a prolific writer to join an average low-wage paying job propelled by hopes that the wage reform was something to go by. The book introduces the reader to several parameters that Ehrenreich had set for experimentation. It is divided into several chapters after the introduction. Chapter one presents the author’s account while serving in Florida. On the other hand, chapter two is about scrubbing in Maine, while chapter three is about selling in Minnesota, and lastly, is the evaluation chapter. However, all the parameters were broken or bent in the course of the search for a job in the labor market. Critique Nickel and Dimed is a book written by Enrenreich Barbara. The author of the book ultimately presents the challenges facing most of the Americans in the process of looking for a job that can sustain their lives. Through the use of a personal account and experiences, Ehrenreich can share the sentiments of many other job seekers who have undergone challenges similar to hers. The fact that the author sheds her life as a successful writer in the hope of getting a reasonable job in the labor market following the welfare reform shows how people act without reason upon the promise of better outcomes. Ehrenreich decides to get into jobs with low wages to ascertain whether anybody can make use of the low income they get from such jobs to cater for their daily expenses, just like the poor (6). Her determination is seen when she works in a cleaning service, nursing home, hotel, and restaurants. Through her different menial jobs, Ehrenreich reaches to the conclusion that people with wage income face a lot of difficulties matching income and their expenses. This can be attributed to the fact that one is needed to spend more than they earn in transport, food, and housing. For example, Ehrenreich points out that it takes “on average nationwide, an hourly wage of $8.89 to afford a one-bedroom apartment…” (3). Even though such a revelation is not much of a surprise, it is a revelation that shows how the American capitalist style is inherently unfair. If the systems were not so unfair, hard-working people can manage to live in a decent house, eat healthy food, and be at ease while going to and from work. Also, the author looks at the problems that come from everyday living, which the concerned individual has to overcome. She shows that individuals who work more than ten hours in a day are likely to experience health problems irrespective of their place of work. The struggle
Historian work has been predominantly concerned with telling complete stories, such as the French Revolution, World War II, or the ancient Egyptian civilization. However, the work becomes more complicated when the time distance of the events and processes is shorter, and the stories are unfinished. Such historical processes as technological progress, globalization, feminism, or climate change, are still ongoing, and their outcome cannot be determined. As they are all ongoing, present-day issues make historians re-consider the past in a variety of ways, such as the way in which the ancestors lived or the struggles they endured to gain freedom. Therefore, it is essential to discuss the extent to which such events are rooted in the past as well as to which extent they illustrate something new. A prominent example is the development of global feminism, which challenged the deeply rooted principles of patriarchy that existed in society for centuries. During the nineteenth century, both the US and Western Europe saw a dramatic change in women’s attitudes toward their position in society. The event has deep origins in the more distant past because women were regularly oppressed, and their rights were disregarded. Dating back to Ancient Rome, women were banned from using expensive goods, showing their inferiority. However, while ancient and nineteenth-twentieth century women’s issues were resolved, feminism remains relevant today. For instance, questions remain as to whether all women share the same sentiments about feminism, what role does class play, how should sexual education be approached, or whether women of color got the representation needed. In this sense, feminism represents new developments in society, the impact of which has not been fully discovered. The issue of race in modern feminism is especially relevant in the current context in the light of the Black Lives Movement. Back in 1977, the Combahee River Collective released a statement discussing their struggles with racial, sexual, heterosexual, and class oppression due to the interlocking of the major oppression systems. In addition, the women of the Collective pointed out their solidarity with Black men in their struggle with racism in their own way. One of the critical sources of difficulty in the work of Black feminists is the need to address a broad range of oppressions, and there is no definite point in time when all of them will be covered. The inclusivity of social and political life has not been established yet, and the latest BLM protests show that there is still much to be done to ensure that the rights of both Black women and men are guaranteed, protected, and respected. In no way could modern feminism be considered ‘a thing of the past’ even though the women of today can serve on a jury, hold property, vote, open bank accounts, divorce their husbands, hold political positions, and much more. However, issues regarding reproductive rights, economic justice, such as the gender pay gap, racial fairness, violence against women, and LGBTQ+ rights, remain unaddressed. T
Introduction It is accepted to name the 18 th century, a century of enlightenment, although actually its ideals formed the culture and the art only from the second half of the century. The special role of England in the history of the European enlightenment consisted first of all, in the fact that it was its native land and in many respects the trailblazer. In England in the 17 th -18 th centuries, after revolution and civil wars the sharp contradictions in the society have smoothed out. Parliamentary development has led to the consolidation of legal forms of political strike. The English church did not oppose itself to enlightenment, and in some measure even matched its ideal of toleration. This promoted the cultural development of the country, as it allowed keeping the balance between the traditional values, the keeper of which was the church, and the innovative values which were born by the aforementioned enlightenment. This served England by making it some kind of a sample of public and social progress. It is no coincidence that in the 18 th century all main currents of English public thoughts found their continuation and development in other European countries. The union of the bourgeoisie with nobility could not pass without reflection in English culture and the aesthetic tastes, the characteristics of which bear lines of moderate democratization. Starting from the 17th century, England fairly is considered the first country in the field of literature, dramatic art, and theatre thanks to Shakespeare and a pleiad of dramatists before and after him. The details of the state of culture of England in the 18 th century have reached modern days through va
Introduction The construction of a K-8 school near a toxic waste site at Greenpoint in Brooklyn, New York, has caused an uproar. The site for the new school is situated on the southwest corner of Franklin and Dupont Street and is directly opposite a site designated by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation as a superfund location. This means that the site is toxic and unsuitable for settlement. Despite the inherent danger in building a school at the location, the city’s mayor is keen to see the project progress. The extent to which the former occupant of the site polluted the environment is astonishing. The deposited chemicals have led to the loss of non-human life in addition to threatening the biodiversity of the neighboring streets. This is an important environmental issue owing to the fact that the degraded environment poses serious health risks to the people in the area. Taking a stand against the construction of a learning institution in a polluted site will save people from catastrophic illnesses and ensure that the area recovers its natural essence. K-8 School Construction The proposed school is located across the street from NuHart Plastics, which is considered one of the most environmentally toxic places in Brooklyn. The degree of the area’s toxicity designated it uninhabitable given the number of hazardous chemicals deposited at the site. The NuHart Plastic processing building and the adjacent structures were used to process vinyl plastic. The site is believed to house underground plumes of highly volatile chemicals that have percolated to the surrounding streets. It is worth noting that these agents have been associated with a myriad of illnesses such as vital organ damage, central nervous system damage, and congenital illnesses. Building a school in a toxically polluted environment disregards the mental and physical well-being of people who would be involved in the facility. The developer brokered a deal with the city, which stipulated that the project will only commence if the area will be cleaned (North Brooklyn Neighbors). The process is expected to include the extraction of the contaminants after the plant is completely demolished. In addition, wells will be constructed on the sidewalks to pump toxic chemicals from under the street. There is, however, some concern that the cleaning exercise would expose residents to toxic substances. The construction of an underground barrier aimed at preventing the spread of toxic chemicals to the surroundings is a step in the right direction. Despite the potential health risks associated with the location of the school at the toxic site, the city and the School Construction Auth