ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction The ideas of Thomas Hobbes concerning the organization of the society are based on the social contract theory and a set of arguments about human nature that majorly contradict the ideas of anarchism. In this paper, the discussion of the two perspectives will be overviewed regarding the perception of human nature and the structure of society. Thomas Hobbes: General Ideas Hobbes elaborated on his ideas concerning the political obligation in his work titled Leviathan. In this book, Hobbes explained in perspective on human interactions as those in need of constant supervision of authority. The latter is represented by the government or a monarch and supported by the related institutions such as law enforcement. In that way, following this idea, the concept of hierarchy becomes one of the key bases for the existence of society and the maintenance of order. Anarchism: General Ideas The ideas of anarchism challenge the meaning of the political obligation. This set of perceptions and way of thought is deemed rather unconventional knowing that the vast majority of the world’s most prominent philosophers and sociologists theorized about the society as a hierarchically organized body supported from within by its inner laws that are based on the rules and regulations established by the political authorities and institutions. Anarchism keeps to the belief that states are illegitimate and should be abolished. However, in philosophical anarchism the perceived coerciveness of the states does not serve as the basis for a moral imperative to destroy the latter; instead, it rather points to the weakness of the states’ attitudes and cours
Introduction Augustine’s years can be recapitulated greatly like the chapters of a book, which is the set-up he used himself in his “spiritual biography” ‘confession’. Augustine instituted the church of his days in so many ways that we ought to go back to his birth to start comprehending his life as well as our narrative. (Cliffsnotes) In his ‘confession’ Augustine starts on talking of his babyhood and the understanding impiety of a juvenile man as he summons up. He memorizes in chapter two of the book, “the stealing pears from a tree, not for food, but just to be evil and nothing else”. (Augustine, 24) He remembers how he had mostly wanted following the reading Cicero’s ‘hortensius’ to be a great rhetorician and he finally studied at carthage, trained oratory there and then was called to Milan in 383 to instruct. Augustine was born in thagaste, Numidia of Berber stock on thirteenth of November 354. By this time, his father was not a worshipper and he remembers it following the demise of his mother in chapter three of ‘confession’ that he was “drinking from God’s grace even from his mother’s breast”. (Augustine,35) Even though his father was not a worshipper in Christ, his mother prayed ardently and with lots of tears of her son’s salvation. As he kept on growing, he looked like parting more away from the “truth” of his youth. (Wills) In chapter four of ‘confession’ Augustine remembers being engrossed to Manichaeism focusing on astrology, way of life, and the means of unfolding and defining life, he found gorgeous. (Augustine, 48) When Faustus, a great instructor of Manichaeism as mentioned in chapter five entered to Carthage, Augustine disillusioned in his wish for concrete manifestation of the fact of Manichean doctrine. Faustus chose to flee from his plight at Carthage to Rome. Faustus skills at Rome demonstrated unsatisfactory and he applied for an instructing post at Milan. In Milan, Faustus met Ambrose, who confronted him as an imposing bystander for Catholic Christianity and opened out the potential of the figurative reading of Scripture. This gave Augustine the morale and decided to turn out to be a Christian catechumen. (Augustine, 66) It is in chapter six where Monica followed Augustine to Milan to discover that he was a committed servant in a Catholic Church. In cooperation, they respected Ambrose though Augustine acquired no assistance from him on his own problems. Aspiration goads by Alypius and Nebridius united him in a perplexed quest for the cheerful life. Augustine turned out to be busy, tossed away his first mistress, acquired a new one, and carried on his ineffective search for truth. (Augustine, 85) Augustine’s perceptive of Neo-Platonic in chapter seven thought would go on with him all through his great interpretation of religious studies, way of life, and yet to his death bed. He had been sitting in the instruction of Ambrose, Bishop of Milan (d. 397) and he was spellbound by his figurative understanding of Scripture, especially assisting Augustine to conquer his disbelieve of the
The Issue in Question Among the most notorious and, perhaps, the most complicated issues concerning the youth development, the inappropriate behavior of the youth and the consequent social problems are the most topical at present. According to Bradshaw, Brown and Hamilton (2009), adults can find approaches to problem teenagers and even help them overcome their social problems, allowing the young adults enter their new stage of development without painful experience behind their backs. Since the methods that the authors offer can actually prove efficient and even offer a completely new strategy for helping problem teenagers, the research results offered by Bradshaw, Brown and Hamilton are well worth consideration. The Key Concern: is Positive Youth Development a Way out? According to what the authors claim, the new approach is bound to change teenagers’ perception of the world with the help of the positive thinking and stressing the positive aspects of the children’s behavior rather than focusing on the negative ones. Therefore, as the authors explain, the new program is not as much about the negative behavior prevention as it is about the promotion of a “good” model of social behavior. However, the reasonability of the offered approach can be argued. Since teenagers will not be able to find out what negative behavior is and how to control it, they might fail to act adequately once they feel that they experience a surge of negative emotions. Theories on Problem Behavior: Searching for the Solution It is essential that the authors embrace every possible theory concerning teenagers’ behavior and figure out the key features of each. With these theories in mind, the ultimate strategy for handling negative youth behavior can be developed and, thus, the problem of the youth inability to adapt can be eliminated. In addition, it is remarkable that the authors consider the multidisciplinary approach. With the help o the latter, teenagers can be approached in the most efficient and subtle way, which is extremely important for a successful intervention. Moreover, Bradshaw, Brown and Hamilton take into account individual factors as well as the outer factors, which makes the research more objective. Mentioning such important elements that have their impact on teenagers as the family and peer influences, the researches show the audience the way in which the viewpoints and the behavior of a teenager can shape according to the environment that (s)he lives in. The Intervention and Its Results: Putting New Ideas into Practice According to what Bradshaw, Brown and Hamilton claim, the results of the intervention made with the help of the positive thinking method are more than satisfying. Despite the fact that the outer factors, such as conflicting parents or any other family problems of the kind can hinder the intervention effects considerably, the positive results of the positive thinking method are undeniable. It is important that the given approaches not only help teenagers adapt to the world of adults, but also de
Advertising is concerned with the persuasion of consumers, distribution of capitalistic ideals, and nurturing cultural changes. Nonetheless, less attention has been focussed on the role of advertising agencies, to be specific, mediating between producers and consumers of goods and services. Capitalist through advertising agencies analyses consumer tastes and preferences which plays a huge role in economics and social life. Furthermore, the new cultural intermediaries specialize in symbolic production. Therefore, they are involved in mediating between different groups of production and consumption. Moreover, they inform society about consumption and the social distinction of tastes. Advertising practitioners are “need merchants” who manipulate consumers’ needs by improvising new subtle techniques of domination. Moreover, advertising firms are considered to be the vital commercial nexus that functions as intermediaries of institutions such as the media, producers of goods and services and consumers. Advertising nurtures cultural behaviours and grants access to available opportunities at the global markets. The industry has its own values and norms that govern its conduct. For example, actors will need creativity to make it in the business. Furthermore, agencies are producers of advertisements as well as consumers of information. Therefore, they tend to use particular elements from other practitioners’ work to create their own context. However, they siphon new cultural ideas from fashion, talent, music and television. As a result, they use popular culture to meet clients’ needs but do not instill change. On the other hand, consumers tend to rely on past commercials to determine an excellent or appropriate advertisement for their consumption. Therefore, consumers have impacts in the production of new advertisements since they prefer common campaigns. Consequently, practitioners avoid pre-testing past advertisements that have been successful. However, consumers dislike creative advertisements that might translate into commercial risks. As a consequence, advertisement practitioners create common campaigns that meet clients’ criteria. Moreover, practitioners may act as consumers. For example, if brand managers are asked about a product they will be thinking from a
One of the reasons why the sonnets of William Shakespeare are being often referred to, as such, that represent a particularly high literary/philosophical value, is that the themes and motives, contained in them, reflect the actual essence of people’s foremost existential anxieties (Edmonson and Wells 212). This could not be otherwise, because by being exposed to many of Shakespeare’s sonnets, people are able to realize the sheer acuteness of their deep-seated desire to attain a social prominence, to find happiness in love and to confront the inevitability of death. In this paper, I will explore the validity of this suggestion, in regards to the Sonnets 29 and 73, while comparing and contrasting both of these masterworks, within the context of what accounts for the discursive significance of how they address the theme of people’s most pressing unconscious longings, mentioned earlier. It will not be much of an exaggeration to suggest that the main theme, explored in the Sonnet 29, has to do with the sensation of frustration that people get to experience, after having realized that they have failed in making their lives count, in the social sense of this word. The validity of this statement can be illustrated, in regards to the Sonnet’s initial lines, in which the author laments the fact that he is anything, but a socially respected individual: When in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes I all alone beweep my outcast state (1-2). After all, there can be only a few doubts that the allegory of ‘being in disgrace with fortune’ refers to one’s inability to gain the respect of other domination-seeking men. Nevertheless, there is still the spirit of positivity to the above-quoted lines, as they do extrapolate the author’s unconscious hope that the described emotional state, on his part, is temporary. After all, the very adverb ‘when’, used by the author, implies that there are also moments when the thoughts of being disfavored by fortune do not bother him. In this respect, the Sonnet 73 appears to differ rather substantially. The reason for this is that, while reflecting the author’s existential frustration, it makes a deliberate point in accentuating the frustration’s objectivity. Apparently, while writing it, Shakespeare remained thoroughly aware of the fact that it is specifically during the time of one’s youthful years that the concerned individual may have the expectations of a social advancement, in the first place. Allegorically speaking, in order to be in the position to compete with others for the place under the Sun, one must be ‘fueled’ with youthfulness (Forrest 215). Therefore, the below-quoted lines from the Sonnet 73 can be well interpreted, as such, that reflect the author’s realization that, due to being no longer young and cheerful, he is doomed to spend the rest of his days in misery: In me thou see’st the glowing of such fire That on the ashes of his youth doth lie (9-10). It is needless to mention, of course, that in the discursive sense of this word, it alone makes the Sonnet 73 much gloomier than the Sonnet 29. The legitimacy
Introduction Ethical theories act as guidelines to help people know and do what is morally right, and thus such theories play a central role in day-to-day practical issues including lying. In this paper, I will engage two ethical theories, viz. Stuart Mill’s utilitarianism and Emmanuel Kant’s deontology, to answer the question – is it acceptable to lie to my friend to spare her feelings if the lie would not cause great harm? The first section of this paper focuses on utilitarianism to highlight how Mill would argue based on my dilemma, while the second part discusses the same scenario from a deontological perspective. The third section gives my position on this issue by highlighting the more defensible argument between utilitarianism and deontology. In the fourth section, I will discuss how my position could be criticized. The final part is a conclusion, which ties all the arguments together by highlighting the major points. I will argue that Kant’s deontological perspective, of not lying to my friend, is more defensible as compared to Mill’s utilitarianism, which holds that I can lie as long as the consequences bring happiness to the involved parties. Utilitarianism To determine whether it is ethical and acceptable to lie to my friend to spare her feelings, given that such action would not cause great harm, Mill would consider whether my actions create greater happiness as compared to telling the truth, or even keeping silent. According to Mill, “actions are right in proportions as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness” (Clancy, Vaught, and Solomon, 2017, 86). In this case, utilitarianism would be concerned with the consequences of my actions, which is to spare my friend’s feelings. In other words, I would lie to make her feel good, thus creating greater happiness in her. Therefore, it would be moral for me to lie to my friend for the sake of making her feel better. This version of utilitarianism evaluates my actions within the bigger picture on top of the immediate consequences. In the short term, my friend would feel better and happier due to my lies. In the long-term, our friendship will flourish because I chose a path that would not hurt her. Mill would urge me to lie to my friend and anyone holding a different opinion would be excused because he or she does not know both sides of the story. The decision to lie, in this case, is based on the weight of the conflicting utilities. On the one hand, one utility holds that lying is unethical. It could be argued that I am lying for the sake of convenience b
Interest groups face many obstacles – including both barriers to their formation and threats to their survival – yet they have proliferated during certain periods in American politics. Interest groups exist to cater to various social, economic and political needs and their size and influence depends on their ability to impact society. Groups are different and might be formed to pursue individual interest or corporate interests. Largely, the main drive is to influence governmental actions if they feel that the government is either neglecting them or acting in a manner likely to be detrimental to their wall being. Recent times have seen a continued growth in interest groups especially lobby groups which exert considerable influence on legislation and the conduct of the executive. Interest groups have developed over a long period of time and have faced several obstacles in their progression and acceptance as vital components of our society. One form of interest group, unions, have faced several hurdles due to resistance by companies to have their members unionized based on the fear that it will drive up their costs. This resistance still exists even in the 21 st century as evidenced by practices from retail giants like Wal-Mart to frustrate efforts from their staff to unionize. Other interest groups especially lobby groups use political advocacy to attain their objectives and rely on certain freedoms guaranteed to individuals and entities to do so. The 20 th century and 21 st century has seen increased governmental regulation on contributions made to political parties and the relation of interest groups with government officials. This has limited the effectiveness of interest groups to pursue their collective interests and this trend is likely to continue. The Development of Congress The United States Congress is one of the three arms of the federal government charged with enacting laws and executive oversight. Provided for in the constitution, the bicameral chamber has undergone tremendous changes to become what it is today. The founding fathers created an institution with the lower House of Representative having directly elected members and the upper Senate drawing its members from State Assembly nominated senators. Increased bipartisanship led to a dreadloc
The Rwandan Slaughter It took 100 days for ethnic Hutu extremists to slaughter more than 800,000 people in Rwanda. In 1994, they targeted members of the minority Tutsi tribe as well as moderate Hutus due to their political stance. Shockingly, the genocide had a faster pace than the Nazi Holocaust. Despite the obvious atrocities, the international community remained relatively silent. The UN peacekeepers and Belgian forces present in the country to regulate the political conflict pulled out after the first casualties. The United States government decided not to intervene prioritizing national interests over the violence in Africa. Europe tried to justify the indifference in the face of genocide by claiming ignorance of the actual numbers of those affected. Religious leaders seemed strangely reserved as Hutus repeatedly committed one of the most heinous sins known to man. To understand why the ethnic cleansing carried out by extremist Hutus has been so vicious, it is crucial to restoring the chronological order of events leading up to April of 1994. The majority of Rwandans are Hutus even though the Tutsi monarchy has dominated the country for a long time. In 1959, Hutus overthrew the Tutsi tribe, which led to thousands of Tutsis fleeing to neighboring African countries 1 . A small group of exiles then organized a group of rebels known as the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). They invaded Rwanda in 1990 and continued fighting until 1993 when the peace treaty 2 was finally agreed. On 6 April 1994, the plane carrying then-President Juvenal Habyarimana, a moderate Hutu 3 , was shot down, killing him and everyone else on board. Extremists blamed Tutsis and justified the slaughter campaign that followed as revenge. The RPF argued that Hutus themselves killed the President to have an excuse for the genocide and to get rid of their political opponents (moderates). Ghosts of Rwanda tells the stories of those involved in the tragic events of 1994, creating a collective narrative that highlights the failure of the international community to stop crimes against humanity committed by Hutus. Despite the lack of artillery, Hutu militias carried out the killings at an exceptionally high pace. The Hutu extremists handed out lists of government opponents to armed militias who then murder them along with their entire families. They also set up roadblocks to check the IDs of anyone trying to leave 4 . At the time, ID cards 5 in Rwanda required one’s ethnic origin on them. The Hutu extremists set up a radio station circulating propaganda, which also included “cartoons of Tutsis killing Hutus began appearing in magazines, along with warnings that all Tutsis were RPF spies bent on dragging the country back to the days” 6 of Tutsi domination. As a result, in a matter of weeks, armed gangs killed hundreds of thousands of people, often keeping women as sex slaves. Indifference Explained There are a number of explanations as to why no one intervened
In order to answer this question, one has to define the concept of social identity. By doing this, we will be able to understand how the identity can be developed and then reconstructed. It is safe to say, though, that the social identity of any given individual derives from their self-concept and their adherence to certain social groups. If we perceive the acquisition of the second language together with the concept of identity reconstruction, we will see that the process of acquiring a second language contains both construction and reconstruction of one’s self-concept and identity. The majority of the adepts of this particular outlook believe that it is critical to “forget” the mother tongue in order to partially reject the linguistic and cultural identity and free up space for the process of reconstruction and acquisition of the second language’s cultural identity. It can be noted that the social identity has to be variable and driven by an increased level of self-esteem and attitude towards the process of language learning. These particular factors have been found to critically impact the process of foreign language acquisition and the ultimate level of acquisition success. In other words, social identity is inextricably linked to the language. The people that are mutually engaged in an activity are called a community of practice. Therefore, the process of learning is not internal but external and social. The former is also called peripheral participation for the reason that it requires the “newcomers” to acquire new skills and competences in order to move from periphery to the centre of the learning circle and fully participate in a variety of socio-cultural activities. It is also logical to suppose that all these activities will not be useful in case if there is not enough information, resources, or “old-timers” who can share their knowledge. According to the idea of peripheral learning, the process of acquiring knowledge majorly relies on the activities and information that are available to peripheral learners. It is also safe to say that one of the key contributors to successful language acquisition is the process of experiential learning (meaning that learners will not only observe and listen but participate in the process as well). One of the limitations of this model consists in the fact that the learning opportunities of “newcomers” are asymmetrically dependent on the eliciting abilities of the “old-timers” and the overall rates of participation in a community of practice related to foreign language learning. The first draft of the sociocultural theory was developed by Lev Vygotsky. The adepts of this particular movement believed that social interactions meant more than a simple capitalisation on an individual’s conception. The key idea of this psychological model consists in the fact that interaction is a sort of social learning and the language itself is a means of establishing sociocultural learning and social relationships. Therefore, one of the key concepts that were developed by sociocultural theorists