ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction The nation-state was a European invention. Although afterwards it was imitated all over the world often with bizarre results its origin lies in Western Europe, in the period between the sixteenth and the eighteenth century. First England, France, and Spain organized themselves around a common core. In the nineteenth century, Germany and Italy overcame their more stubborn disunity and emerged as nation-states. By the twentieth century, the nation-state had become the norm throughout Western Europe. This undivided loyalty was the great political novelty of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth. As the twentieth century opened, the nation-state claimed exclusive and total allegiance. Here lay an obvious danger, for the new exclusiveness of national loyalties intensified old hatreds and awakened new rivalries. More particularly, the tendency to define a nation as consisting of those people who spoke the same language brought disastrous consequences, it dramatically oversimplified an enormously complex question, and it encouraged conflicting claims that were forgotten. The present dominance of this political model has obscured its comparatively recent origin and the large variety of alternative possibilities that were gradually eliminated through the course of time. The peculiar circumstances of the Habsburg Empire played main role in breakout of the WWI. Vienna, its capital, was a brilliant but febrile city, humming with presentiments of disaster. Immigration from different parts of the empire had produced or exacerbated existing social tensions. It was peculiarly difficult to operate parliamentary government, and there was little eagerness to attempt it. Czechs and Slovaks, Poles and Ukrainians, Croats and Serbs, were among the ‘suppressed nationalities’ jostling for position and satisfaction. Since the constitutional settlement of 1867, the Magyars had internal control within Hungary; friction between Vienna and Budapest was endemic and not without repercussions for the management of foreign policy. The future of these Habsburg domains, assembled over the centuries by marriage, purchase and conquest, was the subject of endless coffee-table speculation, but the subsequent demise of the monarchy should not necessarily encourage the notion that it was in fact on the point of collapse. The Habsburgs themselves were there to be criticized rather than replaced. Looked at as a whole, the empire presented a puzzling picture of industrial development and agricultural backwardness — regional contrasts were notable. ‘Better a fearless end than endless fears’ was becoming more than a cliché, particularly in military circles. The army took the view that it held the future in its hands. It could claim to be the embodiment of a state which could not rest its raison d’être upon national consciousness. The multiplicity of languages and the susceptibilities they engendered frequently complicated organization and training, but senior officers could overcome these difficul
Introduction Various aspects of human identity determine the interactions between the genetic and environmental factors in determining the health of an individual. Gender, race, and class are complex traits that have great impact on the health of an individual. They help in determining the social dimensions of the health of individuals. All these traits have genetic underpinnings. However, they have varying levels of genetic underpinnings. People of a certain race may have a high predisposition to acquire various health conditions (Veenstra 2). In addition, certain diseases may only affect people of a certain gender. On the other hand, the social class of an individual may increase the probability of the individual from suffering from lifestyle diseases. Therefore, it is vital for the healthcare programs of various countries to take into consideration these factors. The programs should not discriminate people based on gender, race, or class. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) is the American healthcare policy that strives to increase the affordability of healthcare to all Americans. Obamacare strives to improve the health status of disadvantaged groups. Obamacare Obamacare has helped in revolutionizing the public and private healthcare insurance industry. It ensures that people who would otherwise not get health insurance to access have health insurance. In so doing, Obamacare has helped improve the health of Americans. Thus, it is prudent to say that Obamacare is one of the vital pieces of legislation that the government of President Obama has enacted. Obamacare prohibits healthcare insurance providers from dropping people from insurance coverage when they get sick. According to Obamacare, insurance providers should not drop people from insurance coverage when they get sick unless they have very strong reasons. Such reasons may include misrepresentation of an existing health condition. The act forces organizations to investigate the health conditions individuals before agreeing to offer insurance cover to individuals. This helps in reducing the financial burden that people may incur if insurance firms drop them from coverage when they fall sick. Impact of Obamacare on Healthcare Accessibility Obamacare enables individuals who would otherwise not get health insurance to have access to health insurance. It enables people who are uninsured due to pre-existing health condition to access insurance through a temporary high-risk pool (Leonard 794). This helps Americans access health insurance and, therefore, save huge sums of money that they would have used to cater for hospital bills. In addition, it would ensure that people who have a higher risk of getting certain diseases due to their
Introduction Problems people face change. For example, the problematic situations people faced one hundred years ago do not seem problems for modern society, such as electricity, clean water, etc. Civilized world has changed and many issues of the past have been solved. However, there are still a lot of other problems which bothered people in the past and continue bother them today. Reading The Jungle by Upton Sinclair aimed at showing complicated and often dangerous work of employees, the author also presented a theme of bad food. The horrifying facts frustrated society in 1906, when the book was published in a series of journals. However, thinking that today people may feel safety and the food troubles have been overcome is a mistake. There are a lot of products which cause foodborne illnesses in that time when innovative technologies allow to define the level of intoxication and the way how to destroy it, in that time when many types of food can be generated and synthesized. Therefore, the foodborne illnesses discussed in the novel The Jungle by Upton Sinclair still continue affect human life and cause many problems to their health today. The Jungle by Upton Sinclair The Jungle by Upton Sinclair is a novel which dwells upon many issues and problems poor people face during their life. However, the most shocking and devastating fact in that writing was the way how a solid enterprise manipulated people and made those eat food which was unfit. The situation with spoiled food and the health problems which were caused by inappropriate products was not a center of the discussion, however, the whole society expressed their frustration. People could not even imagine that such issues could happen. The book vividly describes how infected and spoiled meat was recycled and released as canned meat. The book describes the meat producing industry from inside. The main character managed to become a witness of “whenever meat was spoiled that it could not be used for anything else, either to can it or else to chop it up into sausage” (Sinclair 164). The author gives people an opportunity to watch how canned meat is cooked and what sausages are made of. The book under consideration shows that at the beginning of 1900’s food produces did not care much of the quality of food they released. There were two types of products’ destroy. The raw material could be brought of poor quality and the employees could harm a product due to low level of hygiene while manufacturing. The conditions people worked at were disgusting.
The current wealth distribution patterns in the U.S. are far from the embodiment of justice. One occupation that I feel is underpaid at the present time is the registered nurse in various healthcare environments. Based on things learned from my acquaintances working as hospital RNs, the degree of responsibility for patients’ well-being does not align with the average financial compensation that these specialists receive. One profession that I believe is overpaid is the National Football League player. Prominent clubs’ growing profits and football matches’ increasing accessibility due to technology advancements probably explain why footballers’ wages are extremely high. The reasons for selecting these examples pertain to compensation sizes’ desired dependence on the work’s degree of social importance. Specifically, utilitarian ethics could be applied to justify the selection of examples. The central pillar of utilitarianism is an emphasis on actions and choices that maximize well-being and promote the happiness of a substantial number of individuals (Woodard, 2019). In accordance with utilitarianism, an action is good and important if it brings benefits to the masses. Products that RNs and NFL players bring to society cannot be equal in significance. If there were no RNs, hospital inpatients would receive treatment from doctors but would be left without care and constant supervision, resulting in more frequent hospital infections, post-surgery complications left unnoticed until it is too late, and preventable deaths. In contrast, if there were no NFL players, sports fans would have fewer choices when watching sports, which is incompatible with the benefits from RNs’ work. Paying less to footballers and more to RNs would maximize society’s well-being by prioritizing survival over entertainment. Correcting the injustice addressed above would be challenging but still possible. One hypothetical way is the use of petitions for limiting NFL players’ wages or introducing new taxes for the representatives of overpaid occupations. Imposing profit use rules on large sports entities to make them obliged to donate a considerable part of profits to charity is another controversial but possible opportunity. In these circumstances, large leagues and teams would have to restrict wages. Another way of correcting the injustice would involve petitioning for legislative action to increase minimum wages for RNs. For this step, society’s support would be gathered with the help of arguments that higher wages intensify competition, and competition would lead to increases in care quality, thus promoting better public health outcomes. Reference Woodard, C. (2019). Taking utilitarianism seriously . Oxford University Press.
Privacy is a value that people in the world today hold in high esteem. Traditionally, the value of privacy was based on the strong belief that each individual deserves the right to be left alone and the right to choose what he/she wants to disclose to other people. The concept of privacy has become significantly complicated in the digital age. People have a different understanding of what privacy is depending on factors such as their education, cultural background and even nationality. I am an international student from Kuwait and my understanding of privacy is that it is a right for everyone. The concept of value comes from the strong belief among people that each individual deserves the right to be left alone and the right to choose what to disclose to others. Various scholars have over the years written papers that address the issue of privacy in the digital context. The perspectives offered by various scholars relate to my understanding of privacy in some ways. In my view, privacy has changed over the years due to the technological advances made by humans. Rule (2015) confirms that the state of privacy has changed over the past few decades and it can be expected to change even more in future. Privacy concerns have always been linked to the ability of other entities to violate the individual’s privacy. On the other hand, the extent to which a person’s privacy can be violated is linked to technology. Before the invention of technologies such as the telephone, it was hard to eavesdrop on a person’s private conversation. However, the telephone made it possible for electronic eavesdropping to occur. The prevalent use of the internet has introduced new privacy concerns. These concerns such as electronic surveillance did not exist a few decades ago when the internet was not widely used. Rule (2015) suggests that the future of privacy is very insecure as technology is introducing many privacy-destroying processes. Most people in the public acknowledge the privacy risks that the internet has introduced. Abel-Azim (2010) notes that privacy concerns are regarded as important issues as people in the Middle East adapt new technologies and make use of them. I believe that the efficiency with which computer systems and the internet can process data has increased the threats to privacy faced by individuals, especially in the developed countries that have embraced the technologies. For example, many new privacy issues have been introduced by the development and widespread use of computers and the internet. Traditionally, governments and organizations relied on paper-based systems to maintain various individual records. The privacy issues introduced by such systems were minimal since the information was not centralized. In the paper-based system, it was hard to compile information about a person from different sources. The digital age has made it not only possible but also easy for governments and corporations to compile vast amounts of personal information. Rule (2015) points out that various justifications have been
Introduction The book Paula Spencer written by Roddy Doyle is considered to be a biographical masterpiece of world literature reflecting problematic aspects of human life. The author managed to depict life transformations and changes influencing the formation of a person’s inner world and perception of the environment. The story describes the woman’s life through such significant aspects as family values and cultural development playing an important role in Paula’s experience and life stages she went through. Paula Spencer’s life changes Doyle managed to describe major changes Paula Spencer experienced through her life; the author tried to reflect on the tragic challenges suffering by the person and which impacted her family life and social stability. It is important to underline the fact that the author described the woman being a mother and alcoholic whose harmful way of life influenced the future of her family and her personal attitude to people. The woman managed to go through a lot of difficulties and sorrow experienced in Irish society. Doyle managed to stress the strong character of the woman who perceived the environment differently from others; she seemed to be ready for changes that constantly awaited her destiny. “…the woman never gets over the terror of having no money, the prison of having nothing. Putting thing back up on supermarket shelves because the tenner in her pocket turned out to be a fever”. (Doyle, 2006). Getting rid of alcoholism abuse, Paula managed to live a family life with her husband and children. The author describes Paula’s life a year after leaving her family, her thief husband, Charlo. Paula’s life appeared to be full of unpleasant surprises and sorrow following every step of her existence. The news about her husband’s death being killed in a bank robbery made her dive into the depth of living with the man whom she feared and loved at the same time. The author tried to demonstrate the interference of Irish cultural society with the woman’s destiny. Paula Spencer appeared to be the example of Ireland changing becoming a member of the Eurozone reflecting the features of Eastern European society. The author shows how the woman who went through life tragedy managed to rebuild her “personal environment” and change her attitude to society, family, and the whole world. The most prominent change was observed in Paula’s attitude to her children and culture. She comes to the conclusion that everything can be broken and people are to evaluate every moment of their life. The woman tried to expand her feelings to close people expressing more love to the children and establishing contact with her sisters. It is interesting to note that the woman, who neglected everything at the early stages of her life, began to appreciate cultural values; the woman is interested in Italian food and different styles of music making her inner world wealthy and interesting. “She is new-old woman learning how to live” (Doyle, 2006) The life of Paula Spencer can be analyzed from two different angles called “before” and “after”; and it is really so… The woman was described as the reflection of two different people, one of which is
To begin with, residents of Latin America have experienced numerous difficulties related to inequality: economic, social, racial, cultural, and political. Consequently, even after the independence of new nations, they still tended to be negatively influenced in their daily lives by cultural and social stereotypes and so-called norms. Individual leaders and a weak economy created new challenges for advancing politics and choosing reliable leaders. Overall, the repercussions of wars served as a constant issue on the path to independence to the nations located both in rural and urban parts of Latin America. The end to the Spanish rule resulted in the destabilization of Viceroyalty, forcing people of new nations to choose their leaders and government for establishing an efficient legal system. Residents desired equity in their rights, no matter their race, gender, or culture, so they wanted “to oversee … political and financial interests, provide justice to settlers and natives, and supervise the allocation of resources” (Burkholder et al., 2018, p. 56). Still, it is crucial to note that political identity was a highly significant concern for creating new governments since the old regime needed to be replaced with new laws. However, the fact that numerous aspects of Spanish America were planned to be altered, it appeared to be challenging to achieve fruitful outcomes in all the tasks. Another critical point is that the Spanish were intensely focused on creating and sustaining a democratic government prior to the new nations’ independence. However, as the multiracial society rejected such a perspective, it eventually became undemocratic (Burkholder et al., 2018). To be more exact, the government and political organizations were solely organized by the individual Spanish leaders. As a result, after gaining independence, new nations desired to alter the political aspects of the land entirely so that the members of the Spanish monarchy became simple citizens (Burkholder et al., 2018). By and whole, it was challenging to control every institution ruled by individual leaders and, therefore, some organizations remained untouched, which negatively impacted politics and the economy in Spanish America. Furthermore, as the democratic practices still were not achieved, the political authority remained to be exercised. As a result, newly organized institutions were not supported and lost their significance to society since “newly independent countries confronted centrifugal political threats” (Burkholder et al., 2018, p. 191). The emergence of the strongmen, caudillos, resulted in the destabilization of formal institutions and, therefore, elections. However, the activities of strongmen focused on promoting “political integration of the masses” were negatively influencing state resources during
Today the problem of globalization is one of the most discussed trends of the contemporary development of the economics, politics, and social life. Globalization is a multidimensional process which involves a lot of different aspects associated with the progress of the developed and developing countries. That is why there are many visions of the issue of globalization according to which the process is discussed as contributing to the progress of the world economy and as rather controversial with references to the global effects which it can have. Joseph Stiglitz’s book Making Globalization Work is the representation of the author’s opinion on the question of globalization in the context of the economic and political development of countries with determining globalization’s main challenges and their possible solutions with references to the results of Stiglitz’s prolonged research in the field. Thus, the main topic of Joseph Stiglitz’s work reflects the main themes of the author’s previous investigations. The title of the book Making Globalization Work provides the readers with the area of the author’s discussion. In his book, Joseph Stiglitz concentrates on presenting the key challengeable trends in the development of the phenomenon of globalization in the world and on providing the reasonable solutions to the issues with referring to the global economic and political processes in order to make globalization which is the key world process contribute to the global development of the both developed and developing countries. From this point, being published in 2006, the book determines the problems of globalization in the world context with focusing on the elements of the policy in the USA, and they are typical for the period between the late 1990s and the beginning of the 21 st century. Developing the topic of the book and accentuating the positive and negative aspects of globalization as the worldwide process, Stiglitz argues that today globalization depends on the unfair rules which address the interests only of the developed countries, that is why this situation is based on the global instability and results in the global inequality of the countries in their economic development. Thus, Frieden states that Stiglitz “argues that globalization holds out great promise as a force for good, but that the rules of the present international economic order are designed and enforced by the rich nations to serve their interests” (Frieden). Furthermore, discussing the challenges of the globalization process, Stiglitz refers both to the economic and political sphere with accentuating the fact that the effective globalization depends on the effective policies within the countries. The author also determines the notion of democracy as the key one for providing the successful approach to solving the current problem associated with the issue of globalization (Stiglitz). However, is it possible to discuss Stiglitz’s point of view as the credible and developed argument? The author’s offers connected with the problem’s solution and his conclusions are based on the long-t