ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction Artificial Intelligence, previously seen as an inconceivable concept, is now a reality. For the past 30 years, technology has drastically developed and, moreover, began to evolve. At the hypothetical moment when the development of machines becomes beyond human control, the technological singularity will begin. Currently, the futurists try to define what the technological singularity constitutes, what can be considered as a start of the uncontrolled machine evolution and what impact it would make on humankind. General Discussion: The TS definition, TS drivers, and obstacles The possible definition of the TS The future is inevitably coming, which constitutes its inherent feature. Artificial intelligence (AI), a digital neighbor of that of human beings, is now being exponentially developed, which, in turn, might lead to the technological singularity (TS). Nevertheless, defining intelligence and technological singularity is one of the most difficult problems one may face. One of them suggests that Intelligence is a problem-solving algorithm, that “can only be understood with respect to a specific problem” [1]. Chollet states that the AIs known so far are highly specialized – like playing computer games or classifying images into categories [1]. The other possible form of the Intelligence formulation (a machinery one, in this case) is the combination of the abilities of a machine to ‘think’, to collect data, and to adapt [10]. Whereas, the boundaries of determinacy of the aforementioned intellectual skills have not yet been defined. According to Grout, the idea of TS can be realized through two concepts —process-based and result-based models [10]. The process-based model of the TS constitutes an automated replication combining design and production [10]. In order for the machine evolution to proceed, all phases should be completely automatized. However, they are subjected to human intervention and mediation between the sub-phases. The result-based definition constitutes the automatized and independent replication of hardware. It can be exemplified by a 3D printer that creates the identical version of itself [10]. Then, with the extra code lines, it might create a better version of itself. The superior versions may obtain better features – in hardware (control, power, capabilities) and software. In this case, thus, the evolution continues with each ‘generation’ of a machine. The TS drivers and obstacles With some of the TS definitions and Intelligence mentioned, the study will consider the TS drivers and obstacles. First, the powerful driver of the TS is the massive expansion of technology: connected computers, numerous devices, ongoing communication, data accumulation in cyberspace, boost the development of technology [2]. On the other hand, a powerful contributor is the designing and production of neuromorphic chips, which are more efficient and are capable of collecting sensory data, such as smell, sound, and image [2]. These chips are expected to chan
Definition of sovereign ratings and its importance A sovereign rating refers to a measure used to assess the level of risk involved in investing in a company or financial institution. In most cases, it is used by investors who want to assess the amount of uncertainty involved before investing in a company. Moreover, a sovereign rating is vital for the assessment of the credit risk of a nation and the companies within its borders. The ratings enable The Bank for International Settlements to determine capital sufficiency. Role of rating agencies Rating agencies assign sovereign ratings to foreign- currency by striking a balance between the factors of the constant and those brought about by the theory. It is essential to establish sovereign capability and willingness to handle an external debt. Role of neural networks in sovereign ratings and ideology of whether to entirely rely on neural network prediction Artificial neural network ideology originated from the human neuron physiology. A series of neurons pass information to the nucleus using synapses and the information is interpreted as an output. The input of various variables in a credit rating is re-laid out and output obtained. This is termed as a prediction. Neural networks are used to classify sovereign ratings according to the percentages of correctness in performance. Rating agencies use neural networks as the best models for sovereign rating. The neural networks are very accurate inaccuracy of sovereign ratings and when tested with two models their accuracy ranges to 90 percent. One can rely entirely on the neural networks since the sample size for obtaining the most suitable had five thousand epochs. The level of correctness and accuracy of predictions will be high. Since the sovereign ratings are essential for the prediction of credit risks in firms and
American psychologist, philosopher and medical doctor William James was an influential pioneer at the turn of the century in the novice sciences of psychology, educational psychology , religious experience psychology, mysticism as well as the philosophy of pragmatism . A prolific and voluminous writer throughout his life who spent most academic career at Harvard, James interact with renowned writers and scholars, amongst them Ralph Waldo Emerson (his godfather), William James Sidis (godson), Charles Sanders Pierce , Bertrand Russell , John Dewey , Walter Lippmann , Mark Twain and Sigmund Freud . In 1901 and 1902, James did a series of lectures under the auspices of the Gifford Lecture Series at the University of Edinburgh (Scotland) on Natural Theology – the knowledge of God. The compilation of the lectures resulted in his groundbreaking book The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature – his expose on the philosophy of religion in relation to his pragmatic predilections. In Lectures IV, V, and VI discussed THE RELIGION OF HEALTHY-MINDEDNESS and THE SICK SOUL. In the former James elaborates (defends yet criticizes) on the fundamental tenet of the popular twentieth century mind – cure movement which advocated the healing power of positive beliefs and emotions on the mind – an all pervasive optimistic view of life. On the other hand, the latter discusses the chronic evils of world and how they inflict the soul and mind. These lectures and the premises they purport can be coined or categorized according to James into two forms of human existence or religious personalities – the “once-born” and the “twice-born.” They not only explained human dispositions but different instincts and attitudes about religion. Via exaggeration James is effectively describes and differentiates the nature of the two personalities. Aforementioned, the essential goodness of life compounded with cheer and enthusiasm is the core philosophy of the “once born.” Everything is positive, beautiful, euphoric – oblivious to the hardship of life comprised of disease, vices, venality, sin, criticism, etc. As James asserts/further elaborates – “They see God, not as a strict Judge, not as a Glorious Potentate; but as the animating Spirit of a beautiful harmonious world, Beneficent and Kind, Merciful as well as Pure. The same characters generally have no metaphysical tendencies: they do not look back into themselves. Hence they are not distressed by their own imperfections: yet it would be absurd to call them self-righteous; for they hardly think of themselves at all. This childlike quality of their nature makes the opening of religion very happy to them: for they no more shrink from God, than a child from an emperor, before whom the parent trembles: in fact, they have no vivid conception of any of the qualities in which the severer Majesty of God consists (The Varieties of Religious Experience).” On the other hand the “sick soul” or “twice born” are extremely introspective and distressed by and pa
Greenberg, K. (2006). The torture debate in America . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. This book deeply analyses the different perspectives on torture in America and weighs the statements of some of the top government executives including former president George. W. Bush and the former attorney generals. Greenberg further gathers the opinions of various military leaders on the application of different forms of torture and the effectiveness of the techniques. The book concludes with a compelling objective argument based on different myths, assumptions and views on torture. Levinson, S. (2004). Torture: A collection . New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Torture: A collection is a fact based book that reveals the numerous numbers of interrogation techniques and attempts to identify the premier practice of the techniques. The author reaches back into history to expose various primitive forms of torture that were undeniably crude and often fatal. Levinson goes on to document the evolution of torture through the dark ages to the 21 st century. Mackey, C., & Miller, G. (2004). The interrogators: Inside the secret war against Al Qaeda . New York, NY: Little, Brown. Mackey and Miller venture into the secretive world of terrorism to write this book based on revealed facts and interviews. The book features a number of conversations the writers had with former torturers as they strive to discern the motives of the Al Qaeda. Torturers provide revealing information regarding the procedures of torture and give their various experiences while in the field. The book concludes with a number of assumptions on Al Qaeda pertaining to their intentions and extremist ideology. McCoy, A. (2006). A question of torture: CIA interrogation, from the Cold War to the war on terror . New York, NY: Metropolitan Books/Henry Holt and Co. McCoy focuses his book on the various interrogation tactics that have been applied by the Criminal Investigation Agency (CIA) since World War II to the current war on terror. The author unearths evidence to support claims of missing persons who vanished after being arrested by the CIA. The book also reveals the use of hallucinogens as a form of torture, a method which less known to the public. National Security Archive-NSA (2004). The interrogation documents: Debating U.S. policy and methods . Retrieved from: https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu//NSAEBB/NSAEBB127/index.htm This website is very useful for acquiring information and documented evidence revealing the signed authorization by government officials allowing interrogators to torture suspects. The site gives a chronological account of some of the controversial incidents of torture, vindicated by senior officials in the White House and the Department of Defense. Walzer, M. (2000). Just and unjust wars . New York, NY: Basic Books. In this book, Walzer tries to reveal the significant precursors to some of the major wars. The author examines information from different sources to ascertain the accuracy of the findings. The author goes further to examine the character and personality of the warring leaders in order
Introduction The distinct life of the mobile communications has taken different phases. This can be traced from the 1G to the most rest 4G. G, 2G, 3G and 4G are a wireless phone or a cellular phone standard way of classification based on generations/ cellular phone evolution. This paper is a critical comparison of all these technological generations with an aim of tracking the trend that is followed in the developments. Grandpa and Grandma 1G Grandpa and Grandma 1G was the very first generation of wireless technology that originated around 1980’s. The cellular phones of this time were big in size (handbag phones) and used a high power voltage. Communication in the first generation cellular phones was enhanced by use of analog radio waves/ signals; use of radio antennas (a radio transmitter on one end and receiver on the other end. Analogue technology could only accommodate voice communication the passing of analogue signals. While this was the best technological developments at the time, it had a couple of limitations. The first generation wireless technology covered a relatively small area. Communication was only possible between parties of the same nation/within a nation’s boundary’s/ within the grounds of a particular nation (Fendelman). This first generation wireless technology supports only one way communication at a time. For instance the intended recipient has to be calm till the sender finishes talking then he/she can begin answering incase he/she speaks before then, his/her message won’t be delivered. All the above services are possible through a technology that interprets voice calls called circuit switching -Circuit switching is easily distorted by a simple physical noise thus destroying the quality of a conversation. All these limitations lead the players in the industry to look for more advanced technology which could fill the loopholes in communication (News from Rohde and Schwarz, 2002). 2G – The second generation of the wireless digital technology 1G was later thrown out/replaced by 2G that came with greater and better technological benefits like the additional data services. At this level people could send text messages on top of the voice communication they initially had. The radio signals were digital and the conversations digitally encrypted unlike the initial analog. This therefore allowed the mobile phone services to be passed over a wider area (great service penetration levels).The wireless digital network use brings more voice clarity to the conversation being carried out. This enhanced intercontinental communications, more privacy in communication as well as storage of communication. The messages sent through this technology could easily be referred to later. The second generation phones are however, costly compared to the first generation wireless cellular phones. Unlike the first wireless technology where communications were only possible within a nation, 2G ventures into a wide area in terms of service coverage area due to the ad
War is one of the worst things that can happen to human beings. Unfortunately, genocide is even worse, as extermination of people according to their specific belonging to a group or nationality is most inhumane. Not only it is scary and animal-like, it leaves a permanent mark on the people. One of the worst examples of genocide was one towards the Aboriginals of Australia. Australian continent is a diverse environment with a rich history and prosperous future. The major changes began in the 1850s when development of the country began. Since the earliest days of the late 18 th century, it was a British colony which was taken as English land, and not Australian Natives’. Primarily, Australia was thought to be a far off land where indigenous people were abundant and technology non-existent. During the hundred years, from 1800 to 1900, the United Kingdom would establish separate colonies that divided Australia into distinct and unique regions. From the beginning, Australia had a reputation of being a penal colony but mostly, Tasmania and Southern Australia were used for such purposes (Macintyre 2009). There is factual evidence that genocide was the worst pressure Aboriginals have felt in a long time. The systematic extermination of native population with an advantage of technology is no doubt genocide. The fact is that no matter how high and morally correct the invaders’ goals might be, they are still prejudiced by rules and politics that cannot allow understanding. The cruel nature of the act, clearly illustrates the human character of greed and land pursuit. Not only the English killed and injured native people, but the resolution was not achieved to any degree (Hirst 2010). But, according to the British and other countries who had colonies, it is believed that overpowering of natives is not genocide. It is simply a part of the natural world, as nations become curious and they explore. By finding people, they want to “help” them become more civilized by teaching the colonizers’ culture and rules. It seems strange that genocide and civil wars, as well as rebellions against governments, are taking place and the peacekeeping organization is not able to achieve any cessation of violence (Tatz 1999). The rules and policies produced by the international laws state that as long as there is intent to systematically get rid of a group of people and there is the act itself, it is genocide (The crime of “genocide” defined in international law). Australian Aboriginals were full of fear that a group of foreign invaders will be able to overtake a country that is unarmed (Elder 2008). This is the worst type of war because it is not a fight for ideals or moral justice; it has a very low and disrespectful reason to exist. Most of all, it is sanctioned by governments, as great resources—numbers of soldiers, weapons
Research Article Critique Obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a widespread health problem both in the United States and in other areas of the world. There are a lot of known cases of the COPD-asthma overlap in different populations, particularly in older adults. According to Soler-Cataluna et al. (2012), “The patients in whom the characteristics of the two diseases overlap could potentially have different responses to treatment and the evolutional course” (p. 331). Nevertheless, the COPD-asthma overlap remains poorly understood, as there have been limited attempts to explore its epidemiology (Iwamoto et al., 2014). Potentially, research on the epidemiology of the COPD-asthma overlap could provide some useful insights into the issue. For example, a study by Fu, Gibson, Simpson, and McDonald (2014) showed that the prognosis for patients for COPD-asthma overlap is generally much better than for those with COPD alone, while Cazzola et al. (2012) showed that the presence of asthma alongside COPD is associated with a higher incidence of cardiovascular morbidity. In their article “The Coexistence of Asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): Prevalence and Risk Factors in Young, Middle-aged and Elderly People from the General Population”, De Marco et al. (2013) aimed to fill the existing gap in knowledge by studying the development of COPD-asthma overlap in different populations. Research Problem and Purpose The overlap between COPD and asthma is a major health issue due to its high prevalence, as well as the associated morbidity, mortality, and socioeconomic costs (De Marco et al., 2013). Yet, the issue has not received sufficient attention in clinical research, as very few epidemiological studies on the overlap are available. De Marco et al. (2013) place the study problem within the context of existing knowledge by summarizing the previous research findings. The purpose of the research was to expand the current knowledge of the overlap syndrome in order to determine its prevalence and risk factors. Potentially, this study could be used in nursing practice to better understand the condition, although it would be more useful in further research on treatment and prevention. Review of the Literature The report does not include a separate section on the literature review, which is probably because limited research on the COPD-asthma overlap is av
What effects do situational-specific factors have on leadership? The central point of this attitude is focusing on the control and administration in different situations. From this angle, to be an effective leader, the person is expected to adapt his style of leadership to various circumstances. Therefore, there are different factors that affect the style of a leader. According to the research, “leadership is composed of both a directive and a supportive dimension.” A leader has to appraise his workers and determine whether they are capable of performing and fulfilling the task in order to evaluate the effects on the leadership. So, in my opinion, the situational-specific factors elect the directedness or support of the leader to meet the shifting requirements of the employees. Moreover, the influence on leadership leads to the leader’s interest in productive and efficient work, thus altering the level of the development of the workers. How do contingency factors influence the effectiveness of leadership styles? The contingency theory implies that the efficiency of a leader is determined by his style and how it corresponds to the situation. The theory “provides a framework for effectively matching the leader and the situation” (Mind Tools n.d.). There are three main contingency factors that affect leadership performance: the leader-worker connection, task structure, and the position power of the affected. Each of the factors defines whether the style of the leader would be developed or negatively interacted with. Moreover, the theory implies that people are divided into two groups: task-motivated and relationship-motivated. Basing on this, the leader can understand in which situations different employees will be more productive. For example, people of the first category are more likely to perform their best in both beneficial and non-beneficial environment. On the other hand, the representatives of the second group are more likely to perform in fairly favorable conditions. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each theory, and how might the shortcomings of each be overcome? Situational theory The success of this approach is explained by its practicality: “it provides a straightforward approach that is easily used” (Buble, Juras & Matić 2014, p. 170). Moreover, the situational theory describes what should and should not be done in different situations. This also determines that every leader can show flexibility, as it reminds us to have unique access to every employee. The weaknesses of this theory lie in the lack of research in this field. As the studies imply, “situational leadership concerns the ambiguous conceptualization in the model of subordinates development levels” (Tebeian 2012, p. 317). Contingency theory One of the main strengths of this approach is that it is established in various researches, and it
Back on Planet Earth, people used to say that women in pre modern China were downtrodden and oppressed. Does the surviving evidence support that view? Introduction Early back on planet earth, men dominated premodern China. Women were said to be highly oppressed, being inferior to their husbands, fathers, sons as well as brothers. This situation is best depicted by the only surviving literature from earth, Under Confucian Eyes: Writings on Gender in Chinese History by Mann, Susan and Cheng, Yu-Yin. This paper looks at how the book brings out the true picture of women in the pre modern China, and under the marginal regime. The paper looks at how the different authors and works, as analyzed in the book, brought out the position and role of women in the Chinese society. The paper begins by defining Confucianism and its influence on the position of the Chinese women. It then generally discusses the Chinese women during the pre modern time and links these to the views brought out by Mann and Cheng in their book. The paper will hereby assess how the various chapters from different authors define women in the Chinese society, their rights, their position as authors and as domestic mothers and wives. Confucianism Confucianism is defined as a Chinese system of ethics and philosophy that was influenced by a theorist called Confucius during the early years. The teachings brought out by this philosopher were those related to statesmanship, education and ethics. The teachings lay emphasis on the love for all mankind, respect for parents, ancestral worship and peace. With regard to women, Confucius was of the view that women were subordinate to men and that they served the role of looking after their husbands. The girl child according to this philosopher was unworthy and did not deserve to be educated. Girls according to the Confucius culture were items that could in cases of lack be exchanged for money. The philosopher described the women’s place as being the home, with her most important duty as being that of bearing a so