ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction This paper aims to provide an overview and analysis of the book “Averting “The Final Failure” by the historian Sheldon Stern as well as the “Cuban Missile Crisis” chapter from the textbook “Crisis and Conflict”. The work will assess the credibility of the sources and their contents. Averting the “Final Failure” The book was written in 2003 for the Stanford University Nuclear Age series. It focuses on the role Kennedy played in preventing the nuclear confrontation during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The author Sheldon Stern is a PhD in history and the creator of the American History Project for High School Students. It seems that the author’s agenda is to simply demonstrate the insight new evidence can give. Stern specifically focuses on the Kennedy recordings, which is clearly stated in the title of the book. It can be concluded that author is impartial in his coverage of the Cuban Crisis. As a result, the source can be used as a reliable source of information on the inner workings of the American government during the Missile Crisis. The source provides an invaluable insight into the role of John F. Kennedy and the American government in the Cuban incident. Not only does the book cover the meetings of that time extensively, but it also comments on them, providing historical context to the participants and explaining their reasoning and suggestions they made. As the source is a book meant for general public it is somewhat limited in its depth, providing a more shallow analysis appropriate for casual readers. The focus on making the tapes more digestible can be viewed as both a benefit and a shortcoming. For example, Stern writes: “McNamara assured the Illinois senator that amphibious craft were available and after reviewing two alternative invasion plans, promised that either plan would lead to victory” 1 , instead of providing the direct quote which could have been useful for analysis. Cuban Missile Crisis This source is a chapter from the “Crisis and Conflict” textbook. It describes the course of the Cuban Missile Crisis through historical documents. It can hardly be suspected of any bias, as there is barely any original text. The chapter mostly consists of the excerpts from various letters and addresses of the time. The source provides the actual documents related to the Cuban Crisis that are valuable for my research. The only downside is the lack of commentary, making it difficult to put the papers in the appropriate context. Conclusion “Averting “The Final Failure” and “Cuban Missile Crisis” are trustworthy sources of information focusing on factual evidence. They do not push an agenda, and no specific point of view seems to color the evidence. They provide a lot of valuable and purely factual information about the Cuban Missile Crisis. Bibliography Stern, Sheldon M. Averting ‘The Final Failure’: John F. Kennedy and the Secret Cuban Missile Crisis Meetings. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003. Footnotes  1. Sheldon M Stern, Averting ‘The Final F
Introduction Imperialism is a term used to describe the relationship between a more powerful state and a less powerful one (Howe, 13). In addition, imperialism is the creation and maintaining of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationship mainly between states. The relationship is based on domination and subordination. One way of enhancing Imperialism is through the use of walls, which are fences demarcating territories. Primarily, imperial rulers used walls to out mark their territories; these walls were meant to limit movement within empires and offer security against enemies. In most times, Imperial powers are associated with unjust rule and control of people (Garnsey and Whittaker 1). Some of the examples of walls created by Imperial states are the great walls of Hadrian in the Roman Empire, the west bank barrier between Israel and Palestine, and the Berlin walls separating west and the Communist East German. One major role of walls is to offer security and economic development. Most of these walls were set with entry points, which were controlled by the rulers, while the gates were used as taxation points. West bank barrier This wall separates Israel and Palestine. It is created by the state of Israel and due to completion in 2010. The main function of this barrier is preventing terror attacks in Israel by Palestinians. Primarily, the wall consists of fences, walls vehicle barrier and trenches. The Palestine claims that the area where the barrier is built was taken from them. The barrier contains of entry points that allow only permitted people and goods. This barrier has caused a lot of tension in the world. This barrier has limited Palestine from accessing vital social services. Great Wall of China This barrier was built in the 7 th century in china. The first part of the wall was built by Emperor Qin Shi in 221 BC (Evans, 3). It is approximately 3700 miles and consists of several walls and fortification, many running parallel to each other. These parallel walls were meant to reinforce the original wall. The wall was designed to with stand small arms like swords and spears. The main intention for the wall was to protect the unification Emperor Shi had achieved by conquering his neighbors. Later the wall was extended by the kingdom rulers to keep off normads invaders on the northern border of China. This wall was seen as a sign of the Emperor dictatorship. There is a myth that the Great Wall of China can be seen from the outer space, which has been refuted by scientist. The Walls of China are one of the best-known empire walls presently. Hadrian’s Wall The Hadrian’s Wall was established by a Roman ruler named Hadrian in northern Britain. “Construction began in 122 Newcastle to Bowness-on-Solway and later extended eastwards to Wallsend” (Lesley and Roy 101). It was first of two-fortification build in Great Britain. The Hadrian’s Wall was 117 km long, 10ft thick and 15 to 20 ft high. The wall was built with stones but the western part was built with turf since limes
Introduction Socialization is a crucial aspect of the lives of aging people since it provides them with an opportunity to feel a part of the community despite possible challenges associated with health and mobility. Online sites allowing senior citizens to engage in the active dialogue, particularly, online dating sites, can be seen as an important opportunity for retaining socialization rates at the needed level. However, I believe that the specific sites still provide only a substitute for an actual dialogue that aging people need desperately to feel welcome in the community. Therefore, it seems to me that a combination of online and live communication is necessary for aging people to feel active in the community. Main body However, as a woman of non-American descent, I understand the appeal of dating applications as the means of selecting a partner that comes from the same ethnic background and, thus shares a range of common characteristics. The concept of dating affects me since, being a Korean immigrant in the U.S. and having to support my grandchildren, I often feel that my personal life has been impaired significantly due to economic and social challenges. Being deprived of an opportunity to spend an extensive amount of time socializing in the community, as an aging person, I need dating sites geared toward older people in order to build my personal life. Considering the benefactors of the relationships that aging people develop through dating sites and applications also helps to determine the actual value of the tools in question. The idea of benefit may be seen as slightly misconstrued in the described scenario since the success in using dating applications and sites hinges on a range of factors. These factors include being technologically perceptive to have the required tools and financial resources to purchase them. Nevertheless, it seems that the consumers of the service, specifically, the people that have difficulties with finding partners offline, benefit to the greatest extent from the services provided by online apps and dating sites (Mehrotra, & Wagner, 2018). Thus, introducing the tools in question as a supplement to live communication will be a sensible step toward improving the opportunities for communication for aging people (Menkin, Robles, Wiley, & Gonzaga, 2015). Personally, I have used similar sites several times in order to find a partner and, while not having succeeded, I feel that these tools provide enough support to aging people. However, dating is not the only activity that I have been enjoying to keep my social life saturated and satisfying. I also talk sometimes to my neighbors and discuss community-related issues with them. For example, I have c
In his article, Robert Cox (1981) discusses the factors the shape the main peculiarities of international relations. Much attention should be paid to his assumption according to which the world order is shaped by social forces and institutions within countries. In this particular context, the term world order can be depicted as a set of rules and principles that govern the interactions between the main actors of international politics (Cox 1981, p. 152). It seems that this argument is important for understanding the main trends in the global politics. These ideas should be discussed in greater detail. Overall, the scholar notes that the distinctions between the state and civic societies may not be relevant if one speaks about the foreign policy of a country. Traditionally, political scientists regard international relations as the expression of state interests and priorities such as the need to minimize or eliminate external threats (Cox 1981, p. 126). Nevertheless, the author believes that this separation of civic society and the state is not permissible. The writer provides various examples that can illustrate his argument; in particular, he discusses the system of international relations that emerged in the nineteenth century. It is now known as Pax Britannica. To some degree, it was the expression of values which were advocated by the middle class (Cox 1981, p. 141). Apart from that, much attention should be paid to the increasing of role of manufacturing capitalism in the nineteenth century (Cox 1981, p. 141). The author offers a model according to which social forces, forms of state, and existing world order are closely intertwined (Cox, 1981, p. 138). One should keep in mind that the author introduces the idea of transnational social forces that manifest themselves in various regions of the world. To some degree, this premise can be accepted because social groups in different countries may have similar interests; moreover, they can set the norms governing international relations. It should be noted that this approach can be useful for understanding the way in which social forces and institutions affect international relations. Nevertheless, this approach may not be suitable for explaining the conflicting nature of international politics. For instance, the government can enter into alliances with countries in which different classes or institutions can play the dominant role. Additionally, one sho
Introduction Ikuru is a film in current Japan revealing the plight of Kanji Watanabe, a servant in public service who discovers he is on the brink of death since he is a victim of terminal cancer. Watanabe discovers that his life has lost meaning and wants to derive a meaning out of it within the few days that he has to live. The lead character in this film who is Watanabe is similar to Ivan Ilyich who is a lead character in the novel The Death of Ivan Ilyich. Both characters reach a point of enlightenment in their lives and discover that they have never lived when they are almost dying. This essay will look at the points of enlightenment for both Watanabe and Ivan Ilyich. Enlightenment Moment for Watanabe The title of the film Ikiru is a Japanese word for life. The film consists of two sections one of them being a show of how useless the life of Watanabe has become. This is occasioned by his association with a group from the society that is fighting for unused piece of land with officials from the government. The battle between this group and government officials leads to wastage of a lot of time as they deal with the complicated systems of law. The group is exposed to many frustrations until they are taken back to the starting point. By the time they are done with their struggles, the time of Watanabe being in office has expired and he begins endeavors of seeking treatment for his deadly medical condition (Jawayeera 3). The futility of the life Watanabe has lived is explored through the relationship he has with his son when he finds out that he is suffering from cancer. The point of enlightenment for Watanabe is not very fruitful since it acts as a great failure. When he becomes enlightened and discovers his condition, he starts looking for fulfillment in his remaining life and at this point he looks for a novelist. Watanabe wants the novelist to give him tips on what a good life encompasses and he is informed of some of the bad things in Japan that he is supposed to distance himself from. The list of these vices includes dance places, drinking alcohol, clubs where strippers are found among other undesirable places. However much Watanabe tries to find solace in the teachings he gets from the novelist, life to him remains as unsatisfying as ever and his quest continues since he is now enlightened (Jawayeera 6). The enlightenment of Watanabe continues when he is involved with a little girl working in his office. The young lady has approached Watanabe because she wants him to sign a document that will enable her move from her current job to a new job. This encounter with the young girl causes Watanabe to become obsessed with the young lady. Watanabe cannot express himself well and finds a lot o
Introduction Over many years, psychologists have invested a lot of time and effort to establish and maximize the validity of test scores. The main reason for the maximization of validity was to ensure that tools used for psychological assessments measure what they are designed or intended to measure. The existence of test tools that provide scores that have high validity ensures that psychologists have reliable and valid instruments that enhance the process of testing (Borsboom, Mellenbergh & Heerden, 2004). Therefore, based on accuracy, psychologists can draw accurate inferences from the scientific test processes and apply the findings to make accurate decisions. The following paper explores validity in relation to the process-focused (PF) model and the traditional model of validity, the importance of PF, and the process of implementation of the PF. PF Model and Traditional Model of Validity The PF and traditional models are critical in establishing test score validity in the psychological processes. The major point of difference between the traditional and PF model lies in the various areas of psychological assessment. The first key difference between the traditional model and the PF model relates to the process of conceptualizing validity. In the traditional model, the validity of a score is determined based on the outcome. According to Bornstein (2011), the scope of the test score is based on a correlation with a related theoretical variable. On the other hand, the extent of respondents’ engagement is applied invalidity conceptualization in PF model. Bornstein (2010) noted that the primary evidence of validity in PF model is based on the extent to which a test score is modified through the manipulation of variables in a theoretically related process. In addition to the differences in the conceptualization process, the traditional and PF models differ in the research process. In the traditional method, criterion correlation is applied in the assessment of the predictor (Bornstein, 2011). The PF model pro
Introduction Over the past decades, auditing has been widely associated with accounting and maintenance of financial records. Gupta (2005, p.7) asserts that auditing is aimed at enabling auditors to develop an opinion regarding the effectiveness with which firms financial statements and records have been prepared. That is, the financial records have to be in line with a particular financial reporting framework. Therefore, auditing can be regarded as a process aimed at verifying the accounting data (Gay& Simnett, 2009, p.46). This means that it entails a comprehensive evaluation of the accounting data and the evidence available in a firm’s accounting books. For an auditor to complete his or her job successfully, he or she should consider using external evidence for example by confirming bank balances from financial institutions and conducting physical counts of the evidence. The auditor must follow a particular procedure in his or her auditing process. For example, in Australia, the auditor must follow the Auditing Standards (Australian Accounting Research Foundation, 2002, p. 1). In its operation, a certain construction company has a substantial amount of mobile construction equipments. Additionally, the firm maintains a subsidiary ledger of the construction equipments. This paper is aimed at identifying and describing the substantive procedures that the auditor would conduct in examining mobile equipments and the related depreciation of a construction company. Auditing procedure The following procedure will be used in examining the mobile equipments.  1. The auditor will make a decision on the most efficient work-paper approach to use in auditing the mobile equipments. According to Vallabhaneni (2005, p.325), consideration of work paper approach aids in the identification of any fraudulent activities. In order to be effective, the auditor will use the company’s record of mobile equipments. Prior to this, the auditor will require the company’s paraprofessional to update the property accounts accordingly. Additionally, the auditor will also evaluate the lead schedule which will show all the transactions that have been conducted with respect to each particular account. This will aid in identifying all the changes with regard to the property.  2. To ensure effective preparation of the federal income tax return for the company, the auditor will obtain different information regarding the mobile construction equipments. The date they were acquired, their respective cost, their useful life and the method of depreciation used in order to effectively determine the tax return. In the event that some equipment were retired, the auditor will identify the date that they were retired, the depreciation method used through to their retirement, the proceeds received from the sale of the retired equipments and the date the equipment was acquired.  3. The auditor will also take into considerations all the add
Social structures keep changing day in and day out and there exist not one but many contending sociological theories that attempt to clarify why individual and societal lives exist as they are and why they keep changing. Sociological theory has continuously developed with time from classical to contemporary sociology with the recently evolved theories capable of dealing with today’s relevant societal matters. Some of the hypotheses can be traced back to the ideas of classical theorists as Durkheim. Though slightly superannuated, his works have not ceased containing significant theories that when expounded upon relates to the ever changing contemporary society. As a matter of fact, contemporary theory is filled with the developed ideas of outstanding classical theories. According to the perspectives of some social theories, which mainly center on societal transformations, various critical arguments have emerged. Society is viewed as an organization through which every interconnected component fits together to make a whole. Society functions as a unit basing on norms and values, satisfactory behavior as well as social ties. The purpose of social structures and institutions within the society, the connection between these structures, and the way in which they restrain the activities of persons within the society is well defined by the social order. With the emerging changes, individuals have tended to stray away from the customary rules that govern their behavior thus creating some sort of deviance in the society. Therefore, things that had once been unacceptable, or considered aberrant, are now part of cultural norms. In order to understand the society, this essay aims to look at the societal order and changes that take place within the society and how they are manifested in the works of some famous sociologists; Durkheim, Parsons and Merton. Structuralism is a thought established in the hypothesis that human behavior is structured by the societal environs. These structures shape human behavior. With the assistance of his student, Robert Merton, Talcott Parsons came up with the idea of structural functionalism during the 1950s. This, he developed basing on the sociological theory of Durkheim, a French sociologist, who is truly regarded a founder of the present day sociology. Durkheim and Parsons both considered the individuals within the society as inactive players in the continually varying societal structures (Parsons, 2011, pp. 51-53). In his book, The Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim dwells upon the specialization in labor as a function of the process that contributed to solidarity and social density in the society. He examines how social order is kept within the various societies. He views the division of labor in the traditional society as different from that
African-American history has always been embedded in various controversies. Whether a slave rebellion plot did take place in New York City in 1741 remains an open issue to this day. Certain historians tend to question the credibility of sources describing this event. Some of them even go as far as to call it “paranoid style”. Nevertheless, the position adopted by Jill Lepore and expressed in her book “New York Burning” provides interesting insights into the matter. The author interprets the political situation at the time in a way that makes us think whether the slave rebellion was not a logical point in a chain of events. Lepore argues that even though facts have not been definitively established, these events are a dark reflection of history (Lepore), and had far-reaching socio-political implications. The events of the 1730s and 1741 are believed by the author to be largely intertwined or even linked in a cause-effect chain of events. Based on Lepore’s arguments, we can conclude that a slave rebellion plot did take place in 1741, even though the complete scheme of conspiracy may remain unknown. Events Before 1741 Lepore claims that certain events prior to the 1741 fires are crucial in order to understand the socio-political situation of the time. In 1732, the arrival of a newly appointed governor, William Cosby, led to a series of events. As his governing style was unjust, abusive, and therefore left much to be desired, a famous lawyer, James Alexander started collaborating with a German immigrant, John Peter Zenger. The latter printed the New York Weekly Journal , where Alexander published his editorials outwardly criticizing Cosby’s administration. As a result, Zenger was arrested and tried on charges of libel. Due to the efforts of his lawyer, asserting that printing truthful criticism cannot be construed as libel, the governor himself was put on trial. Cosby did not stand a chance in front of the jury due to his abuse of power and an overall bad reputation. Thus, Zenger was acquitted of all charges, and together with Alexander, they published