ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction Without a doubt, one can clearly draw a parallel between the punitive system and the system of slavery as it existed in the United States prior to the Emancipation Proclamation. An examination of the history of the penal system as it existed in the State of Texas proves to be the best illustration of the comparisons between the penal system and the system of slavery. Especially since America’s late-twentieth century punitive turn, progressive historians have had to work with blinders on to keep the faith. “Progress,” of course, is a subjective, historically contingent concept. What constitutes betterment for one group may constitute backsliding for another. For entry-level employees, for example, workplace conditions have clearly improved over the course of the twentieth century. Once required to fill dangerous dawn-to-dusk shifts on subsistence wages, Texas line guards now put in forty-hour weeks and take home sufficient pay to enter the precarious ranks of the lower-middle class. 1 But most advocates of penological advancement base their claims on the lives of prisoners rather than their keepers. 2 They have proposed various yardsticks to measure prison improvements, from food quality and work load to whipping frequency and educational opportunities. Even according to Progressives’ own criteria, however, prison amelioration has been ambiguous. Main text By some measures, day-to-day convict life has surely improved. Prisoners today endure less arduous farm labor and fewer tune-ups or floggings. They are less likely to be shot down in a cane field or spend the night gasping for air in an over-crowded dark cell. They are less likely to starve or drop dead from heatstroke. By other progressive benchmarks, however, Texas’s prisons have deteriorated. During successive reform movements, critics railed against prison profiteering, inhumane conditions, and institutionalized racism. But all of these facets of prison life outlasted their opponents, and they remain alive and well in Texas’s massive punishment complex. During the lease era, dissidents’ principal complaint was that profit making corrupted every effort at rehabilitation. ‘The great object of reform will be forgotten whenever the chief object is to make money out of men’s bones and muscles,” admonished one legislator. Such critics rejoiced with the abolition of convict leasing in 1910, having achieved a seemingly decisive victory. During the phenomenal prison buildup of the 1980s, however, for-profit punishment rose from the grave. By 1994, thirty private prisons had sprung up in the state, warehousing more Texas prisoners than lessees ever had and importing rented convicts from as far away as Hawaii. This time around, the contracts work differently—the state pays private prison operators rather than vice versa—but the business incentives are similar. Private prison corporations, most of them southern companies like Texas’s Correll Corrections, make money by maximizing their prisoner head counts and minimizing expenses. They reward stockholders by spending less on guard wages and training and by providing con
Operant conditioning is a psychological theory, which is often applied in examining the behavior of human beings and animals (Cohen, 2009). Various scholars gradually developed this theory; for example, Konorski carried out extensive research on the behavior of animals (Cohen, 2009). Edward Thorndike later modified Konorski’s research findings on operant conditioning by introducing the law of impact (Cohen, 2009). According to this theory, behaviors that generate pleasing outcomes are likely to become habitual, and those that generate detestable effects are not likely to be repeated. In simple terms, some effects encourage behavior, and some do not. Based on this theory, Thorndike generated the initial set of animal learning arcs (Cooper & Heron, 2007). In the 18th century, B.F. Skinner advanced the idea of operant conditioning, but he criticized Thorndike’s hypothesis. Skinner introduced a cage in which he examined how various organisms responded to stimuli. “Most scholarly works produced by Skinner focus on the analysis of human actions using operant conditioning” (Cohen, 2009). Operant conditioning is different from classical habituation because it focuses on the transformation of behavior through reinforcement (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). “An operant action occurs in the surroundings and is sustained by training habitual actions, which are also prompted by antecedent circumstances, while classical habituation is upheld by its precursors and effects” (Reynolds, 2005). It is worth noting that an outcome does not sustain a behavior conditioned by classical habituation. Moreover, “classical habituation entails creating a link between unintentional reaction and motivation, while operant training involves connecting a voluntary action with a consequence” (Davey & Cullen, 1988). When operant conditioning is used to transform the behavior of an organism, inducements are used to encourage repetition of the desired behavior (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). Conversely, inducements are not applied in classical conditioning. Nonetheless, these two approaches can be used in examining the behavior of students and training animals. Positive and Negative Reinforcement Positive reinforcement refers to the application of an incentive after an action to encourage its reoccurrence. When a positive result, activity or incentive follows an action, it reinforces it (Cooper & Heron, 2007). Therefore, a positive reinforcement refers to rewarding an organism after it has performed the desired action. For example, a student who answers an oral question in class can be motivated in various ways. In the workplace, employees with outstanding performance can be given salary bonuses to motivate them for their hard work (Cooper & Heron, 2007). Although positive reinforcement can facilitate the conditioning of action, it should not be encouraged because it might encourage naughtiness (Cooper & Heron, 2007). For example, some parents erroneously guide errant children by giving them positive rewards after misbehaving. A child who is rewarded after misbehaving is likely to associate misconduct with inducemen
Abstract Data clustering is important in determining the natural groupings in data. Algorithms are commonly used to cluster data, although, the results often vary for different algorithms. Also, the algorithms, at times, get stuck when seeking local minimum solutions to a problem. Moreover, the clustering methods contribute to a low quality local optimum because of their sensitivity to initialization. This report seeks to study the nature of the standard K-Means clustering algorithm. Moreover, the paper seeks to identify the aspects of the K-Means clustering algorithms that help find good clustering in spatial data. Each algorithm is analyzed separately from the other algorithms to reveal their behavior. Also, the report analyzes the algorithms to identify the algorithm that best minimizes the mathematical formula for the same set of data. This minimization of mathematical criterion shows the superiority of the clustering algorithm. Introduction Data clustering enables one to understand the natural groupings of data. Wrapper methods are used in data clustering to identify good quality clusters. A limitation of the clustering methods is that they tend to get solutions to clustering algorithms problems from outside the cluster, therefore making the results inconsistent. A better clustering method should seek to improve the clustering algorithms to avoid inconsistencies. The K-Harmonic Mean algorithm is superior to the other methods because it produces good clustering solutions. Also, the method is faster than other clustering methods, such as the K-Means and Gaussian expectation-minimization. This paper studies the clustering algorithms and identifies the best clustering method based on the K-means and the K-harmonic means. Advantages The K-Means algorithms are superior to other data mining methods. Although the K-Means algorithms do not guarantee the accuracy, their speed and simplicity make them superior to other data clustering algorithms. Their fast speed enables them to run on large datasets. Also, K-Means algorithms generate tighter clusters. The K-Means are also memory efficient. Disadvantages First, the K-Means algorithms generate clusters that are difficult to compare. Secondly, the fixed number of clusters often generated by the K-means algorithms makes it hard to determine the value of K. The K-Means algorithms cannot process non-globular clusters. Moreover, initial differential partitions can generate varying final clusters. However, these limitations can be reduced by generating several clusters and then comparing the results for consistency. Analysis In Image Segmentation, the K-Harmonics Means (KHM) method produced quality images than the K-Means (KM) method. Also, the K-Harmonic Means produced consistent results for the same initialization, unlike the K-Means that generated varying results for the same initialization (Hamerly and Elkan 600). The model for the family of clustering algorithms revealed that the K-Means and
Introduction Contrary to his predecessors, Andrew Jackson has been listed as an immediate peoples’ representative that submitted to the will of the people (Cheathem & Mancall, 2008). The Jacksonian presidency stood out as the one that welcomed the rise of a two-party democracy and the coming of the professional politician. This paper explores some of the key policy elements that amplify the Jacksonian political reign to help assess his role in the making of the U.S. politics. In this discussion, the paper ventures into assessing significant policy themes that distinguishes Andrew Jackson’s two-time presidency, including the nullification, the Bank war, the removal of the Indian, and the spoils systems. The significance of the 1828 election The election of 1828 that saw Jackson ascend to power as the U.S. president remains critical in the political history of the United States of America. According to political analysts, the 1828 U.S. elections were referred to as the emergence of the common man where an average white American was an equal personality to occupy the high office (Cheathem & Mancall, 2008). Changes in the voting procedures, qualifications, and inclusivity and the rise of the common man’ distinguish the 1828 U.S election from the rest of the periods in the history of the nation (Rhodes, 2009). In a nutshell, the 1828 election brought about revolution in the nation’s political system that strengthened the executive powers of the sitting president (Cheathem & Mancall, 2008). Both traditional and modern political analysts have referred to the 1828 elections as the period that ushered in a shift of power bargain to the voter. In addition, regionalism and the emergence of modern democracy defined the Jacksonian electioneering period. Although some critics have latched his presidency, many observers still view him as the source of America’s advanced democracy. Jacksonian symbolism and policies The Spoils system Jackson’s appointment of principal federal office holders and state officials is one of the themes t
It is rather common for writers to get inspired by the greatest literary works from the past when creating their own novels, short stories, and poems. For instance, The Song of Roland , created in the eleventh century and considered the oldest surviving significant example of French literature, had and still has an extreme impact on various fields of art. It is believed that Ludovico Ariosto’s Italian epic poem known as Orlando Furioso , which was written and published in the early sixteenth century, was inspired precisely by The Song of Roland . The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast the two literary works. To begin with, the key similarity between the two poems is their main character – Orlando (or Roland). In both literary works, he is one of the bravest, boldest, strongest, and most skillful warriors of France. The background setting of the poems is also similar. The epic hero and his army have to fight against enemies that want to conquer France, and though there are different wars and invaders in the poems, they form their plots. The differences include the period in which the action of the poems takes place and the concept of love. As for the former, considering that both literary works are about the same epic hero, Orlando Furioso describes earlier events – the love interest of Orlando, his madness and the return to sanity, and his brave, bold, and successful fight with the African king Agramante. As for The Song of Roland, it describes later years of the epic hero’s life. He now has a betrothed but is fully devoted to his king and perceives battles and honor as the main concepts in his life. His boldness and excess pride do not allow him to call for help when the Muslims trick his army, and right after his glorious death, angels take Roland straight to heaven. Another difference between the two poems is the way the epic hero and the authors themselves perceive love. In the French poem, the love between Roland and his betrothed, Alde, does not play any significant role in the plot but is considered strong and true since Alde dies of grief after she learns about the death of her beloved. At the same time, in Orlando Furioso , love is viewed as a form of madness, and this symptom disappears after Orlando is cured of insanity.
Introduction Looking at the life perspectives for me as a young man it is necessary to mention that active position at High School proves a man’s active position in life. In fact, the more a man takes responsibility for others in terms of making different events colorful, fabulous, and popular within school community, the more authority a man gains afterwards. In this respect I want to underline the personal experience in direct participation in suchlike field of activities at school. Evaluation of personal achievements By these words I would like to grab special attention on the facts that I took an active part in a family day in the Marlboro housing projects in our area. This measurement showed me the responsibility of communication provision inside families and throughout the institution of family on the whole. This experience became one of my strong points in planning workshops and discussion clubs on social issues. I got donations and a lot of aid from the community. This proves the fact that there is a great credit of trust at my disposal which I can attract from the side of people. Working with the United Chinese Association of Brooklyn I realized how leadership skills should be implemented in complex with relationships strategy within a community. In this respect the principles of subordination and delegation of power became comprehensive for me in their prior values. I worked for Assemblyman Bill Colton and abetted in the development of the United Progressive Democratic Club. My impressions afterwards were incorporated in a personal experience of communicating with people, first of all. Then, I realized that my destination is people-oriented and can be provided through a personal participation in Student Activities Council. My evaluation of becoming a part of this progressive structure within Brooklyn Technical High School takes into account the idea that my merely little contribution will be helpful for the whole versatile direction of activities field of the Council. Thereupon, student life in reality is that time when such energetic approaches toward solutions as for Freshmen Orientation, Open House, Light’s Out Dance and other events. As I see, the willpower and studiousness in making things are the major best sides of mine while preparing and performing cultural programs concerning appropriate social, traditional, educational, or sport events. Stating a well-known Latin saying ‘Carpe diem’ I am convinced that everything which should be done today cannot be useful or appropriate for tomorrow. In other words, when there is a necessity to do something immediately until a definite deadline I would not delay. Furthermore, suchlike intention serves as an instruction for making success for
Background to the Study Many countries across the world are currently very sensitive about the quality of products that are made available within their borders. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is no exceptional. Through the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, the government has kept a close watch on the quality of products offered to customers in order to ensure that citizens are protected from substandard products in the market. Environmental advocates and agencies are keen to monitor activities of various companies operating within this country in a bid to ensure that the environment is kept free from pollution. Through this ministry and other related ministries, organizations must satisfy the set standards before they can be allowed to start their operational activities. They must conform to the International Standards specifications and other safety standards set by various organs in the country. Based on this, many organizations in Saudi Arabia have found it relevant to maintain quality in the process of production and the final products delivered to the market. Introduction The term quality refers to inherent characteristic of a given item that makes it unique from others. Quality assurance refers to systematic evaluation and monitoring of a product, a project or facility to ensure that it conforms to the set standards. International Organization for Standardization, ISO, (1994) defines quality assurance as all planned and systematic activities implemented to provide adequate confidence that an entity will fulfill requirements for quality. The operational techniques and activities that are used to fulfill requirements for quality are referred to as quality management. Quality assurance is a process that is useful in production process as it ensures that the final product meets market requirement. Quality management is a comprehensive process that begins with regulation of raw materials, processing facilities and other processes related to production, and the final product. For a new firm that is about to start operations, quality assurance is a very important requirement that should be fulfilled in order to get government approval before operations. The organization must meet legal requirements put in place by government agencies in order to have necessary certification to start conducting business in the country. According to the Law of Commercial Register 6: 2007, any new firm that intends to operate in Saudi Arabia must meet the rules and regulations set by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. They include the laws relating to health, product specification and standardizations, pricing laws, environmental protection laws, tax compliance laws and consumer protection laws. A firm must have a detailed approach to quality management in order to be allowed to operate within the country. A new organization must make a concerted effort to ensure that such laws and regulations are fulfilled. T
Introduction There area many religions in this world which include Hinduism, Christianity, New age and Buddhism. Each of this religion has its own beliefs and practices. Buddhism is dominant in Eastern world r religion was Hinduism in India that is why it is sometime referred to us as Indian religion. According to Anderson (1991, p.2),Siddhartha Gautama born in 560 BC by his father Suddhodana was the founder of Buddhism.Gautama remained in the palace for long and enjoyed pleasures and a lot of wealth as was his father’s desire. However,despite his father’s effort to contain him in the palace, one day he happened to come out oft it and to his surprise he met a dead person, a beggar ,a sick person and an old man who were suffering a lot.Gautama was distressed so much by what he saw to a point of leaving the luxury of the palace to find out the reasons as to why people were suffering and went through a lot of pain. According to Boa (1990, p.35) Buddha never claimed to be divine but an enlightener. However, seven hundred years after his death, Buddhist began to adore him as their deity. As discussed above, Buddha sought to answer the question as to why there is suffering and pain to find out how these life cycles believed to have been caused by a person’s delusion and aversions can be done away with. Therefore, Buddhist does not believe in any God or god but strives towards helping a person to do away with sensual desires which can lead to suffering and pain. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the eight fold path in Buddhism and its similarities with other religion. Eight fold path in Buddhism Buddha taught first on four noble truths and eight fold paths as discussed below. These constitute the basic teaching of Buddhism. These four truths are life is full of suffering and pain, pain is caused by our craving desires, we can get rid of these pain and suffering and the fourth truth show us how we can be liberated respectively. The eight-fold path constitute eight steps which should be done simultaneously so as to get rid of pain and suffering. The first involve believing on the four truths; secondly involve renouncing all desires that might harm others. The third step is right speech where one speak only the truth and step four involve abstaining from malicicious behaviour.The f