ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
This paper aims to illustrate the common fallacies of informal logic; for this purpose, it is necessary to discuss the article Is the Cost of A College A Bargain?, written by Joel Schectman. To some degree, this example indicates that modern journalists tend to misrepresent the events and rely on assumption, rather than facts. One of the claims that the author makes is that the cost of education in the United States is utterly unjustified and in many cases they can be minimized. In particular, he says, “For more than two decades, as the cost of college has climbed at twice the rate of inflation, critics have argued that bloated bureaucracies, overpaid faculty, and unnecessary amenities are inflating tuition” (Schectman, unpaged). This sentence exemplifies the so-called fallacy of presumption, which means that the writer prefers to discuss a certain phenomenon only from one point of view, while overlooking the others. For instance, he does not mention those expenses, which many colleges incur, in particular, the procurement of equipment, books or periodicals, compensation, paid to both faculty and personnel, the cost of academic trips, and so forth. Joel Schectman also mentions the so-called “overpaid faculty” but he does not explain why exactly, he considers them to be overpaid. A person, who tries to determine whether the price of tuition is justified or not, would have to study the functioning of a college and pay more attention to its organizational expenses,
Abstract “Environmental Psychology is a science that deals with behavior about the environment as will be demonstrated by this paper” (Mathew 2010). The idea about the environment and its visual alternatives being studied is so that they may be represented in/as maps. The atmosphere brings about different behavior levels and direct behavior is purposed by the setting it is in. People’s personalities are formed by the nature of their surroundings or habitats. When animals are locked up in cages they tend to break down in their behavior as well as in an urban setting whereby there is a high population there will be increased levels of crime, mental disorders brought about by stress and other factors. According to Mathew (2010), “Applied Environmental Psychology tries to provide solutions and norms to better manage the environment so that people can have a better life and be able to develop their personality positively. It looks into ways of conserving the natural environment as well as better ways of designing a country’s local infrastructure that is the cities and buildings, all the while considering peoples preferences, needs, attitudes, and their responses.” Define the discipline of environmental psychology Environmental psychology is a field of science inclusive of many things like environmental design, human behavior studies and environmental sociology amongst others. It can best be summarized as a science whose discipline concentrates on the relationship between man and his immediate environments both in small and large scale levels. “The science of environmental psychology encompasses several areas, including such disciplines as architectural and ecological psychology, environmental design and sociology, and social ecology. To be effective, a practitioner of environmental psychology will commonly draw information from a number of other areas, such as anthropology, architecture, political science, psychology, and urban planning and design.” (Fisher) The main reason why people study environmental psychology is to enable different professionals in different fields related to the design world to implement and accomplish improvement projects that will improve the human environment. The fields’ importance has grown in the past year due to environmental degradation brought about by pollution, depletion of natural resources, human beings. The study of environmental psychology brings about various factors of human psychology to explain the relations amongst the environment, behavior and experience. Thus theories that motivate the ideology of environmental psychology make use of other related fields like biology, psychology, architecture, and planning. Below are two theories that sponge from some principles to put across the relations between arousal/stimuli and performance. “Arousal theories: States an inverted-U association exists amid arousal and performance thus as arousal goes up perf
The jurisdiction system is one of the foundations of any modern civil society. Its purpose is to provide fair and just conditions for resolving disputes between citizens. The majority of countries have age restrictions for judges due to the nature of their profession. Wisdom comes with age, and even though most states share this philosophy, age restrictions vary to a certain extent. Some countries allow qualified specialists to occupy posts in the court even in their 20s. This essay aims to examine age restrictions imposed on judges, provide arguments for and against the appointment of young specialists and discuss the redundancy of life-appointed judges. The necessity of age restrictions in any profession is indisputable due to the nature of human thinking processes development. However, biological factors have a crucial role only before a certain age because once people become adults, they are capable of the same level of critical thinking. Experience and the level of proficiency in a particular field become a requirement for the appointment. Hence, judges’ age restrictions vary from country to country because many states do not necessarily draw a connection between experience and age. Young specialists might have a chance of getting the desired post, even though the probability of this happening is unlikely due to the number of specialists who are more knowledgeable than them. The importance of personal experience in the field cannot be underestimated in the judiciary system. The main qualities the profession of a judge demands from its specialists are fairness and objectivity. It is typically impossible to achieve such feats without extensive practice. Higher judiciary education may give theoretical knowledge; however, it must be reinforced by years of practice. Hence, along with the age restriction, most judiciary systems also have an experience requirement for future judges: a person can only become appointed to the bench if they have worked for an extensive period of time in the field. It is impossible to exclude bright talents among the youth, however. As previously mentioned, age cannot be equated to experience and proficiency since different people have varying skill levels. Knowledge is subjective, and sometimes a 25-year-old specialist may be more proficient than a man who has worked as a lawyer for a long time and meets the age requirement. It may also be argued that judges who have been working for an extended period of time in the same field grow too comfortable with their profession. Over time, people tend to develop their own working methods since it is natural for a human to look for the path of least resistance. As a result, their knowledge and skills stagnate, and their fairness and objectivity suffer. It is also worth the effort to promote young talents to higher positions since they can provide necessary feedback and a fresh perspective. Specialists who have recently graduated have the knowledge of the most recent changes in the legislative system and can potentially apply it better. However, the value of experience is no
Introduction Buddhism is a religion with a variety of beliefs and traditions attributed to Buddha. It is believed that Buddha lived and taught in the northern side of India in the 4th century Before Christ. Since then Buddhism has been spreading in many countries, for instance, Japan and China. This paper looks at the introduction of Buddhism in both china and Japan. It also gives an overview of how Buddhism is viewed in both countries. It will conclude by giving some of the differences that have been observed on how Buddhism is observed in both china and Japan. Buddhism in China Buddhist missionaries were sent to Afghanistan and Pakistan in the 3 rd B.C. The missionaries were successful in the mission and managed to convert many people into Buddhism. Later merchants also accepted this religion after they went trading in the region. Soon after Buddhism was accepted as a religion in the whole religion and many people converted from their religions into Buddhism. The merchants who had converted into Buddhism established many monasteries across Central Asia. It is through the Central Asians that the Chinese people accepted Buddhism as their religion. With the growth in Buddhism, there was need to create more Buddhist texts and this required Asian translators to translate Indian languages into Chinese (Anon. “ Buddhism in East Asia: China, Korea, and Japan ”, 2). One such translator was Anshigao who came to china from central Asia. From 15th century to the 16th century china was under separate rules, there was north china and south china. Buddhism flourished in both parts and translators continued to translate Indian language into Buddhist texts. In the early 17th century, the Tang Dynasty was established which helped to spread Buddhism (Anon. “ Buddhism in East Asia: China, Korea, and Japan ”, 5). This Dynasty soon became an essential part of Chinese culture which has an immense sway on Chinese writings, Art and philosophy. By this time Buddhist texts translators had augmented considerably. All the new converts could at least find some literature to read about Buddhism and this increased their understanding and overall acceptance of Buddhism as a religion. They were then faced by the challenge of how to study all the Buddhism texts that had been translated and how to conduct their teachings. To address this challenge many schools were established where people could be taught the religion of Buddhism. Buddhism in Japan Buddhism was introduced in Japan in the early 16th century by the king of Packche. Buddhism was later recognized as a means of restoring peace in the country among other benefits. Japanese recognized it (Buddhism) as their religious conviction thus holding it to their (Shinto) values. It was not long before harmony was restored in Japan and all this was achieved because of the introduction of Buddhism (Anon. “ A view on Buddhism ” 3). The introduction and spread of Buddhism in Japan depended on the support that was offered by the Japanese rulers. P
Introduction Gene patenting is a controversial issue. Genes are the output of nature and many scientists argue that they should not be patented. However, monopolizing them is beneficial for the researchers that get inspired by discovering the new genes. In addition, it allows studying the human genome better. Nevertheless, the opponents of patenting say that it slows down the research on genetics. Apart from the scientist, the patients can suffer, too. Several articles on this topic have been analyzed to understand the pros and cons of gene patenting and organ donation, and what are their possible implications. Analysis The tissue market operates in different ways. For instance, some companies cooperate with funeral homes. They contact those organizations that offer cheap cremation and get the tissues that they need. Some companies contact the families of the dying people and persuade them to make donations to their tissue bank. The main issue is that the company gets the profit while the family gets nothing. Kerry Howley touches upon an acute problem in her article “Who Owns Your Body Parts”. She questions the notion of the “reasonable value” and tries to give an explanation to it. As it is illegal to buy or sell the organs or parts of the human body, the companies do their best to find ways how to make their purchases legal. In the example of Alistair Cooke and his daughter, it becomes evident that the tissue market has the other side. Alistair’s daughter was trying to find the inexpensive funeral home after her father died (Howley 300). She turned to an organization that cooperated with the tissue bank, which later persuaded her to let them take the bone samples of her father’s body. Despite the fact that the man had suffered from bone cancer, the pieces of his bones were removed and his medical record was falsified. It proves that the tissue market operations cannot be called transparent. Nonetheless, it is clear that doctors need tissues to develop their techniques. If the doctors do not have samples, they will have to practice on the living people. In this regard, the author discusses the usage of the human remains (Howley 292). The prices for human bodies are indeed high, but they can help many people around the world. However, it should be noted that, in fact, the human body costs nothing. At this point, it is unclear what the reasonable price for the tissues means. It is believed that the price depends on the market and its stakes primarily. Many organizations, including educational facilities, follow the illegal path and resell the bodies that were aimed at research. Profitability is the key to violating the law, and that is the reason for the lack of transparency in the tissue market (Howley 301). Kristin Schleiter, the author of “Donors Have No Rights to Donated Tissue”, analyzed the legal aspects from a different angle. She considered the autonomy of medical decision-making. Also, she tried to stress the importance of the research that requires tissue donation. She claimed that
Animal experimentation is the process by which live animals are put through various tests. They are introduced to certain conditions that cannot be exposed to human beings for fear of the complications that are unknown and may result to death in the end. The experiments are run on various animals such as guinea pigs, rats and even monkeys. They are used in the place of human beings because they display genomes almost similar to that of the human beings. There is still another reason why animal experiment is carried out and this is to find out about various characteristics of the animals themselves and how they may react to various circumstances (Smart &William 19). Some people may find the procedure of animal experimentation as being right and fine and others may be wholly against it. There are indeed advantages that may come along with trying out animal experimentation in the end to the human beings. Taking a quick reference from the act utilitarianism, an act or activity is judged morally right depending on the number of individuals it will benefit in the end. What this theory leaves out is that there is a party that may suffer especially the weaker or the minority group. The act utilitarianism looks better in theory than in practice because in many instances, we cannot carefully analyze a situation and even have the ability to predict the future of that particular act. However, this theory is considered superior since its main goal is acquiring the multitude happiness of the highest number of people. Using the act utilitarianism animal experimentation is necessary since it can be used to reduce human suffering in the medical field. It is more important to sacrifice the suffering of several animals to carry out investigations and tests that may result into the breakthrough of a certain cure or vaccine that may help thousands of people or even the humanity at large for many generations. In such a situation, it is not noble to let people continue dying just because some researchers were discontinued from using animals for their experiment. In the long run if a cure is found or a vaccine there are more people who will benefit and this translates to a higher number of people who are happy. The suffering of animals is what may be the reason why some people oppose the act utilitarianism in this context. However, it can be seen that the suffering of the animals can be reduced to a minimum with the use of anesthesia when carrying out procedures that may be uncomfortable or even painful. The conditions in the laboratory can be brought to suit the animal under experiment so that they may not undergo the suffering and can hence continue with the tests without raising much alarm for the activists (Fox 36). In most countries such as the United States of America or even in the United Kingdom, most prescription drugs before they are exposed or released to the human beings for consumption have to be tested on the animals to ensure that they have negligible or no toxicity at all. This is indeed important since it seeks to protect very many people from harm or sufferin
St. Augustine of Hippo was a 3 rd and 4 th -century Christian theologian and philosopher. He dedicated a significant part of his religious work to preaching and teaching Christianity. During this time, he wrote a book, Instructing Beginners in Faith , in which he outlines seven principles that are relevant in pedagogy, or any mentoring field today (Immerwahr, 2008). In particular, these principles can be applied in a business setting. Moreover, while St. Augustine’s principles are based on Christian values, their practical applicability is not limited to Christian leaders’ businesses: they hold universal appeal. The Seven Principles The central theme that unites St. Augustine’s principles of pedagogy is that of the dynamic nature of the teacher-student relationship. In modern terms, they can be formulated thus:  1. The teacher-learner relationship is vital.  2. Creating a positive learning environment is even harder than getting the content right.  3. Know your students and customize the class for them.  4. Understand student fears and help overcome them.  5. Constantly reset the students’ attention.  6. Connect learning to the student’s own experience.  7. Find the joy in making the old things new. These principles have found broad application in current pedagogy, sometimes informing key principles in the field. In particular, creating a positive environment where students are encouraged to learn and maintaining their motivation are viewed as necessary to effective teaching (Sieberer-Nagler, 2015). St. Augustine’s advice is applicable not only in a traditional classroom setting, however, but in any situation where teaching occurs, such as business mentoring or workplace instructions. St. Augustine’s Teachings as Business Guidance Business mentoring is a significant part of developing one’s business skills and knowledge. It involves a more experienced employee imparting some of his or her experience on a colleague, and has generally shown positive outcomes for the mentee (El Hallam & St-Jean, 2016). However, the mentor can lack the instructional and teaching skills that make his or her teaching effective. St. Augustine’s teachings can be used as a base for such a mentoring tool set. In particular, the scholar’s suggestions related to connecting with one’s student on a personal level can help in developing trust, which has been shown to be a predictor of better mentoring outcomes (Kunaka & Moos, 2019). This relation points to the value of the same principles in a mentoring context. In a broader sense, St. Augustine’s teachings place significant value on po
Introduction Judith Sargent Murray is a writer and a poet, known for her advocacy for women’s rights. The author discussed the topic of equality in the eighteenth century, which was a radical viewpoint at that time. This paper presents the analysis of Murray’s On the Equality of the Sexes, which was published in 1790. It addresses the linguistic devices used to convey meaning, the elements of fiction, and the theme presented in the paper. The paper concludes that Murray’s work is a notable piece from the perspectives of its innovativeness, irony, and persuasiveness. Linguistic Devices Irony can be considered one of the mist significant ways Murray selects to convey meaning; its significance for the work will be discussed in detail below (Pizzetta 1). It is vital to add that irony offers “radical destabilizing possibilities”, which is why the author involves it in the text (Walsh 93). On the Equality of the Sexes presents the examples of ambiguity as well. For instance, the author writes that “the torpid spirit mingling with its clod can scarcely boast its origin from God” (Murray 3). The word “clod” can be interpreted in several ways; one of its meanings is the piece of earth, while the other one is a dull person. In these words, the author seems to criticize individuals who believe that any man, even the least in
The first objective of this experiment was to monitor the hydrolysis of tert-Butyl chloride by titrating the hydrochloric acid produced during the reaction with standardized sodium hydroxide solution. The second objective was to confirm that the rate of the reaction is directly proportional to the concentration of the tert-Butyl Chloride if the temperature is kept constant. Experimental summary Hydrolysis of tert-butyl chloride takes place through an SN 1 reaction, a nucleophilic substitution reaction. There are various effects of the solvent on initial reactants, reagents and intermediate products. The interactions can increase or decrease this reaction. This experiment investigated the effect of concentration on the hydrolysis. The instant rate of reaction of t-butyl chloride and water could not be measured using simple laboratory equipment. It was measured using the incremental rates method. First, it was necessary to determine how much HCl was formed over a short period by allowing the HCl to accumulate over a time period and then measuring how much NaOH was needed for titration of the accumulated HCl. Repeating this process with numerous time increments made it possible to find the rate of reaction as a function of time as illustrated by Nivaldo (2010). Results The reaction was of the first order. In a first order reaction, the rate = k [t-butyl chloride] is 1. The rate of reaction was directly proportional to the concentration of t-butyl chloride. A + B = C. initial [A]  initial [B]  initial rate, [C]/min 0.10                    0.0010       0.050                 0.20                    0.0010       0.10                  0.10                    0.0020       0.10                   Calculations 1.0 mol of t-butyl chloride yielded 0.1 mol of HCl. Therefore, the number of moles of HCl produced during the course of the reaction was a measure of the number of moles of t-butyl chloride reacting. The number of moles of unreacted t-butyl chloride was equal to the total number of moles of t-butyl chloride minus the number of moles of HCl produced. Pavia (2005) states that mass product = moles limiting reagent x molar ratio. Molar ratio A: B = 1: 1 = 1.0. Moles actually used: A = 0.05; B = 0.12. Molar ratio A: B actually used: 0.05 / 0.12 = 0.42. The ratio of A: B was less than 1.00. Only 0.05 moles of the 0.12 moles of B would be required to react with the 0.05 moles of A available. Since 0.05 is less than 0.12, then B is in excess, and A is limiting. Discussion According to Pavia (2005), the limiting reagent sets the maximum amount of product that could be expected. The actual number of moles of the product was the product of the number of moles of limiting reagent and the molar ratio of product to limiting reagent. The experiment require