ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Abstract The use of the chi-square test in research is needed to compare the distributions of two or more groups whose variables fall into two or more different classes or categories. With the precondition, there are five or more observations expected in each cell of a contingency table. The aim of this essay is to provide the assumptions for using a chi-square test and give a practical example from research to support these assumptions. Introduction Binomial data distribution is a method to summarize nonordinal (data showing no order or relative position) categorical (outcome) data. Data can be in the form of proportion (yes or no) or incidence (+ or -). Binomial data is found when the research focuses on the occurrence of events rather than the magnitude of events. In other words, a binomial distribution occurs whenever the possession or lack of a particular attribute is under investigation. Examples are clinical trials, animal or plant studies, and public opinion surveys (Neher, 2003). The use of Chi-square statistic (X 2 ) is to assess whether an observed binomial (or other) distribution accords with that expected either on the basis of knowledge of true population parameters or on theoretical backgrounds (Pepkin, 1986). The Chi-square (X 2 ) statistic test The use of the X 2 test aims to compare the distributions of two or more groups. The variables fall into two or more different classes or categories provided that five or more observations are expected in each cell of a 2 x 2 contingency table. A contingency table is a table of the number of individuals in each group that fall in each category. The different characteristics or categories are the columns of the table, and the groups are the rows of the table (or the opposite). Each cell in the table lists the number of individuals for that combination of category and group. The power, or sensitivity, of a Chi-Square test, is the probability that the test will detect a difference among the groups if there really is a difference. As the power is close to 1, the more sensitive the test. Chi-Square power is affected by the sample size and the observed proportions of the samples (Pepkin, 1986). Types of Chi-square test  1. Pearson X 2 : The commonest X 2 test used, it aims at testing the hypothesis of no association (correlation) of rows and columns in a contingency table (Garson, 2007).  2. Yates correction: It aims at adjusting the X 2 and therefore the P-value for 2 x 2 tables to more accurately reflect the true distribution of X 2 (Garson,
Pre-Review Process The need to understand the complex interplay between a number of variables, including genetics, environmental factors, clinical, psychological and social processes, in the development of brain disorders and the resultant behavioural and cognitive deficiencies informed the urge to evaluate and critique the article by de la Serna and colleagues, titled “Relationship between Clinical and Neuropsychological Characteristics in Child and Adolescent First Degree Relatives of Subjects with Schizophrenia.” In particular, the topic is of great interest in the study of brain and behaviour because schizophrenia affects the growth and development of many children and adults, not only in terms of their psychological wellbeing but also their cognitive and social skills. The critiqued article was retrieved from the ScienceDirect database of the Elsevier Databases using the search terms “schizophrenia”, “cognition” and “neuropsychology.” This particular article stood out from the rest due to the new knowledge it sought to divulge, particularly on the influence of diagnosis for schizophrenia on cognitive variables in children at high risk of developing the mental disorder (de la Serna et al, 2010). The questions that arose upon reading the abstract of the article included: 1) Is schizophrenia associated more with genetic factors than with environmental processes, and 2) what cognitive and/or behavioural disorders may be predominant in siblings of a family with a history of schizophrenia. Article Summary The article under review purposed “…to describe the clinical and neuropsychological characteristics of children and adolescents at high risk for schizophrenia compared to healthy controls, and to investigate the influence of diagnosis on clinical symptoms and cognitive assessment” (de la Serna et al, 2010, p.160). The authors were informed by the need to fill the dearth in knowledge that existed on drawing the relationship between the diagnoses for schizophrenia on the one hand and cognitive and behavioural manifestations of people considered at high-risk on the other. It is important to note that the authors of the article did not formulate any research questions or hypothesis to guide the study. The participants for the study included 26 high-risk children who were first-degree relatives of individuals already clinically diagnosed with schizophrenia according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) criteria. For comparison purposes, the researchers also engaged 20 control children and adolescents of individuals with no history of any psychotic disorder according to the DSM-IV criteria (de la Serna et al, 2010). The experimental and the control groups were evaluated and interviewed by a trained clinical psychologist using a semi-structured interview and other rating scales, such as the Conner’s Parent Rating Scales (CPRS-48) to assess psychopathological symptomatology, the Hollingshead Redlich Scale to estimate the socio-economic status, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Forth Edition (WISC-IV to evaluate the intelligence q
Personal values have a direct influence on professional work. Moreover, personal values are almost impossible to be separated from professional counseling. However, counselors are expected and even required to be free of personal bias toward the patient. People rely on the counselor for advice and recommendation, and they do not want the personal values of the counselor to have any impact on sessions. Therefore, counselors need to take into account their own values and try to become conscious of how their professional work is impacted or modified by personal values. Special attention should be paid to the non-verbal clues. It is hardly possible to avoid communicating values. Nevertheless, counselors have the primary responsibility to remain objective during the sessions and person-oriented instead of self-oriented. Non-verbal clues may reveal the opinion of the counselor about the problem of the patient. For example, lack of direct eye contact may send the message to the patient that the counselor is personally not interested in the problem shared by the patient. If the counselor does not ask any questions or smile when the patient tells about the tragic, in his opinion, incident, the quality of counseling is affected by the personal values of the counselor. There would be no problem with personal values if the field of professional expertise was different from counseling. Counselors must be free of bias and express a personal interest in each patient. Taking into account that counselors and clients usually have different value systems, a conflict of values may occur. If the counselor is not able to control his non-verbal communication, the counseling process is affected negatively because the client may read the non-verbal clues or adapt his own interpretation. Thus, the primary objectives of the counseling will not be achieved. Many therapists believe that they can be professional counselors while avoiding the influence of personal values during counseling sessions. However, it would be wrong to state with confidence that all counselors are free of personal bias. Some counselors are not aware of the impact personal values have on the counseling process. Yet others lack the skills and abilities to keep their personal values out of the counseling process. It is important to add that there is a constant exchange of values between a therapist and a client. Nevertheless, patient and therapist play different roles: patient seeks help while therapist must function in a helpful manner. On the other side, the therapist may be able to avoid the influence of personal values on the coun
Case background including facts about the company, industry and competitors Deloitte & Touch consulting Group became a fully designated subsidiary of Deloitte & Touch LLP, which is a leading accounting firm. Although Deloitte & Touch was traditionally known for tax and audit services, more services that form a significant part of its revenue have since been adopted. The firm chiefly focused on delivering services on areas such as financial management, operations, and information technology and strategy development. In 1995, the firm divested into large scale supply of SAP project, when it merged with ICS. The firm’s key competitors included Price Waterhouse, Andersen Consulting, McKinsey, CSC Index, and Ernst & Young. The industry primarily dealt with strategy consulting and system implementation. Deloitte & Touch’s position and strength in the market entails implementation consulting services (Kerzner, 2003). Needs for consulting intervention The need for consulting services is derived from the need to solve many problems that companies encounter in the processes of carrying out their business. For example, several proposals had been made to sort out SKS manufacturing and short term business problems. The company inventory levels and cost structure revealed that there was a need to harmonize production and procurement, as well as to reduce cash investments in raw materials in order to address the immediate problems. Furthermore, SKS was undergoing critical cash flow deficiency, which once led to delaying of payment of suppliers. Indeed, with the problems it was facing, it became hard to maintain acceptable customer services, and hence could only afford to ship 77% of the customer orders. Implementation of the suggested solutions is, however, likely to face a lot of challenges. For example, the fact that senior workers such as Janovich, who have gained a wealth of experience after working for the company for many years, will eventually retire means that the projects will be left with many problems. The use of the solution was not very successful as evidenced by a number of underlying problems in SKS, including lack of accuracy of the layout of the main plant. Although most people agree it is a better place to work, the engineers were still using the old technologies such as manual drawing and CAD applications and only outsourced the services occasionally. Furthermore, SKS’S size of the plant is still small, and there is no room for growing. The inconvenience of location of the second warehouse is also a clear evidence of the underlying problems in this company. The la
The purpose of my project is to illustrate how Dr. Beverley Greene’s contributed to our contemporary understanding of minorities’ and women’s problems and traumas. In the introduction, the audience will be provided some context on modern trends within these areas in order to trace how these ideas originated with Dr. Greene. Within the last twenty years, much of mainstream online discourse has been devoted to exploring the complexities of ethnic, national, racial, and gender identity. The democratization of information facilitated by the Internet and rise of online forums have enabled marginalized people to raise public awareness of their struggles, as evidenced by the popularity of Black Lives Matter. The works of academics such as Dr. Greene have given these communities the vocabulary and theoretical framework to conceptualize and contextualize their personal experiences within the broader system of social inequality. Background Dr. Beverley Greene is one of the prominent feminist leaders that influenced our modern understanding of some crucial aspects such as sexism, racism and social privilege in psychology and psychotherapy (Ackerman Institute for the Family, 2019). She came from a very didactic family where her parents encouraged their kids to challenge any existing trends or stereotypes about people and that people are, in fact, complicated living beings. Of course, professional training played a crucial role in her path to becoming a successful writer and practicing psychologist. Thus, during her graduate years at the Dern Institute, where she was influenced by her mentor Dr. Bill Johnson, Dr. Greene expanded her interest to the psychodynamic and psychoanalytic understanding of marginalized people, especially among women. Dr. Greene’s further career was shaped by her graduate school experience. It allowed her to assess her patients in a novel way and have a fruitful career reporting on scientific journals. Furthermore, analyzing Dr. Greene’s impact on the development of psychology, one quickly notices that there has been a serious advance in understanding the people who are multiply marginalized. Nevertheless, despite all the contributions to global psychology, Dr. Greene keeps working on one of the less-understood areas of human psychology. Contemporary Event Dr. Greene grew up during the 1950s and 1960s, the height of the civil rights movement that aimed to abolish segregation, discrimination, and the disenfranchisement of black people in post-slavery America. She legally became an adult in 1968, the same year that Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. At the time of his death, King was the most famous and visible spokesmen of the civil rights movement and a proponent of nonviolence and civil disobedience. Inspired by the example of Gandhi protesting British imperialism in India, he led peaceful marches and boycotts for black
The Reasons for Selecting the Investments Chosen Defining the steps that must be undertaken to buy profitable stocks and shares and be able to invest in the companies of choice is not an easy task; a careful analysis of the current economical, financial, and even political and social changes within the state, as well as the trends and influences from abroad, must be taken into considerations. However, by far the most important factor that predetermined the choice of companies for the given portfolio was the companies’ diversity. Since with several companies related to the same field, the chances of investing in a non-profitable venture are quite high, it is crucial to use the principle of diversification by choosing the most profitable companies that belonged to different fields. Thus, the fields of information technology, which Sirius XM belongs to, e-commerce, which Amazon deals with, online trade, which Amazon is famous for, and banking, which Sprint Corp. and FEDEX are related to, have been chosen. The Beta for the Stock Portfolio and Its Significance The items of the stock portfolio in question have also been chosen based on their beta value. A rather complicated and consequently important element of a company’s financial performance index, beta is traditionally defined as a ratio between the volatility of a specific stock portfolio and the one accepted in the existing market. Therefore, the beta of the companies mentioned above also served as a major indicator of the companies’ trustworthiness and profitability. The account of the betas of every company in question is provided below: Table 1. Betas of the Companies in the Portfolio Company  Amazon  Sirius XM  FEDEX  Sprint Corp.  USAA Beta     0.64    2.0        1.18   4.08          0.55                             It is noteworthy that in the given portfolio, the beta indices of the companies involved vary considerably. The given variation allows for better flexibility and taking more chances. For example, while with Sprint Corp., the stock value is dependent on the volatility on the benchmark to a considerable degree; however, the profitability of the company compensates for the risks. Amazon and USAA, on the contrary, can be used as a lifebuoy for the venture in case Sprint Corp. and Sirius’s stock price goes down. Losses and Gains over a Period: The Impact of Economic Events There is no need to stress that, much like any other
Education system is the basis of successful development not only of a person but of a country. It means that education is a necessary investment into the future. Still, standards of education change rapidly, because society and its requirements change as well. That is why the task of admitting profitable system of benchmark for this or that subject s the key task in the essential aspect (Griffin, 2006: 93).The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA) is the organization which defines and adopts academic standards of the UK education system. Its task is to review all universities and colleges of the country, publish reports about quality of education, provide guidelines for particular sphere and subjects of graduate and undergraduate education, offer governments changes which should be introduced into this or that sphere of education, engage beneficial international relationships in the sphere of education, etc. The QAA is responsible for introducing of benchmarks for all undergraduate courses of the United Kingdom (Jackson, 2001: 18). According to the General Business Management Benchmark which was introduced by the QAA there are two graduate achievements: threshold and typical. Both threshold and typical achievements are based on national educational norms. Still, each of the achievement types has its own peculiarity (Comfort, 2008). The threshold achievements in the sphere of General Business Management apply to the minimum which should be achieved by all honors graduates (Smith, 1999: 53). As for typical ones, they describe achievements which are gained by the majority of students. In the General Business Management Benchmark provided by the QAA one can find description of the factors which have been selected as the basis for differentiation between these two categories of education, threshold and typical achievements. There are six of them: application and integration of knowledge, intellectual skills, interpersonal skills, learning skills, ability to deal with unknown or complicated spheres, such skills as evaluation, reflection originality, creativity, etc (Charleston,2006: 32). Correspondingly, there are two standards described in the General Business Management Benchmark: typical and threshold. The QAA gives a detailed description of the threshold standard (Kipper, 2009). The QAA defines that students who graduate with an honor degree in General Business Management should have such achievements as knowledge and understanding of the main areas of business and management, all-round competence on the sphere of education, critical view at the sphere of management and business (Brown, 2009: 18). As for typical standards by the end of the General Business Management course students should have broad knowledge of the area of business and management, competence in the sphere of management and business, independent vi
Deleuze’s work Pleats of Matter investigates the ontology of folds, pleats, bends and their application for enveloping, distortion and collapsing. This work depicts the overflow of trajectories and clash of the process, where their layers are vaguely presented or revealed in the deformed state (Deleuze 17). Here the shape and form are secondary products of lines bending into one another, where folds are developed and created to a different extent where one form can be quickly transformed into another form. As the fold is capable of infinite divisions, there should be the power that can produce the limits for infinity. This power can be presented as the compressive force of the university contributing to the return of all pleats of the matter to the surrounded area. The likening to such natural phenomena as the maelstrom or the see foam, folds are subjected to the vertical principle where one fold triggers another. The principle of constant fluidity is also achieved through the possibility of folds to create other folded parts endlessly. Deleuze also notes that two displays of the fold are explained and determined by the surrounding actors and their
Background Parenting of autistic children is challenging, even in an era when there is greater acceptance of the condition when better counseling and more support groups are available to parents. To a greater extent than when dealing with other problem behaviors, parents go through a gamut of emotions: puzzlement at non-response, apprehension when making an appointment for a diagnosis, disappointment at having the disability confirmed, self-blame at having perhaps pressured the child into withdrawal, and despair that the child is disabled for life. In aid of bolstering parental competence, this paper describes coping strategies and advises against common pitfalls when rearing autistic children. In common with autism support groups and educational material, the goal is to enhance parental confidence, sense of self-worth, and success at mitigating the disability of the child. How Families Adapt Through Time Early Years from Diagnosis to School Age Family adaptation is perhaps most difficult in the infant and toddler stages. For this is when the long-term impairment of communication, imagination, and socialization manifests itself in an inability to attain or maintain eye contact, to engage in imaginative play by one’s self, and spontaneously use language. Then the clinical diagnosis confirms parents’ worst fears and the long years of adaptation starts. As if language and attention impairments were not frustrating enough, parents experience yet more stress adapting to maladaptive behavior such as tantrums born out of frustration when autistic children cannot articulate their desires. This is precisely why the most effective interventions target language and joint attention impairment. Disappointment, lack of acceptance and understanding, and stress at learning the diagnosis are themselves material factors in successful adaptation (National Research Council, 2001). One empirical finding in this respect came in an analysis of material synchrony. “Maternal synchrony” refers to the finding by Siller and Sigman (2002) that maternal competence at mirroring the lead of an autistic child when it came to attention focus and activity rate yielded measurable gains in communication and language skill growth among very young children. Three types of matern