ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Biological organisms inherently undergo several biochemical processes. These reactions progress at a particular pace mainly depending on the requirements of the living organism. Enzymes are protein molecules that play a major role in the proper functioning of different organs of an organism. Enzymes generally serve as catalysts to specific chemical reactions, wherein these proteins influence the speed of a chemical reaction without experiencing the risk of being utilized until its presence is exhausted (Richter, p. 901). Enzyme proteins are structurally organized to follow a three-dimensional conformation which facilitates the correct interactions with other types of proteins at its specific active site (Koval 820). These proteins also consist of specific amino acid sequences that have earlier been determined by its predecessor DNA sequence coded by the nucleus of the cell. The amino acid sequences dictate the specific action and activity that each enzyme can perform, resulting in unique enzyme specific reactions in the body of a biological organism. The active site of an enzyme also carries a specific charge that is strongly associated with the success of the interaction with other molecules or ions. When an enzyme protein directly interacts with its particular substrate, the enzyme is activated, hence the energy requirement to proceed with the chemical reaction is lowered, and in turn, the chemical reaction proceeds faster than its initial speed. The capabilities of an enzyme are influenced by external factors such as temperature, pH and the presence of ions, cofactors, coenzymes and inhibitors. These factors induce a change in the shape or charge of an enzyme’s active site, which then results in a change in the rate of the chemical reaction. In addition, an extreme increase in temperature can destroy a protein enzyme, rendering it inactivated or denatured, and its physiological shape ruined. There are also certain enzymes that could not perform at its optimal setting when a specific cofactor or coenzyme is not present. Metal ions facilitate the transfer of ions, such as reduction and oxidation reactions, among proteins. Inhibitors are molecules that interact with enzymes by binding to the enzyme’s active site thus preventing the enzyme to interact with any other molecule for further interaction. An example of enzyme specificity and regulation may be observed in the process of DNA replication. This scheme follows a semi-conservative scheme which generates a double helical strand that is composed of one original and one new DNA strand. The semi-conservative scheme of DNA replication was finalized after several years of analysis of the DNA molecule. In order to solve the topological problem of unwinding the DNA double helix in order for the process of DNA replication to proceed, DNA topoisomerases are needed in order to break and reunite the two strands of the DNA helix. There are three types of DNA topoisomerases that may be involved in DNA replication (Champoux, p. 370). Type IA topoi
The reading investigates the growing pay gap between Blacks and Whites and the US, as well as possible explanation for this financial inequality. Shapiro (2007) proves that being Black in the US accumulates in societal costs of around $140. I find this evidence convincing since race has a literal price that oppressed minorities have to pay, and this discrimination indicates oppression in the modern capitalistic society. Wealth of a Nation The research assesses the financial inequality that is present among African American families. The authors argue that even when a Black and White person earn the same salary, their wealth is different due to racial implications (Oliver & Shapiro, 1990). These findings highlight the previously proven social and cultural oppression and show that racism is a structural problem that is extremely hard to address. Wealth Gap Between Minorities and White Americans Doubles After Housing Crisis, Recession The speaker evaluates the accumulative wealth of Blacks, Hispanics, and Whites in America and arrives to the conclusion that race plays a role in financial burdens that many people of color experience. Harrison (2011) appeals to the research that discovered that unlike Whites, marginalized Blacks and Hispanics rely more on housing, which makes them more vulnerable to economic discrimination. I find this evidence valuable in the fight for equality as people of color are often perceived as responsible for their economic despair, while the White dominant system is to blame. Twenty-to-One The report examines the pay gap between races and provides some statistical evidence for the socioeconomic inequality. Pew Research (2011) reviews cross-racial wealth and income throughout the 20-year period and claims that since people of color base their wealth on housing, recession of 2006 caused the socioeconomic gap to double. The case of the crisis affecting marginalized people more than others shows that current social support and government protection fail to address the reality of latent discrimination. Groundings with My Brothers: Commentaries The commentaries of the book overview its contents and the author’s influence on the Black Power movement today. The personal story of Austin reflects how Rodney (2020) inspired Blacks worldwide to explore their history, culture, and rediscover their power. I find this commentary and the book overall extremely influential in terms of addressing one’s heritage and reviving the nation’s pride in the fight for freedom.
Durkheim was not the first sociologist to distinguish between agricultural society and industrial society; nevertheless, he was the first to analyze the difference between the two in respect to social solidarity, collective conscience, and law. Emile Durkheim referred to pre-industrial society as value-free. From the perspective of collective conscience, pre-industrial society is characterized by limited production, limited division of labor, and limited variation of social classes. In the book “Division of Labor in Society”, Durkheim has defined the basis of social solidarity and outlined how it has changed over time. According to his theory, there are two types of social solidarity: mechanical solidarity (characteristic of agricultural society where the division of labor is limited) and organic solidarity (industrial society with highly developed division of labor). Despite the evident differences between the pre-industrial and industrial societies, individuals in both societies interact with each other in accordance with their obligations to society. In other words, society members receive recognition of their rights and contribution only within the collectivity and in accordance with the existing law. Durkheim regarded law as an important element in understanding societal morality. He noted that law reproduced the basic forms of societal solidarity. Agricultural societies are rather simple in terms of limited division of labor: labor tasks are divided mainly by sex and age. Members of the pre-industrial society are similar to each other and their similarity leads to the formation of mechanical solidarity: when society members carry out the same tasks, they start sharing the same moral values. Further, agricultural societies are characterized by repressive law systems. Thus, when the society member commits a crime, the action is perceived as an offense to the whole society. The person who commits a crime violates the shared system of values and, despite the crime’s seriousness, becomes subject to severe punishment. According to the pre-industrial societal values under which the crime offends the social conscience and, therefore, distorts solidarity, penal law is limited to sanctions only.
Introduction Mathematics is the body of knowledge centered on concepts such as space, quantity, structure, and change; Mathematics also covers all the academic disciplines that study these concepts. The works contained in this essay seek to establish the role of Individuals and culture in the growth and development of mathematics. It seeks to answer the question of “what matters most, the individual or the culture?” “What is the net result of having a great mathematician without a community to endorse and support his work?” “On the other hand, what are the net results of having a community without creative mathematicians”? The Individual and Culture Being a human activity, Mathematics profits greatly from individual intellect but succeeds only with the implicit endorsement of the wider society. Mathematics is humanistic in nature and scientific in its technological application. Individual Genius act as the source of discovery, or the medium through which facts are invented. But on the other hand, from society’s point of view, we realize that discovery and inventions are brought about by the economic and social forces and that any discovery or invention by a particular individual could still have been discovered or invented by any one of a hundred other mathematicians. Communities stagnate without the individual’s input and impulses, but it’s a well-known fact that the Individual impulse dies away without the compassion of society. This is because of the way the community decides to access an individual work. A mathematician’s work may be dismissed by society without even the slightest examination. Some other mathematician’s works are difficult to understand and interpret, and therefore the society just decides to ignore them completely. Other mathematical inventions are of great importance, but in essence, society may view the work as orthodox, leading to a boycott or completely ignore such work. There are other instances where the mainstream mathematician society ignores the work of individual mathematicians simply because they lack interest in that individual work or because they choose to look at an invention from a completely different angle. In the final analysis, it’s hard for the individual to know what is right, what is acknowledged, and what the system for acknowledging. Another biased view by society to an individual is that the mathematical life of a mathematician is relatively short. People are made to believe that mathematical work rarely improves after the age of thirty. That little will ever be accomplished after this age and that the
Introduction To monitor transient objects in any given environment in real-time requires an intelligent surveillance system. The main purpose to have a surveillance system is to understand and predict the ramifications and interactions in any one given scene of objects under observation through automatic interpretations effectively done by the intelligent surveillance system. There are several steps involved in any intelligent surveillance system, they include, detecting and recognizing mobile objects, the ability to track them, analyzing their pattern managing data as well as the artificial intelligence Sergio (2006). The creation, as well as deployment of automated or intelligent surveillance systems, is due to the fact that there is increased importance associated with closer scrutiny as far as the military, public as well as commercial or private purposes are concerned. As far as the public is concerned, the surveillance systems can assist in keeping a close eye on the public, the transport industry in particular, and record anything of interest for multitudes or individuals that involve the public. Any intelligent surveillance system involves several processes including social ethical studies, management, telecommunications as well as signal processing. Intelligent surveillance system operates on the following aspects   * Visual surveillance through computer vision algorithms or image as well as video processing.   * Building a complete surveillance system based on a wide range of technologies capable of bringing together different types of vision algorithms.   * System design, communication as well as distribution, and how all these can be incorporated into bigger systems so as to meet the ever-increasing demand for CCTVs for the near future Sergio (2006). Intelligent Surveillance Systems To be able to deploy a relatively efficient surveillance system, the technique is required though it’s not necessarily enough; therefore, a need to process signals as well as data from strategically positioned cameras is equally essential. Most of the surveillance systems are largely though not restricted to public transport or parking lot domains. There are several different types of intelligent surveillance systems, they include DETEC, Gotcha, and DETER among others Bohdan T (2007). These surveillance systems largely rely on motion detectors with the ability to digitally record and store events tha
Introduction The Oxford online dictionary (2008) defines ‘Stereotype’ as “a preconceived and over-simplified idea of the characteristics which typify a person or thing”. The Merriam-Webster online dictionary (2008) holds that a stereotype is “something conforming to a fixed or general pattern; especially: a standardized mental picture that is held in common by members of a group and that represents an oversimplified opinion, prejudiced attitude, or uncritical judgment”. Both definitions are important to hoist at the outset because they capture the essence of stereotyping as it is prevalent in the world today. Stereotypes have always existed since the formation of first human societies. This essay aims to examine the psychological implications of stereotyping on the societies in the world and what can be done to avoid such a practice. Discussion The reasons why humans resort to stereotyping are many. Social scientists have long theorized that humans try to breakdown complex situations into smaller simplified parts to help them cope with the situation better. This process of dis-aggregation is a natural psychological phenomenon which is based on the belief of behavioral scientists that the human mind has a limited capability for cognition and hence seeks simplicity for analyzing facts as they present themselves. This dis-aggregation process is often termed as ‘categorization’. Humans tend to categorize objects, people and events in simplified categories for the ease of responding to them when the situation so demands. “We group things into categories because we expect things in a particular category to behave in a similar manner so that we have a simple way of understanding the behavior”(Schneider, 2004, P.64). For example a square will have four sides, which are perpendicular to each other; is a category, which humans use to categorize all shapes approximating a square when in actuality it may not really be a square. Categorization thus is ‘construct’ of the human memory processing mechanisms and therefore, such categorization over time reinforces into what is known as stereotypes. This complete process when applied to people results in profound psychological implications which have changed histories, brought persecution of some societies, turbulence and war. Not all stereotypes are negative and some positive stereotypes have had their beneficial effects on mankind. The social context of stereotyping is important for understanding the phenomenon. A child learns his or her first lessons in stereotyping from the parents and close relatives. Some of these stereotypes are used as tools to modify the child’s behavior more as case to discipline the child than any real intent at prejudicing their minds. For example, the parents or elders may tell scary stories of demons and monsters to keep the child quiet. The natural fear of darkness is often accentuated in such stories and the ‘demons’ take the form of darkness which results in painting the picture of black demons. This mental imagery slowly gets transplanted and the child may end up associating demons
Introduction Research studies normally provide the basis for subsequent studies and give recommendations that are central in the formulation of interventions aimed at solving a given problem. For research to form a scientific basis, it must fulfill various conditions of scientific merit. The scientific merit of an article justifies its applicability in further research or the application of its findings. An article that has scientific merit has valid and reliable findings, which are fit for extrapolation to the general population or a research design that one can replicate. Although research articles have scientific merits, they also have scientific demerits, which reduce the validity and reliability of their findings. According to Ioannids (2007), scientific evaluation of the merits in a research article is pivotal in understanding and translating the findings, and determining the credibility level of the research (p.324). Thus, evaluation of the scientific merit of a research article is scientific progress of assessing reliability, validity, and credibility of findings in a bid to promote the application of recommendations or research insights obtained. In this view, this essay examines the scientific merit of the article “An Invariant Dimensional Liability Model of Gender Differences in Mental Disorder Prevalence: Evidence from a National Sample”. Validity and Reliability The validity and reliability of research depend on the methodology that a study uses in the study of a given phenomenon. Usually, validity and reliability are attributes of an instrument that a researcher uses in measuring certain variables in research. In the aspect of validity, Leedy and Ormrod (2011) state that, validity is the extent to which an instrument is accurate in measuring a variable of interest (p.28). Hence, it means that the instrument that a researcher uses must be accurate enough to measure certain attributes and exclude confounding variables. The study used the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM–IV) in determining gendered tendencies in externalizing and internalizing liability dimensions. DSM-IV is an accurate instrument that measures the degree of mental disorders among patients and can easily differentiate externalized attributes from internalized attributes that people exhibit. Stinchfield (2003) argues that DSM-IV diagnostic criterion has considerable validity, accuracy, and reliability in the measurement of mental disorders (p.181). Hence, the DSM-IV is a valid instrument that enhanced the validity of the research article. Reliability measures the consistency of an instrument and reproducibility of the research design. The research article utilized DSM-IV, which is an accurate instrument, yet not reliable due to many confounding variables. According to Eaton et al. (2012), although the study structured the instrument well, trained lay interviewers collected the data rather than clinicians (p.286). This means that, if clinicians had collected the data, they would have brought different data. Hence, the
Introduction Development of psychological tests necessitates coming up with a criteria that follows specific guidelines, namely, coming up with a sample, assessing the characteristics of the sample, developing instruments for testing, and evaluating the instruments using the validity and reliability criteria. This paper will focus on development of construct and creation of scale by consulting a number of scholarly materials. It will then present an analysis of the best scaling method that should be used. Operational definition of construct using three articles Sautter et al. (2009) demonstrate the extent of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) by highlighting its effect on marital status. Through a 10 weeks program, the victims of PTSD were able to portray their social cultural factors such as the type of work they could manage to handle for their family, as well as the intimacy levels with their partners. By using structured clinical interviews, the researchers were able to assess the family involvement level using the Family Environmental Scale. This is a 9-item false or true measure that is used to measure the perception of the PTSD victims with respect to family cohesion. Social intimacy, on the other hand, was assessed through the Social Intimacy Scale that comprised a 10-point Likert format, where the participants were expected to choose from “always,” “occasionally” and “very uncommon. The ScienceDaily (2010) reveals the results of a study on PTSD by indicating that the veterans of PTSD have a greater risk of being infected with dementia due to increased psychological distress. This article expresses the importance of forgetting the circumstances that arouse memory of the traumatic events. Using a PTSD scale, the researchers were able to demonstrate the long-term effects of PTSD, claiming that the victims are likely to be infected with dementia, diabetes, hypertension, stroke, as well as heart disease in future. Berger & Gelkopf (2009) have expressed concerned over a number of children who were affected by Tusunami in the Sri Lank’s south coast.Using questionaire, the authors have identified trauma risk behaviors and developmental problems amongst the children who witnessed the Tsunami. This article highlights their characteristics, namely, low levels of social cohession, mental development, high anxiety levels, and high stress levels. The article uses Mental Health Inventory in a bid to evaluate the symptoms of PTSD. This is imperative because the study is able to assess the severity of PTSD through a standardized score ranging from 0 to 100, which indicates that the lesser the score, the greater the severity. Selecting the appropriate method of scaling for the domain In this regard, I would prefer to use the Mental Health Inventory since it is able to assess the severity of PTSD under five domains, namely, the cognitive, the social- emotional, the language development, the ada