ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction Terrorism has brought about a general atmosphere dominated by fear among the people in the world and this has triggered a particular political goal. Terrorism has been utilized all through the history of the world by political groups, ethnic groups as well as revolutionaries among other groups. The impact of terrorism has been intensified by the advancement in technology that has brought about coming up with the most sophisticated weapons and the ability of the media to spread the news of the attacks brought about by the acts of terrorism. The most horrific attack is the one that was carried out by the al Qaeda on September 11, the year 2001 in the United States of America (Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, 2010). This paper is going to consider the efforts that have been made to deal with terrorism by looking at the anti-terrorist tactics /organizations. History of anti-terrorist tactics/organizations The anti-terrorist organizations have existed for quite sometimes. There has been the emergence of the special operation forces. These are units from the armed forces that are small, which are offered training and given the necessary tools to carry out anti-terrorist operations that are special with the main aim of dealing with terrorists. Basing on the case of the United States of America, anti-terrorist organizations have been part and parcel of this country all through the years during which there has been warfare. The United States of America as a nation possesses several tactics groups that are special. One of the Anti-terrorist organizations is the “United States Army Special Forces” unit. The history of this group is traced back in the era of the Second World War (Anon: USAF Special Operations, 2009). Among the duties carried out by this group are foreign internal defense, direct action, and counter-terrorism among other duties. Therefore, this unit was set up to deal in combats whose forms are unconventional, basically guerrilla warfare. Since its creation, the duties linked to this unit have grown. The United States Army Special Forces group was set up by the Pentagon. This unit was started under the guidance of the “United States Army Psychological Warfare Division” and this division was set up in the cause of the Second World War to get involved in psychological warfare to attack the German people. In the course of the “Cold War”, these Special Forces secretly penetrated in several countries to attack the organizations that support the Soviet Union. In the course of the starting of the 1950s, there was the deployment of the Special Army Forces by the Pentagon to offer advice to the Army of South Vietnam. They offered training to this army in order to engage in fighting using the guerrilla style. They as well took part in counter-guerrilla battles while the United States of America intensified its war in which it was at
Public relations outcomes depend on the quality of one’s utilization of persuasive techniques. Self-perception is an important contextual element of persuasion due to the audience’s individual characteristics that drive their decision-making. Indeed, according to Wilcox et al., “people will perceive the same information differently, depending on their predispositions and already formulated opinions” (271). Therefore, to encourage the participants of the gathering to engage in the fund-raiser, the techniques for persuasion should be aligned with the audience’s particularities. Overall, a positive and logical appeal to the necessity of contributing to the new generation would be a robust persuasive basis for all the participants. However, since there are two categories of the target audience, including students of the sorority and the alumni, two sets of persuasive messages should be integrated. Firstly, to encourage the students to engage in the fund-raiser, one technique might be to set an example of a celebrity who contributes to Boys and Girls Clubs to appeal to authority. Also, it might be relevant to encourage students to make their contributions or to participate as volunteers. In such a manner, they will have a structured choice, and the organizations might settle for less while asking for more (Wilcox et al. 261). This approach would allow engaging students in the fund-raiser. Secondly, for alumni to be persuaded to participate in the fund-raiser, an emotional appeal would be relevant since these people are commonly adults who have their own families. Since this audience might have children of their own, it might be pertinent to introduce them to an emotionally colored message demonstrating the Boys and Girls Club. In such a manner a “yes-yes” persuasive technique will allow for connecting with the audience based on relatable experiences, ultimately encouraging them to participate (Wilcox et al. 261). The choice of the discussed persuasive techniques is based on audience analysis, clarity of message, and suggestions for action, which help achieve positive public relations results.
As individuals grow, they learn how to examine the difference between what is right and what is wrong. As a result, the issue of what is unacceptable or acceptable also comes in which is what morality entails. Morality entails the accepted codes of conduct, cultural values as well as social standards that define what is right culturally, and what is wrong. In its descriptive form, morality involves what is considered right or wrong by people. In its normative form, what people think is right or wrong is not significant but rather, an action is outright right or wrong- moral or immoral, a line has been drawn. At some level, the definition of ethics could relate to that of morality. This can be achieved when the two meanings are integrated. Kohlberg expanded on the work of Piaget who claimed that logic and morals develop through constructive stages by determining that the process of moral development was primarily concerned with moral justice which continued throughout the person’s lifetime. He formulated three developmental stages, that moral reasoning follows where each satisfactorily responds to moral dilemmas than its predecessor. These are the pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional, which can be branched to two other stages each. Pre-conventional morality encompasses obedience and punishment orientation and individualism and exchange. It is common in children through some adults exhibit the same reasoning. If an act is punished more severely, then it is perceived to be that bad and vice versa. Individuals, therefore, seek to avoid punishment and adhere to the power imposed on them. The second part of preconvention-individualism and exchange involves individuals doing what is right with their personals best interests at heart. In this perspective, there is limited interest in the wishes of others as long as the person’s wants/endeavors are met. How useful people are is what is significant. Conventional morality encompasses interpersonal conformity and law and order. It is a way of reasoning exemplified by adolescents and adults who seek to judge the morality of actions by the views and mores of society. Using interpersonal conformity the consequences of an action could be a pointer to the morality involved. Some of these consequences include gratitude, respect as well as having others like you. In addition, adherence to rules is dependent on the involved social roles. Law and order stage involves individuals thinking in the realm of the role laws play in society and act according to these laws and rules to uphold them for the sake of a functioning society. Violation of law in this case is morally wrong and many people remain here where morality is defined by an outside force. The third stage, post-conventional encompasses prior rights and social contract, and universal ethical principles. Here people are more concerned with values that make a good society and are less interested in maintaining a society just for its being a society (Gilligan & Attanucci, 1988, 225). It is considered abstract moral reasoning where individuals view rules as useful but changeable
Hip Hop culture takes a special place in the lives of many Americans and other people from different parts of the world. Some people like to express themselves with the help of Hip Hop music and songs, and some people define Hip Hop as an opportunity to be ethically identified, and some people just admire the beauty of this style. However, the nature of Hip Hop changes the same way the world changes day by day, and Watkins offers considering the times when Hip Hop was “unsullied, unburdened, and unchained by the commercial forces and political divisions that generate so much anxiety within the movement today” (9) in order to comprehend the culture of Hip Hop and its true worth. The Otherside is another source where people can learn more about Hip Hop and its impact on people. Regardless numerous discussions about Hip Hop, this culture remains to be a considerable part of human life that helps to understand that such issue as racial profiling is not only something that is required by society to divide people, but it is something that can unite people and make them stronger in their intentions and dream completion. People from The Otherside explain their intentions to use Hip Hop as an opportunity to introduce their national scene. They believe that Hip Hop is their possibility to unite so many different sounds in one place, Seattle, which is regarded as a powerful “melting pot” ( The Otherside ). People do not want to use the idea of racial profiling as a distinction that cannot be neglected. They accept it as a feature that unites them and makes them powerful enough to develop their own styles and interests without fear of their personal craziness and inappropriateness ( The Otherside ). Though there are many ups and downs in the development of this culture, its representatives are ready to deal with them and protect their positions at any cost. Watkins teaches that despite the varieties and improvements of the style, Hip Hop should also be “traced back to the early days of the movement” (22) in order not to lose its essence and power among the political and economic uncertainties and requirements. Hip Hop is more than just a culture that has to be accepted. It is a style of life that helps people understand their place in the world and use their opportunities to achieve more than they actually can. T
Understanding the reasoning behind the choices that researchers make when selecting participants for an experiment is central to evaluating the outcomes of the research and the significance of its results. In the studies by Terrell et al. (1999) and Hicok et al. (2000), a rather detailed description of participants is provided. Both authors manage to outline the main characteristics of the audiences that they seek to study, which is accomplished by specifying their age and ethnic background (ESL learners). Thus, an understanding of the participants as people struggling with learning English is developed. However, not all of the project details are described as explicitly as their target demographic. Namely, some of the aspects of the research design could have been outlined in greater detail. For instance, in Terrell et al.’s (1999) research, a more elaborate description of how the key data was retrieved could have been an improvement. In turn, the study by Hicok (2000) might have included a more nuanced explanation of the analytical tools and models used in the study to foster the understanding of the project. However, to their credit, both studies address the issue of ethics implicitly. For instance, the information concerning the age of the participants implies that an ethical approach must be used to ensure their safety. Nevertheless, several oversights, such as the lack of mentioning of the informed consent obtained from participants or their guardians, are evident in the papers. Consequently, the method section suffers from the lack of the described information. In addition, minor oversights such as the measurement scale used for quantifying students’ responses could have been explained in the papers. Addressing this oversight would have helped to determine the accuracy of research results and their applicability to other research settings. Still, the two studies in question provide a well-structured analysis of the problem of phonemic awareness in ESL students.
Introduction Life would be very difficult if there were no laws to guide human behavior, however, people are affected by criminal activities and seek legal intervention to get justice. Howard says that this may be elusive if the victim has no resources to finance the legal process since it requires hiring lawyers to represent them 1 . Richardson claims that recent developments have seen this profession threatened by the intended move to stop the provision of legal aid to marginalized groups 3 . This paper shows the role of lawyers in protecting access to justice post-LASPO. Definition LAPSO (legal aid, sentencing and punishment of offender’s bill 2012) refers to the bill that ensures (LASPO) is a proposed amendment to restructure the provision of legal aid to poor families and ensure offenders are given lenient and proportional punishments for their crimes. Abraham explains that lawyers bridge the gap between courts and civilians by ensuring they communicate different issues that affect clients regarding their cases 5 . Therefore, lawyers are actively involved in ensuring this bill does not affect access to legal information by poor victims. Cannon and Jackson explain that justice refers to all processes, involved in ensuring criminal activities, are punished and the victims get a reprieve for the offenses committed against them 6 . Role of Lawyers in Protecting Access to Justice Jefferson and Anderson claim that the role of lawyers in a legal institution is to ensure their clients get justice regardless of the time taken to achieve this 8 . Jetson explains that lawyers protect their clients against unfair trials and argues that these changes will hurt the poor in the community 9 . The bill will eliminate the possibilities of lawyers, engaging prosecutors to prove the innocence of their clients, therefore, lawyers are opposed to this bill. Angela and Johnston claim that most nations acknowledge that legal aid beneficiaries are amongst the marginalized groups in the society 10 . The bill does not recognize this and assumes everybody is able to get legal aid. However, lawyers claim that not everybody can afford to pay legal fees, therefore, they protect all attempts to deny clients their rights. In addition, Biggs argues that lawyers have advised their professional bodies to reject the bill since it will not only interfere with the rights of the poor but also affect their profession 11 . Julianne claims that the independent commission of inquiry into legal aid considered the above situations and proposed that, the scrapping of legal aid will devastate poor people in the society, and thus formed alliances to oppose the move 12 . Newman observed that lawyers are concerned since most people that get legal aid are poor and unable to provide basic needs to their families 13 . Therefore, they dispute this bill since it violates their right to justice and fair hearings during trials. Kruger underlines the fact that society has discriminated against some members of the community and made their problems worse 14 . Candy believes that these groups have suffered various challenges due to economic, social and gender discrimination
Facts: The defendant in this case, Gregory L. Johnson, participated in demonstrations that some Americans had organized to protest the policies of some Dallas-based corporations, and the Reagan administration in general. The demonstrations were held at the same time as the 1984 Republican Convention that was also held in Dallas. The demonstrators marched the city of Dallas with the event culminating in the respondent’s public flag desecration. As he desecrated the flag, no threatening was done on anyone and no physical injuries occurred. However, the desecration of the flag offended a number of witnesses. Procedural History: The trial court found the defendant guilty of violating a Texas statute by desecrating a venerated object. The decision was affirmed by the State Court of Appeals. The defendant appealed in the Court of Criminal Appeals in Texas. Issue: Did the desecration of the flag by the defendant amount to expressive conduct, permitting the respondent to enjoy First Amendment protection? Did flag preservation as a nationhood symbol justify the respondent’s conviction? Rule The Court of Criminal Appeals in Texas reversed the earlier ruling that Johnson was guilty of desecrating a venerated object. The State of Texas agreed that the conduct of the respondent was expressive in nature. The flag was burned during a political demonstration, which proved its expressive nature. The First Amendment protects such rights. The court also held th
The Supreme Court in the US ruled that New York Times and Washington Post could go ahead to publish the then classified Pentagon Paper without fear of government censure. The case was ruled in 1971, commonly referred to as per curiam (Harold and Schmidt 17). The head of state demanded a governmental authority to compel the publishing company to suspend releasing sensitive information to the public. The case revealed the fact that freedom of press and other fundamental bill of rights are important than any other decree in the US. The case exposed the fact that the First Amendment, which provided the rights of people including the freedom of press, was held in high esteem. Furthermore, the case revealed that the executive branch of government was subordinate to the public. The public could have powers to access any relevant information that touches on its security and wellbeing. The case was caused by a claim made by the state agency, which argued that the media company had violated section 793 of the Espionage Act. The Attorney General, John Mitchell, reported that the US government was dissatisfied with the way the company handled sensitive issues. The company had published insightful stories based on Pentagon Papers. This was viewed as a threat to national security hence prompting the state to sue the Newspaper Company. Specifically, the government was dissatisfied with the type of language used in reporting the incident. According Alexander Bickel and Floyd Abrams, the language contravened the legal statutes of the media. The two observed that the company went against three laws, the first one being the wording of the statute, which was claimed to be a bit broad. The publication was undemocratic because it aimed at exposing the US to the enemy. Finally, the company went against governmental law, which states that matters pertaining to defense should not be exposed to the public. The legal issue was whether the information intended to educate the public or cause injury to the US government. The company argued that the public had the right to be updated with relevant information touching on their security. This is exemplified by the quote ‘would the public be an entity not permitted to receive the information’. The case was ruled in favor of The New York Times. This was because the state did not have enough evidence to impeach the company. The judges based their decisions on the First Amendment, which asserted that the public had all the rights to be informed any kind of information. On the other hand, the government lacked sufficient support implying that a different ruling could have been reached. This means that there was no patent and exclusive verdict made by the judges. Matters touching on security receive divergent views because of individual beliefs. It can be summarized that the judges had divergent views as regards to the case. Justice Hugo for instance opinionated that the First Amendment was to be respected during the ruling. This shows that he was against the decision of the state to interfere with fundamental rights and freedoms. Just
A tsunami is one of the critically dangerous natural disasters that might result in crucial devastations. On December 26, 2004, the areas of Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India, and the Maldives were hit by a tsunami produced by the earthquake 155 kilometers from Sumatra (Schmidt, 2005). The 30 feet high waves killed more than 150,000 people and preconditioned traumas among millions of other victims, making it one of the worst natural disasters of this sort in history (Schmidt, 2005). At the same time, it demonstrated the inability of existing warning systems to respond fast and effectively and protect people by evacuating them and providing an appropriate shelter. The problem was that the Indian Ocean area lacked sensor technologies to detect earthquakes that might signalize the appearance of a tsunami (Schmidt, 2005). The absence of needed tools critically deteriorated the effectiveness of the whole warning system. Today, multiple attempts are performed to avoid the repetition of the scenario and improve the current methods of managing tsunamis. There is a specific Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System (IOTWMS), which is considered a successful end-to-end warning system that helps to detect the first signs of the earthquake in the ocean and warn the appropriate authorities responsible for organizing the popul
During the XX century, Japan and China have made a huge breakthrough in all fields of their nations’ lives. After having remained isolated countries for centuries, these countries have come up to those developed and left many of them behind, which have taken them only a few decades. Thus, when talking about the Chinese and Japanese phenomena, three main questions arise: how this Eastern wonder has happened, what Chinese and Japanese global power look like today, and what we can expect from these two countries in the future. This review is focused on giving an idea about possible answers for them. Globalization has become the central issue in the discussion of the evolution of modern civilization. When the countries open their borders, television and the Internet broadcast information flows regardless of the kilometers of land and ocean, it seems that the cultural differences are now living their last days. However, McDonald’s employees in the uniform decorated with the national ethnic prints, which can be seen in many countries of the World, lead to the idea that the swan-song of local cultures has not sounded yet. Global goods, services, and cultural tendencies rarely penetrate the local culture in their authentic form: as a rule, they fuse with those local. This process has been given the name of glocalization, which means fusion of globalization and localization, says Samir Dasgupta in his (2004). In other words, instead of being suppressed and faded, local cultures seem to be enriched with the global trends, dissolving them like soil dissolves a fertilizer and bears fruit. The development of Japan and China is an eloquent example of modern glocalization. The extent of the Chinese economic wonder can be easily described employing a few figures: yet in 1978, the sum of the values of Chinese exports and imports was nearly 11 percent of the country’s income; today China has become the largest exporter and the second-largest importer of goods in the World (45 percent of GDP in 2009). The poverty rate has diminished from 53% in 1981 to 2.5% in 2005 (China Economy). Yet in 2007 Dirk Lammers from The Associated Press carried out a one-week journalistic experiment which implied avoiding buying Chinese goods; the experiment failed (Lammers, 2007). However, the reason for this boom seems to be not limited by the economical dimension itself. Today the whole economic science does not understate the importance of the cultural component when analyzing the development of a national economy. Yet Max Weber who worked at the border of the XIX and the XX centuries tried to explain China’s centuries-old economic lag employing referring to the statements of Confucianism. The merchants, according to Confucius’s ideas, had the lowest position in society: they worked for their benefit and did not co