ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Today’s Muslim world is divided into two major sectors, namely Sunnis and Shias. Sunnis make up around 80-85% of the Muslim population. The remaining 15% is the Shias. Amongst the Muslim countries, Iran has the majority of Shia population. There are noteworthy Shia populations in countries like Afghanistan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Yemen. Today, Sunnis and Shias share most prominent sects of Muslims. However, the differences between the laws and theories of both the communities have been responsible for intolerance and sectarian violence in some parts of the world where the two sects co-exist. This paper throws light on the history, development of the Sunni-Shia split and the differences in beliefs, laws and practices between the two sects. Some similarities are also included. History After the death of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) in 632 AD, there emerged certain disagreements among the Muslims, The primary reasons for the disagreements were the issues of succession to the Prophet and the leadership of the Muslim community. The debate was focused on whether to make someone who is from the family of Prophet (as he himself declared Ali as the next leader in his life) or to award leadership to someone who is socially admirable by the people who are to elect their next leader. Though many Muslims accepted this decision, some of the Muslims supported Ali (A.S). Ali played a major role throughout the struggles of the Prophet (PBUH) and the Muslim community from the early days of Islam. The only problem was the thought to bring leadership out of Prophet’s family (Ze’evi). Supporters of Ali (A.S) wanted him to be the next successor as Ali was the one who spent time with Prophet more than anyone else. He was brought up by Prophet and was being taught all in depth be Prophet himself. On the other hand, Abu Bakr accepted Islam in his old age. His whole life was spent as a non-Muslim. However, Abu Bakr was socially famous in Arabs and due to his strong community, he was awarded the leadership of the Muslim community and Ali (A.S) became the caliph later on (Blanchard). Muslims also presented a reason to choose Abu Bakr from the fellows of Prophet (PBUH) that he was older and senior than Ali (A.S) while this reason was not quite valid as there was another Sahabi (fellow of Prophet) Salman Farsi who was more aged than Abu Bakr. Some of the Muslims felt that it was unjustified not to name Ali as the leader. These Muslims supported Ali more than his counterparts. These were the people who considered Abu Bakr and some other notable companions to be illegitimate candidates for leadership as most of them did not belong to the family of Prophet (PBUH) or his bloodline and were not intimated by Prophet as the next leader
Introduction A lot of research has been conducted regarding the crime rates between men and women. Men have been consistently showing higher crime rates than women. Researchers have given biological and socio-cultural reasons for the disparity of crime rates between the men and women. Recently, it has been noted that female crime rates are increasing as more women enter the labor force. This has caused researchers to look more keenly on the impact of division of labor between the different genders on the crime rates. The findings have shown that the division of labor has a huge impact. Role of Division of Labor in Gender Crime Rates The rate of male criminal offenders is higher than the rate of female crime offenders. One of the contributing factors to the disparity in the crime rates between the genders is the labor force participation. The tendency in women’s crime rate has been higher in the minor offenses of shop-lifting and theft while men have been involved in more serious crimes. Women have shown a lower rate in the serious crimes. Research has shown that women are no more or no less likely to commit crime compared to men. What really matters are the opportunities available to an individual to commit a criminal offense. Men commit more serious crimes than women because of their location in the labor force environment. In most white collar professions the number of men is higher than the women. This makes the men have more opportunities, skills and social networks causing them to record higher crime rates than women. This proves that men have been displaying high crime rates because of the opportunities of committing fraud that are present in the workplace. However the female crime rate has been increasing and it has been linked to higher participation in the labor force. In 1960, for every thousand offenders, there were only three. By 2003, the number of women offenders per thousand of offenders had increased to 15. The rate of male crime in property offenses increased over the same period however the rate of increase has not been as high. At the same time the rate of women’s labor participation has increased steadily since 1960 while that of men has been showing a long steady decline (Engelhardt, Rocheteau & Rupert, 2007). These statistics explain the impact on the division of labor amongst men and women in society and its impact on the gender crime rates. With higher participation in the labor force, there have also been decreased fertility rates, increase in real wages and increase in educational attainment among women contributing to the higher female crime rates. As women gain higher education and skills, they become empowered and no longer engage in petty crimes like shop-lifting or mild threats. Rather there will be an increase in the rate of women’s property crimes such as embezzlement, forgery and fraud (Kevonne, 2000). Increased participation in the labor force also causes the women to engag
Capital Punishment is the lawful infliction of death as a punishment for a major crime. Execution methods are lethal injection (most common), electrocution, gas chamber, hanging, and firing squad. Capital Punishment is an increasingly controversial issue in the United States, with several arguments being forwarded for it as well as many arguments being leveled against it. The first argument against Capital Punishment is that it is inhumane. It is like decreeing that rapists should be raped or arsonists should have their own homes burnt in punishment. Secondly, life imprisonment is a better alternative to Capital Punishment. Even in extreme cases, life in prison without parole is a better alternative to execution. Thirdly, there is a high possibility of miscarriage of justice. One cannot expect the law machinery to hit the right spot every time. Fourthly, it has no moral basis. Every person’s right to life is given by God and only He can take a life; the nation has got no right to interfere in God’s divine rules. Nearly every major religion including the Bible’s New Testament denounces it as an improper punishment. Fifthly, it mentally tortures the executed person’s family. They are made orphans or widows and their agony is prolonged by mandatory appeals and media coverage, often causing them serious trauma even many years later. Sixthly, it has no real deterrent effect. Criminals do not commit crimes if they believe they will be caught. The first argument for Capital Punishment is that criminals are permanently terminated. The worst criminals are removed from society and prevented from committing any offenses either within the prison or after escaping or being released from prison. Secondly, it is just retribution based on the vengeance principle of “an eye for an eye”. A criminal has taken the life or lives of other human beings, and it is only just and proper that his life is taken away from him in retribution. Thirdly, it creates deterrence. Life imprisonment is a soft deterrent; for most hardened criminals, more is needed. Fourthly, the victim’s family feels vindicated, providing them solace for the huge suffering endured by them. Fifthly, there is no possibility of a mistake. The trials and appeals system in the U.S is so proper it is nearly impossible to convict those innocent. Also, DNA testing has now emerged as a strong tool to establish guilt or innocence beyond the shadow of a doubt. Sixthly, it is not arbitrarily applied to everyone; weaker sections of society such as juveniles and mentally retarded persons are exempted. Lastly, society, in general, is better served. Capital Punishment upholds the fundamental principle of justice, namely. ‘the punishment should fit the crime,’ making people believe that their society, their cit
Economic analysts viewed Delta Airlines’ resolution to acquire the Trainer refinery as a risky endeavor. The experts predicted that the airline would not succeed from the diversification measure. The refinery had closed business in September 2012 due to high operating costs. Delta decided to engage professionals in the airlines industry in order to realize its integration project. The airline did not have prior experience in the energy industry. It had to conduct an empirical study in order to measure the worth of the diversification procedure. The company decided to change its operations strategy in 2012. It resolved to shift from the adoption of a business plan to a corporate one. The airline began to experience progress after the integration. A corporate strategy involves diversification and integration mechanisms. These plans incorporate the organization’s scope of activities. Delta Airlines decided to buy an oil refinery from ConocoPhillips at $150million. The diversification strategies seemed appropriate for the airlines in terms of helping it to gain competitive advantage in the industry. The company hoped to increase its profits through its diversification strategy. The airlines would manage its risks efficiently and expand its markets. The organization’s acquisition of the oil refinery would cater for future increments in the prices of jet fuel. The company envisioned that it would save $300million annually once it started running the refinery. Delta Airlines intended to meet its diversification costs in a cost effective manner. The business estimated that the costs of entry would be below the envisaged profits. The airlines would have to purchase 60 new narrow-bodied planes that would cost about $2.5billion. This aspect would reduce the costs of fuel for the airline company. Delta Airlines contracted BP to supply it with crude oil. The airlines planned to exchange petroleum products from its newly acquired refinery for jet fuel. The company incorporated the idea into its vertical integration mechanisms. The concept of vertical integration refers to the purchase of a supply chain of a given company by another related group. The two businesses must however produce similar products in order for them to achieve their business goals. The acquisition of the refinery would thus help Delta Airlines access cheap jet fuel. This paper evaluates the fuel costs of an airline company to be a third of its total operating expenses in a given fiscal period. Delta Airlines would gain a competitive advantage over its rivals by $40billion. Delta Airlines may benefit from the vertical integration. The company may gain from the economies of scale due to the reduced costs of inputs and raw materials. The business may reduce its transaction costs of deals with small firms, taxes, regulations and specific investments. The vertical incorporation may he
Introduction The internet is a medium of communication and is shaped by the people using it as a medium to pass their messages or receive. Like any other communication media, the internet is expected to be in agreement with the natural moral system. Information on the internet should be real, accurate, and honest so as to benefit all users. When the information carried on the medium contradicts these moral principles, then it creates confusion, causes harm and inequity (Huggins p.282). Spinello (p.44) looks at the issue of internet control as a choice of letting the private interests control the internet in a free market setting or the top-down approach of state control to factor in the social costs and to avoid the damage that might be caused by a bottom-up approach. There is a need for regulation of the internet; however, the correct format of regulation is a disputed fact among various stakeholders of the internet. The internet has to have a regulative oversight to survive. Regulatory bodies are needed to handle technical matters like standards and management of internet resources. These regulatory bodies include the World Wide Web Consortium (WWWC) and the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) (Spinello p.44). The case for regulation of the internet has been fuelled by the anonymity of the internet that makes the assumption of false identity very easy. Therefore, persons exploit the anonymity provision of the internet to behave unethically by publishing or distributing content that is not credible and whose owners cannot be accounted for. Therefore, on the grounds of moral and legal considerations, the internet, just like other mediums of communication, should be regulated (Huggins p.282). Advantages of Internet regulation Regulation of the internet will eliminate or reduce the anonymity of using the internet and therefore help to reduce the exploitation of women and girls. In addition, it will help establish a formidable guard against spam by fixing the identity of the originator of the spam. Regulation of the internet prevents the formation of information company monopolies that create segmented markets and exploit their customers just like in the physical business environment. Proper internet regulation increases the credibility of e-commerce, reduces the incidences of fraud, and to some extent guarantees users their money refunds when an internet site turns out to be illegitimate. Internet regulation allows states to prevent international crime like human trafficking and terrorism. The censorship of information passed on the internet allows states to investigate potential lawbreakers early and prevent the actual commitment of crimes (Reagle para.4-9). Disadvantages of Internet Regulation The current internet regulation
Introduction Negotiation is an acquired skill that is required for effective business and management activities. This skill is employed in conflicts/ situations where two or more individuals hold divergent positions. In this case, the negotiation skill is utilized in a joint decision-making process between two or more parties aimed at reaching a common ending. Each party attempts to reach a favorable outcome through exchanging offers and counter-offers (Lewicki, Saunders, and Barry, 2006, p.12). Most studies have identified two strategies that can be employed in negotiations. These are integrative and distributive strategies. The integrative strategy entails a situation whereby one party is engaged in an interest-based negotiation process with another while the distributive strategy involves one party taking a stern position on a certain situation during the process of negotiating with another (Lewicki et al., 2006, p.18). Additionally, the authors argue that there are three approaches to negotiations. These are soft, hard and principled negotiations. Soft negotiations involve an integrative interest-based negotiating approach while hard negotiations entail highly competitive positional negotiating approaches. On the other hand, principled approaches involve both soft and hard negotiation tactics. This essay entails the analysis of two articles in which the two negotiation strategies are employed in reaching a common outcome. It also gives a description of the negotiation process in each case. Finally, the essay compares and contrasts the approaches employed in the two strategies. The fate of Detroit’s Big 3 will trickle down locally By Bill Kirk The article entails a negotiation between the three CEOs of three auto Companies (Chrysler, Ford and General Motors) and the US government. The conflict/ situation that arises, in this case, is that the three Company bosses have formed a combined force in asking the government to offer them a bailout package (Kirk, 2008, par.2). The three individuals are representing the interests of many suppliers of small auto parts, auto dealers and many workers in the auto industry. They base their arguments on the fact that, if the three giants fail to obtain the loan, about 2-3 million jobs will be lost. They also cite the falling sales of other industries associated with the current situation in the auto industry. The approach used in this case is that of appealing to the government to come to the aid of its citizens. Saudi Oil Tanker Owners in Negotiations with Pirates (Update 1) This article involves negotiations between the owners of the oil tanker from Saudi Arabia and the Pirates that have captured the vessel off the coast of Somalia. The conflict that arises, in this case, is that the Pirates are demanding ransom money from the owners of the tanker in order to release it and its crew (Alexander and Krause-Jackson, 2008, par.2)
The difficult work of ambulance doctors is also complicated by citizens unable to define the appropriateness of their call to the service. In critical situations, this can have fatal consequences for some patients. The work offers academic sources that have studied this problem. Gardner GJ. The use and abuse of the emergency ambulance service: some of the factors affecting the decision whether to call an emergency ambulance. Emergency Medicine Journal. 1990 Jun 1;7(2):81-89. Problem When an emergency arises, under the pressure of panic, it is difficult for people to determine whether it is appropriate to call an ambulance or not. Intervention After entering the hospital, patients and doctors were interviewed to find out how correctly the patients determined their condition. Comparison The public awareness of the circumstances in which immediate medical assistance can reduce service load. Outcome Patients poorly know ambulance work – only 62% correctly identified their conditions to calling for help. Kirkby HM, Roberts LM. Inappropriate 999 calls: an online pilot survey. Emergency Medicine Journal. 2012 Feb 1;29(2):141-146. Problem Inappropriate calls can cause death or severe complications in a patient to whom doctors did not have time to arrive due to unavailability. Intervention Researchers have created an online questionnaire to see if people understand situations in which to call an ambulance. According to the number of points respondents received for interpreting scenarios, the level of understanding of the relevance of calls was determined. Comparison Compared to the first resource, such a survey showed that the primary source of inappropriate calls is panic. Outcome In situations where the help of doctors is definitely needed, most respondents would call for help. However, in 2 out of 7 cases, the study identifies a problem when there is no need for specialists, but calls are received. Edwards MJ, Bassett G, Sinden L, Fothergill RT. Frequent callers to the ambulance service: patient profiling and impact of case management on patient utilisation of the ambulance service. Emergency Medicine Journal. 2015 May 1;32(5):392-396. Problem There are a certain number of patients who often and without a significant reason, apply to an ambulance. It interferes with the correct work of the ambulance and drains out limited resources. Intervention A group of patients, who often called an ambulance, was identified. Researchers highlighted factors that helped reduce the number of calls from this group of patients. Comparison The main focus here is on those who make constant calls, not on single ones. Outcome Competent management of a group of complex patients and prior intervention, such as regular observation by a doctor, helps to decrease the load on th
Introduction Nationalism can be defined as the attitude or feeling that people from a given nation have in regard to their national identity or the actions taken by people of a particular nation in an effort to establish their identity and self determination (Anonymous, 2001). Nationalism has various effects to the people involved and this paper looks into the effects of nationalism on the roles of the working class, women, and minorities in an effort to achieve political power through both peaceful and violent revolutions during the period of 1789-1871 and the implications of the changing roles in various countries in Western Europe. Background Information Nationalism was a concept that existed in most parts of Europe and is considered to be very important in the history and development of Europe to the current state. It is considered to be primarily a phenomenon of Western Europe. It started in Germany and was later adopted in Italy, France, Spain and England. There was the formation of many nationalistic and socialistic political parties in places like Spain, Romania, Germany and Italy among other places. Most of the parties however were not very successful and failed after a short time with some exception of those in places like Italy and Germany. This is as a result of use of violence by most of the parties a practice that led to intervention by law enforcers where actions were taken to stop the parties’ activities as they were considered a threat to the society. Many revolutions were involved in the spread of nationalism ideologies, for instance, the French revolution and more revolutions kept on emerging the most notable one being those that took place in 1848 (Leoussi, 2001). How The Rise Of Nationalism Affected The Efforts Of The Working Class, Women, And Minorities To Achieve Political Power By Both Peaceful And Violent Revolution During The Period Of 1789-1871 The rise of nationalism had both positive and negative effects to the nations in which it was experienced. This was mostly seen in different people in the society in their efforts to attain political power for instance those who held different working positions, women and also the minorities in the nations. The political power was meant to be achieved through peaceful revolutions and also through revolutions where some violence was involved. The French revolution of 1789 marked the beginning of the effects of nationalism in Europe. Liberal nationalism brought about the issue of right to vote. The right t