ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Capitalist development The existence of systematic barriers to economic and capitalist developments poses several challenges to social economic theorists. According to Biggart (2002), capitalist development can be defined as an economic system leading to capital accumulation through privatization of property. In his work, Swedberg advocates a gradual privatization that involves feudal relations turning to capitalists in what he terms as ‘capitalism from below’. He argues that mass privatization, viz. capitalism from above, led to an incomplete and undesirable separation of producers from the means of subsistence. This assertion meant that capitalism from above did not necessarily lead to accumulation of capital; on the contrary, in some cases, it ended up causing massive destruction and deindustrialization. In the recent past, economic theorists have been involved in heated debates on the concept of economic development. In this analysis, The Readings in Social Economics by Nicole Biggart will be reviewed to examine the opinions presented about capitalist development. The second article is an excerpt from the Handbook of Economic Sociology by Swedberg. In part, these readings in social economics bring forth a healthy reaction to the Weber’s mature theory of capitalism among other social economic views that present general economic development ideas. Biggart shows the extensive contribution of institutional factors, which Weber considered as necessary in developing his overall view on capitalism. On the other hand, Swedberg’s view about capitalist development is a mission geared towards accumulating capital as well as enhancing industrialization. Swedberg indicates that socialism came up first to demonstrate that it had the capacity to provide defense to the public sector from privatization. However, the main idea in this paper is that Biggart’s view on capitalist development as being a rationalized way of human needs’ Swedberg through enterprise outweighs Swedberg’s argument on capitalism, which entails gradual privatization of property in parts rather than as whole. During the time of transition to a capitalist economy, socialism had caused over industrialization due to the readily available labor force. The socialism strategy emerged to be a production of excess, which led to a drop when the world manufacturing systems suffered from excess production. In a bid to emphasize on gradual privatization, Swedberg gives the case of China where the fall of socialism had no impact since the country’s agrarian sector, which was gradually transiting, remained dominant. The regimes that favored capitalism from above or radical transition to capitalist economies experienced deindustrialization and massive unemployment (Swedberg, 1994). Swedberg’s opinion on capitalism development Strengths Swedberg’s ideology on capital development, which advocates transition from below, brings forth one of the best options to adjust quickly to the capitalist economy. For instance, its foundations are laid on agrarianism, which enhanced a move up in the capitalist economy from the periphery of the world systems. Swedberg underscores the impact of capitalism from a
The US prison system is famous for its notorious inefficiency. While not being the largest nation in the world, America has the largest prisoner population, surpassing countries such as India, Russia, and China in both inmate population rates and numbers of inmates per 100,000 people. As it stands, there are over 2,100,000 incarcerated prisoners, with over 7 million being supervised as part of their probation period (World Prison Brief, 2015). According to McLaughlin, Pettus-Davis, Brown, Veeh, and Renn (2016), the total burden on the US economy for maintaining the prison system, including the social costs, exceeds 1 trillion dollars a year. US prison population began growing exponentially ever since the adoption of the so-called “War on Drugs” policy, declared by President Nixon in 1971, which was an attempt to curb the flow of drugs flowing into the country through the Mexican border. While this effort proved to be a failure on its own, it also significantly contributed to the increase of prisoner population in the US. As it stands, the number of prisoners in the US in 2017 is ten times as much when compared to pre -1971, while the overall population rates have increased only by a third. Half of these prisoners (51%) are jailed for non-violent offenses (World Prison Brief, 2015). The existing number of prisons is not enough to hold and adequately maintain its numerous population. Many of them are overcrowded. One of the reasons for prison overcrowding and their failure to prevent crime and reintegrate former convicts into the society lies in inefficient sentencing practices. Due to every state having its own jurisdictions and policies in regards to sentencing, there is more than a single sentencing model practiced in the US. (Zhang, Zhang, & Vaughn, 2009). The purpose of this paper is to prove that in the case with non-violent crimes, determinate sentencing does not reduce crime, encourages social isolation upon release, increases chances of the transformation of a relatively benign inmate into a mature criminal, and causes overcrowding in prisons. Determinate Sentencing Modern law dictionaries define a determinate prison sentence as a sentence that is defined in a code of law and cannot be discretionarily changed by the judge, the parole board, or any government agency based on any kind of mitigating circumstances. In modern US practice, minimum determinate sentences exist for certain crimes such as murder, rape, and other kinds of criminal activities deemed dangerous to the society. History of Determinate
Introduction The importance of the study was to apply a number of methods to study the leadership of groups and the more-important-than-average (MITA) effect on them. Another thing that was examined was the degree of overestimation of a group’s goals and to what extent ethics would be put at stake to attain them (Hoyt, Price & Emrick, 2010). In regards to MITA, the research would determine that a given group will view their own aspirations as more important than those of another one. By that, the researchers would find out whether the hypothesis that a group’s members would justify unethical behavior in line with achievement of their goals. The third preposition is whether the MITA effect and justification partiality is more in leading individuals than in the other members of the group. The researchers in the study would finally find out whether the justification partiality is directly related to the attitude towards the group and the importance of achieving objectives (Hoyt, Price & Emrick, 2010). Body of the text The propositions were applied in three dimensions. In the first one, the effect of MITA for a group’s objectives on leaders and members or non leaders was undertaken. They then applied the MITA effect for objectives as perceived in groups and then found out the factors that could influence justification bias. To answer the first question, one hundred and fifty six university students were selected. They compromised 58 male and 98 female leaders and 44 non-leaders. They were expected to rank their goals against those of other groups and then assess their goals against those of their opponents (Hoyt, Price & Emrick, 2010). In connection to that there were some funds that were to be distributed and each of the participants would rank the eligibility of their group to get them. They would rank them in importance. They simultaneously rated the goals of their own group on a scale between strongly agree and strongly disagree ranging from 1to 7. Rankings on fund distribution indicated that participants ranked their own group highly. They also placed the goals of their groups as more important than those of other groups. The researchers then applied the second hypothesis on the leader and the non-leaders, based on the rankings on fund distribution. From the rankings the leaders attributed greater importance to the groups goals compared to non-leaders (Hoyt, Price & Emrick, 2010). A further test on the importance of goals revealed that leaders ranked it higher than non-leaders. There was no difference however on the rankings of both leaders and non-leaders on other groups’ goals. This validated the theory that groups tend to have a more-important-than-average effect on their goals than those of other groups. More so, the MITA effect was greater in leaders than in non-leaders. In the second study they sought to find out whether the MITA effect is influenced by the feeling that one is a leader rather than the reasons they become leaders. It was undertaken on the participants holding the leading position (Hoyt et al., 2010). One hund
The post concerns one of the approaches to understanding motivation: the expectancy theory of motivation. The significance of this aspect in cross-cultural collaboration cannot be overestimated. It is crucial for employers to understand their employees’ needs because through increasing the opportunities for meeting these needs, one can reach the best level of performance. Motivation theories can be divided according to the main drivers, so scholars distinguish between human needs and cultural values approaches (Browaeys, & Price, 2015). The expectancy theory of motivation, introduced by Vroom, belongs to the cultural values dimension (Browaeys, & Price, 2015). According to this approach, motivation is contingent on the extent to which employees consider that they control the results of their achievements. Also, the theory presupposes that managers have the power to establish rewards preferred by employees. Expectancy theory has found its reflection in various spheres, providing the basis for understanding workers’ motivation. Purvis, Zagenczyk, and McGray (2015) argue that expectancy-related perceptions can be affected by a firm’s organisational and psychological climate. As a result, expectancy can regulate the likelihood of stakeholders’ participation in a project. Also, it will become possible to understand whether stakeholders are motivated to carry out the
The article “Trends and Perspectives in Management and Leadership Development” reviews existing trends in leadership and management in the United Kingdom, with the view to demonstrating that much of the current growth and development in these domains is motivated by financial, political, and market-oriented demands, rather than sustained philosophical and instructive approaches on the character and intention of management, leadership and education within modern society. The justification for undertaking this study, it seems, is predicated upon the fact that there is inadequate attention focussed on individual and organizational demands and requirements, particularly in the context of management and leadership development. Consequently, not much has been achieved in establishing contextually embedded and collective approaches of ‘management’ and ‘leadership’ even though organizations are spending huge amounts of money to enhance management and leadership capability (Bolden 2007). From the article, it is evident that there remains a significant doubt as to whether the current provisions in management and leadership can meet the needs and requirements of the modern organization because the global challenges experienced now demand strategies to management and leadership education that are intensely diverse from those that have served well in the past (Bolden 2007). To fill this gap and get the most out of management and leadership development, the author urges managers and other relevant stakeholders to (1) critically assess current notions of the nature of leadership and learning within the organization, (2) think carefully about the development needs of both employees and the organization, (3) explore a range of development options from several providers not only to maximize the advantages of experiential and reflective learning, but also to understand how such learning can be transferred and sustained within the organization, (4) ensure that learning and development are identified as fundamental and valued activities within the organization and that each employee is facilitated and supported in their learning, and (5) review other organizational systems and processes, particularly the human resource strategy, and how these interface with and provide support to leadership and management development (Bolden 2007). Other recommendations from this particular study in
Introduction Nadya Denise Doud-Suleman is an American woman born in 1975. She delivered octuplets in January 2009 at Kaiser Permanente facility in Bellfloer, California. She is commonly referred to as ‘the octomom.’ The octuplets become the second set born alive in the United States. When this news broke out there was great excitement and anticipation about the mother and the family. However, later it was discovered that she had gone through fertility treatment to conceive the octuplets. More surprising was the discovery of her other six children who had also been conceived through in-vitro fertilization (IVF). She is a single mother and her other children were on welfare support because she could not provide for them as she was unemployed at the time. This news led to public anger and she even faced death threats. A heated debate ensued with many questioning the morality if in-vitro fertilization. Fortunately, all the eight babies survived and today they are 11 months. This paper will look at the ethical implications in implanting the embryos. In addition, if the removal of the children from Ms Suleman is proper. Implanting multiple embryos Studies done recently show that babies conceived through in-vitro fertilization have higher risks of malformations and cerebral palsy than those conceived naturally. When parents choose to have an IVF they expose their yet to be conceived babies to these risks (Benatar, 2006, p. 2491). Yet in a normal case, a parent should only take such a risk to preserve the baby from the possibility of such a risk. The doctor who conducted the IVF treatment Dr. Michael Kamrava should have known better about the risks associated with multiple implantations because he is a medical professional. Observations done by neonatologists show the risks associated with “multiple births and prematurity” (Bellieni & Giuseppe, 2006, p.93). Higher numbers of hospitalization in neonatal intensive care are due to IVF. Twins have a higher chance of developing neurodevelopment impairment and death compared to single births. Grand multiparity is more likely in assisted reproduction and raises the risks further. Dr. Kamrava implanted the embryos with this knowledge. This is raises the ethical question in carrying out the procedure that has such high risks for the babies and low success rates (English, 1999, p. 3045). These children may never get a chance to meet their biological parent to inquire about important questions for instance concerning genetic diseases (Duin, 1999, p. 1). Therefore, the doctor was wrong to implant the high number of embryos and put the life of the “future babies at risk”. Removal of children from Ms Suleman’s care Ms Suleman does not deserve the custody of her children. She cannot provide for them due to her current unemployed status. Currently she is r
The debates of whether faith groups and institutions should/should not be allowed to actively participate in the ongoing construction of the America’s public sphere continue to have a strong effect on the realities of a contemporary living in this country. One of the main aspects of these debates is that, while striving to promote their point of view on the concerned subject matter, the proponents of both diametrically opposite approaches often make references to what used to be the opinions of the Founding Fathers, in this respect. As a result, Founding Fathers are being often regarded as both: the opponents of the idea that religion should be incorporated into the country’s public life, as its integral component, and this idea’s advocates. This, of course, contributes substantially to the fact that, as of today, American citizens remain rather divided in their opinions as to what kind of a role should religion play in the society. However, while indulging in the earlier mentioned debates, the proponents of both approaches seem to remain unaware that, during the course of the last century, the American society has undergone a dramatic transformation. This is why, as of today, the validity of the Founding Fathers’ insights, in regards to the issue of religion, cannot be discussed outside of what accounts for the qualitative aspects of the era of post-modernity. In this paper, I will explore the validity of the above-suggestion at length, while arguing that the constitutional principle of the separation between Church and State remains thoroughly valid and that the so-called ‘people of faith’ will be much better off not meddling in the country’s public affairs. The main argument, to which religious Americans refer, while trying to prove the legitimacy of their claim that they should be allowed to exert a strong influence on the process of a political/social decision-making in America, is that the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution clearly entitles Americans with the right to practice their religious beliefs freely, “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof…” (First Amendment, 2013, para. 1). The same Amendment also guarantees that, regardless of what happened to be the specifics of people’s religious affiliation, they will not be discriminated against. Another common argument, brought forward by religious citizens, in defense of their claim that they have the right to influence the government’s functioning, is that initially, the overwhelming majority of early American settlers consisted of bible-thumping Protestants. Even the majority of liberally minded Founding Fathers and most prominent American intellectuals, affiliate
Introduction Romanticism can be described as a period that was characterized by numerous changes in the works of art. 1 Besides, the period of romanticism is estimated to have existed between 1760 and1870. During this era, numerous changes occurred in the works of art coupled with reactions against the rise of Neoclassicism that was taking shape in most parts of Europe. History painting artists such as Kauffmann, David, Delacroix and Gros were against what was particularly referred to as the Age of Reason, the Enlightenment, or rather the18th-century materialism. Romanticism was characterized by passion, imagination, autonomy and independence. 2 Additionally, it emphasized on favorite historical art subjects, nature, people and landscapes. The Romantic Movement first developed in northern Europe as part of rejecting the new technical standards of art which were fast emerging. 3 It is against this scope that this paper aims to explore the aspect of romanticism in the history of painting by considering the works of artists such as Kauffmann, David, Delacroix and Gros. Kauffmann: It is apparent that Kauffmann was one of the prominent artists who were among the remarkable history painters during 18 th century. 4 He emerged as an active painter who used figural arrangements of old sculptures, poses and vase paintings. The artist figuratively influenced the stylistic trends of his times. For this reason, she emerges as a lucrative academic painter and thus left a mark in the field of history painting. Historical records have revealed that Kauffmann made inspirational and editorial paintings that were based on her lovely imaginations. Besides, she had made several fine etchings, friezes and ceilings. Myriad of decorations which she made around 1771-81 can be traced in some of the deluxe houses in Rome. 5 During the late 1770s, the artist did history paintings mainly for monetary returns. Shortly after this period, Kauffmann drew her attention on neoclassicism. She produced paintings that were based on historical events that existed in ancient Rome an Athens. During this era, neoclassicism considered the work of art from the esteemed artistic perspective. Kauffmann participated in the movement. She produced a lot of exhibits mostly nude models that were used to illustrate the anatomy of human body. Moreover, she made historical paintings on landscapes and flowers. Regardless of the fact that painting of nude pictures by women was highly criticized she fairly improved her skill at drawing and painting human forms. To ward off criticism, she painted nude
Introduction This paper tackles various issues to do with citizenship. A large part of the discussion will be on multiple citizenship issues. Generally, the word citizenship refers to the linkage between a person and a certain state. A person is said to be a citizen of a certain country if he or she legally belongs to that country. Some states have allowed their citizens to acquire citizenships in other countries and this has been a subject of debate. Such people are said to have multiple citizenship or dual citizenships. In respect to the social contract theory, rights as well as responsibilities accompany the citizenship status. The most common means of becoming a citizen of a particular country is through birth or parentage. This is normally the first citizenship a person earns. An individual can also earn citizenship through marriage and naturalization. The dual citizen, in respect to either of the country’s jurisdiction, which considers such an individual as its citizen, may be compelled to observe all the country’s laws, inclusive of involuntarily serving within its military service (Kalekin-Fishman and Pirrko 94). Dual citizenship is of great benefit to an individual. However, the governing authorities should review the potential issues associated with it prior to legalizing it. As at present, there is no internationally formulated principle governing dual citizenship. Therefore, every country remains free to treat individuals who possess dual citizenship in accordance to its legislation. Dual citizenship benefits As mentioned earlier, dual citizenship comes with many benefits. First, it gives that particular individual practical advantage in terms of employment as well as social security (Bauböck 60). On failing to get employment in one country, a dual citizen could be lucky to be employed in the other countries. Persons who possess dual citizenship tend to enjoy an increased sense of belonging due to their vibrant individual ties to various countries. In addition, dual citizen offers individuals the opportunity to buy commodities within the country that has