ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction Due to the supremacy of the United States’ conventional forces and its advanced and superior weaponry, few adversaries will intentionally pursue a confrontation with it. Therefore, future enemies who would like to engage the USA militarily will resort to using asymmetric warfare which involves cheap weapons and some strategies aimed at weakening the U.S. military resolve. The employment of such irregular strategies by the enemies will allow them to impede the employment of conventional military capabilities. The US opponents in Afghanistan and Iraq resolved to use these techniques because insurgents were aware that they could not match the U.S. military power in a conventional confrontation. After assessing the changes in military warfare, the policy-makers in the US decided to change tactics so that they could use other irregular methods to defeat the adversaries in Iraq and Afghanistan. Notwithstanding the unmatched success of the Special Forces in Iraq and Afghanistan, the combatant commanders and the senior army officers are unwilling to use asymmetrical warfare[1]. This paper aims to understand why senior military officers are reluctant to adopt unconventional warfare during military engagements. The Research Problem The new environment of operation that the USA military faces are due to the challenges of unconventional warfare. Irregular military confrontations are imperative for the opponents of the USA and it is the main factor in the threats the country will face in the future. The genesis of asymmetric warfare is challenging the military superiority of the USA because it is a new field in which the Special Forces do not have much experience. The joint military of the USA formulated a plan of maintaining unique and superior capabilities as they prepare to face any potential military threat whether irregular or regular[2]. The military capability will force the opponents of the USA to use unconventional techniques such as ambushes because no enemy will dare face the USA military conventionally because they cannot engage on equal terms. Before determining missions and roles and even suggesting strategies, a keen look must be made at the threat posed by the adversary to make the right decisions. Their approaches, motivations, and the various methods they use to hit their targets must be studied. The USA Military has found it difficult to use asymmetrical techniques due to its sophisticated superiority[3]. The army does not use a single component in its strategy but rather an amalgamation of systems. Irregular warfare employs techniques that the USA Special Forces are not traditionally used to in co
Facts The public company accounting board was created as part of reforms in an act in 2002. The mandate of the board which was composed of members was to have oversight in the securities industry. This was averse to others like the securities commission which had limited powers (Justia, 6). The board had a right to start an investigation on a matter in the industry emanating from any firm that violated or was perceived to have violated the guidelines to the industry regulator. They did not have control from even the president meaning their power was executive. Free enterprise funds went to the court to seek the powers of the board curtailed on the basis they lacked control (Kilman, 20). Issues Free enterprise fund, the petitioner went to the court to seek removal of executive authority from the public company accounting board. The argument was that any executive authority is bestowed on the president of the United States and lack of control from his office of the powers to the board is in deep contravention from the constitution. The appointment of the board members was also questioned as having violated the appointments clause (Justia, 2010). This clause requires presidential appointment and Senate approval: this due process was not followed. Therefore the investigation that had earlier been carried out on the petitioner firm in which crucial information on its auditing procedures was released, was to be declared unconstitutional on that basis (Smith, 19). Rules The act that was passed to have the board has executive authority over financial institutions. This is in contravention with the constitution which states “executive powers will be vested in the president of the united states of America”. Therefore vesting the same powers to inferior officers without direct presidential control has separation of powers put into question (Irons, 70). Analysis The act blatantly said that the board members can only be removed on a good cause. This expressly restrains the president from removing the members from office on whichever ground, apart from a good cause. This cause is not definable hence lines are hard to be drawn on that case. The commission that has been mandated the removal powers are not under direct presidential control. The petitioner, therefore, has a case considering that it is touching on executive powers vested to the president in the constitution. Congress, therefore, erred in its lawmaking by not putting into consideration separation of powers. This diffusion should not have happened (Justia, 3). Conclusion The petitioner free enterprise fund has a genuine case against the plaintiff public company accounting oversight board. The powers bestowed upon the board are contrave
Introduction The article “Incoming millennial fraud tidal wave” was written by Bret Hood and discusses the vulnerability of millennials to fraud owing to their unique characteristics. Millennials are major targets of fraudsters because of two main reasons, namely optimism and careless habits in the use of social media. Millennials are a topic of discussion because of their dependence on technology and poor lifestyle choices. Some people consider them selfish while others describe them as tech-savvy. They are targeted by fraudsters because of their direct purchasing and indirect spending power. In addition, they are involved in the financial decision-making of businesses and organizations. Analysis Millennials are victims of fraud because of their overoptimistic natures. The view that situations will have positive outcomes increases their vulnerability to scams because it compromises their vigilance. In addition, it leads to an optimism bias in decision-making that compels them to choose certain outcomes without a thorough analysis of available alternatives. Many millennials fall prey to fraudsters because they fail to conduct due diligence before making critical decisions. Millennials are also targeted by scammers because of their overwhelming confidence in themselves and their capabilities. A 2015 report released by the International Organization of Securities Commissions revealed that overconfidence is a critical factor in evaluating an individual’s vulnerability to fraud. Millennials are tech-savvy but possess sloppy social media habits that expose them to the risks of fraudulent schemes. Their expertise emanates from many years of exposure to various technologies that are used to socialize and work. However, their proficiency is not applied wisely because many of them do not protect their personally identifiable information (PII) when using social media and other online platforms. For example, they are careless and store sensitive personal information such as PINs and passwords on their mobile phones that can be easily accessed and stolen by hackers. Moreover, many of them use singular passwords for multiple online accounts thus increasing the risk of a security breach. Consumers experience huge losses due to fraud. For example, in 2014, identity theft led to losses of $16 billion after fraudsters got access to consumers’ credit cards and bank accounts passwords. A major challen
Heading of the case The case was provided between the Attorney General of Quebec – an appellant v. the Attorney General of Canada – a respondent with Laskin C.J. and Ritchie, Dickson, Beetz, Estey, McIntyre, Chouinard, Lamer and Wilson J.J. present. It was devoted to appeal to the court about regarding unconstitutional the veto set on the agreement between Canada and nine other provinces. Facts held during the court trial The case began on April 7, 1982. The appeal was directed at considering the veto set on the First Reference, by the Quebec Court of Appeal. The appeal is considered to be legal according to “s. 37 of the Supreme Court Act and s. 1 of An Act respecting a reference of the court of appeal”. 1 The reason for the appeal was the agreement that took place on November 5, 1981, between the Government of Canada and eight other provinces. On November 18, 1981, the draft of the agreement was ready. The Government of Quebec expressed its formal disagreement with the proposed draft of the resolution. It means that the Government of Quebec formally vetoed the Resolution. 2 Issue The question which was presented in the Court of Appeal is whether the consent of the Province of Quebec constitutionally required by convention for the adoption by the Senate and the House of Commons of Canada of Resolution the purpose of which is to cause the Canadian Constitution to be amended in such manner as to affect  1. the legislative competence of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec in virtue of the Canadian Constitution  2. the status or role of the Legislature or Government of the Province of Quebec within the Canadian federation and does the objection of the Province of Quebec render the adoption of such resolution unconstitutional in the conventional sense. 3 Judgment The answer of the Court of Appeal to the question was negative. The notions used in the decision were similar to those which were used when the decision by the Quebec Court of Appeal was provided. Holding Under the Canada Act 1982, two additional submissions (law), and the decision of the Quebec Court of Appeal, the negative answer to the appeal was accepted. Ratio Decidendi It was concluded that the decision of the Court of Appeal was not the subject matter for the discussion in another Court of Appeal. Reasoning The court made a resolve because of a number of reasons. First, when the decision was made by the Quebec Court of Appeal, not one person but a number of people did it. There were two submissions that directed the Court’s decision. The first one was “convention requiring the unanimous consent of the ten provinces to any constitutional amendment of the type in issue” 4 and the second one was the fact that Quebec had a right to veto any constitutional amendment which was aimed at affecting the legislative side of the Province. 5 Dissenting/Concurring Opinion According to the opposite opinion, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms presented in the Canada Act 1982 (one of the arguments in the court) is not identical to the Charter of Rights and Freedoms . That i
Introduction We rarely think of the risks and consequences of acute disease, until we face it. Our bodies often warn us of an upcoming challenge, but we ignore these signs. Hypothermia is an acute health diagnosis that does not happen at once but can have devastating impacts on all human organs and systems. I could not imagine that I would ever be admitted to a hospital with hypothermia. Now I keep suffering from the damaging consequences of my mistakes because it is always better to prevent a disease than to deal with its complications. Living before contracting the disease I am a 79-year-old man. My wife died two years ago. Since then, I have been trying to find my way in life. Before Eleanor died, she had always cared for me. I never thought I had to cook, clean, or use the laundry machine. Everything in my life was organized. Eleanor knew that I had to care for my health. She made regular appointments with my physician and knew how I felt. She monitored how I took medicines and made sure I never missed a visit to the hospital. After her death two years ago, I could hardly understand how I would survive. Drinking became a daily routine for me. I forgot about proper nutrition and ate, whatever I could find in the nearest store. Within months, I lost nearly 20 pounds, but my emotional grief left little room for physical suffering. I simply did not notice that the tragedy was coming. Last winter, I nearly froze myself to death, as I could not find my way home. I was drunk. By the time I reached home, my hands and legs were pale, and I started to feel sleepy. This winter, the situation has been much worse: on my way to the food store, I got lost in a snowstorm. I was hungry and drunk, and it is alcohol and hunger that favored the rapid onset of hypothermia. I must say that, as an elderly person, I face higher risks of hypothermia than my younger counterparts. According to Cire, “older people are at risk for hypothermia because their body’s response to cold can be diminished by certain illnesses such as diabetes and some medicines, including over-the-counter cold remedies.” Moreover, elderly people’s bodies do not generate enough heat to withstand extreme colds (Cire). I ignored all precautions and did not think about hypothermia. I had a few clothes on me at the time of the snowstorm. I did not wear any gloves or hats. On the same day, I was admitted to the hospital. Estimating the exact number of such patients does not seem possible, mainly because emergency departments register only the severest cases (Edelstein & Adler). Still, the rates of mortality in hypothermic patients are quite high: between 12% and 40% of patients with moderate and severe hypothermia are likely to die (Edelstein & Adler). These rates are similar for men and women, but the youngest and the oldest ones are particularly susceptible to these risks (Edelstein & Adler). I should say, that
The article by Sexton and Saitone (2012) analyses the competition and market structure in the US food industry. It scrutinizes the imminent impacts of some initiatives to enlarge regulation of the food activities with the general objective of increasing commodity prices for the farmers and competition. First, Sexton and Saitone (2012) highlight that impact of the congress inventiveness to “manage supply” can be harmful to the US interests. The overall outcome of such a supply management program is rising in production costs, consumer prices and a reduction in the capacity of US milk products to compete in the global market. Restricting contract provisions through various economic and non-economic policies could in the long-run turn to counterproductive. For instance, Stockyards Administration regulations, Packers and Grain Inspection would possibly constrain the markets’ capacity to offer product variety and quality that the consumers strive for. Numerous retailing and processing companies have an over-stretching to uphold constant, stable, long-term supplies of agricultural production to function at full capacity. The incentives serve as a drive for paying competitive prices and inhibit exhaustion or use of short-term market control. This might be a decrease in market power, subsequently, causing inadequacies and fails to lower, but increase agricultural production costs. Despite the increase in demand for quality in the modern food markets, limiting the possibility of contracting is likely to be detrimental to both farmers and consumers. Finally, Sexton and Saitone (2012) observes that competition and anti-monopoly strategies should be set with the main goal of exploiting entire private enticements for genetically modified or transgenic innovation, but not deliberately or accidentally restricting practical invention. Market structures are evaluated in terms of the absence or presence of competition. A concentrated market lacks competition. The possible market structures in any market are monopolistic competition, monopsony, oligopoly, monopoly, oligopsony, and perfect competition (Reisman, 2013). The US agricultural food industry market is very dynamic. Economic studies have exposed the existence of imperfectly competitive structure in this market (Sheldon & Sperling, 2003). This is very similar to the “realistic market condition” where some various forms of monopolistic players or firms control the market. In such a market, managing supply is very tricky. Reisman (2013) argues that “competition is useful because it reveals actual customer demand and induces the seller (operator) to provide service quality levels and price levels that buyers (customers) want, typically subject to the seller’s financial need to cover its costs” (p. 244). Managing supply through programs like the dairy supply-management program definitely would distort the competition in the market and creates imbalances in the market structures to a certain extent. The argument that Sexton and Saitone (2012) ar
The examination of critical issues from the sociological perspective is an important task for reflecting on the significance of people’s response to events. Therefore, numerous organizations publish data concerning social behavior in various human groups, which is the basis of this area of knowledge (Shaefer 3). One of the sources, which contains comprehensive information regarding these initiatives, is the website of the Campaign for Social Sciences, and it is invaluable for conducting research in this respect. The Campaign is intended for scholars and any interested persons. Its main purpose is to educate people on the role of sociology in the decision-making process, which has an impact on everyone (“Campaign for Social Science: Home”). In order to do this, the founders of this online platform alongside representatives of educational facilities share their views on current news (“Campaign for Social Science: Home”). For example, the beginning of the pandemic is considered to be one of the major themes studied by them, and the results of their initiatives are available in a separate section (“Campaign for Social Science: Home”). Meanwhile, contributors are also involved in the preparation of regular reports and the promotion of social sciences in general (“Campaign for Social Science: Home”). Therefore, it can be concluded that this website is a comprehensive source of information on the subject. To summarize, the data from the Campaign for Social Sciences increases the awareness of representatives of different social groups about essential processes. In this way, people become more active in expressing their opinions and predicting the outcomes of different occasions for everyone’s wellbeing. This website correlates with the critical tasks of sociology as a field and, consequently, efficiently underpins the efforts of scholars in practice. Works Cited Campaign for Social Science: Home . Campaign for Social Sciences, 2021. Web. Shaefer, Richard. Sociology: A Brief Introduction. 13th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2018.
Psychophysics and the contribution of Fechner and Zimbardo Psychophysics involves the examination of relations between observed responses and stimuli and the probable reasons for these relations. The assumption behind these is that human experiences, judgments as well as responses can be analyzed systematically. Problems in memory, attitude measurement, social psychology, and learning can therefore be addressed by techniques developed in psychophysics. Psychophysics is therefore concerned with describing the processes of the sensory system (Gescheider 69). Gustav Theodor Fechner is a pioneer in experimental psychology also the founder of psychophysics. Being the founder of psychophysics, he inspired philosophers and scientists in the 20th century Fechner also proved the existence of a scientific connection between the mind and the body. He had a large influence on psychophysics and this contribution was that psychology had the potential to become a qualified science since he demonstrated clearly that the mind was susceptible to mathematical treatment and measurement. The fact that psychology could become a qualified science paved the way for more discoveries because the science of psychology was impossible according to Immanuel Kant Fechner therefore successfully introduced quantitative methods in psychology. Philip G. Zimbardo is an American psychologist and he is globally recognized for his Stanford prison experiment and also the author of psychology textbooks. Zimbardo studied the psychology of imprisonment. He discovered that individual behavior is mainly controlled by the fact that ordinary college students behaved indifferently while in prison. This means that, given proper environmental circumstances, individuals can develop social forces that come to shape their behavior. Psychophysics, therefore, involves data processing. In this sense data processing is a process by which stimuli from the environment are absorbed, interpreted, categorized, stored, or encoded, and reconstructed in memory. Memory is merely a reconstruction of attitude and changes according to circumstances and is influenced by the environment. This implies that in the analysis of the reasons behind the relations between stimuli and response, the focus is on the events displayed in the environment. Attentional Processes Stimulus in the environment may differ in terms of color, shape, size, and spatial position. However, only one or two properties may apply to the problem to be solved by an organism. The organism’s ability to respond to the required property is the product of attention. When the animal isolates the relevant property and responds to it adequately, then the attention dimension is said to have been attended to by the animal or organism (Greene 75). The attentional process involves discrimination learning. This means when an organism is presented with two or more stimuli, it should be able to respond in different ways to the di