ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
In the United States Congress, the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 was the first statute to outlaw trusts. When many companies’ investors agreed to transfer their interests to a single set of trustees, a trust was formed. The Sherman Act empowered the government to dissolve trusts through legal action. This paper aims to discuss how intellectual property laws don’t contradict the Sherman antitrust act of 1890. The Sherman Antitrust Act was enacted to Congress’ constitutional authority to control interstate commerce. Courts have made it clear that a firm cannot use a legal monopoly in one market. For example, if a market lacks a better product or commercial acumen, an intellectual property right might be used to gain trust in that market (Sawyer, 2019). Second, monopolists are prohibited from engaging in activity that reduces customer welfare. Firms are banned, for example, from linking a protected product to a non-protected product to extend their intellectual property rights. Antitrust law also opposes monopolization attempts in a protected product’s aftermarket. Antitrust theorists are also working on a nonprice predation theory, in which a monopolistic firm’s efforts to raise its rival’s expenses would be a breach of antitrust laws. A corporation may achieve exclusionary market dominance and hence the ability to raise prices, harming consumer welfare by participating in such behavior. Intellectual property law has evolved several measures that supplement antitrust initiatives to combat intellectual property rights misuse (Sawyer, 2019). Conclusively, exaggerated conceptions of the power granted by IP rights and anticipated dangers to competition abound in the history of antitrust action involving intellectual property. As a result, there have been challenges in antitrust cases involving IP tactics where none previously existed. To be sure, striking the correct balance between maintaining competition and incentivizing innovation is not simple. Reference Sawyer, L. P. (2019). US Antitrust Law and Policy in Historical Perspective . Harvard Business School. Web.
The “97 Orchard: An Edible History of Five Immigrant Families in One New York Tenement” is a narrative that revolves around the foodways of five immigrant families living in one tenement in New York City, America. This book was written by Jane Ziegelman, the director of the Tenement Museum’s culinary center and founder of Kids Cook. The “97 Orchard” represents thorough research of the culinary habits and lives of the five families, particularly their cooking, shopping, and eating behaviors (Ziegelman, 2010). This work was published in 2010 by the HarperCollins Publishers. The writter elaborates the tales of the five New York residents who dwelled in the city between 1863-1935 (Ziegelman, 2010). Essentially, this period served as both the migration age and an era of sweeping demographic changes in America. These immigrants were “the Glockners, the Moores, the Gumpertzes, the Rogarshevskys and the Baldizzis” (Ziegelman, 2010). Apart from this work, the author has written many other books such as A Square Meal and Foie Gras . Although they faced Assimilation pressures in the U.S., the settlers braved on to maintain their food customs and traditional foods. The five New York families that Ziegelman majors her story represent significant provenances and periods in American immigration history. First the Glockners were antebellum Germans who came to the U.S. in the 1940s (Ziegelman, 2010). Subsequently, in the 1860s, these settlers had constructed a great apartment at 97 Orchard Street, Manhattan, New York (Ziegelman, 2010). The Moores comprised of an Irish couple compelled to move out of their home country by the awful potato bright that happened in the 1840s (Ziegelman, 2010). The Gumpertzes were made up of German-speaking Jews who landed in America in 1840 (Ziegelman, 2010). In addition, the Rogarshevskys consisted of Lithuanian Jews who migrated to the U.S. in 1901 (Ziegelman, 2010). The Baldizzis were Italians who had arrived in American in the early 1920s (Ziegelman, 2010). Given the diversity of these families, the author created a picture of cultural creativity and culinary tenacity that have had tremendous contributions to modern-day America. In the course of writing the “97 Orchard,” Ziegelman shows her prowess in using primary and secondary sources to support her arguments. She recognizes Ruth Abraham, the lower East Side Tenement Museum’s founder, as the person who inspir
Contrasting Views about Learning In essence, there are various differences on learning methodologies as discussed by the three authors. After analysing the three articles written by the different scholars, it is evident that they emphasize different methodologies of learning. This emphasis is an indication that the three authors consider the respective methodologies with a certain weight. As such, a learning methodology is one of the outstanding differences when it comes to their perspectives on learning. First, Zimmerman (2000) gave a special attention to the concept of self-efficacy and the motivation it availed to learners. In his work, Zimmerman indicated that self-efficacy had evoked crucial and vast concern over the last ten years. In this case, he termed self-efficacy as the most proficient predictor of academic success and a source of inspiration. In addition, the author differentiated this concept evidently as the superior tool of measurement over other evaluators such as self-concept as well as the locus of control. From a critical point of view, it is evident that the researcher considers the concept as the most proficient evaluation mechanism. In addition, it implies that the author considers motivation as an essential ingredient of academic success. In fact, he stated that the students’ attitude towards their capability affects their actual academic outcome. In that regard, therefore, it cannot be disputed that Zimmerman paid more attention to motivation and self-efficacy than other methodologies of learning and evaluation. This focus is very different from the considerations and exemplification of Wenger (2000) and Engestrom (2001) as illustrated in their works. In particular, Wenger (2000) viewed learning from an organizational and a pretty collective perspective. Unlike Zimmerman (2000), the author did not discuss or consider learning a
Introduction Socialism is a broad phenomenon that covers wide array of ideologies and political movements that are intended to bring a socio-economic system where the community possesses the authority to control the property and wealth distribution so that there could be more social cooperation and economic equality (Cole, p316). There are three important characteristics that must possess by a country to prove itself as a socialist country. First of all its economy must be based on labor theory of value and not on money basis. Secondly the industries must be publicly owned that should not run just for profit and thirdly the decisions must be taken in the country democratically where the people at local and national levels have the opportunity to express them. (Cockshott, 2007) At present many countries of the world are practicing or striving to adopt socialist ideologies and philosophies within their socio-political system. This dissertation is focused on examining that how three countries including Chile, Cuba and Venezuela have worked out for socialism and what are the consequences of the efforts and measures that have been taken in these countries in the context of socialism. It is revealed from the review of related literature and historic information that Cuba and Venezuela have successfully and satisfactorily worked out for socialism as compared with Chile. It has been observed that at present the socio-economic systems of Cuba and Venezuela is very much inclined with the ideologies and philosophies of socialism; Chile, on the other hand seems lagging behind in attaining and implementing socialism within the systems of the country (Guzmán, 2007). There are several similarities and dissimilarities in the passages of these countries towards socialism that are discussed and examined in the dissertation to find the evidence about the attainment of socialism by these countries. Socialism in Chile Right from the conquest of Chile in 1953-37 and after going through political transformation and invasion in later years, the agriculture sector played a major role in defining the social and economic conditions of the country. The agricultural land
In the field of mathematics and other exact sciences, there is a range of theories that are aimed at explaining and studying theoretical concepts that can be implemented into practice. The graph theory can be regarded as one of the brightest examples of such concepts. Even though there are numerous problems that have not been solved yet, and certain hypotheses within the frame of the theory are not confirmed, such structures as graphs are widely used in different fields. Speaking about the field of computer networking, graphs can be used to describe and study data transfer systems; in addition, they remain an important tool helping to manage social networks and generate recommendations for users. As it follows from its name, the discussed theory is aimed at studying graphs that present structures that consist of numerous knots that form unities with the help of verges. Importantly, the structure of a graph can be different due to the number of ends and knots that may vary. On that premise, it is widely accepted that there are about ten types of graphs, having different numbers of vertices. Speaking about the classification of graphs and the way to apply them, it needs to be noted that different graphs present structures helping to represent data related to various fields of knowledge. For instance, graphs can be used in linguistics, biology, and chemistry as they help to solve numerous problems related to studying structures of chemical substances, food chains. Apart from that, the use of graphs helps to define and describe processes taking place when new lexical units become popular and languages change. As it follows from these examples, it is obvious that the graph theory can be applied almost in every field of science because scientific knowledge always requires systematization. When it comes to the field of computer science and networking, it is necessary to state that possible applications of graphs of different types are numerous. Speaking about the latter, it is important to pay attention to the task related to representation of data describing systems for data transfer. Thus, specialists in networking use graphs to outline systems of computer networks, study their properties, and implement changes. In fact, graphs used for that purpose help to create a kind of mathematical model that indicates the interconnection between the parts of system. When it comes to the most common examples, illustrating this way to use graphs, it is necessary to remember the Internet. The structure of the Internet can be presented with the help of graphs, and this way to use the discussed theory definitely helps to identify possible weaknesses of systems based on the type and properties of completed graphs (Xu, Wang, & Gu, 2014). This way to apply concepts from the graph theory is extremely significant to the field as it can be used to plan new networks and improve the older ones. Apart from planning and studying networks, specialists in networking can u
Introduction The Hunger Games is a fictional book that describes the horrendous state of the current society. The author uses metaphors to describe the class distinctions in society as well as the opulence and extravagance of the rich. This paper discusses the class inequality and the role of the media and society in advancing class inequality comparing the book with the modern class differentiation. The Hunger Games There is a class inequality between people living in the Capitol and the ones living in 12 districts. The class inequality represents itself in several ways, but mostly, people in such districts do not have sufficient food, and there are observed cases of starvation. Katniss, the main character in the book, has to engage in illegal hunting “the hunger games” in order to be able to provide for her family. What is more, not many families know how to hunt. In the Capitol, on the other hand, there is plenty of food. Katniss is awed by her large breakfast of eggs, hams, fried potatoes and other delicacies during her stay in the Capitol, meaning that people there do not experience any shortage of food, while people from districts are starving. Secondly, people in Capitol are more advanced in terms of technological developments. For example, Katniss takes a shower for the first time in her life during her visit to the Capitol. The government controls the resources in the districts. The people are restricted from travelling outside their homes and districts, which limits their ability to interact with each other and as such mobilize resources. The education offered is biased in order to limit any rebellion in the people against the Capitol. The class inequality, therefore, favours the people in the Capitol. The beliefs and norms of the people in Panem are centred on the self-interest; they are obsessed to acquire the comfort and lifestyle of the affluent people. Panem is not a meritocracy but the society full of class differences. In a meritocratic society, the people’s progress in life is based on their abilities and not their socio-economic status. In Panem, this is not the case. The ones who survive in the hunger games are the tributes from the wealthier districts since they are able to afford sufficient food and prior training in preparation for the games. The people who succeed economically are the ones in the wealthier districts. The people in the poorer districts are too preoccupied with their thoughts of surviving a single day; what bothers them is earning money, which is a problem for them. The structure of the society influences the outcome of the hunger games. First of all, the poor people have higher probabilities to be selected for the hunger games since they trade food for the chance to take part in them. Secondly, the participants from the wealthy districts are well-fed and fitter than those in the poor d
The Relationship Between Market Orientation and Business Performance Numerous research and analytical studies signify that market orientation has a powerful impact on organizations’ performance. According to Kotler and Keller (2012), it is of utmost importance for companies’ productive operation to find a connection with their customers. An integrated marketing orientation presupposes understanding consumers by attaining a holistic view of their everyday needs as well as the transformations they experience in their lives. With the help of such an approach, the organization may predict the needs of its clients and market necessary products to the right people in the correct way (Kotler & Keller 2012). Strategic orientation manifests the company’s philosophy of performing business operations through a collection of beliefs that direct behaviors in order to generate a positive economic trend (Ngo & O’Cass 2012). There are several types of orientation that may help managers to develop the most successful operation of their companies. Production orientation concentrates on adaptability and effectiveness. Innovation orientation focuses on the desire to change that stimulates the introduction of advanced ideas throughout the organization. Selling orientation puts emphasis on the increase of short-term sales (Ngo & O’Cass 2012). Market orientation is particularly significant since it is the core driver of resource ownership and the firm’s capability to redistribute resources. Market orientation is comprised of two crucial elements: marketing resources and marketing capabilities. Marketing resources are defined as the level at which a company operates knowledge and resources associated with marketing mix schemes such as product, distribution, value, and marketing communication (Ngo & O’Cass 2012). Marketing capabilities are considered as the ability of an organization to carry out marketing routines with the help of which a company converts accessible resources into profitable outputs (Ngo & O’Cass 2012). Therefore, market orientation is considered as a key component of successful business performance within organizations. Critical Success Factors Related to Achieving Market Orientation In order to achieve market orientation, the following critical success factors are suggested:   * market conditions (number of clients, long-ter
Introduction Technology is the twenty-first century’s way to reshuffle the structure of the educational system on the way to academic excellence. Mobile learning is a significant subject, as it represents a new dimension of education technology, with its focus on ease of access and informality of learning. This paper proposes research on the efficacy of mobile learning within the context of Saudi Arabia. The key points of the research, namely, the problem statement, the methodology, and the limitations, are outlined. The paper provides a literature review of contemporary peer-reviewed articles and books to present the key perspectives of mobile technology studies. Problem Statement The concept of mobile learning refers to the educational process occurring through the medium of wireless devices. These can include smartphones, tablets, laptops, etc. Because these devices are either handheld or simply compact, m-learning is sometimes described as “knowledge in the hand” (Narayanasamy & Mohamed, 2013, p. 34). The rapid development of m-learning is perfectly explainable as the global community goes online and access to technology becomes more open. In Saudi Arabia, people acquire improved mobile devices on an annual basis, creating and sustaining a well-established mobile infrastructure that makes m-learning possible (Narayanasamy & Mohamed, 2013). M-learning has already become a part of objective reality within and outside the educational community. On the other hand, despite the rapidity of its incorporation, m-learning as an educational practice is surrounded by some questions about its efficacy, cost-effectiveness, and ease of implementation. All of these factors are encompassed by the practical value of m-learning, specifically in the Saudi Arabian context, which constitutes the relevance of this paper. Research Question and Objectives About the problem of practical value, the goal of the proposed research is to ascertain if newly-emerging m-learning practices result in the improvement of academic outcomes in the Saudi Arabian context. Empirically speaking, students seem to be the most active mobile technology users and, therefore, the most likely to experience education-related changes induced by m-learning. The research question can be formulated as follows: how effective is mobile learning for improving the academic outcomes of Saudi Arabian undergraduate students? To answer the question, the following objectives will have to be accomplished:  1. Review existing literature on the subject and single out the common points of concern about m-learning implementation and efficacy;  2. Develop and design an intervention to assess the impact of mobile learning on student engagement, attitudes, and acquired competency;  3. Implement the designed instructio
Introduction Television or TV was privately demonstrated, in a rudimentary way, on 26 th January 1926, by John Logie Baird , a Scottish electrical engineer. On that day, he showed his crude, flickering, half tone televised images to a group of approximately 40 scientists from the Royal Institution in London. Baird was one of a small number of lone investors who, during the first half of the 1920-30 decade, worked determinedly to devise a system of seeing by electricity. Other experiments included those of Jenkins of the United States, Belin of France, and Mihaly, a Hungarian working in Germany. By any criterion, Baird’s achievement was an outstanding one. For nearly 50 years from 1878, scientists, engineers and investors in the UK, the US, France, Germany, Russia, and elsewhere had sought to find a solution to the problem of transmitting, electronically, moving images from place to another. Their objective had been to implement a method which would enable vision signals to be sent to a distant observer in a way similar to that which had permitted sound signals to be transmitted. In 1877, Alexander Graham Bell had invented the telephone which allowed hearing by electricity or telephony, to be readily introduced. Soon afterwards, proposals were advanced for systems that would enable seeing by electricity or television, to be realized. However, the problem of distant vision was an altogether different order of complexity compared with that of telephony. Success eluded many people including laymen and university professors who engaged in advancing ideas in order to provide solutions needed at the time. Evolution from Black and White Times According to Gerbarg, television has been evolving since the first black and white television transmissions were witnessed. Over the years, however, persistent technological developments and desire for high quality viewing led to improved television standards. The first public demonstration, on a black and white television, was conducted in 1927 while that on color television was demonstrated in June 1929. During the early days of commercial broadcasting, many countries across the world gave serious attention to the advancement of the black and white technology. In the United States, the first all industry standards were recommended by the National Television Committee in the early 1940s. Coaxial cable entered the world of television in 1936, when the first experimental transmission took place between New York and Philadelphia. This experiment proved to be highly successful in terms of transmission performance as multiple frequencies could be transmitted over the same shielded medium. After invention, black and white TV technology quickly spread throughout the world. At the same time, scientists and engineers continued efforts to invent color television, a daunting task back then. During the early days, this was a very big challenge considering that. Eventually, engineers were able to make color televisions compatible with the existing monochrome technology, ushering the era of c
Introduction The process of personality development has been of interest to both psychologist and sociologist. Numerous theories have been suggested on the process and the manner in which personality is acquired. The traditional theorists argue that people are born with specific personality traits. As such, personality is inherent. This implies that people are born with certain personality traits, which remain intact until death. The traditional approach stipulates that there is very little external influence on personality formation. As such, other factors such as the social environment, people as well as religious and spiritual influences have no irrelevant in determining who we are and how we perceive ourselves. However, notable shortcoming within this approach led to development of other theories such as the social construction theory. Social constructionism opposes the traditional view of personality development and asserts that personality is socially acquired. People develop personalities depending on how well they are able to interact and form social relationships. As such, others become agents of personality change. Critics of the social construction theory raise a number of pertinent issues. Since personality is not static, the concept of personality clash has been of vital importance. However