ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
The Law of Tort A tort is an act, which causes harm to a person, may be intentional or not and it must contrary to the law or to a specific duty or violation of absolute rights it involves the infringement of the civil rights belonging to individuals. It constitutes the following  1. a wrong act or omission by the defendant that is the wrong doer.  2. There must be legal damage or violation absolute rights such as denying a person from voting.  3. The act committed must give rise to a legal remedy in form of an act for damages. The act or omission may not cause actual damage to the plaintiff. Even though there is no harm caused some may be actionable like trespass on land. Tort of negligence is defined as “ the breach of a duty caused by the omission to do some act which a reasonable man, guided upon those consideration which ordinary regulate the conduct of human affairs , would do or doing something which a reasonable or prudent man would do” Blyth v Birmingham waterworks co. 1856. There element of negligence and they include  1. a prove of duty of care for the action to be successive.  2. That there is breach of that legal duty  3. there is injury to one party either in person or from a property. The injury must be because of negligence of duty of care. One will be able to successful prove these that care, breach, injury before successful action is taken. Standard and Duty of Care The law is that you must take care that “You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to cause injury”. The standard of care by which we measure. The standard of care varies from one person to another. It is assumed that a prudent person who has acquired skills is to act in a manner that is reasonable to any with the same skill. However, in some cases degree of care, skill or diligence, which is, required various with situations. In such situation, a test for standard of care for a reasonable person will be whether “a hypothetical reasonable onlooker would have foreseen the possibility of harm or loss to certain individuals involved in the particular event” Before damages are awarded it must be proved that there was a foreseeable danger or risk, which both parties were aware, and how a reasonable man would have responded to the foreseeable risk, which the defendant did not do. The there must be a probability of the risk of injury and gravity of the harm. There must also be proving that the burden of eliminating or reducing the risk rested on the part of the defendant. In a court, ruling differentiation is made on actual damage for the claim to succeed. There should be also connection between the negligent act and the damage caused or suffered. Therefore, reasonable evidence of negligence on part of the defendant must be produced. The defe
Introduction It is important to note that crime rates within a specific region and its index of inequality can have a strong reciprocal effect on each other, where one can propagate the rate of occurrence of another through intricate social mechanisms. The given assessment will primarily focus on the city of London and how the local degree of social inequality and cultural inequality impacts the general perception and experience of crime among people. Findings are indicative of the fact that social and cultural inequalities primarily affect minority groups and youth, where the mechanisms of action of the inequality are most impactful in regards to housing, employment, and education, which in turn, eliminate opportunities, support structures, and income for the vulnerable groups. Crime and Its Perception in London London is among the largest and most highly vibrant cities in the United Kingdom, but crime rates in the cities are a major problem, which is why it is of paramount importance to evaluate the current crime statistics before proceeding with its connection to social and cultural inequalities as well as crime perception and experience among the local people. The official sources indicate that for the past two years, the crime rate per 1000 people is equivalent to 180.87, and the most common criminal activities are violence against the person followed by theft followed by vehicle offenses (Metropolitan Police, 2021a). In other words, one can observe that the highest rate of crimes is manifested in violent crimes, whereas the following top crimes are property crimes. The official data is also indicative of the fact that crime rates dropped throughout 2020 and 2021 compared to 2019, but the decrease can also be attributed to the changes implemented, where it is stated that “the nature of reporting and recorded crime has changed substantially since March 2020 due to Coronavirus (COVID-19), and this should be considered when comparing FY20/21 data to other datasets” (Metropolitan Police, 2021b, para. 1). Therefore, it is highly possible that actual crime rates did not change significantly in the last three years, but rather the reporting system did, which means that the criminal situation in London is not improving and potentially worsening. The previous statement is mostly true due to recent reports on firearm seizures. It is stated that “A total of 450 firearms were seized in 2020/2021 compared to 366 recovered in the previous financial year. The upward trend is continuing with 98 firearms seized in the first quarter o
The first part of the twentieth century was the time when people were looking for new forms in art and ways to convey meaning through different media. Photography had been quite widely used before the 1930s, but its utilization went through considerable transformations in the 20 th century. Laszlo Moholy Nagy believed that photography would be an important channel of communication in different spheres of people’s life. In the 1930s, scientists, artists, almost any person at all could use this technique to share information. Moholy Nagy listed eight types of photographic vision that addressed different aspects of the human being. For example, abstract seeing enabled people to convey ideas and feelings while penetrative seeing unveiled the essence and stems of objects. Snapshots enable people to capture motion, which can be achieved with the help of photography exclusively. People have obtained an opportunity to explore the world as well as their inner selves with the help of photographic instruments. The photogram by Moholy Nagy, Laci, and Lucia, 1925, is an illustration of the depiction or rather transmission of emotions and ideas. The piece makes people think about the relationship between two people, as well as such feelings as love or hate, closeness or distance. Therefore, Moholy Nagy resumed the views that reigned at that period and claimed that every individual would be able to express themselves with the help of words and images. The latter were precise, detailed, and straightforward, and, importantly, images were easily understood by thousands or even millions without the need to learn a language. The people who lived in the first part of the 20 th century longed for such rich and powerful means of telling the truth. Figure 3. Moholy Nagy, Laci and Lucia, 1925. In order to make it fit the life in the 21 st century, the famous quote by Laszlo Moholy Nagy can be rewritten in the following way: “The illiterate of the future will be the one who is ignorant of the use of the camera and a mobile device.” Photographic literacy is, indeed, essential in the contemporary world as people often prefer visual messages to textual ones. The wide popularity of Instagram and similar social media networks is another proof to support the claim. Visual codes are easily perceived and processed by the human brain. Texts (that are also visual codes) need more effort to be decoded due to the need to be aware of certain systems (languages). At the same time, some images are understood without words or evoke quite specific emotions. For example, a picture of a happy face is likely to put a smile on viewers’ faces or make them feel positive emotions in the vast majority of cases. People often need a limited number of words (or even letters) to communicate via digital means. They become mobile and need to share different things in no time. Instant messaging is a norm, and sharing a picture of a falling person who has passed by is common. People capture life and share visual codes, so words are often superfluous. For example, a girl is
Richelson offers an authentic account of the development and evolution of directorate of science and technology at the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). CIA started its work in reports’ department before becoming an agency of scientific intelligence. The agency adopted science and technology as part of clandestine surveillance in its events in 1968. Some of the most noteworthy facilities acquired by the agency included the Corona photographic reconnaissance satellite and U-2 airplane (Richelson 54). These programs faced much criticism at first. However, the intelligence technology through use of satellites finally caught the hearts of officials in 1960 and later in 1980’s, after they realized that the programs did not leave any room for susceptibility. Some of these officials of CIA were Allen Dulles who was the director and Eisenhower, the President. These two officials turned into firm supporters of the programs after they learnt that no gap for planned bombing prevailed as the U-2 missions revealed. The deals of the agency went on well until it ruined Bay Pigs in 1961. This annoyed the then U.S. president John Kennedy and what followed was the firing of Bissell who was a leader in the team that directed the attack. Bissel had also played a key role in developing satelli
Introduction Speaking about the problem of modernity in the works by Marx and Rousseau, we should remember about the utopist basis of their views. And really their works can be considered as the carriers of antimodernity. Main text So, “Communist Manifesto” by Karl Marx in fact is the only work in Marxism which has some results of the Revolution. They are the following:  1. Privacy abolishment.  2. The abolishment of the bourgeois families where woman is “an instrument of production”. Here Marx speaks a lot about the role of woman and the disadvantages in her life, though he says nothing about the communistic family.  3. The changing of the home (class) education into the public education.  4. The abolishment of the bourgeois individuality Marx considers that the concept of the bourgeois individuality demands reformations and abolishment, great changes to the new ideas and ideals.  5. The abolishment of national differences and antagonisms. People do not have right to exploit each other as well as no nation should be exploited.  6. The process of economy becoming state. The workers use their political power for taking the capital from bourgeoisie and to centralize all the instruments and as a result to enlarge the size of producing powers: “The essential conditions for the existence and for the sway of the bourgeois class is the formation and augmentation of capital; the condition for capital is wage labor. Wage labor rests exclusively on competition between the laborers. The advance of industry, whose involuntary promoter is the bourgeoisie, replaces the isolation of the laborers, due to competition, by the revolutionary combination, due to association. The development of Modern Industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products. What the bourgeoisie therefore produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.” (Marx, p451) Despite all variety of questions touched by K. Marx, the basic and precisely outlined subject of his researches, in opinion of experts, was capitalism and the problem of motivation of labor activity connected with it. Opening the understanding of capitalism, K.Marx says that the term “modern capitalism” covers not all forms of capitalism existing now, but only the West-European and American capitalism. Thus, the predicate “modern” specifies not historical time, but to the degree of development of on what it is applied. Two moments – the representation of capitalism as universal transhistorical process and the concentrated expression of the capitalistic nature not in its basis, and in its superstructure named by “spirit of capitalism”. K.Marx could not arise the theories of labour motivation and business activity because of tw
The issue of supervision of curriculum and instruction becomes one of the leading directions in modern education. The critical reason that promotes it is underperformance of many American schools in several subjects, including learning comprehension, mathematics, et cetera (Tyler, 2013). There several seminal texts that were elaborated by educational scholars to align the theory and practice. One may, for instance, note such fundamental works as “Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction” (1949) by Tyler or Bloom’s “Taxonomy of Educational Objective” (1956), as cited in Tyler (2013). Both of the mentioned texts offer the instructional design for curriculum and help to understand the very essence of teaching. The above texts also provide the difference between learning and teaching styles, thus distinguishing between various educational strategies and instruments. Speaking of the seminal texts, it is critical to pay attention to a more recent initiative such as the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 that established standards for curriculum and instructions supervision and evaluation (Emmer & Sabornie, 2015). Since the mentioned document considered the needs of students with disabilities, those with low English proficiency, and typical learners, it unified the regulations regarding student performance and expected achievements. Such an initiative made teachers to reconsider their approaches towards education and as supervisors to come up with innovative merit-programs as well as value-added evaluation. Focusing on the historical foundations of the supervision of instruction and curriculum, it is essential to state that there was some uncertainty in educational instructions. Marshall (2013) argues that one theory overcame another one, and the roles of educators and administrators were ambivalent. The supervisory role was transformed as a result of new theories that emerged in the 20th century. In particular, the assumptions expressed by Bobbit along with Barr, Burton, and Brueckner swung the pendulum towards the integration of such roles as coaches and evaluators (as cited i
Advertising today is an effective and powerful method of promotion. It is a collective term for every public announcement which is created in order to promote the sales or services. During its history, advertising changed the various form and tools from the pictures in the steels to the modern online facilities. Using the different methods and techniques, advertising strives for attraction and attention of people, persuading them to buy even those products which they do not need. Advertising today is a perspective investment and an inseparable part of every business structure. Each year, companies spend millions of dollars on advertising of their products. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of advertising within the modern society as the main tool of persuasion of the audience and advancement of the companies and their products. Dr S. Kaptan identifies the advertising as “the new and socially accepted tool for formation of opinions and collective decision making” (2003, p. 1). An article American Advertising: A Brief History indicates the difficulties of the attempt to define the term of advertising. Usually, it is a desire to persuade the audience to buy goods or use the services. However, the history of advertising development demonstrates that for a century this institute built its reputation without an evident appeal for the sales. During its history, advertising had to respond the business demands, providing the new technologies. The evolution of this institute demonstrates that while the methods and techniques were transformed, the main purpose is always the same: an attraction of the audience. In Ancient Egypt, people carved some special public notices in the steels. Today, there are social networks and other web-sources. Such evolution from the steels to digital tools had a number of steps. In colonial America, the most frequent type of advertising was an announcement of goods Benjamin Franklin in his Pennsylvania Gazette provided headlines and illustrations, he incorporated the advertising and editorial materials (“American Advertising: A Brief History”). In the XVIII-XIX centuries, advertising was served in order to notice about the slave sales or their escape. The market revolution of the middle of XIX century provided the new methods of the use of advertising. In the second half of XIX century newspapers and magazines started to publish many announcements supported by the illustrations. Since that, advertising became the professional duty and started to consider as the significant tool with the powerful effects. In the 1980s, industries provided the new techniques of advertising. Creating the standardized products, they needed to find such form of persuasion that could effective within the increasing offers and demands. Companies stated to use the mail-order catalogues. Suddenly, the advertising agencies turned into profitable business. Newspapers and magazines marked out a big space for the advertisements, paying attention to their design and creativity. At the beginning of XX
In his poem, I wondered lonely as a cloud , William Wordsworth applies different elements of poetry to highlight his themes. For instance, he uses symbolism to connect human beings with their immediate environment (nature). A symbol is an object either living or non-living that represents something else in reality; therefore, the reader has to think carefully to unravel the hidden meaning. Wordsworth use of symbolism in his poem reveals his observatory skills and his ability to appreciate the nature around him. The title and the first stanza of the poem highlight the first symbol in the poem. The persona likens himself with a cloud yet naturally, the cloud is a non-living object located many miles away from the earth. The cloud is a symbol, which represents loneliness. Moreover, the cloud is naturally incompatible with the earth surface or human beings but the poet’s close identification with the cloud reveals his loneliness, isolation, and desolation from the world around him. In the second stanza, he compares the distance between the clouds, valleys, and hills, which means he is aware but not happy with his separation from the immediate world. Through the personification of the clouds, the speaker is able to express the extent or impact of his loneliness. Besides being under emotional turmoil, he has nobody to talk to, associate with, or assist him in solving his personal problems, which hurls him into depressed. Just like the clouds, he finds remedy in roaming around, with a sole aim of trying the luck of stumbling upon something to fill up his loneliness. In the fourth line of the first stanza, the persona identifies the daffodils at the lake, which symbolize love/happiness. He calls the daffodils a ‘crowd’, which is a word only used to identify human beings (Cummings Para. 3). The dancing prowess of the daffodils especially the movement of their heads symbolizes the happiness the persona is yearning to experience one day. Although he is lonely and sad, the observation of the flowers puts a smile on his face. Thus, the daffodils (flowers) are a symbol or source of happiness, which is the heart’s desire of the persona. In addition, the speaker observes that the daffodils dance better than the waves, which confirms that when he is happy, he is automatically connected to the world. The high number of daffodils the speaker observes grows naturally and they symbolize the rich environment or soils he lives in; therefore, probably the source of his unhappiness is not economical but maybe social oriented. Additionally, when the speaker is unhappy he only remembers the daffodils to alter his somber mood, the daffodils offer him company; they cheer him up. The use of natural objects like the stars, plants (flower), the cloud, valley, hills, lakes, and the breeze/waves symbolizes that the nature is the only source of inspiration in the speaker’s life. He derives his emotional nourishment from remembering the beauty and dancing of the flowers. He connects the random arrangement of the flowers to the stars, which cheers him. Wordsworth also proves the realistic s
If one accepts the hoary concept of white-collar crime as comprising all non-violent offenses, then it must be conceded that the ambit of international white-collar crime in the present era remains as broad as ever. Mail fraud, for instance, can still be perpetrated by one person. By definition, however, bribery and corruption committed by transnational or multinational businesses can involve officials in their home nations and countries where they hope to gain access or already do business. The requirement for global networks is more characteristic of intellectual property violations, money laundering, drugs, espionage, art theft, and white slavery. These crimes always involve cooperating syndicates and international networks in both the countries of origin and destination chiefly because the desired commodity must be transported from a region of surplus to one of scarcity. On reflection, therefore, it is the persistence of human greed and avarice that underlies all white-collar crime. Technology has merely changed the speed, security, and medium of communication. Globalization and the harmonization of the European Community, two logical outcomes of the belief in free markets and value theory Adam Smith espoused in The Wealth of Nations , has also eased of movement of humans, goods, and money across borders. By themselves, networks are neither new nor special. Informal and transient networks arise and persist both domestically and across national borders in response to common interests, ideologies, or economic self-interest. Recall how an ‘underground railroad’ of sympathetic Americans, North, and South, succored escaping slaves to where they could enjoy freeman status. Or the Poles, Dutch, and Frenchmen who hid Jews from the Gestapo during World War II. By sheer necessity, counterpart networks had to be created in-country, in Italy, Switzerland, Spain, etc. through which Jews needed to pass on the way to freedom. The great advances made by even the developing countries in modernizing their telecommunications networks means that even the still-impoverished nations of the Caribbean, South America, Africa, and Asia have become transit points for money-laundering generally and the type associated with illegal drugs in particular. In this case, networks of ‘conspirators’ and conduit banks are needed to circumvent banking and money-laundering laws in either the producing- or consuming nation. At the same time, the broadening of telephone infrastructure and Internet penetration has enabled wily individuals to perpetrate ‘wire’ fraud by the relatively simple expedient of bulk email. Automated programs (‘bots’) can troll the Worldwide Web to harvest email addresses from readily-accessible Webmail operators and public records. This has made sending news of fictitious sweepstakes winnings or the notorious chance to get a share of the inheritance due to an executed despot