ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction The twentieth century was marked with the emergence of women philosophers who had achieved admission into the field of philosophy. It also saw women attaining the post of a professor in the same discipline. However, it goes without say that still discrimination exists in this field particularly on the basis of sex (Waithe, 1995, p.xix). Before this period, the early life of women philosophers was marred with cases of discrimination whereby women were denied the opportunity to pursue doctoral programs. These women were also discriminated in securing professional positions, promotions in rank and receiving equitable remunerations. The women philosophers of the twentieth century represent almost all fields of philosophy including psychology. The current psychological approaches have been said to be based on the early cultural and intellectual life of Germany. This history dates back to the 1840s and 1850s when there were a few professionals in this field. Currently, there are hundreds of thousands of people in this field with women representing a reasonable proportion (Sheehy, 2004, p.xi). There are a few women who lived and survived being discriminated on the basis of their sex in the field of psychology to make history although they are less recognized to date. One of the few women who grew up during the period when women in the school of psychology were less recognized is Mary Whiton Calkins. She lived to make numerous contributions to the field of psychology which is well documented to date. She also met numerous challenges in the same field. This essay seeks to look into her early life and studies in addition to the challenges that she meet during this period. The essay proceeds by giving the contributions that she made to the field of psychology. The paper then closes by giving an account of the relevance of her work to the modern/ contemporary psychology. Mary Whiton Calkins and her Importance to Contemporary Psychology Biography Mary Whiton was an American philosopher and psychologist who lived between 1863 -1930. She was bone the 30 th of March 1963 to Wolcott Calkins and Charlotte Whiton Calkins in Hartford, Connecticut (Calkins, 1930, p.2). She was the eldest of a family of five child
The idea of natural law is one of the oldest law systems that exist in the world. While its roots go back to Ancient Greece and Rome, natural law has remained a part of modern history. [1] In particular, the rise of Christianity contributed to the evolution of natural and revealed law and their influence on civil society. [2] Some scholars argue that, under the influence of Christian philosophers, natural law at least partially shaped the major pillars of American political philosophy, which can be seen in such documents as the Declaration of Independence and Constitution. To analyze the role of natural and revealed law in American political thought, one must understand these law systems’ main concepts. Natural law postures that people possess a set of intrinsic values that form according to human nature. [3] Therefore, by interacting with one another, people eventually determine particular human rights that they wish to uphold. Christian philosophers expand on this idea and argue that people are unable to form such natural laws perfectly due to the consequences of the Fall. [4] Revealed law, guidance from God delivered through scripture, complements people’s nature and strengthens their understanding of the law. [5] The Ten Commandments is an example of revealed law; they have such statements as “You shall not murder,” “You shall not commit adultery,” and “You shall not steal.”[6] Thomas Aquinas, a Christian philosopher, wrote that “more than all other animals man is a political and social being.”[7] Thus, civil society is a natural progression of one’s inclination given by nature, and natural and revealed law are what allow one to exist with other humans in peace and prosperity. At the same time, civil law is a type of human-made law that is not intrinsic but can be changed and revoked. It is a contract that ensures that the person lives for the good of the city, while the city supplies that person with resources that one human cannot obtain on their own. [8] While civil laws are not explicitly based on natural laws, many official documents make assumptions about what is inherent to human nature, thus finding connections to natural (or revealed) law. In the Declaration of Independence of the United States, one may read, “[all men] are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”[9] The natural right to live and let live is undisputed by civil law, which upholds the idea that God has guided people not to infringe on others’ fundamental rights. At the same time, the Amendments to the US Constitution give people rights to “free speech,” and ensure that one will not “be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.”[10] Here, one can see the same idea that people’s lives, property, and certain freedoms are sacred – a belief that mirrors the original Ten Commandments. [11] One can see that civil law is intertwined with the idea that people, regardless of what the legal process may be, are entitled to some indisputable rights that have roots in natural and revealed law. In the case of the Declaration of Ind
Political theorists and practitioners are in agreement that the recent Egyptian revolution was triggered by the rapid deterioration of the socioeconomic and political conditions in the country under the oppressive and authoritarian regime of President Mubarak, leading to a situation whereby most Egyptians felt that they had been denied their self-dignity and inherent sense of worth (Fahmy 350-351). Almost four years after the revolution, it remains unclear whether the popular uprising has been able to transform the country or even achieve any of the ideals that people fought for during the revolution (Saikal 532). This paper attempts to analyze the political situation before and after the Egyptian revolution. Available information indicates that “the Arab Republic of Egypt is located in North Africa, bordering on the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Libya to the West, the Gaza Strip to the east, and Sudan to the south” (Encyclopedia of the Nations par. 1). Egypt has a population of 84.55 million people according to 2013 statistics (World Population Statistics par. 1), and its main economic activities revolve around mining (extraction of crude oil, natural gas, coal), services (tourism, the Suez Canal, financial and retail), manufacturing and construction (Encyclopedia of the Nations par. 7-25). To analyze the political situation of Egypt before the revolution, it is essential to look at the political arrangements that were predominant under Mubarak’s rule. Extant literature demonstrates that after Mubarak assumed power in the wake of President Anwar al-Sadat’s assassination in 1981, the president “set out to rule by a state of emergency under Law No. 162, which extended police powers, legitimized censorship and suspended constitutional rights” (Saikal 531). This model of government enhanced the authoritarian system of party-bureaucratic-security governance, facilitated political and socio-economic stagnation in the country, and also triggered foreign policy debacles It is indeed true that the political and socioeconomic situations in Egypt before the revolution acted as significant catalysts in fueling discontent among the masses. In the domain of politics, the general feeling among the masses was that President Mubarak had sat at the helm of an oppressive and authoritarian regime for far too long (Saikal 531). The harsh government had given rise to a multiplicity of political and socioeconomic concerns, including:  1. high levels of poverty among the masses  2. heightened police brutality instigated by an excessive and unchecked exercise of power, which was legitimized through sustained emergency laws,  3. extreme socio-economic inequalities triggered by policies and strategies of a government dominated by businessmen,  4. state’s increasing withdrawal from the provision of basic services in essential sectors such as education and health,  5. high levels of corruption in government and industry following an excessive form of a capitalist free-market restructuring bill (Fahmy 350). To further worsen an already difficult situation, the economic restructuring programs initiated by Mubarak’s successive governments over the peri
Every citizen has some responsibility or the other living in a country. For instance paying taxes on time is a very important responsibility which must be fulfilled by every citizen irrespective of the country that the individual is residing in. The tax collected by the government is used for the development of the country. The money is usually spent in construction of roads, hospitals and other useful buildings. A large part of the money is also spent on research so as to ensure progress and growth in the country. Hence it becomes imperative to pay tax in time. This paper will throw light upon the benefits of reducing the tax, a comprehensive analysis of how it can impact the lives of individuals will be presented in this paper. The Impact of Low Tax on the Family Life of an Individual Lowering the tax will benefit the lives of hundreds of thousands of people all across the globe. Some people are very bad at financial planning and hefty tax can break them down within no time. Lowering the tax will provide a lot of relief to such people. People with majuscule family find it really hard to pay tax and lowering the tax will help such people immensely. The needs of human beings are constantly on the rise and it is high time to reduce the tax, even a small reduction will be much appreciated by people all across the globe. The money saved can be spent of countless things, for instance that money can be used to buy a small automobile, a family that has 4 members but have no proper means of conveyance will surely benefit from the reduction of tax. This will also make several people who have two wheelers less vulnerable to accidents. When they buy a small automobile, they will become much safer than earlier. Investment Reducing the tax will encourage the practice of investing among the people. Money saved by the people can be invested in thousand things. Stock market is a very good area to invest in. This is a very good time to invest because recession has brought down the value of several companies that are ought to bounce back. Money invested in stock market will stimulate the economy of a country, lowering the taxes will have several other benefits too. Real estate is another glorious prospect, money saved can be out into real estate and the value of land has depreciated a lot because of recession, it is ought to rise in the near future. Mutual funds are another lucrative option and there are several other options that an individual can invest in and make a fortune. Once the practice of investing is inculcated among the individuals then there is no stopping the economy of that particular country. The economy will inevitably witness higher growth than ever. Lowering the tax will significantly improve the standard of living of the people; they will no longer have to sit calculating what fits in their budget and what doesn’t. The demand for luxury goods will go up and so will the prices, this whole scenario will improve the lifestyle of the people and it will also promote the habit of saving and investing in them, what more can a governme
Sentencing trends are shifting from the traditional position of incarceration to the modern state. Due to the increase in the inmate population and high costs of running prisons, many jurisdictions are beginning to look for alternatives. This is also because imprisonment does not play any role in reducing recidivism and that more than half of released inmates end up being re-convicted (Beck & Karberg, 10). Community corrections are one such alternative. They include halfway houses or release to work at low-security. Electronic surveillance is an emerging sentencing trend through which an offender is released but an electronic gadget is put on his wrist to monitor all his movements and actions. House-confinement is also a new sentence whereby an offender is released but is restricted not to go beyond the confinements of his home compound. A sentence of compensation or repatriation involves payment of sum money to a person injured by one’s criminal offences (Beck and Karberg 11). One of the new trends in sentencing involves privatization of prisons and correctional facilities. There have been recent trends towards privatization of government correctional facilities. This entails the practice of contracting private firms to run prisons. By June 2001, the number of private prisons in the United States were approximately 154 with a capacity estimated at 142, 000 each (DiIulio 35). It has been claimed that the inmate population had been growing at an average rate of 100% since the early 80s. The trend towards private correctional facilities is because of the congestion and over-stretched capacities of government prisons. For instance, in the year 2000 there were over 2 million prisoners in the United States, overstretching the capacity of the prisons by 20% (Beck and Karberg 21). Public budgets are limited and the cost of constructing new prisons at the expense of other essential services such as education and health is considered a liability to the government. The limited funds also mean low-quality services to the extent of infringing on the rights of prisoners. This means more suits against the government in law courts. Privatization of other sectors such as energy, transport, and health just to mention a few has led to provision of quality services and efficient management. It has therefore been proposed that private firms have the funds to construct more prisons and deliver services of high quality. Elimination of the bureaucracy necessitated in running public prisons means that private companies could purchase items needed in the prison in bulk without having to go through the rigorous processes and obstacles that are common features of bureaucracy. Private prisons are also able to save money. This is because there is room for innovation in the private sector. Efficient management of the facilities means that no money goes to waste. There are no major frauds or corruption schemes as the interests of the balance sheet and the profit and loss statement are
Introduction The Iraqi forces during the Gulf War had a fairly developed system of both air attack and air defense. The main task of the Allied force, in this case, was to neutralize both conventional air targets, as well as enemy ballistic missiles, mainly Scud. Operation Desert Storm is the first combat use of the missile MIM-104C Patriot, which became the backbone of the Allied air defense system. This artillery, in combination with stealth aircraft and a satellite guidance and signal transmission system, constituted effective protection against enemy air attacks. Iraqi Air-Defense System The air defense system in Gulf War consisted of artillery and missile launchers, which effectively resisted airstrikes. Radomyski and Bernat (2019) consider air defense “one of the key elements that directly contributed to the final result” (p. 27). Thus, a detailed consideration of the elements of protection is a necessary aspect of the analysis of the strategy. The air defense system established by Saddam’s forces included anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) and surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) (Thompson, 2019). The AAA was used for lower targets, while the SAMs countered higher enemy air attacks using radar. However, the Allies used effective methods to combat these measures. F4 Phantoms with the high-speed anti-radar missile (HARM) in combination with strike aircraft attacked countered SAMs by attacking radars. Apart from F4, HARMs were also carried by “F-15, F-16 CJ, F/A-18, and TORNADO” (Radomyski and Bernat, 2019, p. 33). These missiles were extremely effective in the fight against Iraqi radars and played a key role in the destruction of the enemy’s air defense system. Further, AAA was combatted by ingressing and egressing enemy sites above the active range, as well as directly attacking AAA. MIM-104C Patriot Missile Artillery played a significant role in keeping the Allies’ victory over the enemy in the Gulf War. Specifically, Operation Desert Storm was the first to use the latest MIM-104C Patriot missile system (Collind, 2019). These installations were used to target and destroy Scud missiles that are part of the Iraqi defense system. During the conflict, the Iraqi military forces used “thousands of surface-to-air missiles, as well as shoulder-fired anti-aircraft weapons” (Tirpak, 2020). Moreover, there were over 150 anti-a
The modern tendencies in the world’s progress and social development also influence the cultural interactions between the representatives of different nations and ethnicities. In spite of the fact the process of globalization with its orientation to multiculturalism is in a progress, various European cultures are characterized not only by many similarities but also by significant differences. From this point, it is necessary to concentrate on such criteria as the religion and beliefs, language, values, art, philosophy, lifestyle, customs, and traditions. The European cultures are traditionally discussed as the part of the Western civilization that is why it is important to determine similarities in the cultures of Germany, the Netherlands, and France, paying attention to the fact the cultures’ of these countries also have a lot of differences. The visions of many cultures are based on the developed stereotypes and the definite historical processes. Thus, focusing on the similarities between the cultures of such European countries as Germany, the Netherlands, and France, it is significant to note that the issues of religion are similar for these countries. The majority of the population in these countries is the Christians (Roman Catholics and Protestants). The percentage of Muslims in the countries is rather low, but the problem of correlation between Christians and Muslims is typical for France. The next point for comparison is the question of language. The citizens of Germany, the Netherlands, and France speak different languages, but the German and Dutch languages have the similar roots when French is of the Roman origin (“Countries and Their Cultures”). The geographical location of the Netherlands and Germany and their political and social relations affected the development of many similarities in the culture. In its turn, the French culture can be characterized by more differences than similarities in comparison with the cultures of the Netherlands and Germany. The cultures of three countries depend on the oral traditions and folktales. However, the further focus on science and technology is typical for the German and Dutch cultures when the concentration on art is characteristic for the French culture. According to the lifestyle, the representatives of three cultures have different food habits, but the same vision of sport activities. In spite of the fact all three nations pay much attention to their food, the French cuisine is discussed as elegant, and the German and Dutch cuisines have their origin in the me
It has always been the practice of civilized people to create a method for studying morality. The purpose is obvious and it is to create a better society where men, women, and children live in peace, prosperity, and happiness. However, there can be no agreement when it comes to developing a system of knowing right and wrong; there will always going to be an endless debate regarding what is morality, ethics, and how to behave, especially when it comes to the moral dilemma that can affect a group of people. What is fortuitous for one individual may be harmful to the other. In this paper, a particular case study will be analyzed using the Virtue Ethics theory first developed by Aristotle and later brought to the mainstream by Alasdair Macintyre. His virtue ethics theory is not guided by rules but they need to develop character in the individual. It will be applied in the case study regarding the ambivalent attitude of an employee towards his employment. An internal usability team wanted to conduct a usability test that will use internal and external participants (Tavani, 2007). However, there was a dispute made regarding the use of the external participants, and it was discovered that the consent that they signed gave them the ability to leave every time they so chose to work with the said company. Other members of the usability team argue that although there was a clear loophole that the external members can choose to exploit so that they can be released from the work that they need to do they are ethically bound to stay and finish what they started. Ethics Theory One of the popular ways to study morality is to use an ethical theory that focuses on the action of the individual and its potential consequences. Thus, experts in this field label this approach as the “act-centered” method of understanding morality (Gensler, 2004). On the other hand, some argue that there is another method that can be used to develop an ethical standard that can in turn be applied by the community as a basis for behavior. This alternative way of devising ethical standards is also known as the “person-centered” approach (Gensler, 2007). One of the early proponents of virtue ethics is the Greek philosopher Aristotle. Aristotle argued that for someone to become an ethical person there is a need to go beyond memorizing rules and simply talking about right an