ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Constructivism Constructivism is an approach used to gain insight into an individual’s psychology and to initiate change in a person (Berg, 1994). Today, it influences many techniques of psychotherapy by concentrating on an individual’s inner and outer mechanisms of constructing meaning. Constructivism is not based on a particular theory or method. Rather, it is a combination of several forms of psychotherapies and methods including existential-humanistic and cognitive-behavioral therapies, and psychoanalysis. It also includes other techniques used to transform family dynamics (Berg, 1994). Today, many psychotherapy approaches are based on constructivism and they range from solution-focused approaches to narrative methods (Simon, 2009). Each of these methods utilizes different approaches and mechanisms to achieve healing (Simon, 2009). Constructivist Theory Constructivism is based on the notion that individuals will understand his environment well by contemplating the occurrences in their personal lives. Each individual has a clear set of dimensions and thought systems which they apply in their daily lives (Guteman, 1994). Constructivism healing is concerned with the sense-creating system which individuals utilize to comprehend occurrences in their lives (Guterman, 1994). Each person who attends a therapy session harbors a distinctive set of life experiences. An individual’s response to these life experiences determine the emotions, beliefs and attitude that he or she will carry through life (Guteman, 1994). The belief behind constructivism is that our knowledge of our surroundings is not based on objectives but rather on constructions, feelings, and convictions that we attach to our life experiences (Guteman, 1994). The Purpose of a Clinician in Constructivist Healing The role of a clinician in constructivist treatment is to infer how an individual’s reaction to past life experiences have influenced his or her present circumstance that is troubling the individual (Fish, 1993). The clinician does not view the client’s story as a reality. Instead, he or she presumes that the client’s current problem resulted from prior constructions from the client’s life experiences (Doan, 1998). The clinician, therefore, engages the client in order to generate the occurrence-thought-reaction chains formed by the client in the past and which are more likely to underlie his present or future conditions (Doan, 1998). Narrative Method Narrative approach is a kind of psychotherapy that utilizes narrative. This method was conceived between 1970 and 1980 mainly by Michael White from Australia and David Epston of New Zealand (White & Epston, 1990). Narrative therapy involves the client working together with the therapist. During the process, the therapist will pose some questions to the client designed to generate positive and detailed stories of the client’s personal life experiences that do not form part of his or her problem. The aim of the narrative method is to detach individuals from elements that are assumed to be essential part of the person but which are not in r
Christine Cornell’s “The Interpretative Journey in Ursula K. Le Guin’s The Left Hand of Darkness ” positions itself against two acknowledged factions which have reservations toward the gender issues as depicted in the book: scholarly critics of Le Guin’s masculine world, and college readers wary of the exclusive use of the masculine pronoun. As an apologetic for Le Guin’s choices concerning the sexual landscape of the novel, Cornell’s essay attempts to rout critics on two major problems readers encounter with the book; first, that the world of Winter, and the novel as a whole, has been inexplicably stripped of women, and feminine influences have been largely demonized, and second, that the The Left Hand of Darkness is likewise inexplicably blanketed exclusively with the male pronoun. Cornell approaches these problems with a sympathetic understanding of the novel’s protagonist, Genly Ai. Genly is himself male, and finding himself a lone sex-certain being on a planet of androgens, appears to resolve his own incomprehension through the application of the familiar he . Beyond linguistic difficulties, his own biases run toward applauding the masculine and suspecting the feminine: Genly embraces the bureaucratic strictures of Orgoreyn on the one hand while “damning [the] effeminate deviousness” of Estraven’s shifgrethor -influenced, oblique communication, for example. Yet Cornell rationalizes even the most obvious blights on Genly’s diplomatic report as reflective of his naivete, which is subsequently transformed through his travels and particularly through his relationship with Estraven. Cornell postulates that the reader’s journey from naivete to holistic understanding mirrors that of Genly, whose masculine bias is transformed through a series of trials in communication with Estraven. Much as the reader will likely find aversion to Genly’s masculinized narration, Genly is at first exasperated by Estraven’s circuitous and indirect speech. This impasse, which has great bearing on Genly’s comprehension of Winter as a whole, is finally crossed during their trek across the ice. In recognizing the totality of Estraven’s nature – male and female – Genly, at last, sees Estraven as the person s/he is, and finds himself loving Estraven as he was not able to before. In Cornell’s adaptation of Wolfgang Iser’s theory of reader indeterminacy, Genly and the reader arrive at the end of a process of understanding the three steps of which are rejection, perception, and acceptance. Cornell
Introduction Many scholars have attempted to explain philosophical relationship between subjectivism and objectivism. Despite the fact that some scholars have been accredited for their approach in explanation of the two concepts, there has been a notable improvement in definition of these aspects over the years. Habits or behaviors are influenced by different social environments, to which individuals are exposed. The essay will focus on outlining effects that different environments have on individuals. Suffering will be an element of reference in this essay. Four social environments discussed will be: a small group, an individualist, atomized subordination and a strong group. Background Information According to Bourdieu, behavior of people in different social environments is influenced by experiences and acquired perceptions. He states that this could be the only way, in which objectivism can be distinguished from subjectivism . Comprehension of habitus concept defines relationship between objectivism and subjectivism. For instance, behavior portrayed by an individual is influenced by external conditions that are objective. Objectivism influences individual behavior by repeatedly exposing the mind to different social environments. In this regard, behavior of an individual is not static but influenced by social environment. Different social environments provide requirements that act as guidelines, which members are expected to follow. According to Bourdieu, subjective aspects like cognition adopt objective values and result in unconscious beliefs. It should be noted that unconscious beliefs formed are essential in identifying different social environments since they act as universal standards. Behavior or habitus aids in comprehension of different social environments. Habitus functions in both ambiguous and explicit discourses (Bourdieu 112). Subjectivism embraces objectivism and functions in a practical manner. In this regard, habitus concept of Bourdieu is closely related to Lau’s concept of practice. Lau’s concept published in 2004, sought to build on approach of Bourdieu and at the same time to make corrections. According to Lau, Bourdieu failed to differentiate subjectivism from objectivism phenomenally. One of the postulations made by Lau is that for recognition to take place attention has to be improved by self regulation. In this regard, behavior is influenced by level of attention and self regulation of the mind. Secondly, behavior is influenced by level, at which an individual is willing to accept objective aspects. In this regard, behavior of individuals is influenced by self-awareness and consciousness of other things (Lau 364). Small Group Small group grid can be defined as relationship that an individual has with his peers. The environment is less formal and based on shared values that join different people in a given group. People are likely to form a group based on suffering that they are going through. For instance, women with financial difficulties
Introduction While the process of identification of human remains incorporates many different factors, the face is regarded as a unique feature that can be used to rightfully identify a person. The face plays an important role in identification when DNA or fingerprints examinations cannot be used. Porter and Doran (2000) observes that while fingerprints are more reliable sources of identification, photographs of the face help the layperson to make identification by comparing the suspect in question with his/her photograph or sketch. The aim of forensic facial reconstruction is to use a skull to build a face that can be used to recognize the person to whom the skull belongs. A successful forensic facial reconstruction will result in a face that can be easily identified accurately as that of the person to whom the skull belongs. The significance of facial reconstruction techniques in forensic work have resulted in the development of a number of facial reconstruction methods. This paper will explain the basis of forensic facial reconstruction and critically assess its usefulness. A review of some of the most popular methods of facial reconstruction will be made and their inherent merits and demerits highlighted. Basis of Forensic Facial Reconstruction Facial reconstruction is the process of constructing faces (normally of unidentified persons) from skulls. This process is based on the hypothesis that “the anatomy of the skull is intimately associated with the surface anatomy of the face” (Oxenham, 2008, p.133). However, this relationship is not easily determined since the soft tissues of the body are not uniformly placed over bones. For this reason, the accuracy of facial reconstruction methods is controversial and some researchers express doubt in the ability of the methods to reproduce a face that can be easily recognized correctly as the target individual. In addition to this, the skull does not contain any individual characteristics such as birthmarks, moles, or scars which can be used to identify a person. Clement and Murray (2005) acknowledge that the task of completely reconstructing a face from a bare skull is extraordinarily difficult since few speci
Introduction The way the human body regulates weight is complex and interacting. There are biological, behavioral, and environmental factors included. Bodyweight is the result of how the body regulates energy intake, expenditure, and energy storage; collectively this is called energy balance (Hill 752). Obesity in terms of body mass index is 30 or more. Health risk factors begin to increase with a BMI of 25 (Schneider 272). In simpler terms, obesity is a 20% or more increase in body weight above the normal range expected as a result of fat accumulation. Obesity is a major risk factor in high blood pressure (hypertension) and certain types of diabetes (type II). Many articles, found in the literature, explain other medical problems associated with obesity like heart disease and joint diseases (arthritis). However; the social and psychological effects of obesity received little attention (Brown 225-228). The aim of this thesis is to discuss the causal effect of obesity on hypertension, diabetes (type II), and the socio-psychological impact of obesity using a cause-effect perspective. Main body The association between obesity and hypertension is well documented, although the exact relationship remains unclear. Obesity activates some biochemical-hormonal mechanisms which play a role in raising blood pressure (Davy and Hall 803-813). Also, obesity is associated with increased cholesterol levels which play a role in increased blood vessels rigidity (arteriosclerosis) and accordingly hypertension. Al Atat and others (823-854) showed that control of obesity contributes to control 48% of hypertension in whites and 28% in blacks. Studies that confirmed obesity plays a role in type II diabetes are many. Data collected by Wannamethee and Shape (1266-1272) recommend reducing the risk of type II diabetes by prevention weight gain and encouraging weight loss in obese individuals. Genuth (198-201) conducted a similar study in the UK. They suggested that most type II diabetes patients were obese or have been obese at one time in their lives. Linda and colleagues (371-377); analyzed data from the 1997-2003 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS). They concluded that between 1997 and 2003, the incidence of diagnosed diabetes has increased among US adults. The presented data suggested that obesity is a major cause in increasing the incidence, and the incident cases of diabetes are becoming more obese. Obesity has socio-psychological impacts on the individual (Obesity Education Initiative):  1. Social unacceptability: The general impression in the US, as well as most western societies, is that; people (especially women) should be thin, and being fat is a sign of poor self-control. This creates negative attitudes about the obese that are sometimes translated into a kind of discrimination.  2. Psychological disorders and obesity: Community-based studies, in the US, did not show significant differences in psychological status between obese and nonobese. In European studies, on the other hand, studies suggest an impact of obesi
In the given report, the issue concerning the recent insolvency problem which gripped the global business world in 2008 is being discussed. According to Pozen, the root of all evil in the give case was a cadence of unreasonable decisions undertaken by Enron. After the Sarbanes-Oxley Act had been passed, solid improvements were anticipated. However, the results proved quite unpredictable. In the given report, the reasons for the inefficiency of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act are investigated. In a rather unique way of researching business problem, the author suggests his own business model as the key means to investigate the causes of the economical decline. According to Pozen, with the help of the model of professional directorship, not only the reasons for the entrepreneurship to sink in 2008 will be found, but also new methods of boosting business will be found. Among the innovations which Pozen includes in his model of the professional board, a smaller size is highlighted in an especially graphic manner. Indeed, according to the author, numerous industrial companies with smaller boards survived the crisis of 2008, while the companies with larger boards did not. It is also quite peculiar that the author of the article compares the notorious reform of 2008 with its more successful analogue. What Pozen called “additional governance standards for public U. S. companies” (54) proved quite efficient. Comparing the given reform to the one of 2008, Pozen offers a couple of important ideas. To start with, Pozen emphasizes that the CEO of the company should not necessarily supervise every single issue that takes place in the company. According to Pozen, a leader can reach maximum efficiency once (s)he gives the company some air and allows the management handle the company affairs on their own for once. Finally, the author offers his ideas concerning the role of the company director and what the latter should be like for the company to prosper. According to Pozen, the role of a director has changed over the past few years considerably and now demands far more devotion and commitment than it has ever had. Back to the above-mentioned reform, Pozen explains that it will not have any tangible effect in the U. S. economics, as well as the major functions of the board. Finally, Pozen offers his vision of a perfect company with a perfect leader at helm. Along with the explanations of what caused the decline of the entrepreneurships all over the world in 2008, the author also outlines the strategies which can lead an employer to efficient leadership and considerable progress, as well as great revenues. Hence, it can be concluded that the report offers an honest and detailed account of the causes of the economical problems of the 2008. Offering an exhaustive explanation of why the SOX Act did not change the situation for the better, the author of the report made it obvious that the people who developed the SOX Act clearly tried to solve the then economical problems. However, the
Introduction Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and some prokaryotes, such as bacteria and algae, use the light from the sun to produce energy rich food molecules, i.e., glucose, from carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and water. The process also plays an important role in nature by forming a part of the nutrient cycle, e.g., the carbon, water, nitrogen, and oxygen cycles (Hames & Hooper, 2005). Since the process makes use of components of the environment, such as light, carbon dioxide, and water, it is obviously affected by these factors. This paper tables the result of the study, which was conducted to ascertain the effect of carbon dioxide on the photosynthetic rate of waterweed. An aquatic plant was used due to its ability to absorb dissolved carbon dioxide and release oxygen, making it easy to count air bubbles evolved per minute. Terrestrial plants are devoid of both the mechanisms to sequester dissolved carbon dioxide and the ability to respire in water. In this experiment, it was hypothesized that the rate of photosynthesis rises with an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide and went on to test the hypothesis. It was assumed that during the experiment, the plant will be producing oxygen from photosynthesis as a byproduct and that the production of CO 2 was negligible. In addition, it was imperative to use a piece of waterweed that could exude bubbles of roughly equal size at a constant rate. A suitable sprig is the one that fits in experimental vessels and that has been cut at an angle at the time of collection. Cutting at an angle enhances the ability of the sprig to absorb water and stay viable longer by keeping the xylem vessels open (Hames & Hooper, 2005). A more accurate approach to this experiment would have been estimating the amount of gas evolved by the plant in a given time, using the photosynthometer. Other than providing knowledge on how to design and conduct experiments to explore the effect of different environmental variables on the rate of photosynthesis, this experiment was also meant to help in connecting and applying theoretical concepts in a practical setup. Background Information Photosynthesis results in the production of energy rich molecules as shown in figure 1 below. Figure 1: A sketch diagram showing the changes in relative energies during photosynthesis depicts this process as an endergonic reaction The energy rich molecules produced through photosynthesis make the plant biomass that constitutes the food and fuel for other organisms. Simply stated, without photosynthesis, there would be
Sources of Ambiguity Kotter and Cohen (2002) note that most people do not handle big changes well and thus when going through a transition, they tend to make mistakes that are predictable as they have not been in a similar situation before. Organizations are usually complex and unpredictable, which makes it hard to implement a new system smoothly without challenges (Bolman and Deal 2008). One of the sources of ambiguity is ‘We are not sure who is supposed to do what’. In this source of ambiguity, the roles are not clearly defined and there is disagreement about what each one is required to do and when. The staff turnover is also a problem as things keep on shifting as in the case of Procter and Gamble following the adaptation of a new system. For a chance to be successful in an organization, despite any challenges that might occur, all the employees should take up roles to support the change during the process of transition. If they are not receptive, the change may not be successful. Role description and role play in the implementation of the change were the main problems that led to the failure of the new system at Procter and Gamble. A new system usually comes with a change of roles for the employees within an organization and it is natural to resist. The pros and cons of using the ”Pockets” Model The pockets approach was considered as a way of solving the ambiguity problem since the employees who can successfully implement a new system in an organization are not necessarily among the top executive. The pockets model is where individuals in a specific place of work come up with a way in which they can run their department in a different way it is done in the rest of the organization. They develop a better way of achieving their objectives and apply it in their area of work although previously these employees have been viewed to be against the organization yet these ideas are what form the pockets of change and should be embraced (Butcher and Atkinson 2000). In some instances, these different ways of doing things may serve as a breakthrough for the organization. In managing the role issue, employees can be given an environment where they try and solve the problem on their own. They can be allowed to distribute their roles in their way or allocate roles on a rotator basis. This method can be used to solve the uncertainty problem on who is required to do what while these pockets could later be adopted by the institution. Some of the pros of the pocket approach are that it will be more acceptable to the employees since t
The belief that the United States of America is a democratic country automatically create the assumption that it is a government by the people, for the people, and of the people as laid down by Abraham Lincoln (Brien, 71). Nevertheless, it is a grave mistake to believe that this happens automatically after conducting free and honest elections. It will be revealed later that even if the majority has voted this does not mean that democracy has prevailed. The ideal form of democracy according to Brien is one where deliberative democracy is at work, a form of democracy where citizens engage in public deliberations so that only laws that can benefit the community will be ratified and not the self-interest of a particular group. The only problem is that America does not really practice deliberative democracy and it can even be argued that a small number of people are pulling the strings that in turn control the minds of the public. The best way to counter this is to promote deliberative democracy but the challenge is how to encourage people to participate in this manner and not rely on what spin-doctors and pressure groups tell them what to do. Deliberative Democracy One of the theorists who contributed much to the construction of deliberative democracy is Adam Smith who coined the phrase “invisible hand” – it is the belief that individuals acting on their own self-interest and acts rationally at the same will create a spontaneous ordering of society, the result of which is better than those engineered by laws, policies, regulations, decisions of individuals or governments (Brien, 78). Adam Smith’s idea provided a contrast allowing for a clear understanding of what deliberative democracy should be. In other words deliberative democracy must run counter to what Smith proposed, that people simply make judgments based on their self-interest alone and that is the locomotive that drives a democracy forward. In order to encourage people’s participation in political decision, the government has to educate the people and make them realise that they are important in the democratic process. The most important goal of the whole process is to contribute in the creation of a solution such as a bill or law that can help protect their self-interest. This can be achieved by making it conveni