ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction Trade was the major economic activity that brought groups of people together during the time the Basotho people arrived in their present homeland. In fact, by the beginning of 19 th century, white traders, the Voortrekkers inhabited what is now called the Basutoland. With this conglomeration of different groups of people, there emerged extreme pressure on the environment for resettlement. Meanwhile, the Zulu state, led by Shaka was expanding and with it a series of violence across the entire southern Africa. The violence that was witnessed throughout this region threatened the extinction of many groups of people but not the organized Sotho society. The survival of this group of people is attributed to the strong leadership of their king Moshoeshoe the Great that was necessitated by frequent cattle raids. The paper investigates the validity of the postulate that the Basotho people survived because of cattle raids, which made their leader to seek refuge in Thaba Bosiu. The 19 th Century Sotho Kingdom In the 19 th century, a violent explosion erupted annihilating the South African chiefdoms border today’s Lesotho. Those who did survive the annihilation either were dispersed or were incorporated into larger chiefdoms that were stronger and well reorganized. The leaders of these new chiefdoms were capable of defending their subjects; and Moshoeshoe was one such leader. The political situation in the east of Drakensberg Mountains was characterized by increasing competition over trade links, arable land for cultivation, cattle raids, among other factors (Stokes 102). Owing to the political and economic instability of the region courtesy of Shaka Zulu’s autocracy, food scarcity and famine struck the region thereby according dominant chiefdoms the opportunity to increase their wealth and power. Consequently, the leader who promised wealth and security obtained from agricultural and pastoral production as well as from trade commanded greater support and following. Cattle raiding and agricultural production became the silver bullet to the peoples’ problems, a policy that was pursued religiously by leaders. It is little wonder then, that conflicts resulting from food shortage interrupted food production hindered economic growth, and starvation punctuated the disruptions caused by migrating chiefdoms that sought a place to settle (Eldredge 2). The Thaba Bosiu Experience From 1822 throughout the century, raids were common phenomena in this region of southern Africa. For example, destitute immigrants crossed the Drakensberg Mountains from the east and executed their raids on the population around Highveld and upper Caledon River Valley to get crops and cattle (Eldredge 2). These raids conjured up survival instincts of the young Sotho leader, Moshoeshoe l to forge alliances with their neighbors, the Sesotho group, and move to the mountains for protection. He, therefore, sent his scouts to find a good place in the mou
Rational Choice theory George Homas is a sociologist who developed the rational choice theory by assuming that people make economic decisions by considering the greatest benefits and wants that will cost less for more returns. The theory is common amongst economists in cases where the majority of people want to balance less cost for greater profits. The theory is also applicable in Intelligence Science because the presumption forms part of human behavior that is characterized by wanting greater benefits by giving less contribution. Therefore, looking for information about security threats such as terrorism becomes easier because it is assumed that terrorists or their targets are individuals who want to gain benefits by using easy ways that pose threats to a given country. Meaning and its Application in Intelligence Studies The rational choice theory is applicable in every field because choices that free persons make are mostly for self-interest. Every person needs to gain more by contributing less. This scenario brings problems to areas such as economy and security in a country. A country wants to sell more of its products to its neighbors,but at the same time buy less of what the neighbors are selling, thus jeopardizing international relations. It is interesting to develop a“hypothesis based on this theory in every research subject that human’s choice is relevant” (Gottschalk 2009, 35). The greatest threat to any developed economy in the contemporary world is terrorism. Terrorism is viewed as a threat coming from religious dogmas. However, it is based on deception, which “is an aspect of human perception that is in turn shaped byobjective reality along with physiological and psychological factors” (Bell 2003, 244).There are huge investments made in the “developments of human intelligence” (Davies and Gustafson 2013, 154). The contemporary world is incomparable with the past due to the huge developments that have been made in areas such as communications technology, weaponry, and transport developments. During the Cold War era, economic growth of developed countries stagnated due to threats, but it was easy to know every move that an enemy made due to human intelligence and undeveloped technology that was in place at the time. However, today’s world is more dangerous than it was during the Cold War era due to the advanced technology that makes it hard for human intelligence to keep an eye on the enemy’s moves. Communication tech
Introduction In the present-day world, sellers focus on various categories of potential consumers. The principal concept in terms of consumer behaviour is gender differences. Numerous factors have an impact on their demand and methods of purchasing goods, and it is vital to reveal the specificities of choices made by male and female buyers. Consideration of possible differences and similarities in consumer behaviour of these two groups would allow to make decisions on how to attract potential buyers depending on the gender. Therefore, it is important to figure out the differences between male and female consumers and compare their buying habits for a better understanding of their behaviour. Attitude Towards Shopping of Male and Female Consumers Any purchase is a challenge for modern customers due to the availability of various brands, characteristics, and consumer reviews. One can never be sure if a purchased item would satisfy his or her needs, especially in the case of online shopping. Hence, the choice of the best suitable product contains certain risks for a buyer. To reveal the trends of product choices of men and women, one needs to consider the way these consumer groups perceive risk. Various psychological studies confirm the difference in reaction to risk of men and women (Eckel & Grossman, 2008). According to Bae and Lee, female buyers are more influenced by the possible risk and negativity of consumer reviews than men (2011). This fact leads to the conclusion that women would spend more time on shopping while trying to evaluate the risks and make the right decision. Another factor influencing the attitude towards shopping of men and women is their awareness of the product’s specificities. Chiu et al. claim that there are four basic components of the knowledge about the purchased item: personal awareness of security, personal innovativeness, perceived ease of purchasing, and perceived usefulness (2005). The combination of them has an impact on a consumer’s intention to buy a product. The principal difference between male and female buyers in terms of the mentioned components is in the perception of ease of purchasing, which is lower by women. It contributes to the idea that the shopping process seems to be more complicated for them. In this case, the feedback of other women on the product matters. Male buyers, in turn, do not get easily distracted from the shopping process and make decisions faster than women. They better cope with vast amounts of available information on products and spend less time on shopping. It is one of the reasons why they prefer online purchases rather than visiting physical stores and malls (Jackson et al., 2011). However, the amount of time spent on online shopping is still significant, and it results in a lowering of usefulness. The scores for the personal awareness of security are higher for men, and their feedbacks on products therefore prevail. As for personal innovativeness, it also has a
Once the scientific goals concerning the exploration of Venus are set, there is a need to identify the instrumentation needed to investigate its surface. In the previous part of the statement, the launch date was established as 2026, and the mission is likely to end by 2031. Apart from the start and end dates of the mission, there is a time needed to land, take samples, and conduct other investigations. Primarily, to explore and probe the Venus’ surface, scientists need to construct a lander. There is an already existing lander named Venera-D, which is supposed to deploy its small stations and start taking soil samples once it lands. In 15 minutes after landing, the collection of Venusian soil specimens will be completed, and their analysis will begin (Eismont et al., 2019). In 45 minutes after landing, Venus-D will begin transmitting scientific data to Earth. It is expected that three hours after arrival, the station will stop working due to the overheating of its radio system. During this time, it is expected to transmit 340 MB of data to Earth (Greenwood & Anand, 2020; Ivanov & Head, 2015). This lander is supposed to carry around 120kg of tools and instruments needed for surface exploration; these tools may include the Mössbauer spectrometer, weather kit, ample collection, and processing kit, and chemical analysis package. There will also be several mini probes based on high-temperature electronics which can operate on Venus’ lands for several thousand hours. They can be dropped in different areas of the planet, where they will monitor the atmosphere’s parameters near the surface. By implementing these instruments, the researchers will conduct various tests concerning the surface and atmosphere structure. Therefore, they will observe the atmospheric and surface parameters and will establish the interaction between these elements.
Introduction The fields of organizational behavior and organizational theory in general experience a revival of interest in critical theory. Interestingly, despite the growing popularity and awareness, the theory is surrounded by numerous misconceptions and is sometimes misused. The article by Carr (2005) is an attempt to address the inconsistencies in the current understanding of the theory by conducting exploratory research on the matter. Main body The identified goal is met through several consecutive steps. First, the author provides an overview of critical theory from an academic standpoint. According to Carr (2005), the term critical theory is used to describe the school of thought as well as a specific self-conscious approach to critique that attempts to distance from doctrinal assumptions. Both definitions are explored in detail to avoid misinterpretation. The school of thought, commonly referred to as “the Frankfurt School,” is described mainly from the historical perspective with the inclusion of the key figures, events, and turning points in its development. While it can be argued that this aspect of the research is of secondary significance for the identified objectives, it is a necessary clarification considering the ambiguity that surrounds the concept today. The approach to critical theory as a process of critique, on the other hand, is reviewed in utmost detail. This aspect of the theory is defined as aiming to produce “a particular form of knowledge that seeks to realize an emancipatory interest, specifically through a critique of consciousness and ideology” (Carr, 2005, p. 470). The key approach to the described critique is through self-placement outside the limitations of existing structures and philosophical frameworks. Such an approach forbids the critical theory from resorting to either matter or consciousness as both have the potential of distorting reality and compromising the resul
Introduction Corporate entities combine strategic planning and financial planning in order to survive in a dynamic and competitive business environment. The integration of the two types of planning allows corporate managers to prioritize projects based on the viability of resources and anticipated growth (Moyer & Moyer, 2012). Strategic planning is the determination of the overall direction to be taken by an organization in achieving the goals. The two aspects determine the achievement of goals and objectives of an organization. On the other hand, financial planning, involves managing finances over time in such a manner that financial needs can be met without experiencing difficulties (Moles, Parrino, & Kidwell, 2011). Relationship between strategic planning and financial planning Both financial planning and strategic planning encompass defining objectives, collecting and analyzing data, implementing of plans as well as monitoring the outcomes. For example, if a budget of £50,000 is provided a financial plan and there are three projects to invest: Costing £80,000, £45,000 and £49,500. Since the first project costing £80,000, either of the remaining two projects may be chosen based on the strategies. Such a strategic plan is important because it provides a guide to achieve efficient business processes. Strategic planning is intertwined with financial planning in the sense that, if any change is made in the budget, the current assets must be revolutionized (Kennedy, Nash, Saks & PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2007). Prior to the amendment of the strategies, one must verify whether the available finances can be able to implement the available projects. Through capital budgeting, it is easy to apply discounted and non-discounted cash flow techniques to assess the viability of the available projects with respect to a company’s strategic plans (In Lee, 1985). In financial and strategic planning, monitoring the progress and changes in a project is important. Additionally, a significant correlation between financial planning and strategic planning exist because, both plans act as a tool for measuring growth and success of a company. Strategic and financial planning affect the cost in the sense that, prior to the implementation of a strategic plan, the cost to be incurred must be factored in th
Marr’s Levels of Explanation David Marr’s book, ‘The Vision’ highlights the fact that complex systems like brain or computer are better understood at various levels. Marr further stresses out that the explanations at the different levels are independent of the each other. He also observes that there is a relationship between neuroscience and computation. He claims that similar to a software engineer who does not need to learn hardware in details, every level of the brain has its own specialization; it uses a computational approach to study human visual processes (Scrimali and Tullio, 56). In his book, David Marr dwells on a computational theory for vision. He states that a visual process needs to pass through several steps where there exists a different representation of retina image. The three levels of explanations are designed to perform a task of information processing. Basically, his aim is to differentiate the three levels of explanation and give the computation theories. Marr levels have found their application in the study of cognition, namely, the three levels are computational, algorithmic and implementation level. Level one is the computation level, which defines the process that is being computed. It tries to identify the input and output of information into the system. At this level, the goal is a mental representation of the visual images, for example, the input can be person’s senses while the output is his or her behaviors. The computation level tries to answer the question of logic according to which the information input and output happens. A binocular is used as an example in the illustration of computation level of the visual processes. The input is the left and the right eye image while the output is the depth of the sample being viewed (Scrimali and Tullio 61). Level two is an algorithmic and representation level. In this level, the system is specified to convert the system output and input. It tries to determine the algorithms that the brain uses so as to attain the computational goals. The algorithm level tries to answer the question of how the brain transforms visual information into a mental representation of 3D image. For example, the binoculars stereopsis has stereo algorithms as their input. The course algorithm computes the blurred image of the depth into input image at a finer scale (Scrimali and Tullio 70). Level three is an im
Research Problem What are the research questions? What is the hypothesis under test? According to Fuchs and Fuchs (1998), there is a gap for practitioners to make use of knowledge from academic research. Practitioners do not make use of research knowledge acquired from academic research. The gap is widening and that is the main reason this study is being undertaken. One reason attributed to this is that researchers are not doing research in accordance with the teachers’ wishes. Another probable reason could be that they no longer take heed to what teachers are saying or want to be researched. In the process of undertaking this research and practical alignment, there is a misalignment in the inclusion of students with disabilities (SWD) in the GE class. This is because the GE teacher may have a different attitude towards the SWD. This paper will, therefore, try to address this issue by including SWD into a GE class and undertaking instructional lessons together. This problem is evident if the GE teacher does not get any support from the school. Science teachers need to assist students with exceptional needs in learning and understand their needs better. Five key research questions in the study:  1. What are the specific needs of students with disabilities in their learning process?  2. What assistance does a GE teacher need in order to teach an SWD?  3. What are the requirements that should be addressed in order to include SWD in science?  4. What experiences and skills does SWD need in order to learn science well?  5. Is there a need for GE teachers to undertake exceptional education in order to handle SWD well? Literature Review According to Cawley, Hayden, Cade, and Baker-Kroczynski (2002), this research paper concerns inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms. It is also about skills required to teach SWD effectively together with GE students. List three key points from the study’s literature review that helps the reader understand what is known about the subject, and the purpose of this study in light of other studies. Cite, at least, one study used by the author for each of the three points the author list. Three key points from the literature review, “Conceptual Framework”, in this article, are:   * Changes became evident in education for handicapped children. The two main changes that were made include:  1. Students with disabilities should get maximum education in accordance with the Least Restrictive Environment.  2. Students with disabilities should access and progress together with the students in the general classification.   * A study by Sharpe, York, and Knight (1994) indicated that there is no difference in learning under the same roof of students with disabilities with those in the general classification. This has already been proven, and this is the basis the study will be based.   * There is a significant gap between students with disabilities and those without. the difference comes in when it
Racial discrimination happens where people are treated in unfavorable ways because they belong to certain races. In addition, people may be mistreated because of having characteristics associated with certain races such as hair texture or skin color. In fact, any connection with certain race based organizations may cause mistreatment of people. This means that married people may be accorded unfavorable treatments because of their association with their spouses’ races. Racial discrimination is experienced in work places and other public places (Miller 86). For instance, people from certain races may be denied job opportunities or other services that are readily available to those from other races. In some parts of the world, racial discrimination is particularly rampant and it results to loss of lives. This happens where people attack those from other races causing physical harm and death in some instances. My first cognition of race segregation happened when my close relative was denied an employment opportunity in Canada because she came from Nigeria. It was difficult for me to understand the reason behind this inhumane treatment regardless of their qualifications. She had completed her master’s degree, and this proved that she had what was required for that job. The job was given to a white person who did not have an undergraduate degree. This is particularly serious since it affects employment in various parts of the world. In addition, she was harassed by her fellow candidates when she went for the interview. Some made fun of her skin color and went ahead to openly laugh at her right. The whole incident was so sad since there was no much she could do. Relevant authorities in that place did nothing to stop the vice. Nigerian culture does not support racial discrimination. In fact, Nigerians love white skinned people as they associate them with wealth due to the fact that whites visit the country as tourists. On the other hand, most African countries were colonized by white people hence they believe that there is a lot of power in them. In fact, nobody thinks of discriminating against white people in Nigeria. Although there have been claims of discrimination by some Nigerian companies, such cases are minimal (Miller 86). The government in Nigeria has put in place ru