ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction Sociological theories have immensely contributed to the development of the sociology discipline by explaining various sociological processes. These postulates observe various sociological phenomena from varied viewpoints which may either be similar or different. This paper seeks to explore selected scholars and their insights into sociological concepts. Marxism Marxism propagates the idea that societies advance through the struggle of two classes. Ayer (1959, p.13) argued that the rich invariantly, “exploit” the poor. He stratifies the society into bourgeoisie and the proletariats, the bourgeoisie being the governing class as per Marx (Marx, 1956, p. 276) Emile Durkheim Proposed scientific approaches of studying sociology are done through empirical analysis. Durkheim sought to establish how the society remains united despite the growing trends of individualism in the modern era (Sprott, 1949, p. 313) He explored ways in which social order could be pursued in the society; he devised the existence of “social facts” to describe the society. The “social facts” are dependent on the manner human beings behave (Ayer, 1959, p. 69-73). These “social facts,” have the power to influence the behaviour of individuals in the society (Durkheim, Emile, and Mustafa, 2009, p. 313-315). Webber Marx Webber was a proponent of interpretive methodology of studying sociology; his works largely contrasted the empirical methodologies of studying sociology postulated by Durkheim (David and Kurt, 1967, p. 556-557). Through his study of capitalism and modernity, Webber covered four themes, they are religion and class, class and inequality, bureaucracy and the significance of “meaning and action.” (Marx, 1956, p. 266-267) Simmels He described the nature of associations together wit
President James Madison sent a letter to Congress on June 1, 1812, asking for a declaration of war against the former colonizer, Great Britain. He had several reasons that made him feel that the United States was justified to wage a war with Great Britain for economic and political injustices. Campbell says that this declaration war was seen as a second war of independence for the United States because the country still faced numerous economic and political interferences from the former colonial master (26). In this paper, the researcher will look at the reasons why President James Madison wanted a declaration of war against the United Kingdom of Great Britain. The first reason that made President James Madison send this war message to Congress was an order by the British Council that prohibited the United States from engaging in trade with France because of the Napoleonic War. The United States felt that it was unfair for the United Kingdom to issue trade restrictions to the United States because it was an independent country that could make its own decisions. President Madison felt that the United States, as an independent nation, was not bound by any law to do what its former colonial master wanted (Waddell 51). It had to make its own decisions regarding the issue of trade restriction with any foreign country. The second factor was the policy of impressing the sailors from United States ships to serve in the British fleet that the United Kingdom had developed. Sometimes the British naval forces would attack United States sailors for unjustified reasons and imprison them if they were unwilling to serve in the British fleet. These actions were affecting the United States’ ability to actively engage in international trade (Tucker 127). President James Madison felt this had to come to an end. The United States needed to have a peaceful co-existence with the former colonial master in the high seas. As Benn notes, the actions of the British forces in the high seas were meant to frustrate the economy of the United States which was expanding rapidly because of the active trade between this country and the international community (89). According to Tucker and Fredriksen, another major reason why the President felt that this young country had to go to war against the United Kingdom was the activities the British forces were doing in Canada (113). It was believed that the Canadian British forts, along the border with the United States, were providing arms and military support to the American Indians to help them fight the expansion of the United States. President James Madison claimed that the British forces were already at war with the United States given their direct support to forces that were fighting against the country’s expansion (Peskin 67). The reasons given by President James Madison for the war with the United Kingdom of Great Britain were justified. After gaining independence from Great Britain, the United States was free to make its own decisions when it comes to issues about international rela
In an ideal world, state actors and non-state stakeholders must work together in order to put an end to the so-called “War on Terror.” If there is a serious and concerted effort to end acts of terror, it is imperative to clarify the meaning of terrorism and remove any type of “problematizing” factor that makes it difficult to define the problem and hold accountable the perpetrators and supporters of terrorism-related activities. One way to reduce the incidence of terrorism is to define the concept using principles emanating from a relatively new research perspective called Critical Terrorism Studies or CTS as opposed to Orthodox Terrorism Studies or OTS. Problematizing the Understanding of Terrorism: Conceptual, Epistemological, and Ontological The “War on Terror” entered the public consciousness in the aftermath of the terror attacks linked to 9/11. Without a doubt, non-state actors and state-sponsored groups were already active in the business of sowing fear in the hearts and minds of people even before the world witnessed the terrifying scene transforming New York’s World Trade Center into a pile of twisted metal. However, in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, terrorism virtually went through a transformation phase. The Arab terrorists that perpetuated the said dastardly act became the face of the “War on Terror”, and it became difficult to dissociate future terror acts with the images that were linked to the tragic events associated with 9/11. Without a doubt, the financiers, supporters, and other people involved in the said terroristic activity deserved every form of punishment prescribed by the law of the land. However, the post-9/11 discourse on terrorism was an oversimplification of the issues associated with terrorism. One can make the argument that the oversimplification of definitions and the need to focus on certain religious groups was the inadvertent attempt to deal with the inherent conceptual vagueness when it comes to discourses related to terrorism or terror groups. In the post 9/11 era, it was rather convenient to simply identify a certain group of religious extremists as a way to clarify not only the meaning of terrorism but also to demystify the state’s target. If it is no longer possible to categorize a terror group along these lines, it became convenient to develop an alternative group, which is characterized by non-state actors performing acts of terror designed to randomly target innocent civilians. In this category, one can add the names of Timothy McVeigh and Theodore Kaczynski. These are home-grown terrorists, and yet they are similar to Al-Qaeda, Hezbollah, or ISIS fighters because they do not possess the legitimate power to use violence since they are all non-state actors (Stampnitzky 49). The conceptual vagueness stems from epistemological and ontological difficulties. In other words, the knowledge acquisition mechanisms that are oftentimes reliable when it comes to observing and describing natural and other political phenomena are non-effective when it comes to studying a terror groups’ aspirations and intended message (Toros and
Introduction There has always been a link between Rome and Christianity since the first Christians were Romans in the sense that they lived in the Roman Empire and had their culture and language heavily influenced by the dominant Roman culture. However, in its early years, Christianity had negligible political power compared to the Roman Empire. Christians did not share in Roman religious practice because they thought that Romans worshiped idols; a practice prohibited in Christianity. This led to Christians being persecuted in the early years of the religion. Christianity prevailed politically in the fourth century when it took over the political institutions and laws of the Roman Empire. Henceforth, Christianity and the Roman Empire had an intricate and dynamic relationship which had important consequences for both. This paper will discuss the role of Christianity in the Roman Empire with specific focus on the influence of Christianity on the politics of the time. The paper will begin by providing a brief history of religion in the Roman Empire and trace the rise of Christianity within the Empire. Early Roman Empire Religion The Roman Empire enjoyed significant cultural, economic, and military success starting from 200BC to 200AD. The subjects of the Empire enjoyed a high standard of living due to the accumulated wealth and the expansionary success of the Empire. The Roman Empire incorporated many cultures and embraced a multitude of religions as a result of its expansionist politics. Roman popular religion was “pagan” in that they worshipped multiple gods, enacted rituals and engaged in animal sacrifice. In addition to this, the Roman emperors were to be worshipped as gods by all the subjects of the Empire. In the early years, Roman authorities endorsed religious diversify and cults or religious organizations were allowed to operate as long as they did not cause public disorder. As a result of the polytheistic religion, Roman paganism was generally tolerant and the gods which individual citizens worshiped was of no particular concern since the god someone else worshiped was not viewed as a threat. Christianity joined the pool of religions that were already present in the Roman Empire. Early Years of Christianity in the Roman Empire Christianity began as a tiny religious splinter group that grew to become the dominant religion in the entire Roman Empire. Christianity was the religion started by Jesus Christ and to be a Christian simply meant to live by the teachings of Jesus. In the years following the crucifixion of Jesus, Christianity benefited from Roman tolerance for religious diversity. Willems (1993) notes that because of this tolerance, there was no attempt to completely eliminate Christians in the early years of the religion. In its early years, Christianity was viewed with contempt since it
Like many other nations, in the last twenty years, Iran has recognized the importance of spatial data infrastructure (SDI) for the improvement of land use and maintenance. In 1998, Iran joined the Global Map Project and SDI activities and designated the National Cartographic Center (NCC) as its global representative (Kalantary et al., 2016). However, as pointed out by Kalantari Oskouei et al. (2019), the state of Iran’s SDI is yet to be elucidated as the country lacks an adequate environment that would enable the exchange of spatial data between users. Aside from that, Iranian scholars have only sporadically researched the major barriers and obstacles to establishing a better SDI for land administration. Kalantari Oskouei et al. (2019) used the SDI readiness model for the year 2015 to evaluate where Iran stands compared to other countries. So far, the results have been pessimistic: the findings show that the nation scores low on 12 out of 16 indicators such as institutional leadership, umbrella legal agreements, shared political vision, metadata availability, and others. The SDI readiness model does not offer any strategies but highlights the growth areas that countries need to focus on. Kalantari Oskouei et al. (2019) are convinced that improving Iranian SDI will require a joint effort of political, financial, legal, and human resources organizations. However, a powerful administrative body that would champion SDI causes is still needed for collaboration and management of resources. It will reform the existing legal body of framework to eliminate the unnecessary barriers to SDI readiness. Another crucial component emphasized by Kalantari Oskouei et al. (2019) is the private sector’s interest, involvement, and investment in SDI projects. The renewed SDI model would be used for better maps, manmade and natural disaster management, and passive defense programs.
Introduction Corporate governance (CG) is one of the most discussed topics in the present day business society. In every community of managerial character too many issues directly concern the points about this theme. People seem to feed their interests in better making out of this problem. The majority of businessmen, scientists, and ordinary observers tend to estimate corporate governance as “the general set of customs, regulations, habits, and laws that determine to what end a firm should be run.” (Business Society 2006) Here another question should be considered – it is a fact which definitely distinguishes good or bad governance. A lot of factors are closely tied up with this concept in the business world. Some of them touch upon the theme of all interested sides’ activities: shareholders, board of directors, management team etc. That is why it is so useful for the corporate governance to maintain the relationships between the stakeholders in order to develop and determine control of companies’ strategic points and performance within competitors. Corporate Governance in focus In this paper more attention is grabbed on the mechanisms of CG, namely the internal ones which impact much as a complex of well-consolidated work of important constituent parts within a corporation. The three internal mechanisms are mutually connected with the managerial and financial processes implemented in the external activity of a firm. Among such mechanisms the following ones can be pointed out:  1. Ownership Concentration. Relative amounts of stock ownedby individual shareholders and institutional investors.  2. Board of Directors. Individuals responsible for representing the firm’s owners by monitoring top-level managers’ strategic decisions/  3. Executive Compensation. Use of salary, bonuses, and long-term incentives to align managers’ interests with shareholders’ interests. (Hill, Jones 10-3) Three mechanisms of Corporate Governance For the purpose of strengthening the core objectives and ability to compete and lead in a definite field of interests companies strive to follow the sequential steps in maintaining reciprocal interests between the highest, middle , and lower layers of the corporation structure. Thus, the work of agencies is vital for the corporate governance in terms of hiring mangers and creating agency relationships. The point is that the owners of firms are deeply interested in the qualitative staff so that to minimize the losses of potential profits. Then mangers
The theme and concept of place is widely used in literature. This is because the characters and objects used by the author have to be placed somewhere. In this particular work of literature, the author starts with a mention of a place (Buscemi, Smith & Wiznura, 2009). The main character is depicted as somebody who is willing to settle in a nice place. In this particular instance, the main character desires to be in a particular geographical place described as a village. This is the place that she used to live in seven years ago. The picture of the place is only constructed in the mind. This is because the character does not make a drawing for a visual and real understanding of the place. However, with a vivid description of the serenity of the place, the geographical area comes to mind. It is a place that anyone reading the work of Jane Urquhart is be able to describe. The author is successful in bringing in a big sense of description for the purposes of clarity. The author starts the description of the place in the title. This title mentions a return to the village, and therefore, a reader gets a vague description of the place right from the start. The use of space is brought in by the way the character brings in various aspects together. For example, the studio and the church are mentioned in the description. Also the village being the larger place is qualified by the kind of environment surrounding it. For example, the place is serene meaning that there are possible trees swinging forth and back bringing in coolness and fresh air. There are also some activities which are used to describe this place. For example, the use of fire, cleaning of the house, attending various seminars, collecting fire sticks and attending the religious services help in providing a quality picture of the place. Since the main character is just reminiscing about this place, it can be therefore understood that she gives lots of importance to the place. The main character wants to put herself back into the place and do what she always liked doing; exploration (Buscemi, Smith & Wiznura, 2009). By this therefore, it is clear that the place or the village is vast to be explored. The author is also successful in describing the place by placing some importance. For example, the reason why the main character is keen to go back to the village is because it was a place that helped her start writing. She is a novelist who gained her art skills from the village. Being outside the village had made her alienated from the real world; a world that made her what she is today. Generally, the author has used the ‘place’ as her main theme, and uses different forms to bring this out. Easter in Sicily by Mary Taylor Simeti The author starts by mentioning a place, Prizzi. Even though the attention is on the Easter Afternoon, and where the Easter Afternoon takes place is Prizzi. Mentioning the activity without the place would have left a vacuum of thoughts in the minds of the reader. The au
Introduction While discussing the question concerning the interdependence between religion and morality, some basic points on the issue must be considered. First of all, it is necessary to point out that religion and morality cannot be regarded as synonyms and therefore, should be analyzed separately. One is to keep in mind that morality does not depend upon religion; so, for this reason, one can conclude that rightness and wrongness are not based on religious studies. People choose their own way to act, and their decision does not depend upon the God’s will. Religion and its relation to public morality Keeping in mind a wide range of religious movements, one can probably notice that the viewpoints on religion are rather ambiguous. For instance, some representatives of a new atheism are of the opinion that religion poisons everything. In our days, people’s faith can be regarded not only as a basis for human morality, but also as a great evil. Thus, let’s remember “the evils perpetrated by the Spanish Inquisition and the Catholic leadership’s scandalous protection of clerical child abusers” (Gaillardetz, 2008). The case seems to prove the assumption that the modern religion is toxic to human society. On the other hand, nobody will deny the fact that religion may shape people’s attitude to public morality. Taking into account certain religious commandments, one can notice many ties between correct moral behavior and a wide range of religious principles. In other words, it is religiosity, which seems to be based on certain moral approaches, but not vice versa. Religious principles vs. moral approaches Still, the issue of human morality must not be regarded within religious perspectives, because it exists independently of religion. Morality is related to certain codes of conduct, which are set by societies. Furthermore, it is necessary to understand that different societies accept the term in their own way; it depends upon a person’s mentality what moral principles can be followed or neglected. There is a variety of moral approaches, and some of them take the priority over others. That is to say people have a right to choose how to live, behave, etc. and their freedom of choice does not depend upon the God’s will. There is a strong need to differentiate between morality, religion, etiquette and law. Making distinctions between the issues can give people an opportunity to interpret morality in a proper way. Generally, it should be noted that in most cases people consider religion as a basis for morality, because some of the rules of conduct required or prohibited by faith coincide with the codes of conduct established by societies. On the other hand, “religions may prohibit or require more than is prohibited or required by guides to behavior that are explicitly labeled as moral guides, and may allow some
Introduction Children’s literature has long been a part of a child’s early development and can trace its roots all the way back to the very first time in ancient history when a parent told a child a story based upon his actual activities of the day. A parent would usually self-edit the parts of his story that he or she deemed inappropriate or too complex for a child to understand. Eventually, man discovered the written word and began to write stories that eventually came to be known as literature. However, children’s literature can be considered a new comer to the came as it only came into recent existence alongside its adult literary counterparts. The job of children’s books is actually to present a very adult story, theme, or topic, in a method or manner of story telling that is feared for a particular age group’s interests and comprehensive abilities. The stories that children remember the most therefore, are those which mimic the adult counterparts in a sanitized way. Main body Children by nature have a craving to feel like mini-adults and try to emulate the reading tastes of their role models. Since most people tend to enjoy the escapism offered by the science fiction, fantasy, and romance genre,
Lead poisoning remains hazardous to children because it impairs cognitions and behaviors due to biological and neurological damages. Although levels of lead have fallen considerably over time, traces exist in chemicals, such as paint or in industrial emissions (Foster, 2008). Public health and housing are interested in lead levels, given findings indicating a degree of neurological damage to children when they are exposed even to minimal traces of lead. Litigation on lead based poisoning is a fixture in areas such as Washington, District of Columbia, which have experienced aggressive lead poisoning in the past. The number of suits is rising as more children are diagnosed with lead poisoning and property owners remain unmoved to carry out inspections (Foster, 2008). The effects of lead poisoning introduced housing regulation, which define levels of lead that are habitable for families with children who are the most affected. The following paper discusses the problem of lead poisoning and the liability issues that attorneys and courts face every day. Housing regulations Lawsuits targeting the recovery of damages associated with lead poisoning have increased over the past few years, as the government cracks down of inerrant property owners. Property owners are the main targets of the lawsuits after the federal government published procedures for removing lead from housing premises (Foster, 2008). Federal statutes such as the Housing Regulations 707.3 are disclosures that define the acceptable bounds of premises that may have lead poisoning. Verdict of cases that were passed earlier define practice today, as they have a bearing on how cases are handled. For instance, the case of Tiffany Childs et al. versus Samuel B. Purl, Jr. et al. details the duties imposed on a property owner before they engage in renting of property. Housing regulations define the acceptable standards required from property owners, who wish to put up residential houses for tenants to rent. The Housing Regulation 707.3 also dictates what is unsafe for residential habitations (Foster, 2008). Courts make a strong