ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
The name for the Middle East region was assigned by the British who start using this term before the beginning of World War I. The region was acknowledged as a separate area and included the countries around the Persian-Arabian Gulf. The perceived boundaries are sometimes connected with the African countries, particularly with the northern part (Hobbs & Dolan, 2008). Further exploration reveal new concepts of development. This is of particular concern to the term “Greater Middle East” that has acquired geopolitical importance because it affects approaches that governments use in the sphere of military assistance and foreign policy. There are a number of controversies concerning the existence and validity of the terms of the Middle East. According to Bonnie (2011), “regional geography…is concerned with the way that unique combinations of environment and human factors produce territories with distinctive language and cultural attributes” (p. 57). North Africa is also involved into the Greater Middle East, although the name contradicts its continental affiliation. Therefore, the identified region is based on common cultural backgrounds, including religion, political issues, and social environment. While outlining the boundaries, the territory of the Greater Middle East stretches from the Morocco toward the Southwestern lands of Asia, right to the territories of Kazakhstan (Bonnie, 2011). The entire area shares common geographic characteristics, as well as physical attributes. In addition, the term Middle is common to all regions located within the identified boundaries. The region shares common climatic conditions because most of the climate conditions are typical of desert and dry climate. The geographic are is also the crossroad of trade, access to water, and the religious center. The Greater Middle East is also associated with war, conflicts, and political friction with other powerful economies, including the United States and the European countries. Its geo-economic importance is specifically connected with commercial relations which take their roots in this Middle East. The geographic position also creates favorable environment for produce oil and other mineral resources (Brunn et al., 2003). Therefore, abundance of resources, rich trade relations, and favorable geographical position in terms of availability of water routes have made the region the main interest of the developed economies. During the 20 th century, the Greater Middle Eas
Introduction The history of a country consists of numerous events that play a significant role in the future of the following generations. The leaders’ ideas and decisions, inevitable results of wars, and the attempts to build a strong state combine in twisted turns of history and constitute the present. However, the controversial moments and figures that influenced the United States over the centuries leave a lot of questions to be answered and alternatives to be analyzed. This paper addresses some key figures and events in the history of the United States of America with an attempt to analyze the processes and ideas that formed the future of the country. The Outcomes of the French and Indian War for Great Britain The French and Indian War that lasted between the years 1754-1763 became a moment in the history of at least three countries including Great Britain, France, and the future USA in a decisive way. The long-lasting struggle between the two empires on the territory of North America was finished with the victory of the British Empire. Since Great Britain won the war as a result of great struggle and severe losses, there remains a question of the triumph was worthwhile. The British Empire encountered several difficulties upon the war’s completion that greatly affected its role on the conquered lands. France was defeated due to the unequal resources in comparison with Great Britain (Nester 65). Despite this prevalence, Britain suffered significant losses, and by the end of the war, there was little in stock to guide the obtained territory and organize the life of the settlers. Besides, the local Native Americans did not accept any control of invaders on their land. That is why Great Britain faced an enemy that was a severe threat to the power of the empire’s influence. The Ohio Valley tribes lead by Chief Pontiac attacked the British and caused a lot of warfare and human losses (Fowler 282-283). Therefore, the victory in the French and Indian War
In Plato’s The Republic Socrates presents two main definitions of justice that are committed to presenting human tendency to help other people. The philosopher also claims that people should not do any harm to each other even if they are enemies, which is the core meaning of being just. Although most of Socrates’s views on justice are heavily criticized, Socrates still believed that the states should be ruled by philosophers because their ability to negotiate and resolve conflict would prevent the corruption of the administrative system. This layer of society is also able to predict human inclination to be influenced by power, which leads to creation of such political systems as oligarchy and democracy. In this respect, it should be stressed that the narration introduces Socrates in a vigorous opposition to democracy. Plato’s Apology represents the most reliable evidence about the Socrates as a historical figure. This is of particular concern to the interpretation of Socrates’s political and philosophical visions. The admission of ignorance, therefore, was considered a strong foundation for philosophy as a science, which leads to developing new experience and knowledge. Further elaborated discussions were dedicated to the analysis of Socrates’s criticism of corrupted system of government. Based on philosophers’ ignorance ideology, he still believed that even if a man was ignorant, he could still become a wise ruler. In this respect, the source provides an extensive overview of Socrates’s views on philosophy and political life. The Death of Socrates represented by French artist Jacques-Louis David introd
Introduction The role of the government in the development of the state economy and the evolution of its markets needs to be revisited in order to evaluate the opportunities for positive change. The system of capitalism, which has been in place for centuries, has been working very efficiently so far it despite producing numerous issues, including inequality and the lack of opportunities for minor companies. Socialism, in turn, offers rigid control over the market, which means that the governmental supervision may assist in addressing some of the current concerns and regulating trade-based relationships more successfully. Overall, the control that the government exerts over the market needs to be curbed so that private entrepreneurship could evolve. Although socialism offers greater control and, ultimately, more certainty in managing the market, capitalism provides greater freedom, which is much more important for structuring market relationships properly. Political and Economic Regulations The introduction of legal standards that allow coordinating transactions within markets is one of the foundational reasons why as a concept, governmental intervention in the economy is an important and desirable phenomenon. However, when the government seizes control over every aspect of market relationships, it stifles economic growth, depriving companies of the opportunity to develop independent and flexible business strategies. Infrastructure and the Government Although the introduction of laws and legal standards for managing economic transactions is one of the governmental functions that it mentioned most often when considering the issue of governmental intervention into the market, the changes that the state makes to the infrastructure are also very noticeable and having a significant impact on companies’ performance. In turn, the role that infrastructure considerations play in business and especially in international collaboration is not to be underrated at any cost. 1 In turn, government authorities may need to learn about the specifics of companies’ performance, the characteristics of the industry, and other factors before making changes to the infrastructure. 2 As a result, the alterations such as the increase in the management of logistics, communication between suppliers and their customers, and many more processes will be improved. However, the specified opportunity does not imply that governments tend to us
Background Information Vibrio cholerae is the causative bacterium of cholera, an acute form of the diarrheal disease that continues to plague mankind in developing countries as it is closely associated with low socioeconomic status (Ghose 2011; Akoachere, Masalla & Njom 2013). The microorganism is a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium naturally found in aquatic environments, with available literature demonstrating that infection with this organism causes profuse watery diarrhea, vomiting, and muscle cramps (Daniels & Shafaie 2000). Although Vibrio cholerae O1 is the primary causative bacterium of cholera, the toxigenic Vibrio cholerae O139 or the Bengal strain has also been recognized as another cause of cholera, hence its surveillance is recommended (Daniels & Shafaie 2000; Akoachere et al 2013). Natural Host(s) and/or Environment Although it is widely believed that Vibrio cholerae is a human pathogen, implying that human beings serve as the natural host, it has the capacity to persist and survive in the absence of a human host either as a free-living bacterium in natural aquatic environments (particularly in river mouths and estuaries) or in association with zooplankton (Akoachere et al 2013). Methods for Detection and Isolation of the Organism Although the most commonly used method for the detection of Vibrio cholerae entails undertaking a qualitative enrichment procedure of food or environmental samples, other quantitative procedures such as selective plating, non-selective plating and most probable number (MPN) may also be used though occasionally ( Vibrio cholerae n.d.). Specifically, isolation techniques entail (1) enrichment in alkaline peptone water, (2) selective plating media including the use of thiosulfate citrate bile salts sucrose agar, taurocholate tellurite agar and MacKonkey, and (3) non-selective plating media including the use of gelatin agar and meat extract agar (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention n.d.). Table 1 Important Highlights on Selective Plating Media for Vibrio cholerae. Medium                                                     Colony Morphology
Abstract This paper will focus on the analysis of Macy’s. It will provide the primary information regarding the area of the company’s activities including assessment of its major products and services, competitors, market share, elasticity, and some other aspects. Special attention will be paid to the role of Macy’s in the international market and its specificity. Moreover, the paper is an attempt to formulate the long-term prospects of the company based on past financial performance and determines the potential risks it can face in the next five to ten years. Finally, this report will introduce some recommendations for the further development of the chosen business. Introduction Founded in 1858, Macy’s is one of America’s premier omnichannel retailers operating in 45 states of the USA, Guam, Puerto Rico, and Dubai. Its name is associated with Bloomingdale’s and Bluemercury that are the company’s branches. I believe that it should be studied because it has a long history of financial success. What is also interesting about the company is that it has chosen to go global primarily through launching websites and worldwide deliveries rather than physical presence, except for Dubai, Guam, and Puerto Rico. The objective of the research is to assess the performance of Macy’s and its branches through analyzing their primary products and services and the role they play on the national as well as the international market and to formulate the prospect of the business’ development for the next five to ten years. The paper will provide an investigation of the firm’s activities and present its market share as well as demonstrate the author’s recommendations for Macy’s to develop in the long run, that is why I think it is significant and important. The research will be conducted as an analysis of the information regarding the company’s activities and the industry as the whole so that there is a possibility to assess the role it plays in the market and the influence it has. The organization of the paper is as follows: it is divided into sections and subsections. There are three primary sections of the paper excluding the introduction and conclusions. They present the critical review of the company
Key Players and Business Models Medicare Advantage (MA) provides beneficiaries with health plans covered by Medicare-approved private companies. In Los Angeles, CA, the key players are Humana, UnitedHealthcare, Blue Cross Blue Shield, CVS Health, Centene, Cigna, and Kaiser Permanente (Freed et al., 2021b). Six large health systems account for half of the total market, but the market share of each system does not exceed 11% (Yegian & Connolly, 2021). Major business models in MA in Los Angeles are the partial and complete downside risk, with the full risk being used by UnitedHealthcare and Humana (Galewitz, 2018). In particular, a part of UnitedHealthcare called Optum has full-risk contracts with about a half million people in Los Angeles (Yegian & Connolly, 2021). Insurance companies also employ or are affiliated with physicians and integrated physician organizations; for example, Optum employs more than 7,000 physicians in Los Angeles (Yegian & Connolly, 2021). Physicians take clinical responsibility and risk through fixed per-person per-month payments called capitation. The Impact and Drivers MA’s impact can be assessed in the number of people enrolled in the plans. In Los Angeles, 50.5% of people were enrolled in MA plans in 2019 (Yegian & Connolly, 2021). Furthermore, the share of people enrolled in special needs plans are increasing (Freed et al., 2021a). These outcomes are driven by such factors as federal reimbursement, Medicare population growth, decreased employer-sponsored retiree insurance, ease of entering the MA business, and the growth of SNPs (Blum & Hsieh, 2020). Although patients are mostly satisfied with the coverage, they may sometimes be losers because of such issues as high deductibles, limited provider networks, and surprise medical bills (Pollitz et al., 2019). The winners in the market are healthcare providers included in the network and insurance companies.
The Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and Universal Grammar (UG) were studied by various scholars, yet some controversial issues remain. The cognitive systems of an adult learner (L2) operate based on the three key components the first of which is the external data that people receive from the outside world. The second implies some inherent knowledge – the so-called tool that converts the external data into experience, and the third one is focused on the broader outside context (Dąbrowska 8). The second component can be considered as UG – a theory of language that offers a system of principles and parameters of a certain language (Hadavi and Ghashang 843). In other words, UG is a set of categories that manifests itself without being taught due to its inherent nature. SLA refers to the learning of the second language that is not native for a learner. According to Simoiu, a language is a part of the natural world, and the grammar of a particular language acts as a theory of this language (26). There are several hypotheses related to the availability level of UG in SLA. For example, no access hypothesis implies that adult learners have no access to UG due to their age and the non-linguistic way of SLA (Yin and Kaiser 455). On the contrary, the full access hypothesis states that UG is completely available for L2 learners as they integrate both lexical and functional aspects in their learning (VanPatten and Williams 34). The availability of UG is also discussed in the article by Farahani et al. (298). In particular, it is stated that UG plays an integral role in SLA, especially in partial and full access positions. The way the L2 learners acquire a new language depends not only on the availability of UG but also on their peculiarities. The idea of diversity is developed by Saville-Troike who states that SLA may occur in different contexts (5). For example, adults may learn at work, at home, somewhere abroad, or in any other context. At this point, different factors affect SLA effectiveness, depending on a certain learning environment. Discussing the theory by Chomsky, Hulin and Na suggest that a human language consists of an infinite set of interpretive expressions each of which is associated with such systems as sensory-motor, conceptual, mental, and so on (2). The connection of language with the sensory-motor system helps learners to communicate with others, grabbing their attention, and acquiring necessary information. Furthermore, elaborating on the ideas expressed by Chomsky, Menezes argues that they are rather important in understanding the role of UG in SLA (402). More precisely, the author provides convincing arguments, claiming that such theories as behaviorism and some
Introduction The insight into the early history reveals that people had different conditions and styles of life thousands of years ago. They usually lived in small nomadic communities where labor division was based on gender differentiation. Men were involved in hunting, fishing, and foraging, while women gathered plants and berries. Such societies are usually associated with tribes, but they do not have specific political institutions and representatives. The hunter-gatherer societies of the past are different from those at the present times because of evolution, changing environmental conditions, and social development. However, the main feature common for any hunter-gatherer group implies that its people are highly dependent on the natural conditions of the area. That is why they are supposed to live in harmony with nature by avoiding overexploitation of the lands and overhunting. An in-depth examination of modern hunter-gatherer societies allows understanding their mentality, viewing rights to land and property, and comparing them to modern forms of social organization. Contemporary Hunter-Gatherer Societies Before the agricultural revolution, people mostly relied on natural resources and supported their living through foraging, hunting, fishing, and gathering. The concept of farming evolved because of the commercial needs, according to which the lands are processed and contaminated, causing changes in the biosphere. There are almost no places characterized by the pristine natural conditions left on the planet because more and more areas are utilized for industrial purposes. Expanding cultivation and development also forced people to respond to such changes and become food producers. Meanwhile, the minority has preferred staying within the hunter-gatherer societies and neglecting the revolutionary alterations. That is why there is a variety of such groups in different parts of the world that stick to the thousand-year traditions. Currently, anthropologists explore hunting and gathering groups in many regions on different continents. Some of the best-known hunter-gatherer societies are the Mbuti of the Ituri Forest in central Africa, the San of the Kalahari Desert in southern Africa, and the Copper Inuit of the Arctic in North America (Ember, 2014). The Mbuti group inhabits the rainforest on the territory of Congo. It is mainly patrilocal where men usually do hunting in groups with the help of bows and arrows, while women gather fruits, berries, and nuts. The Mbuti people have little social culture and no political organization. Contrasting to the Mbuti, the San system is matrilocal and comprises small foraging groups. Women are highly respected in this society as San people are more dependent on plants than animals because of the geographic location of the Kalahari Desert. They can also claim ownership, participate in hunting, and take important group decisions. Some other groups in Africa live within rapidly developing countries, whic
Psychosis, in the broadest sense, is a disorder of mental activity that leads to disturbance of the real-world perception and disorganization of behavior. In severe cases, patients’ mental and behavioral reactions may be grossly in conflict with the actual situation. Researchers note that as of 2013, there were 23.6 million prevalent cases of psychotic disorders worldwide. Nosologies of the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century described psychosis as the destruction of personality that results in alterations in certain psychological functions. At present, scientists and psychiatrists have extensive scattered data on the types, causes, and symptoms of psychotic disorders, although there is no single theoretical description and approach to its treatment. At the same time, there is a developed conceptual framework on psychosis that includes, in addition to the notions mentioned, the first episode of psychosis, its phases, and treatment methods. Researchers note that in general, psychosis is treatable, and psychopharmacological interventions can reduce particular symptoms. This paper defines psychosis and examines the first episode psychosis. It also analyzes different types of psychosis, its causes, and symptoms. Rationale for the Subject and its Importance in the Field of Addiction and Healthcare It should be emphasized that psychotic disorders are still a serious challenge to psychiatry. According to research data, one in two people with such a psychotic disorder as schizophrenia does not have appropriate treatment. Furthermore, psychosis remains one of the most prominent causes of disability, and recovery rates have not been improving in the last decades and constitute one case in seven. Approximately $100 billion is spent worldwide annually on the treatment of psychotic disorders, and the risk of mortality from these diseases is still high. These statistics indicate a great danger of psychosis and a lack of data available to physicians in this regard. For this reason, the analysis and consideration of information on this disorder appear to be pertinent and relevant to the field of addiction and healthcare. What is Psychosis? It should be emphasized that the term “psychosis” is a theoretical label referring to actual psychological experiences. Depending on the disorder type, these can be hallucinations such as hearing, seeing and feeling things that are unavailable to others, strong beliefs in insane ideas, confused thinking, difficulties in concentration, unemotionality, and apathy. These experiences are primarily associated with psychosis, although it is impossible to