ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Inaccurate and selective observation: How to prevent, in criminal research, errors related to inaccurate and selective observation? In criminal research, the inquiry process has a foundation, which is perceived to be observation. In most cases, it is difficult to comprehend why things appear in their statuses devoid of the presentation of certain things that must be understood. In fact, before giving an explanation on why something transpired, it is prudent to know exactly what that thing is. Nevertheless, since individuals observe carelessly the course of life events, they inaccurately and selectively perceive things. Thus, to reduce such errors, individuals need to make cautious observations based on deliberate plans. For instance, people need to observe and note events that happen in life deliberately. That is, people need to use both complicated and simple strategies to assist in guarding against errors related to selective and incorrect observations (Maxfield & Babbies, 2014). Conversely, selective observation accrues as a result of overgeneralizing events that happen. For example, when an individual develops a universal understanding that a certain pattern normally exists; such a person is likely to assume that future events are similar and would overlook others that are not similar. The error related to selective observation can be reduced by conducting a similar study several times based on adequately large samples to check whether identical outcomes are attained every moment this is done (Maxfield & Babbies, 2014). Social science theories: How does research contribute to the development of criminological theories? In criminology, the developments of criminological theories have undergone various phases since Guerry (1863) and Quetelet (1842) first applied positivists’ methods. The moral statistical researchers studied the variation in the approved rates of crimes committed over a given period. The research conducted gave the same results and conclusions. That is, the officially recorded statistics showed that increased crime rates accrued from social activities, thus, giving birth to social theory in criminology. The effort put by these researchers in trying to tackle scientifically the emerging criminal problems was not biological but social (Heidt, 2011). The moral statisticians offered a foundation for developing criminological theories, which have since gone through a transition from positivism to classicism. In fact, most of the current criminological theories are informed by the official statistics offered in the study carried out by the first positivism researchers. However, instead of focusing on society, the current criminological theories are based on studies that are rather focusing on the criminal actors. For instance, when the evolutionary theory emerged from the epic studies offered by Darwin (1859, 1871), researchers shifted their focus to the biological characteristics of criminality from the social traits. The individual differences theory developed by Lombroso (1876) centered on the significance of the physical aspects that distingui
Meaning of Catholicism Christianity as a religion is represented through various beliefs within the communities, one being Catholicism. This means that people believe in the universality of the Christian faith and this incorporates all churches including Protestants, Orthodox, and Anglicans. Catholicism is a term used to describe all Christians who believe in the existence of triune God and professes faith in the same God. As described by the author “ to be a catholic, therefore, is to be a kind of religious person, and a kind of Christian belonging to a specific Eucharistic faith-community within the worldwide, or ecumenical, the body of Christ” (Renewing the Sacred Hope 74). This shows the commonality of the Christian faith within Catholicism. According to Aquinas, Catholicism focuses on reality rather than fantasy, the understanding of God, is of prime importance to the Christian faith. Christianity is all along shaped through the radical belief in Jesus Christ as the resurrected son of God. They understand God as the one who identifies with his people in all circumstances to the extent of sending his begotten son Jesus, for the sake of their redemption. According to Catholicism accessing God can only be done through the church. Currently, many churches exist within the world but the belief in all Christians is that all comprise one Body of Christ (Renewing the Sacred Hope 75). Roman Catholics believe in the supremacy of the pope, a belief that is sharply criticized by other wings of Christianity arguing that God is the only Supreme Being recognized within the Christian faith. They are also characterized by practices such as sacramental vision and mediation, which they believe carry the divine presence of God. Catholicism believes so much in the symbolic presentation of God which raises lots of questions. This is because the use of symbols can easily be idolized by believers hence taking the place of God in their lives (Renewing the Sacred Hope 81). Despite all these controversies, Catholicism presents believers with the reality that one Supreme is a Being who should be worshiped, and revered by all, God Almighty. The only way to communicate with this God is through prayer. Prayer as a means to obtaining Justice Prayer is considered vital activity within communities; it involves paying tribute to some supreme being. One of the results produced through prayer is Justice, which is the process through which a sense of consideration and goodness is instilled within people. The faith of the poor and those suffering within the society is what sustains and helps them survive their difficult moments. The depth of faith that the oppressed in the society have is incomparable to the faith that is well reasoned produced through study in class. The poor and the oppressed have their ways of expressing their understanding of religious practices focused on the Supreme Being as one above all. Vari
Inequalities between men and women turn out to be one of the most controversial topics to discuss in any forum. There are many powerful literary characters which help us to understand the essence of these differences, and one of them is Mrs. Hale in Susan Glaspell’s Trifles. In this play, the character of Mrs. Hale helps the reader look at gender differences and consider whether the characteristics by which genders are differentiated are legitimate. Mrs. Hale proves that there are situations that benefit from evaluation from different perspectives, and a female point of view may be not just of equal importance but in fact in some circumstances more important, than the male. At the beginning of the play, the role of Mrs. Hale is portrayed as insignificant. Her presence in the room is dismissed by the men and the stage directions “ The women have come in slowly, and stand close to the door.” (Glaspell 668). The authority and domination of the men is evident. The women characters have no lines until well into the fourth page of the play. Male domination is made evident by an off handed comment made by Mr. Hale. “I was going to see if I can’t get John Wright to go in with me on a party telephone. I thought maybe if I went to the house and talked about it before his wife, though I didn’t know as what this wife wanted made much difference to John—.” (668) Although Mr. Hale charges that “women are used to worrying over trifles.” (670), it quickly becomes evident to the reader that, albeit a gross generality, the natural attention to detail, instinct, intuition, sympathy and empathy possessed by women will be a critical factor is revealing what really happened at the Wright farm. We discover, only through Mrs. Hale’s keen observations and extrapolation of meaning through the use of her instinct and intuition, that there are many pieces of evidence in the house to confirm the murderer, the motives and perhaps even the justification. She finds the broken birdcage and with her intimate knowledge of the vibrant Minnie Foster “She used to wear pretty cloths and be lively, one of the town girls singing in the choir.” (672) and the cold John Wright “I stayed away because it weren’t cheerful –…Wright out to work all day, and no company when he did come in. …he was a hard man…” (675), she pieces together a credible mosaic of circumstances that brings into focus for the reader what likely happened at the Wright farm. In fact, the songbird in the play is one of the most captivating symbols for the feminine. Mrs. Wright could be seen as a songbird in a cage created by her husband from which she could never escape, except through death. In her case the death of her captor. It’s only fitting that Mrs. Hale can intuitively see this connection even though she may not express it in those exact terms. This ability is something that is quite possibly outside the r
Overview Relationship between culture and counseling has attracted attention from many researchers in the recent years. Realization of importance of cultural competence in counseling has led to the concept of multicultural counseling. Though emphasis on cultural competence has improved counseling practices, there is still fundamental cultural bias in various treatment practices used today. Among other factors, cultural biases result from the fact that most of the counseling practices were created in the context of the dominant Euro-American culture. While the counseling practices may work well with Euro-Americans, they may not be effective with various minority cultural and ethnic groups. Potential Sources of Counselor Bias Counseling is considered the best intervention to emotional and psychological challenges affecting individuals. Common counseling practices today include person centered counseling, cognitive behavioral therapy, interpersonal psychotherapy, group therapy, family therapy and marriage counseling. Though the approached differs significantly, most of them borrow from early researchers on psychological therapy, such as Carl Rogers (Rogers, 1942). Considering that most early researchers on psychology therapy came from the dominant Euro-American culture, the resultant counseling practices may exhibit cultural bias toward other ethnic and cultural groups. There are various sources of cultural biases in counseling practices in use today. In one way or the other, the cultural biases are linked to the assumption that counseling would take place in a homogeneous culture. One of the major sources of biases is difference in the definition of normal behavior (Pedersen, 1988). What is considered ‘normal’ behavior differs in one cultural group to the other. Assuming that normal behavior is the same in all cultural groups can lead to faulty diagnosis and treatment intervention. For instance, what is consider normal behavior to a Mexican American may not be applicable to an Anglo-American of a Black American. Most of counseling practices emphasis on individualism. Euro-American culture upholds individualism and therefore counseling approaches such as person centered focus on the individual client rather that the social context of the client (Pedersen, 1988). Counselors tend to focus more on changes on the individual client without considering contribution of other individuals to the healing process. This assumption may lead to negative results in cultural groups such as Hispanic Americans and Asia Americans that value family and social ha
In the Ralston Valley Volunteer Fire Department Case, promotion is crucial since there is an urgent problem to be addressed. Fire outbreaks are emergencies that require good planning in order to respond to them effectively and in good time. This can only be done with the availability of enough personnel to do the work. However, since the program is comprised of volunteers, there might be a problem in getting more people onboard. Most of them might feel that they should be paid for their services while others may be too busy with their activities such that they would not see the sense of being volunteers. The intended promotion should therefore convince these people that there is need to take part in the program and become volunteer firefighters for the common good of the community in times of emergencies. In planning the promotion, there are important objectives that Rick should include in the plan. The first objective that Rick should include in the promotion plan is finding ways of ensuring that the volunteers do not quit the program once they join it. One of the problems Rick identified in the fire fighting department is that there is a lot of work to be done but few people are available to do the work. Most of the people who join the volunteer program do not stay long since they withdraw even before their third anniversary. This means that the program loses its members faster than it gains them. It is said that most of them find the physical demands of the job too challenging once they join, such that they find it difficult to cope. It would therefore be important for the marketing promotion plan to focus on the need for retaining those who join the volunteer program. This can be done through motivating the members in different ways like giving them occasional stipends and other benefits. The second objective that should be included in Rick’s promotion plan is a clear definition of what volunteers would be engaged in and what they would be expected to do once they join the program. This is important because what people think of the volunteer program is not what they find once they join the program. For instance, Rick discovered that of all the hours he spends at RVVFD, only a small percentage of the time is actually spend responding to emergencies and fires. Much time is spent acquiring training on responding to car accidents, terrorist attacks and harzdous chemical spills. It should be an objective of the promotion plan to spell out clearly what volunteers would be engaged in for people to make informed decisions before joining. This would prepare them beforehand and ensure that those who eventually join the program do not quit. The third objective that should be included in the promotion plan is popularizing the program among the people. One of the reasons that might have led to lack of enough personnel is the fact that people do not have information about the services of RVVFD and how to become members. People are always curious when they spot a volunteer firefighte
Introduction Following the currently competitive global business environment, business corporations are faced with new challenges of maintaining their corporate image sustainably. It has been revealed that, successful businesses have their business philosophies strongly founded on favorable social values with their clients. Since many of the contemporary businesses are founded on social settings, it is an obligatory duty for them to adhere to social ethics in order to acquire public reputation which would enhance their prosperity. According to Althouse (73), prospective businesses should pursue productive practices in their businesses which enhance their sustainability in the future. As it has been argued, businesses find it difficulty to maintain high profits as they remain socially responsible in the society. This paper presents the ultimate business practices which enhance more success among businesses in the currently competitive business environment. As noted by Baker (1), the issue of corporate social responsibility has for long been misinterpreted as just a money wastage practice without returns. Today, the perception of corporate responsibility has taken new forms where organizations invest to maintain a long-lasting relationship with the society. According to Althouse (75), successful businesses find it inevitable to conform to the societal ethics and expectations. This would involve their active participation in societal development projects and practicing ethical dealings with their clients. For instance, fair pricing and provision of quality products is one of the most potential ethical practices among businesses capable of enhancing sustained business-customer relationship. By so doing, businesses would find more beneficial in the long-run, despite undergoing hardships at initial stages. According to Baker (2), business people should be focused and determined to achieve their goals by being committed to establish cordial business-customer relationships. Despite the challenges which businesses may face, it is quite important that they persevere and get attached to their commitments. As revealed by Althouse (76), one of the most significant winning practices among businesses is commitment in addressing societal problems. Businesses should remain hooked to their goals and determinations regardless of the hardships they face as they gear their efforts in pursuit of success for their businesses. As it has been noted, maintaining good business-client relationship is quite challenging requires a lot of commitment. On this basis, it is the social responsibility of the businesses in the contemporary society to be committed in serving their clients satisfactorily. As noted by Althouse (74), successful business people have high degree of self discipline in their commitment to satisfy their customers. More precisely, businesses should maintain cordial relationships with their clients by being highly disciplined in playing their roles effectively. In order to ensure good business- customer relationships, both the customers and business people have to understa
The class readings present some critical aspects of the First Nations in Canada. These are various aboriginal groups living in British Columbia and Ontario. In the book First Nations in the Twenty-First Century, the reader observes the continued developments and repercussions of cultural infiltration and colonialism in the country. Throughout the period, the First Nations people encountered intergenerational trauma, thus affecting their abilities and developments. This outstanding fact helps the reader examine the nature of life and experience of the First Nations in Canada. What comes out is that the people had a complex and unpredictable relationship with the other groups in the country, such as the Inuit (Frideres 37). However, such relationships and interactions have constantly evolved over the past century. The other interesting fact about the First Nations is that they have a unique historical past. The people were reserved based on their cultural practices and ideas. As well, it is interesting to realize how the First Nations passed across their ideas and historical events through narrations and oral traditions (Frideres 59). Most of these oral traditions are important because they describe most of the significant events and happenings during the period. The people also have a written history. This written history began in the last years of the 15th century after the arrival of the first Europeans. Such facts and developments are, therefore, necessary because they have made it easier for me to understand much about the historical past and experiences of the aboriginal peoples of Canada. I have also learned much about people’s traditions. For example, the “Seven Sacred Directions” presents numerous aspects and ideas about the First Nations. For instance, the Medicine Wheel has four unique directions. Such directions present many things, such as the importance of balance in our universe and the reason we should understand ourselves much better. Such teachings are necessary because they paint a true picture of the First Nations and their past. As well, the reader gets a lot of knowledge about people’s beliefs, traditional practices, and experiences from the 15th century. Such teachings made it easier for every person to respect life. People also interacted well with each other in society. From such readings, I have clearly understood how the First Nations managed to establish their traditions and practices despite the external influences from the other ethnic groups and colonialists (Frideres 103). I find most of these teachings and information useful. As a student, I have learned much about the experiences of the First Nations peoples in the history of Canada. These individuals encountered various challenges on their reserves but still managed to retain their cultural ideas and traditions (Frideres 74). They even tried to establish their federal responsibilities to survive. They encountered various economic upheavals and bureaucracies in society. Much recently, there have been various legislations and court
Poem: “Harlem” by Hughes Langston The timeless relevance of showcasing social inequality struggles through voices and faces of the Afro-Americans in the United States draws the parallel between the historical and contemporary context. “Harlem” or “Dream Deferred” by Hughes (1994) and the photograph of the reflecting pool by Leffler (1963) deploy verbal and visual techniques to document the eternal topics of rising against the oppressive system. Ultimately, through symbols and foreshadowing, these works of art capture the transcendent moments when the marginalized people dared to reconsider what having a dream entailed. The narrative’s recurrent motif of ‘deferred dreams’ examines the human cost of continued injustice. Hughes (1994) wrote “Harlem” as part of a longer work exploring Harlem residents’ culture, experiences, and racial consciousness. Although the poem uses several analogies to describe what can happen to an aspiration that is constantly put off, the main symbol of the poem is the dream itself. “What happens to a dream deferred?” – the piece asks (Hughes, 1994, p. 426). The work’s title, ‘Harlem,’ places the poem in this historically black and immigrant neighborhood of New York City, the ‘dream’ representing Harlem people’s hopes: of a better life, of opportunity, and equality. The historical context of “Harlem” is intertwined with its literary context and is vital for understanding the poem as it includes the history of Harlem itself. During the Great Migration of the early XXth century, over six million African American
Abnormal psychology focuses on abnormal behavior and psychopathology in individuals. Paraphilia disorder is among such abnormal behaviors. This term entails wide ranges of obsession related to sexual abnormalities, depression and other disorders. Psychologists interested in studying behavior of individuals use observable behaviors to do so. Psychologists try to reinforce positive behavior in individuals with abnormal behavior. Conversely, they try to discourage maladaptive tendencies in people with abnormal behaviors (Sarason and Sarason, 2004). This essay shall focus on fetishism, transvestic fetishism, sadomasochism, voyeurism, exhibitionism, and pedophilia. Fetishism in Portuguese refers to obsessive fascination. Normal individuals may find some parts of the body attractive resulting into sexual arousal. Psychologists consider fetishism a problem when it affects the normal sexual arousal or when individuals cannot have sexual arousal without fetish bodily features or objects (Aamodt, 2012). Characteristics of fetishism disorder result from pathological assignment of sexual fantasies, fixation and certain behaviors towards fetish objects such as underwear, and high-heeled shoe among others, and non-genital body parts e.g. foot, buttocks and hair. These objects do not include vibrators and other objects designed for sexual gratifications. Individuals with fetishism disorder will only get sexual arousal from using such objects. Fetishism individuals normally smell, rub or hold fetish objects in order to derive sexual pleasure, or ask their partners to do so when having sexual intercourse or mastur