ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Abstract Personality theories enhance the understanding of human behaviors and attempt to explain their origins or causes. In reference to Hiriyappa (2012), many scholars developed personality theories in the 1900’s. Moreover, different scholars modified individual theories over time. While some of the theories are still applied today, others are no longer in use. The aim of the current research is to assess behaviorism and psychoanalytic personality theories. The research analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories. In this regard, two major similarities are identified. First, the theories are both deterministic as they seek to establish the causes of certain human behaviors. Secondly, the theories pay regard to the role of experiences in shaping human behavior. The differences lie in the fundamental concepts of the theories and the scientific nature of the investigations undertaken by Sigmund and Skinner in an effort to prove their perspectives. Although the theories have been described as polar opposites, this research reveals some similarities. Introduction According to Hiriyappa (2012), personality theories attempt to understand the nature of human beings. There are many theories that have been developed by different scholars to understand human behavior and the motives behind their actions. This essay focuses on the psychoanalytic theory by Sigmund Feud, and behaviorism by Skinner. Patterson and Joseph (2007) explain that John B. Watson initially developed the concept of behaviorism in the early 1900’s. Later, Skinner modified the theory and focused on the principles of operant behavior. In reference to Skinner (1976), the environment plays a critical role in shaping human behavior, and human beings have specific response tendencies. The theory also recognizes time as an important factor in changing behavioral patterns. On the contrary, psychoanalytic theory notes that personality is determined by various conflicts between the conscious and subconscious mind (Schultz & Schultz, 2013). Sigmund developed the theory in the 19th century, and it recognizes the presence of inner desires and experiences in life, which shape personalities. Generally, both theories seem to identify varying concepts that are respon
Introduction Online technology tools including the social media have extensive influence on people’s opinions and choices. It creates new forms of social pressure, which is extensive in scope compared to face-to-face interactions. Social pressure is the peer group influence that encourages an individual to change his/her behavior, values, and attitudes in conformity with those of the group (Boyd 121). Individuals are also required to conform to certain behaviors or attitudes in order to be accepted by the members of a particular social network. Members of a particular social network have to conform to certain principles that define the social group despite the difference of opinion. Just like any social groups, social media creates a collective mind whereby the members embrace certain rules that govern the group without any objections. Thus, social media establishes a group mind. The social media has profound impacts on group mind and peer pressure particularly on the youth. Social media such as Facebook have both negative and positive impacts on the youth, who form the majority of the users. Social media represents a convergence of minds leading to crowd behavior, which has both negative and positive impacts on the society. While social media may have negative impacts on the society, they also facilitate positive social development. The Social Networks Sites Social network sites (SNSs) allow users to create their own profile to contact or be contacted by others. They entail common internet-based services including blogs, content-sharing sites such as You Tube, Facebook, and MySpace. Boyd defines SNSs as “a category of websites with individuals’ profiles displayed that allow online communication” (123). The social networking sites enable individuals to interact through texts, chatting or exchange of video contents. Through social media, individuals are connected to others through virtual communities created online. Over the past few years, there has been unprecedented adoption of the social network sites such as Facebook around the globe. However, two factors influence the adoption of SNSs- the privacy concerns and the attitudes towards social grooming (Tufekci 544). One of the most prevalent SNSs is Facebook, which is dominated by youth, particularly college students. The SNSs possess specific features that accelerate their mass adoption (Boyd 124). Like most SNSs, Facebook provides a personalized page that allows each user to enter personal information including addresses, interests, educational background, and recent activities. It also allows users to identify friends, invite others to join, and create a virtual online community that allows more interactivity with an invisible audience. Boyd identifies four features of persistence vi
Juvenile Justice The US justice system treats juvenile offenders differently from adults. However, it was not always that way, as juvenile justice had to take a long rode from almshouses in the early 1800s to “tough on crime” policy in the 1990s. In the early history of the US, juvenile offenders were treated as adults and often put to almshouses, one-room buildings where people with different types of problems were kept (Mallett, 2018). However, in 1850-1890, the child-saving movement emerged that utilized the principle of parens partiae , creating reform schools, which were run by parent-like figures (Mallett, 2018). In the early 1900s, juvenile courts were established, finally separating the juvenile justice system form the criminal justice system (Mallett, 2018). Up until the 1980s, the US society fought for the rights of the young people until the “tough on crime” policy emerged (Mallett, 2018). In the 1990s, the country experienced a significant rise in juvenile crime, making the government dismantle the parens partiae approach and trial many juvenile offenders as adults if they committed serious crimes. The US education system often played the central part in supporting the juvenile justice system. Schools often help to prevent juvenile offenses and supervise offenders. Thus, education facilities help juvenile offenders to rehabilitate and reintegrate into society. The education system often plays the role of the advocate of children’s rights and freedoms (Mallett, 2018). Today, courts treat adults and juveniles differently, as the central purpose of the juvenile justice system is rehabilitation rather than punishment. The idea behind the mattes it hat children are weak both mentally and physically, and they cannot make sound decisions. Interventions addressing juvenile delinquency often focus on schools and families to prevent crime (Flores, 2003). This is done because, unlike crime among adults, juvenile delinquency is caused by peer pressure and family problems (Flores, 2003). Thus, the juvenile justice system differs considerably from the criminal justice system. Case Study The case study pictures a cyberbully that was assaulted by the targeted teen for revealing romantic online conversations. As a result of the assault, the parents of the cyberbully decided to press charges against the targeted teen. The case study describes a complicated situation that consists of two types of deviant behavior. First, the targeted teen committed a simple assault towards the cyberbully, as he caused an injury to another person (Mince-Didier, n.d.). If the parents press charges against the targeted teen, the case will be heard in a juvenile court, which may punish the offender with jail time, community service, probation, restitution, anger management classes, and fines (Mince-Didier, n.d.). Since the assault is mild, it is unlikely the targeted teen will be incarcerated. Second, the high school freshman who created a fake social media account is guilty of cyberbullying. The situation with cyberbullying is not as simple as with simple assault, as there is no federal law that acknowledg
China enjoys rapid growth of economy and international presence. This is mainly because of economic reforms they have undertaken in recent past. In fact, the government reduced its role in economy to allow for increased private and market participation. The outcome has been exceptional as it continues to record rapid annual expansion of at least 10%. This has propelled it towards toppling United States as the world’s largest economy. Moreover, it ranks second in the world in terms of imports. China is also considered as the largest exporter globally. However, it is quite difficult to understand how they have arrived at this with a communist government. As much as the government reduced its participation in economy, it still has complete control over business activitie
Introduction The actions of the Attorney General are based on his assumption that the activities on sites like Draft Kings and Fan Duel can be considered as a form f gambling. Considering Fantasy Football as Gambling Fantasy Football utilizes a combination of saber metrics, statistical probability and luck in order to pull off what can be described as a “win” (i.e. your team moving towards the next round of the competition). Gambling is considered as games of chance where a person has only a small percentage of control over the outcome based on their selection. Now, while both may seem similar on the surface, fantasy football is more akin to stock market trading than it is gambling (Dwyer and Yongjae 75). This is due to the fact that there are players with a proven statistical advantage over others as compared to gambling where any number, card, or dice roll technically all have statistically equal chances of appearing. Not only that, fantasy football was originally created as a means of having fun based on a person’s knowledge about the sport, it does not technically wager on the outcome of individual games; rather, it focuses on individual player performances (Dwyer 37). Taking this into consideration, it can be stated that fantasy football and its other iterations on sites like Draft Kings is not a form of gambling. Regulation for Fantasy Football There are several factors that you need to take into consideration when it comes to fantasy football and using websites like draft kings. First, is the fact that learning curb when it comes to entering any of these types of saber metric based online draft games is incredibly steep. A player would need to understand the different aspects of the sport as well as how statistical probability factors into a particular player being better than another in order to have even a modicum of success (McCafferty 1). This creates a barrier to entry that is not as easy to overcome as compared to the games of chance involved in gambling wherein the rules are relatively straightforward and easy to understand. This lower threshold for gambling requires it to have more extensive regulations due to how socially damaging it can be to people. In the case of fantasy football and other games on draft kings, regulations should primarily be isolated to taxation and not allowing minors to play. That should be the full extent of the regulations implemented since it does not have the same ease of entry as gambling and other personally destructive ventures. Outlawing Fantasy Football When looking at the basis behind the banning of poker, the fact was that it was still considered as gambling since real life poker hinges on the outcome of the game. Fantasy Football and its counterparts focus on player performance resulting in an entirely different way of looking at the outcome. One of the reasons why gambling is so heavily r
Bagging method improves the accuracy of the prediction by use of an aggregate predictor constructed from repeated bootstrap samples. According to Breiman, the aggregate predictor therefore is a better predictor than a single set predictor is (123). To obtain the aggregate predictor, , the replicate data sets, { L (B) }, are drawn from a distribution, L. The aggregate uses the average of the single predictors, ψ(x, L) to improve the accuracy of prediction especially for unstable procedures such as neural sets, regression trees and classification trees. However, bagging reduces the efficiency of stable procedures such as k-nearest neighbor method. Bagging improves the accuracy when used with classification trees with moderate data sets such as heart and breast cancer data. In constructing the classification tree, the data set is randomly divided into test set, T and Learning set, L, which makes the classification tree, followed by the selection of the bootstrap sample , L B , using the original set, L , for pruning. This procedure is repeated fifty times to give tree classifiers and the errors of misclassification averaged to improve accuracy. For larger data sets, Statlog project, which groups classifiers by their average rank, increases the accuracy of prediction by decreasing the misclassification errors greatly. Bagging can also be used to improve the prediction accuracy of regression trees where a similar procedure is used to construct regression trees followed by averaging the errors generated by each repetition. Bagging is effective in reducing the prediction errors when the single predictor, ψ(x, L) is highly variable. By use of numerical prediction, the mean square error of the aggregated predictor, Ф A (x), is much lower than the mean square error averaged over the learning set, L. This means that bagging is effective in reducing the prediction errors. However, this scenario is only true for unstable data set. Another way to test the effectiveness of bagging in improving prediction accuracy is by classification. Classification predictors like the Bayes predictor give a near optimal correct-order prediction but aggregation improves its prediction to an optimal level. The learning set can also be used as test set to determine the effectiveness of bagging. The test set is randomly sampled from the same distribution from the original set, L. The optimal point of early stopping in neural sets is determined using the test set. Bagging has some limitations when dealing with stable data as shown by linear regression involving variable selection. The linear regression predictor, is generated through forward entry of variables or through backward variable selection. In this case, small changes in the data causes significant change in the hence not a good subset predictor. Using simulated data, the most accurate predictor is found to be the one that predicts subset data most accurately. Bagging shows no substantial improvement when the subset predictor is near optimal. Linear regression is a stable procedure; however, the stability of this procedure dec
Introduction The given assessment will primarily focus on the attribution theory with an emphasis put on its summative analysis, implications for communication practice, and pros and cons assessment. It is important to note that attribution theory deals with the meaning projection and comprehension of individuals when faced with new situations, behaviors, and information. Since communication is heavily reliant on the involvement and exchange of information between at least two parties, the attribution theory can provide invaluable insight and perspective on the field of communication practice. Summary of Key Concepts of the Attribution Theory It should be noted that human beings are highly social creatures which are constantly involved in the meaning-making process when it comes to interactions. Attribution is a concept that explains humans’ attempts to explain and understand a particular behavior by attributing and projecting internal and external conditions, factors, and influences. Therefore, attribution can be highly useful and insightful, but it is also prone to errors, mistakes, and false assumptions since it heavily relies on a receiving and interpreting observer. Historically, Fritz Heider was the first psychologist to develop the foundation of attribution theory, who established two main aspects of the theory, which are still used today (Shaver 22). These include dispositional attribution and situational attribution, where the former refers to internal explanations and the latter involves external elaborations. For example, an individual might be observed as being angry, for which the dispositional attribution could be that this particular person is simply hot-tempered and has anger management issues. However, the situational or external attribution would focus on external factors, where the angry person might as such due to losing something valuable or experiencing some form of injustice. Therefore, a behavior can be explained through two different perspectives, which are dispositional or internal and situational or external. One of the core concepts of the attribution theory is actor-observer bias. The given phenomenon addresses the human tendency to attribute external factors to one’s own behavior and attribute internal factors to other individuals’ behavior (Shaver 62). In other words, a person tends to be less judgmental of his or her own character compared to other people. For example, if a male person A regularly fails to get the top grades in his classes, he is more likely to attribute the causes as being external, such as incompetence of an educator, poor class format, or the lack of conditions for proper studying. However, if another person B observes person A and sees his grades, the former is more likely to attribute the failure to get top grades to person A’s internal factors, such as laziness, low intelligence, and lack of diligence. Therefore, the attribution is highly biased, depending on whether the actor or observer is performing the attribution of the behavior. More
The crime of interest is homicide perpetrated against whites by non-whites. Homicide is a crime of interest mainly because of its brutality and also because it is a relatively dependable measure of all violent crimes. It is also easy to measure homicide with accuracy and preciseness compared to other crimes. In the United States, the rate of homicides perpetrated against whites is low compared to homicides perpetrated against blacks. Data from the United States Bureau of Justice Statistics indicate that homicide victimization of whites has been constant between 1976 and 2005. Specifically, the number of homicide victims among the whites has been below 10 per 100,000 populations between 1976 and 2005. Contrary to expectations, the majority of homicide incidents are intra-racial. 86 percent of all homicide victims were murdered by fellow whites. The circumstances under which homicides take place also differ from race to race. Among the whites, the greatest number of homicides (84.6%) takes place at the workplace followed by sex-related homicides (66.9%), gang-related homicides (57.5%), felony murders (54.7%), arguments (48.6%), and lastly drug-related homicides (37.4%). The majority of homicide victimization of the whites is done through poison (80.6%) followed by arson (58.9%) and lastly guns (47.2%) (Gabbidon 83). The concept of whiteness is useful in explaining anti-white homicides. Although only 14 percent of homicide victimization of whites is committed by non-whites, several theories such as the interracial contact hypothesis and macro-structural opportunity theory have been introduced to explain inter-racial crimes. These theories assert that inter-racial hate crimes take place in communities in which the whites and non-whites comprise an almost equal portion of the population. This in turn increases the opportunity for inter-racial contact and inter-racial conflicts (Lyons 383). But why do such conflicts occur? Why can’t the non-whites and whites cohabit peacefully? The concept of whiteness helps answer these questions. First and foremost, whiteness is viewed in a positive light such as prestige and power whereas non-whiteness is viewed in a negative light, for instance, laziness and inferiority. This dichotomy is embedded in the social fabric of American society and is witnessed in both public and private areas such as the workplace and educational institutions. White people have bett
Globalization tends to put a visible pressure on global health, despite it also brings a number of benefits. Inequity in global maternal mortality remains a critical issue that is being affected by its processes. This paper aims to investigate the problem through the lens of globalization. Moreover, in the framework of inequity in maternal deaths, a number of changes to the current international governance of healthcare will be suggested. Impact of Globalization The emergence of cooperation between different countries in the field of healthcare took place due to the need to coordinate measures for sanitary protection because of occurring epidemics and pandemics worldwide. Globalization has led to the transition of existing threats to collective and individual health to a new qualitative level and to the emergence of new threats. It resulted in the need for joint action by the efforts of the entire world community. These threats are associated both with changes in the very nature of diseases and with the occurrence of new diseases and in the ways of their spread. Changes in the kind of these diseases are caused by transformations in the economic, political, and environmental spheres at the local, regional, and global levels. Thus, globalization creates problems of a specific nature, the solution of which is possible exclusively on the international scale. The main priority of current politics is that all people should have a health level that provides them with an active working and social life. This 21st-century health-for-all policy should be implemented through appropriate regional and national strategies. Hence, issues related to healthcare become the cornerstone for the entire world community. They go beyond the borders of one state and need to be regulated within three dimensions