ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Introduction Collins asserted that nonrationality is society’s foundation owing to the free-rider problem, the contractual nature of society, and limitations of rationality. Contrary to popular assumptions, human beings are not distinctly rational. Therefore, they do not use rational principles to form a society. Why Collins believes in nonrationality Collins explains that rationality is not a definitive aspect of human relations because it is not absolute. If rationality lived up to its expectations, then adherents would always agree with each other (Collins 4). Additionally, actors who follow rigorous processes often end up with unwanted consequences (Collins 5). One such instance is bureaucracy, which is a seemingly rational structure that creates irrational outcomes. Another scenario is capitalism, which advocates for profit maximization; it creates irrational results by reducing the value of human life thus destroying the very system that created it. Rationality is a situational quality that cannot work in many instances (Godwyn & Gittell 55). Society is held together by social contracts. The Durkheimian view of religion illustrates that religion is a social ritual rather than an absolute belief. People identify with groups owing to religious beliefs. Values espoused in these social institutions lead to social cohesion as they define morality and the consequences of immorality. Members of religion, therefore, choose to meet their moral obligations and perform rituals to maintain harmony within their groups. Religion is strongly based on emotional processes that conjure up feelings of trust and belonging. In essence, these are the building blocks of society. Social contracts are a conventional explanation of the basis of cooperation in society. However, for social contracts to work, then the actors need to believe that all parties will meet their end of the bargain (Collins 10). Additionally, they need to believe in the content of the contract. If people were purely rational, then they would be inclined to cheat. It is more rational to cheat than to meet one’s end of the bargain. If one’s contractual partner were to meet his obligations, then the cheater would not only get the pre-stated advantages but would not need to pay any price. Conversely, if all parties cheated, then they would gain or lose nothing since no input has been made. Alternatively, if parties stay loyal to the contract, then they would have to sacrifice something in turn. It makes more sense to cheat, but this would create social disharmony. Religious entities or emotional processes cause people to trust each other and honor their social contracts (Godwyn & Gittell 38). Pre-Contractual solidarity exists among members of society. The social organization thus depends on elements of rationality and emotional processes; one does not function without the other. The free rider problem is yet another reason why nonrational foundations affect society. Rationalism, as a school of thought, supports free riders
Executive Summary Health care systems differ from one country to another due to existence of differences between the countries’ traditions, beliefs, political influence and socio-economic conditions. The three basic goals of the Australian health care system include: equity, efficiency and quality. Equity entails fair payment, access and availability of effective services to all. On the other hand, efficiency involves receiving value for money while quality relates to attainment of high standard and good health outcomes. The efficiency and sustainability of Saudi health care system depends on a number of elements. Some of these include effective policy making and implementing, health status of the population, efficient financing and effective public-private mix. Australian health care system is different from that of Saudi Arabia in a number of ways. For example, in Saudi Arabia, there is no sufficient data to aid in the decision-making and policy formulation process. In addition, these processes are not coordinated among the various public agencies which finance and deliver health care. On the other hand, in Australian health care system there is absolute transparency in relation to health care information. Considering the current socio-economic trends in Saudi Arabia, the government which accounts for approximately 80% of the total spending in health care has a challenge in sustaining the system. However, there are other mechanisms through which this can be attained. These include formulating and implementing effective budget and tax policy. List of acronyms   * AU Australia   * GDP Gross Domestic Product   * MOH Ministry Of Health (in Saudi Arabia)   * NHHRC National Health and Hospitals Reform Commission   * KSA Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia   * WHO World Health Organisation Introduction There is a general perception that the health care system model is complicated. This arises from the fact that there is a wide range of drivers involved (Goodman, 1999, p. 1; Anderson, Frogner & Reinhardt,
Psycho-educational groups, also known as educational groups, are a large force in modern group practice. These kinds of groups are organized by a central theme, generally temporary in nature, regularly preventive and instructional, and concentrate on teaching and learning. The article psycho-educational groups by Roger Roffman noted that with an extensive range of possible appropriate applications and a large number of prospective participants, psycho-educational groups have a number of standardized characteristics: issue specificity, goal-directedness, structured set of rules that stresses learning, a high level of leader direction, significance of skill acquisition, and a time-limited duration. On the contrary to groups of a therapeutic nature that depend on the reciprocal actions of the group to direct members toward a “corrective emotional experience” (Roffman, 2004), psycho-educational groups are aim to develop participant knowledge and behavior change through an emphasis on educational strategies like those used in a classroom. According to the author, “psycho-educational groups attempt to increase self-understanding, encourage personal and interpersonal growth, empower individuals through preparation for informed decision making, aid group cohesion and focus as a result of participants’ shared concern, keep away from discord with mismatched cultural values, enhance cost efficiency and prevent future problems through the transmission of mental health education in group settings” (p. 161). Through involvement in psycho-educational groups, members can gain knowledge about particular issues, share common concerns, receive and offer required support within the group, learn basic analytical skills, and are inspired to develop healthy support systems outside of the group setting. Since there is both an instructional and self-development component, these groups are both educational and therapeutic in nature. The purpose of psycho-educational groups may differ, from assisting participants learn skills to ease depression or to deal with a possible threat such as AIDS or a terminal illness; to cope with a developmental life event, such as entering adolescence or growing older; or to manage an immediate life crisis, such as the death of a loved one or a pending divorce. Generally, psycho-educational groups involve training individuals in psychological skills or knowledge that is either preventive or remedial in nature. Specifically, these types of groups have been helpful in providing general coping skills and guidance during transitional times; reducing anxiety, anger, aggression, and other emotional stressors; improving interpersonal skills; and strengthening study skills. On the whole, the ultimate goal is to enhance self-awareness of group members and teach them a range of healthy coping skills that they can use when considered necessary. According to the author, many psycho-educational groups are based on a learning theory model and incorporate behavioral and cognitive techniques, such as social skills training and assertiveness training, stress management, cognitive the
The Case This research involved participant observation in a restaurant; the Marino restaurant. This local restaurant is a perfect place for observing interpersonal interactions in public places. The researcher visited the restaurant on three consecutive Saturday evenings and noted various significant demographics associated with this setting. First, the restaurant plays slow classical music, which usually is ideal for a family dinner. The middle class and families frequent it, and it serves diverse local and foreign cuisines. Also, the type of lighting tends to be brighter, especially in the evenings, indicating that the place is more family oriented. The researcher observed that to get the waitress’s attention, one has to maintain prolonged eye contact or call out for the waiter. The patrons’ voice levels are usually low indicating that the conversations are intimate. The seating pattern is typically a four-person per table arrangement. The employees’ demeanor is friendly, as each table is served by one waitress who ensures that customer’s needs are met. The menu served in this restaurant reflects the American culture; it includes local food items like steaks, soups, and hamburgers. Other norms observed by the researcher include the use of silverware and cutlery (knife and forks) by patrons instead of fingers and the preference of soda to beer. Also, each patron puts a napkin on his or her lap before taking a meal, and the maximum allowable tip is set at 15 percent. In this restaurant, the staff attire matches the décor of the restaurant while the patrons’ attires change depending on the weather. Also, there is a bit of lousy phone etiquette among patrons, with many of them making calls from their tables. Review of Literature Most studies on eating out in a restaurant setting focus more on patron experience. Seong-Seop and Chong-Ki suggest several factors that influence customer preference of commercially prepared meals to home cooked meals. He argues that the restaurant, besides providing food, is a place of theatrical performance, and its atmosphere and quality of service have an appealing sensory experience (Iso-Ahola 51). Moreover, in American culture, eating out is often preferred by many, especially on weekends. Griffin states that, in modern restaurants, the atmosphere, customer service and décor aim to enhance “customer responsibility and shape sociality” (5). Thus, restaurants are designed in such a way that they stimulate conversation and engagement between two people. Concerning social behavior in restaurants, Dirks and Rice argue that human performance is shaped by no
Introduction As a result of the ever-increasing demand for natural gas, over the recent past numerous organizations have ventured into exploiting shale deposits for natural gas using the fracking method. Basically, this method entails sinking of boreholes and creating fractures in the bedrock layer using a fluid (a solution of water that is mixed with numerous chemicals) that has been subjected to high pressures. The created cracks in the bedrock will allow natural gas and oil to escape from their banks into wells to facilitate easy harvesting. Since its discovery, natural gas extracted using this method has helped to bridge the gap that was created by the low supply and high demand of natural gas. Currently, natural gas that is mined using this method accounts for more than 35% of America’s domestic gas demand. Although this method of mining gas has helped to cover and surpass the gas deficit that existed before 2006, there are numerous controversies that surround its mining, because of its overall effects on the environment, people’s health and the quality of life of those people who live near wells or those who are displaced and resettled somewhere in order to pave way for drilling. Some of the negative effects that are associated with this process include releasing of harmful gases that contribute to global warming when they burn, pollution of drinking water, and releasing of gases that are harmful to people’s health(Graves 99-126) . Therefore, considering the deadly nature of these effects, the need to protect the environment for both present and future generations, and the need to protect human life, this method of mining gas is not good at all. Why Fracking is not good As research studies show, roughly 29 of the chemicals that are mixed with water and used in this process are carcinogens that are very harmful to human beings and animals. What makes it worse is that, although majority of these are grouped in the class of deadly chemicals by the U.S’s Drinking Water Act, fracking companies are still allowed to use them. Out of the 29, three are known deadly air polluters. Some of the most dangerous chemicals that are used in this method include Lead, Ethylene Oxide, Benzene, Nitrilotriacetic acid, Formaldehyde, diesel and Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. Although there are numerous laws that have been put in place to govern the kind of chemicals that are used in this process, majority of these rules and regulations are rarely followed. In addition to chemicals that are used during the process, the high volume of water that is used during this process is norm
Introduction Fire protection plan can be defined as a process in which people within a society use all means and methods available to prevent fire outbreak, and avoid damage and challenges that the fire can cause. There are many causes of fire breakouts including electricity, gases, and cigarette sources, among others. For the firefighting process to be effective, firefighting equipments should be given to the community members to use them in case of a fire outbreak. These equipments include various types of fire extinguishers. They contain carbon dioxide, water, dry powder, foam, hose reels and wet hydrant risers among other substances (Chadderton 351). Main body Before any construction is done by civil engineers, a fire action review should be taken (Diamantes 2). This is done by the firefighting department so that future destruction that might be caused by fire is prevented. Under site review, roads that lead to the construction area should be well constructed to allow for passage of vehicles, which might be used while fighting fire in case of an outbreak. By the time of review, both the contractor and the premises owner should be aware of the benefits of the review plan. The planning process is a way in which systematic order of precautions concerning fire is done to achieve desired goals and objectives. While carrying out fire prevention planning process, various steps should be taken into consideration. An individual should have it in mind the purpose of master plan to achieve the planning process. This allows the person to be goal oriented and makes the plan should a long lasting initiative that is within a reasonable cost. For instance, the expenses used in installing the firefighting equipments need to be well elaborated. The plan should fit into the changing needs of the people, who will be using the premises. The scope of the master plan should be identified, meaning how long the firefighting equipments will take before they expire. A question about the geographical area of the plan coverage should be put into consideration. For instance, a market place with a wide diameter should contain enough firefighting equipments. This can only be achieved when there is good screening of the scope of master plan. To prevent fire outbreaks in a wider area, it is important to outline key issues in the master plan together with community members. This means that there should be proper dialogue between the community members, the planner and other stakeholders. Such dialogue brings together an understanding of issues related to fire prevention. While manufacturing firefighting equipments, simple instructions and methods of use should be indicated clearly and in a well understood language, to allow a layman to use them without any difficulties. This means that the use of these equipments should not be complicated and thus any person should be able to use them easily in case of fire d
Introduction In the article “Learning to organise risk management in organisations,” the authors, Schiller and Prpich (2014), analyze the concept of enterprise risk management (ERM). They argue that, although ERM was developed as a more comprehensive alternative to other risk management systems, it did not become widely utilized by organizations. Schiller and Prpich (2014) suggest that this happened because ERM had considerable conceptual weaknesses. Their article explores the major features of ERM and argues that unknown interdependencies of risks, insufficient theoretical base, and a lack of recognizing diverse institutional contexts hinder the effective implementation of ERM. Key Arguments In the introduction, Schiller and Prpich (2014) describe ERM development and explain its key difference from other risk management systems. The authors report that ERM was created for finance and insurance fields, but later it was adopted by business and government organizations. Schiller and Prpich (2014) state that the main feature of ERM is that it considers all risks, even secondary ones, and suggests that they can be compared and used to inform the organization’s future strategy. However, despite the ERM adoption by organizations in various sectors, it received skeptical feedback from risk management experts because it does not account for differences in organizational contexts. In the second section of the article, the authors review the recent literature to discuss challenges faced by risk management in organizations. Schiller and Prpich (2014) point out that there are scarce academic studies investigating organization-wide risk management approaches. This may be because various organizations face specific risk management challenges that cannot be transferred to other contexts. ERM, in its turn, tries to encompass all possible risks faced by organizations. As a result, it can be difficult to commensurate risks in the organization’s portfolio, track interdependencies between risks, and communicate risks equally (Schiller & Prpich, 2014). The authors conclude that for these reasons, and because of ERM’s insensitivity to context, ERM can often be misapplied and lead to false beliefs that risks are effectively managed within the organization. The third section explains the purpose of risk management frameworks. Schiller and Prpich (2014) describe the COSO framework released in 1992 and 2004, which defines risk management as “the purpose of intern
Introduction The purpose of this essay is to determine whether juveniles should be tried as adults under the criminal court system. The age of a juvenile according to most laws is 18 years and below. However, different states have different ages that define who a juvenile in; for instance, Wyoming have acknowledged 19 years to be the age of a juvenile, while states such as New York, Connecticut and North Carolina, one is recognized as a juvenile when he/she is under the age of 16. Knowing the age of a person suspected to be a juvenile is vital, because this will assist the authorities to decide which court the individual should be charged in. (Juvenile Law Par. 1). Juvenile Court Systems and Laws When it comes to determining whether a juvenile offender will be tried as an adult, juvenile court judges usually look at the seriousness of the alleged offense and the need to protect the community from the juvenile offender, the nature of the offense; whether it was violent, premeditated or aggressive, the amount of damage that resulted from the offense, whether the offense was committed against a person or property, the level of maturity of the juvenile offender, whether they have a criminal record or records of achievements and the likelihood of whether the offender can be rehabilitated by the juvenile criminal system (Cassel and Bernstein 42). Juvenile laws have become very punitive in the recent past to deal with the increasing cases of juvenile delinquency around the world. The general argument that underlies these changes is that juvenile offenders should be held accountable for their criminal behavior by receiving punishments that are equivalent to their crime. The juvenile laws have also suggested that the current juvenile justice systems do not offer any important psychological differences between juveniles and adults when considering their criminal responsibility. Despite their being declines in violent crimes committed by juveniles in America, all states have revised and adopted juvenile law policies that will be used to increase the prosecution of juveniles as adults (Free 159). An example of a state that has adopted new juvenile policies is California which passed the Gang Violence and Youth Crime Prevention Act in March 2000. This act would see juveniles who are 14 years and over being tried as adults for any type of violent crime. This act gave state prosecutors the alternative of transferring juvenile cases that were violent or had gang involvement to the adult court without any judicial reviews (Free 159). States that support the prosecution of juvenile offenders below the age of 14 in adult courts include Arizona who age limit is ten, Arkansas, Colorado, Maryland whose juvenile offender age is seven, Minnesota, Mississippi, Texas, South Dakota and Vermont (Hile 30). Arguments For and Against Trying Juveniles in Adult Court Systems Arguments that have arisen for trying juvenile offenders as adults are that violence committed by juveniles is viewed to be a serious problem and it should be dealt with in an effective
It has been acknowledged that there can be several types of access to healthcare. A model health policy would promote realized, effective and efficient access. Realized access is concerned with the use of service. Effective access is associated with health outcomes (patient satisfaction, quality of life, and health status), and efficient access is related to the cost-effectiveness of health services (Kominski, 2013). It is possible to note that there are various problems in all three areas in the US healthcare system. At that, the US health policy focuses on realized access trying to ensure efficient access as well. The major problem the American healthcare system faces is related to effective access. The American healthcare system is characterized by the use of the most advanced technologies and methods. However, it still fails to ensure patient satisfaction or even proper health outcomes. The high mortality rates associated with such diseases as cardiovascular disorders or diabetes (as well as many other illnesses) show that health outcomes are inappropriate. The high rate of medical errors, quite long waiting times, costly services harm patient satisfaction. Tsai, Orav, and Jha (2015) state that patient satisfaction is often regarded as an unreliable measurement. Some believe that people tend to focus on concierge services rather than the effectiveness of particular treatment or procedures. However, the researchers stress that patient satisfaction is associated with the quality (and efficiency) of the healthcare services provided, which means that effective access should become a priority. Moreover, the primary biblical principles are incorporated into any healthcare system to help people. Such values as empathy, kindness, care, and support are proclaimed central to health care, but there are many gaps in this area. Nursing professionals could become the change agents who address this gap. These healthcare professionals effectively interact with patients and understand their needs. Nurses can and should try to improve patient satisfaction and encourage other healthcare professionals to pay more attention to effective access. Unfortunately, the upcoming changes to ACA are unlikely to change the focus of the system. The new health policy will concentrate on realized and efficient access. Analysts believe that the new ACA will be associated with a lesser burden on business and high-income individuals and certain cuts (Wiebe, 2017). President Trump and his team focus on efficient and realized access. Such is