ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Research and statistics are essential components of the study of criminal justice and criminology. In Chapter Four, Gau (2018) defines the concept of the measures of central tendency and data distribution shapes. The author’s primary argument refers to the importance of averages and data distribution types for criminology researchers and practitioners (Gau, 2018). Indeed, the predictive capability of the measures of central tendency allows for drawing general conclusions and providing understanding about groups of objects or people based on data. Another point made in the chapter refers to the role of data distribution shapes. The distribution’s nature is critical to evaluate for identifying other descriptive statistics. Furthermore, Gau (2018) explores such terms as the mode, the median, and the mean. In particular, the author highlights the mode’s usefulness for categorical data in contrast to continuous data. According to Gau (2018), the median is more informative, especially for continuous variables, compared to ordinal variables. In turn, another argument emphasizes that the mean can only be calculated with interval or ratio data and is not applicable to categorical variables (Gau, 2018). Understanding the appropriateness of each measure of central tendency is essential since it allows the researcher to apply the relevant tool to analyze the data set. The author identifies the strengths and weaknesses of each measure, which is vital for choosing the right approach for certain types of data. To conclude, the information provided in the chapter is essential for understanding the measures of central tendency. The evaluation of the middle points in sets of data provides a general basis for assumptions and conclusions, crucial in criminal justice and criminology studies. For instance, statistical procedures can be utilized in observational studies and experiments. In these research types, statistical analysis is performed to analyze data, support a hypothesis, and draw conclusions. Reference Gau, J. M. (2018). Statistics for criminology and criminal justice (3 rd ed.). SAGE Publications.
The English Civil War broke out in 1642 and lasted for nine years (Coates 1-2). The parliament and monarchial administration disagreed on the ideals and principles upheld by each side and their unwillingness to cede ground on any issue (Henry and Delf 2). In the end, a war became the only option to settle their issues (Henry and Delf 2-6). The war occurred in three stages or periods. The first two stages occurred in 1642–1646 and in 1648–1649 (Backman 1-10) involving the Long Legislature and King Charles the first. The final stage occurred in 1649–1651 and involved the Rump Legislature and the Royal leadership under King Charles the second (Backman 3). Ultimately, the Parliament emerged victorious and made changes both to justice and governance system. When it comes to the law, the English Civil War acted as a platform for establishing governance standards for future English leaders. That is, they had to derive consent or approval from Parliament whenever they wanted to pursue in issue of national interest (Henry and Delf 4). This paper discusses the English civil war in terms of causative factors, costs/disadvantages, and advantages/benefits. Factors that led to civil war Whig school of thought According to Whig school of thought, the Civil War resulted from a protracted struggle between the Monarchial rule and parliamentary rule (White 3-5). In this case, the parliament wanted the conventional rights of people preserved, whilst the royal leadership wanted to expand its right in a way that would allow it to dictate issues (Backman 4-6). Marxist school of thought According to Marxist school of thought, the English Civil War was purely a class war (Henry and Delf 5-7). That is, those who benefited a lot from the dictatorship of Charles the first such as
Smith is purchasing a business named Underground Shoes and Accessories near Lutz, Florida. During the last few years, the business has had several issues with the law because of claims of false advertising and wrongful termination of employees. As a result, Smith is concerned about the ethical culture of the firm. This article seeks to review the concepts of ethics critically, evaluate potential ethical problems in Smith’s business, and help him propose the solutions to his problems. Based on the above description, it is apparent that Smith will be faced with overwhelming task when he takes control of the firm. For Smith’s firm to be successful, it should have human, financial, and physical resources to tackle the situation (Agarwal, 2010). Similarly, Smith must be sensitive to internal and external challenges. Through this, he will be required to reengineer and restructure his firm. By doing so, he may be required to reduce or increase the size of his workforce and enhance exceptional leadership skills in the firm’s top management. To prevent conflicts between his firm and the law, Smith must formulate and implement an appropriate ethical culture with immediate effect. Once he acquires the firm, he should formulate a new code of ethics in the company. The new code of ethics should articulate the accepted standards. To achieve this, he will be required to strengthen ethical culture and promote an ethical workforce within the executive branch. Similarly, the new code of ethics should be used to institutionalize ethics within the firm. The code of ethics should illustrate a broad value system of an organization, describe the organization’s principles, and detail guidelines for decision making that are in accordance with these principles (Paliwal, 2006). Thereafter, Smith should ensure that the code of ethics is implemented and adhered to at all time. Likewise, he should appoint a task force to investigate on the allegation of wrongful termination of employees. Through the task force report, managers responsible for the act should be held accountable. Similarly, the task force should come up with recommendations on how to foster the relationship between the employees and the executives. Through this, the production of the employees will be increased. Equally, Smith should ensure that his firm foster consumer confidence by producing quality products. Similarly, products’ advertisements should be genuine. To improve t
Summary of issues The article “In Hospice Care, Longer Lives mean Money Lost” (New York Times, November 27, 2007) highlights the critical issue of a graying population and hospices without resources to care for those living longer (e.g., those with terminal cancer). As those using hospice services live longer, hospices find themselves unable to meet reimbursement criteria to Medicare, leaving them in debt to the tune of millions of dollars, and even bankruptcy. As the fees are assessed retrospectively the money tends to have been spent on salaries, medicine, and supplies. Interestingly though, it appears that the Southern and Western states are more likely to experience the extended living of patients deemed terminal by medical staff. It has been contended by the Medicare Payment Advisory Commission that there may be an issue with the management of these hospices, given that less than one-tenth of organizations nationally have been asked to reimburse Medicare. The National Alliance for Hospice Access however counters this claim by pointing to the dramatic rise in numbers of patients accessing hospice care in the last five years, mostly with patients who have unpredictable health trajectories, such as Alzheimer’s disease. Longer stays are the norm for this population of hospice users whose average time spent receiving care is 96 days as compared to the average of 44 days for terminal lung cancer patients. It has been suggested by research from Duke University that Medicare can save thousands of dollars a year per beneficiary by raising the cap on reimbursements. However, congress appears hesitant to consider such a move, given that Medicare spending in this area of health and social care has tripled from 2005 to 2008 to the tune of over 8 billion dollars, with over 40 percent of Medicare recipients also accessing hospice care. Description of parties involved The stakeholders at the focus of this article are of the hospice. As a profile example, Hometown Hospice in Wilcox County, Alabama is a locally owned and for-profit organization that has been operating for 5 years and is a critical service as Wilcox is an extremely poor county. Hometown provides hospice services to around 60 older persons, visiting most in their homes. Recently, from its first two years of operation Hometown had to repay Medicare 27% of its operating revenue. This was achieved with a bank loan in the first year, followed by a 5-year payment plan with Medicare at 12.5% interest when the bank refused them credit for the second year. It is unlikely that Hometown will be able to withstand another reimbursement payout to Medicare which totals into the hundreds of thousands of dollars. Potential resolutions The president of the hospice access alliance, Louise Armstrong, has stated that the cap on Medicare reimbursements needs to be lifted to ensure that access and quality to care is not diminished for those elderly most in need. She emphasizes that this is an evidence-based solution as literature points to economic savings for Medicare, up to an average of $2, 300 for eac
Introduction Television’s ability to present a video, audio and motion is proving to be one of the most common and modern powerful means of delivering information to larger audience or mass audience today (Ofcom, 2008). Davis (2007) describes it as a “Trojan Horse that surprises many audiences”. On the other hand, some people would consider it a time waster means of getting information with lots of fun, but little concentration for commercials (Davis, 2007, p.883). However, the two perceptions do contradict the emerging trends in TV commercial marketing, especially with the musical backgrounds or the use of music programs. Television can be used to increase market penetration, especially if the program associated with such a product becomes popular. According to Ofcom (2008), music on television can be used to attract direction, gather attention, and reach big masses for marketing purposes among other commercial intentions. No wonder the industry revenue in the UK has been increasing on yearly basis, with 2008 seeing growth of 1.3% to hit £11.2bn (Ofcom, 2008). Despite such growth, the total net revenue from advertising was down by 3%, ostensibly as a result of global recession (Ofcom, 2008). Again, the music genres are seen as part of the promotional programs, giving room for many companies to choose on what they would prefer in line with the type of audience. The changing nature of the music industry has presented a new challenge to the new program producers: breaking into the limelight and drawing a good number of audiences to attract many companies yearning for such arenas. The popular pop and rock cultur
Introduction Literature has been used for decades to educate, warn and entertain people on various issues. Various creative works have been presented to the audience in various forms including songs, poems, novels, plays and sonnets. This essay discusses how her latest hit ‘Brand New Me’ represents issues in modern societies. Background This song is about a girl that has endured painful experiences in the world and for a very long time has tried to break loose from the jaws of oppression. She has struggled to seek freedom of speech and movement that was denied from her by male chauvinism. It addresses the painful struggles and commitments the singer went through before achieving her dreams (Keys 2012). This includes limited freedom of speech that made her voiceless and this denied her the right to complain whenever bad things happened to her. However, she has finally managed to fight for her freedom and has the power to speak her heart out and let the world know what she wants and how she feels about the happenings around her (Keys 2012). Appropriateness of the Song to Modern Societies This song is an expression of how society is changing and becoming emancipated from male chauvinism. Traditional practices had hindered women from exploring their talents and developing their societies since they were considered to be weak. However, Alicia Keys is explaining to men that even though they have continued to dominate women and undermine their efforts to bring justice and equality the battle is already won (Keys 2012). Women will no longer beg men to grant them their rights; instead, everybody is equal and women have realized their abilities and utilized them to advance their lives. Secondly, the song explains that freedom does not come in a silver plate and people must work hard to achieve it. This means that everything good must be fought for before people can sit and enjoy the fruits of their sweats. Therefore, women must not give up when things seem to be very painful and difficult to bear (Keys 2012). The singer explains that she went through terrible experiences before getting her freedom; therefore, people must always be prepared to face difficulties in their pursuit of happy lives. Thirdly, she explains that there is always hope for a better future even though there may be signs of succeeding. Her experiences never showed her that the war was almost over; instead, every time she fought hard it seemed like she was far from achieving her dreams (Keys 2012). This means that women should always look on the better side of events and avoid focusing on short-term gains. Lastly, she warns people gains to develop negative or poor personalities that
Introduction The aspect of in-camera court proceedings is a major factor in court scenarios in the 21 st century and has assumed significance since the public has a fair right to be kept informed about the proceedings of the trial and its final judgment. While it is necessary for court proceedings to be transparent and unbiased, it is also necessary that the right of privacy, confidentiality, and a fair trial of the defendant be protected through the due process of law. In most cases, it could be seen that the rights of the defendants could be lowered, if not compromised, in the event of trial proceedings going public, since community opinion could play a major role in the shaping of the future proceedings of the Court. Tumey v. Ohio The writer is of the opinion that more than the question of whether trials need to be televised or not, a more significant aspect would be in terms of the fact whether public opinion generated by widespread television coverage could prejudice the legal interests of the alleged offender and more importantly, influence the minds of the jury against the alleged defendant and verdict a biased and unfair judgment against him. As Chief Justice Taft C.J. observed in Tumey v. Ohio, 273 U.S. 510, the case “… Every procedure which would offer a possible temptation to the average man… to forget the burden of proof required to convict the defendant, or which might lead him not to hold the balance nice, clear and true between the State and the accused, denies the latter due process of law.” (US Supreme Court: v). Thus it may be seen that there are several aspects that either support or decry the theory of having televised court proceedings. It would therefore be necessary to consider both aspects that impinge upon the topic. The facts in favor of having court proceedings televised could be as follows:  1. The public has the right to know about the court proceedings.  2. The elements of autocratic judgments could be considerably reduced through on-camera trials since the jury is conscious of the fact that they are facing the camera and are therefore under public scrutiny.  3. The aspects of a free and fair trial are openly conducted, and the public is aware of the progress of the case.  4. Relatives and family members of the litigating parties are updated on the current state of the case, without which they would be at the mercy of attorneys and court officials.  5. The legal protection that needs to be made available to the defendant is adequately protected.  6. Televised archives could set legal precedents for later cases. It could also be an important source in the event the present verdict is disputed, or the case is taken to the Court of Appeals or higher Courts for hearing.  7. In the O.J. Simpson murder case, the defendant’s attorneys preferred an on-camera coverage during the actual trial proceedings but not for the pre-trial events. In the Chandler v. Florida case, the court allowed the case to proceed on camera, although it was contested by the defendants who were later found guilty of burglary. The Supreme Court, in this case, held that there was no apparent violation of the defendants’ “constitutional r
In Economics, recession refers to decline in a country’s gross domestic product for two consecutive quarters. There are several factors which caused recession but inflation is a key element. It is believed that global financial crisis was activated by liquidity decline in the banking sector following problems related to valuation of property. The resultant is a collapse in banking institutions and its subsequent bailout. Being a sub-sector in the financial market, the stock market suffered adverse effects. Furthermore, other key businesses and wealth of consumers or rather consumer confidence declined to its minimum level. Other factors which caused the 2007 recession include: ‘‘the credit crunch, decreasing prices of houses, inflation resulting from the costs and loss of confidentiality of the financial institutions’’ Turner (9). Collapse in the prices of houses Statistics indicate a crash in the prices of home from the year 2005 to the end of the year 2006 consequently sending a message that recession was finding its way to the economy (Turner, 14). This was motivated by a 14% fall in construction of houses. Arizona, Florida and 40 other estates registered a decline in sale of homes. A further investigation proved an increase by approximately 34% in the number of vacant homes in the year 2006. Cumulatively, low sales level demonstrates that profits are less and the economy will automatically face shrinkage. Furthermore the housing bubble decelerates consumer spending while sending more dedicated labor force into unemployment. Statistics illustrate an estimate of 6 trillion US dollars mortgage debt in 1999 which translated to 12 trillion US dollars in 2007 and a further higher level in later years (Turner, 12). If these figures are compared with annual value of gross domestic product of approximately 11.5 trillion US dollars with a debt of 9 trillion US dollars then it was not possible to pay the losses. This acted as the beginning of the present predicament of never ending financial crisis. Although expansionary fiscal policy has been used to counter the effects of financial crisis, there were minimum positive results. Inflation As mentioned earlier in the text, inflation is the progressive increase in the prices of commodities. Between the years 2007 – 2008 the price of oil was three times its original price (Read 8). More funds were used to buy fuel thus registering an outward flow of wealth from importing nation to exporting nation. Prices of other commodities like copper and nickel also fluctuated hence affecting the stability of an economy through a hampered purchasing power. The credit crunch This refers to absence of finance or putting in place strict rules and procedures necessary in order to obtaining loans. In such a situation, the interest rates
Introduction To understand the logic of the USSR’s powerful influence on many countries in the world, it is important to clarify its ideology. The USSR employed a strict system of ideological measures to take large territories under its control. The idea of communism lied on the basis of the organization of any sphere of life in the Soviet Union. The application of communist concepts in the USSR took its roots in the ideas established by Marx and added to by Lenin, which gained the title of Marxist-Leninist doctrine. 1 Ideology as a system of people’s opinions within a particular territory and time resembles the primary interests of these people embodied in social and political structures. The whole arrangement of international actions taken by the Soviet Union during its history complies with the theory of obsession with encirclement or imminent attack. Utilizing militarization of the national manufactory, propaganda, and terror, the Soviet Union leaders, managed to establish complete obedience to the Communist Party that was the powerful core institution in the country. Any ideology, when adopted massively, is capable of forcing development using available resources. However, the communist ideology was spread over Europe aggressively and oppressively. After World War II was over, Stalin and his successors continued expanding communist ideas over the potentially dependent countries trying to institute their control over the lands, resources, and people. Among the numerous countries that fell under the oppressive influence of the USSR were Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Afghanistan, and others. Thus, the Soviet Union caused wars using its communistic ideology as an economic, propaganda, and political tool to invade weaker countries, establishing its monopolistic control over them. The USSR Communist Ideology, Its Expansion and Invasion in Other Countries During the history of the Soviet Union, its leaders employed a system of strategic actions aimed at building the super-country with an extraordinary national doctrine. According to the cognitive psychology theory of obsession with encirclement, the communists in USSR took primarily preventive military steps to eliminate any opportunities for the possible enemies to intrude in the country. The national ideology addressed complete social equality and common public property as opposed to the private property that was aimed to be eliminated. 2 The communist idea initiated at the beginning of the S