ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Reasons for Using Cox Proportional Hazards in Dr. Neal’s Research Dr. Neal utilized the Cox Proportional Hazards model in her research due to the fact that Cox Proportional Hazards took into account the time at which fetal death occurred, while a logistic regression did not. Stratified logistic regression can take the time of death into account, but, unlike Cox Proportional Hazards, it does not allow for employing censored data (non-death), which results in that the sample size is greatly reduced, so the test loses much power and becomes unlikely to detect the effect. Cox Proportional Hazards, therefore, permitted Dr. Neal to both take into account the time of death and to use the data about successfully produced babies, thus allowing for not losing the power of the research. The censored data in Dr. Neal’s research consisted of cases where births were successfully given, whereas the time-to-event was the interval starting at the fifth month of pregnancy (the point at which participants began being studied) and finishing at the time when fetal death took place. Differences and Similarities between Using Cox Proportional Hazards and the Logistic Regression Both Cox Proportional Hazards and a logistic regression allow for identifying whether a dichotomous dependent variable can be predicted from a number of independent variables/covariates. Both models also produce a “natural” measure of effect size, a ratio (odds ratio in the logistic regression, hazard ratio in the Cox Proportional Hazards) (Forthofer, Lee, & Hernandez, 2007). However, Cox Proportional Hazards allows for taking into account the time at which the event reflected in the dependent variable occurred, whereas the logistic regression does not. This gap in logistic regression can be filled if a stratified logistic regression is used, but, unlike Cox Proportional Hazards, the stratified logistic regression will not permit for taking the censored data into account. Strengths and Limitations of Cox Proportional Hazards and the Logistic Regression A crucial advantage of Cox Proportional Hazards is that it allows for using censored data (as has already been mentioned), which permits for not losing power due to reduced sample size. In addition, it enables one to take into account the time when an event occurs, as well as to use covariates that also vary in time (Austin, 2012). A disadvantage of this model is that it requires some additional assumptions, e.g., that the researched hazards do not cross, remaining proportional over time instead. A limitation of the logistic regression is that it does not take into account the time when an outcome occurred (Field, 2013), thus providing a less detailed result. A strength of the logistic regression is tied to this limitation: it is easier to run, for it requires less data to be conducted (Warner, 2013). The Impact of the Choice of the Test on Statistical
The cultural-individual dialectic is one of the dialectics which are usually determined to describe and explain the social nature of intercultural relationships. This specific type of dialectics is based on the idea that communication of persons depends not only on cultural aspects and differences but also on their individual attributes and visions. From this point, the cultural-individual dialectic explains that the act of communication should be discussed and perceived from two perspectives: cultural and individual ones. Therefore, while planning intercultural interactions, people should pay attention to not only cultures of their interlocutors or companions but also to their idiosyncratic features. Not all perceptions, visions, ideas, and beliefs demonstrated by persons can be influenced by their specific culture. The focus only on cultural generalizations can lead to some biases and misunderstanding. Thus, the cultural-individual dialectic is based on the idea of taking both cultural and individual perspectives into account. The example of the cultural-individual dialectic can be associated with discussing perceptions of Germans in the American society. For instance, while inviting a German specialist to work in the department of any U.S.-based multinational company, human resource managers can expect that this person will demonstrate certain characteristics associated with the perceptions of Germans and their approaches to managing time, learning, or conducting business. Still, the person invited to take a position in this U.S.-based company can have particular attributes, according to which this individual can be described as a creative person who is famous for proposing and promoting original and interesting ideas related to management which can be unexpected by both Germans and Americans. Therefore, the cultural-individual dialectic should also be taken into consideration while developing intercultural relationships.
Introduction Computerized profiling systems such as CAPPS II can be effective when combined with overarching risk assessment and strategic screen to competently scope airplane security; therefore should be seen as a component rather than the center of security systems (Garrick, 2004). Staff across the airport, not just at security checkpoints can be trained in human profiling and behavioral analysis that would allow identifying suspicious actions or individuals. It can provide a broad security reach in the facility and maintain a security mindset and network to prevent potential threats (Leather, 2019). Main body Profiling, particularly digital systems (CAPPS), are meant to be race-neutral techniques, focusing on behavioral aspects while databases are built using security and criminal records. Governments and airports can negotiate ethical use of the data to ensure safety Garrick, 2004). Airport security costs may be lowered with a comprehensive profiling system that requires one-time installation rather than individual and error-prone human identifications. Computerized profiling systems with sensors can minimize inconvenience to passengers, reducing the need for constant bag checks, rather than only directing people of interest for additional security checks. Formal computerized profiling systems as well as human profiling training can be controlled in terms of criteria for better monitoring and to avoid subjective fallacies in identifying behaviors (Ergün et al., 2017). Traditional methods such as x-ray machines, metal detectors, and a small number of government agents on the ground are ineffective when working individually and treating everyone the same (Davies, 2019). Profiling has subjective elements and both computer and human profiling systems can evolve, eliminating the element of predictability of traditional security systems, making it much more difficult for malicious actors to bypass (Davies, 2019). Profiling is based on collected data and statistics which contributes to the objectivity of a subjective process. However, using data on patterns of behaviors and characteristics of individuals in the long term is likely to have a positive effect (Leather, 2019). Conclusion The subjective argument – profiling commonly affects a small number of passengers, and for most, it becomes a simple inconvenience of additional security checks. The risk-consequence of profiling outweighs the consequences of a massively deadly terrorist attack which have been prevented through profiling security systems.
Education is important and every government should make efforts to ensure that its citizens access education. Although education is expensive, scholars and researchers still believe that education is key to success. Therefore, making education accessible to all is the first step towards development and social change. In Canada, people in the lower class face many issues and for some, attaining tertiary education is a big challenge. However, to ensure that needy students in Ontario access the college education, the Federal government of Ontario has been working together with the Central government of Canada to facilitate loans for such students. This paper will discuss extensively the OSAP tuition assistance program and funding of post-secondary education in Ontario, Canada. Conclusion The Canadian government has shown commitments to make certain that education is accessible to all citizens. To ensure that needy students realize their dreams, attain education, and achieve their career goals, the government of Ontario, through the Ontario Student Assistance Program (OSAP) has been instrumental in funding post-secondary education. Although funding of this program has been a challenge, the Federal government of Ontario has jointed efforts with the Central government of Canada to ensure that all needy students access tertiary education. Various departments have been proactive to ensure success of this project. The Federal government and Department of Human resource and Social development have been administering the OSAP program while the Ministry of Training in conjunction with tertiary institutions is res
Introduction Play it as It Lays is a contemporary novel that was published in the early 70s by an American novelist Joan Didion. Generally, the novel begins with a thoughtful monologue by the lead character Maria Wythe. Enjoined by simple memories of her friend as well ex-husband and former film director Carter Lang. all in all, the novel is well presented in spectacular prose which has been established from the third-person narration in a highly terse, controlled perspective. Nevertheless, Less Than Zero by Bret Easton Ellis is also an equally explosive novel, typically, the novel revolves around the life of Clay, a wealthy young college student who had gone back to his hometown for the winter break in the early 80s. Typically, the novel employs the use of suspense to present a well-thought storyline that is virtually addictive and infectious. Plot summary Less Than Zero by Bret Easton Ellis is a powerful novel that explores the life of a young college student, building on the nightlife that is almost the prerogative of the cities. The novel presents us to the dark world of drugs, prostitution and violence. Using well-structured prose, the novel captures the imagination of the reader in that, using simple but direct language; it creates an air of closeness to the characters. However, Joan Didion’s novel, Play it as It Lays tackles the issue of modernity which has given man such concepts of the sexual revolution, women’s liberation, and equally the drug culture. These ideologies reflected the scope of freedom. However as is seen in the eyes of the author, the consequences of these lethal concepts are vividly seen in the life of Maria, who had become a woman of casual sex, alcohol, drugs and wild wandering. Looking at Maria’s life, it is apparent that, selfishness played a significant role in shaping her destiny. Analyzing the scope of these two novels, it is obvious that, both books draw heavily from the social ills which are a result of misdirected social principles. This is evidently shown where Maria being the key character in the novel Play it as It Lays avers “I used to ask questions, and I got the answer: nothing. The answer is ‘nothing’” (Joan 45). And this is a pointer that, sh
The anti-Japanese propaganda was used during WWII in order to create fear and antipathy towards Japanese people and their values. The content of propaganda was much the same as that of broadcast propaganda: emphasis on the Allies’ growing war potential, ridicule of the more preposterous assertions of the National Socialists, evidence of self-contradictions in the various speeches of Hitler and his allies, messages of hope and encouragement (or advice to exercise caution) to the inhabitants of the enemy-occupied territory. Anti-Japanese propaganda created an image of an enemy and rival based on unconscious perceptions and images of the Japanese as an underdeveloped nation. Following Dewer, Anti-Japanese propaganda was based on the image of the enemy reflected in images and pictures. Printed material introduced into territory which took the form not of leaflets but of forged currency or ration books belongs by any definition to economic warfare rather than to propaganda. But what has been said is sufficient to show that propaganda too can be and in the last war was a tactical weapon of war. ‘Black’ stations and printed matter have advantages over their ‘white’ opposite numbers. As they are presumably under military control they are not subject to the ordinary rules of war-time censorship; not being presented as coming from the enemy their targets can listen to them (Dewer 43). Such slogans as Know Your Enemy persuaded American citizens that the Japanese were a low developed nation and a direct threat to the security and freedoms of the American people (Dewer 15). Most of the campaigns were based on the constant repetition of simple slogans, the organization of mass meetings and ‘spontaneous’ demonstrations, and the ‘identification of the enemy”. But behind all this, there lies the fundamental difference that whereas Anti-Japanese propaganda was calculatedly false and lying. It may indeed contain factual inaccuracies, known as well as unknown, but only if these will help to strengthen the appeal of the message offered a message in which the Americans and Europeans sincerely believe. Following Jund, the state created the Shadow based on the idea that: “it is everything in us that is unconscious, repressed, undeveloped and denied. These are dark rejected aspects of our being as well as light, so there is positive undeveloped potential in the Shadow that we don’t know about because anything that is unconscious, we don’t know about” (Jung 2000). The authorities expected that the picture of the world that would come into existence after victory was achieved, however vaguely outlined was yet calculated to appeal to genuine idealism–to a sense of justice, to the longing for peace and comradeship, to the hatred
Dogfighting is an illegal activity that involves a lot of criminal activity and animal abuse. Besides the Dogs involved in the actual dog fight, other small animals are killed in the process as they are used as bait. Criminal activities include gambling which in many cases result in murder among other criminal activities. Introduction Dogfighting is a battle where two dogs are specifically trained and bred from an early stage to fight. They are placed in a pit to fight each other for gambling and the entertainment of spectators. The fights could last for more than one hour. Dog fights normally end when one or both dogs cannot continue. At the end of the fight, the dogs suffer serious injuries that could lead to death. In most cases the owner of the losing dog abandons the injured dog to die slowly from the injuries it obtained during the fight. The injuries inflicted to and obtained by the dogs participating in the fights are usually very severe and critical. The dogs use their strong jaws to inflict deep wounds, severe bruising and even breaking of bones to each other. Most of the dogs die after the fight due to loss of blood, dehydration, exhaustion and infections as Destreza observes “ It can be anywhere from one to 45 dogs. The biggest one was one bust where we took in 178 dogs in two days. Typically, they either are recently fought and all chewed up, crusty, still bleeding, all the way to just having old scars. ……” Dog Training Training process of the dogs, involves other smaller animals like rabbits, cats and smaller dogs. These animals act as training bait and are often killed in the process. They are used as enticement so that they can test the dog’s fighting instincts. These animals are obtained by false pretense from animals shelters while others are stolen. The Dog usually goes through a lot of suffering as dog trainers believe that the more the suffering the dog undergoes, the more it is likely to win. Various techniques are used to train the dogs. The dogs are trained to run on the treadmill to increase endurance and dog’s cardiovascular strength. In other instances, the dog is chained to one beam of a treadmill while a bait in form of a small animal is hanged on another side of the treadmill beam. The dog then made to chase the bait by running in circles chasing the bait. It is only after the training session that the dog is given the small animal it was pursuing . “They’ll suspend animal hides from poles. I’ve seen them with rabbit fur, all kinds of stuff. The dog jumps up and ha
This paper will analyze David Haines and Joyce Hinterding’s work Geology in relation to the theories of nature. Furthermore, it will provide a description of various philosophic views of nature by classic and contemporary thinkers. Many philosophers throughout the history of both Western and Greek philosophy regarded people as an intrinsic part of nature and tried to describe it in terms of the dichotomy between human and animal experiences. 2 Aristotle considered humans, although not entirely different from animals, but somewhat distinct based on their inherent capacity for intellect and reason. 3 Friedrich Hegel, on the other hand, saw humans as a transitional form between the two worlds: body and spirit. 4 Modern thinkers such as Jeffery Kastner regard nature as a complex and “elusive” system that is separate from the human realm and is capable of producing us, other organisms, and structures. 5 Others, like Bruno Latour, propose to get rid of the old dichotomy between humanity and nature and accept it as a composite that assembles humans and nonhumans. 6 The work of David Haines and Joyce Hiterding offers a unique view into the magnificent way nature reasserts itself through the geological process at the macro level. 7 The image reveals that the authors’ concept of nature is similar to Kastner’s idea of nature as a detached system capable of creation. It can be argued that the artists wanted to depict an entity that would exist independently of the process of sense perception. The picture that unfolds before the viewer shatters all conventional notions of nature and challenges the idea of the geological magnitude, offering a new meaning of it. 8 David Haines and Joyce Hiterding invited spectators to escape their biological prisons and experience the sheer force of nature that is “beyond the viewer’s own organic networks.” 9 Alfred North Whitehead regards nature as an entity that is completely independent of thought. 10 He argues that its property is the basis for all-natural sciences. Although it can be observed via the perception of the senses, it is nonetheless, self-contained and exists independently of the human mind. Whiteheads deny a “homogeneous” way of thinking about nature and claim that the factor of sense-perception does not change the characteristics of the observed phenomenon. Therefore, nature, which reveals itself in the process of observation, is an entirely closed system. Even though it is not impervious to the sense-awareness, it still has to be discussed independently of the human observer and “without reference to the mind 11 . Geology acquires a new level of depth when viewed through the prism of Whitehead’s theory of nature. Seismic events at the level of Earth magnitude can be captured by human senses and represented on scales and graphs. However, even though the foundational issues that cause damage to human buildings can be understood, measured, and explained, their existence is not connected to humanity in the way ar
The difference between external validity and internal validity External validity is a measure that determines whether or not the results of the sample group, achieved during an experiment, can be applied to a wider population outside of the study (Shuttleworth, n.d.). Contrary to internal validity, which ensures the logic and reliability of the experiment’s design, external validity aims to establish whether or not the study results can be used to make generalized conclusions. McLeod (2013) states that external validity “refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other settings (ecological validity), other people (population validity) and over time (historical validity)” (para. 2). On the other hand, internal validity measures if the effects observed were due to the independent variable studied (McLeod, 2013). The ways to ensure external validity in research Kraus (2013) argues that many research studies have limited external validity by design – for instance, due to being set in laboratories and not in real-life circumstances. However, researchers can ensure that their findings can be extended to different contexts by choosing appropriate sampling methods or imitating real-life conditions. The question of external validity is one of the most pressing issues in many of the studies conducted today, which is why some researchers devise tools for measuring their research’s external validity as part of the study. Nevertheless, some common methods of ensuring external validity still exist. For instance, researchers can make sure that the conclusions achieved due to the study can be extended to a wider population by ensuring that the chosen sample group mirrors the general population correctly (Lund Research Ltd, 2012). On the other hand, external ecological validity can be reached by imitating real-life circumstances or conducting studies in various contexts to determine the variability of results due to ecological circumstances (Lund Research Ltd, 2012). External validity issues in the example studies Del Campo-Avila, J., Conejo, R., Triguero, F., & Morales-Bueno, R. (2015). Mining web-based educational systems to predict student learning achievements. International Journal of Interactive Multimedia and Artificial Intelligence, 3 (2), 49-54. In this study, the researchers aimed to determine if the analysis of the student’s continual assessment results can predict their final course grade. The study focused on university-level students of the subject “Principles in Informatics,” assessed in two consecutive courses. The researchers did not provide any assessment of the study’s external validity or justification of the sampling methods used, which is why it is unclear whether their conclusions can be extended to a wider student population. Moreover, the researchers did not address the study’s ecological or contextual validity by evaluating external circumstances that could have affected the results. Overall, although the authors make an indirect reference to longitudinal validity by discussing the possible areas for the future developme