ShantanuT01/DACTYL-Pretraining huggingface dataset:
Nuremberg Defense Murdough (2010) explains that the Nuremberg Defense is a means by which individuals pass on the culpability (i.e. the responsibility) of a particular act to their superiors under the concept of them merely “following orders” (Murdough, 2010). This particular terminology developed as a direct result of the Nazi war crimes trials that were held in Nuremberg during World War 2 wherein actions related to mass murder, genocide, violations of human rights and other related atrocities were charged to numerous Nazi military officials yet many claimed that they did such actions under duress or obligation due to fear of persecution on the part of their superior officers. As such, the Nuremberg Defense can be stated as an appeal that defends a person’s innocence on the grounds that it was the organization and not necessarily them on a personal level that is ultimately responsible for a heinous act that occurred. This means of “passing the buck” so to speak is not limited to cases such as the Nuremberg trials; in fact the Nuremberg defense became one of the primary reasons behind changes in the Ethics code of the APA. The primary reason behind such a decision was that the Council of Representatives noted that the language present in the iteration of the Ethics code prior to their February 2010 possessed a means by which the responsibility of a psychologist towards acts violating human rights could be passed along in a “robotic” fashion due to the psychologist in question following the letter of the law rather the intended spirit of the law as embodied by the APA code of ethics (American Psychological Association, 2009). In fact the differential association theory created by Sutherland states that “crime does not originate from individual traits or a person’s socio-economic position rather it is a type of behavior that is created through a learning process” (Siegel, 2011). Thus, from a certain perspective, it can be assumed that violation of human rights in the case of psychologists would not be viewed as distinctly “unethical” since for them if an organization condones such acts due to war or testimony in a criminal act this would make certain violations acce
Introduction Despite having a remarkably recent history when compared with other genres of mass communication, particularly, written ones, movies have become a powerful method of expressing ideas and conversing with a broad range of audiences. This paper will examine the effect that movies have been producing on their viewers, the range of film genres, and the possible avenues for their further evolution. Although it might seem that the era of movies may have come to an end with the advent of the digital epoch, innovative technology has only introduced additional opportunities for making movie watching an all the more captivating experience. Definition Over the decades of its development, the phenomenon of a movie has changed significantly, especially with the introduction of new genres and the discovery of new ways of conveying a particular idea visually. However, at its core, the concept of a movie has remained unchanged. Presently, a movie is defined as a “composition recorded by the camera,” or a series of images projected in a rapid succession to create an illusion of an animated narrative (Stevens 17). The specified definition might seem exceptionally narrow since it focuses primarily on the technical aspect of movie development; however, it also provides an opportunity to encompass an extraordinarily broad range of movie genres and types, which makes the provided way of defining a movie quite appropriate. Purpose and Genres The purpose of a movie as a communication medium is also open to multiple interpretations. Embracing film as an art form, one could claim that a film serves the function of expressing a specific emotion and reflecting the sociocultural environment in which it was produced. However, when considering film as the means of communication, its purpose can be interpreted as conveying a specific idea to the target audience. Though the director’s intent may not necessarily coincide with the perception of audiences and critics, a movie does serve an important role of communicating ideas and concepts while eliciting emotions (Sureja and Firoz 617). Thus, the purpose that a movie is expected to serve can be seen as a twofold one, the main goal being the introduction of viewers to a specific idea, and the second one being evoking an emotional response in the audience. The current amount of movie genres is astonishingly large, with countless subgenres and the emergence of new ones. Although the history of a movie began with a documentary, it has evolved to branch out into multiple genres, each having a unique set of requirements and standards. Unlike the literature, which have only four main genres, movies are split into a genre of differ
It is well known that the main difference between the people of today and those of say 200 years ago is the level of technology that prevails today as compared to the levels during that period, because human nature also does change but very little over time. It is the technological standards in a given age that determines the way humans look at the world and the way they live. This is exactly the case with photography, which was invented in 1835, and subsequently became very popular in a short period. The widespread use of photography in the coming years enabled it to be used as an art form and for several other uses making it very popular and of much utility value through which moments could be frozen and recalled and shared with others. Photography had an immense influence on artists and it also developed into an art form that continues to impact artists of all reputes in the present times also. Photography as invented by Louis Daguerre required about thirty minutes for exposure, and the introduction of this new technique went quite far in creating a language that was easily understood by most people. Needless to add that one can recall old memories from our childhood days by using the power of photography, thereby creating a data bank of the old days, which indeed impacts society in different ways. Moments of joy and sorrow can be captured in photographs and because they capture the essence of single moments in making them permanent, they can be accessible at any given time, which indeed is a great blessing especially in comparison with the days when there was no photography. Pictures enable us to keep a record of our past and present activities as also moments that give us pleasure and happiness. Photography can be considered as a very important medium that becomes a witness to all that is happening in being recorded with its use. Indeed the entire world becomes witness to the happenings in the world especially in the world of today whereby the media plays a very important role. Although photography was invented in its full form only in 1835, an understanding of the social impact that was a result of the invention of photography is rightly portrayed by Azoulay (2005) in his article “The Ethic of the Spectator: The Citizenry of Photography” in which he describes the relationship between the invention of photography and the new perceptions of the world and reality in the viewpoint of the average citizen. He says that by 1860 professional photography had come to be used extensively so that picture portraits had glossy machined finishing and were used as illustrations in books. In this regard, he believed that such photography became a link between social and policy issues in relating ordinary citizens with the power holders. He wrote in this regard that “The conquest of the world as picture was photograph’s vision from its very beginning, and is performed anew each and every moment.” (Azoulay 2005, p. 38). Another noteworthy work in consideration of the impact of photography on society was by Hul
The historical accuracy of ‘Hell’ can be analyzed by the timeless Christian allegory through the lens of which Dante has envisioned the fate of religion and has unlocked the mystery of its own false identity. The identity which is based upon false Christian beliefs and have only smudged Christianity. Many people view Inferno as a religious comedy highlighting the loopholes of religion, what I believe is that Inferno is the true picture of religious castings envisioned by Dante. On a evening of Good Friday, when Dante lost his way in dark, the ghost of Virgil (Roman poet) offered to guide him to heaven, but through a journey of Hell. This way Dante in this historical magnum opus has explored the moral of three kingdoms, known by the name of hell, purgatory (place in between hell and heaven) and heaven. Dante’s Hell reveals the terror which the reader experiences as if he is a part of those various level of sins which are elaborated in the form of nine circles. The encounter of the author Dante with Virgil in hell is inextricably linked to a diachronic mode that is defined not by the influence of literary history but by the actual situation of reading. What Dante has tried the reader is to visualize the mother nature through Medieval Christian point of view. Hawkins (2007) mentions that Inferno in the context of hell provides a perfect case in nature when Dante provides a universe of souls, all of whom have fictive bodies that enable them, before the general resurrection, to experience the physical sensation of pain in hell (Hawkins, 2007). Though Dante’s Hell is created with utmost sins, but readers find it amusing to know how little is the contribution of fire in Dante’s Hell. This is what Dante illustrates as “the meaning of fire is incompatible with the punishment of most sins” (Esolen, 2002: xvii). Johnson (2001) criticizes Dante’s Hell by claiming that Dante has created Inferno in a manner which seems ridiculous to the reader when he analyzes that Dante is trying to blame Christian history. This is revealed when Dante places the ‘virtuous unbaptized’ souls in the outermost circle of hell, called limbo (Johnson, 2001). The amusing aspect is that all these virtuous souls have led good earthly lives and though they never deserve any pain, but still they are unable to enter heaven just because because they were never baptized. Such a concept presented by Dante is
The case of Enron Corporation was one of the most vivid examples of accounting errors and unethical behavior followed by the company’s management. This case had a great impact on other companies and auditing and reporting standards and procedures. After the collapse of the energy company Enron in January 2002, financial statements seem a lot less hard and objective than they once did. Enron caused many problems occurred among equity shareholders, as a company with an equity market capitalization of over $70 billion became worthless in just over a year (Burton 2002). The Enron fiasco focused attention on US accounting practices, and highlighted the relationship between companies and the accounting firms who as auditors were meant to confirm the accuracy of financial statements. For many years corporate governance experts had worried over potential conflicts of interest when accounting firms acted as both consultants and auditors to the same firm, but these conflicts burst out into the open after Enron. The auditors to Enron were Arthur Andersen, one of the top five firms that dominate the global accounting market (SEC Says Corporate 2002). The fallout from Enron’s collapse left Andersen facing legal challenges including a criminal charge from the US Department of Justice. About the same time, the SEC announced that it might seize the profits of company executives who made profits by selling company stock while earnings were inflated. It noted that Enron executives had sold $1 billion in company shares before the share price collapsed on news that charges would reduce earnings by $585 million, and revelations of off-balance-sheet debt The SEC also announced that it would assess the performance of the audit committee of any company whose financial reporting was investigated by the SEC (‘Socially Responsible Firm Publishes 2002). The damage to its reputation also led to a number of its major clients such as Merck replacing it with alternative auditors. In March 2002 Domini Social Investments (DSI) issued new proxy voting guidelines that had been revised in the light of Enron (‘Socially Responsible Firm Publishes 2002). The new guidelines stated that DSI would vote against the appointment of auditors who were not independent, while it would also vote against companies whose boards did not have a majority of non-executive directors. The case of Enron shows that violation of accounting principles and issues can lead to bankruptcy and legal responsibility of the company’s executive team. Enron’s collapse was also a calamity to many of its employees, who not only lost their jobs, but saw the value of their 401k pension plans invested in Enron stock disappear. Inquiries into Enron’s collapse indicated that it
Several teacher education studies have focused on teaching efficacy beliefs (Albayrak, 2011), because teaching efficacy beliefs influence the teacher’s effectiveness, attitude and behavior. The concept of self-efficacy, for instance, has been described by Bandura. Self efficacy, according to Bandura (1997) is the process whereby people develop the ability to organize and accomplish important tasks first. Bandura (1997) posits that self efficacy influences the manner in which an individual approaches his goals, challenges and tasks. This concept lies at the heart of Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Most people would think of self efficacy as a belief that they can act in such a way that they will be successful in their endeavors. Organizing and doing important things first are certainly apart of that. On the broader side, social cognitive theory posits that what an individual observes in others plays a critical role in shaping his or her cognitive processes, as well as his or her social behaviors. According to the philosophy of self-efficacy, people should develop their own capacity to reach the essential degree of learning (Albayrak, 2011). The development of mathematics self-efficacy in pre-service elementary teachers who participate in mathematics education methods courses is the core subject of this paper. Self-efficacy beliefs usually “influence the manner in which people think, behave, and become motivated” (Albayrak, 2011, p.185). Efficacy beliefs also determine how much effort teachers will apply during the education process and how long their behavior will be sustained when they encounter obstacles while teaching (Albayrak, 2011). Kazempour (2008) makes it clear that the concept of self-efficacy and the ideas of teacher-efficacy are related. He argues that teachers who are confident in their mathematical abilities are able to influence the mathematics learning methods of their students. Consequently, students’ belief levels will be enhanced affecting the success of particular students and of the learning environment. This has been seconded by findings from various studies. In one such study, the attitude of elementary primary teachers with respect to mathematics was found to be essential in shaping student’s current and future perceptions (Salzer, 2010). Students’ attitudes and success are partly dependent on the elementary teachers’ attitude with respect to mathematics. Moreover, teachers should provide different types of feedback to students and use the appropriate learning methods to help students achieve positive results in their learning. Thus, teachers should believe that they are capable of improving the learning methods of different students in a classroom. Kazempour (2008) found that students’ performance depends considerably on their teacher’s efficacy, as teachers’ self-efficacy influences students’ achievement and motivation. Teacher’s efficacy has two dimensions: “personal teaching efficacy and teaching outcome expectancy” (Kazempour, 2008, p.10). Personal teaching efficacy refers to a teacher’s belief in his or her own ability to teach mathematics in an efficient mann
Police officers are members of the police force and go by different names according to their ranking within the police force. Generally, the police detect and put off crimes, arrest criminals and ensure that public order is sustained. This essay will explore the job description of police officers and point out a few issues that may need further clarification. The police carry out their duties by proactively patrolling the areas that lie within their jurisdiction, responding to service calls, and looking for lawbreakers. Their responsibilities are wide and those already mentioned in this essay are just but a few of them (BNA, 2004). Police are always expected to respond to situations in certain fashions and are expected to assume the duties of government officials whenever there are investigations. In some countries, it is expected of officers to be on standby so they can respond to situations at any given time. Apart from maintaining order and keeping the peace, the police also have the role of discouraging, deterring, and investigating crimes. They mostly emphasize the crimes committed against people and properties and when they make arrests, they detain the suspects and afterward forward them to the appropriate authorities. Emergencies are the other situations in which the police are very helpful. Whenever emergencies occur, for instance, accidents or fires, the police together with firefighters and ambulance services are called in to bring order and try quelling the situation. In some regions, the emergency number connects to the police, ambulance services, and the firemen at the same time and as such, they all accompany each other to the emergency scenes (Peden, 2004). Besides the emergencies, civil and criminal situations, the police also take charge and act on minor violations by giving warnings or citations which in many cases result in fines, particularly in cases of traffic laws violation. Uniformed police officers perform general law enforcement activities and spend a significant fraction of their time doing paperwork and responding to calls of duty. They usually operate from police stations which contain several departments, each performing different tasks and having officers assigned to perform the specific departmental duties. Officers in plainclothes or detectives mostly have investigatory duties and these they do by gathering important information related to the criminal cases that they are assigned to. These officers specialize in specific violation cases, for ex
Bullying has become rampant and common in today’s world, and it is witnessed everywhere, including in professional places of work. Hartin et al. (2020) explain that nursing is among the areas where incivility cases are high. Although bullying might seem odd in this career, the profession exposes people to significant stress, pressuring environments, and heightened emotions (Hartin et al., 2020). Therefore, nurses need to identify different incivilities, their effects, and solutions. I have been a victim of bullying in my nursing profession, which affected my self-esteem adversely. I joined a health organization where most clinicians were of the opposite gender. These nurses said that I was not good enough to perform specific duties effectively. Their attitude made me feel as the odd one out, unwanted and isolated. As a result, I developed fear, anxiety, paranoia, and self-doubt with time. Different approaches can be applied to prevent and stop bullying in nursing. In this case, I should have checked the company’s discrimination policies and told the bullies what I felt about the situation. It was also essential to report the issue to nurse managers, preceptors, or supervisors if the bullies continued with their behavior. This way, the administrators could act against the oppressors for violating the organization’s rules and regulations. Incivility in nursing has adverse mental and physical effects on the victims, which may impact patient safety. For instance, Hartin et al. (2020) expound that when clinicians fear, they do not offer quality care to sick people, increasing the possibility of committing medical errors. Moreover, bullied nurses become frustrated and can pass their emotions to patients, although the nursing career requires sober healthcare workers to give competent care to ill people. In conclusion, bullying has significantly increased in the workplace, and the nursing profession is not an exception. Incivility causes adverse physical effects such as high-stress levels and poor sleep, and mental ones, for instance, as fear and anxiety. Speaking up and reporting bullying incidents to the relevant authorities are the approaches that can improve the situation. The reason is that patient safety can be compromised if appropriate interventions are not implemented. Reference Hartin, P., Birks, M., & Lindsay, D. (2020). Bullying in nursing: How has it changed over four decades? Journal of Nursing Management, 28 (7), 1619-1626. Web.
Narrative of the event   * The most significant reform by Napoleon was the legislation of the civil code or code of napoleon of 1804.   * It was aimed at standardizing the French law. According to Hooker (1996), the code was based on two ideas namely:       + “All men are equal under the law, but women are not, and All people have a property right.”       + No self-government through elected legislative bodies.   * The first case implied that no person had privileges from any of the laws, tax laws included while the second case was focused on contractual laws, which was beneficial in ensuring the transparency of private land.   * December 2, 1804, Napoleon crowned himself hereditary Emperor of France. Cause and effect   * European governments gradually started to implement some of the philosophies of the French revolution. According to Hooker (1996), “European territories such as Italy, Germany, and Holland were controlled by France, without being under the direct control of napoleon’s empire.” Hooker (1996), goes on to add that “These territories adopted principles such as the abandonment of privilege and the ideas of equality under the law.”   * Napoleon became ambitious and wanted to unite Europe, the way the Romans had done, with him and Paris at the center. According to Hooker (1996), “This led napoleon to adopt the roman culture, instituting roman architecture, art and sculpture all over France, as a symbol of the coming order.“   * Great Britain proved to be a challenge to him, and he, therefore, instituted a continental system, preventing the importation of European goods into Europe, though it was a failure due to the power of the British navy, who instead blocked trade against France. Cause and effect   * In 1805, Britain declared war, where they defeated the navies of France and Spain, in the Battle of Trafalgar, under the command of Lord Horatio Nelson. This prevented further invasions by France and strengthened their dominance over world trade.   * Napoleon appointed his brothers and sitters as monarchs of the European territories that he controlled, to bring all the European states under the nepotistic and efficient monarchy. He even divorced his wife to marry Marie Antoinette, the daughter of the Austrian emperor.   * Napoleon’s territorial greed and monarchical pretensions led European powers to merge to contain his ambition. These countries were led by Britain and included Russia, Russia, and Austria.   * He won the Battle of Austerlitz and went on to take over Italy, being crowned king of Italy.   * “The Treaty of Tilsit was signed in 1807 after napoleon defeated both the Prussian and the Russian armies, allowing him to keep the territory seized from Prussia and Russia” (Hooker, 1996). In addition to this, the treaty required the two countries to take part in the continental system and stay away from all businesses with Britain. Prussia was also required to be an open ally of France. Cause and effect   * The Treaty of Tilsit had forced Russia into the continental system, and a